■.**• p.. fo-^-.g , ..V ..V •*£• * -1 ?*•■ ,*•■■' ^ •iTv :;^^x'. ^r" *$fc - »v« :/;># S ...>-• .7-. * \y; ' >. --1 &'^^- ^ w NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Bethesda, Maryland L ■"^SS^XyV.-AVa THE / DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPEDIA; OR, A DICTIONARY OF TACTS, AND USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. COMPREHENDING A CONCISE VIEW OF THE LATEST DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS, AND IMPROVEMENTS, CHIEFLY APPLICABLE TO RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. TOGETHER WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MOST INTERESTING OBJECTS OF NATURE AND ARTS THE HISTORY OF MEN AND ANIMALS, IN A STATE OF HEALTH OR DISEASE ; AND PRACTICAL HINTS RESPECTING THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, BOTH FAMILIAR AND COMMERCIAL. ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND CUTS. ■»♦■ IN FIVE VOLUMES. VOLUME V. BY A. F. M. WILLICH, M.D. AUTHOK OF THE LECTURES ON DIET AND REGIMEN, &C.&C. FIRST AMERICAN EDITION; WITH ADDITIONS, APPLICABLE TO THE PRESENT SITUATION OF THE UNITED STATES BY JAMES MEASE, M. D. AND FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. PHILADELPHIA PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM YOUNG BIRCH, AND ABRAHAM SMALL, NO. 17, SOUTH SECOND-STREET, AND T. AND J. SWORDS, PEARL-STREET, NEW-YORK. ROBERT CARR, PRINTER. 1804.' &■-. K». M) District of Pennsylvania: to wit. Be it remembered, That on the eighth day of April, in the twenty- seventh Year of the Independence of the United States of America, William Young Birch, and Abraham Small, of the said District, have deposited in this Office the Title of a Book, the Right whereof they claim as Proprietors, in the words following, to wit: " The Domestic Encyclopaedia ; or, A Dictionary of Facts, and Useful " Knowledge. Comprehending, a concise View of the latest Dis- " coveries, Inventions, and Improvements; chiefly applicable to " Rural and Domestic Economy. Together with Descriptions of the " most interesting Objects of Nature and Art; the History of Men "and Animals, in a State of Health or Disease; and practical " Hints respecting the Arts and Manufactures, both familiar and " commercial. Illustrated with numerous Engravings and Cuts. " In Five Volumes. Volume I. By A. F. M. Willich, M. D. " Author of the Lectures on Diet and Regimen, isfc. fc5V. First " American Edition ; with Additions applicable to the present situa- " tion of the United States. By James Mease, M..D. and Fellow of " the American Philosophical Society." In Conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entituled) "An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies during the times therein mentioned," and also, to an Act, enti- tuled, " An Act supplementary to an Act, entituled, an Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Chai-ts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned. And extending the Benefits thereof to the Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical, and other Prints." C L. S. ) D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania. Contents OF THE FIFTH VOLUME. SNUFF Soal Soap ......Earth ......Wort Soda Soft-grass Soil Soiling Solidago Solomon's Seal Soot Sorrel, the Common .........the Sheep's .........the Wood Soup Sow-bread Sow-thistle Sowing Soy Spade, (with a Cut,) Spar Sparrow Spasm Spatling-Poppy, , Spearwort, the Great, ............the Lesser, Spectacles, Speedwell, Spencer, Marine, Spermaceti, Spice, Spider, Spider-Wort, Spignel, Spike-Oil, Spinach, Spindle-Tree, Spinning, PAGE PAGK 1 Spirits, 26 2 Spirit of Wine, 27 ib. Spleen, ib. 5 Spleen-Wort, 28 ib. Splents, ib. ib. Sponge, ib. 6 Spots, 29 7 Sprain, ib. ib. Spring, 30 8 Spring-Grass, ib. ib. Spruce-Beer, 31 9 Spurge, ib. ib. Spurge-Laurel, 32 10 Spurry, ib. **: Squill, - - . ib. ib. Squinting, 33 11 St. Vitus's Dance, 34 ib. Stable, 35 12 Staggers, ib. ib. Stair Case, 36 13 Star-of-Bethlehem, 37 14 Star-Grass, ib. ib. Star-Wort, ib. 15 Starch, ib. ■ 16 Starling, 39 ib. Staves-Acre, - „ ib. ib. Stays, ib. ib. Steam, 40 17 Steam-dish, 41 18 Steel, 43 19 Steel-Yard, 44 20 Stirrup, ib. 22 Stomach, 45 23 Stone, - 46 ib. Stones, (with a Plate), 49 24 Stone-Crop, 51 ib. Storax, ib. ib. Stove, 52 25 Strains, A 53 VI. CONTENTS. Strangles, Straw, Strawberry, Strawberry-Tree, Straw-Cutter, Sturgeon, Styptic, Sublimate, Succory, Suffocation, Sugar, Suicide, Sulphur, .....,.......Wort, Sumach-Tree, Sundew, Sun-Flower, Sun-Scorched, Surfeit, ...........in Farriery, Suspension, by the Cord, Swallowing, Swallow-Wort, Swamp, Sward-Cutter, Swearing, Sweat, Sweating-Sickness, Sweep-Chimney, Swimming, Swinging, Swoon, Sycamore-Tree, Sympathy, Syrup, Tacamahaca, Talc, Tanning, Tansy, Tap-Cock, Tape-Worm, Tar, - • Tarragon, Tarras, Tartar, Taste, Tea-Tree, Teasel, Teeth, Telescope, Temperance, Tendons, lGE page. 54 Tennis, 103 55 Terrier, ib* 56 Tetrao, tb. 59 TheatrS^ 104 60 Thermometer, 105 62 Thirst, 112 ib.- Thistle, ib. ib. 113 63 Thorn-Apple, ib. ib. Thrashing, 114 ib. Thrift, ib. 73 Throat, 115 74 Throstle, ib. 75 Thrush, ib. ib. Thunder, - 116 ib. Thyme, 117 76 Tide, 118 77 Tile, 119 ib. Tillage, ib. ib. TlLIA, 120 78 Timber, ib. 79 Time, 138 ib. ib. 80 Timothy-Grass, 139 ib. Tin, 140 ib. Tincture, 142 81 Tinning, 143 ib. Toad, ib. ib. Tobacco, 144 82 Tolu, 152 83 Tom-Tit, ib. 84 Tongue, 153 85 Tonsils, 155 ib. Tool, ib. 86 Tormentil, ib. Tortoise, 156 87 Touch-Wood, ib. ib. Tourniquet, ib. 88 Tower-Mustard, 151 90 Tragacanth, ib. ib. Transfusion. ib. 91 Transplantation, 159 92 Traveling, ib. 94 Treacle, 189 ib. Tree, 190 ib. Tree-Mallow, 193 95 Trefoil, ib. ib. 194 « 98 Truffle, 199 ib. Tumbrel, (with a Cut), 200 101 Tumor, 201 102 Tupelo Tree, ib. ib. Turbith, 202 CONTENTS. VI1. PAGE . PAGE 202 Washing, 344 Turf, ib. Wasp, - 345 Turkey, ib. Water, (with Cuts and a plate) , 346 Turmeric, 203 Water-Aloe, 359 Turnep, (with Cuts), Turning, Turn sol, ib. ib. 215 360 216 217 ib. Turpentine, Turtle ib. ib. 218 ......... Proof, 361 Tutenag, Wax, 362 Tutsan, ib. Weaning, 363 Types, lb. Weasel, - - ib. Typhus, 219 Weasel-Snout, 364 Weather, ib. Valerian, 221 Weather-Glass, 365 Valisneria, 222 Weaving, ... 366 Vanilla, 223 Weed, - ib. Vapour, ib. Weigh, ... 368 Varnish, 224 Weights, (to raise) ib. Vault, 234 Weight, - 369 Veal, ib. Weig-hing-Bridge, 371 Vegetable Kingdom, 235 Well, (with a Cut), 372 Vegetation, 261 Wen, 377 Veins, 267 Whale, - 378 Veneering, ib. Wheat, (with a Cut), 379 Verdigrease, 275 Wheel, 392 Verditer, 276 Whetstone, 402 Verjuice, ib. Whey, ib. Vervain, 277 Whin-Chat, ib. Vessel, ib. Whiskey, - - 403 Vetch, or Tare. 279 White-Swelling, ib. 284 White-Washing, 404 285 Whiting, ib. Vine, ib. Whitlow, 405 Vinegar, Violet, 325 ib. 327 J Widgeon, ib. Viper's Bugloss, ib. Willow, 406 Vitriol, Vives, ib. ..........Herb, 409 328 Wind, ib. Ulcer, - - 329 410 Vomiting, * 332 Wind-Gall, 411 Usquebaugh, 334 412 Uvula, ib. Windmill, (with a Cut), ib. Wind-Pipe, 413 Waggon, 3.15 Window, (with a Cnt,) 414 Wainscot, - 339 Wine, - 416 Wake-Robin, ib. Winnow, 420 Wall-Cress, ib. Wire, ... 422 Walnut-Tree, ib. Withers, ib. Warbles, 342 Woad, ... ib. Warmth, (with a Cut), ib. Wolf's-Bane, 423 Warping, 343 Wolves-Teeth, 424 Warts, 344 Wood, . - - - ib. Wart-Wort, ib. Woodcock, 4;y viii. Wood-pecker, Woodroof, Wool/ Worms, .........in Husbandry, Wormwood, Wort, Wound, Wounds, in Farriery, Woundwort, Wren, - -' Wrestling, Writing, Wry-Neck, Xanthoxylon, Xanthorhiza, Yam, PLATES IN THE FIFTH VOLUME. I. Plate of a Machine for clearing stones from land; and of a Straw-Cutter, to face p. 49. II. Munning's and Knight's Turnip-Drills, and Trans- planter, p. 205. III. Searjant's Machine to raise water; and Besant's Undershot Wheel, p. 352. IV. Hoisting Machine, p. 368. » V. &? VI. Weighing Bridge, p. 371. VII. Xanthorhiza Tinctoria, p. 448. CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE 428 Yard, 449 430 Yarn, ib. ib. Yarrow, 450 437 Yawning, ib. 438. Yeast, 451 ib. Yellow, 457 439 Yellow-Fever, 458 ib. • Yellow-Hammer, 465 443 Yellow-Rattle, ib. ib. Yellows, ib. 444 Yew-Tree, 468 ib. Yoke, 470 ib. Youth, ib. 445 Zaffre, 473 446 Zedoary, 474 447 Zinc, ib. 448 Zizany, 476 INDEX TO THE CORRESPONDING SYNONYMS, OR INVERSIONS OF TERMS OCCURRING IN THE FIFTH VOLUME. Sole; see Soal. Somnambulism; see Sleep-walk- ing. Sour-trefoil ; see Sorrel, the Common. Spanish Fly ; see Fly, the Span- ish. Spanish Lilac; see Lilac, the Common. Spear-thistle ; see Thistle. Spelt; see Wheat. Spicknel; see Spignel. Spinell; see Ruby. Spunk; see Touchwood. Square Barley; see Bere. Squash ; see Gourd. St. James's Wort; see R.agwort, the Common. Starwort, the Water; see Star- grass. Stinking Flower-de-luce ; see Flower-de-luce. Storm-glass; see Weather-glass. Strasburgh-turpentine; see Tur- pentine. Strawberry-trefoil; see Trefoil. Stricken; see Quarter-evil. Suffolk, or Skim-cheese; see Cheese. Sug;ir-cane; see Sugar. Sulphuric-acid; see Vitriolic- acid. Summer-barley; see barley. Sun-fish; see Shark, the Bask- ing. Sweet-cicely ; see Cicely, the Sweet. Swine-pock ; see Chicken-pock. Swine's-cress; see Scurvy-grass. Swiss-cheese ; see Cheese. Sympathetic Ink; see Ink. Tangle; see Sea-wrack, the Es- culent. Terras; see Tarras. Threshing; see Thrashing. Tine-tare; see Vetch, the Corn. Tombac; see Zinc. Traas ; see Tarras. Tree-moss ; see Liverwort, the Officinal Stringy. Trefoil-buck-bean ; see Buck- bean. Venice-turpentine; see turpen- tine. Venice-treacle ; see Treacle, the Venice. Wakefulness; see Waking. Water-chickweed ; see ' Star- grass. Water-crow-foot; see Crow- foot. Water-crow-foot, the Round- leaved; see Crowfoot. Water-dropwort; see Dropwort. Water -fennel; see Star-grass. Water-flower-de-luce; see Flow- er-de-luce. Water-rat; see Rat. Water-starwort; see Star-grus;. Watering of Gardens; see Kit- chen-garden. Way-thistle; see Saw-Avort. Weeping-willow; see Willow. Westphalia-cheese; see Cheese. Wey; see Weigh. Wh'ipt-syllabub; see Syllabub. Whistling-swan ; see Swan, the Wild. Whitloe; see Whitlow. Wild-basil; i,ee Thyme. INDEX. Wild Burnet; see Burnet, the Great. Wild-liquorice; see Milk-veteh. Wild-thyme; see Thyme. Willow, the Sweet; see Gale, the Sweet. Willow-herb, the Hooded; see Scull-cap, the Common. Willow-herb, the Purple-spiked; see Loose-strife, the Purple. Wiltshire-cheese; see Cheese. Winnowing-machine; see Win- now. Wolf's-bane, the Great; see Leo- pard's-bane. Wood-strawberry; see Straw- berry. Wormseed; see Mustard, the Common Hedge. Wort-cress; see Scurvy-grass. Yellow Bed-straw; see Cheese- rennet. Yellow Dead-nettle; see Weasel- snout. . Yellow Gum; see Gum. Yellow-flag ; see Flower-de- luce. Yellow Hepjpules; see Xanthoxy- lon. Yew-leaved Fir; see Fir-tree. Yorkshire Sanicle; see Butter- wort. Zanthoxylon; see Xanthoxylon. ERRATA. Page 38, column 2, line 14 from bottom, for mashed read washed. Page 80, col. 2, line 10, after recovering, read swamps. Page 124, col. 1, line ±7 from bottom, before " Mr. Bordley," add a [, and another at the end of the paragraph. Page 357, col. 2, line 15 from bottom, in some copies, for In, read For. Page 409, col. 1, line 14, for Juassia, read Quassia. THE DOMESTIC EN s SNU SNUFF, a well-known prepara- tion, the basis of which is tobacco, reduced to powder ; other matters being incorporated, with a view to impart a degree of pungency and peculiar odour. It would be an endless task, to enumerate the various compounds that have been introduced to the notice and patronage of the public, in different countries : hence we shall only remark, that there are three principal kinds of snuff, which are known under the names of granulated; imfialfiable; and the bran, or the coarse part remaining after the second sort has been sifted. The practice of taking snuff, though less detrimental to health, is not less whimsical than that of smoking; for, if continued to ex- cess, it occasions such a copious discharge of mucus from the nos- trils, as will eventually impair the sense of smell, sometimes even corrode the membrane lining the nose, and occasion deep ulcerations in thut organ. An instance occurs in the Transactions of the Learned, vol. v. CYCLOPAEDIA. SNU (Acta Eruditorum), for the year 1715, of a person who, by his ex- travagant use of snuff, at length was troubled with a polypus in the sesophagus, which rendered him unable to take any nourishment, and literally starved him. Another consequence of indulging in this singular custom is, that it fre- quently affects the voice; for, as a kind of stricture is thus induced at the base of the nose, which com- municates its influence to the pa- late and organs of speech, the vo- tary of such custom is consequently stimulated to take additional quan- tities, in order to remove the ob- struction. The occasional and moderate use of snuff, however, is in some cases beneficial. Thus, if a person be subject to head-ach, or to diseases of the eyes, or ears, a few grains of such powder will often afford speedy relief, in consequence of instantaneous sneezing. On the other hand, we would advise those who know the satisfaction of clean- liness, to avoid as long as possible, B 2 SO A SO A the taking of snuff; and such as are liable to phthisical complaints hemorrhages, or internal ulcers, should be particularly cautious; as the indulgence of this practice might, to them, be productive of fatal consequences. SOAL, or Sole, Pleuronectes solea, L. a fish that abounds on the British coasts, and is of various sizes ; those taken on the western shores weighing from six to seven pounds each; while such as are caught on the eastern coast, sel- dom exceed one, or at the utmost, two pounds in weight. The up- per part of its body is of a deep brown colour, and the belly is per- fectly white. Soles are highly esteemed on ac- count of their delicate flavour; the facility Avith which they are di- gested ; and the rich nutriment they afford : these good qualities, however, are supposed to decrease in proportion to their larger size. Hence, the most diminutive are justly preferred ; but they ought to be dressed as soon as possible, because their delicacy is impaired by keeping. SOAP, a composition of fixed alkaline salt, in a state of combi- nation with animal or vegetable oil: it is sometimes dry and hard, at others soft and liquid; being manufactured in various ways, with and without heat; but, as these depend on the same principle, we shall state only the common me- thods. Where large quantities of soap are to be formed, heat becomes in- dispensable. For this purpose, a ley is made of soda and quick-lime, in the proportion of four parts of the former to one of the latter; and which is sufficiently strong to bear an egg. Equal parts of such ley, and of some tallow, or oil, are next poured into a copper, placed over a gentle fire, and stirred continu- ally, till they begin to unite; ay hen the rest of the ley is added, and the agitation continued, till the ingre- dients be completely incorporated. The mixture is next cast into pro- per vessels, at the bottom of Avhich a little pulverized chalk is spread, to prevent it from adhering: and, in a few days, the soap acquires a sufficient degree of consistence, to be taken out, and formed into ob- long squares. Such is the process by which the various kinds of soap are ma- nufactured ; the only difference being in the oils employed in the composition. Thus, the common hard soap is prepared from the caustic ley above-mentioned, Avith the addition of talloAV. The Ve- nice, Jlicant, or Spanish Soap, with oltve-oil; Green Soap with that of rape, hemp, or linseed ; Black Soap Avith train-oil; and, lastly, the ordinary Soft Soap is formed by using pot-ash as a substitute for soda, together with talloAv, or train-oil; to Avhich is added a large quantity of common salt......The perfumed compounds, known un- der the names of Palm, Violet, Al- mond, or other Soaps, are prepar- ed in a similar manner ; the oils of such vegetable substances being employed, instead of those of the usual kind. . The vegetable oils, as well as the fat of animals, generally consumed in the manufacture of soap, raising this article to a high price, ex- periments have successfully been made, Avith a view to substitute fsh-oil. The only objection to its general use, is a disagreeable smell, of Avhich it cannot be easily di- vested.....With a similar design, SOA SOA 3 Chaptal has proposed to employ wool. He directs (ll Annates de Chimie," vol. 21) the ley to be prepared in the usual manner, and made boiling hot; when shreds or rags of any kind of woollen cloth are to be gradually throAvn in, and they will be speedily dissolved..... Fresh portions are then to be spar- ingly added ; the mixture must be constantly agitated: when no more of the woolly substance can be dissolved, the soap will be rea- dy ; and when cool, is fit for use. ....This compound has been tried in washing, and found to answer the same purposes as common soap : we therefore conceive, it might be advantageously substi- tuted for that expensive article, in numerous families ; provided, the rags could be obtained in suffici- ent quantities, and at a reasonable price. As various frauds are practised by the manufacturers, and espe- cially by the retailers of soap, by adding ingredients that increase its weight, but diminishes its \'alue, we deem it our duty, to give a few hints for detecting such im- positions. The liquor, generally employed for such nefarious pur- pose, is a strong brine made of common salt and water, which may be added to soap formed of tallow (the ingredient principally used in the manufactories of Bri- tain), without rendering it softer, or less consistent. In order to prove this adulteration, it will be sufficient to expose a piece of the suspected soap to the air, for se- veral days, when the water Avill evaporate, and the quantity thus fradulently added, may be accu- rately ascertained, by the dimi- nished Aveightof the soap. SeA'e- ral other methods have been con- trived for corrupting this article, but these being neither so lucra- tive as that before stated, nor ge- nerally known, we are not dispos- ed to propagate such knowledge. Hence Ave shall proceed to review the principal patents that have been granted to speculators in this article ; and next explain the uses to which soap may be ap- plied. In November, 1790, Mr. Sa- muel Pugh obtained a patent, for a method of preparing oils for ma- nufacturing hard soap, either with, or without the aid of any tallow, or other grease, at a cheaper than the usual rate. His process Iioav- ever, is too complex to be under- stood, excepting by manufactur- ers : the inquisitiAre reader will, therefore, consult the 2d vol. of the Repertory of Arts, Sec. where a diffuse specification is inserted. In July, 1800, a patent Avas granted to Mr. John Crook, for a method of making soap,by means of the volatile, mineral, and vege- table alkalies, Sec. His invention consists in extracting the volatile alkali from urine, either by distil- lation, or in its raw state ; and rendering it caustic by means of unslacked lime, in the proportion of one pint to eight of raw urine. These are poured into a cask for 6 or 8 hours, Avhen the clear liquor is dravvn off, and incorporated Avith the common materials for making soap. The patentee likewise em- ploys such alkaline ley, and also the raAV urine, for the purpose of strengthening the ordinary soap, so as to impart 16 it greater clear- ness and solidity. He farther ob- serves, that such urinous lixivium may be profitably applied to the cleansing of raw goods from the unctuous matter with Avhich they 4 SOA SOA are impregnated ; by boiling the liquor, and causing the steam that arises from the volatile alkali in a state of vapour, to pass into close vessels, in which such goods are suspended. Soap is one of the most valua- ble articles in domestic economy: its uses in various manufactures require no description. The ash- es, refuse, or waste, remaining after this compound is made, fur- nish an excellent manure. (See Ashes.) The suds, or water, in which soap has been dissolved, are of great service to gardeners ; as they effectually destroy insects in hothouses. (See also vol. 3. p. 331 and vol. 4. p. 110.) Farther, it appears from a patent granted, in June, 1780, to Mr. Samuel Un- ■wtn, and which is now expired ; that soap-suds, after being used in scowering, washing, &c. may be rendered sufficiently strong to serve the same purpose, repeat- edly, and even for the re-produc- tion of soap. He directs any quantity of the suds (when ren- dered useless by the foul or grea- sy matters they may hold in solu- tion) to be boiled over a brisk fire ; in consequence of which, a scum of grease, oil, he. will rise to the surface. This must be saturated or dissolved, by the gradual addi- tion of pot-ash, or similar alkaline salt; the whole being stirred, till the scum disappear. The soap- suds, thus corrected, are now to boil for two hours, Avhen the fire must be discontinued, in order that all feculent or earthy parti- cles may subside. The liquor will then be found sufficiently pu- rified, and may again be employed for scowering, &c. every time re- peating the process before describ- ed. In order to make soap of such rectified suds, the patentee directs any quantity to be dravvn off into shallow vessels, in which it must be evaporated over the fire, till it acquire a due consistence ; and, by adding the usual proportion of sea- salt, the mixture Avill become hard, and possess all the properties of saponaceous matter. Soap is also of considerable uti- lity in medicine : fc* this purpose, hoAvever, it is prepared without the aid of heat; the ley being fil- tred and concentrated by evapo- ration, to such a degree, that a phial capable of holding an ounce of water, -will contain one ounce and 216 grains, or nearly li oz. of such lixivium. One part of the latter is then mixed with two parts of the oil of sweet-almonds, or of olives, in a stone vessel ; the in- gredients are occasionally stirred ; and, in the course of a week, a firm white soap will be obtained. ....This compound is reputed for its efficacy in dispelling calculi, or, stones, in the human body ; and, when dissolved in ale, it has Avith advantage been administered in the jaundice. Boerhaave always prescribed it with resinous pills ; as it contributes to decompose them in the stomach. But, of late years, soap has fallen into disrepute, and is noAV seldom employed in medicine; though Ave are informed by M. Bei.lot, that soap-Avater has been given, with the happiest effects, to per- sons bitten by mad animals. There are numerous vegetables, that may afford proper substitutes for soap, in its various applications to domestic uses ; but, as many" of these have already been pointed out; and others will occur in the SOA SOD 5 subsequent pages; we refer the reader to our General Index of Re- ference. SOAP-EARTH, or Steatites, L. a species of fossil, which abounds in Devonshire, Cornwall, and the islands in the vicinity of the Lizard Point. [It also abounds on the ri- ver Schuylkill, near Philadelphia.] It is generally of a white, or gr,ey colour, intermixed with greenish or yellowish shades ; is compos- ed of very fine particles ; of a firm, equal, and regular texture : and is very heavy. Its surface is smooth and glossy ; it feels soft and grea- sy ; and neither melts in the mouth, nor adheres to the tongue, or stains the fingers. This mineral may be formed in- to a paste with water, which is ea- sily worked on the potter's wheel; and if, thus manufactured, it be exposed to an intense heat, it be- comes so hard as to emit fire, Avhen stricken against steel. The soap-earth possesses simi- lar properties with Fuller's-earth, and is employed for the purpose of cleansing Avoollen cloths from grease : it does not, however, work so easily as clays ; and, when digested with vitriolic acid,it forms a salt someAA'hat resembling that obtained by evaporating Epsom- Avater. SOAP-WORT, the Common, or Bruiseavort, Safionaria offici- nalis, L. a native perennial, grow- ing in meadows and hedges ; flow- ering in July arid August.....The leaves possess a disagreeable bitter taste : if bruised and agitated with Avater, they produce a saponaceous froth, a\ hich may serve for remov- ing greasy spots from linen, as well as woollen cloths; but it discharges no colours....The roots are some- what pungent, have a sweetish taste, and in smell resemble those of liquorice: a strong tincture r.Kiy be prepared, by digesting them in rectified spirits....In medicine, this plant is.now exploded ; but, in do- mestic economy, the sap express- ed from the root, stalk, and leaAres, may be employed as a substitute for soap, in cleansing raAv or coaise cloth, and likewise for fine linen, in the washing of Avhich, it will save at least one-half of that ex- pensive article, otherwise requir- ed....Lastly, the admirers of win- ged insects may catch the most beautiful butterflies on the flow- ers of the common soap-wort, which are visited by them during twilight. SODA, Fossil, or Mineral Alkali, a peculiar salt, which is found native in various parts of the world ; but, as the quantity thus obtained, is inadequate to its ex- tensive consumption, various me- thods have been devised, for pro- curing it from sea-salt ; and also by the burning of the salt-wort, together with other saline plants, which grow in the vicinity of the sea-coast...See Barilla, and Fos- sil Alkali. FeAv articles are of greater im- portance to the arts, manufactures, and domestic economy, than Koda. It is indispensably neces.arv for making hard soap ; and also forms an excellent substitute for this ar- ticle : as four ounces of the for- mer, and six of the latter, are fully equal to 16 ounces, or one pound of soap, for cleansing I4lbs. of cloth, by hand ; while it softens the hardest water : thus, a saving- will arise in the expcace of from one-third to one-half, accordii^'y as that operation is performed hv the hand, or by machines....The superior effects of soda are fullv 6 SOD SOF evinced in the cleansing of fleecy hosiery, flannels, or worsted stock- ings ; which, when managed with warm water, soap, and pot-ash, acquire an unpleasant odour, and are apt to shrink, in consequence of the rubbing, particularly if they be immersed in cold water: Avhere- as, by using the fossil alkali, these inconveniencies are said to be com- pletely avoided, and neither the quality of the goods aviU be im- paired ; nor the hands of women, when the soda is judiciously em- ployed, be injured in the same man- ner, as generally happens by the common ley. Farther, as frequent bathing or washing of the body greatly con- duces to health, it has been re- commended to dissolve a small portion of soda in the Avater thus employed; or, at least to pass a towel wetted with a solution of soda and soap, over the surface ; for such practice opens the pores, and removes the disagreeable odour arising from profuse per- spiration :....a similar application will be productive of equal advan- tage to horses that are employed for racing, postchaises, or other purposes, Avhere great exertions are required. If a weak solution of soda be poured into foul bottles or casks, in which wine has been kept for a considerable time, it Avill com- pletely dissolve the tartarous crust that is formed on their inner sur- face :....boot-tops, saddles, or bri- dles, may with such liquid be ef- fectually cleansed, while the origi- nal colour of the leather is pre- served. This alkali may, likewise, be employed for sweetening kitchen- utensils, and particularly for re- moving grease or acids from cop- per vessels; because these con* cretions, when suffered to remain, form a strong poison, and may be productive of deleterious effects. In a similar manner, it may be used for tin and iron vessels, to prevent them from becoming rus- ty. Lastly, as the utensils of the dairy are apt to acquire an acid, disagreeable smell, during the summer, and particularly after a thunder-storm, though every at- tention be bestowed on them, such fetor may be completely removed by a small portion of soda, which will render the milk-vessels per- fectly sweet; while it neutralizes aad dispels the acid ferment im- bibed by the wood, and which might otherwise taint the milk. The crystals of soda are not less useful in a medicinal point of view. Thus, a solution of this salt, is an excellent gargle for cleansing the throat, mouth, and gums, both in a sound and in a diseased or ulce- rated state ; while it whitens the teeth ; and dissolves all incrusta- tions that may be formed on their surface, without injuring their ena- mel. And, if a small quantity of this liquid be occasionally swal- lowed, after washing the fauces, it is said effectually to remove a fetid breath. Soda is, in many instances, preferable to magnesia, for cor- recting acidity in the stomach ; nay, it is even asserted, that it prevents the gout, gravel, stone, and similar disorders : lastly if the fossil alkali be mixed with cream of tartar, in the proportion of 14 parts of the former to 12 of the latter, it furnishes one of the mild- est laxatives ; namely, the Ro- chelle Salt....See also Glauber's Salt. SOFT-'GRASS, the Meadow, or Holcus lanatus, L. a native ps- SOI SOI 7 tennial, growing in meadoAVS and pastures, particularly in moist, light situations: it flowers in the months of June and July. This grass, though vegetating late in the season, is very productive ; but is not much relished by cattle : it makes a soft, spongy hay, that is \'ery hurtful to horses ; which, by eating it, become affected vuth a profuse discharge of urine, and general weakness. In case any hay, obtained from this vegetable, be accidentally given to those valua- ble animals an immediate change of food will prevent its farther ill effects As the stalks of the meadow soft-grass attain a height of from two to three feet, and the root is eminently calculated for consoli- dating loose sandy soils, it merits to be cultivated in such situations. [See Grass.] SOIL, signifies the ground or mould, in Avhich vegetables grow ; and Avhich serves as a reservoir for receiving and dispensing their nu- triment. Having already, under the ar- ticles Arable Land; Land; Marsh ; Moos ; &c. stated the most approved methods of reno- vating or restoring exhausted soils, and of converting them from a state of nature ; Ave shall now com- municate a few hints, by which their quality may be ascertained. To effect this purpose, Berg- man, Fordyce, Kir wan, and other eminent chemists, have analyzed the constituent parts of different soils, namely ; carbon, lime, clay, and siliceous sand; and, according to the respective por- tions of these ingredients, they con- ceive that the relative fertility of soils might be determined. But, as such analysis is very inaccurate and uncertain, Dr. Daravin pro- poses to dry a few pounds of dif- ferent soils, in the same tempera- ture : when their moisture is eva- porated, they must be weighed, and exposed to a red heat. As carbon is a principal ingredient in calcareous earths, he conjectures, that the soil which loses the great- est portion of its weight, is the most fertile ; because the carbonic matter, being the principal nutri- ment of plants, will be dissipated in the flame. Another mode of examining the fertility of soils is, by calculating their specific gravity, when dried at equal distances from the fire, in bladders furnished with small aper- tures ; and, after immersing them in water, by accurately observing the difference between their re- spective weights, both in that fluid and in the air. But the most certain criterion, by which to judge of the value of land, is afforded by at- tending to the growth and colour of the vegetables spontaneously produced ; and Avhich in some measure indicate the nature of the soil beneath their roots. Thus, the Fox-glove, and Sand-wort, abound in sandy situations; the Brook- lime, and some species of Cresses, in moist ground , the Corn Saw- wort, or Way-thistle, indicates a good, as the Dock shews an infe- rior, soil. Many plants might be added to this list ; but, we shall conclude with remarking, that if an accurate Geographical Catalogue of such vegetables, as grow in par- ticular situations, were published in every country, it would be of great service, in ascertaining the degree of fertility, as well as the nature of different soils. [SOILING, the act of cutting 8 SOL SOL grass for stall-feeding cattle ; or, the practice of feeding cattle with cut grass. The superior economy of this practice, compared with that of pasturing, was fully pointed out under the article Cattle. When treating of clover, an expected statement of the number of hogs soiled with cloA'er, was promised. The particulars, however, did not arrive in time for insertion in the proper place, but Avere since com- municated, and are as follow : Twenty-five shoats were fed for three months, with green clover, cut from less than one acre ; they were then fed on Indian corn, and when killed, weighed three thou- sand pounds. Soilijig has been uniformly re- commended throughout this Avork, where the practice can be follow- ed ; but where it cannot be adopt- ed, the English mode of pasturing, as detailed by Lord Dundonald should be followed, viz.; to keep the fat, half fed cattle, and the lean or young stock, in different inclosures. The fat cattle should only top the grass, the half fed should succeed those, and lastly, the lean or store cattle should fol- low on the same pasture, and eat the herbage close down : repeat- ing this practice as often as the fresh growth of grass will permit. SOLI DAGO, Cxria, Throat- wort, Rattle-snake-Golden-rod..... This is a beautiful species of Soli- dago, and a native of the United States : flowering in August and September. Many diverging slen- der stems arise from a root, and manv corymbs or clusters of gol- den yellow compound flowers, terminate the stems, forming a panicle. The leaves are lancio- late, and sharply serrated, ending in a slender or acute point. Ths stems are smooth, covered with a purple bark, softened by a glacous nibule, or mist, and of a very pun- gent taste, somewhat similar to the Radix Senega (Seneka snake- root). Tb.e Indians use this plant as. a cure for the bite of the rattle- snake, applied externally and in- ternally. They also prescribe it in strong decoction, as a gargle, and diet-drink for the sore-throat. Wm. Bartram.] SOLOMON's-SEAL, the Sweet-smelling, or Convallaria Polygojiatum, L. a native perenni- al, which grows in mountainous woods, and the fissures of rocks, principally in the county of York : it floAvers in the months of May and June. This vegetable is eaten by sheep and goats, but is refused by horses, hogs, and cows. Its roots consist of a pulpy, tuberous, white, sweet, and mucilaginous substance : in times of scarcity, they have been converted into a wholesome bread ; and are always used for that purpose, by the lower classes in Sweden and Russia: a good starch may likewise be ex- tracted from them ; and the ex- pressed juice being somewhat acrid, serves as a cosmetic, or a lotion for pimples, &c. The young shoots of this, as well as of the fol- lowing species may, in the spring, be eaten like asparagus. SOLOMON's-SEAL, the Com- mon, or Convallaria multiflora, L. is also perennial; grows in woods and thickets : and floAvers in May or June. This plant is eaten by coavs, goats, and sheep; it posses- ses the properties of the preced- ing, but in an inferior degree ; and to which it bears so close a resem- blance, that it can be distinguish- ed only by its smaller, white flow- SOO fcrs, tipped Avith green ; whereas, those of "trie former are larger, though less in number, and white, with a green line running down each segment. Sooju. See Soy. SOOT, a volatile powder, of a deep black colour, and an extreme- ly bitter taste : it arises from burn- ing Avood, coal, or other fuel ; or, more strickly speaking, from the smoke condensed, and deposited at the sides of-chimnies. Considerable quantities of soot are employed in the manufacture of sal ammoniac; and also by dyers, for imparting a fawn colour to wool.....See article Dyeing)..... But the principal advantage deriv- ed from it, is, when used as a manure for cold, moist, and clayey meadoAVS, and pastures ; as it is of a Avarm ameliorating nature ; affords nourishment to grass, [on- ions] ; destroys noxious insects ; protects the crop from chillingrains; and preA'ents the growth of moss. [Soot, according to Dun don a ld, is used in many parts of Britain, Avith very beneficial effects, for the destruction of the wire-AVorm, and other insects, which prey upon the young tender leaves and roots of plants.] The quantity varies in different counties, from fifteen to twenty- five, and even 40 bushels per acre ; but it ought to be strewed on the land during the winter, and in calm weather, so that the subse- quent vernal rains may wash it in- to the soil: fir, if its distribution be delayed till the end of February, or the beginning of March, the great heat then evolved, will affect the tender shoots of the grass, and occasion a temporary check to its vegetation. Some circumspection, however, is required, that the soot vol. v. SOR 9 be genuine; as the chimney-sweep- ers frequently" mix with it finely- sifted coal-ashes ; in order to in- crease the bulk; but this fraud may be easily detected, by the grittiness and uncommon weight of the soot. SorvB. See Service-tree. Sore-throat. See Quinsy. SORREL, the Common, or Sorrel-Dock, Rumex Acetos'us, L. a natiAre perennial, growing in meadoAvs and pastures, where it flowers in the month of June..... This vegetable is eaten by horses, coavs, goats, sheep, and swine..... It is cultivated in France and Bri- tain, for culinary purposes ; as, in the former country, its leaves are a frequent ingredient in soups, and also eaten in salads ; in the latter, they are esteemed for their cooling properties, because they tend to allay thirst; to promote the urin- ary discharge ; and Avhen boiled in Avhey, they afford a palatable drink to pei-sons labouring under inflammatory fevers.....In Ireland, the sorrel-leaves are used by the lower classes, both as a kind of sauce to fish, and also with milk : they possess, however, a very aus- tere, acid taste, Avhen raw, inso- much as to divest the teeth of their enamel; hence they should not be eaten by those whose stomach a- bounds in acidity. The seeds of this vegetable were formerly used in medicine ; but are at present, according to Hedin employed by the SAvedes, among their bread-corn, and reduced to flour ; nay, the inhabitants of Ca- relia convert them into bread, with- out any addition. Its roots have an austere, bitterish taste, and are chiefly valuable to tanners; and also for the red tinge which they yield, after having been dried and boiled. On adding alum to this decoction, C 10 S O R painters prepare a fine red colour, but which is useless in dyeing..... Boerhaave obtained from the juice of the Sorrel-dock, an essen- tial salt, resembling that of lemons. [Sorrel is a very troublesome plant in meadoAvs. Lord Dundo- nald, upon chemical principles advises, 1. The use of lime on soils in which the plant etbounds..... The next growth after sorrel will be chckweed, which is a certain indi- cation of its being in a state fit to produce grain or other crops : 2. The application of the alkaline salts, when the crop of sorrel is in the greatest abundance.] SORREL,the SuEEp's,orDocK, Rumex Acetosella, L. is also a na- tive perennial, which grows in sandy meadows, pastures, and gravel walks : it flowers in May and June. The stalks of this plant, which affords a wholesome food for sheep, seldom exceed twelve in- ches in height: it deserves, hoAV- ever, to be mentioned, that cows partaking of the Sheep's Dock, yield a milk tinged with blood. SORREL, the Common Wtood, Sour Trefoil, or Cuckow- Bread, Oxalis Acetocella, L. a- nother native perennial, which a- bounds in woods, shady hedges, and on heaths : it floAvers in the month of April. This vegetable is eaten by goats, hogs, and sheep ; but is not relished by coavs, and is refused by horses. Its purple leaves yiejd on expression,agratefullyacid juice, Avhich has been beneficially used in scorbutic eruptions : and, if such juice be properly clarified, evaporated, and deposited in a cool place, it will produce a considera- ble quantity of acid crystals, which may be employed for removing iron moulds from linen cloth; and SOU which are sold under the name of Essential Salt of Lemons. An infu- sion of the leaves makes a palata- ble diet-drink in ardent fevers ; and, on being boiled in milk, they form an agreeable whey. They have also been successfully applied to scrophulous ulcers, when rolled in a cabbage leaf, and digested in warm ashes, till they were reduc- ed to a pulp. But the most easy and efficacious way of preserving these leaves, is that of converting them into a kind of conserve, Avith the addition of double their Aveight of sugar ; in which form, they are an excellent substitute for lemons, and may be given with advantage in all putrid and other fevers, where antiseptics are indicated. SOUP, a strong decoction of beef, veal, or other animal sub- stances ; and which is generally seasoned with aromatic vegeta- bles, pepper, or similar heating spices. Soups form a principal article at the tables of the luxurious ; be- ing generally served as a first course ; though sometimes they constitute the whole dinner of those who are less opulent, under the mistaken notion, that such li- quid is more wholesome and easy of digestion, than solid meat..... Such dishes ought, however, to be given Avith great caution to con- valescents ; as the large propor- tion of spices, Avines, and other stimulating articles that enter into the composition of soups, cannot fail to oppress the stomach, to ir- ritate the system, and not unfre- quently to occasion a relapse. Pcrtable-soup is a kind of cahe formed of concentrated broth; which, being divested of all fat| while the putrescent parts of the SOW SOW 11 meat have been evaporated by boiling, is reduced to a gelatinous consistence, resembling that of glue. The composition may be preserved, in a dry place, for three or four years : it is recommended, on account of its nutritive quali- ties, by Sir John Pringle, and may prove of essential service on long sea-voyages; as it requires to he eaten Avith a large proportion of vegetables; andthus, in some mea- sure, prevents the attacks of that scourge of mariners, the sea-scurvy. When portable soup is to be cook- ed, it will be advisable to put half or a whole ounce of this substance into a vessel containing a pint of boiling Avater, which must then be placed over the fire, and conti- nually agitated Avith a spoon, till it he perfectly dissolved: thus, it will form an excellent and nou- rishing liquid : requiring no other seasoning, but a little common salt. Southern-wood, the Common. See Mugavort, the Common. Southern-wood, the Sea : See Wormwood, the Sea. SOW-BREAD, or Cyclamen Eu- ropaum, L. an exotic plant, some- times cultivated in the gardens of the curious. There are five spe- cies of this diminutive herb, each of Avhich produces several varie- ties ; all bearing beautiful fragrant white, reddish, purple, or flesh- coloured flowers. All the species of the sow-bread may be propagated by their seeds; and the respective varieties, by di- viding their roots ; they require a light, dry soil ; and to be planted in borders oT walks : in case of se- vere frost,, the plants should be sheltered by mats. In a fresh state, the root of the sow-bread has an extremely acrid and burning taste; but, when dried, it is almost totally divested of such property. It is recom- mended as an errhine; or to be formed into cataplasms, for dis- cussing scirrhous and scrophulous tumors. Internally taken, it ope- rates sloAvly, though with great virulence, as a purgative ; and is apt to inflame the fauces and in- testines : but, when roasted in em- bers, it may be eaten Avith safety. In Germany, an ointment is pre- pared from these roots, which serves the useful purpose of re- lieving costiveness, when rubbed on the abdomen. If, however, the root of the soAV-bread should have been inad- vertently swallowed, or eaten a- mong. other vegetables, it will be advisable either to take an imme- diate emetic; or, if some time have elapsed, to drink large portions of oily and mucilaginous liquors, sue\\ as the solutions of mutton-suet bi milk, of gum-arabic, salep-pow- der, and similar demulcents. SOW-THISTLE, or Sonchus, L. a genus of plants forming 13 species, four of which arc indige- nous : the principal are the follow- ing : 1. The oleraceus, or Common Sow-thistle, grows on cultivat- ed ground, dunghills, and in hedges ; its yellow flowers appear from June till August. The leaves of this troublesome weed ate the favourite food of hares and rab- bits : they are likewise dressed and eaten among other culinary herbs. The roots have occasionally been converted into bread. Sheep,goats, and swine, devour this A'egetable, but it is not relished by horses. 2. The arvewsis, Corn or Tree Soav-Thistle,is perennial,thrives in clayey corn-fields, and on ditch- banks, where it blows in August. 12 SO W SOY It is remarkable, that the floAvers of this plant follow, in a regular manner, the course of the sun..... Cows and goats eat this species, of Avhich horses are exceedingly fond. ....Bechstein remarks, that the young shoots of the Corn Soav- thistle, when cut out in the spring, and mixed with bran, afford an ex- cellent food for cattle and SAvine. 3. The palustris, or Marsh Sow-Thistle, grows in watery places, and on the banks of rivers, where it attains the height of from six to ten feet; flowering in July and August. While young, this plant furnishes nourishing food for cattle : hence it deserves to be cul- tivated in swampy meadoAvs..... Its flowers, like those of all the thistles, are visited by bees. SOWING, is the act of com- mitting the seed of vegetables to the earth, in order to obtain a fu- ture crop. This operation is performed ei- ther in the Buoad-cast method, or by Drilling : but, having al- ready stated the respect'iA-e ad- vantages attending both, we refer the reader to articles Broad-cast, Drill. The most important objects in poAving are ; 1. To commit the seed to the ground, at as early a period of the season as the nature of the grain, and the situation of the soil, Avill admit; and 2. To place every seed at a proper depth, and distance from each other. Due regard to the former circumstance v. ill be attended Avith great profit, particularly in the cultivation of turnips; as an early harvest will not only thus be obtained ; but the roots Avill also be protected from the depredations of the fly. Some agriculturists strongly re- co.nmend to " sow dry, and set Avct;" but, Avhere the soil has beer* newly turned by the spade, Dr. Daravin justly remarks, that no bad consequence can result from sowing, in general, during rainy Aveather: such method, however, ought to be adopted with caution on clay-soils (see Clay-land) that are much softened by long-conti- nued rain ; because, if the seed be put into holes, and a dry seaso^ follow, the water will necessarily evaporate, and an impenetrable crust Avill be formed on the sur- face, by the setting, or running to- gether of the clay. But this acci- dent may, in some measure, be preA'ented, by sowing in the au- tumnal months, during moist Avea- ther....See also Seed. SOY, or Sooju, a species of li- quid condiment, which is import- ed from India, and is used as a sauce for fish. It is prepared from the leguminous fruit of the Soja (Dolichos soja, L.) a native of Ja- pan. The pods are first boiled, till they become soft; when equal parts of them, and of muggi (wheat or barley that has been coarsely ground"), are thoroughly mixed.... This preparation is then kept in a close vessel, and a warm place, for tAventy-four hours, in order to fer- ment ; after which, the mass is put into a pot, and covered with a large portion of common salt, when two measures and a half of Avater are poured over the Avhole. The compound is stirred, once at the least, every day, for the space of two or three months , and at the end of that period, it is filtred ; the expressed liquor being pre- served in Avooden vessels. Fresh water is next added to the same mass j.Avhich, after stirring it oc- casionally for several days, is at SPA SPA IS length strained; and the liquor, though of an inferior kind, thus rendered fit for use. Soy possesses a strongly saline taste, but has only a slight aroma- tic flavour: it is chiefly used at the tables of the luxurious ; and is one of those artificial stimulants of the palate, which deserves no com- mendation, especially for vitiated or relaxed habits. . [The Soy-bean bears the cli- mate of Pennsylvania very well. The bean ought therefore to be cultivated.] SPADE, a well knoAvn imple- ment, which is principally employ- ed in horticulture. The bit, or blade of this tool, is composed wholly of iron, being about 8 or 9 inches broad, and a foot in length : the upper part is flat; and, in the centre, there is a hole or socket, in which is in- serted a handle or shaft, being 1^ inches in diameter, and about 3 feet long. It is employed for stir- ring and dressing the ground ; the labourer thrusting it in, to the depth of ten or twelve inches, ac- cordingly as the nature of the soil may require. The English spades, in general, are Avell calculated for heavy gar- den soils ; but, as there are many situations, especially those abound- ing in sand and gravel, which might be more easily managed with a tool of a different shape, Ave procured the folloAving cut, that represents the spade employed in Tuscany, and the northern parts of Italy. It consists of an iron spear, which is someAvhat concave, being also longer, and thicker, than the implement used in Britain: in- TUSCAN SPADE. stead of the Workman setting his foot on the top of the blade, he places it upon a piece of wood, which crosses the shaft, three or four inches above such blade; though, we conceive, the distance need hot exceed one or tAvo inches. The manner in which this imple- ment is used, varies in different 14 SPA SPA places. Thus, at Geneva, it is thrust into the soil, perpendicular- ly ; at Persia, the earth is divided horizontally, or at least in a slant- ing direction ; so that the mould is thrown to a greater distance be- fore the labourer. The peasants of that country, indeed, have an excellent mode of using the spade, without undergoing too great fa- tigue : it consists simply in sup- porting and lifting up the handle of the implement (after it has en- tered the soil) on the knee; by which means they are enabled to penetrate to a greater depth, and consequently to bring up a larger quantity of earth to the surface. SPAR, the Ponderous ; Ba- rytes ; or heavy earth, a name giv- en to a fossil naturally combined with the sulphuric or carbonic acids, and found in different parts of England, particularly in the counties of York, Derby, [ and Lancashire.] Its principal use in domestic economy, as a poison to rats, hav- ing been already stated, we shall only remark, that the ponderous spar may be procured in a very pure state, for medicinal purposes, by the process which Vauquelin and Fourcroy have adopted ; and a translation of which has been given in Mr. Nicholson's Journal of Natural Philosophy, 8cc. ATol. i. 4to, p. 535....It would, however, be hazardous to mention the dis- orders, and doses, in Avhich this powerful remedy is employed. [The Lapis Hepaticus, a variety of this spar, has been lately found in Albemarle county, Virginia.] Sparagus. See Asparagus. SPARROW, the Common, or Domestic, Fringilla domestica, L. a well-knoAvn bird, vvhieh abounds in Britain, particularly in the vici- nity of villages and towns. Sparrows construct their nest beneath the eaves, and in the holes of walls, roofs, especially in those of willow-trees, where they lay five or six eggs of a pale-reddish colour,spotted with brown. These birds are very crafty, and voraci- ous ; committing great depreda- tions in corn-fields,Avherethey par- take of every species of grain : on the other hand, they are also use- ful, by devouring numerous worms, insects, and particularly the green caterpillar. But,in situations where sparrows are very troublesome from their numbers, they may be easily taken, by constructing a trap of unpeeled oziers, about two feet in diameter, nine inches deep ; and resembling in its form a fish- pot. The tunnel is somewhat dish- ed, having an inverted cone in the centre, which extends to within the space of one inch from the bottom of such basket; the opening, form- ed by the points of the twigs, being an inch in diameter. This trap must be baited with Avheat, or other grain ; and, when the birds have entered through the internal aperture of the cone, they cannot escape. For the protection of fields, gar- dens, and especially of Avail-fruit, from these predatory birds, Ave can suggest the following expedient.... Slips or pieces of spangle-metal (plate-foil) six inches long, and three broad, should be suspended on long poles by means of strings, about half a yard in length, and fastened to the top: by the agi- tation of the Avind, they will occa- sion a continual crackling noise, which is so terrifying to sparrows, that they will not venture to ap« SPA SPA 15 proach the vicinity of such scare- crows : in fields, however, the lat- ter ought to be placed at a distance of about 12 or 15 yards square, from each other. Sparrow-hawk : See Hawk, the Common. SPASM, an irregular and in- voluntary contraction of the mus- cles, generally accompanied Avith painful sensations : this complaint has, of late years, made such rapid and formidable progress, especi- ally among the female sex, as to demand serious attention. Spasms are either general, where many or most of the muscles are attacked (as in tetanus, catalepsis, Isfc.) ; as partial, when the con- traction is confined to single mus- cles, for instance, of the jaAV, of the throat, and other parts, Avhich have been stated under their re- spective heads. Among the chief, pre-disposing causes, is an irritable, Aveak, ner- vous system ; while the occasional ones are, passions of the mind ; in- jury produced by external violence, by poisons, of every description ; worms ; suppressed perspiration ; cosmetics and lotions ; repelled cu- taneous eruptions; and Avhatever, may induce an increased action of the nerves and muscles. Nothing, indeed, has so evidently contri- buted to the frequency of this af- fection, as the defective modern education, particularly of females ; and according to Avhich, children are considered as adults ; they are allowed to read seductive books ; to dress in an improper, or at least, unbecoming manner; and even infants are suffered to partake of tea, wine, and spirituous liquors, under the pretext of using them as medicines. The danger attending spasmodic paroxysms, depends on the greater or less violence of the attack :....if they proceed from too profuse eva- cuations, there is great danger to be apprehended ; as the patient is already exhausted. Where spasms are occasioned by the taking of mineral or animal poisons ; or, if the patient labour under an acute fever, the event is generally fatal. Cure :....The first step will be to remove the irritating cause ; and next, to restore tone to the organs: thus, if the spaSm originate from an injury by a sharp instrument, such as a needle, especially if a piece of it remain in the wound, it ought to be immediately extracted. During the fit, clysters made of a decoction of chamomile flowers, with a dram of ipecacuhana, asa- foedita, or other antispasmodics, to be repeated every two or three hours, will afford the greatest re- lief: beside these, recourse may be had to warm-baths, frictions, and the application of volatile lini- ments. If the teeth are not too closely shut, half a tea-spoonful of either the tinctures of castor, asa- fcedita, or valerian, diluted Avith a table-spoonful of water, may be in- troduced through the mouth..... Next, it will be necessary to regu- late the treatment according to the cause of the malady. If it arise from a suppression of cutaneous disorders, blistering plasters, and other artificial issues, Avill be the most proper means of restoring the discharge of humours : if it pro- ceed from tAvo tight shoes, or other garments, the part should be rub- bed with warm oil, till it become soft ; and then a tight bandage be applied round it: the leg should afterwards be bathed in cold \va- 16 S P E SPE ter impregnated with scales of iron, or rubbed with volatile lini- ment :.....if induced by worms (which see) suitable remedies must be administered. But, where it originates from mental causes, the cure itself ought to consist of mo- ral remedies; as physical means would, in general, be found inade- quate. With a view to re-invigorate the system, and to prevent future at- tacks, decoctions of quassia, worm- wood, chamomile, Peruvian bark, valerian, and other antispasmodics, may be taken with advantage, es- pecially when conjoined Avith cold bathing ; and, in cases of worms, with the liberal use of red-port; a glass of Avhich may, for that pur- pose, be drunk every morning, on an empty stomach. SPATLING-POPPY, White Bottle, or Bladder Campion, Cucubalus Behen, L. a native pe- rennial, which grows in corn- fields, dry meadows, and pastures : it floAvers in July and August..... The leaves of this vegetable, when boiled, possess the flavour of peas ; and are by the Gothlanders advan- tageously applied to erysipelatous eruptions. The flowers are eager- ly visited by bees, as Avell as by the most beautiful butterflies, in twi- light. Spavin : See Bone-spavin. Spaavn : See Rok. Spear-mint : See Mint. SPEARWORT, the great, or Ranunculus Lingua, L. an indige- nous perennial, growing in Avet pastures, and at the sides of lakes: it floAvers in the months of June and July. The stem of this poi- sonous plant is very thick, and at- tains the height of two feet ; the leaves have no stalks; and the large bright-yellow, glossy floAvers, appear on the extremities of the shoots. The whole is extremely acrid, and if any part of this herb be eaten by cattle in a fresh state, it is apt to produce fatal distem- pers. SPEARWORT, the LEssER,or Ranuncules Flammula, L. is also a native perennial, growing on bogs, SAvampy meadoAvs, and the sides of rivulets ; floAvering from June to September. It is eaten by horses, in which it occasions many concealed disorders, but is refused by cows, goats, sheep, and hogs.... This plant is very acrid ; if exter- nally applied, it inflames and blis- ters the skin :....its distilled water is a most powerful emetic, operat- ing as soon as it is swallowed ; and Dr. Withering states, from his own experience, that, in cases of poison having been accidentally swalloAved, or in which it becomes necessary tojproduce an immedi- ate vomiting, such distilled water is preferable to any other prepa- ration ; as it does not excite the painful contractions, which are sometimes consequent on the use of Avhite vitriol, and thus defeat the object for Avhich the latter is admi- nistered. SPECTACLES, a Avell known and useful optical contrivance, in order to aid the eyes of the aged, or young invalids of defective vi- sion, by means of two appropriate lenses. Those used by short- sighted persons, are generally con- cave ; as the spectacles employed by ihaJur-.'igJited, or convex. The choice of spectacles being an object of great importance, to all who are anxious to preserve their eyes, Ave shall select a few rules from Mr. Adam's valuable Essay on Vision ; and the Editor's Lec- tures en Diet and Regimen. By SPE SPE 17 a careful attention to such direc- tions, the failure of sight may be retarded, and the eyes greatly re- lieved. Those, who stand in need of spectacles, ought at first always to chuse such as represent objects, without enlarging or diminishing them ; and Avhich, on being placed near the eye, exhibit printed cha- racters clearly and' distinctly, Avith- out straining that organ. It will, therefore, in every instance, be ad- visable to consult the artist of whom the glasses are purchased : for, though every person must eventually determine what lenses afford him the most accurate vision, the former will thus be enabled to accomodate them to the eye of the latter, Avith greater certainty and advantaqe. Besides, the fa- tigue of trying a variety of glasses, im\ thus be obviated ; and the purchaser will procure a pair, best adapted to the structure of his eyes. Short-sighted persons ought always to make a very gradual al- lowance in changing their specta- cles, so as to select others which magnify a little more than the pre- ceding pair, though somewhat less distinctly, without obscuring the object. Thus, their sight will be imperceptibly improved ; anil, after making use of less concave lenses, the defect of vision may, in process of time, be entirely reme- died. These transitions, however, ought not to be sudden ; lest the resources of art should be too early exhausted. And, as it would be difficult to meet either with a pair of glasses in the shops, that ex- actly fit both eyes, or with a per- son Avhose organs of si^ht are both of a size and construction per- fectly equal, it rationally follows, that such important choice should vol. v. be separately made, with respect to each of these useful organs. Spectacles are generally trans- parent and colourless ; though sometimes green lenses are prefer- red by those, whose eyes are una- ble to support a vivid light. Such colour is believed to be the most soothing to the human eye; though it tends, at first, in some degree to darken the object..... Hence, this shade will prove bene- ficial only to persons who possess strong, but irritable eyes ; yet even such individuals should not indulge in it, if light-coloured ob- jects continue to assume a reddish tinge, after having tried the expe- riment for a few days. In all cases, however, spectacles ought to be employed only in writing, reading or similar occupations that render this artificial aid necessary; and during which, the eye is retained at an uniform distance. In December, 1793, a patent was granted to Mr. John Richard- son ; for his invention of a ma- chine that may be applied to spec- tacles or glasses, and pebbles of every kind. As, however, no dis- tinct idea can be formed of his con- trivance, without a proper delinea- tion, Ave refer the reader to the !Oth volume of the Repertory of Arts, Sec. Avhere it is described, and illustrated with an engraved figure. H^nce, Ave shall oily observe,that the chief object of the patentee's invention, appears to be that of preventing the necessity of em- ploying two pair of spectacles, where these are occasionally re- quired ; as two dis inct sights may thus be obtained, for any purpose, according to the desire of the wearer. SPEEDWELL, or Veronica, L. a genus of plants comprehending 18 SPE SPE 54 species, 17 of which are indige- nous : the principal of these are the following: 1. The Beccabunga: See Brook- lime. 2. The Chamxdrys: See Ger- mander, the Wild. 3. The officinalis, Common Speedwell, Male Speedwell, or Fluellin, is perennial, groAVs on heaths, and in barren grounds ; floAvers from May till August..... The leaves of this vegetable are slightly bitter and astringent: for- merly, an infusion of them was highly prized, as a domestic reme- dy in coughs and asthmatic com- plaints. In a decoction with iron- filings, these leaves yield a black dye for leather. The plant is eat- en by coavs, sheep, goats and horses : refused by hogs. 4. The scuttelata or Narrow- leaved Speedavell, thrives on poor SAvampy soils, and flowers from June to August. It affords grateful food to geese and ducks. 5. The Anagallis, or Narroav- LEAVED PlMPERNELL - SpEED- avell, grows in slow streams and shallow ponds, Avhere it floAvers in July and August. This species may be eaten both as salad, and among other culinary vegetables. Spelter : See Zinc [SPENCER, (Marine.) A very useful contrivance by K. Spencer, Esq. of London, for the preserva- tion of lives in cases of shipwreckT or other accidents, in rivers or at sea. It consists of A, a girdle, of a diameter to fit the body, six inches broad, composed of about 800 corks, strung upon a strong twine, well lashed together with lay-cord, covered Avith canvas, and painted in oil, so as to make it water- proof. B, B, are tapes or cords, about two feet long, in the middle of which a feAV corks are strung, co- vered with canvas, and painted as above. D, is a pin of hard Avood, three inches long, and half an inch in - diameter, fastened to the front of the girdle by a tape or cord about two inches long. E. the same. When the spencer is to be usei slide it from the feet close up uqp der the arms; bring the tapes or cords B, B, one over each shoulder, and fasten them by the loops to the pin D; bring the tape or cord C, between the legs, and fasten it to the pin E. A pei*son thus equipped, though unacquainted AvithsAvimming, may safely trust himself to the waves ; for he Avill float head and shoulders above water in any storm, and by paddling with his hands, may easily gain the shore, or keep afloat until taken-.up by boats.] SPE SPE 19 MARINE SPENCER. Sperage : See Asparagus. SPERM ACET I, a flaky, white- ish, somewhat unctuous substance, and nearly destitute of smell; be- ing obtained from the head of the Physeter macro-cephalus, L. a spe- cies of whale. As the manner of preparing this expensive article is studiously con- cealed, we shall only observe, that good spermaceti is perfectly white, glossy, and semi-transparent; ra- ther soft and oily to the touch, though friable and dry ; its taste resembles that of fresh butter, and its smell is faint, like that of tal- low. It is said to be often adul- terated with wax; but such fraud may be speedily detected by the peculiar smell of the latter sub- stance, and by the dullness of the colour. A preparation of the oil obtained from the tail of the whale, is likflyise vended for genuine sper- 20 SPE SPI maceti; but, as it assumes a yel- low shade on exposure to the air, such imposition may be easily dis- covered. It will, however, be ne- cessary, in all cases, to preserve spermaceti in vessels, closely se- cluded from the atmosphere: as this drug is apt to become rancid, and to acquire a disagreeable co- lour ; thought it may be restored to its original purity, by steeping it in a ley, composed of quick-lime and alkaline salts. The quantity imported, being not only inadequate to the demand, but also grossly adulterated, Mr. Smith Gibbes (now Dr. Gibbes of Bath) proposed, in the 2nd Part of the Philosophical Trans- actions of the Royal Society, for 1794, to convert animal muscles into a fatty substance, resembling spermaceti : His chemical process consists in enclosing the carcass of a horse, cow, &c. in a box perfo- rated with holes and immersing it in a cbar stream or river, for the space of a month, or longer; when it will be converted into a mass of unctuous matter. A certain por- tion of nitrous acid (aqua-fortis) is next poured on this cheesy sub- stance, in order to discharge the offensive smell, and separate the fat in a pure, though somewhat yellow- ish state. Such colour may, how- ever, be removed, and the whole tolerably bleached, by submitting it to the action of the oxygenated muriatic acid. Dr. Gibbes far- ther observes, that this remarkable conversion may be effected in the course of three days, by pouring nitrous acid on a piece of lean meaU Nay, the illustrious Lord Bacon mentions the following curious circumstance in his work, entitled " S.lva S rvarum;" namely, that the flesh of animals may be chaaged into a fatty substance, by cutting it in pieces, which are to be put in a glass covered with parchment, and thus allowed to stand six or seA'en hours in boiling water. " It may be an experiment of profit (says Bacon) for making grease or fat, for many purposes; but then it must be made of such flesh as is not edible, as horses, dogs, bears, foxes, badgers, &c." It appears, likewise, from Dr. Gibbes's Me- moir, that the putrefactive process is not necessary for effecting this change ; as it would waste a con- siderable portion of flesh, that might serve to form a larger mass of Avaxy substance. Great quantities of spermaceti are annually consumed in the ma- nufacture of candles and tapers, Avhich are preferable to those made of wax ; as the former burn not only brighter, and are of a finer colour, but when genuine, do not stain, or grease the finest silks, linens, or cottons....This drug is also used as a cosmetic, for soften- ing and cleansing the skin. In medicine, it is chiefly recommend- ed in the form of an emulsion, with distilled waters and the yolk of eggs, for relieving various affec- tions of the intestines ; coughs arising from defluxions of acrid humours, Sec....Spermaceti is also dissolved in oils, and beneficially applied to bruises, sprains, and si- milar injuries ; as it contributes to mitigate pain. SPICE, a general denomination of aromatic drugs, possessing hot and pungent properties. Such aro All-spice, Nutmeg, Peppeh, the seeds of the Caraway and Cardamom, Ginger,M ace, Salt, £;c. of which we have given an account, in the progress of this work. Hence, it will be useful SPI SPI 21 here, to subjoin a few remarks on the general properties of spice, and conclude with enumerating several substitutes for the imported drugs, that deserve to be more generally cultivated. The chief culinary use of spices, is that of serving as an ingredient in sauces, or for seasoning different articles of food, either with a view to render them more palatable, or to obviate some hurtful effects, such as flatulency, acidity, Sec..... Nevertheless,condiments are most- ly of a hot and stimulant nature, tending to irritate the«nerves, and ultimately to relax the stomach : hence they ought to be employed with moderation, and only with provisions that cannot be easily digested Avithout them ; for the daily use of pungent drugs at the table, necessarily excites thirst; and many persons thus contract the ruinous habit of committing excess in fermented, vinous, or spirituous liquors. Among the various plants,Avhich merit the attention of gardeners, with a view to serve as substitutes for Indian spice, we shall mention the following : I. Monarda, or Indian Hore- HOUND (Monarda Zeylonica, L.) a native of Ceylon, but which thrives in the open air of our cli- mate. There are two species of this plant....thefstulosa, and didy- ma: the leaves and blossoms of both possess a very delicate fra- grance ; so that they may be used for making tea, and for imparting a fine flavour to made Avines, or brandy. But the most useful part of this vegetable, is its aromatic s.eeds, which M.Zizman, a German clergyman, has lately cultivated to a great extent, and found them equally serviceable in domestic economy, as the most costly spices obtained from the Indies. Beside the utility of the Monar- da, or Oswego-tea, as a substitute for spice, its leaves may be advan- tageously used instead of those of the Tea-tree : the flowers also, when infused in brandy, impart to it an agreeable flavour, resembling that of peaches. II. Basil (Ocymum), a native of Avarm climates, consisting of eight species: these are propagated by seeds, and Avill also thrive in the open air of this country : if placed in a green-house, even their seeds attain to maturity. The following three species are the principal: 1. The common Basil (O. vulgare); 2. The Citron-flavoured Basil (O. citri odoreJ; and, 3. The Pink- scented Basil (O. caryophyllatum maximum). The leaves of all these plants should be employed in a dried state ; as they are too pe- netrating while fresh: those of the last kind, in particular, may serve as excellent substitutes for nutmeg and mace, in tarts, pies, mulled Avine, and other preparations. III. Garden-Thyme (Thymus vulgaris) is a spicy herb, the fra- grant blossoms of which should be collected, dried, and used like those of the preceding. IV. Savory : Avhich see. V. Marjoram : See p. 42. VI. Cicely: See vol. ii. p. 132. VII. Sage, the Balsamine : See p. 9. of this volume. VIII. Tarragon: Avhich see. IX. Spignei. : See next page. Beside these, wre shall remind the reader of a feAV other spicv plants commonly met Avith, in British gardens ; for instance, fen- nel, coriander, mustard, carawav, rue, mint, penny-royal, balm, mug- wort, C.c.....When compared with 22 SPI SPI some of the foreign drugs, they excel many of the latter, both in flavour and virtues, so as to render their importation superfluous: nay, the untutored Indians may justly smile at the folly of Europeans who, instead of encouraging the culture of native plants, or such as readily grow in their climates, send the money earned by the in- dustry and hard labour of their husbandmen, over the tempestuous ocean.....frequently at the loss of many valuable lives. SPIDER, or Aranca, L. a genus of insects comprehending 50 spe- cies, of which the following are the principal, namely : 1. The Common House-Spider, is generally of a black-colour ; has eight legs, each of which is fur- nished with three joints, and ter- minates in three crooked claws. This insect has eight eyes ; and, in the fore-part of the head, there is a pair of pincers, or claws, with which it kills flies, Gcc. for food. It is also provided with five warts or prominences, at the extremity oi' the abdomen, through which its viscous filaments are evolved. Spiders abound in almost every house, spinning their Avebs in cor- ners of the cciiing, Avhere they are r..A disturbed. The females are very prolific, laying from 4, to 500 extremely minute eggs ; and, tho' both sexes mutually devour each other with great ferocity, except in the breeding season, their cum- L-rs are not perceptibly diminished. These insects are remarkable for their 'industry : their appearance, however, excites a degree of dis- gust in many Aveak-minded per- sons, Avho are apt to persecute and destroy them, without mercy. But, independently of their ut;iity in reducing the number cf flies that appear during the summer, they afford a very accurate natural ba- rometer ; because the celerity, or indolence, with which they work, indicate the approaching variations of the atmosphere, Thus, if the Aveather be about to change, and become Avet, or windy, the saga- cious creatures make the terminat- ing filaments that support their Aveb, uncommonly short. But, if such threads be extended to an un- usual length, the weather will re- main serene for 10 or 12 days, or for a longer period, according to the proportionate extension of the former. On the contrary, when the spiders are totally inactive, rain will shortly folloAv ; but, if they continue to spin during a shower, it is a certain indication, that the rain will speedily cease, and be succeeded by calm, fair weather. 2. The Calycina, or Garden Spi- der, varies from the preceding spe- cies only in its having around,pale- yelloAV belly, and two hollow points. It inhabits the calyces, or cups of flowers, after the floral leaves are decayed; Avhere it preys upon bees, and other flies, that resort thither for honey.....This insect yields a kind of silk, Avhich is by some deemed little inferior to that pro- duced by the worm ; but, as the filaments of the former are, in the opinion of Reaumur, not equal to those of the latter,either in strength cr lusture,they are never employed in manufactures. SPIDER, the Red, or Scarlet Tree-mite, Acarus baccarum, L. a small insect having a roundish body, and a smooth, glossy skin. The colour is a deep-red, and the whole animal appears to be dis- tended, and ready to burst. It frequents currant and other fruit- trees ; but it \z particularly destruc- SPI SPI 21 tive in hot-houses. Hence gar- deners have resorted to different methods of extirpating them, and especially that of sprinkling them with a strong ley of wood-ashes; but, as the saline particles of this liquor are very hurtful to tender plants, it will be more advisable to remove such vermine, by means of a common painter's brush ;...their depredations may likeAvise be pre- vented, by keeping the hot-house perfectly clean. Independent of the method of exterminating these vermin, al- ready suggested, the following is recommended by Mr. Forsyth. It merely consists in irrigating the infested plants with lime-water, in the afternoon, particularly on the loAver side of the leaves. In hot- houses, however, he advises a bar- row-engine to be filled with soft water, and all the plants to be sprinkled, by directing the stream against the top-lights, and shelves, till the water be an inch deep in the paths. But, where the building will not admit of the entrance of a barrow-engine, the front or top- lights must be slidden down, and the water poured in from above. When this affusion is commenced, if in the inside, every light ought to be shut; but if the fluid be in- troduced from Avithout, one light only should be opened at a time ; and which must be shut, as soon as the part opposite to it is suffi- ciently watered. The other lights are then to be successively remov- ed ; and, when the irrigation is com- pleted, the hcuse should be care- fully closed till the next morning. In consequence of this operation, vapours will arise in every part of the building ; cover all the plants; and effectually destroy the red spi- der, together with all other vermin. Mr. F. farther observes, that the Avatering must be repeated every day, during hot weather ; and that it will, in general, shorten the la- bour, which Avould otherwise be required in irrigating plants. Such vegetables, however, as require copious humidity, ought to be Ava- tered previously to sprinkling the house : thus, the plants will imbibe all the moisture, and the paths Avill become perfectly dry, during the night. See also Insects, Pine- Apple. [The bites of spiders are some- times very painful. A remedy for the complaint was described under the article Plantain.] SP1DERWORT, the Marsh, March-tofieldia, or Scotch Asphodel, Anthericum calycula- tum, L. (Tofieldia palustris of Drs. Smith and Withering), a natiA'e perennial, Avhich grows in bogs, on mountains in Scotland, and flowers from July to September......This plant, though useless in domestic economy, deserves some notice ; because it may serve as a guide to dig for peat, in situations destitute of sea-coal. SPIGNEL, or Spicknel, jEthu- sa Meum, L. a native perennial, growing in mountainous pastures, principally in the northern coun- ties, where it flowers in the month of May.-...The roots and seeds of this vegetable have a pleasant aro- matic smell, and a hot, bitterish taste. They have occasionally been used as carminatives -, and also been administered in tertian agues. At present, they are sel- dom employed, either in domestic economy, or in medicine ; though Dr. Withering observes, that they Avill often answer as substi- tutes for pepper, or other pungent aromatics. 24 SPI SPIKE-OIL, the name of an es- sential oil distilled from the La- vender-spike, considerable quan- tities of Avhich, are used by var- nish makers, painters in enamel, Sec...See also Lavender. SPINACH, or Spinage, the Common, Spinacia oleracea, L. an exotic plant, cultivated in Britain, for culinary purposes. If intended for winter-use, it is propagated by the seed, in beds of light, rich earth, towards the end of July, and during moist Aveather. When the young plants appear, they must be carefully weeded, and thinned to the distance of five inches: in October, they will be fit for use ; when the longer leaves only should be gathered to ; those in the centre being suffered to grow to a larger size ; so that a bed, thus managed, will afford a supply of this vege- table during the winter, till the spinach sown for spring-use, is fit for the table; Avhich generally suc- ceeds in April. Bechstein remarks, that the agriculturists of Germany strongly recommend . the culture of the common spinach, on land which has been once ploughed after a crop of barley ; where it will pro- duce early and excellent spring- food, either for sheep, hogs, or cattle : it may, farther, be mown two or three times during the sum- mer, and afterwards be fed off by sheep, or suffered to run to seed. This A'egetable is greatly esteem- ed at the table ; but, when dressed Avith melted butter, it passes speedily through the boAvels, Avith- out being duly digested ; and con- sequently affords little nutriment. It is particularly improper for per- sons of Aveak and relaxed habits; as it debilitates the alimentary canal; excites looseness ; and not unfre- SPI quently occasions the heart-burn", or acidity in the stomach. Spinage, the Wild. See peren- nial Goose-foot. SPINDLE-TREE,the Common, Prick-timber, Gatteridge- TREE,orLousE-BERRY,.£"yo?n/7nw« Europaus, L. an indigenous shrub, which, in favourable situations, at- tains the height of 20 feet: it grows in woods and hedges, and is very common in Devonshire ; Avhere it flowers in the months of May and June. The berries of this elegant shrub operate violently, both as an emetic and cartharlic :...if eaten by sheep, they infallibly destroy them. Re- duced to powder, and sprinkled on the skin of men or animals, these berries are said to exterminate ver- min of every description.....When the Spindle-tree is in blossom, its wood is remarkably tough, and broken vrith difficulty ; in such state, it is employed by watch-ma- kers, for cleaning time-pieces; by musical instrument makers, tur- ners, and for A'eneering.... We learn, however, from Bohmer, that some artisans, working in this wood, have asserted, that they became subject to nausea and vomiting.......The shoots of the Spindle-tree, in the spring, are so grateful to cows, that they generally damage the banks of fences, in order to obtain their favourite food....Sheep and goats also eat the leaves ; but they are disliked by horses. In dyeing, the bark of this shrub imparted, according to Siefert, a pleasing sea-green colour to wool- len cloth, by adding to the decoc- tion of such rind, one-sixth part of a solution of verdigrease, saturated with crystals of tartar. The tint Avas so permanent, that no change took place in its shade, after having SPI SPI 25 been exposed for a fortnight to the rays of the sun...The seed capsules of the Gatteridge-tree, when fer- mented in alum-Avater, produce a durable pale-yellow dye. [Three species of Evonymus, are natives of Pennsylvania, and being highly ornamental, deserve a place in the garden or grounds of every country residence. These species are E. Caroliniensis; E. latifolius, and E. sempervirens, all of which grow naturally in moist shady places.] Spine, Luxations of. See Dis- tortion, and Ribs. SPINNING, is the art of twist- ing flax, hemp, silk, cotton, wool, or similar matters, so as to reduce them into yarn or thread. Spinning is generally performed, either by means of a wheel, or sometimes Avith a distaff and spin- dle : but, as the Avheels commonly employed for this purpose, are aukward and inconvenient, Mr. Antis, of Fulneck, near Leeds, in 17J3, submitted to the inspection of the Society for the Encourage- ment of Arts, &c. a model of an im- proved spinning-wheel; for which they conferred on him a bounty of 20 guineas. The usual method of stopping the wheel, Avith a view to remove the yarn from one staple on the flyer to another, necessarily occa- sions great loss of time ; but, in Mr. A.'s contrivance, the bobbin is so arranged, as to pass backward and forward, in order to prevent any interruption ; and at the same time to obviate both the breaking of the thread, and losing the end : hence, the spinner is enabled to perform more work, in a given time, than is practicable by any other spinning-wheel. Such object vol. v. is effected, by extending the axis of the great wheel through the pil- lar next the person spinning ; and forming it into a pinion of one leaf, which catches into a wheel, seven inches in diameter, having on its periphery 97 teeth; so that 97 re- volutions of the great wheel require only one of the smaller wheel. On the latter, a wire-ring is fixed ; which, being supported on six legs, stands obliquely to the wheel itself; touching it at one part, and pro- jecting nearly three quarters of an inch at the opposite edge. Xear the side of this wheel, is an up- right lever, about 15 inches in length, moving on a centre, three inches from its lower extremity, and connected at the top Avith a sliding bar. From such bar rises an upright piece of brass, Avhich works in the notch of a pully, and drives the bobbin to and fro, during the revolution of the wheel. In order to regulate and assist the alternate motion, a weight, is suspended by a line from the slid- ing-bar ; and, passing over a pul- ley, it rises or falls, as the bobbin advances or recedes ; tending con- stantly to keep the pin in contact with the wire. In consequence of this construction, the flyer requires only one staple; which, being fixed near its extremity, the thread en- tering through, is regularly laid on the bobbin, by the rotary motion of the latter. Since Mr. Antis presented the model of the machine here describ- ed, he has made several alterations, which greatly contribute to its per- fection ; and for which the Society, in 1795, reAvarded him with the additional sum of 15 guineas. As we conceive, that an account of these improvements Avill be ir;'c- E 26 SPI resting to every industrious house- wife, Ave shall concisely state them, together Avith Mr. A.'s remarks. 1. At every revolution of the wheel, in his former machine, the pinion with one leaf occasioned a very disagreeable catch, while the bobbin moved only by jerks, and did not receive the thread in an uniform manner. With a vieAV to remedy this inconvenience, Mr. Antis has adopted the motion of an endless screw, working a toothed wheel, on which is fixed a heart- shaped piece of brass. 2. As the spinner should al- ways be enabled to hold the thread at pleasure, and not let it in, till it be sufficiently twisted, Mr. A. ob- served that, the bobbin moving on a square, its motion was so impeded, that when it began to be filled with thread, it became im- moveable, notwithstanding the ac- tion of the weight; and, when the thread was aftenvards left at li- berty, it started at once half an inch and upwards. 3. As, in the wheels of the com- mon construction, and also in those of Mr. Antis's first improvement, the friction of the bobbin could be augmented only by stretching the common cord, which Avas not practicable, without making the wheel revolve Avith increasing dif- ficulty, particularly when the bob- bin was nearly filled ; he was in- duced to make use of a single cord, the sole design of which is to turn the flyer; and, in case it should become slack, it may bs contracted or shortened, without requiring any screw. Farther, to regulate the friction of the bobbin, Mr. A. has fastened a neck of steel or brass to one end, which is kept steady by a vice, or fey pincers, fixed to the sliding-bar. SPI Such vice is directed to be made either of two elastic springs, fur- nished with Avooden tops ; or whol- ly of Avood bushed with leather, and provided with a spring, un- der the shoulder of the screw, to answer the same purpose. By tightening this screw to a greater or less degree, the friction may be most accurately regulated,with- out impeding the velocity of the whole ; as no additional machine- ry obstructs the general motion. Mr. Antis, therefore, concludes that a Avheel, on this improved plan, will be found to run more freely than those with a double cord ; a circumstance of the great- est importance, to a person whose daily livelihood is obtained by spinning : nay, even a lady who sometimes spins for her diversion, was much pleased with his first invention, and thought it might save a person at least two hours in a day. He observes, that his contrivance may be added to old spinning wheels of every construc- tion ; and that it would not consi- derably increase the price of a new machine, made according to his plan. SPIRITS, a general name given to ardent liquors, obtained by dis- tillation. Surprizing as it may appear to many of our readers, who are un- acquainted With vegetable nature* we may positively affirm, that a sufficient quantity of wild neglect- ed fruit annually grows in this country, to produce an adequate supply of spirituous liquor, Avith- out using any bread-corn, for such Avasteful purpose. Of this de- scription, in particular, are the berries of the Dog-rose, Quick- en-tree, and numerous other native shrubs, that have been men- SPL tioned in the progress of the pre- sent Avork ; and a recapitulation of which, will appear at the con- clusion, in the General Index of Reference* SPIRIT OF WINE, an ardent, colourless liquor, destitute of any peculiar flavours it may be ob- tained by distilling the farinaceous or saccharine roots, as well as the pulpy fruit of vegetables, in gene- ral, by means of a common still, but more effectually in what is termed a water - bath (balneum maris) ,• after which, the spiritu- ous fluid is purified by repeated rectification ; and, when divested of nearly all its aqueous particles, it is called Alkohol. This expensive liquor is chiefly employed for dissolving gum-re- ■sins in the preparation of varnish- es : for separating resins from the vegetable matters containing them ; and also for making essences, tinc- tures, elixirs, and various other compounds, for medicinal use. It may likewise, be applied with ad- vantage to different parts of the body, especially in sprains and bruises ; as it strengthens the ves- sels ; but, if inadvertently swal- lowed in a pure state, and in a large quantity, it corrugates the membranous parts of the stomach; being attended with a temporary suspension of their functions, and sometimes even inducing apoplexy or palsy, which generally ends in death. Hence, spirit of wine ought to be preserved Avith the greatest caution, so that children or igno- rant persons may not have an op- portunity of tasting so deleterious a liquor. SPLEEN, is a spongy viscir, situated in the left side near the JoAver part of the stomach, under SPL 21 the ribs. This organ is supposed to be designed by Nature to pre- pare the blood for the secretion of bile in the liver. Its purpose, though inacurately known, must be important? to the animal eco- nomy ; as indigestion, and a varie- ty of other complaints, have re- sulted from splenetic affections..... It deserves to be remarked, that the term Spleen is frequently used to denote a disorder, which is more strictly, by physicians, called hy- pochondriasis. The principal diseases of the spleen are inflammations, obstruc- tions, aud indurations. In the first case, the causes and symp- toms are similar to those describ- ed under inflammatory fever : at the same time, a tumor and pain are felt in the left side ; the latter increasing on pressure....Chronic inflammation of the spleen, how- ever, may also be consequent on diseases of the liver, such as the jaundice, piles, Sec. The treat- ment will, therefore, chiefly con- sist in the application of the same remedies as are mentioned in the page above quoted ; but, where the patient is of a plethoric habit, or was previously subject to the piles, leeches applied to the anus have proved of great service..... Calomel and antimony, taken in- ternally, under judicious manage- ment, have likewise been attended with good effects. If the spleen be obstructed or indurated, a pain and tumor avi!! also be felt on the left side, bear- ing doAvnward like a Aveight; the patient finding it difficult to lie down on that side: the boAvels are generally costive: and respi- ration is impeded....The cure of* this affection requires the same 28 SPL method as is recommended for obstructions and scirrhosity of the liver....See Scirrhus. SPLEEN-WORT, or Hart's Tongue, Asplenium scolopendri- um, L. a native perennial, groAving in the fissures of moist shady rocks, old walls, and at the mouths of Avelis : where it flowers in the months of August and September. .....The medicinal powers of this vegetable are highly praised for curing the bites of venomous ser- pents ; in hypochondriasis; pal- pitation of the heart, &c. ; of which, however, we have had no experience. SPLENTS, in farriery, denote hard excrescences of various shape and size, appearing on the shank- bone of a horse....Unless they arise from blows, or other accidents, few horses put out splents, after they are seven or eight years old ; and, ■when occuring in young horses, they frequently Avearoff, and spon- taneously vanish. Splents, on their first appear- ance, should be well bathed with vinegar, or old verjuice ; which often checks their farther pro- gress : in some animals, purga- tives and diet-drinks will contri- bute to remove Avatery swellings about the limbs, which frequently induce such malady. According to Mr. Taplin, a radical cure may, in general, be effected by rubbing the excre- scences, for a considerable time, twice every day, with the utmost force of the operator's hand ; Avell moistening the part after each fric- tion, with a little of the folloAving liniment :....Take of camphorat- ed spirit of wine, and spirit of tur- pentine, each 4 oz.; to be uni- formly incorporated. Or, oil of SPO origanum, and spirit of turpentine, each half an ounce : and campho- rated spirit of wine 2 oz. to be du- ly mixed....A pledget of tow, wet- ted Avith either of these prepara- tions, ought to be fastened round the splent, with a proper ban- dage. Should those powerful discu- tients fail of success, recourse must be had to the strongest mer- curial ointment: a portion of the size of a hazel-nut, ought to be chafed into the part affected, every night and morning, till two oz. of it have been used ; applying the roller or bondage, as before di- rected. But, if these various remedies be insufficient to procure reliefy the best and most speedy method, will be that of extirpating the ex- crescence by the knife....This ope- ration may be performed by a longitudinal incision through the integuments (Avithout bruising, hammering, ike.), then dissecting, and extracting the substance : thus, the cure may be completed by taking up a cquple of stitches, and treating the part like a super- ficial wound. SPONGE, or Spongia, L. a genus of animal plants, compre- hending 50 species, the principal of Avhich is the officinalis, or Com- mon Sponge. It is imported from the Levant; being a soft, porous, light, substance, Avhich easily im- bibes Avater. Sponge is of extensive utility in domestic economy, medicine, and surgery. If it be cut in small pieces, fried or dipped in honey, and given to vermin, it distends their intestines, and effectually de- stroys them [see Rats]. As it strongly adheres to the orifices of SPO SPR 29 wounded vessels, it is advantage- ously employed as a styptic ; often. preventing the effusion of blood more effectually than the puff-ball or agaric...When burnt and pul- verized, it has been successfully administered internally, in scro- phulous complaints, and cutaneous diseases, in doses of one scruple and upwards : it is also consider- ed as a specif c, on account of its efficacy in removing the glandu- lar swelling of the neck, known under the name of bronchocele..... See Wen. Spoon-wort. See Scurvy- grass, the English. SPOTS, are marks or stains ac- cidentally occurring on linen, avooI- len, cotton, silk, or other stuff's.... Under the head of Cloth, Ave have already communicated seve- ral methods of discharging spots from woollen-cloth : hence Ave shall, in this place, add another remedy which may be easily prepared; though Ave have had no experience of its effects :......Dissolve two ounces of pure pearl-ash in a quart of spring water, and add to this solution a lemon cut in small slices. Let the whole be proper- ly mixed, and kept in a warm place for 24 hours ; Avhen the li- quor should be strained, and the clear fluid decanted for use. It is asserted, that this compound, when poured on the stained part, instantaneously removes all spots, whether they arise from grease, pitch, or oil ; and, as soon as they disappear, the cloth must be Avash- ed in pure water....See also Balls (Portable.) Ink-spots on woollen-cloth may be discharged by rubbing them Avith a composition, made of the white of anew-laid egg, and a few drops of oil of vitriol, properly in- corporated ; aftenvards Avashing the stain with pure water, and lastly, smoothening it with a piece of white cloth, or flannel, in the direction, of the nap :....to remoA'e ink from silk stuffs, it will be ad- visable to apply strong distilled vinegai', and Avormweod-ashes, to the blotted part, Avhich ought to be well rubbed with these matters,and then cleansed with soap-water. Red-port on linen, we under- stand, may be almost effectually cleared, by pouring warm milk on the stained parts, while they are in a wet state :.....another, and per- haps more successful, method, is that of dropping the talloAV from a candle on such Avine-marks before they are dry ; and suffering them to remain till the cloth is sent to the laundry; because ink-spots may, in this simple manner, be removed from linen. [To take ink-spots outoflin.v.... Moisten the place with undiluted marine acid, (spirit of yalt;) in about 2 or 3 minutes, wash the linen Avell in cold Avater....This is dangerous, if continued too long, but it may be managed with care ; if the acid be diluted with water, it is apt to burn. Another....'Rub the spot with a piece of lemon, or squeeze lemon juice upon it, and then wash it in warm water. Mr. Henry, in his Epitome of Chemistry, prefers the oxalic acid, (acid of sorrel) citric, (of lemon) and tartareous acid, which may be applied to the most delicate fabrics without injury : and the same so- lutions discharge, from paper, written but not printed ink.] SPRAIN, denotes an extension of the muscles, ligaments, and ten- dons, Avithout dislocation : it gene- rally proceeds from external inju- 30 S P R SPR ry; and is attended with pain, SAvelHng, and inflammation. In treating this local affection, the first object should be, to check the swelling, and prevent the inflam- matory symptoms. For this pur- pose, cold, astringent fomentations with Avater, !oe, vinegar, &c. or, in a very recent case, camphorated spirit of wine, must be applied as speedily as possible: to relieve pain, where it is considerable, a few drops of laudanum may be added to the lotion....The regimen recommended under the article inflammation, will here like- wise be proper....During, and for some time after, this treatment, the sprained part should be kept in a state of rest and relaxation. SPRING, a fountain, or source, whence Avater spontaneously rises from the bowels of the earth. Various conjectures have been formed by naturalists, concerning the origin of springs; but, con- sistently Avith our limits, we shall only observe, that the most plau- sible theory appears to be that of Dr. Halley, who svipposes them to originate from the rain and snow waters; which,penetrating through the soil, at length settle in the fis- sures of the earth, and form foun- tains or springs. As Avater is indispensable to the health and convenience of man- kind, many expedients have been devised, with a view to ascertain the particular spots, whence a supply might be obtained: we shall, therefore, state a few indi- cations, or land-marks, by which that necessary article may be dis- covered. 1. As all mountains are colder in proportion to their height, the evening mist descends on them, particularly in damp situations, much sooner than on the vallies, and thus may indicate the exist- ence of springs. 2. Another observation is sug- gested by Dr. Darwin, in order to determine the existence of sub- terraneous springs, in rimy morn- ings :.. ..moist earth conducting heat better than dry soil, the rime will be dissolved more speedily on those spots which are moistened by springs under ground, than on the adjacent parts. Lastly, the rise of these natural fountains may be discovered dur- ing the winter, in wet ditches, by the gnnving of brook-lime, Avateiv cresses, or similar aquatic plants : for such vegetables do not thrive in the ditches that become dry in the summer. And Dr. Daravin remarks, that when those ditches Avhich contain springs, are nearly dry, the direction of the current may be ascertained by the point, to Avhich the leaves of the aquatic plants may turn, with as great a degree of certainty as can be ef- fected by a level. SPRING-GRASS, the Sweet- scented, or Vernal-grass, An- thoxanthum odoratum, L. an indi- genous perennial, growing in mea- dows and pastures ; flowering in the months of May and June..... This is one of the earliest British pasture-grasses, and occasions the delicate flavour perceptible in new- ly-made hay. It is eagerly eaten by cows, horses, goats, and sheep ; on account of its aromatic taste, and juicy, nutritive nature.....Mr. Swayne, however, observes, that it abounds in wet lands, particu- larly on peat-bogs ; and that it ap- pears to be of little consequence ; as it- is neither very productive to the farmer, nor palatable to cattle, .«Neverthelcss,othcr agriculturists SPR are of a different opinion; and Mr. Sole (Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, vol. ix.) conceives that the vernal- grass would be an useful addition to meadows, by sowing it in the proportion of one-eighth. This ju- dicious advice, every practical hus- bandman will be induced to adopt; as it is a well-known fact, that this fragrant herb not only remarkably spreads, and increases in its bushy stalks, when cultivated in favoura- ble situations, but it also effectu- ally checks the growth of moss, in your meadows......It is farther re- markable, that the root of this moss possesses a strong odour, re- sembling that of musk....The dried blossoms are, on the Continent, employed for imparting an agree- able flavour to snuff and tobacco. [See Grass.] SPRUCE-BEER, a kind of diet- drink, which is prepared in the fol- lowing manner : Eight gallons of water are first poured into a cask, or other vessel; and a similar quantity of boiling water is added ; 16 pounds of molasses are next mixed, together with a few table- spoonfuls of the essence of spruce (vrhich is obtained from the cones of the spruce-fur.) Half a pint of sweet yeast must now be put in ; and the Avhole, after being Avell stirred, should be placed in a tem- perate room, for a few days, till the fermentation ceases. The li- quor may then be bottled ; and, in the course of a fortnight, it will be fit for use. [Another.....To a four ounce pot of essence of spruce, add three quarts of molasses, two gallons of warm rain or soft- water, and half a pint of good yeast. Stir the Avhole atcII, till SPU 31 the liquor bears a froth, then put the mixture into a cask, and fill it Avith eight gallons of water, shaking it well; set it by for two or three days, to ferment, with the bung open ; when sufficient- ly worked, bung the cask close, and place it in a cool cellar, and in 24 hours it will be fit for use.... If intended for bottling, let the cask stand undisturbed three days before it is drawn off: for a second brewing, the sediment remaining in the cask, may be used instead of yeast. If well-water be used, it should be a little warmed. The above receipt, the Editor can recommend from experience- But he must beg, that attention be paid to every part of the process ; that the cask be clean, the corks sound, and the bottles strong..... The purity of the essence of spruce also, must be attended to, as that article is often greatly adulter- ated.] Spruce-beer has a peculiar fla- vour, which renders it disagreea- ble to the palate of many persons ; it is, however, a most powerful antiscorbutic, and affords a whole- some beverage, particularly during the summer ; as it does not affect the weakest stomach. Spruce-fir. See Fir. Spunge. See Sponge. Spur, a disease to Avhich corn is subject....See Corn and Rye. SPURGE, or Euphorbia, L. a genus of plants, comprehending 110 species; 12 being natives of Britain ; the principal of which are the following: I. The characias, or Red Spurge, groAVS in Avoods and hedges, where it flowers in the month of June. The pulverized leaves of this plant, if taken in doses of from 32 SPU 15 to 25 grains, operate as a brisk purgative :....its juice, like that of all the other species of the spurge, is so extremly acrid, that it ulce- rates every part of the body, Avith Avhich it comes in contact. Hence, it is never used internally :....but, a single drop put into the cavity of an aching tooth, is said to have removed the pain, and at the same time destroyed the nerve. This corrosive liquid, however, may, ac- cording to Dr. Withering, be applied with safety to warts and corns ; as it eradicates them in a very short time. 2. The helioscopia, or Sun- spurge. See Wartwort. 3. The Cyparissias, or Cyprus Spurge, grows in dry woods (at Enville, in Staffordshire), where its yellow flowers bloAV in May and June....Goats are exceedingly par- tial to this herb ; and its seeds afford grateful food to pigeons.... The beautiful caterpillar, which is changed into the Spurge-butterfly, derives its nourishment from the leaves of this species.....[See Eu- PHORBIUM.] SPURGE-ELAX. SeeMEZEREON. SPURGE-LAUREL, or Lau- rel Mezereon, Daphine Laure- ola, L. an indigenous shrub, found in woods and hedges, principally in the county of York, Avhere it flowers in March and April. The whole of this A'egetable, especially the bark of the root, is very acrid : it has been employed with success in rheumaticfevers,operating pow- erfully as a purgative. It is like- wise an excellent vermifuge ; but, as it possesses great acrimony, it ought never to be administered without medical advice, and in small doses, which should not ex- ceed ten grain:;. On account of its elegant green and yellow flowers. which appear in the early spring, and sometimes in the winter, this evergreen is cultivated in shrub- berries ; but it deserves to be re- marked that its black berries, though eagerly eaten by phea- sants, prove mortal food to man, and all the mammillary animals. Spurge-Olive. See Meze- reon. SPURREY, or Spergula, L. a genus of plants comprising 5 spe- cies ; three being natives of Bri- tain. The principal of these is the arvensis, or Corn Spurrey, which grows in corn-fields, and sandy situations; floAvers from July to September. This vegetable is eat- en by horses, sheep, goats, and hogs ; but is, according to With- ering, refused by cows. Bech- stein, Funke, and other natural- ists, however, informs us that the corn-spurrey is not only devoured with avidity by all cattle, but is also conducive to their health, while it remarkably tends to increase the milk of cows, and to fatten sheep. Hence this weed is industriously cultivated in Flanders; because it is so far superior to other pasture- grasses, that it continues green till a late period of autumn, and often throughout the Avinter. Its seeds are eagerly svvallowed by poultry, and afford on expression a good lamp-oil: nay, the flour obtained from them, when mixed with that of wheat or rye, produces Avhole- some bread, for Avhich purpose, it is often used in Norway and Goth- land. SQUILL, the Common, or Sea- onion, Scilla maritima, L. an ex- otic plant, growing on the sandy shores of the Levant, especially on those of Spain, and Portugal, whence considerable quantities of its roots are annually imported.... SQU SQU 33 The best sea-onions ought to be sound, fresh, and to contain a vis- cous juice : they are nauseous, bit- ter, and, if much handled, are so acrid as to ulcerate the skin. The squill is a powerful stimu- lant, promoting the discharge of urine ; and, if the patient be kept warm, a profuse perspiration. It is chiefly employed, in cases, where the organs of respiration are clog- ged, or oppressed with mucus :.... when combined with nitre in the proportion of from 4 to 10 grains of the dried root, with a double quan- tity of saltpetre, it has been great- ly extolled for its efficacy in drop- sical swellings, and inflammations of the kidnies. If the squill be taken in a large dose, it operates as an emetic ; and, in some persons, as a purgative. It is often pre- scribed in the form of pills; though, when mixed with honey into an oxymel, it affords an useful me- dicine for obstinate coughs.....The roots of the sea-onion pay, on importation, the duty of 2s. 9d. per lb. Squinancy-berries. See Cur- rant, the Black. SQUINTING, or Strabismus, an affection of the eyes, occasioned by the optic axis not converging; in consequence of which, the or- gans of sight appear distorted. Improper habits frequently in- duce this defect, while the eye and its muscles are perfect; for instance, in children, who accustom them- selves to view different things at one time ; or, who are placed ob- liquely toward* any object that may attract their attention. Ano- ther cause is mal-conformation of the retina, or such parts as serve to convey impressions to the point of vision; so that persons thus situ- ated, are obliged to turn the eye vol. v. from the object to be investigated, in order that they may be enabled to behold it more distinctly....Far- ther, it often proceeds from weak- ness, or defect of either eye, so that both cannot be mutually em- ployed. Besides, it may be conse- quent on affections of the brain, epilepsy, terror, and defluxidns of rheumatic humours. The method of cure to be adopted in this unpleasant distortion, varies according to the cause. Thus, in children, and in cases of Aveakness of the eyes, it may be remedied by mechanical contrivances. Hence, when there is no organic defect in either eye, which is frequently the case with persons who squint from a depraved habit of moving their eyes, the disease may often be cured. Dr. Darwin remarks (Philosophical Transactions, vol. 68), that in all the squinting people he had occasion to attend, one eye Avas less perfect than the other: these patients are, in his opinion, certainly curable, by covering the best eye many hours in the day; as, by a more frequent use of the weak eye, it not only acquires a habit of turning to the objects which the patient Avishes to see, but gains at the same time, a more distinct vision : in both these res- pects, the better eye is under some disadvantage, which also facilitates the cure. This ingenious phvsi- cian relates, in the same paper, a remarkable case of a boy, then five years old (now a reputable Eng- lish clergyman at Edinburgh), who has the misfortune of viewing every object with one eye only at a time. Dr. 1). directed a paper gnomon to be made, and affixed to a cap ; and, Avhen this artificial nose was placed over the patient's real nose, so as to project an inch F 34 SQU ST between his eyes, the child, rather than turn his head so far to look at oblique objects, immediately began to exert the eye Avhich was nearest to them. But, having the misfortune to lose his father, soon after this method was begun to be followed, the child Avas neglected for six years, during Avhich time the habit Avas confirmed in such a manner as seemed to leave little room to hope for a cure. Dr. D. however, being again called, at- tempted a second time to remove the. deformity, by a similar con- trivance. A gnomon of thin brass was made, to stand over his nose, with a half-circle of the same metal to go round his temples: these Arere covered with black silk; and, by means of a buckle behind his head, and a cross-piece over the crown of his head, this gnomon was worn without any inconveni- ence, and projected before his.nose about tAvo inches and a half. By the use of this machine, he sooh found it less inconvenient to view all oblique objects, Avith the eye next to them, instead of the eye opposite to them. After this habit was weakened, by a week's use of the gnomon, two bits of Avood, about the size of a goose-quill, were blackened all but a quarter of an inch at their summits ; these were frequently presented to him to loohr at; one being held on one side the extre- mity of his black gnomon, and the other on the opposite. In viewing these, thty Avere gradually brought forward beyond the gnomon, and then one Avas concealed behind the other; by such means, in another week, he could bend both his eyes on the same object for half a mi- nute together; and, by continuing the use of the same machine, he was in a fair way of being cured. Lastly, if squinting arise from any adventitiouscircumstance, such as terror, defluxions of humours, Etc. the removal of those causes will also cure the disorder; but, where it originates from mal-con- formation of the organs of vision, or has been so long neglected as to become confirmed, it is not in the power of art to afford any re- lief. Squitch-grass, the blue. See Creeping Bent-grass. St. Anthony's Fire. See Rose. St. John's-wort. See John's Wort. ST. VITUS's DANCE, a spas- modic disorder, mostly incident to young persons of both sexes, from the age of ten to fifteen : it is dis- tinguished by continual inA'oluntary motions of the hands and feet; so that the patient appears in a man- ner to dance, Avhile he is obliged to drag one leg after the other. Causes;.... Worms ; suppressed eruptions ; checked perspiration, he. but the peculiar affection of the muscles thus contracted, has hitherto eluded the researches of the physiologist. However distressing this com- plaint be to the patient and his friends, it may afford some consola- tion, that it neither proves fatal nor permanent; and that frequently, after every mean has been em- ployed, it spontaneously disap- pears. A favourable change may, in general, be expected about the age of puberty. Cure :....As it is often difficult to ascertain the cause of this malady, it will be proper to administer such medicines as are calculated to carry ST A ST A 35 t>ff worms (see the article Worm); and to allay the spasmodic motions. With the latter intention, antispas- modics and tonics, namely, asafoe- tida, valerian-root, wormwood, musk in conjunction with bark and port wine, Sec. have often been attended with good effects. Far- ther, the remedies directed in the epilepsy, may also, Avith advan- tage, be so modified as to be salu- tary in this complaint. Lastly, we conceive that the tepid bath may always with safety, if not with uniform benefit, be resorted to ; especially in an affection which ob- viously arises from a preternatural irritability of the nerves and mus- cles. On the other hand, the cold sea-bath will probably be of great service, when the skin of a robust patient is not in a dry, contracted state ; and when there appears to be a sufficient degree of re-action in the system, to withstand the sudden shock of the water. STABLE, an edifice erected for the reception and accommodation of horses. The principal object in building stables, is the situation, which ought to be, 1. On a gentle decli- vity, in order that the urine, &c may be carried off; 2. On a pure, airy spot ; not exposed to noxious exhalations ; and, 3. On dry, hard ground. The walls must be mo- derately thick, and furnished with casements on the north and east sides ; both with a view to admit air, and receive the benefit of the rising sun. The windows should, at the same time, be provided with shutters, [or louffers in preference] for excluding the light, in case it be deemed necessary for the ani- mals to sleep during the day. With respect to the paving of utables, it will he advisable to co- ver the part, on which the horses are to lie down, with oak boards, placed transversely upon a level; and which should be perforated Avith holes, for conducting the urine into the common drain. The other part should be paved with small stones ; and the wall contiguous to the rack, ought to be lined with a wainscoat of sound oak. [For some remarks oh the best form of stables, the reader is refer- red to the article Farm Yard.] When a stable is designed for seAreral horses, the stalls should be made sufficiently wide to enable them to lie down, or turn round Avithout inconvenience ; while the partitions ought to be raised so high tOAvards the head, that the animals can neither see, smell, nor molest each other. Lastly, the strictest cleanliness must be ob- served in the management of the stable, both in order to preserve the health of horses, and to prevent the generation of any contagious effluvia. In case, however, in- fectious distempers should prevail, it will be necessary to resort to the following process, in order to destroy the contagion : Let half a pound of oil of vitriol, diluted with an equal quantity of water, be gradually poured into a vessel, containing 4 ounces of pulverized manganese, mixed with a pound of sea-salt. The dish ought to be pla- ced on a heated brick ; and the operator should carefully avoid the fumes arising from the vitriolic acid ; as they will powerfully af- fect the organs of respiration. See also Fumigation. STAGGERS, or Apoplexy, a diorder in the heads of horses, which becomes evident from the drowsiness ; bad appetite ; watery and inflamed eyes ; and the stag- 36 S T A ST A gering or reeling gait of the ani- mals. The head is continually re- clining on the manger; a slight fever prevails ; and the discharge of urine is in a very small pro- portion. If the disease arise from Avounds, or blows on the head, the horse Avill, in addition to these symp- toms, become frantic, particularly after feeding ; and, if it fall down, without being able to rise, there will be little prospect of recovery. Sometimes the staggers proceed from colds, caught by too early turning the animal out to grass, after violent exertions: it will, therefore, be requisite to bleed him freely, and to support the head and shoulders with straw : if he sur- vive the fit, clysters prepared from a strong decoction of senna and salt, or a purging clyster must be administered every morning and evening. It has farther been re- commended, to blow a dram of the powder of Asarabacca, once in the course of the day, into the animal's nostrils, in order to pro- mote a discharge: after which, two or three aloetic purges (see HORSE-MEDICINES, Vol. i'li.) OUght to be given ; and, to prevent a re- lapse, small doses, not exceeding one ounce, and consisting of equal parts of cinnabar, antimony, and guaiacum, formed into balls, should be daily administered, for the space of a month. When the staggers originate from fulness of blood, high feed- ing, or want of exercise, it is the practice of farriers, frequently to take small quantities of blood from the horse, and to give an opening diet, together Avith scalded bran or barley. It appears to us, however, that such bleedings, unless in cases of urgent necessity, might be avoid- ed ; by keeping the animal on hay mixed Avith double its quantity of cut straw, and making him Avork moderately every day. [In the first vol. of" Anderson's Recreations," is a paper on this disease, which it is now known was written by Col. Tatham, at pre- sent in London, and author of se- veral late and ingenious Avorks..... From the facts collected by Mr. T. it is highly probable, that the di- sease proceeds, at least in North Carolina, " from the cobwebs which bespread the ground every where in autumn ; but Avhether the infec- tious particles are taken in through the nose or mouth, or both, seems to be yet unsettled." It appears that it is the cobwebs moist with the deAv, that produce the disease. By experiments, dry cobwebs were found innocent. These facts are highly worthy of investigation. Dr. Anderson observes that the staggers, as af- fecting sheep, is the only disorder of this sort frequent in Britain.] Staggers, in Sheep, is a spe- cies of apoplexy, arising from too great fulness of blood. It princi- pally attacks young lambs, which fall down; and, if not timely re- lieved, they speedily perish. The mode of cure generally adopted by shepherds, is to bleed the creatures frequently in the eye-vein, and to remove them to a coarse pasture, vrith a View to prevent the danger of a relapse. Staining. See Marble ; and Wood. [STAIR CASE. All stone stairs and landings, projecting from the Avails, without any support at one end, are extremely dangerous; their safety, or support, depends on the supposition that every stone is sound, every joint and bearing ST A ST A 37 geometrically exact, and the walls compleatly settled before the stairs are built in. This supposition is generally groundless, or at least uncertain, as eyents shew. Not long ago, says Dr. Garnet, one of these elegant, but unsafe stairs, tumbled down at the NeAV Opera- House, in the Hay-Market, and another at the Tontine, or Ex- change, in Glasgow. And serious apprehensions of a similar acci- dent, were entertained at the house of a nobleman at the west end of the town. Stone stairs Avhen built with good roomy landing-places, and a thin Avail to support the off ends of the steps, as recommend- ed by Dr. Garnet, are certainly the best on account of fire..... Many instances having occurred of the inhabitants of houses being burnt from the stairs taking fire below, by which they Avere de- prived of the means of escaping.] STAR OF BETHLEHEM, or Ornithogalum, L. a genus of plants, comprising 35 species, 7 of Avhich are indigenous: the principal of these is the luteum, or Yellow Star of Bethlehem, groAving in woods, and moist sandy places ; Avhere its beautiful yellow flowers appear in April. All the species of this vegetable are hardy perennials, and prosper in any situation : they may be ea- sily propagated by off-sets from the bulbous roots. These may be pre- served for a long time, either if a raw or roasted state ; and Ruel- lius remarks, that a wholesome and nutritious bread may be pre- pared from a mixture of the roots and seeds of this plant.....It is eaten by horses, goats, and sheep, though not relished by hogs ; and is to- tally refused by cows.....See also Cheese. STAR-GRASS, or Cailitrichr, L. a genus of plants, consisting of four species, two of which are in- digenous, namely : 1. The vcrna, Vernal Star-grass, Water-Star- wort, Water-Fennel, or Star-head- ed Water-Chickweed, grows in ditches, ponds, and slow streams : it flowers from April to August. 2. The autumnalis, or Autumnal Star-grass, abounds in ditches and still waters, where it flowers in August. Both these vegetables groAv so thickly matted together, as to en- able a person to walk over the in, Avithout sinking : hence, they may be advantageously planted, with a view to consolidate swampy, or marshy grounds, so as to prepare them for tillage. STAR-WORT, the Sea, or Aster Tripolium, L. a native peren- nial, growing in salt-marshes, both on the sea-coast, and in those which are more distant from the shore : it flowers in the months of August and September. This vegetable is eaten by goats and horses ; but is not relished by sheep, and totally refused by hogs. From its thriving in inland situations, the Sea-Star- wort has been conjectured to indi- cate the presence of subterraneous salt-springs. STARCH, or Amylum, is a pre- paration from wheat, obtained by steeping the flour of that grain in cold water,then straining it through a cloth, and suffering the farinace- ous particles to subside. In many places, however, it is manufactured in the folloAving manner : Pure wheat is put into tubs of water, and exposed to the heat of the sun, to induce a proper degree of fermentation ; the Avater being changed twice every day, for six or eight days, according to the 38 S T A ST A Avarmth of the season. When pro- perly softened and fermented, it is poured into canvas bags, which are worked or beaten on a board, placed over an empty vessel, in order to extract the mealy part. When such vessel is filled with the liquid flour, a reddish fluid appears on the sur- face, which must be carefully skimmed, and pure water added ; Avhen the whole ought to be briskly agitated, and allowed to subside. As the sediment increases, the wa- ter is gradually drained, and at length the starch is formed into cakes, which are cut in small pieces, and dried for use. Good starch, Avhen dry, is pul- verulent, tasteless, Avithout odour, insoluble both in cold water and ardent spirit: on the addition of boiling Avater, however, it forms Paste, or Pastry, of which the reader will find an account.....It is one of the constituent parts in all mealy or farinaceous seeds, fruits, roots, &c. of plants ; though some vegetables contain a much larger proportion of it than others. Thus, the Wake-Robin, and White Bryo- ny, afford more starch than pota- toes ; and the Salep-roots, espe- cially those of the Meadow-Ou- chis, for the greatest part, consist of that valuable substance. Starch being the basis of hair- powder, and also of extensive uti- lity for domestic purposes, various experiments have been instituted, with a view to ascertain such vege- tables as might be advantageously substituted for wheat.....As the reader will find a recapitulation of those useful plants which have been mentioned throughout this work, in the General Index of Re- ference, we shall, at present, only notice the method adopted by Mrs, Gibbs, for preparing starch from the roots of the Wake-Robin ; for which the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, 8cc. in 1797, presented her with their gold me- dal. She observes, in her com- munication, that such roots are found in the Isle of Portland, in the common fields, whence they may be dug out, cleansed, and pounded in a stone mortar with Avater. The whole is then strain- ed, and the starch settles at the bottom : a peck of these roots pro- duced, upon an average, about four pounds of starch, which was sold at lid. per pound.....See also Wake-robin. [Starch abounds in a great va- riety of vegetables. Mr. Par- mentier has shewn that the roots of 22 vegetables yield starch, and that the seeds of nine plants and trees contain it nearly pure. He omits however, the Arum Tryfitiyl- lum or Indian turnip, which pro- bably does not grow in France..... See Turnip (Indian). Dry mealy Potatoes yield a large proportion of starch, which is preferable, when properly pre- pared, to the starch of wheat flour. The following is the method re- commended by Baume. Rasp clean mashed potatoes, col- lect the pulp in a tub, and mix it with a great quantity of clean water. Place two wooden rails on the brim of another very clean tub tcwupport a sieve, which must not be too fine. Throw the pulp and water into the sieve; pour fresh quantities of Avater on the pulp, till the clear Avater runs through. In six hours the water will have deposited the flour suspended in it; Avhen the water is to be poured off, and a great quantity of very ST A S T A 39 clean water poured upon the flour remaining at the bottom of the tub, which is to be stirred up in the wa- ter, and the whole is to stand quiet till the day following. The flour will then be found to have settled at the bottom of the tub: the water is again to be poured off; the flour washed in a fresh quantity of pure Avater, and the mixture pas- sed through a silk sieve pretty fine. The whole must once more be suffered to stand quiet till the flour is settled ; if the water above it is clean, the flour has been suffi- ciently washed ; but if the water has any colour, it must be again washed. When perfectly washed, take out the flour, and place it upon wicker frames covered with paper, and dry it, properly defending it from dust. When dried, pass it through silk sieves, to divide any clotted lumps that may remain ; and keep it in glass vessels stop- ped with paper only.] STARLING, the Common, or Sturnus vulgaris, L. an useful bird, inhabiting various parts of Eng- land. It is about eight inches in length, and weighs from three to four ounces: the plumage is black, spottejl with blue, purple, or yel- low, though sometimes with Avhite dots ; and the beak is yelloAv. Starlings breed in hollow trees, the caves of houses, in ruins, and even on lofty cliffs ; where they construct their nests of straw, the fibres of roots, and similar mate- rials : the female lays from 4 to 7 pale-greenish, ash-coloured eggs: the young afford a delicate repast; but the flesh of the old birds is so uncommonly bitter, from devour- ing worms and insects, that it can- not be eaten. As, however, these creatures have a pleasing note, and display great docility, they are fre- quently taken by bird-lime or other means, and taught to imitate hu- man speech, in the same manner as Parrots. Ti>j breeding of starlings, in a wild state, ought to be encouraged by every rational farmer; because they are of extensive service, by devouring noxious vermin, and eating no grain or seeds of plants, or other fruit, unless compelled by necessity. STAVESACRE, or Delphinium Staphisagria, L. an exotic plant, growing in the southern parts of Europe, and particularly in Italy, whence its rough, blackish seeds are imported. They possess a dis- agreeable odour, and a nauseous, bitterish taste. Their chief use, at present, is, for destroying fleas and similar vermin ; and if horses, or other animals, be occasionally washed with a decoction of the seeds of the stavesacre (in the pro- portion of one ounce to \\ pint of water), all nits, 8cc. will be effec- tually exterminated. These seeds were formerly cele- brated for their purgative qualities; but, on account of their violent operation, are now exploded from the list of internal medicines. If, however, a small portion of such poison should have been acciden- tally SAvallowed, the most proper antidote will be, either an immediate and brisk emetic; Or, if some time have elapsed, large draughts of oily, mucilaginous, milky, or other demulcent liquors, should be swal- lowed, with a view to prevent an inflammation of the intestines. STAYS, an article of female dress, which is usually made of canvas or dimity, supported by whale-bone, and laced behind. 40 S T A STE Few articles are of greater im- portance to the health and com- fort of females than stays : hence, insteadof being manufactured from hard substances, they ought to be made of such as would allow ..! free motion of the limbs ; for instance, felt, shamois-leather, he.; without any stiff materials. So great, how- ever, is the prevalence of custom, that such absurd casements are still retained by the most numerous class of women, who lace them- selves in whale-bone, to the great detriment of their constitution. To this cause we may justly attribute many of the cancers, hard tumors, and similar affections of the breast; nausea; indigestion ; compression of the ribs; distortion of the spine ; and a long train of painful disorders. To prevent such fre- quent disasters, we recommend the use of corsets made of the pli- ant and elastic texture used for stockings, or gloA'es; Avhich, if properly lined, and Avorn Avith a moderate compression, will not only afford sufficient warmth, but also contribute to the preservation of an erect form. In short, we find from history, that among the most elegant nations of antiquity, namely, the Greek and Roman wo- men, never resorted to such cum- bersome articles of dress. In March, 1801, Mrs. Lloyd Gisbon, of Sackville-street, Pic- cadilly, obtained a patent for new- invented stays, for Avomen and others. They consist of a back and front-piece, both of which are supported by strips of whale-bone, that are nearly parallel: the two pieces are joined by means of hooks ami eyes, or similar contrivances, which meet at the side, and admit of being accommodated to the size of the wearer. Farther, these stays are made of such a length, as not to produce any inconvenience on sitting down ; and are asserted to be principally calculated for cor- recting deformities, as Avell as for supporting the abdomen, where this aid should be required; as they may be lined and stuffed, or padded, at pleasure. STEAM, denotes the visible, moist vapour ascending from hot or boiling liquors ; and also from substances containing humidity, Avhich is easily evaporated by a degree of heat, that is insufficient for their combustion. Steam being one of the most powerful agents in Nature, is an object of great importance to ma- nufactures, as Avell as to horticul- ture. Hence several machines, knoAvn under the names of steam- engines, have been invented, with a view to facilitate the operations of extensive iron-AVorks, and also to expel noxious exhalations from mines. Among these contrivances, that by Mr. James Watt, of Bir- mingham, first deserves honoura- ble mention for its ingenuity; next in order of time, is Mr. Jonathan Hornblower's machine, for rais- ing water or other liquids by means of fire and steam, for which a pa- tent Avas granted in 1781 ; then Mr. James Sadler's engine for diminishing the consumption of steam and fuel, as well as gaining a considerable effect in time and force; in consequence of Avhich, he obtained a patent in June, 1791 ; and lastly, the Rev. Mr. Edmund Cartwright's improvements in constructing, Avorking, and apply- ing steam-engines ; for Avhich a patent was granted to him in No- vember, 1797......As, hoAvever, a STE description of these respective in- ventions would be unintelligible, Avithout the aid of numerous en- gravings, the curious reader will consult the 4th, 7th, and 10th vols. of the Repertory of Arts, &c. where full specifications are inserted, and illustrated with plates:. Farther, steam may be made subservient to the purpose of pro- moting vegetation; by means of flues and other contrivances, con- ducted beneath hot-houses :....vvith this economical design, various suc- cessful experiments have been made under the inspection of the' Earl of Derby, and also by Tho- mas Wakefield, Esq. of North- Avich. Our limits, however, being circumscribed, Ave cannot specify the machinery invented by Mi'. W.; because such account Avould necessarily be deficient Avithout an engraving. We shall, therefore, only remark, that during the last five years, the steam has been used in his vine-house, with the best success; the plants vegetating with uncommon luxuriance throughout the summer; and producing " the greatest abundance of large and well-flavoured fruit." Another ad- vantage attending this new method of raising fruit, is, that it prevents the depredations of the red spider : because, if a sufficient A'olume of steam be applied, that destruc- tive insect never appears. For a more minute account of the nume- rous trials made with Mr. WakE- ited's flues, the reader is referred to the 18th vol. of the Transac- tions of the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, Sec. VOL. V. STE 41 Steam may, \vith equal advan- tage, be employed in domestic eco- nomy, and particularly in cooking. Thus, steamed potatoes are always more .wholesome and nutritious, than such as arc boiled in water ; and Dr. Daravin observes, that if the heat of the steam- could be in- creased after it has left the Avater, the art of boiling all vegetables might be considerably improved ; and thus the mucilage, abounding both in potatoes and flour pud- dings, and also in the roots, seeds, stems, leaves and flower-cups of plants, may be rendered more nu- tritive, and probably, more palata- ble. See also the article Cook- ing. [STEAM-DISH. This very use- ful contrivance is described in the 4th vol. of the Repertory of Arts. In Philadelphia, it is a very com- mon practice to surround meat, Avith potatoes, in an earthen dish, which is sent to the oven. The potatoes are thus soddened, and the meat is hard and dry, and acquires a very unpleasant taste from the variety of exhalations Avith which it is surrounded. The steam-dish obviates all these inconveniencies. " It is made of tin, or earthen- ware ; (for a family of six or eight) tAvelve inches by nine, at the top, and nine by seven, at the bottom, four and a half inches deep, on the slant rim, and three inches, in the clear, under four resting knobs, (a little below the top,) Avhich space is to be occupied by the meat of Avhich the pastry is made. G 42 STE STE Fig. l.Is the perforated cover, in the centre of the cover, for the with its steam-pipe, made exactly rising of the steam, and play of the to fit the dish, when resting on the valve L, thrown up by the steam knobs. Avhilst the pasty is baking. M is a I K L M Fig. 2. Is the lower nut, screwed on to a piece of wire part of the steam pipe, Avith its fixed at the bottom of the valve, valve and screw ; (one third less to prevent the steam from forcing than the real size) it is soldered it too high in the steam-pipe. upon the perforated cover, as Fig. 3. Represents the steam- at Z, leaving a sufficient hole pipe, with its leafy ornament: it STE screws on to fig. 2. and is suffici- ently hollowed about the screw part, (as the dotted lines shew) to suffer the valve N to play freely.... The loops O O are for the pur- pose of lifting off the perforated cover, to serve out the meat, when brought to table. Directions for making Potatoe- flastry. Take of beef, mutton, veal, or other meat, two pounds ; season it, and place it in the bottom of the steam-dish, with a bit or two of butter, (tAvo ounces is enough for the Avhole pastry, including what is rubbed into the mashed pota- toes), and a sufficiency of water to draw a good gravy ; a few slices of carrot may be added, if the pas- try is made of mutton. Take also of mealy potatoes, one gallon; boil, peal, and mash them ; rub into them a little butter: when washed, place the perforated cover over the meat, and put the pota- toes smooth and even upon it, slop- ing them up, and pressing them very closely round the edges of the dish. The pasty may novy be sent to the oven, which, if quick, Avill bake it in an hour. When the pastry is removed, the air closes the valve, the steam then rises through the perforated cover, and incorporates with the potatoes. When served up to table, the potatoe crust may be cut off and served round ; then.by lifting up the perforated cover, you will find an excellent dish of beef, he. swimming in gravy, Avhich is to be taken out and eaten Avith pota- toe crust; and a more palatable mixture or cheap dish, cannot be served to a family.] STE 43 STEEL, is iron refined in the fire with certain ingredients that render it white, and impart to it a harder and finer grain than that of the original metal. Iron is converted into steel, ei- ther by fusion, or by cementation. The former method is employed for making steel immediately from the ore, or from the crude, cast metal. In the latter, bars of iron are placed in furnaces, with a stra- tum of charcoal between each ; till the pile is raised to a sufficient height. The whole is then closely covered, to prevent the access of the air ; when a strong fire is kind- led, and uniformly continued during the whole process. The surface of the metal, manufactured in either way, generally exhibits nu- merous vesicles, Avhence it is cal- led blistered steel; but these may be removed by repeated ignition between red-hot coals, and by forg- ing. The finest metal of this descrip- tion, is the Damascus-steel, which is imported from Syria; but the process pursued in the Turkish manufactories, is not accurately known in Europe. The German- steel is made by breaking the blis- tered bars into small pieces, which are exposed to the strong fire of a furnace : these are next welded, and extended the length of about 18 inches, when they are doubled; welded a second time ; and at length drawn to the requisite size and shape. The celebrates Bres- cian-stecl is obtained bv roastinp- the iron-ore in strata, Avith layers of wood between each; and, Avhen these are sufficiently smelted, the metal is taken out of the furnace, broken to pieces,-picked, and wash- ed in troughs of pure water. It is next conveyed to an oblong square 44 STE cavitv, termed the fluxing-bed, which is strewed with a mixture of finely-sifted eshes and sand, that are carefully compressed. Astra- turn of charcoal is then laid on ; the smelted metal is gradually add- ed ; and, at the end of three or four days, the conversion is com- pleted. [For an account of the mode of making steel by cementation, see the Transactions of the Manchester Society, vol. 5 ; and for informa- lion on the subject generally, see Til loch's Philosophical Maga: me, and Nicholson's Philosophical Journal, in both of Avhich much in- teresting matter may be found.] The best steel manufacured in Britain, is known under the name of cw.t-stecl. It is prepared from the common blistered metal ; Avhich, being broken to pieces, is put into proper crucibles, with a flux ; and, after the fusion is effect- ed, the metal is cast into ingots, when it undergoes the operation of tilting, and is at length tempered, by repeated- igniLion and immer- sion in water. In 1801, a Mr. Eggs obtained a patent for a new method of bend- ing sti el. After giving the neces- sary shape to the blade, spring, or other article, it is extended over a convex piece of iron, denominated a fiat. The bent fcteel is next stricken repeatedly with an iron machine,resembling a cbissel, that cuts ;-.ito the former, and completes the bending; by Avhich practice he conceives, that considerable la- bour will be saved in the manufac- turing of springs, trusses and sur- geons' instruments. Runty steel may be cleaned, by first anointing it with sweet-oil, v. hicb in the course of two or three days will soften the rust; after- STI Avards wiping it dry with clean rags, and polishing the tarnished parts with pumice-stone or eme- ry, by means of hard wood: but the most effectual composi- tion for giving a high degree of lustre to steel, is a paste made of levigated blood-stone and spirit of wine. STEEL-YARD, or Stilyard, is one of the most ancient machines for ascertaining the weight of bo- dies, by its counterpoise. It is al- luded to in the Pentateuch, and to this day used by the Arabs, and all the asiatic nations. The Greek and Roman goldsmiths preferred it to the balance, Avhich was the instrument used by the people. The steel yard consists of a lever of unequal arms ; and, in its most perfect form, is constructed on the principles of the usual balance ; to Avhich hoAvever it is greatly infe- rior, in point of minute accuracy. See Balance. There is another species of pa- tent steel-yard, consisting of an elastic spring, which is confined in a tube ; thus serving by its expan- sion, as a substitute for the long arm, and pointing out the weight of substances, by marks made on the moveable perpendicular bar in its centre. It would be superflu- ous to enter into a detailed descrip- tion of these portable machines : let it therefore suffice to observe, that such contrivance is not suffi- ciently accurate to determine the difference of ounces or drams ; though it may, ansAvor the purpose of weighing larger quantities ; pro- vided it be properly hjgadled, and preserved from moisture, or run. STIRRUP, a semi-circular ma- chine, manufactured of steel, plat- ed iron, he. serving to support the foot of the horseman : as it en- ST O STO 45 ablcs him to mount, and to main- tain a due equilibrium, while seat- ed on the animal. Without entering into an histo- rical account of this contrivance, the utility of it is obvious. Hence, an ingenious artisan, Mr. Kelly, of. the Strand, London, several years since, obtained a patent, which is now expired, for manu- facturing stirrups, one side of which opens by means of a spring, if the rider should accidentally be thrown off his seat, or otherwise be entangled ; in order to prevent dangerous injuries often arising in consequence of being dragged by the horse. We understand, how- ever, from the patentee, that this invention is not so effectual in pre- venting danger, as his lately con- trivedstirrup-leathers, with a spring beneath the saddle : thus, if the horseman happen to fall off, both the stirrup and the leather will be immediately disengaged. As the price of the whole appartus is not considerably raised by this useful addition to a hunting-saddle, Ave recommend it to the notice of our readers. Stock-bill : See Herb-Ro- bert. STOMACH is a membranous viscus,serving to receive and digest the various articles of food, con- veyed through the mouth and gul- let, for the nutrition of the body. It is situated in the epigastric re- gion (see Abdomen), toAvards the left side, in the form of a horizon- tal, long sack, furnished at each end with an orifice, namely, the upper or left, called the cardia, where this organ is connected with the gullet; and the inferior, or right opening, termed the pylorus, by which it is united to the intestines. As the function of the stomach is of the first importance in the animal economy, it will be useful to give a concise view of the princi- pal affections to which it is liable. If foreign substances have, by accident, been swalloAved, such as nails, stones, pieces of bones, coins, knives, he. the proper remedies will be those of a fat or oily nature, namely, castor-oil, butter-milk, spermaceti,mucilages, &c. clysters of similar liquids ; in order to sheath the internal membranes againstinjury; and, in consequence of which, indigestible bodies are generally evacuated with the feces, though sometimes not without pain ; so that, in some instances, they have proved fatal. The far- ther treatment is stated, vol. iii. p. 220, and vol. iv. p. 72. Of a more serious complexion, however, is an inflammation or the Stomach, or Gastritis: the principal symptoms of this malady are, violent fever of the malignant kind ; anxiety ; intense heat and pain in the epigastric region: nau- sea and vomiting attended Avith hiccough. Causes ......Acrid substances, for instance, glass,corrosive sublimate, arsenic, he. too large quantities of nitre; suppressed perspiration; re- pulsion of the gout, particularly in plethoric and bilious habits ; vio- lent passions ; cold draughts when the body is heated ; though it may also arise from external injury sus- tained in other parts, such as the brain, &c. This dangerous malady, gene- rally terminates between the fourth and eighth day. If the symptoms continue Avithout intermission, and become more violent, a mortifica- tion may be apprehended : thus, 46 S T O sudden cessation of pain; low pulse, and great weakness, denote that gangrene has taken place; but, in less urgent cases, Avhere no re- markable changes happen for seve- ral days, a more favourable event may be expected; though, when the affection proceeds from injuries in other parts, or the swallowing of poisons, it generally terminates in death. Cure ......The chief remedy to be resorted to here, is immediate and copious bleeding, after which a blister ought to be applied to the pit of the stomach : great benefit has also been derived from emol- lient, and mildly opening clysters. The patient's beverage should be of a diluent, mucilaginous, or oily- nature, and taken in small quan- tities ; the latter will prove saluta- ry, Avhere the irritating substance has, for some time, remained in the stomach. If the disorder ori- ginated from corrosive poisons, the most proper means of decomposing them, and of counteracting their effects, will be timely and copious draughts of a solution of soap; or sulphureous waters ; warm baths, and the subsequent use of mucila- ginous liquids....See vol. i. p. 121. After the cure has been success- fully effected, the convalescent should be cautious in his diet, avoiding all coarse and heating food ; he, ought likevvise carefully to keep his stomach and feet warm, especially in changeable Aveather. Ar other species of gastritis, is the erysipelatous, which occurs more frequently than is generally understood; the signs by which the existence of this affection may be ascertained, are as folloAv: the mouth and fauces appear inflam- ed ; there b pain at the pit of the stomach, attended with frequent STO vomiting, and a slight fever. The disorder often changes its place, and sometimes spreads through the Avhole alimentary canal, where it occasions vomiting or diarrhcea. In most instances, it proceeds from acrid substances introduced into the stomach, and from internal causes, the nature of which has hot been hitherto discovered ; though it also frequently appears as a symptom of putrid fevers, and during convalescence in general. Cure .-...When this inflammatory complaint arises from acrid sub- stances, it will be necessary to take copious draughts of warm, bland liquids, with a view to excite vo- miting, by Avhich it may be re- moved ; or, if it proceed from mineral poisons, recourse should be had to the antidotes mentioned under their respective heads..... Bleeding, in this case, is neither advisable nor safe, especially if the patient be in a debilitated state : on the contrary, small quantities of vegetable acids, and the careful use of the Peruvian bark, will be productive of good effects. With respect to the method of treating Indigestion, Ave refer the render to that article. STONE, or Lithiasis, is a con- cretion of calcareous matter, form- ed in different organs of the bodv, but particularly in the kidnies, uri- nary passage, and biliary ducts ; though other parts are not exempt from its influence: thus, accumi- lations of this kind have frequently been discovered, upon dissection, in the heart, brain, lungs, intes- tines, S:c. of various size, shape, av eight, and number. There are instances, where more than 200 small stones have been gradually \'oided by stool. An inquiry into the nature of STO ST O 47 these morbid productions being fo- reign to our purpose, we shall briefly state, that they probably originate from a deposition of cer- tain particles of the blood, Avhich cohere to any small body,they may find in their passage, thus forming the nucleus or basis. Hence Ave shall confine our attention to the practical treatment of this dreadful malady, in the instances before mentioned ; and commence Avith the urinary stones, as being the most frequent. These are situated either in the kidnies, urinary ducts, bladder, or urethra. Symptoms of the stone in the kidnies :....An obtuse pain about the loins; nausea and vomiting; small pieces of calcareous matter are discharged Avith the urine; but, if the concretion be settled in the bladder, an uneasiness Avill be felt at the end of the urinary passage, especially in emitting the Avater, which suddenly stops; or, it can be passed only when lying on the back : the urine is of various co- lours, and often tinged Avith blood; and, if the accumulation be of a considerable size, a fixed pain pre- vails about the neck of the blad- der. More certain signs, however, for ascertaining the presence of a stone, are the following: 1. Avhen tile discharge of urine is accom- panied Avith small pieces of such stony matter; and, 2. by sounding, which is performed, either by the introduction of the finger uito the anus, or of the catheter into the bladder. Causes .-...This distressing afflic- tion may be induced by a great va- riety of circumstances, especially by improper articles of diet (see Gravel) : though, in some coun- tries, it is endemial, Avhere a pe- culiar disposition in the habits of the people promotes its formation. These painful concretions have, likewise, been observed to be very common in the countries provided only with hard spring Avaters,Avhich constitute the daily beverage of the inhabitants: they may also arise from the copious use of acids, and certain wines, for instance, Mo- selle and Rhenish, or Old Hock ; not less than from cheese, and other gross aliment. Farther, well- attested instances have occurred, in which this excruciating disorder was occasioned by the shot swal- lowed with game, and even by the dust from mill-stones, mixed Avith the flour. During the passage of stones from the kidnies into the bladder, the patient is afflicted with pain, vomiting, &c. Avhich form the paroxysm* of the gravel and stone ; being sometimes even attended with inflammation (see Kidnies). In the bladder,they are mostly pro- ductive of pain ; strangury ; bloo- dy urine ; inflammation ; though in some instances they have re- mained in a dormant state for a considerable time ; and, unless re- moved by proper means, death closes the scene. Cure:.....An endless Aariety of remedies, under the name of li- thontriptics, haA'e been recom- mended, for dissolving the stone ; but as an account of all these pre- tended specifics Avould be equally tedious and useless, Ave shall only mention such as appear best adapt- ed to the purpose. A preparation, Avhich formerly stood in great re- pute, is the caustic ley, which, however, requires mucilaginous or gelatinous drink as a vehicle : thus, it was administered Avith great secrecy by an empiric of the name cf Chittick, to Avhorn the 48 S T O ST O patients sent a \essel containing veal-broth, Avhich he returned with the medicine mixed in the liquor, and secured by a lock : for this ex- position we are indebted to Mr. Blackrie. It is evident,that great caution is requisite in the dose of so active a medicine. Considerable benefit has been derived from the use of Avater impregnated with fixed air, as directed by Dr. Fal- coner....An infusion -of the seeds of Avild carrot (Daucus sylvestris. L.) sAveetened with honey, is a simple and much esteemed re- medy....The late Dr. De Haen, recommended the Bear - Avhortle- berry (Arbutus Uva ursi, L.) as a most efficacious remedy for the stone : it may be taken in doses of from one scruple to half a dram in powder, twice or three times a day ; or, in the form of an infusion thus prepared : Take of bear- whortleberry leaves three drams, and boiling water one pint: after simmering for one or two hours, the liquor should be strained : and from two to three table-spoonfuls may be given twice or three times a day....Lime-water has likewise proved beneficial in this complaint, both when taken internally, and in- jected into the bladder....Another simple remedy has been prescribed Avith great success by Dr. Mac- bride : thirty berries of raw cof- fee ought to be boiled in a-quart of pure water, till it acquire a deep greenish colour ; of this li- quor about half a pint is to be taken, morning and evening, with 10 drops of sAveet spirit of nitre : during such course, the bowels should be occasionally opened, by a dose of castor-oil. Similar at- tention ought to be paid, when any of the other remedies are admini- stered ; and theiroperatlcn may al- so be assisted by the use of mild diuretics. [Jelly made of black-berries, has obtained much credit in the Unit- ed States for relieving this pain- ful complaint. A mixture of the juices of common garden leeks, and horse mint, taken every day, has been also said in our papers, to have effected a cure in Virgi- nia, in a clergyman : but it is not known Avhat plant Avas used under the name of horse mint, as there are several, bearing that appella- tion. The intentions of the humane publisher are therefore entirely defeated ; and hence the impor- tance of fixing the true botanical name to a plant, when speaking of its virtues.] In their diet, patients should avoid coarse and heavy prov isions, such as salted, dried, or smoked animal food, especially substances of an oily nature, and all high- seasoned dishes : farther, red-port, Rhenish, and Moselle Avines, are uncommonly pernicious ; as they naturally promote the accumula- tion of stones: the beverage ought, therefore, to consist of cooling di- luents, in which some mucilage of gum arabic or tragacanth is dis- solved....Symptoms of violent pain may be relieved by emollient cly- sters with'opium. Should, however, all endeavours of dissolving the stony concretion prove abortive, recourse must be had to an operation, as the only eventual means of extirpating the disease. If the stone should be retained in the urinary passage, speedy application must be made to a professional man ; because delay, or neglect, cannot fail to in- crease the evil. Gall - stones, or concretion? formed in the biliary ducts, are c» >* . //am//tf /<>)' cU'arinijfiaridofJ'tori^ *'/M((h < "(If 7 STO S T O 49 various size and colour. There is a fullness audi pain about the stomach ; loss of appetite; lan- guor ; nausea ; colic ; vomiting ; and restlessness : the eyes have a yellowish appearance ; and jaun- dice is a frequent attendant on the disorder. "With a view to expel such bili- ary concretions, the patient may first resort to a warm bath, and then take a gentle emetic; though, in plethoric habits, or if the pain be violent, a small portion of blood may be drawn from the arm, and an opiate given ; in order to allay the spasms. But, where the symp- toms do not abate after the second bathing and emetic, medical ad- vice Avill be indispensable.....In slight cases, a decoction of the Soap-Avort, or of Dandelion and Dog's-grass, in which a few drams of vitriolated kali are dissolved, has been found of effectual service. Great benefit has, likewise, been derived from the liberal use of ace- tated kali, especially if administer- ed at an early period. JBrugna- telli, has for some time'employ- ed with great success, the acidula- ted carbonate of lime. In all calculous affections, the body should be regulated by the mildest laxatives, tine good effects of which may be still farther pro- moted by moderate exercise on horse-back ; though the same cau- tion ought to be observed in this respect, as well as in the use off emetics ; for every violent effort, or concussion of the viscera, tends to aggravate the complaint. STONES, in general, are de- fined to be hard, splid bodies, which are neither soluble in wa- ter, nor malleable. They are formed in the progress of time, within the bowels of the earth, by Vol. v. the gradual accretion of earthy particles^.; which, by different combinaiions, acquire various de- grees of hardness. Stones have, by mineralogists, been divided into numerousclasses, according to their respective con- sistence, colour, form, and other properties: but, as we state the most valuable kinds and species of these fossils, in alphabetical order, we shall in this place only remark, that the practice of indiscriminate- ly collecting Stones from land, is productive of great disadvantage, because it tends to diminish its fertility. (See also vol. i. p. 107.) There are, however, certain situa- Ai tions abounding with stones, that *| might be usefully employed in re- - pairing roads:....the usual mode of gathering them by hand, or sepa- rating them from the soil by means of an iron or wooden riddle, being equally troublesomeandexpensive, we have procured the [annexed plate] of a machine for clearing land from stones, and also for sift- ing sand or gravel: it Avas invent- ed by Peter "Francis Ponti, an ingenious Italian mechanic, on whom the Patriotic Society of Milan, conferred a premium of 16 scudi, and a silver medal. a, a, a, a, are four wooden feet, serving to stipport a beam, to the ends of Avhich are fixed two pieces of wood, d, and g, containing the iron axis c. A hoop of iron is fastened over such axis, by means of a hook, /, to prevent it fiom being raised up by .the weight of the receiver or basket, marked by the letters i, m, h ; i, m, h'. b, b, are two cross pieces, fixed to the inner surface of the feet; and which contribute to strengthen the machine, and to keep it steady. II . 50 STO They are made to project in the form of handles, for the greater conA'enience of transporting the implement to different places, two men being thus enabled to cai'ry it with ease. •k, is a continuation of the iron axis, e, so as to form the handle of the basket; and, on turning it round, the basket moves in a cir- cular direction : the axis is fixed to the bottom of the receiver by a cross of iron,/; or, such axis may be made to pass through the bas- ket, and be so firmly attached to its inner surface, as to support its rotary motion. The receiver described by the letters i, m, h ; i, m, h ; consists of a thick wooden bottom, to which are fastened (by means of nails re- presented by black dots) the iron bars, of which all its sides are com- posed. These bars extend in an oblique direction to the bottom ; so that the diameter of the outer periphery, h, h, is double to that of the bottom: they are equal in length to the diameter h, h; at which part they are fastened to a strong iron hoop. The original basket delineated in our figure, is nearly two Paris feet in diameter ; and all the other parts are constructed accordingly : the size of the machine may, hoAV- ever, be enlarged, or diminished, as occasion requires. But, as the spaces betAveen such bars would be disproportionally Avide, in case the latter Avere throughout of an equal size, or breadth, these are made somewhat round towards the letters i, i; becoming gradually broader as they approach to h, h; so that the spaces between the bars do not increase in proportion to the width of the basket. Lastly, in case such bars be not STO sufficiently strong, they may be supported by fixing another iron hoop round them, at m m. And, if this machine be designed to sift sand or gravel, as well as to clear land from stones, a sieve of iron wire may be fastened around it; and the interstices of which may be enlarged or •diminished, accord- ing to circumstances. In employing this machine, it must be placed at one end of the field; two men, furnished Atiih spades, should place themselves in the front, and throw the earth dug up into the basket, which may be turned round by a boy, or any other person. The soil and stones strike against the Avooden bottom, and fall upon the bars, being whirl- ed round by the rotary motion of the receiver. During such revolu- tion, the sand, small stones, and earth, fall through the interstices of the bars on the ground, while such as are larger will be thrown to a certain distance from the bas- ket into a trench, made for their reception. When the labourers are so far advanced that they can- not, Avithout difficulty, supply the basket, it will be necessary to spread the sifted parts on the sur- face, and to remove the machine by means of the handles b, b, so as to be exactly over the stones already separated. Thus, the work may be continued in a similar pro- gression, till the land be properly cleared. The most favourable time for this agricultural labour, will be during very temperate weather ; Avhen the ground is neither so moist as to adhere betAveen the in- terstices, and consequently to di- minish the utility of the machine ; nor so dry and dusty as to be trou- blesome to the labourers. In such STO STO 51 seasons, stony land may be greatly improved ; as the stones will be buried in those spots to which the roots of annual plants do not ex- tend ; and in which neither trees nor shrubs will prosper. [For an account and plate of a machine to raise heaA'y stones and other weighty substances, see arti- cle Weight.] STONE-CROP, or Sedum, L. a genus of perennial plants, com- prising 31 species, 9 being indi- genous ; of which the following are the most remarkable : 1. The Telcphium, or Orpine Stone-crop. See Orpine, the Common. 2. The acre, Wall-Pepper, Biting, or Pepper Stone-crop, grows on the surface of walls,roofs, rocks, and in dry pastures ; flow- ers in June or July. This vegeta- ble is eaten by goats, but refused by horses, cows, and sheep. It continues to vegetate, Avhile sus- pended in a chamber : being very acrid, if applied externally, it ex- cites blisters; but, Avhen taken internally, occasions vomiting.... According to Dr. Withering, it is an excellent remedy in scorbu- tic cases, and in quartan agues : a table spoonful of its expressed juice operates powerfully as a pur- gative. At present, however, it is seldom employed; though, on account of its active properties, the wall-pepper promises to be an use- ful medicine, Avhen administered with judgment. 3. The reflexum, or Yellow Stone-crop, thrives on walls, roofs, and rocks, where its bright yellow floAvers appear in July. !. The rupestrc,or Rock Stone- crop, groAVs principally on St. Vincent's rock, near Bristol, and on the Chedder hills, in Somerset- shire. It differs from the preced- ing species only, in its smaller flow- ers, which likewise blows in July. Both vegetables last mentioned, having an agreeable, pungent taste, are cultivated in Holland and Ger- many, Avhere they are esteemed as ingredients in salads. They may be easily propagated, by planting either their roots, or the cuttings of the shoots in a moist soil, where they will readily take root, and spread with great luxuriance. STORAX, a fragrant gum-resin, exuding from incisions made in the Common Storax-tree, or Styrax officinalis, L. a native of Italy and the Levant, where it flowers in July. The best storax is obtained from Asiatic Turkey, in small, irregular, transparent masses, of a pale-red, or yellowish colour, and generally abounds with whitish tears, resem- bling those of Benzoin. The drug, however, which is common- ly sold in the shops, consists of large, light pieces, very impure, from the saw-dust with which the resinous juice is mixed. And, though inferior to the preceding sort, yet in a purified state, it pos- sesses greater fragrance. Storax is one of the most grate- ful of the odoriferous gum resins, but is at present disused in medi- cine ; and employed chiefly in fu- migations, or as a perfume. There is another species, known under the name of Liquid Storax, which exudes from incisions made in the Liquid-ambar Styracifl.ua, L. [Sweet Gum, or Maple-leaved li- quid-amber tree,] a native of Vir- ginia. It is farther obtained, by boiling the bark or branches of that tree ; in consequence of which the purer particles rise to the surface. The genuine liquid storax is of the 52 STO consistence of honey, possessing a fragrant smell, somewhat resem- bling that of the preceding, solid species. But the drug of this name kept in the shops, is an ar- tificial compound of the concrete storax, common resin, wine, and oil, properly incorporated. Whe- ther genuine or spurious, it is only used externally as a balsamic. STOVE, in domestic economy, a contrivance, or apparatus, in which fires are made, with the view of conveying heat throughout houses,churches,or other buildings. A Mr. Sharp procured a patent, seA-eral years since, for certain improvements, which are calculat- ed to obviate the inconveniences [of Franklin's stoves.] Thus, by adding a funnel to the top, these fire-places can be adapted to any chimnies; and, if the funnel be lengthened, it may be accommo- dated to libraries, ball-rooms, or other buildings, which have not the advantage of a chimney. Mr. S.'s stove-grates are provided with a IioIIoav base ; in consequence of which, he is enabled to applythem, Avithout any additional brick-work, more effectually to the purpose of - heating rooms, than is practicable with those on Franklin's con- struction : at the same time, by his alterations in the air-box, a larger portion of air is introduced. Our limits permit us only to add, that Mr. Sharp's stove-grates may be accommodated to every building, whether public or private : and Ave refer the reader to his " Account of the Air-Stcvr-Grates," he. Svo. In June, 1796, a patent was granted to Mr. William Wkit- tington, for his invention of a portable Baking Stove. The pa- tentee asserts, that the contrivance js calculated for baking all kinds STO of bread, particularly that prepar- ed of oats, Avith a cheapness and facility not hitherto experienced. It may be manufactured from any metal, or even from clay, of any size or shape ; and either with or without an oven : the door for sup- plying fuel, together with the pipe or flue for carrying off the smoke, may be fixed in any part of the stove. Besides, this machine may be used in any situation, whether on land or at sea ; being easily portable, and requiring only one- fifth part of the fuel consumed in the common way ; as it may be easily heated with coke, coals, wood, charcoal, or any other sub- stance. For a more diffuse account of such contrivance, the reader will consult the 12th vol. of the Reper- tory of Arts, he. where it is illus- trated with an engraving. A patent Avas likewise granted to Mr.EDAVARD Walker, for a port- able Stove or Kitchen ; to facili- tate the processes of cooking, or dressing provisions. The Avhole is manufactured of either cast or wrought iron ; having a fire-place in its centre, which is inclosed by a door: beneath is an ash-hole; and on each side, there is a closet, one of which may be employed for baking ; the other will contain two spits, with racks, he. complete ; the top may be used as a broiling- plate, heated by the same fire; while the smoke is carried off through an iron funnel, having a smoke-jack for the purpose of turning the spits. A more com- plete idea of this stove may be ob- tained from the 15th vol. of the Repertory, he. where the specifi- cation is illustrated Avith an en- graving......See also the articles Fire-place, Furnace, Grates, and Kitchen. STO ST R 53 -■ Stoves, in Horticulture, are buildings erected for the purpose of preserving tender plants, which would otherwise perish, from the moisture and coldness of our cli- mate. These erections are usually di- vided into two classes, namely, bark and dry-stoves, according to the plan on which they are esta- blished. In the former case, a pit is dug to the depth of three or four feet, that generally extends over the Avhole length of the hot-house, and is filled with fresh tanner's bark, in Avhich the pots, containing the plants, are plunged.......See Hot-bed. Dry-stoves are built of bricks, in the form of flues, Avhich are conveyed either beneath the pave- ment, or attached to the back Avail of the house ; one being construct- ed above another, and returned six oreighttimes throughoutthe whole length of the building. In such stoves, it is necessary to arrange the pots on shelves, rising pro- gressively. Their dimensions ought to be adapted to the number of plants to be preserved; the floor being elevated to a greater or smaller height above the surface of the ground, according to the natural humidity or dryness of the soil. It will be necessary to make paths about two feet wide in the front, for the convenience of Avalk- ing. The furnace may be placed either in the middle, or at one end of the building; but it should, in every case, be adapted to the na- ture of the fuel to be employed..... The best for this purpose is turf; because it burns more uniformly, and slowly, than any other com- bustible substance, and consequent- ly requires less attendance. Such is the manner in Avhich thestkkinds of stoves are generally constructed ; but Dr. Anderson has lately contrived another ap- paratus, upon a new plan, and ac- commodated to his Patent Hot- house (See hot-house.) : as, how- ever, a mere description of his peculiar stove would convey an imperfect idea of the invention, we are obliged to refer the curious reader, as avcU as the lover of horticulture, to the first volume of the new series of Dr. A.'s Re- creations in Agriculture, he. where tho principle is fully developed, and illustrated with several cuts. STRAINS, in farriery, denote such accidental injuries as some- times happen to horses, by a vio- lent or unnatural distention or stretching of their muscles or ten- dons ; in consequence of which, the animals suffer great pain, and are generally lamed. The treatment of this affection must be regulated according to the situation of the injured parts. Thus, if the ligaments, that connect.the thigh, or other bones, be strained, it will be advisable to turn the horse into a good pasture ; as the richness of the food will prevent his health from becoming impair- ed ; and the gentle exercise in the field will preserve the joints from stiffness and rigidity. Where the shoulder has thus been hurt, the horse will not put the strained leg forward in the same manner as that which is sound ; and, in trotting, describes a circle with the former, instead of a straight line: the lame leg like- wise projects beyond the other. If such strain be accompanied with inflammation, bleeding will be- come necessary; after which the 54 ST R STR part affected must be well bathed three times every day witb hot vinegar, or verjuice in which soap has been dissolved. But, in case no swelling appear, the animal ought to rest for two or three days, and the muecles should be rubbed Avith opodeldoc, or vrith a mix- ture of camphorated spirit of wine ; And oil of turpentine, in the pro- portion of two parts of the former to one of the latter. Poultices, consisting of oatmeal, rye-flour, or bran boiled in vinegar or wine-lees, together with a suffi- cient portion of hog's-lard, to ren- der them soft, will be of great ser- vice, if timely applied ; and, when the inflammation subsides, the strained parts may be bathed with either of the liniments before spe- cified, till the perfect use of the limb be restored. The pasterns, and knees, are liable to strains, chiefly in conse- quence of Woavs, or similar ill usage : if they be much swelled, a poultice may be applied, and the parts treated in the same manner as the shoulder ; or, they may be bathed with a liquor compounded of one pint of vinegar, four ounces of camphorated spirit of wine, and two drams of white vitriol, pre- viously dissolved in a little water. As these parts are generally sub- ject to great weakness, after vio- lent strains, the horse should be sent to a level pasture, which will greatly promote his recovery. The last case deserving notice, is that of strains in the hock..... These must be bathed in cooling and corroborant liquids ; but, if the ligaments be injured, it will be proper to foment them with wool- len cloths, dipped in a hot mix- ture of verjuice and spirit of wine, to which a small quantity of crude sal ammoniac may be added....* Lastly, if any internal callosities remain, it will be advisable to fire the joint carefully with razes, or lines set closely together ; after which, a mercurial plaster should be applied; but, in case such con- cretions appear externally, they may be removed by the repeated use of the blistering plaster, the composition of Avhichhas been spe- cified under the article Bone-spa- vin ; omitting, however, the sub- limate, on account of its corrosive nature. STRANGLES, a disorder inci- dent to colts and young horses : it becomes evident from a collection of impure humours, that are dis- charged by the nostrils, or by sup- puration from the glands, situated beneath the bones of the lower jaw. The symptoms, indicating this disease, are, loss of appetite, dull- ness, and inactivity ; a hollow, dry, cough ; and, progressively, intense thirst: as its virulence increases, the animal becomes languid ; and, in consequence of the painful tu- mours formed in the jaw-bone, will at length be unable to swallow. The first object of attention, in case the fever continue moderate, and the evacuations be regularly perform- ed, is to examine the swelling, and promote suppuration ; which may be effected by cutting off all the hair contiguous to the tumified part, and fomenting it for ten mi- nutes with flannels, dipped in strong and hot decoctions of marsh-mal- low, chamomile, or similar erno- lient vegetables. The following poultice must then be applied, namely: Take coarse bread crumbs; barley meal; and elder-flowers, of each two handfuls ; boil them in a sufficient portion of milk; and, while the mixture is hot, add three STR ST R 55 oz. of turpentine, and six oz. of bog's-lard. The quantity thus prepared will be sufficient for tAVO or three poultices, which ought to be used moderately warm, and be firmly secured, every night and morning, after repeating the fo- mentation for five orsix days; or till a suppuration be effected. When the discharge ceases, the folloAving ointment, spread on tow, should be applied to the wound, and the poultice laid o\rer it, to promote the healing of the ulcerated part: .....Take of resin, and Burgundy pitch, six oz. each ; of hog's-lardj 4 oz.; of honey and common tur- pentine, two oz. each; and one oz. of yellow wax. These ingredients must be melted together: on re- moving the mixture, two drams of finely pulverized verdigrease must be gradually incorporated, and the whole frequently stirred, till it be- come cool. Should the horse, during the strangles, be seized with consider- able fever and inflammation, or the swelling be so situated as to threat- en suffocation, it aviU be advisable to bleed him moderately. The food, throughout the course of the disease, ought to consist of warm mashes, given frequently in small quantities ; to which half an ounce of liquorice and aniseed, in pow- der, may be advantageously added, together with about two ounces of honey. The diseased animal must be kept warm ; and, if the weather be favourable, he should take gen- tle exercise, or undergo the usual discipline of the stable, though in a less compulsory degree. This malady is seldom produc- tive of dangerous consequences, unless it be neglected. As it mostly terminates with a discharge from the nostrils, these partsshould be often cleansed with sponges, dip- ped in warm water; but, if such evacuation continue to be copious and fetid, after the swellings have suppurated and healed, it may be considered as s^mptomaticalof the Glanders ; in Avhich case it will be advisable to adopt the treat- ment already stated under that article. Strangury. See Urine. STRAW, denotes the stalk on which corn grows, and from which it is separated by threshing. Straw is an article of extensive utility in rural and domestic eco- nomy......When chopped or' cut small, by means of the machine known under the name of Straav- cutter (to which we refer), it af- fords a Avholesome provender for horses and oxen, especially if it be mixed with green food. It is like- wise usefully employed in thatch- ing cottages, houses, and barns.... But, as such buildings are liable to be uncovered by. violent storms, farmers should, if possible, annu- ally save a sufficient quantity of wheat-straw, in order to be pro- vided against accidents : thus, the necessity of purchasing straw at a high price, or of threshing their wheat at an improper season, may- be effectually obviated. In May, 1798, Mr. Peter Boi- leau, obtained a patent for a new and improved method of manu- facturing straw into hats, bonnets, he. but such privilege having beeu annulled by a Court of Justice, we shall state the plan on Avhich he proceeds.....The straw is fir^ separated at the joint, and deprived of its external skin or covering; o:ic end of each tube being cut in the form of a per., so that it may be inserted into the cavity of another; after Avhich it is immersed in water. 56 S T R to render it pliant, and susceptible of the requisite shape on the block. Next, a small circle is to be traced on the surface of a wooden mould (having the form of the croAvn cor- responding Avith tl>*2 article to be manufactured); from which, lines are to be drawn perpendicularly, diagonally, or in any other direc- tion. At the top of each line must be fixed a nail or pin, to Avhich a double Avire should be fastened : the straw is then plaited between such wires, and the ends are joined by introducing the sharp end of one tube into another, till the crown be completed. For making the brim of the bon- net or hat, a sheet of thick paste- board must be formed into the re- quisite shape ; lines or curves, si- milar to those above described, are next to be drawn, and the wires fastened through small holes made at the top. The straw is worked in the same manner as that for the crown ; to which the brim may be attached, either by continuing the Avork so as to form one piece, or by sowing both together, and con- cealing the juncture by a Avreath of si raw, op any other mode, which fancy may suggest.......See also Paper. STRAWBERRY, or Fragaria [vescal a genus of plants, compre- hending three species,two of which are indigenous ; but the principal is the vesca, or Common Straw- berry, groAving in woods, hedges, and hollow Avays ; Avhere its flow- ers appear in the month of May or June ; and are succeeded by small red fruit. The plant is eaten by sheep and goats, but is not relished by cows; and is totally refused by horses and swine. The common Strawberry is the parent-stock from which all the STR different varieties have been ob- tained by culture: the most re- markable of these, are : 1. The Wood-Strawberry, with oblong serrated leaves, and small Avhite, round fruit....2. The Green, or Pine apple Strawberry, which has received this name from its de- licate flavour, resembling that of the Pine-apple....3. The Scarlet, or Virginian Strawberry, which has also oval serrated leaves, and bears a roundish berry, of a deep scarlet colour......4. The Hautboy, or Musk Strawberry, is a native of America, but has long been raised in British gardens : it is remarka- ble for its rough spear-shaped leaves, and, its large pale red fruit* .....5. The Chili Strawberry has oval, thick hairy leaves, large flow- ers, and firm berrk-s....6. The Al- pine StraAvberry, has small oval leaves, diminutive flowers, and ob- long pointed fruit, of a moderate size....7. The Monthly, or Ever- flowering Strawberry, originally a French variety, produces very de- licate fruit, generally pointed to- wards the top, and bulky below; being in season from May to No- vember : the plant itself, however, is verv small, has diminutive leaves, and furnishes but few off-sets for transplantation. All the varieties of this vegeta- ble are hardy, perennial plants, which flower in May and June, producing perfect fruit in June, July, August, and even till Novem- ber. They may be propagated by planting off-sets, or suckers, in any light, rich garden-soil, where they annually yield abundant crops, if properly weeded, and supplied Avith moisture. Their fertility, however, will be considerably in- creased, by transplanting them every second year into fresh beds, SIR STR 57 that have previously been dug, or otherwise prepared for their recep- tion. [A pine-board laid between the beds of Strawberries, prevents the growth of weeds : tan, strewed on the walks, has the same effect.... The Strawberry lives only four years. In making a new bed, care should be taken to avoid putting out any black roots, as all such have lost their vegetative power.] As the Strawberry is one of the most exhausting plants, and re- quires ample nourishment, all weeds growing in its vicinity should be carefully removed. Hence it will be found, that the earth, in which an old stock has grown, un- disturbed for several years, on dig- ging up its roots, in a manner re- sembles wood-ashes ; because it is deprived of all the soluble parts. Without entering into a minute account of the culture of this use- ful plant, we shall briefly remark, 1. That the most proper season for transplanting strawberries, is in the month of August ; when they will have sufficient time to take root before the winter: 2. That it is not advisable either to clip or break off the superfluous shoots, but to wind them around the principal stem, and secure the ends between the stalks ; by which simple me- thod, the plant will be supported in an erect situation, and the fruit be preserved from the ravages of vermin, as well as from being soil- ed on the ground: 3. To promote the grovvth of the berries, the con- tiguous earth around the stocks ought to be covered in the spring with tanners' Avaste ; or, where this cannot be easily procured, Avith oyster-shells : thus, all weeds will be effectually suppressed, and an uniform beneficial moisture may VOL. V. be ensured. Lastly, when the first rudiments of the fruit appear, the soil ought to be carefully stirred by the hoe, and then manured with the following composition, that will remarkably contribute to its fertility. Take three parts of old rotten dung, one part of soot, and a similar portion of dry soap-boil- ers' ashes ; mix them thoroughly, and spread this compost loosely by the.hand, so that the newly-moved ground may be superficially co- vered. There is another, and more ad- vantageous, method of propagating strawberries by the seed: it was originally reccommended by Du Hamel, and has been carried to great perfection by Du "Chesne. The seeds, consisting of small ob- long, dark red-brown grains,should be collected from the surface of the most perfect, ripe berries, which have almost become dry on the stalk ; and be preserved till the succeeding spring ; when they ought to be uniformly mixed with a little dry mould, and sown in a loose, rich garden soil which is properly worked, and levelled with the rake. Next, it will be useful to sift finely pulverized earth, or rotten dung, over the be'ds, to the thickness of half-a-crown piece only, and to cover the whole with branches or boughs of fir-trees.... In the course of three Aveeks, the young plants will appear, Avhen the covering ought to be removed, and the branches set upright along the borders of the beds ; in order to shelter the tender sprouts from the influence of the meridian sun. Others sow the strawberry-seed in August, and protect the young germs with mats suspended over the beds, by means of poles. The plants, thus raised, ought to be I 58 S TR STR carefully weeded and watered: those reared in the spring, may be transpi-'.ited in the autumn of the same year ; but, when sown in the latter season, they must remain in the sced-bcd till the following sum- mer. This mode of cultivating strawberries possesses many ad- vantages over the usual practice : thus, it Avill be easy to obtain the most delicate foreign sorts, of which it Avould otherwise be difficult to procure off-sets; nay, by sowing the seed of degenerated sorts, to- gether with those of superior fruit, many new and excellent varieties Avill result from such combination. Du Ciiesne has made the fol- lowing curious experiments, on the propagation of strawberries from their seeds: He directed the water in which this fruit had been wash- ed, before it Avas used at table, to be thrown in a shaded corner of his garden, where the soil had been manured with rotten branches and leaves: in this manner, he obtained very beautiful plants for an extensive piece of ground. On covering the beds; over which such seed had been scattered, with con- nected pieces of the moss growing on trees, and removing the latter, Avhen the plants had acquired 2 or 3 leaves, he obtained excellent crops. In March, 1764, straw- berry-seeds were scattered on patches of moss (Gateaux de mousse), in pots placed under the AvindoAvs of a hot-bed : these af- forded the most vigorous plants. For such purpose, he principally employed the llypnum trinuetrvm, or Triangular Feather-moss, which grows on clamp meadows, fields, and hedges : it should, however, be remarked, that Du Chesne, in all his experiments, found it neces- sary to moisten the earth, or moss, several times every day, till the plants appeared above ground. Lastly, M. Mallet has like- wise (Bibliotheque Physico-Econo- mique, for 1798) strongly support- ed this method of propagating strawberries from the seed ; and he observes, that they should be co- vered Avith straAV, or light branches of trees, and regularly Avatered two or three times in 24 hours, to ensure a plentiful crop : the cover- ing ought to be removed only after the plants have acquired the fourth leaf; and the irrigation should be continued till the latter end of June. He concludes Avith remark- ing, that strawberries thus raised, are extremely productive ; and, if planted on beds five feet Avide, are greatly superior to those produced from off-sets, or suckers. In situations, however, where early strawberries are an object of attention, Dr. Axbekson directs them to be planted in pots which may be arranged in flat pans made of milled iron ; and these again placed on a wooden frame, suffi- ciently strong to support their Aveight. From each corner of such frame, a rope is be passed upwards, OArer a pully fixed to the rafters of a hot-house, constructed accord- ing to his plan, Avhence the rope may be drawn horizontally toother pullies fixed in. a similar manner, and be carried from these over a cylinder turning upon an axis; so that the whole of the frame, toge- ther Avith the pots and pans, may be elevated, or lowered, at plea- sure. Thus, the pots may be raised, till they are brought closely under the glass of the ceiling ; Avhich, being the Avarmest part of the build- ing, will cause the plants to vege- tate with the greatest luxuriance. He farther observes, that the pots STR ST R 59 may be supplied Avith water, by pouring it into the pans, without lowering them.; and, as the berries gradually ripen, they may be ga- thered, and the frames again sus- pended. Strawberries are a wholesome, delicious fruit; and may be eaten alone, Avith sugar, or with milk, but most agreeably with wine : they have a pleasant sub-acid taste; abound with juice ; and possess a fragrant smell. Being of a cool- ing .and laxative nature, they may be considered as medicinal; and Linnjeus observes that, by his own experience, a copious use of this fruit has proved a certain pre- ventive of the Stone in the kid- nies. Hoffman states, that con- sumptive patients have been com- pletely cured by a liberal allowance of these berries. Farther, they promote perspiration ; impart their peculiar fragrance, together with a violet colour, to the urine: and dis- solve tartarous concretions on the teeth. In domestic economy, a palatable jam, wine, and. vinegar, are prepared from this fruit. An infusion of the strawberry- leaves, while young and tender, makes excellent tea ; but, for such purpose, they ought to be dried in the shade: being slightly bitterish and styptic, they have been used with advantage in laxity and debi- lity of the intestines ; in immode- rate secretions, or suppressions of the natural evacuations, as likewise in hemorrhages and other fluxes. Lastly,they are of considerable ser- vice as aperients, in suppressions of urine; \isceral obstructions; the jaundice, and many other com- plaints. STRAWBERRY - TREE, or Arbutus, L. a genus of shrubs, con- sisting of nine species, three of which are indigenous : namely, 1. The Uucdo, or Common Stuawberky-tree, which grows ,on barren lime-stone rocks, parti- cularly in the western parts of Ire- land, where it floAvers in Septem- ber. This species is a principal ornament of our shrubberies, on accountof its beautiful foilage, and its T.ne yellow flowers in autumn, which produce berries in the suc- ceeding year, so that blossoms and fruit appear at the sa»ie time : the latter, however, is not greatful to the taste, even though mellowed by frost. Nevertheless, it is eaten by the lower classes of people, who are accustomed to drink water, af- ter partaking of such repast. The Common Strawberry-tree may be propagated by cuttings, by layers, or by seed. These should be set early in March, in pots of light rich earth, and afterwards put in a hot-bed : in the course of five or six weeks they will strike firm root in the mould, when they ought to be gradually inured to the air..... During frosty weather, it will be advisable to shelter them, and oc- casionally to expose them to the open air, in mild weather. After tAvo or three years, the young plants may be removed to the place of their destination ; for they will have become so hardy as to resist the severest winters, in any soil or situation. 2. The Alpina, Mountain Strawberrv-tree, or Black- berried Alpine ARBUTUs,thrives on dry mountains in Scotland, and the Western Isles, where its flow- ers appear in May, and are suc- ceeded by round, black berri.-s.... This species is refused by goats; its fruit possesses a flavour slightly 60 S T R ST R resembling that of black currants; to which, however, it is greatly in- ferior. Its branches and evergreen leaves ha\e been advantageously employed in tanning. 3. The Uva ursi, Bear-ser- ries, B.ar Whgrtle-berries, or. Bear-berry Strawberry- tree, grows on dry heaths, and Avoods, chiefly in the Highlands of Scotland; and flowers in the month of May or June. This plant is re- fused by horses, cows, goats, and sheep. Its leaves have an astrin- gent bitterish taste, and are gene- rally used in Sweden, and Russia, for tanning leather ; and in com- bination with iron or its prepara- tions, for striking a black colour.... When dried and pulverized, they have been advantageously given in doses of from [five to ten grains,] repeated two or three times every day, in calculous and nephritic complaints. The berries of both the last- mentioned species of the Straw- berry-tree, have been recommend- ed by LiNNiEUS, as useful substi- tutes for grain, in the process of making bread ; on account of their bitter taste, however, they ought to be bruised, macerated in different cold waters, and then baked or dried in an oven, before they arc fit to be mixed Avith any other flour. But, even in this improved state, we conceive, they would re- ward the trouble of the housewife, only in times of great scarcity. [This is a low evergreen shrub, trailing on the ground, found in dry, sandy soils, in Avoods, and on mountains in many parts of this continent. Hearne observed it as far north as lat. 71, and speaks of it, under the Indian name of Jac- kashey/iuch. It groAvs abundantly in New-York and NeAV-Jersey. By the experiments of Dr. J. S. Mitchell related in his Inaugural Dissertation, Philadelphia, 1803, it appears that the leaves of the plant are more astringent than the stalks, which is contrary to Prof. Mur- ray's opinion. Beside the utility of this plant in nephritic and cal- culous cases as mentioned above, the uva Ursi has been found highly beneficial in the following com- plaints. 1. Old gonorrhoeas, and gleets. 2. In cases accompanied with the common symptoms of the stone in the bladder. 3. The late ingenious Mr. Geo. Lee of the Pennsylvania Hospital, cured a stricture of the urethra, after bougies and other remedies had been used without effect, by giving the patient 15 grains of uva ursi three times a day. An in- fusion of the plant in water, is the common mode of exhibition ; two ounces, three, four or five times a day, may be taken.] STRAW-CUTTER, or Chaff- cutter, as it is commonly term- ed, denotes a machine for the pur- pose of cutting straw, with a view to feed horses and cattle to greater advantage. In the year 1797, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts,he. con- ferred a reAvard of 30 guineas on Mr. Robert Salmon, for his improved machine for cutting straw. [Dr. Willich gives a plate and description of Mr. Salmon's straw cutter, which is certainly a pow- erful machine, but too costly for the United States. It has been thought better to substitute the plate of one which can be procured at Wright's, Cherry-street, in Phi- ladelphia, the poAver of which the editor can speak of from experi- STR S TR 61 ence....See the Plate facing page 49. A The box in which the straw is placed. B B The wheel in which the knives are fixed. C C The knives. D D D D The frame of the ma- chine. E The handle that turns the wheel. F The endless screw that turns the wheel G, and the roller H..... This roller is of wood, bound with a tin plate, punched Avith numerous holes, Avhich draws the straw for- ward at I. Straw-cutters on the above plan are sold at S1-0. The following cut represents a more simple and cheap straw-cut- ter, invented by Mr.Moses Coats, near Downing's-toAvn, Pennsylva- nia, and is now in general use in the counties of Chester, Lancaster and York. A A The front legs on Avhich the box stands. B A board passing through the legs. C C Two tongues or laths which work on screw pins, and con- duct the knife in its proper course through the straw. D The knife. E A board longitudinal to the knife ; the lathes C C pass between them. The knife is concave next the straw, to throw the edge against itr and it is furnished with a board above the straw, and treadle to press the straw tight, and a rake to push it forward in the same manner as the old Dutch straw boxes.] In February, 1801, Mr. Wil- liam Lesiier, of Hardingstone, Northampton, obtained a privilege for his ingenious contrivance of cutting straw, hay, tobacco, See. by an engine, to Avhich we have 62 STY SUB alluded under the article Hay ; but, not having been able to procure a satisfactory account of his patent, we shall only remark, that the best proof of its merit, is the general adoption, which we understand it has experienced in Northampton and its vicinity.] Stucco. See Cement. STURGEON, or Accipenscr Sturio, L. a fish, Avhich is some- times taken in the British rivers ; being, however, generally import- ed from Russia, or the Baltic sea, as well as from North America; it is principally caught in the rivers Volga, Danube, and Vistula. This fish grows to a prodigious size, frequently 18 feet in length, and weighing from 7 to SOOlbs. Its flesh is very delicate, firm, and white, resembling veal, on Avhich account it is greatly esteemed when roasted : it is, however, generally sold in a pickled state. The sounds of sturgeon afford the fish-glue known under the name of Isin- glass ; and, their roes, when pro- perly dried and salted, are con- verted into Caviar, to which ar- ticle the reader is referred, for an account of its properties. STYPTIC, a term applied to medicines, which serve to stbp he- morrhages, or effusions of blood. Various vegetables may be ad- vantageously employed as external styptics, such as the Agaric, Puff-ball, he.; but there are certain preparations of greater effi- cacy, the principal of which is the compound powder of alum. It consists of one ounce and a half of alum, and three drams of gum kino, which are finely pulverized, and incorporated.....One of the most successful styptics, however, is prepared by mixing one part of the caustic volatile alkali, with three parts of water : if this fluid be applied to a fresh wound, it ef- fectually checks the flowing of blood, both from large and small vessels. Prof. Stark, of Jena, recom- mends the following styptic pow- der ; which, according to his ex- perience, has proved uncommonly efficacious in suppressing profuse uterine hemorrhages, namely : Pe- ruvian bark, two drams; cinnamon, one dram ; blood-stone (lapsis haematites), half a dram ; and loaf- sugar, two drams : let these ingre- dients be reduced to a fine poAV- der; a tea-spoonful of which is to be taken every hour, or oftener, in chamomile or balm tea. We have no doubt of its good effects. SUBLIMATE, a chemical pre- paration, consisting of Mercury combined with the marine acid. Being extremely corrosive, and the manufacturing of this drug being attended Avith great danger to health, it is generally imported from Venice and Holland. Solutions of corrosive sublimate, in the proportion of one dram to a quart of water, are chiefly em- ployed for consuming proud flesh, and cleansing foul ulcers. A much Aveaker solution is sometimes used by the gay, as a cosmetic for re- moving cutaneous eruptions. In a dry slate, mixed with flour, honey, he. the sublimate forms a power- ful composition for destroying rats, mice, or other vermin ; but, on account of its deleterious proper- tics, the greatest caution is requi- site, particularly in places to Avhich children have access: for, as they are accustomed to tasteexery thing, such mistake might be productive of fatal consequences. In case, however, any portion of this poison should have been accidentally swal- SUF SUF 63 lowed, no time should be lost in resorting to the remedies already pointed out, in vol. i. p. 80. SUCCORY, or Cichorium, L. a genus of three plants, the follow- ing of Avhich are the principal; namely : 1. The Intybus, Wild Cicho- ry, or Succory.....[See vol. ii. p. 116.] 2. The Endivia, or Endive, is an exotic annual species, Avhich is generally reared in our gardens, as an ingredient in winter salads. It is propagated by scattering the seeds in spots of open ground, at intervals, from the beginning of June to the end of July ; in order to obtain a supply for the table. The young plants must be re- moved into beds or borders, that have previously been well prepared by the spade : and, as the chief ex- cellence of endive consists in the whiteness of its inner leaves, it Avill be adviseable, either to cover them with flower-pots, or to tie them loosely together, Avhen nearly full grown, so as to exclude them from the sun, for tAVO or three weeks ; in consequence of which, they will become perfectly blanch- ed. In the Avinter, they are either covered with straw, and mats ; or preserved in fresh sand, in a dry cellar. In its properties, this plant is not essentially different froni the preceding species. SUFFOCATION, denotes a suspension of the most important vital function, namely, that of re- spiringorbreathing; without which animal life cannot be supported. This dangerous casualty may arise from various causes, such as the want of air to a person im- mersed under water ; or the ir- ruption of that fluid into the chest; in which case it is termed Drown- ing (see that article). It is also oc- casioned by tod great a determina- tion of blood to the lungs, as in- quinsies, suffocative catarrhs, &c. Another cause of suffocation, is the introduction of any substances into the windpipe, or the swallow- ing of such foreign matters as re- main fixed in the gullet; and by compression prevent the access of air to the lungs ; in which cases, a total cessation of breathing may be apprehended. To obviate this fatal accident, gentle percussion of the shoulders and back will be advisable: the steam of milk, or water, should be inhaled, and the throat be tickled with a feather dipped in oil. Farther, the patient ought to take copious draughts of water-gruel, milk, oil of almonds, or any other lubricating fluid ; and, if the bodies adhering to the throat be blunt, they'may be thrust down by means of a long Avax taper, which has been previously render- ed pliable by Avarmth, and also immersed in oil: or, if this cannot be speedily procured, a piece of sponge may be fastened to a wire, which should be covered with leather, then oiled, and employed for a similar purpose.....See also Gullet, and Metallic pointed substances. The vapour arising from boiling wines or strong liquors, when in- haled, tends to impede the circu- lation of the blood, and sometimes eA'en produce suffocation. Similar consequences may ensue from in- spiring the fumes of sulphur, anti- mony, and a variety of other mi- neral and vegetable substances, particularly of Charcoal. First symptoms of suffocation..... Giddiness ; head-ach ; lethargy ; fainting; convulsions ; and gene- ral torpor. 64 SUF SUF External appearance of persons suffocated by the deleterious fumes arising from charcoal; various me- tals, such as copper, lead, antimo- ny, and mercury ; the vapours from fermented liquors, moist weed, flax, and turf; as Avell as in consequence of respiring or sleeping in unventilated apart- ments, caverns, and mines :....The head, face, and neck are savoIii ; the eyes are propelled from their sockets; {he tongue is protrud- ed at one side of the mouth ; the jaAvs are firmly closed ; the face is of a livid, and the lips are of a deep-blue colour; the abdomen is inflated; the body is insensible to pain, and appears to be in a profound sleep. Immediately on discovering a person in such unfortunate situa- tion, the windows and doors ought to be opened; the body undressed, removed to the open air, and sup- ported in a leaning posture on a chair. Next, the patient must be covered Avith flannel or blankets, the face be sprinkled Avith vinegar, and the pit of the stomach with cold water ; and, if it be conveni- ent, the whole body, or at least the legs, should be plunged into a cold bath. After each application of vinegar or Avater, the skin ought to be rubbed Avith flannel or a soft' brush ;' then leaving the person, thus situated, for a few minutes in an undisturbed state. Farther, clysters consisting of vinegar and Avater, Avill be useful ; and, on the return of life, an inclination to vo- mit must be promoted by a feather dipped in oil, while gentle friction is to be continued, at intervals. The first symptoms indicating this happy change, will be, foaming at- the mouth, and shivering of the whole body, especially after affu- sions of cold water. In some cases of suffocations, hoAvever, it will be advisable to em- ploy the united powers of electri- city ; blood-letting ; bronchoiomy, or the opening the wind-pipe by an incision ; or the earth-bath ; or the artificial introduction of air into the lungs, by means of a pair of bellows described vol. ii. pp. 392. If these effects prove successful, so that the patient is again able to swallow, the most proper drink will be vinegar and water, or in. fusions of mint and balm. SUG [Nocturnal Suffocation. Dr. Trussleu of Bath, in a letter to Dr. Hawks, says, he was many years in danger of suffocation from a phthysicky cough, that is apt to seize persons who lie with their heads too low. To prevent such an accident to himself, he had his bedstead made to rise as high or Ioav at the head, as he found ne- cessary. The preceding cut is a sketch of it. He had an inner frame made to his bedstead, which can be raised by two iron pins put through holes in the back parts of the bed, on which the inner frame rests; thus he raises it to any height he pleases. a a a a a a Inner frame of the bedstead, b b Handles to raise it by. ccc c Outer frame of the bed- stead. d Head rail to stretch the lacing. e e Iron pins to raise the inner frame. But the bed may be raised, without any alteration in the bed- stead, by a straw matrass, made in the form of a Avedge. By sleep- ing on this inclined plane, he has not, for many months, been seized with the cough. Neither has he suffered from the cramp in his legs, to Avhich he Avas formerly subject. When this cramp comes on, stretching out the limb, or rising out of bed, affords immediate relief. See Report of the London Humane Society for 1802.] Slffolk-grass. See Annual Meadow-gr ass. SUG AR, a SAveet concrete juice, obtained from the Sugar-cane, or Sacrharum officinarum, L. a spe- cies of reed or cane, Avhich grows in the East and West Indies. Ac- cording to modern chemists, how- vol. v. SUG 65 ever, it is a true essential salt, ca- pable of chrystallization; and Avhich is contained, in a greater or less proportion, in all vegetables of a sweet taste, but most abundantly in the plant above mentioned. It grows to the height of from 3^ to 7, and sometimes to 12 feet, in strong deep lands. When ripe, it assumes a fine straw-colour; and is usually cut at the age of 12 or 15 months, according to the season, or the nature of the soil. The canes are divided into pieces about a yard in length ; tied up in bundles ; and conveyed to a mill ; where they are expressed between three upright Avooden rollers co- vered Avith iron. The saccharine juice is conducted into a receiver; and, being apt speedily to ferment, it becomes necessary to separate the sugar as soon as possible. This object is effected by clarifying it in a boiler, over a fire, with a small portion of pulverized quick-lime ; after which it is evaporated in a cauldron, till it acquires a due de- gree of consistence ; when it is poured into coolers. As the in- spissated fluid becomes cool, the sugar spontaneously shoots into ir- regular crystals, separated from the mother-water. Next, the granu- lated matter is conveyed to the curing-house, where the treacle is completely drained ; in which dry state, the former is called raw, or muscovado sugar : thus it is sent to Europe, Avhere it is subsequently refined. The most perfect purification, or refining of sugar, is performed in the following manner : The raw powder is again boiled in proper kettles, with lime-water, and bul- locks blood (that has been previ- ously strained, and deprived of its excrenentitious parts); when it i. K 66 SUG SUG boiled down to a proper consist- ence. It is then laded into vessels to cool, being continually stirred, to prevent it from shooting into large crystals: Avhen perfectly cold, it is poured into unglazed clay moulds, of a conical form, and suf- fered to coagulate. Farther, with a view to carry off any particles of syrup that may still remain in the refined mass, the lower points of the moulds are open, and cover- ed to the thickness of several in- ches with clay previously softened in Avater, and which is occasionally moistened. In this manner, the sugar at length acquires the re- quisite degree of whiteness and fineness ; in which state it is de- nominated loaf ox lump sugar ; and after being dried in heated rooms, it is ready for use. In August, 1784, a patent Avas granted to Robert Murray, Esq. for his discovery of a method of refining sugar, and making it from the cane-juice. As, hoAvever, his processes are too minute, to admit of being detailed in this Avork, the reader will consult the 4th volume of the Repertory of Arts, he. A patent was also granted in June, 1801, to Thomas Wake- field, Esq. for a new method of refining sugar. It consists simply in placing the raw, or muscovado sugar, in any porous vessel; Avhen it is to be subjected to a weight, acting by rollers, by a screw, or by a wedge, " with the help of a steam engine," the action of a mill, or any other means of ap- plying force. Thus, part of the colouring matter, as well as other impurities, Avill be thrust out ; and, from the moisture expressed, sugar, molasses, or rum may be ^obtained, by the usual processes. The pressure may be repeated, according to circumstances, and the relative purity of the sugar ; after which it may be refined by the methods usually practised. Sugar having become an article of almost indispensable use to eve- ry person in civilized life, various attempts have been mad.-, with a view to procure it from other ve- getables ; and particularly from the folloAving, namely: 1. The White Beet ; the sac- charine properties of Avhich Avere discovered upwards of 50 years since, by M. Margraaff ; and his process having been improved by M. Achard of Berlin, Ave shall state the method of preparing su- gar adopted by the latter. The fresh beet-roots are first washed, and submitted to the action of a mill, which reduces them to a pulp : next, their juice is extract- ed by means of a press, and boil- ed over a gentle fire, till it is con- verted into a thin syrup. It must now be carefully separated from the mucilage, adhering to the bot- tom of the cauldron, or kettle ; then strained, and boiled, a second time, till it acquires a proper con- sistence for crystallization ; a point Avhich can only be ascertain- ed by experience. The syrup is afterwards poured into tin vessels, from two to three inches deep, that the grain may crystallize: these vessels are directed to be placed on frames, in a room heat- ed by a stove to a considerable, but uniform temperature ; and, in the course of two or three Aveeks, the sugar will be separated in the form of small crystalline grains. The whole is then poured into linen bags ; in which, on com- pression, the sugar remains, while the strained liquor, is received into vessels ; and, after undergoing si- SUG milar processes, it will yield an additional quantity of saccharine matt-r.....By this management, 20lbs. of roots produce, upon an average, one pound of sugar ; and, to such perfection has it been car- ried, that M. Achard is enabled to sell the sugar at 3d. per pound. -...As we cannot enter into farther detail respecting the culture, pre- paration, &c. of the Beet-root, we must refer those readers, Avho wish for more minute informa- tion, to Mr. A.'s « Circumstantial Account;" of which a translation appeared in Mr. Nicholson's Journal for September, 1799. [See vol. 1. p. 259.] 2. The Sugar-MAPLE, of which we have given an account in vol. 4. p. 38. There are various other plants which afford sugar, particu- larly parsnep-roots, skirrets, car- rots, and Indian-corn : the latest experiments that have been made with these vegetables, are those of M. Hermbstaedt, Avhose me- moir is also translated in Mr. Ni- cholson's Journal, vol. iii. for October, 1799. With a view to diminish the use of sugar, or at least to afford a sub- stitute for that article, M. M. Margraaff and Lowitz recom- mended two different processes for purifying honey, so as to anwer the common purposes of a sweet- ener ; but their expedients being too expensive, Father Giovane Batista da St. Marine, an in- genious Venetian Monk, has pro- posed the following method : To three parts (by weight) of honey, eight of water must be added ; together with one part of charcoal, broken to pieces, but not reduced to powder. This mixture should boil for one hour, when it ought SUG 67 to be filtered ; and,after being thus purified,it is to be evaporated over a slow fire, till it acquire the con- sistence of a thick syrup, which will be as palatable as sugar. This process is cheap, and easy ; but we question the advantage of con- verting honey into a saccharine substance; as the former may, in this country at least, be pur- chased at a lower price'. Sugar-candy, is the essential part of the saccharine matter form- ed into large crystals, by slowly evaporating the clarified syrup. The whole process is managed in strongly-heated chambers, by the aid of vessels containing nume- rous threads that intersect each other ; and which are fastened to the sides, in various directions. The sugar, thus treated, shoots into crystals around the threads ; and, according to its relative puri- ty, the latter acquire a brown, yel- low, or white colour. Sugar-can- dy is chiefly used in a pounded state, for sweetening coffee, and by persons labouring under hoarse- ness and coughs ; the violence of which it contributes to relieA-e, by lubricating the membranes, and promoting expectoration. Brown Sugar-candy pays, on importation, the sum of 3/. 6d. per cwt.; and the white sort is subject to the charge of 4/. 10s. 9d. per cwt. [The following directions on the mode of manufacturing maple- M'gar, Avere published in a pam- phlet, by a patriotic society in Philadelphia, in 1790. It is ob- served in the preface, that four men may turn out in common seasons, Avhich last from four to six weeks, 40 hundred Aveight of good sugar 1 The followingcalculation of utenrih. Sec. is made for four men : 68 SUG For an excellent account of the sugar maple-tree, the reader is re- ferred to Dr. Rush's paper in the 3d volume of Transactions of the American Philosophical Society. Detail and Description of the neces- sary Utensils and Materials. Kettles.....Sixteen, of about fif- teen gallons each. Iron Ladles....Two, the boAvls to contain three or four quarts, each, for shifting the syrup: the handles to have sockets, which may be extended with wood to any con- venient length. Trammels or Pot-Racks.....Six- teen, one for each kettle, the flat part, eighteen inches long ; and the round or lower piece, the same ; so as to lengthen to about three feet, occasionally. Screw Augurs....Four, of an half, three epiarters, and one inch, for boring the trees. Chopping notch- es into the tree from year to year, should be forborne; an augur hole answers the purpose of drawing off the sap, equally well, and is no injury to the tree. Buckets....Eight or ten, of three gallons each, at least, for collect- ing the sap. Boards.....Eight or ten, round pieces, to lay on the surface of the sap, at the top of the buckets, to prevent its splashing over. Coolers....Three or four tubs, of about fifteen gallons each (kettles will answer the purpose) to receive the syrup from the boilers, Avhen, upon trial from the proof stick, it draws into a thread between the thumb and finger, as hereafter described. Yok(.«.....Four, to go across the aboukiers of the persons employed SUG in collecting the sap, having a bucket suspended at each end. Troughs...K\^ht hundred should be made of white pine, white ash, water ash, aspen, linden or bass- wood, poplar, common-maple or sugar-maple ......avoid fir this use, the butter-nut, [juglans alba (ob- longa,)] chesnut and oak ;....these would either discolour the. sap, or give it an improper taste....A per- son acquainted with this business, can cut down the timber proper for the purpose, and hollow out about twenty of these troughs in a day ; they generally hold from two to three gallons: the largest should be placed to receive the sap of those trees that are most thriv- ing, and Avhich yield the greatest quantity.....It may also be noted, that Avhite-ash and white-pine will make the troughs Avhen green; the other kinds of timber, above-men- tioned, should be seasoned, or they will be liable to leak. Store Troughs.....Where large cisterns, fit for the purpose, can- not be had, which will generally be the case in a new country, troughs may be made of the Avhite- pine, by felling a large tree of that kind, and fixing it in a level position ; the upper side to be dug out in the shape of a manger for feeding cattle :....the larger it can be made for receiving the green sap, the better. White-ash and linden or bass-wood, will also an- SAver the purpose ; should any of them split and leak, they may be caulked tight......These troughs should be at a convenient distance from the boilers, in a cool place, and under cover, to prevent snow, rain, he. mixing with the sap....A linen strainer should beTso fixed that the sap, Avhen collected in buckets, SUG SUG 69 may pass through such strainer into these troughs,atone end; and, at the other end, room should be left to dip out for feeding the boil- ers. Sheds, Walls, fcfc....The exposed manner in which sugar has been usually made, in the back country, is attended with many inconveni- ences, especially in windy weather, when the ashes, leaves, &c. may be blown into the boilers, and thereby discolour the syrup, or in- jure its flavour ; neither can the keeping up a proper degree of heat be always effected in an ex- posed situation. To remedy these inconveniences it is recommended that aback wall, for the fire-place, be erected, eighteen or twenty in- ches high, and to extend a suffi- cient length for all the boilers em- ployed. This wall may be made of stones laid in clay or loam, where lime-mortar is not readily to be had. For saving the ashes, and the greater convenience in making and continuing a regular fire, under the boilers, a hearth of flat stone, about three feet Avide, should be made to extend an equal length with the back wall. And further to obviate the bad ef- fects, Avhich loo open an exposure is subject to, (it being observed where a number of boilers are placed in a range, those at, and near, the outer ends, do not suc- ceed so well as the more central ones) it is strongly recommended that sheds be erected, to extend over and cover the whole length of the hearth ; and so formed that the smoke may pass off', and be at the same time a shelter from high winds, rain, snow, he. For grain- ing the syrup, after it is brought to a proper state in the boilers, it will be right to have a separate shed or building, in which two of the sixteen kettles should be fixed; for this service, charcoal is much better than wood, as the heat or flame should be confined to the bottoms of the kettles; and be uni- form and regular, to guard against burning or scorching. A wall, as above described, should be made at the back of the fire-place, as well as at each end; and the hearth or bottom laid with flat stones, on which charcoal is to be placed. Andirons.....Pieces of cast-iron, something like andirons, and to serve the same purpose, will be very useful : they should, in the long part, be two feet and an half, and two inches square ; the turn at the inner end, four inches down- wards, and a small turn upwards, at the outer end, of about two in- ches, to prevent the wood from rolling. Of these, there should be a number to suit the extent of the fire-place, to be placed at the dis- tance of five or six feet from each other. Sugar-Mould.:.....These should be made of seasoned boards, or of such wood as will not impart a taste to the sugar, and somewhat resembling a mill-hopper, about twenty-seven inches long, and ten or twelve inches wide, at the top, and tapered to the width of one inch, at the lower end. Frames, to place the moulds in, above described, should be formed so as to admit the moulds to rest in them, about half their depth. Gutters, spouts, or narrow troughs, should be fixed within the frames, under the moulds, in a descending position ; the lower ends to enter coAered casks or ves- sels, so that when the plugs or stop- pers are drawn from the bottom 70 SUG of the moulds, Avhich may be done, in about twenty-four hours after they are set, the molasses that will run therefrom, may fall into these gutters, anil pass readily into the covered vessels, Avhich, if open, would be exposed to dust and dirt. Prickers....So termed by the su- gar-bakers, about twelve inches long and a half an inch diameter, at one end, and the other, brought to a point; for Avant of iron, they may be made of hard wood :....a few hours after the moulds are unstopped, the prickers should be run up the bottom of them, three or four inches, to make way for the whole quantity of molasses to pass off. Process or mode of manufacturing the Sap of Maple, which by fur- ther Experience and close Obser- vation may, probably, hereafter, admit of considerable Imfirove- vient. Seasons for Tapping. ...By trials, made in the month of February, it Avill readily be discovered, Avhen this valuable tree oughttobebored, for the purpose of extracting the sap, as in that month, either ear- Uer or later, according to the sea- son, it generally begins to yield a sufficient quantity for commencing the business. Tapping or Boring....Four hun- dred trees, each bored with tAvo holes, as nearly as may be on the south side; and also with two holes on the north side of the tree, in the early part of the season, with screw augurs from two to four ouarters of an ineh, according to tiie size of the tree ; and toward the middle of the season, a like number of trees to be bored in the SUG same manner, is recommended, as a belter mode for the management of four hands, than if the Avhole number of eight hundred trees were tapped at the first running of the sap. The sap of the se- cond parcel tapped, Avill be found richer, and more productive, than if a part had been extracted earli- er. The augur should enter the tree, at first, not more than three quarters of an inch : the holes may, at several times, be deepen- ed to the extent of two inches and an hair, as the manner of the sap's running may render necessary.... The hole should be made slanting or descending, so that the sap may run freely in frosty weather, and not, by a slow motion, be lia- ble to freeze in the mouth of the orifice. In these holes, spouts should be fixed, to project from the tree, from eight to twelve in- ches, and not to enter the tree more than about half an inch ; as the farther they enter, the more the running of the sap is obstruct- ed : they should be prepared, in readiness for the season, of elder or sumach. Preserving the Sap...\n the early part of the season, the sap will keep two or three days Avithout in- jury ; but as the spring advances, it will be necessary to boil the sap the day after it is collected, or it may ferment and sour. Lime....To every half barrel, or fifteen gallon kettle, a table spoonful of slacked lime, should be put in, while the sap is Avarming, and be- fore it boils; this promotes the rising of the scum and forming of the grain. Boiling....A smart fire should be kept up, while the sap is boiling. As the scum rises, be careful to skim it of. When the liquor is SUG SUG 71 reduced one half in quantity, lade the second kettle from the end, into the end one; and when the contents of three or four kettles can be contained in one, let the whole be laded into that, at the end; filling up the empty kettles, without delay, with fresh sap. As the liquor in the end kettle, re- moved from those which have been mentioned, becomes a syrup, it should be strained through a good blanket or woollen cloth; and care must be taken not to suffer it to boil so long, as to be too thick to be strained in this manner. It should, when thus cleansed from its im- purities, stand in buckets or other suitable vessels twelve hours or more, that the particles of lime and other remainingsediment may settle to the bottom ; after Avhich, it should be so gently poured off' into a kettle or boiler, as not to carry with it any of these settlings. However, they need not be wholly lost; they will mostly contain a considerable quantity of sugar or syrup: by pouring fresh sap on them, stirring them well together, and suffering them to stand a while to settle ; a great part of the valuable sweets contained in such sediment may be saved. It may be further noted, that when the sap is weak, which is gene- rally the case towards the lrtter part of the season, it requires more boiling and a higher proof than that collected earlier and of greater strength. N. 15. The method above de- scribed was [actually] pursued in the last year, and appeared to an- swer well; it is nevertheless be- lieved, by a judicious sugar-boiler, that it Avould be best to avoid let- ting the syrup stand tvvclve hours after being strained through a blanket: when the process is be- gun, the sooner it is completed, in his opinion, the better: the design of its so standing for twelve hours, being chiefly intended to give suf- ficient time for the particles' of lime and other sediment to collect at the bottom of the kettle. It is proposed that lime should be mix- ed with a quantity of fresh sap in the evening, and be Avell stirred; the large particles of lime in this case, will be likely to subside be- fore morning, and the clear sap so impregnated may be mixed, the next morning, in proper propor- tions, in the several kettles; ob- serving, hoAvever, that in this mode, more lime AviU be necessa- ry, as less of its strength will be extracted by Cold than by hot- water. Graining.....The syrup having stood twelve hours or upAvards, is then to be gently poured into a kettle or boiler, as ubove-mention- ed ; which would be best placed over a fire made of charcoal as be- fore hinted; unless the kettle is so fixed in a furnace or in such a si- tuation, that the flame can be con- fined to the bottom; for if it be suffered to pass on the sides, it endangers the syrup's being burn- ed. This operation should also be performed with a smart fire, to be uniformly and equally kept up, in which, as well as in boiling the green sap, the use of butter, hog's- lard, and other fat, is not only very useful and advantageous, but abso- lutely necessary. When, in the course of boiling, the sap rises to- wards the top, a piece of fat equal in size to a small nutmeg, thrown in, will keep it down. Particular care should be taken to prevent, by these means, the rising of the syrup when graining, which may 72 SUG SUG require a larger proportion of but- ter, Sec. It is found that the eva- poration is much more expeditious, and it is believed that the quantity of sugar made is larger, when a careful guard is kept up to pre- vent the sap, and particularly the syrup, when graining, from rising; by the timely introduction of a piece of fat as above described.... To form a judgment when the sy- rup is sufficiently boiled, take out with quickness the stirring-stick, which is constantly kept in the boiler for the purpose of taking the proof, rub some of the syrup off the lower end of it with the thumb, and if on applying the fin- ger thereto it draws into a thread, it may be deemed in a proper state to be laded into a tub or cool- er. Then it should be forthAvith stirred, and that incessantly, Avith a stirring-stick about three inches broad, until the grain can be felt between the finger and thumb, when it is in a fit state to be poured into the moulds. The managing a su- gar-Avorks in the West-Indies, and in the refining houses in North- America, has been found to re- quire much judgment and experi- ence to conduct the business to the best advantage ; indeed, it seems hardly possible, to communicate to persons who have little know- ledge of the matter, and in terms clearly to be understood, full infor- mation as to the different appear- ances of the syrup in the time of boiling, and to point out the mo- ment Avhen some material move- ments or changes ought to be made; nevertheless,from the fore- going hints and directions, which are grounded on observation and experience, it is hoped much may be derived, and that from year to jear, greater advances and im- provements may be made in this valuable business. Claying or Whitening the Sugar.... To promote the molasses passing more freely from the sugar, when draining in the moulds, and to im- prove its colour in two or three days after the moulds are unstop- ped at the lower end, mix white clay Avith water so as to reduce it to a thin mortar ; with this cover the. top of the moulds one inch and a half thick, when this covering appears dry, remove it, and supply the place with a fresh covering of about two inches thick. Although it is apprehended the use of clay as above set forth, par- ticularly in the latter part of the season will be found beneficial, it may however be prudent to conti- nue or decline the practice, ac- cording to the effect or use it ap- pears to be of on a careful trial: the quantity of clay must be pro- portioned to the manner in which the sugar has been boiled; if high boiled it Avill require much more clay than if boiled low. It is also thought the use of clay lessens the quantity of sugar, perhaps one fifth part, and may be more or less, according to the knowledge of the person Avho undertakes the busi- ness. It may be further remark- ed, that if the quantity of sugar be lessened in weight by claying, one fifth part, it is not to be con- cluded that the whole of this fifth part will be eventually lost; there AviU be more syrup than there otherwise would have been, inde- pendent of the Avater from the clay that passes through the su- gar. Molasses and Vinegar.....When the trees of the second tapping be- come poor in quantity and quality, which may be about the tenth, of SUG SUI 73 April, or perhaps sooner; then the number of fresh tapped trees will yield a sap, of which may be made good molasses, and also excellent vinegar. In all sugar plantations it will be advantageous to cut out the differ- ent sorts of timber Avhich groAv in- termixed with the sugar-maple, and even those of that species which are not thriving, promising trees. The timber so cut out will serve for fuel for the boilers, and leave greater openings for the rays of the sun to enter, which will have a tendency to improve and enrich the remaining trees. The ground so cleared of all except the maple-tree, it has been observed, is particularly favourable for pas- ture and the growth of grass..... " Whether this tree is injured or impoverished by repeated tap- pings," is an enquiry to be expect- ed, and has been frequently made of late, by persons who have anx- iously wished for the success of this business. It has been before observed, that it will bear much hardship and abuse, and it may be added, that there are instances, particularly among the old settle- ments on the North River, of trees which have been tapped for fifty years or upwards, and continue to yield their sap in the season, equal to any brought into use of later time ; indeed, it is asserted with confidence, by persons Avho have had some years experience, that these trees by use, become more valuable, yielding a sap of a richer quality. How far a careful culti- vation of them, the stirring and manuring the soil in which they stand, may improve their value, remains to be ascertained in fu- ture, though it may be expected, that this, lilie almost all other VOL. V. trees.and plants, may from a na- tural state be greatly and essen- tially improved by the hand of art. Experiments, therefore, will not be unworthy the attention of those citizens, situated in the more inte- rior parts of the States, if it shall, thereby be found that these trees can be readily propagated, either from the seed or young plants, and be bro't to thrive so as to be equal in their product, if not superior to those which have been streAved over the country without the aid of man. To what an extent of cul- tivation may not this lead ! There will be no risk or disadvantage at- tending the experiment; and it certainly deservesencouragement.] SUICIDE, is a term expressing either the crime of self-murder ; or it is applied to the person com- mitting such unnatural deed. It is remarkable, that this viola- tion of divine and human law, has prevailed chiefly among the most civilized nations ; and that it oc- curs more frequently among the wealthy, than the indigent classes of society. A combination of cir- cumstances generally co-operates, to induce an unsettled mind to commit such unjustifiable crime, thus, it has been urged, that the copious use of tea, animal food, spirituous liquors, and the sulphu- reous exhalations of pit-coal, in a: variable climate, instigate to sui- cide ; because they uniformly tend to depress and enervate the hu- man constitution. It would ex- ceed our limits, to refute the ab- surdity of such notions; and, though the perpetration of this rash act may sometimes originate from insanity, yet we may confi- dently maintain, that it is most frequently the result of a defec- tive '.-lucation furnishing no fixed L 74 SUL moral principles, and consequent- ly laying the foundation of vicious habits ; such as gaming, and dis- sipation followed by disappointed ambition, or the desire of avoiding public disgrace ; than the conse- quence of ennui, or a weary life. Those of our readers who Avish to investigate this interesting theme, will derive information and amusement from the perusal of Mr. Moore's Full Inquiry into the Subject of Suicide (2 vols. 4to. 1/. 1 Is. 6d. boards, Riving- ton, 1790), in which its effects are fully considered, and illustrat- ed by numerous historical exam- ples. SULPHUR, or Brimstone, a hard inflammable mineral, of a yellow colour: it is insoluble in water; destitute of smell, except by friction, or when heated; and possesses a peculiar, faint taste... This simple substance is found, in a native state, in various parts of the world, particularly in the vi- cinity of volcanoes, being often combined Avith other minerals : it is generally cast into rolls, for sale, being known under the name of rcll-brimstone. Sulphur, when gently heated, rices in vapours, Avhich are easily kindled ; and, if it be suffered to cool gradually, it shoots into cry- stals resembling thin needles, termed flowers of sulphur : when combined with any alkaline salt, such as pot-ash, and melted in a moderate heat, and in a close ves- sel, a compound is produced, which is named liver of sulphur. This preparation is of a liver- brown hue ; and, while dry, emits no peculiar odour ; but, in a moist state, it evolves a very offensive smell resembling that of putrid eggs : it deliquates in the air, and SUL and is completely dissolved in wa- ter ; the solution acquiring a yel- low, golden shade. On melting it in a continued heat, till it grows tough, and assumes a red-brown colour, then pouring the liquid mass into water, it will remain as soft as Avax, and yield to any im- pression from engraven stones, metals, or coins. After becom- ing cold, however, it recovers its former hardness and colour. This mineral is usually import- ed in large irregular masses, Avhich are melted into rolls, with the ad- dition of coaise resin, flour, he. ; whence it assumes a pale yellow tint. Sulphur is of great utility in the arts : when converted into an acid by combustion in the open air, it affords that extensively useful li- quid, vulgarly termed oil of Vi- triol ; considerable quantities of which are consumed in the various processes of bleaching, dissolving metals, especially iron, and in other useful arts: it is also of great service in cementing iron railing to stones, by simply melting, and pouring it into the interstices. See also Gun-poavder....Brimstone is farther advantageously employed for whitening silk, Avool, or other articles, by exposing them to its fumes, during combustion. In medicine, sulphur is almost a specific in cutaneous diseases,whe- ther administered internally with honey or molasses, or applied ex- ternally in the form of ointment. In the piles, it is of evident bene- fit, av hen taken in small doses ; nay, it is occasionally prescribed in chronic catarrhs and coughs ; as it operates gently, by promoting in- sensi .le perspiration through every pore of the skin.....See likewise Antidotes. SUM SUN 75 SULPHUR-WORT, the Com- mon, Hog's Fennel, or Hare- strong Peucedanum officinale, L. a native perennial, groAving in salt- marshes ; producing flowers in the months of June and July....Both the roots and stalks of this saline plant are from three to four feet long; have a fetid odour, and an acrid, bitterish taste. If an inci- sion be made in the former, during the spring, a considerable portion of yellow juice will exude, and con- crete into a gummy resin, retain- ing the sulphureous smell of the root. The expressed juice of this plant Avas formerly employed in lethargy ; but its medicinal proper- ties have never been ascertained with precision. As the sulphur-wort is an use- less weed in meadows, it should be diligently extirpated; though Bech- st fin observes, that the dried roots have been successfully efnployedin fumigations, to prevent the spread*- ing of epidemic distempers among cattle. SUMACH-TREE, or Rhus, L. a genus of exotic trees, compre- hending 33 species, of which the following are the most remarkable, namely : I. The Coriaria, or Elm-leaved Sumach, a native of Italy, Spain, Syria, Turkey, and Palestine,whcre it grows to the height of eight or ten feet. The branches of this species, when dried and reduced to powder, are substituted for oak- bark in tanning, particularly Tur- key, or Morocco-leather : its leaves are occasionally employed on the Continent in medicine, be- ing reputed to be uncommonly astringent and styptic. Troms- dore obtained from the reddish, compressed hairy berries of this tree, an essential acid salt, similar to that of lemons, by a strong de- coction, and subsequent evapora- tion ; when small white crystals Avere formed, on exposing it to a cold place. Both the root and ber- ries produce a reddish, and the rind a yellow colour. In Germany, the clustered fruit of the elm-leaved Sumach is suspended in vuiegar, to increase its acidity. 2. The Co/iallinum, Narrow- leaved, or Beach-Sumach. 3. The ty/ihinum, Virginian Su- mach, or Vinegar Plant. [See ar- ticle Rhus.] 4. The Cotinus, or Yellow Su- mach, a native of Asia, and the southern parts of Europe, is also cultivated in Germany. Its leaves and branches are likeAvise useful in tanning: the wood and bark yield an orange dye; and the latter, with the addition of Brazil-wocc;, imparts a chesnut-colour. Gul- denstadt remarks, that theleaves of this species are preferably em- ployed by curriers ; as they do not tinge the skin, excepting with a faint yellow cast; so that the Mo- rocco-leather may subsequently be dyed of the most pleasing shades. Pallas informs us, that the dyers of AstiakS.an prepare the genuine Turkey-red on cotton, by a decoc- tion of the leaves of the Yellow Sumach and galls; with a due pro- portion of alum; having previously soaked the yarn in fish-oil, Avhich we suppose to be that obtained from the sturgeon. SUNDEW, the Round-leaved, Red-rot, or Youthwort, Dr.,- sera rotundifolia, L. an indigenous perennial, growing in mossy bogs, and flowering in the months of July and August. The whole of this singular plant is acrid, and its juice is sufficiently caustic to erode/ corns, or warts ; and, if it be pro- 76 SUN perly diluted with milk, it forms a safe remedy for removing freckles, ana similar blemishes of the skin. Any part of this vegetable coagu- lates milk, in a manner similar to that of the Common Butter- wort ; and it is likeAvise sup- posed to occasion the rot in sheep. On the other hand, the grovvth of the Youthwort, in particular situa- tions affords an useful guide in digging for turf. SUNFLOWER, or -Hclianthus, L. a genus of exotic plants, consist- ing of 14 species, most of Avhich are cultivated in britain: the principal, how ever, are: 1. The annuus (corona soils), pr Common Sun-flower: it is easily propagated in any common soil, either by sowing the seeds, or by parting the roots in the month of I/Iarcb. Within a few weeks, the plants Avill appear; and, Avhen about six inches high, they should be removed into the borders of gardens, or other places selected for their growth, at the distance of 15 or 12 inches, in quincunx order. They must be occasionally Avater- ed ; and, if weeds be properly era- dicated, they will vegetate Avith such luxuriance, as to attain the height of six or eight feet: in July they bear flowers, which continue to blow till October, Avhen they produce ripe seeds ; Avhich, on ex- pression, yield a large proportion of a sweet palatable oil. The young flower-cups of this plant may be dressed and eaten like arti- chokes ;...tbe stalks are of a consi- derable size, often exceeding an inch in diameter: hence, they may with advantage be raised in situa- ations where/we/is scarce ; indeed, we are not acquainted Avith any vegetable that is likely to afford greate r advantages to an industrious SUN cultivator who possesses a few acres of ground which, is not sufficiently fertile for corn or pasture-grass. It deserves, however, to be re- marked, that it greatly tends to impoverish the land ; as it requires constant moisture, and would not be productive Avithout artificial ir- rigation.....See Kitchen-garden and Paper. [From a paper on the subjeot of sunflower-oil, in the first vol. of the Trans. Amer. Phil. Society, it appears that one bushel of seed, yields three quarts of oil; and that this quantity of seed is produced from one hundred plants, set about three feet apart, in the same man- ner that Indian corn is planted.... The oil is thin, clear, and of an agreeable taste. It is recommend- ed to set the seed in a hole, and, when the plant is a yard high, to throw in the mould round the stalk, so that the surface of the ground may be even around it. The process for expressing the oil is the same as that for making linseed-oil. It is suggested, that cold draAvn oil is less liable to turn rancid than when heat is used: but the quantity is less. If, how- ever, care be taken, constantly to stir the mash in an iron pot, over a moderate fire, (or if pressed) not to heat the plates too much, there Avill be no danger of burning the oil. There can be no doubt, that the sunflower, on poor land, would yield much more profit than many other crops.]' 2. The tuberosus, or Tuberous Sun-flower, a native of Brazil, like- wise bears single stalks, which fre- quently attain the height of 9 feet. Having already described this spe- cies, under the head of Arti- choke, the Jerusalem, we shall only observe, that it produces no SUR SUR 77 ripe seeds, and bears smaller Moav- crs than the preceding ; but it is more easily propagated : for, when the roots are once planted, they in- cessantly vegetate in the same soil, without requiring rich manure, or great attention; and, though left throughout the winter in the gi'ound, they withstand the' se- verest frost. The different species of the Sun- flower have, hitherto, been culti- vated only for ornament; but it must be obvious, that they may be rendered subservient to many eco- nomical purposes,especially as sub- stitutes for hemp, in manufactur- ing pack-thread from their strong fibrous stalks. Lastly, it deserves to be noticed, that the flowers of these plants regularly take the direction corresponding to the sun's-course, while they afford to bees a consider- able supply of honey. SUN-SCORCHED, is a term employed by gardeners, to express a distemper affecting fruit-trees, in consequence of their sudden ex- posure to the heat of the sun ; so that the fruit becomes withered. The trees, chiefly liable to such injury, are those placed in situa- tions, which seclude them from the vernal sun ; so that they cannot afterwards sustain its scorching rays during the summer. It may, however, be prevented, by plant- ing fruit-trees in proper aspects ; and, if such as are affected be timely attended to, the disease may be removed by frequent and copi- ous irrigation. SURFEIT, in physiology, is an indisposition attended with nau- sea, and the sensation of a load at the stomach, which are generally occasioned by indolence, and excess in eating or drinking; though the disease sometimes arises from an error in the quality of the diet. Buring this affection, the insensi- ble perspiration is impeded, and the skin is often covered with erup- tions. If a surfeit originate from the use of muscles, corrupted meat, or other unwholesome animal food, it will be advisable speedily to re- sort to an emetic ; and, after its operation to drink frequent and copiousdraughtsof vegetable acids, diluted with water. But, in cases Avhere excess in eating or drinking is the immediate cause of the com- plaint, the first passages ought to be evacuated by proper purgatives, and afterwards such medicines ad- ministered as tend to restore the obstructed perspiration, and at the same time promote the secretion of urine. SURFEIT, in farriery, a disease chiefly incident to horses : it may be occasioned either by suffering them to drink immoderate portions of cold water, Avhile they are in a profuse perspiration; or by neglect- ing them, when Hide-uound. The skin is affected with eruptions; and (as farriers express them- selves), the body is filled with in- flammatory crudities. Such are the general symptoms indicating a surfei':, the mildness or malignity of which, depends on the age, habit, and constitution of the horse. With a view to remove the disease, a moderate quantity of blood should first be drawn, in or- der to accelerate its circulation : a few Avarm mashes should next be given, to open the body ; and after them, two or three of the follow- ing purgatives, according to cir- cumstances : Let one ounce of Barbadoes aloes; three drams of 73 SU S pulverized jalap; two drams of cream of tartar; and a similar por- tion of Castile soap, calomel, and ginger in powder; be mixed with syrup of bucktiion:, sufficient to form them into a ball...These medi- cines ought to be. divided into tiiree doses, administered at proper inter- vals ; the diseased animal being carefully sheltered from the cold ; and, on the third day after the last dose has been taken, Mr. Taplin recommends the following altera- tives :....To half a pound of levi- gated anti e.ony, and an equal por- tion of sulphur, let four ounces of each, cream of tartar, and ^Ethiop's mineral, be added ; the ingredients be perfectly incorporated, and then divided into 12 parts, each con- sisting of two ounces: one dose should be given every night with the corn (the latter being previ- ously sprinkled Avith Avater, so as to retain the powder), for a month ; and, in case no advantage be per- ceptible, the dose must be increased to 2i oz. during the first Aveek, and to 3 ounces in the second week. Throughout the whole course, two ounces of nitre ought to be given every morning, in a pailful of soft water. Should any scabs or exco- riations appear on the surface of the body, they may be removed, by washing them Avith equal parts of soap-leys and lime-water. Suspended Animation. See Animation. SUSPENSION by the Cord, or Hanging, is either the act of suicide, or that of being suffocated, by means of a rope tied round the neck; in consequence of which, the vital principle is extinguished. As many persons unfortunately perish, av1\o are from variouscauses inui.ced to resort to this fatal expe- sus dient, we shall briefly state the symptoms, or external signs, by which it may be ascertained, whe- ther they died in consequence of strangulation ; and also point out those remedies Avhich have been suggested for the recovery of life. Symptoms of apparent death, by suffocation with the cord ;.....The external aspect somewhat resem- bles that of drowned persons ; the face is uncommonly swoln, and of a deep red hue ; so that every fea- ture is distorted : the eyes are in- flated, and project from their sock- ets , a bloody froth appears at the mouth ; all the vessels of the neck and face are distended; and swal- lowing is totally impeded. Treatment ;....l.The cord must be instantly cut; the suspended body being gently taken down, every ligature ought to be re- moved ; the head should be sup- ported in an erect posture, and turned towards the left side. 2. Air must be blown upon the face, which should also be sprinkled with cold water. The gullet ought to be stimulated by a feather moist- ened with oil; and vinegar be ap- plied to the nostrils, while the re- gions of the heart and throat are gently compressed. Farther, the patient ought to be Avrapped in warm flannel, or placed between feather-beds ; and a bladder, filled with tepid water, applied to the pit of the stomach : the Avhole bo- dy may also be fomented, or im- mersed in the luke-warm bath. Stimulants ;....l. Moderate fric- tion Avith warm flannel, to be gra- dually increased on the left side. 2. The shower-bath, combined Avith friction. 3. Stimulating clysters, consisting of salt-water and oil: none of these remedies, however, SWA must be resorted to, where the blood appears to be determined to- wards the heart and head. As soon as the first symptoms of resuscitation become evident, the blowing of air into the nostrils, and aspersion of cold water on the face, ought to be continued : next, clysters, consisting of a strong so- lution of emetic tartar, ought to be administered; and the sugillations, or injured parts, be fomented with wine, in which chamomile flowers have been infused. Lastly, when the ability of swalloAving is re- stored, the patient should take fre- quent draughts of vinegar diluted with cold water, and mild, cooling laxatives. SWALLOWING, or Deglu- tition, is the act of taking any food, whether solid or liquid, down the throat. It succeeds Mastica- tion, and is performed primarily by the tongue, which propels the aliment into the gullet; whence, by the contraction of the muscular parts, the contents are conveyed into the stomach. See also Di- gestion. Deglutition may be impeded or obstructed by various circum- stances, such as swellings in the throat, or the taking of acrid, pun- gent,or pointed substances into the mouth : but, as the most simple and expeditious remedies for such affections have already been point- ed out, the reader will consult the articles Gullet, Gargle, Qutn- sey, Metallic Pointed Sub- stances, he. S\VALLOW-WORT,theCoM- mon, or Asclepiasalba v. Vincetoxi- cum,'L,. a hardy exotic plant, which is a native of the south of France, Spain, and Italy. In a fresh state, the root of this vegetable posses- SWA 79 ses a strong smell, resembling that of valerian ; to which, however, it is inferior in its sudorific and diu- retic properties. The stalk of the Common Swal- low-wort is fibrous, and has on the Continent been employed as a sub- stitute {or flax : by mixing it with silk, M. De Biborczfalva, a cre- ditable economist in Hungary, has lately produced a mixed cloth, which was remarkably fine, and cost him about 4s. the yard, Eng- lish measure ; being from 50 to 60 inches wide. There is another species of this exotic, namely, the Syrian Swal- low-wort, or Silk-plant (Ascl'piat Syriaca, L.) a native of North America, and especially of Virgi- nia. • Its strong .stalks attain the height of seven feet: the pale pur- plish flowers appear in June or Ju- ly ; emit an agreeable odour ; and are succeeded by large, thick, and rough capsules, the seeds of which are furnished Avith a long, glossy silk. In this respect, it forms one of the most valuable productions ; and as the experiments lately made in' Silesia, fully evince that it may with equal advantage be raised in the more temperate climate of Bri- tain, we strongly recommend its culture, which is generally suc- cessful in the most indifferent soils. It may be propagated either by the seeds or roots; vegetating most luxuriantly in a loose, sandy, and rather damp, ground. The seed should be sown in the spring, and the young plants be transplaced into a well ploughed and manured land, where they must be properly Aveeded in the succeeding summer, and hoed, after having attained the height of 3 feet. Vv hen the prin- cipal stem displays the flowers, id! 80 SWA S WE the collateral branches and leaves should be carefully removed. The fruit attains to maturity in August, or September ; and as soon as the external rind becomes soft, yellow, and wrinkled, the seed capsule is to be cut off during dry wea- ther, and allowed to burst spon- taneously. The dry stalks are next to be separated by the knife, ap- plied closely to the root; the de- cayed plants must be re-placed by the roots of others; then thinly co- vered for the winter with long dung; and in the succeeding spring, the surrounding earth should be loosened. Although Bechstein, who has furnished us with this account, does not men- tion the distance at which the plants ought to stand ; yet their size appears to require considera- ble space, so that they may be, at the least, 12 inches apart, in every direction. The silk, obtained from the seed-capsules of the Syrian Swallow-wort, is not only useful for stuffing pilloAvs, spinning fine yarn, both by itself and mixed Avith cot- ton, animal wool, and cod-silk, or the loose filaments of the cocoons ; but it also affords- a valuable mate- rial for manufacturing paper of a superior quality. Its stalks may be advantageously employed as substitutes for hemp. In Canada, a brown sugar is extracted, by eva- porating the juice of its flowers ; and, in Germany, the young tops are eaten as asparagus : hence, the assertion of some naturalists is erroneous, that the milky juice of this plant is of a poisonous quality. [This plant abounds in the neigh- bourhood of Philadelphia, and de- serves to be cultivated for the many valuable purposes to which it may be applied. Dr. Guthrie (Man- chester Memoirs, vol. 5,) says, that in Germany the plant is cultivated extensively, and that stuffs have been made from it, which rival in lustre the true animal silk. The stems are said to dye a good olive; and also to answer for candle wicks. SWAMP. Under the heads drain and moss, the mode of re- covering has been fully treated. For an elaborate treatise on the subject, the reader is referred to Dr. Anderson's Rural Essays,] SWARD-CUTTER, a machine employed for cutting the sward or surface of the earth, so as to break every clod that might otherwise resist the action of spiked rollers, or any similar implement of agri- culture. In the Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society, we meet with an account of a Sward-cutter, invented by the Hon. Robert Sandilands, and which promises to be of great utility to the husbandman. The original design ofthe Sward- cutter, Avas that of preparing old grass land for the plough, by cut- ting it across the ridges, either at the comme ncement, or in the course of the Avinter. [This machine is much too com- plicated for general use among far- mers ; the account of it is there- fore omitted.] SWEARING, a term used to denote either the uttering of im- pious expressions, or the judicial, and also official invocation of the Deity, to attest the truth of an as- sertion. The security of oaths in import- ant affairr, has in all ages been re- quired by the laAVS of civilized na- tions ; nor is. swearing, on such oc- casions, prohibited by the Christian doctrine. But, though particular S WE S W E 81 circumstances may sanction this expedient, there is no possible ex- cuse for invoking the Creator, to attest the truth of every trifling transaction, or to witness the im- pertinence of idle, perhaps inde- cent, conversation. SWEAT, a perceptible mpist- ure, issuing from the pores of the skin, either in consequence of too violent exercise, or from the ac- tion of certain medicines, which are hence denominated sudorifics ; though it is sometimes occasioned by great debility of the cutaneous vessels, when it is called a cold tweat. SWEATING-SICKNESS, an epidemic which raged in England in 1481, and returned seven times between that period and 1551 ; in which year it proved so fatal, as to carry off 120 inhabitants of West- minster in one day. It commenced with a most profuse fit of sweat- ing, which attacked the patient, and often terminated his existence in one, two, or three hours ; though its violence continued for the space of 15 hours ; and, if he survived 24, the danger was gene- rally overcome. The most correct account of this national scourge, is that published by Dr. Caius, Avho states the symptoms to have been, a sensa- tion of a hot vapour pervading a particular limb, Avhence it extend- ed over the Avhole body, being ac- companied Avith intense thirst; extreme internal heat; profuse sweating ; anxiety ; drowsiness ; sickness ; a violent pain in the head, and delirium....Dr. C. con- jectures the immediate cause of this sickness, in 1551, to have pro- ceeded from thick fetid fogs, that arose from putrid matters; unclean habitations, and the neglect of VOL. V. clearing drains ; all which remark- ably contaminated the air. It is remarkable, that the per- sons most liable to the contagion, were those in full health, of mid- dle age, and of the higher classes ; while children, the poor, and the aged, were less subject to its in-. fluence. [SWEEP CHIMNEY. The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, in London, among the many important subjects to Avhich they have turned their attention, (to the very great improvement of the arts,) meritoriously offered a premium for the best substitute for human labour in sweeping chimnies. The following account of one of the plans offered to the Society, has been published in an English ga- zette : the detailed plan by the in- ventor, will, no doubt, appear in the next volume of the Transac- tions of the Society. It is sincerely to be wished, that Mr. Smart's ideas may also be carried into ef- fect in the United States. " The machine invented by Mr. Smart, of Camden-ToAvn, Eng- land, for sweeping chimnie9, con- sists of a number of wooden tubes, of about thirty inches long, and three quarters of an inch in diame, ter, which run on a rope or cord- and fastened into one another, to any length. To the upper tube is fastened a square brush, the block of Avhich is about six inches long, by three Avicle ; and from it, on all sides, issues heath, broom, or any other stiff but flexible substance, large enough to fill the breadth of the chimney. The tubes are about thirty inches long, of course the joints between each will bend to the most crooked chimney, and in coming doAvn must clear the cor- ners, ledges, he. Avhich are some- M 82 S WI times found in chimnies. In the course of the present year, Mr. Smart has, in the presence of many respectable Avitnesses, effec- tually cleansed several lofty and crooked chimnies. So completely does this invention answer the plan proposed by the several societies who have undertaken to advocate the cause of the poor climbing- boys, that nothing is now wanting to put an end to the common mode of chimney-sweeping. By Mr. Smart's method, a chimney fifty feet high, may be swept in six or eight minutes, and with much less dirt than happens by the common mode."] Sweet-briar. See vol. iv. p. 414. Sweet-fern. See Cicely, the Sweet. Sweet-flag. [See Acorns.] Sweet-william. See vol. iv. p. 276. Sweet-willow. See Gale, the Sweet. SWIMMING, is the art of floating, or supporting the human body on the surface of Avater, with a progressive undulating mo- tion. This art is in a manner natural to man (see Amphicious Ani- mals); and, from its evident uti- lity, it has in all ages formed part of the education both of barbarous and civilized nations....As an out- line of the principles on which it is practised, may be a mean of saving persons accidentally fallen into deep water, we shall give a few directions to that effect, selected from the instructions of Dr. Frank- lin, and confirmed by our own ex- perience. First, the learner ought to Avalk courageously into the wa- ter, till the fluid reaches to his breast; when he must gc.Vdy cL- S WI cline his belly towards the surface ; the head and neck being erect; the breast pressing forward ; the thorax being inflated, and the back bent. Next, the legs must be withdrawn from the bottom, while they are extended or stretchedout; and the arms should be str'u .ien forwards, corresponding with the motion of the former. Swimming on the back is not es- sentially different from the method just described, excepting that the arms are not exerted, and the pro- gressive motion is derived solely from the striking of the legs. With respect to diving, or plung- ing under water, Dr. F. observes, that the swimmer must close his hands together; and, the chin be- ing pressed upon his breast, he ought to make an exertion to bend forwards with energy : while he continues in this position, he should move with velocity under the wa- ter ; and, when he wishes to return to the surface, it will be sufficient to bend his head backward, in con- sequence of which he will instant- ly rise. From the natural timidity, or antipathy to water, Avhich in some individuals is constitutional, no- vices in sAvimming have been ad- vised to employ bladders or corks, for the purpose of supporting the body above the surface ; a prac- tice Avhich has been severely cen- sured. Dr. F. is, however, of opi- nion, that such auxiliary means are useful, Avhile the pupil is ac- quiring the mode of drawing in, and striking out the hands ; which is absolutely necessary to a pro- gressive motion. But, as no per- son can become a perfect adept, till he can sufficiently confide in the capacity of the Avater to sup- port him, he ought to walk into a S WI S WI 83 place, where it groAvs gradually deeper, till it reach to the breast: the face mustthen be turned towards the shore, and an egg be thrown into the water, to such a depth that it can only be obtained by diving. The novice is then to plunge down, when he will find that the element buoys him up against his inclination : he will feel its power of keeping him afloat, and conse- quently learn to venture into it, without apprehension. Considered as an exercise Swim- ming is equally amusing and use- ful; because it combines the ad- vantages of the cold bath and mus- cular exertion. Hence we would uniformly recommend to plunge into the Avater with the head fore- most ; Avhile the body is neither cold nor overheated : no dangerous rivers, or muddy streams, should be selected; nor should this at- tempt be made, till the water has in some degree been warmed by the genial rays of the sun....Other precautions, necessary to be ob- served, have already been stated under the article Bath. See also Bamboe-habit, and Cork. [Swimming Jacket....From the History of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris,for the year 1765. This swimming jacket Avas pro- posed to the Academy, by the Ab- bot de la Chapelle, under the name of Scaphander, or ' Man in a boat,' from the Greek Avords Sxa^, boat, and atttp man. It is a sort of Avaist- coat Avithout sleeves, which de- scends, as far as the hips, and but- tons before. It is composed of two strong pieces of tent-cloth or tick- ing, between which are fixed some square pieces of cork, and the Avhole is closed at bottom with a border of double cloth, projecting from the back to pass between the swimmer's legs, and to be fasten- ed before. By the help of this jacket, and the art wherewith the Abbot de la Chapelle has distri- buted his pieces of cork in it, one may float in the water standing, and keep the head and arms above water. In the experiment that Avas made of it by the Ablx>t de la Chapelle, he could converse Avith those that Avere in a boat to see him; he could lift to his mouth victuals and drink, fire off a pistol; flourish Avith a sword, stick, Sec. assume all possible situations, and make progressive motions by the help of his hands and legs. The notion of these sorts of jackets is not new. The Academy gave aft account of one, in 1757, present- ed by M. de Gelacy, Colonel of foot, and was not ignorant of the attempts that had been made by M. de Puy-segur for swimming, by the help of a belt of cork, fastened to a sort of cloth slipper, the sole of which Avas loaded with lead. This Avould be a good expedient for soldiers, Avho were to swim over a river Avith their arms in their hands : but, as to the case of shipwreck, Avhich the Abbot de la Chapelle had principally in vieAv, it appears, that his scap- hander is preferable to all the in- ventionsofthissorthithertoknoAvi, as Avell because it is more secure in point of use, as because, in a sudden and unexpected case, its application is more ready, and it causes no embarrassment. See Spenci.h and Cork.] Swine. See Ho... SWINGING, a species of pas- sive exercise, which is performed in certain contrivances, known un- der the name of swinging machines, or cars; by the undulating motion of which, the body is tossed in an 84 S W O S WO ascending and descending direc- tion. Swinging greatly contributes to health; and has occasionally prov- ed very serviceable to persons of consumptive habits: it is likewise of considerable advantage to se- dentary individuals; but it ought not to be repeated, if it excite gid- diness, head-ach, or other unplea- sant effects. SWOON, or Syncope, is a sud- den fainting, in which the action of the heart is diminished, or for a time entirely suspended. It is generally preceded by anxiety, difficult respiration; the pulse be- ing low and tremulous; the pa- tient turning cold and pale, so that he is nearly deprived of all sensation......In some instances, these symptoms are more urgent; the limbs are flexible, but exhaust- ed of their strength; and the whole body is in a state of deadly, cold torpor. It is remarkable, that patients, during the fit, often hear the Avhole conversation respecting them, but feel the want of poAver to exert themselves: the recovery is, in most cases, announced by deep and heavy sighs. When swooning occurs in the commencement of acute disorders, it is generally an unfavourable omen; though, in the advanced stages, it is less alarming : in vio- lent bleedings, it frequently affords relief; but, when faintings occur, Avithout any apparent cause, there Avill be just apprehension of dan- ger. Causes ."....Long continued exer- tions of the mind, such as deep study ; violent passions ; loss of strength from profuse evacua- tions, particularly of blood ; hun- ger ; pain ; Avant of rest; sur- feits ; impure air ; Avorms; nar- cotic poisons; and affections of the interior organs. Cure ......The patient should im- mediately be exposed to the open air, and be sprinkled Avith cold Ava- ter on the neck and face. Strong, pungent odours, or volatile spirits held to the nostrils, ought to be used with caution : and only where the strength of the patient has been considerably reduced, espe- cially in hysterics and hypochon- driasis ; in these cases, spirit of hartshorn, tincture of valerian, cas- tor, or asafoetida may be inhaled with advantage....If the SAvooning originate from anger, and be at- tended with nausea, vomiting, bit- ter taste, and pain at the pit of the stomach, a gentle emetic may be given, Avith copious draughts of warm chamomile tea : similar means may likewise be employ- ed in consequence of a surfeit..... Persons of a plethoric habit, when fainting from violence of passion, ought immediately to lose a fevy ounces of blood from the arm; and afterwards take a cooling ape- rient, for instance, infusions of senna,tamarinds with manna,salts, he. If it arise from excess of pain, benefit may be derived from opi- um : and, when it is occasioned by a fit of terror, or a sudden fright, first blood-letting,then small doses of laudanum and antimonial wine, (from five to ten drops of the former, and double that pro- portion of the latter), -will tend to compose the nerves, and to pro- mote perspiration......Poisons and worms require the treatment mentioned under their respec- tive heads.....When the fit of SAvooning is the effect of too vio- lent purgatives or emetics, a few drops of the tincture of opium, in conjunction with an aromatic S YC wine, will prove the most proper remedy. In cases of great debility, it will be necessary to abstain from all stimulating food or drink, and to use the mildest astringents, in combination with a bland and nou- rishing diet. During the parox- ysm, frictions of the extremities with hot flannels, will greatly as- sist the recovery of the patient. Should, however, this state of suspended Animation, be the ef- fect of Lightning, Suffocation, Suspension, he. the proper means of resuscitation will be found in these respective articles. SYCAMORE-TREE, or Syca- more Maple ; Acer Pseudo-pla- tanus, L. a large and beautiful tree, supposed to be a native of Ger- many, but reared in Britain, prin- cipally for the sake of its elegant appearance in plantations....It is of quick growth, though increasing in isize till 200 years old, and attain- ing the respectable age of four cen- turies : it flourishes in exposed si- tuations near the sea,Avhere a plan- tation of these trees, at 50 feet asunder, interspersed with three sea sallow-thorns between every two of the former, makes an ex- cellent fence against the spray of the ocean. The sycamore, thrives in a loose black earth ; [it may be propagated by cuttings,] and the young trees ought to be trans- planted at the age of 15 or 20..... Its wood is soft and white, readily Avorks in the lathe, and is employ- ed by turners, for manufacturing wooden bowls, dishes, trenchers, he. When the sap rises in the spring, or retreats in the autumn, a considerable quantity of sAveet- ish juice exudes from a hole made in the trunk, about 12 inches from the root, amounting daily to 7, 8, SY M 85 or 10 quarts from cch tree. The Highlanders convert this liquor into an agreeable, and wholesome wine : Avhen clarified, evaporated, and subsequently inspissated, it affords a fine, white sugar (in the proportion of one pound from 16 quarts of the sap) ; which, how- ever, is too purgative for common use....There are two varieties of this tree, one having broad leaves and large keys, Avhile those of the other are variegated: the latter is propagated chiefly by inoculat- ing and ingrafting ; as it seldom produces perfect seeds. SYMPATHY denotes an uni- son or agreement of affections and inclinations ; or a conformity of natural qualities,or temperaments; in consequence of which two per- sons are mutually attached to each other. It also signifies the parti- cipation in pain or pleasure ex- perienced by another individual; though it is likewise defined to be an imitative and involuntary fa- culty ; for instance, yawning, and laughing, which affect different persons in a similar manner, and at the same time. Dr. Jackson considers Sympa- thy, as relating to the operations of the mind ; to the activity of the imagination ; and to the impres- sions made on the external senses. Thus, he observes that the Ararious passions and affections of the mind produce different corresponding sensations in the body, and gene- rally determine the animal spirits to those parts Avhich are most lia- ble to be influenced ; for instance, fear and anger to the heart: com- passion, amazement or wonder, sorrow, joy, he. to the head. Another proof of sympathy is the participation in the feelings of others, whose propensity to mirth, 86 SYR SYR or gravity, or to sadness and me- lancholy, is in a manner contagious to whole companies. The operations of the imagina- tion, hoAvever, as connected Avith sympathy, are chiefly confined to the body ; and,in general, influence only persons of weak minds: hence arise many of those monstrous de- formities occurring in the metro- polis, but Avhich might have been obviated by a proper exertion of reason, before the fancy Avas too much excited by the most se- ductive faculty, namely, that of vision. The senses receive a sympathe- tic impression from odious or dis- gusting objects. Thus, disagree- able sounds set the teeth on edge, and produce an universal tremor or shivering: the taking of nau- seous draughts, or other drugs, occasions a shaking of the head and heck. Similar effects arise from unpleasant odours ; and, if a person suddenly AvithdraAV from the sun into the shade, or from a light place into a dark room, an inclination to shudder "will be the immediate consequence.....Those readers, who are desirous of ob- taining farther explanations of these ideas, will derive instruction from the perusal of Dr. Jackson's Treatise on Medical Sympathy, (8vo. 5s.)....Some ingenious con- jectures on this subject also occur in Dr. Adam Smith's Theory of Moral Sentiments. SYRUP, a solution of sugar, frequently employed as a vehicle for various medicines ; forming a •sweet liquor, of a thick consist- ence, which is made by combin- ing saccharine matter v ith wa- ter, vinegar, or the juices of ve- getables. Syrups AVere formerly consider- ed as medicines of considerable efficacy ; but, .at present, they are used chiefly for sheathing, or con- cealing the taste of nauseous sub- stances ; yet, as there are certain drugs, Avhich are peculiarly ser- viceable in this form, we shall give a feW directions for preparing them : First, the vessels employ- ed ought to be Avell tinned, and kept perfectly clean, lest any im- pure matters be introduced : the sugar should be doubly refined and dissolved in a Avater-bath, in the proportion of 25 oz. to one pint of water, or any other liquid : the Avhole is then suffered to stand for 24 hours, when the scum must be removed, the syrup be strained, and poured into a vessel, where it remains till the following day. If any saccharine crust then ap- pear, it ought to be taken off the surface, and the liquor will be fit for use. Syrup of Vinegar :.....Let 2|. pints of vinegar be boiled Avith 31 lbs. of double-refined sugar, till a syrup be formed. This solution is very pleasant; is often employ- ed in mucilaginous mixtures ; and, from its cheapnesses far preferable to the syrup of lemons. Emetic Syrup consists of two drams of finely pulverized glass of antimony, and 12 oz. of Rbenish- [or Lisbon, Teneriffe, or Fayal- Avine :] these ingredients must be digested in a gentle heat for three days, when the liquor ought to be strained through paper, mixed Avith double-refined sugar, and made into a syrup in the usual manner. This preparation is strongly im- pregnated Avith the emetic pro- perties of the antimony, and is peculiarly calculated for children, on account of its agreeable taste. Syrup of Lemon-juice :......Let SYR SYR 87 five parts of double-refined sugar, and three parts of filtered lemon- juice be incorporated, so as to form a syrup. The juices of mul- berries, raspberries, and black cur- rants, may be converted into sy- rup in a similar manner: they are all cooling, pleasant liquids, and may be advantageously em- ployed for mitigating thirst in bi- lious, or inflammatory disorders; and also for gargling the fauces, in cases of inflammation of the mouth and tonsils. T. T AL TACAMAHACA, a gummy- resinous substance, obtained from the Carolina Poplar. The best sort is collected from the fruit of the tree, in gourd-shells : it is somewhat soft and unctuous, of a pale-green, or yellowish colour, and a fragrant odour, resembling that of amber-grease, or lavender. The drug commonly met with in the shops, consists of variegated semi-transparent grains, procured from the sap exuding through in- cisions made in the poplar; and Avhich are greatly inferior to the genuine species. Tacamahaca is chiefly employ- ed externally, for discussing tu- mors, promoting their maturation, and mitigating pains in the limbs; though the finer sort may be ad- vantageously used for the same purposes, as other balsamics. TALC, a species of fossil, found in England, Bohemia, Spain, Sec. comprehending three varieties, namely : 1. The Talcite, or Scaly Talc, is dug in small light scales, which adhere to the fingers : it is white, T AL intermixed with green ; and, when rubbed on the skin, imparts "a bright gloss. 2. The Venetian, or Common Talc, is also Avhite, interspersed with green or red veins. 3. The Schistose Talc is of a slaty nature, and a grey hue, spot- ted with white, green, or blue ; but, on exposure to the air, it be- comes white and scaly. This mineral is employed in pre- paring compositions for earthen vessels : on account of its smooth- ness, brightness, and unctuous quality, it has been celebrated as a cosmetic ; and various unsuccess- ful experiments have been made, with a view to extract from it oils, salts, and other supposed ingredi- ents.... When combined with alka- line salts, it is fusible in a strong heat, and forms a transparent, handsome, greenish-yellow glass : if equal portions of talc and of chalk be melted together with one- fourth part of borax, ,the mixture will produce a fine pellucid green- ish glass, which is of considerable lustre and hardness: gypsous earths 88 TAN TAN may also with advantage be substi- tuted for the chalk, and the result will be a beautiful, pellucid yellow glass, of equal brightness and du- rability. TANNING, is the art of pre- paring leather from raw skins and hides, so as to render it more pli- ant and durable. The processes employed for this purpose, arc various ; every tan- ner adopting some peculiar me- thod : Ave Jaave therefore selected the following, which is practised with little difference, in the metro- polis and its vicinity ; where the leather is divided into three sorts, known under the names of backs, or butt's, hides, and skins. The strongest hides are selected for the butts ; and, after being di- vested of the horns, they are laid in heaps for one or two days during the summer, and for the space of five or six, in the winter. Next, they are suspended on poles in a smoke-house, or room containing a fire, made of wet tan, to induce a slight degree of putrefaction, so that the hair may be stripped off; an object which is effected by spreading such hides on a wooden horse, and scraping them with a curved knife. They are then im- mersed in water, to be cleansed from all dirt, and extended a se- cond time on the horse, when all extraneous matters must be care- fully removed. The hides are now steeped in a pit containing ooze, or a strong liquor, prepared by infus- ing ground oak-bark in Avater; after which they are plunged into another pit, containing water pow- erfully impregnated with oil of vi- triol, or Avith! an acid obtained from rye or barley. They are next im- mersed in another pit filled with Avater; a stratum of bark being streAved between each hide. In the course of five or six Aveeks, the skins are taken out; and the water together with the decayed bark,be- ing removed, the pit is a second time filled with ooze; the hides are again macerated, Avith similar stra- ta between each, for three months. The same operation is then re- peated a third, and, after the lapse of three months, a fourth time : here the hides remain for three months longer, at the expiration of which they are completely tan- ned ; being thus drawn out, they are suspended on poles; when, after being compressed by a steel pin, they are beaten by wooden ham- mers, or beetles, to render them smooth; and then dried for sale. The leather known under the name of hides, is made from the skins of cows, and those of lighter oxen, in the following manner: The horns are first taken off, the hides Avashed and immersed in a pit full of lime-water, where they remain for a few days ; after which the hair is stripped off, as above described. They now undergo va- rious processes, similar to those already detailed, excepting that the ooze is not at first of equal strength ; and that the hides are shifted every second or third day, for the space of six months, into a stronger liquor ; being at length put into a very rich ooze, where they are turned twice every week, for tAvo or three months. Thus prepared, they are carried to ano- ther pit, with layers of bark ar- ranged betAveen each hide ; the process being again repeated for a similar period, Avhen they are ta- ken out, and treated in the same manner as the butts. Both spe- cies of leather here described, are employed for the soles of pumps, TAN T A N 89 shoes, boots, he.; being finer or stronger, as occasion may require. The last division of leather is that of skins, which includes all that is manufactured from those of calves, dogs, he. They are washed in water: then plunged in lime- Avater, and deprived of their hair by the same operation as hides ; after removing all uneven and su- perfluous matters, the skins are soaked in a pit of water impreg- nated with.the dung of pigeons, for a week or ten days, in order to ex- tract all the particles of lime, grease, Sec Next, they are treat- ed in a similar manner with the hides; and, in the course of five or six months, they will be suffi- ciently tanned.....The leather thus prepared, is now conveyed to the currier ; and, after undergoing the process detailed, vol. ii. p. 299, it is used for the upper parts of boots, shoes, Sec. Such are the old methods com- monly practised in tanning : these, however, being too tedious and ex- pensive, various expedients have lately been devised, Avith a view to shorten the respective processes, and to procure substitutes for oak- bark. Thus Dr. Mac.-jride pro- posed the use of vitriolic acid, in- stead of that obtained from vege- tables ; which, having been found very serviceable for distending the pores of the skins intended for butts, has been generally adopted by tanners ; as it improves the lea- ther in point of durability ; and at the same time tends to facilitate or simplify the operations. He also recommended lime-water to be substituted for the common fluid, to promote the extraction of the astringent matter from the oak- bark ; but, the former being very powerful, and apt to injure the tcx- VUI.. V. ture of the leather, it is seldom employed. [Mr. Seguin has proved, that in the Avater impregnated Avith the soluble parts of tan, there are two very distinct and different substan- ces : the one which precipitates a black matter from iron, is the gallic acid or principle ; the other, which precipitates animal gelatin or glue, is called the tanning firincifde,owd.e- 'count of its efficacy in the prepa- ration of leather. This discovery enables us to ascertain the pre- sence of the tanning principle in any substance immediately ; for every substance of Avhich the in- fusion is capable of precipitating animal gelatin, possesses it. Theexperimentsof Mr. Biggin, (London Philoso/i. Trans: 1799,) shew, that similar barks, when taken from trees at different sea- sons, differ as to the quantities of tannen they contain, and Mr. Davy observed, that the proper- ties of the astringent principle in barks, vary considerably according as their age and size are different ; besides, these proportions are often influenced by accidental circum- stances, so that it is very difficult to ascertain their distinct relations to each oth-jr. Mr. Davy, (Trans. Royal Soc. Lon. 18(fc>.) is of opinion, 'that as lime and pot-ash form compounds Avith tannen, Avhich are not decom- posable by gelatin, it follows that their effect must be highly pernici- ous, and that there is very little rea- son to suppose, that any bodies will be found, which, at the same time that they increase the solubility cf tannen in Avater, will nojt likewise diminish its attraction for skin." Dr. Macbride's recommendation therefore of lime, does not appe. r judicious, and the excellent hint of N 90 T A N Mr. Davy should be carefully at- tended to by all who make expe- riments upon tanning. From some late experiments by Dr. G.WTiLKiNsoN,it appears, that the bark of the broad-leaved wil- low, (salix latifolia) possesses the astringent or tanning principle in a very large proportion (see Tor- men til) and that the nitric acid acts more powerfully on vegeta- bles containing tan, than either the sulphuric or muriatic acids : the former of which, according to Dr. Willich, is used by the London tanners. See, Experiments and observations on the Cortex salicis Latifolia, or broad-leafed willow bark, by Dr. Wilkinson, New Castle upon Tyne, 1803, 4s. 6rf.] Oak-leaves, gall-nuts, dried and pulverized heath, the barks of the birch and willow-trees, the dried and powdered leaves of the wild laurel, and numerous other vege- table productions, have been tried, and proposed, as useful substitutes for oak-bark: numerous experi- ments were also made with plants, by Gleditsch, Bautsch, Boh- mer, ar d other writers ; but, as we state the r.sults of these in the pro- gress of our work, it remains only to mention the following patents, among the multitude granted at different periods; naioely: 1. The privilege obtained by Mr. Sa- muel Ashton, in January, 1794, for his new method of tanning..... 2. Mr. John Tucker's patent, dated in May, 1795, for a mode of tanning and making leather in a much shorter period, and of a su- perior quality, than can be effected by the common method......3. Mr. William Desmond's la January, 1796 ; for a process communicated to him (by Mr. Seguin), of tan- ning hides, Sec. by rendering them TAP more solid and incorruptible in water.....4. Mr. Robert Cross's-, in April, 1797, for a tan-pit on a new construction, and a method of tanning in one-half of the usual time, Sec.....5.Mr. Francis Breav- in's, in June, 1799, for an im- proved process of tanning hides and skins.....Asthe specification ofthese patents, however intersting to the tanner, are partly too diffuse, and partly of such nature as not to ad- mit of abridgment, the curious reader will consult the 1st, 3d, 6th, and 11th vols, of the Repertory of Arts, he. where full specifications are inserted, and occasionally il- lustrated with plates.....See also Currying, Hides, Leather, Skins, Sec. TANSY, the Common, or Ta- nacetum vulgare, L. an indigenous perennial, growing in elevated meadows and pastures, on the banks of riA'ers, and in swampy si- tuations ; flowering in the month of June. This plant possesses a warm, bitter taste ; it is deobstruent, not ungrateful to the palate ; and may be used as a substitute for hops.... The tender leaves are sometimes employed to impart a colour and flaAour to puddings : according to Dr. Withering, its seeds are an excellent vermifuge ; and, if any animal substance be rubbed with this herb, it will be effectually pre- served from the attacks of the flesh-fly...... Tansy-tea is recom- mended as a preventive of the gout.....From the expressed juice of this vegetable, the Finlanders obtain a green dye.....The plant is eaten by cows and sheep, but re- fused by horses, goats, and hogs. [TAP-COCK. A very ingenious contrivance to prevent the neces- sity of a vent-peg, in a beer or TAP TAP 91 cyder barrel, was lately invented by Mr. Robert Hake, Jun. of Philadelphia. It has two perfo- rations, one for the admission of air, commencing at the point of insertion in the cask, and termi- nating at the top of the key ; an- other for the emission of the fluid, commencing at the same point, and proceeding to the nozle in a direction nearly similar to that of the instrument in ordinary use..... By this highly useful economical invention, vast quantities of liquor which are annually made sour or vapid by the careless omission of the vent-peg of barrels, will ba preserved from acidity, and in their original briskness. The editor has a pleasure in being able to say, that the inventor is about taking measures to bring this excellent Tap-cock into gene- ral use ; and that a more full ac- count, illustrated by engravings, will be found in the 6th vol. of the American Phil. Trans, now in the press by Miss Aikin.] TAPE-WORM, or Taenia, is one of the most tormenting worms, breeding in the bowels of the lower animals, as Avell as of man- kind, and consisting of several spe- cies, namely ; the armed and un- armed ; the long and short-limbed, or broad tape-worm ; but that most frequently occurring in Britain, is the solium, Avhich moves about, and has a regular round head, resem- bling a Avart. It is from one, to twenty yards and upwards in length ; the body is composed of a number of articulated rings, or joints, by which it attaches itself to the membranes of the intes- tines. The symptomsby which the pre- sence of this creature may be as- certained, are those, cf wcrms in general, such as nausea ; vomk!ng; giddiness ; indigestion ; colic ; an 1 flatulence : the patient feels a pres- sure in certain parts of the abdo- men : which, on shifting its place, mostly produces a chilling sensa- tion in the lower belly, or in the back. A more certain, and in- deed the only criterion is, the ex- pulsion of one or more pieces of the worm itself. Cure:.....An extraordinary num- ber of remedies have been sug- gested, and tried, with various success : nor can such diversity of effects appear surprising, if the difficulty of expelling the tape- worm be considered ; as, in the attempt, portions are frequently broken off and discharged : Na- ture having endowed this monster with a power of regeneration, it soon acquires its former size, and excites the same turbulent motions, We shall, therefore, state only those remedits which appear to be the most efficacious 1. The celebrated specific of Mad. Noui-'eer, Avas purchased, and published, by the King of France.....[For a notice of which See Fern.] 2. The method of carrying off the tape-worm, recommended by Herrenschwandt, is as follows : The patient i:iust swallow o.ic dram of the male fern two succes- sive mon.ings, before breakfast ; and, in the evening, two hours after a light supper. On the third morning, the following powder is likewise to be taken before break- fast, and followed by large potior.s of weak tea: Take cf purified gamboge, 12 grains ; sab of worm- v.cod 20 grains, ami Stai: key's soap (a composition cf distilled o'.l and fixed vegetable alkali) 2 gi abis; the wh-de to be duly ir.ec.-pora!.. 92 T A V TAR ed : three hours after, 1 oz. of cas- tor-oil is to be swallowed in a cup of beef-tea, and repeated once or twice at similar intervals. If the worm be still retai.e:!, a clyster, consisting of equal parts of milk and Avater, Avith 3 oz. of castor-oil h to be shallowed in a cup of beef- tea, and repeated once or twice at similar intervals. If the worm be still retained, a clyster, consisting i-i equal parts of milk and water, with 3 oz. of castor-oil, must be in- ■ jec.ted in the evening, which is ge- nerally productive of the desired effect. 3. The last of these specifics (as they are vainly styled), is that which Mathieu, an apothecary of Berlin, lately asserted to have dis- covered ; and for which the pre- sent king of Prussia honoured him with a title, and pension for life. On reviewing these boasted re- roe diesj it becomes evident that their principal efficacy is derived from the male fern, combined with various drastic purgatives ; though it cannot be denied, that the auxiliary ingredients have, in f/>me worm cases, proved equally successful. But all those drugs having been knoAvn to the medical world for centuries, it is to us a matter of surprize, that a man, Iil?e Mathieu, should have the effrontery to offer this cluster of vermifuges as things of his own in- vent'or, and obtain from the royal band, a giltlaurel, for Avhich others have for past a^es, toiled in vain! Nay. Ave are informed that, in a p riicular case, his pretended spe- cific has also failed.....Quackery remains the same, Avhether cover- ed with embroidered scarlet, or v. - medy, or at least to check, this se- rious evil ; an evil which, like a slow cancer, consumes the vital principle, and exhausts the best sources of a country. As the Tea-tree grows princi- pally between the 30th and 40th degrees of latitude, it might be ea- sily raised in Europe: indeed, from the success with which plantations of this shrub haA'e lately been es- tablished by a society of nuns in Franconia, near Wurzburg, there is great reason to believe, that it would also prosper in the south- ern counties of Britain, if proper attention Avere paid, till it become habituated to our climate. There are, besides, many indigenous ve- getables that may be advantage- ously substituted ; such are Sage, Balm, Peppermint, and similar spicy plants ; the floAvers of the Sweet Woodroof ; those of the Burnet, or Pimpernel Rose ; the leaves of Peach and Almond- trees ; the young and tender leaves of Bilberry, and Common Rasp- berry ; and, lastly, the blossoms' of the Black-thorn, or Sloe-tree; most of which, when carefully ga- thered, and dried in the shade (especially if they be managed like Indian tea-leaves), can with diffi- culty be distinguished from the fo- reign teas, and are at the same time of superior flavour and salu- brity. [The late Rev. Dr. Mattheav Wilson, of Lewis, in DelaAvare, who Avas a learned divine, an ex- cellent physician, as well as a firm patriot, endeavoured to reconcile the Americans to the loss of their favourite infusions at thebeginning of the revolutionary Avar, by point- . ing out the evil effects which a constant use of tea, produce in the system ; and proposed a number of substitutes, chiefly from among our native vegetables. The fol- lowing are in the list. 1. Sassafras root, sliced thin and dried, with raspings of lignum vi- tx. This, Avhen drank weak is pleasant, and clears the com- plexion. 2. Sweet marjoram, and a little mint, relieves the head and nerves, and strengthens the stomach. 3. Dry sage and green balm leaves are astringent, stimulating and strengthr.ir.g. 4. Rosemary and lavender, ex- cellent for disorders in the head. 5. A few small twigs of white- oak, Avell dried in the sun, with TEA T E A 97 two leaves of sweet myrtle : this is so good a counterfeit of true tea, that good judges might mis- take them. 6. Fennel seed, and inner bark of magnolia, (spiceAvood) is a poAV- erful remedy against agues and hysterics. For the paper contain- ing a list of substitutes at length, the reader is referred to Aikin's Pennsylvania Magazine for 1775. It is probable that at the pre- sent day, but few of the above sub- stitutes Avill be used for Chinese tea, and yet considering the im- mense sums in dollars, which are annually sent out of the country for this article, it is sincerely to be wished that some substitute could be generally adopted. For by an official statement, it appears, that the amount of teas Avhich paid du- ties, after deducting the exporta- tions from the importations, for each year, of the years 1791 to 1800, Avere, 28,000,184lbs. The average duty is 15 cents per pound. There can be no doubt of the climate of some part of the United States, being as favourable for the tea plant, as the climates of China or Japan, and the Americans Avho visit China, would render a service to their country, by introducing the plant.] Teas are divided, in Britain, into three kinds of green, and five of Bohea. The former class in- cludes, 1. Imperial, or Bloom Tea., having a large leaf, a faint smell, and being of a light-green colour : 2. Hyson, which has small curled leaves, of a green shade, inclining to blue : and 3. Singlo Tea, thus termed from the place where it is cultivated. The Boheas compre- hend : 1. Souchong, which, on in- fusion, imparts a yellowish-green colour. [The Padre Souchong, V'jI.. V. has a finer taste and smell than the common sort.] 2. Camho, a fine tea, emitting a fragrant violet smell, and yielding a pale shade : it receives its name from the pro- vince Avhere it is reared. 3. Fekoe Tea, is known by the small Avhite flowers that are mixed with it. 4. Congo, has a larger leaf than the preceding variety, and yields a deeper tint to water : and 5. Com- mon Bohea, the leaves of which are of an uniform, green colour. There are, besides, other kinds of tea, sold under the names of Gunpow- der-Tea, he. which differ from the preceding, only in the minute- ness of their leaves, and being dried Avith additional care. Much has been said and written on the medicinal properties of tea : in its natural state, it is doubtless a narcotic, or stupefying plant; on which account, even the Chinese refrain from its use, till it has been divested of this property by the processes above described. If, hoAvever, good tea be drunk in mo- derate quanties,with sufficient milk and sugar, it invigorates the sys- tem, and produces a temporary ex- hileration ; but, when taken too copiously, it is apt to occasion weakness, tremor, palsies, and va- rious other symptoms, similar to those arising from narcotic plants ; while it doubtless contributes to aggravate the hysteric and hypo- chondriacal complaints, which now very generally prevail in both sex- es. This drug has, farther, been supposed to possess considerable diuretic and sudorific virtues; which, however depend more on the qua?ititii of Avarm Avateremploy- ed as a vehicle, than the qualitv of the tea itself. Lastly, as infusions of these leaves are the safest re- freshment after undergoing great O 98 TEA TEE bodily fatigue, or mental exertion, they afford an agreeable beverage to those who are exposed to cold weather ; at the same time tend- ing to support and promote that perspiration which is otherwise liable to be impeded. TEASEL, or Dipsacus, L. a ge- nus of plants exhibiting five spe- cies : three are indigenous; but the principal is the fullonum (more properly sativus), Manured, or Tuber's Teasel. It is raised from seed, Avhich must be scattered on ridges, 7 or 10 inches apart, in the proportion of two pecks per acre. The most properseason for its pro- pagation, is the month of April: the soil ought to be a strong, rich clay, or, Avhat agriculturists term, a good wheat land. The young plants should be carefully Aveeded; and, if they grow too closely to- gether, it Avill be proper to thin thcm,tothe distance of one foot. In the spring of the second year, the teasels must be earthed up ; and, in the succeeding month of July, the heads will begin to flower. In August, as soon as the blossoms decay, such heads must be cut off, and exposed daily to the sun, till they become completely dry ; care being taken to shelter them from rain. The teasel is an article of consi- derable importance to clothiers, Avho employ the crooked awns of the heads, for raising the knap on Avoollen cloths. For this purpose, they are fixed round the periphery of a la?ge broad wheel; against which the cloth is held, Avhile the machine is turned. Lastly, the blossoms of the teasel supply bees with honey ; and the Avater, which collects within the cavities of leaves grown together, is said to be an useful application to Aveak or in- flamed eyes; and likewise to afford a harmless cosmetic for removing spots from the face. TEETH, a set of bones, situated in the upper and lower jaws, for the purpose of mastication: in adults, there are 32 in number, or 16 in each jaAV-bone. The teeth are of various size, being arranged in the following order: four in the front, termed cutting teeth, on each side of Avhich is a sharp-pointed, canine, or eye- tooth ; adjoining to these are five grinders on each side, the last of which is denominated the tooth of Avisdom ; because it seldom ap- pears before the 25th year. The front and eye-teeth are furnished Avith only one root each; the two first grinders with two; and the hindmost generally Avith three or four ; which may in most persons be ascertained by the number of small tubercles on the croAvns. The tooth is . divided into two principal parts; namely, the crown, which projects above the gums; and the root, that is inclosed with- in the sockets: the crown is a hard, fine, glossy, vvhite enamel, serving to defend the substance against ex- ternal injury : the root is open at the bottom, where it is connected Avith vessels and nerves, by which it received nourishment, life, and sensation. As an account of the manner in which the teeth are formed, may prove interesting to reflecting read- ers, Ave shall proceed to state con- cisely the process of dentition, or teething; and conclude with a short analysis of the diseases to Avhich these useful bones are frequently liable. In an embryo of 3 or 4 months formation, instead of the sockets, small cells are observable: these TEE TEE 99 are separated by thin membranes, each of which progressively ex- hibits a vascular bag, containing a soft knob, that is covered by the rising tooth, forming a hard coat; but the enamel appears to origi- nate from crystallized matter..... During the rirst year, the two middle front teeth in the under jaw, and shortly after, the two up- per ones, become visible: they are succeeded by the foremost front teeth. In the commencement of the second year, the first grinder, on each side, groAvs successively in the under and upper jaws : the next in rotation, are the canine or corner teeth, and finally, about the third year, there rise from tAvo to three grinders on each side. About the seventh year, all these teeth are, by an effort of Nature, gra- dually replaced by a new set, to Avhich are joined, in the tenth or eleventh year, another grinder, and, at a later period, the tooth of wisdom. During the progress of denti- tion, children are subject to various affections, such as convulsions, in- flammation, fever, he. occasioned by the pressure of the teeth, in burst- ing through the gums. At this period, a moderate looseness, or a copious flow of saliva are, in ge- neral, favourable signs. With a view to promote the latter, it will be advisable to let the child chew or gnaw such substances, as have a tendency to mollify the gums, and, by their pressure, to facilitate the protrusion ; for which purpose a piece of liquorice or marshmallow root, he. will be of service ; or, the gums may be softened and re- laxed, by rubbing them with sweet oil, honey, or other emollients..... Costiveness should be removed by mild aperient clysters. If, how- ever, all these endeavours prove in- effectual, relief has often been de- rived from an incision made in the gum; though such operation should be undertaken only by the surgeon. In cases of extreme weakness, the application of blisters behind the ears, or to the back, will prove be- neficial; and, as distressing symp- toms frequently arise from crudi- ties and obstructions in the first passages, it will be necesssary to attend to this circumstance: thus, if the child be troubled Avith acidi- ty and flatulence, the testaceous powder, or calcined magnesia Avith a few grains of rhubarb, mixed Avith powder of sweet fennel-seeds, will form a very useful remedy; or, when Avorms torment the infant, the means suggested under that article, should be speedily adopt- ed. On this occasion, we deem it our duty, in the strongest terms to caution parents against the use of laudanum, and other composing medicines, especially Avhen the bowels are obstructed. With respect to the diseases of the teeth, Ave shall, in this place, mention only such as occur more frequently, and which are, by pro- per attention, or by external ap- plications, easily removed....From a vieAV of the nature and formation of the teeth, it must be evident, that Avhatever may tend to remove the enamel, for instance, acrid dentrifices and tinctures, hard me- tallic tooth-picks, sudden changes from heat to cold (specially in taking food), by exposing the nerve, cannot fail to produce the tooth-ach; and, in the course of time, a decay of the bone itself. There are even instances, where such corruption, unless timely checked, has extended its influ- ence to the jaw-bone. Nothing, 100 TEE TEE however, contributes to injure them more certainly than unclean- liness ; by Which a kind of tartar is generated, that settles on the teeth, and separates them from the gums : thus, the air and the food coming into immediate con- tact with the bony substance, will prove a never-failing source of pain and distress. Cure :....As it would be a vain attempt to point out any specific, by which the tooth-ach can be re- moved, we shall recommend only such remedies as are adapted tothe several causes, from which it may originate....If the patient be of a plethoric habit, or the gums be considerably inflamed, recourse should be had to bleeding, parti- cularly by leeches and cupping- glasses, applied contiguously to the part affected: next, blisters behind the ears, or on the nape of the neck, will be found of service. Dr. Cull en recommends vitriolic aither to be dropped on the cheek, and to hold the hand on the part, till that volatile liquor be evaporat- ed. Should, hoAvever, the pain still continue, without intermis- sion, a few drops of laudanum on cotton, laid on the tooth, will sometimes afford relief. Where the bone is hollow, and decayed, it will be advisable either to have it drawn by an able dentist, or to resort to such substances as destroy the nerve : the latter object may be effected by a careful application of the strong mineral acids, juni- per-oil, or by a red-hot wire ; but this operation, which has frequent- ly produced the desired effect, oi.L.it never to be entrusted to an unskilful person.....As the tooth- ach, is frequently induced by cold, and attended with symptoms of Catarrh, it will in such cases be requisite to follow the direc- tions given in that article. This complaint, likewise, often proceeds from affections or debility of the stomach ; a source which may be ascertained by the symptoms of indigestion, such as loss of appe- tite, nausea, vomiting, and head- ach, with this peculiar circum- stance, that the pain generally re- turns at regular periods. In such case, relief can only be expected from a proper use of emetics, and mild aperients, succeded by a ju- dicious course of the Peruvian bark, and similar tonics. Another source of these affec- tions, is an irregular disposition, or arrangement, especially of the front teeth, and mostly in the se- cond set. It may proceed cither from some of the first set having been suffered to remain in the jaw, after the second has appeared; from a Avant of space in the jaw- bone ; or from mal-conformation. In these cases, the only effectual remedy is that of extracting such of the teeth, as by their situation obstruct their neighbours, and sometimes occasion considerable distress. If the teeth should be loosened by external violence, they may again be fixed, by pressing them firmly into the sockets, and pre- serving them in that situation, either by a silk, or other ligature attached to the adjoining tooth:.... the patient, however, ought to subsist entirely on spoon-meat, or other soft and liquid food, till the desired effect be attained. But, Avhere this separation arises from a sponginess or weakness in the gums, mild astringents, for in- stance, a solution of alum and su- TEL TEL 101 gar, tincture of bark, catechu, he. Avill serve to consolidate the sur- rounding parts. For cleansing and preserving the teeth, burnt bread, or bark, ap- plied by the small finger, or on a piece of calico, will be found a safe and useful dentrifice.....Lord Dundonald recommends, for this purpose, a weak solution of Soda. Lastly, in cases Avhere a substi- tution of artificial teeth should be deemed necessary, these useful bones ought to be manufactured from the tooth of the Hippopota- mus, or river-horse; and on no account whatever to be taken from other persons. There are instances on medical record, where the lat- ter practice has communicated in- fectious diseases, and eventually proved fatal. TELESCOPE, one of the most useful optical instruments, con- sisting of a long tube furnished with several glasses, for the pur- pose of viewing distant objects.... This term is mostly applied to the larger kinds of telescopes; the smaller ones being called perspec- tive-glasses, spy-glasses, opera- glasses ; and a particular species, Avhich is much brighter than any other, is known under the name of night-glasses. v Telescopes are of extensive uti- lity, both in naval and military pursuits, but especially for contem- plating the celestial bodies: hence the merit and honour of their ori- ginal invention have been claim- ed by many ingenious men. Ac- cording to the most accurate ac- counts, however the authentic con- triver Avas Zacharias Jansen, a Dutchman, who produced his first instrument in the year 1590. Since that period various improvements and additions have been made by Galileo, Kepler, Huygens, Mersennus, Gregory, Short, Ramsden, Dollond, Adams, and numerous other philosophers and artists. The most important are, those accomplished by Dr. Her- schel, whose grand instrument, Avhen furnished Avith proper glass- es, magnifies upwards of six thou- sand times. It would be incompatible with our plan, to enter into the ratio- nale, or an account of the princi- ples on which telescopes are in general constructed. We shall, therefore, only remark, that a com- plete description of the machinery of Dr. II.'s noble instrument is in- serted in the Philosophical Trans- actions of the Royal Society, Part ii. for 1795 ;.....and Ave shall pro- ceed to state the principal patents Avhich have been granted to differ- ent individuals. The first, within our knowledge deserving notice, is that obtained in April, 1791, by Mr. Robert Blair, for his method of improv- ing refracting telescopes, and other dioptrical instruments ; Avhich is fully detailed in the 7th vol. of the Repertory of the Arts, he. In January, 1799, a privilege was granted to Mr. Cater Rand, for an improved military and na- val telescope, serving to ascertain distances, Sec. at sight, by means of a new micronietrical adjust- ment. His instruments are made refracting, achroamatical, or re- flecting ; and the micrometer is furnished Avith four parallel Avires, fitted to brass, silver, or other metallic, converging and diverg- ing, plates, together with other machinery ; the Avhole of Avhich is so arranged, that the interme- diate distance between two un- 1052 T E M TEN known places may, together with the height or size of such dis- tance, be easily ascertained.....A full specification oi this ingenious contrivance is inserted in the 12th vol. of the work above quoted, where it is illustrated by an en- graving. The last patent Ave shall men- tion's that procured by Mr. Dud- ley Adams, in May, 1800: for his invention of a mode of render- ing telescopes, and other optical glasses, more portable. This use- ful object is effected by employing certain springs, which are so con- trived as to occupy the least pos- sible space, while they render the instrument to which they may be applied, strong and steady, on be- ing drawn out: and, in order that the several glasses may acquire their true positions or distances, when such joints or tubes are drawn out, he has invented certain fiaunches, for fixing and retaining them in every situation, in which an observer might find it necessa- ry to place them. For a minute account, the curious reader is re- ferred to the 15th vol. of the Re- pertory of Arts, Sec. Avhere the pa- tentee's improvements are exem- plified by a plate. TEMPERANCE,strictly speak- ing, denotes the virtuous practice of those, Avho restrain their sen- sual appetites : it is, however, ge- nerally used to express moderation, in which sense it is indiscriminate- ly applied to all the passions. Temperance has been justly termed the virtue Avhich bridles the inordinate desires : it is, in- deed, closely connected with pru- dtnee and justice. It silences calumny, and substitutes extenua- tion for slander ; expels avarice from the bosom ; and thus de- monstrates that true happiness con- sists not in contemplating useless wealth, or indulging in ambitioua pursuits, or in the gratification of a vitiated palate ; but in a con- tented mind. The votary of tem- perance views Avith equal disgust, the sallies of unjust resentment, and those of riotous mirth : he beholds the melancholy conse- quences of intemperance; learns to extinguish revenge, and every desire Avhich humiliates a rational agent; thus proving that such vir- tue is the parent of many others, while it is attended with peace, prosperity, health, and satisfac- tion. Without expatiating on this to- pic, let it suffice to observe, that it if a duty incumbent on all parents, to rear their children with a strict regard to temperance ; as, by ad- hering to this rule only, they are entitled to enjoy either health or longevity. Those of our readers, who are desirous of farther infor- mation on this interesting subject, will meet with judicious hints in Mr. Nelson's Essay en the Go- vernment of Children, he. (8vo. 5s. Dodsley) ; and particularly in Dr. Harwood's little tract, enti- tled, " Of Temperance and Intem- perance" he. (8vo. 2s. 6d. Becket, 1774) : in which their effects on the body and mind, and their in- fluence in prolonging or shortening human life, are discussed in clear, energetic language ; and confirm- ed by examples. Tempering. See Case-hard- ening, and Steel. TENDONS, or Sinews, in the animal frame, are ligaments, by vvhich the motion of the joints is performed. The principal affections of ten- dinous parts, proceed from exter- TEN T E T 103 nal violence, by which they may be wounded or lacerated. In these cases, surgical assistance ought to be immediately procured ; other- wise, inflammation, fever, and even death, may be the consequence. If a tendon be partly divided, a few drops of Peruvian balsam poured into the Avound, Avill be found an excellent remedy. But the principal relief in Avounded or ruptured sinews, will be derived from keeping the limb in such a posture as to relax the muscles, and thus to facilitate the re-union of the injured part; after which, a proper bandage of fine soft flan- nel should be tightly passed round the limb, in order that the muscles may be retained in a state of ease, till a complete cure be accom- plished. A swelling sometimes appears on the tendons, particularly those of the wrist and ankle, where it is called ganglion. Such tumors are of an elastic nature, moveable, and generally arise from external inju- ry, rheumatism, Sec. : in many in- stances, they spontaneously disap- pear ; but in the contrary case, friction, and gentle compression, by means of a thin plate of lead, secured by a proper bandage, will generally be sufficient to remove them. Should this treatment, how- ever, not prove efficacious or an inflammation of the part ensue, it Avill be advisable net to neglect surgical aid. TENNIS, a play requiring mus- cular exertions, and at which a ball is driven, by means of a racket. This game is of French origin, and was introduced into Britain in the 17th century : it is performed in a long court, denominated a tennis-court, across which a net is suspended : through the latter, the ball is stricken by a racket; and, accordingly as it is driven into cer- tain galleries, the game is lost or won. Tennis is played by sets, each of which comprebends six games ; but, if an advantage-set be pro- posed, 7 successiA'e games must be obtained, by or.e or other par- ty....As, however, our limits will not permit us to enter into parti- culars, the inquisitive reader may consult Mr. Hoyle's " Games Im- proved," by Mi-.Beaufort (12mo. 3s.), in which the rules of termia are fully explained. Terra Japonica. See Cate- chu. TERRIER, or Canis terrarius, a variety of the dog-kind, Avhich is of different colours, being some- times spotted, though generally of a liver, or black hue : its body sel- dom exceeds 18 inches in length, and the head is embellished with short, smooth, pendent r?n;. Terriers are very useful to agri- culturists, especially for extermi- nating rats, pole-cats, and similar depredators. Farther, these ani- mals are remarkable for their vigi- lance, and are therefore frequently employed as house-dogs ; but their principal services consist in hunt- ing badgers, foxes, rabbits, and other quadrupeds which burrow under ground ; because they enter the holes of such wild creatures, and either kill or draAv them out of their hiding-places.......\n ac- count of the disease to Avhich ter- ries are liable, the reader will find in the article Dog. [TETRAO, a genus of bird-, comprehending several species, 3 of which are natives of the United States. 1. The Grous: l.e Gelinoite- huflee de I'Amerique, of Brisson. 104 T E T THE Pinnated Grous, of Latham and Pennant. These birds abound in the Ioav- er part of the state of New-Jersey, and on the bushy plains of Long- Island, state of NeAv-York. The male crows for half an hour about day-light, and at that time erects his wing-like feathers, which com- monly hang on each side of the neck. They breed in July : their chief food consists of huckleber- ries, and acorns of the dwarf oak. In the winter season, they resort to the pines. The female is small- er than the male, less bright in colour, and is without the wing- feathers on the neck. 2. Tetrao Tympanistes, L. The ruffed heath cock, or pheasant of Pennsylvania. A common bird throughout all North America. The male has a ruff on each side of the neck, Avhich he raises at pleasure. The head is crested, the general plumage is brown, in- clined to the rusty on the back, prettily varied with black. The black on the ruff is disposed in broad black bars. The under part of the bird, is light Avith large bjpwn bars. The tail is large and expansible like a fan, in some of an ash, in others of an orange colour. The feet are feathered, toes pecti- nated. The female is without ruff and crest; the plumage in general is like the male. These birds are remarkable for a practice of clapping their Avings, against their sides, in the mornings and evenings of spring and au- tumn. They swell their breasts like the pouting pigeon, and with their Avings, make a noise not un- like a drum in sound, and short- ning each sounding note till they run one into another undistinguish- ably, like two empty bottles strik- ing together. They are particu- larly fond, of the buds and leaves of laurel, (Kalmia latifolia,) which when eaten late in the winter, com- municate a poisonous quality to the flesh :....See Kalmia.] Tetters. See Ringworm. THEATRE, signifies the place in Avhich spectacles, or dramatic representations, are exhibited. The drama was originally in- vented in Greece ; Avhence the rules of it have been gradually dis- persed over the civilized nations of Europe. It Avould, however, be inconsistent with our limits, to trace its progress from rudeness to refinement, or vice versa: we shall, therefore, content ourselves Avith remarking, that dramatic per- formances afford to many persons an agreeable relaxation, after the toils of their industrious pursuits. And, though play-houses have often met with violent opposition, as tending to corrupt the morals of the people ; yet, if they be ma- naged with a due regard to deco- rum, and moral truth, inculcating only virtuous precepts, they doubt- less deserve encouragement. In- deed, the tendency of plays de- pends principally on the opinions, manners, and taste of the public : for, as the chief object of those who devote themselves to the stage, is the acquisition of wealth and fame, or notoriety, it follows that if such taste be gross or cor- rupted, the representations AviU also partake of the general depra- vity, in order to please a mixed audience : on the other hand, if the national sentiments be elevat- ed and refined, the performances Avill likewise be divested of rude and licentious expressions ; so that the theatre will then be fa- THE vourable to the cause of virtue and morality. As the language of the drama ought to be alike free from affec- tation and ambiguity, we think it highly censurable in performers, either to extemporize, where a fa- vourable opportunity offers for passing off a vulgar joke ; or to substitute words, the meaning of which admits of an explanation unfaA-ourable to moral purity. It Avould be superfluous to point out the danger of such licentiousness, especially to the young female breast, Avhich is thus impercepti- bly contaminated in the presence of parents and guardians. Nor can we approve of another singularcus- tom, now prevalent in our thea- tres ; namely, that of accompany- ing the most serious drama, or a* tragedy, Avith what is vulgarly called an entertainment, or a. farce : thus, every grain of taste in the audience, is completely effaced ; and it appears to us nearly in the same light, as if a person, after hearing an impressive discourse, retires to an adjoining tavern, in order to drown the calls of con- science, by profuse libations to Bacchus. THERMOMETER, or Ther- moscope, an instrument for mea- suring, with accuracy the degrees of heat or cold in the air, water, he.....It is probable, that the ex- pansion and contraction of bodies, in consequence of heat and cold, afforded the first idea for the con- trivance of this useful scale. The thermometer was invented early in the 17th century ; and, on account of its extensive service in the arts, manufactures, and domes- tic life, the original merit of con- structing this valuable instrument is variously attributed to Cornk- vol. v. THE 105 lies Drebbel, Paul Sarpi, Ga- lileo, and Sanctorio; though, we believe, the person first men- tioned, deserves the credit of hav- ing invented the earliest thermo- scope, in the year 1638, at Alk- maar, in North Holland. It Avas, however, an imperfect attempt; being regulated solely by the ex- pansion of the air ; and serving at the same time as a barometer ; for his tube contained a mixture of Avater and aqua-fortis. Hence it was, in its primary state, called an air-thermometer; and, after substituting various other liquids, which Avere adopted by the Flo- rentine Academy, by Sir Isaac Neavton, and other philosophers, but, which, on account of their un- certain properties, have long been disused, Dr. Halley proposed, in the year 1680, to employ quick- silver for this important purpose. Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit, a native of Dantzig, Avas the first Avho successfully availed himself of that suggestion, in 1709 ; when he produced his newly graduated tube, containing the mercurial fluid...... He ascertained the artificial freez- ing point in the same year, during the severe winter; by observing, that a mixture of snow and sal- ammoniac, uniformly caused spi- rit of wine to descend to the point marked, and no farther.....Hence, he Avas induced to denote such part of bis cylindrical tube Avith O or zero ; from this point to that of the usual temperatrre of the human body in a healthy state, he divided the intermediate space into 96 de- grees; and thence to that of boili.ig water into 126°, so that the latter mark, in his s ale, rises exactly to 212°. Thus, Fahrenheit claims not only the merit of having intro- duced the most scientific and con- P 106 THE THE venient division of the thermome- trical scale, but also that of adopt- ing the mercurial fluid, which is doubtless the most proper, and perhaps the only one furnished by Nature, for measuring the various degrees of heat and cold, in the most accurate and sensible man- ner.....M. De Luc has proved, by conclusiA'e arguments, the superi- ority of thermometers supplied Avith mercury, over those contain- ing alkohol; and that the rising of the mercury, at all seasons, very nearly corresponds with the in- crease of heat. On the other hand, De Serviere remarked, that the column of mercury, in a perpen- dicular thermometer, tends to im- pede the accurate motion of this metallic fluid, on account of its own specific gravity: hence, he has judiciously proposed to reme- dy such defect, by keeping the instrument in a horizontal position. M. De Reaumur, in 1730, pro- posed a new division of the ther- mometrical scale, by introducing 1000 parts of diluted spirits of wine into his tube with the usual globe, then commencing to count Mmi 6 upAvards, to the boiling point, which he marked Avith 80°. Such contrivance, however, hav- ing been found inconvenient for calculating the different degrees of heat and cold, with sufficient ac- curacy, Reaumur's globes, with their tubes, were subsequently also furnished Avith mercury ; and are at present chiefly employed by the French, and in some parts of Ger- many.....To enable the reader to form a distinct idea of the differ- ence subsisting between the two instruments, here described, Ave shall subjoin a comparative table of their scales. [Above the o (zero) of Reaum us , or. Below the o (zero) 32° of Fahren- of Reaumur. heit. Reaum. Fahrt n. Reaum. Fabren. 0 32 T5 o 32 TTJ 1 34 2 1 29 8 2 36 5 2 27 5 3 38 6 3 25 2 4 41 4 23 5 43 3 5 20 S 6 45 5 6 18 5 7 47 7 7 16 2 8 50 8 14 9 52 5 9 11 8 10 54 8 10 9 5 11 56 8 11 7 2 12 59 12 5 13 61 2 13 2 8 14 63 5 14 5 15 65 8 15 o 1 8 16 68 16 4 17 70 3 17 6 2 18 72 5 18 8 5 19 74 7 19 10 8 20- 77 20 13 21 79 2 22 81 5 23 83 8 In the above 24 86 mode, the scale 25 88 2 may be continu- 26 90 5 ed above or be- 27 92 7 low the freezing 28 95 point. 29 1 97 2 The manner of computation in Reaumur's, as well as in Fah- renheit's thermometer, is by de- cimals, every degree being divided into 10 parts ; but for their respec- tive gradation, 32 degrees of Fah- renheit's thermometer must be considered as corresponding with o in Reaumur's ; and each degree of Reaumur's, either above or be- Ioav o, be counted as equal to tAvo degrees and a quarter of Fahren- heit's. THE THE 107 So, four degrees below o of Reaumur's correspond with 23 degrees in Fahrenheit's; as four degrees above o in Reaumur's likewise correspond with 41 de- grees of Fahrenheit's; and so, fractionally, in the same propor- tions, either above or below. Hence, to reduce Reaumur to Fahrenheit, the rule is, multiply the degrees of R. by nine, divide the product by four, add 32 to the quotient, and the sum will give the degree on F.'s scale....And to re- duce F. to R.....From the degrees of F. subtract 32, multiply the re- mainder by four, and divide the product by nine, the quotient will be the degree of Reaumur. The thermometer may be ap- plied to the important purpose of discovering the nearness of a ship to a shoal, coast, bank, rocks under water, and islands of ice, at night, in fogs, and Avhen the weather is too boisterous to sound. Mr. Jo- nathan Williams has published an interesting paper on the sub- ject, in 3d vol. of the Trans. Amer. Phil. Society, from which the fol- lowing is extracted. " In the months of August and September, 1785, I was a fellow- passenger with the late Doctor Franklin from Europe to Ame- rica, and made, under his direction, the experiments mentioned in his description of the course of the gulph stream, an accountof vvhich was annexed to his maritime ob- servations, and published in the Amer. Phil. Transactions, vol. ii. page 328, 1 then determined to re- peat these experiments in my fu- ture voyages. Accordingly on a passage from Boston to Virginia, in October 17t59, I kept a journal of the heat of the air and Avater at sunrise, noon and sunset; I then noticed that the sea Avater, out of soundings, was about 10 degrees warmer than that on the coast, and it very naturally occurred to me that the thermometer might be- come an useful nautical instrument to indicate an approach to the shore. I thought it prudent, however, to keep this idea to myself till after I had made a course of fair and repeated experiments, which I ac- cordingly did during four passages, first, the one from Boston to Vir- ginia abovementioned, second from Virginia to England, third, from England to Hallifax, and fourth, from Hallifax to New-York. By consulting these journals and ob- servations, made at the dates wrii- ten, together with the tracks of the ship's way, marked in a chart given in the 3d vol. Amer. Phil. Trans. p. 84. it will not only appear that Dr. Franklin's account of the warmth of the gulfih stream has been amply confnmed, but also that banks, coasts, islands of ice, and rocks under Avater, may be discovered Avhen not visible, and Avhen the Aveather is too boisterous to sound, with no other trouble than dipping the thermometer into the sea Avater. It is Avell known to sailors, that the water on the banks of Newfoundland is cold, but as they only try this, with the hand, their remarks are contradictory owing to the varied temperature of the hand, and I never heard of any further application of Avhat they thought a matter of curiosity. Dr. Franklin's observations had the knoAvledge of currents for their object, and this extension of his discovery did not occur; but as I am indebted to his instructive con- versation and example, for my in- ducement to pursue philosophical researches, Avhen in my power to 108 THE do so, he may be considered as the original author of Avhat is iioav pre- sented for examination. " It may not be amiss to state such facts as it is presumed the experiments have a tendency to establish. 1. The water over ba?iks is much colder than the water of the main ocean, and is more cold in propor- tion as it is less deep. " 2. The Avater over small banks is Ess cold than that over large ones. " 3. The Avater over banks that are near the coast is warmer than that over banks far distant, but it is colder than the adjacent sea. " 4. The water over banks of the coast, i. e. those immediately connected with the land above Ava- ler, is warmer than that over those which admit deep water between them and the coast; but still it is colder than the adjacent sea. " 5. The Avater within capes and rivers does not follow the above rules; it being less agitated, and more exposed to the heat of the sun, and to receive the heat from the circumjacent land, must be colder or warmer than that in soundings Avithout, according to the seasons, and temperature of the atmosphere. " 6. The passage, therefore, from deep to shoal water may be discovered by a regular use of the thermometer, before a navigator can see the land ; but as the tem- perature is relative, no particular degree can be ascertained as a rule, and the judgment can only be guided by the difference. Thus, in August I found the Avater off Cape-Cod to be 58° of Fahrenheit, and at sea it Avas 69°; in October the water off Cape-Cod avss 48°, and at sea it was 59°. This dif- THE ference Avas equally a guide in both cases, though the heat was differ- ent at different seasons. " I do not presume to say what is the cause of this difference of heat betAveen the sea and bank water, but if a navigator Avere to observe it when near an island of ice, he would very naturally say that the ice conducted the heat from the circumjacent Avater, and left it colder than at a distance. And as it is Avell known that stones and sand are great conductors of heat, it seems probable that banks also conduct the heat from the adjacent water, though not so rapidly as the ice. The heat of the water may indeed be supposed to seek its equi- librium, but as long as the islands of ice and banks continue to con- duct, there must be some differ- ence, and this it is, which, by atten- tion, may be made a faithful sen- tinel to give an alarm when danger is near. " I have thought it my duty to present my journals as they were written at sea, to avoid the suspi- cion of having added any thing from the suggestions of the imagination. While this will be received as a cir- cumstance favourable to the truth of them, I hope it will also operate as an apology for their many im- perfections. '; My journal from Boston to Virginia, shows that the Avater on the coast of Massachusetts, Avas at 48° ; at sea between that coast and the stream, 59°; in the gulph stream at its edge, 67° ; between that, and the coast of Virginia far- ther southward, 64° ; and in sound- ings on that coast, 56°. At that season (in October, just after the warm Aveather) the Avater greAV warmer as Ave approached the land. " My journal from Virginia to THE England shows, that in December, the Avateron the coast of Virginia Avas at 47° ; betAveen the coast and the stream, 60°; and in the stream, 70°. This current being in our favour, Ave did not avoid it, and the water continued with little variation, till we came near the banks of Newfoundland, when the thermo- meter fell from 66 to 54 ; passing these, it rose again to 68°, and then continued a very gradual de- scent as we Avent to the northward, 'till we struck soundings, when it was at 48°. " It may be here observed, that the decrease in the heat of the wa- ter was so gradual as to give but one degree in a day's run, Avhile in going to, or coming from the coast of America, the thermome- ter will alter eight or 10 degrees in a few hours run. It is well known, by sounding, that the Eng- lish coast extends Avith a very gra- dual descent to a great distance. It is also known that the American coast does not extend very far, and the water is suddenly deep.... Let these facts be compared with the changes in the thermometer, on the two coasts' and they will agree Avith what has been said about the usefulness of that instru- ment. " It may be observed in Doctor F« anklin's journal on board of the Reprisal, that in November 1776, when near the banks of Newfound- land, his thermometer fell 10 de- grees, though considerably to the southward of them, and after pass- ing them it rose nearly to its for- mer state: the Doctor did not make any observation on this circum- stance ; but it agrees with my jour- nal, in nearly the same place, made wine years afterwards. THE 109 " My journal from England to Hallifax, shows the changes in the heat of the water as we sailed over banks and deep water alternately, with an accuracy that I confess, exceeded my expectation, the land appearing as the thermometer in- dicated our approach to it. « My journal from Hallifax to New-York not only shows the va- riety of depths we passed over, but indicates theinner edgeof the gulph stream. As by the thermometer and soundings it appeared to me that the ship Avas a-head of the reckoning, I made allowances for the eddy current of that stream in our favour, and comparing these with the chart, I noted in the jour- nal, the longitude I thought we were in, under that calculated by the ship's officers: whatencouraged this opinion, was the disagreement between the soundings by the lead, and those marked on the chart, in the places Avhere, by the common reckoning, the ship was supposed to be : Avhile upon the other sup- position they both agreed. When Ave made the land this latter reck- oning turned out accurate, and I Avon a small bett of the Captain v.ho candidly acknoAvledged the usefulness of the thermometer, and declared that he Avould in future always have one on board. " Finding the coast of America to grow suddenly deep as it ap- proaches the gulph stream, and finding continued soundings from Cape-Sable to New-York, I am in- duced to believe thr.f it has its shape according to the course of that current, and that it is connect- ed in a sweep from the banks of Newfoundland to Florida, the vari- ous banks being only eminences of the coast. If my apprehension of 110 THE THE the accuracy of thermometrical observation is well founded, it Avould be an easy thing to make a general survey of the coast under water, more particularly than has hitherto been done by sounding. " On the chart annexed ihe tracks of my several passages are marked with the daily heat of the water in degrees according to Fah- renheit, by which the A'ariations on the approach to land may be seen at one view. The edge of the gulph stream is also traced ac- cording to the experiments as far as the banks of Newfoundland: how far it runs to the eastward I do not pretend to say ; but having found a current in the natural direction of its sweep among the western islands, I am inclined to think it extends so far, before it turns off to the southward. It may be ob- served, however, that as this stream, like all other currents, must be af- fected by storms on either side ; it may, as these prevail, run some- what nearer or someAvhat farther distant from the coast. Mr. Williams found by "some experiments on fish, that their ani- mal heat was 16 colder than the water at the surface ; from which it may be supposed that the water at bottom is in proportion colder than that above. It may be natu- rally suggested, that trying the heat of the water at the surface, (the only way in one's power when sailing rapidly through it,) is too inaccurate to be depended on, since the surface must be heated by the atmosphere. To this it may not be amiss to answer......1. That by repeated experiments at the depth of 30, 40, and 60 fathom I have found the waterbelow, out of sound- ings, to be no more than six de- grees colder than that above ; and at four or five fathoms depth, when the sea was agitated, there Avas no difference worthy notice. 2. When the sea is not agitated, and the surface, by being exposed to a hot sun, is warmer, the weather being calm, it is easy to have water from a considerable depth ; this I have found to make a difference of one or two degrees only, and it is easy to make the allowance. 3. The difference of heat which marks an approach to land is sufficiently sensible at the surface for the pur- pose of giving notice of danger, I have generally found it to be six degrees in three hours' run, and long before we Avere near enough to be in danger. Upon the whole, as it is fact, and not argu- ment, Avhich should inspire belief, I Avish every doubting navigator to endeavour to confute me, by mak- ing other experiments, and there- by, if he can, detect the fallacy of mine." Mr. Williams has given a chart of his different tracks alluded to in the above, Avhich cannot fail to be highly interesting to navi- gators. Mr. Joseph Donath, of Phila- delphia, by similar experiments in the winter of 1791, during a voyage to Hamburg, Avas led to the same conclusions, and communicated to the editor the folloAving striking fact, to prove the very great im- portance of regular observations. On the eighth of May 1794, Avhen on the banks of Newfoundland, the mercury in the thermometer, when immersed in the Avater, fell from nine to three, in the course of six hours, viz. from four, P. M. to 10 o'clock ; at 12 at night it fell to 2. The captain, alarmed at the cir- THE eumstance, immediately awoke Mr. D. who, suspecting the dimi- nution of temperature in the wa- ter, to proceed from the approach to islands of ice, advised the cap- tain to stand off. He accordingly did so, and when day-light appear- ed, saw several islands of ice, dis- tant about four or five miles. At ten o'clock, in 35 fathoms water, the mercury rose to six. In July 1803, the British packet, Lady Hob art, during a darknight, ran foul of an island of ice, on the banks of Newfoundland, which oc- casioned the vessel to founder: had regular observations of the temperature of the ocean-water been taken, this awful accident might have been prevented. The above interesting obser- vations of Messrs. Williams and Donath, are confirmed by Mr. Strickland, (Amer. Phil. Trans, vol. 5.) and Mr. Poyntell of Philad. during a late voyage from London to the United States; and should induce masters of ves- sels to keep a regularset of observa- tions, especially when near land, in unknoAvn parts, or on the banks of Newfoundland.] It Avould be needless to describe the various thermometers invented during the la6t century ; because the two instruments before men- tioned have received almost univer- sal sanction ; feAv others being at present employed, either by artists or men of science. Hence Ave shall merely observe, thatDi-: L'Isle, at Petersburgh, contrived a new ther- mometer, in 1733, Avhich is di- vided into 50°.....Prof. Christin, of Lyons, proposed a scale of 100 equal parts betAveen the freezing and boiling points : this division was adopted by Prof. Celsius, in Upsala, whose improved scale, con- THE 111 sisting of 100 exact degrees, is generally used in Sweden. There are many other'thermo- meters, among which, those of Ducrest of Geneva; by Stroh- meyer and Brander, in Germa- ny ; by Grubert in France (who, together with the three preceding, contrived the Universal Thermo- meter, which contains the compa- rative scales of 28 different instru- ments) ; by De Luc ; Renaldi-, ni; Cavendish; Konigsdori er; Mudge ; the Bernoullis'; Fox- tana ; Achard ; Lichtenberg; Landriani ; Saussure ; Cas- telli ; and Luz. The first idea for constructing a metallic thermometer, or properly, pyrometer, was furnished by Gra- ham, and improved upon by Mor- timer, Ingram, Count Loser, Fitzgerald, Felter, and at length brought to perfection by Wedgewood. This ingenious ma- nufacturer (of the finest earthen- ware frombassaltic masses, or terra- cotta) has rendered an essential ser- vice to society, by his method of ascertaining high degrees of heat: for this purpose he employs small cubes of dry clay ; because that species of earth has the remarkable property of contracting in its bulk, Avhen submitted to the fire, and not again expanding, on suddenlv exposing it to the cold air. In or- der to ascertain the precise degree of heat in an oven, he puts one of his clay-cubes into it; and, after having acquired the temperature of the place, he immediately plunges it into cold Avater. Now, the size of the cube (that Avas exactly adjusted to half an inch square) is measured between tAvo brass rules, the sides of Avhich are somewhat obliquelv disposed, so as to form an irregular groove, into which the cube may 112 T H I THI be slidden. In proportion as the bulk of the latter has been contract- ed by hdat, it passes down deeper between the scales, on which the various degrees of temperature have been previously marked. Thus, Avhen the division of the scale com- mences from the point of red heat visible in day-light, and the whole range be divided into 240 equal parts, it will be found that Swedish copper melts at 28; gold at 32 j iron at from 130 to 150 degrees: above this point, the cubes could not be heated. But, if one of these clay squares be put into an oven where other materials, such as bread, earthen-ware, &c. are to be baked, they may be usefully em- ployed, for regulating the neces- sary degree of heat. THIRST, is an uneasy sensa- tion, Avhich arises from a deficiency of saliva, for moistening the mouth, and lubricating the throat. Thirst is generally occasioned by the use of strong, salted, or highly- seasoned food : a moderate degree contributes to the preservation of health ; as it requires a certain pro- portion of drink, to promote di- gestion ; but, if it become exces- sive, it is in most cases a symptom of fevers, dropsies, Sec. The most effectual way of alle- viating thirst, Avill be the use of di- luted vegetable acids; or the chew- ing of a crust of bread Avith a little Avater, which liquid may be gradu- ally swallowed. Where this un- pleasant sensation, however, is consequent on any disease, the re- moval of the latter together Avith the aid of diluent liquors adapted to its nature, and taken in small quantities, will also prevent the re- turn of thirst. In other cases, Avhere the use of acids or profuse draughts of diluents, might be pro- ductive of injury to the constitu- tion, this complaint may sometimes be obviated, by chewing the root of the pellitory, or some similar substance, which excites and in- creases the flow of saliva. Lastly, as thirst is often the concomitant of excessive Hunger, and may sometimes occur at sea, the adop- tion of the expedients pointed out in that article, will generally afford relief. THISTLE, or Carduus, L. a ge- nus of plants, comprising 38 spe- cies ; 10 of which are indigenous ; the following are the principal: 1. The marianus. See Milk- thistle. 2. The lanceolatus, or SpEar- thistle, groAvs on rubbish, and road-sides, where it flowers in the months of July and August—Ac- cording to Dr. Withering, this species vegetates on ground newly turned up, where no other Aveed Avill thrive: under the shelter it affords, new plants will speedily appear, and the Avhole become fer- tile. Its flowers, like those of the artichoke, possess the property of curdling milk. It is not relished by hdrses, cows, or goats ; and is totally refused by sheep and swine. 3. The acaulis, or Dvvari- thistle, thrives in mountainous and rocky, dry pastures; floAvering in the month of July.....This spe- cies is perennial, and should be carefully extirpated; as it is ex- ceedingly destructive to the herb- age growing beneath its shade. It is Avholly rejected by coavs. 4. The Benedictus, or Blessed Thistle, is an annual exotic, cul- tivated in gardens: it flowers in the months of June and July, and produces ripe seeds in autumn..... Its leaves possess a penetrating bitter tasle, and have an ungrate- THI THO 113 ful flavour which, by keeping them for some time, is mostly dissipated. /v decoction of this nauseous plant is sometimes used to excite vomit- ing; and likewise a strong infusion, to promote the operation of other emetics. Good effects have occa- sionally been derived from the Blessed Thistle, in loss of appetite: or where the stomach was impair- ed by irregular"ies. A strong in- fusion, either in cold or warm Ava- ter, drank freely, occasions a copi- ous perspiration, and promotes the secretions. All the species of this neglected vegetable, may be usefully employ- ed for various purposes : thus, the seed-crowns of the thistle afford both a valuable material for manu- facturing Paper, and a kind of strong cloth ; the ashes obtained by burning the whole plant, are of great service in glass-houses; and the young, tender, mealy stalks may be dressed, and eaten as sub- stitutes for asparagus. THISTLE, the Cotton, Com- mon, Argentine, or Woolly OnopordUm, Onopordon Acan- thium, L. a native biennial, grow- ing to the height of 6 feet, on rub- bish, and road-sides, where it flow- ers in July. This vegetable is re- fused by cows, horses, and sheep: .....its expressed juice, was among the ancients reputed to be a spe- cific in cancerous cases.....the re- ceptacles or bases of the flower- cups, together with the stems, may be boiled and eaten like artichokes. ...The woolly substance em eloping the seed, is equally useful in the manufacture of cloth and Paper, (see vol. iv. p. 225)......The seeds of this remarkable plant also pro- mise great advantages to the indus- trious husbandman: Ave ham from Durande, a French Avriter, in the VOL. V. Bibliotheque Physico-economique vol. ii. p. 122, that he collected a number of the seed-crowns, weigh- ing 221bs. from Avhich he obtain- ed 121bs. weight of seed ; and, on expression, Sibs.of excellent lamp- oil, greatly superior to that of lin- seed, and equal to olive-oil. Thistle, the Sow. See Sow- Thistle. THOF. N-APPLE, theCoMMox, or Datura S rumonium, L. origi- nally a n«-.iveof America, but now indigenous in some parts of Bri- tain, vvbere it grows among rub- b'.s'.i, and on Dunghills; flowering in the month of July. The seeds of this vegetable have always been classed among the violent narcotic poisons : though, according to Baron Storck, and other German physicians, the in- spissated juice of its leaves has, on the Continent, been success- fully employed in maniacal cases : the dose is from one to ten grains, or upwards, to be taken in 24 hours.....It may likewise be ad- ministered internally, both in con- vulsive and epileptic affections. Dr. Withering observes, that an ointment prepared from the leaves, affords relief in external inflammations, and especially in the piles. [It is also highly bene- ficial in burns, and to allay the swelling of a cow's udder.]...Either the seeds or leaves, if swallowed by accident, occasion delirium, tre- mor, swelling, itching, insupport- able thirst, palsy, and death : they likewise tend to inflame the skin. The most effectual antidotes Avill be, speedy emetics, followed by copious draughts of olive-oil and vinegar, aided by soap-clysters..... The thorn-apple is, nevertheless, eaten by cows, goats, and sheep ; but refused by horses. Q 114 THR THR THRASHING, oi-Threshing, in rural economy, is the operation, by Avhich grain is separated from the straw. Thrashing is performed by dif- ferent methods, in various parts of the globe: thus, in the eastern climates, corn is trodden out by oxen, cows, horses, mules, and even by asses: while in Europe, •%he flail is generally employed.... This implement is certainly prefer- able to the feet of animals ; as it is not only more expeditious, but the labour is executed in a much cleaner mode than can be effected by the latter. But, notwithstand- ing these advantages, thrashing with the flail, is liable to many ob- jections ; being too laborious, even for persons of considerable strength: and, as they are often paid in pro- portion to the quantity of corn thrashed, such Avork is seldom ac- complished in a perfect manner ; so that numerous grains generally remain in the straw. To remedy these inconveniencies, machines of various construction, have been in- vented ; and, as some of these con- trivances promise to be of great advantage to agriculturists, we shall give an account of the most valuable. In Mr. Boys' General View of the Agriculture of the County of Kent (8vo. 4s. Nichol), we meet with an account of a thrashing- machine erected in a barn on his farm......as our limits will not per- mit us to describe its mechanism, we shall only remark, that it re- quires four horses, eight men, and four boys, to remove the corn from a distant part of the barn ; to feed the mill; attend the winnowing- fan ; and stack the straw. Thus, if the corn yield abundantly, the machine will thrash out three quar- ters of wheat, four of barley, or five of oats, within one hour, in a cleaner manner than can be effect- ed by the usual mode ; so that nearly one-half of the expence will be saved. [Various other plans have been proposed for threshing machines. in England, but they either have been so very expensive, that few could use them, or so complicated that they soon were put out of order: and the public is still undecided as to the superiority of any one. In the United States there have also been a few contrivances for thresh- ing ; the latest of which was in- vented by Mr. Christopher Hoxie of Hudson, New York, and with some improvements, promi- ses to be more perfect than any yet known.] x THRIFT, or Statice, L. a genus of plants comprising 22 species, 3 of which are indigenous : the fol- loAving are the principal: 1. The Limonium. See Laven- der-thrift. 2. The Armeria, Common Thrift ; Sea-gilliflower ; or Sea-cwshion, which is perennial; grows in meadoAvs, and on rocks near the sea-coast; Avhere it flow- ers in the months of May and June. When in full blossom, it presents a beautiful sight in pasture-grounds; on which account, it is likewise of- ten planted in gardens, as an edg- ing for borders. The Sea-gilliflower forming whole swards, or tufts of grassy, solid, and smooth leaves, its cul- ture is much recommended in loose sands, Avhich are thus speedi- ly consolidated : the naked stalk, in general, attains only the height of 6 inches. The plant is eaten by horses and goats, but refused by sheep. THR THR 115 THRIPS, a genus of insects com- prising 11 species, that are vari- ously named, according to the trees which they infest. These vermin are extremely minute ; having a small slender body, and a rostrum, or beak, which is scarcely percep- tible to the naked eye : they are very pernicious to fruit-trees, at- tacking both the leaves and fruit; but may be extirpated by resorting to the method already pointed out, vol. ii. p. 162. THROAT, or the ca\Tity behind the tongue and the curtain of the palate : the soft parts of which it is composed,are the common integu- ments and the muciparous glands. The principal use of these parts be- ing destined to support and facili- tate swallowing, breathing, speech, and hearing, it is obvious that all local affections, by which the ex- ercise of these functions may be impeded, require serious attention. But, as most of the diseases to Avhich they are liable, have already been discussed, we refer to their respective heads : thus, for inflam- mations in the throat, the reader will consult the articles Quinsy ; Swallowing, and Tonsils. Throat-wort. See Giant Bell-flower. THROSTLE, or Thrush, Tar- dus musicus, L. a well-known Bri- tish bird, which, in its melodious notes, is excelled only by the night- ingale. Its head, back, and lesser coverts of the wings, are of a deep olive-brown ; and the inner surface of the latter is yellow. The cheeks and throat are mottled with brown and white ; the belly and breast are of a pale-yellow colour, with large black spots. Throstles build their nests in some low bush or thicket: exter- nally, they are composed of earth, moss, and straw, but the inside is curiously plastered v, ithclay. Here the female deposits five or six pale- bluish green eggs, marked Avith dusky spots. The throstle is by some believed to be the finest sing- ing bird in Britain, on account of the sweetness, variety, and conti- nuance of its melody. From the top of high trees, it exercises its harmonious voice, and for the greater part of the year, amuses us Avith its song. THRUSH, a disorder incident to infants, and of which the fol- lowing are the principal symp- toms : Small whitish or grey pus- tules appear on the fauces, ex- tending over the surface of the tongue, and adjacent parts ; the former is swoln, and the whole assumes a purplish colour : some- times the pimples are scattered, and distinct, but generally conflu- ent, adhering closely to the mem- branes : if rubbed off, they speedi- ly grow again, and remain for an indefinite period. This disease is not confined to the mouth and throat, bat in some instances extends to the gullet, stomach, and alimentary canal; quantities of aphthous pustules haA'- ing been vomited up, and also void- ed by stool: in these cases, how- ever, the patient is commonly at- tacked Avith fever and anxiety, hic- cough, and hoarseness. The principal cause of this ma- lady is a weak digestion, by Avhich the milk becomes coagulated, and unfit for aliment; though it is fre- quently induced by cold and mois- ture. The thrush likewise occurs in the course of other disorders, or, in consequence of certain active medicines; but,underthese circum- stances, it cannot be considered as a primary affection, and most- 116 THR TH U ly disappears, when the patient is in a convalescent state....The fol- lowing conditions prognosticate a favourable event: namely, when there is neither fever nor loose- ness ; the deglutition is easy; the appetite returned; and Avhen the pustules are of a white colour. Cure :....lf the thrush be of a mild nature, it will in general be sufficient to administer the follow- ing powder to the nurse: Take of calcined magnesia, 1 oz.; orange- peel, SAveet-fennel, and white su- gar, finely pulverized, of each 2 crams; mix the Avhole, of which a tea-spoonful may be taken in Ava- ter, twice or three times a-day :.... in obstinate cases, it will be advis- able to give the child about a third or fourth part of the quantity pre- scribed for the nurse. During this treatment, the following composi- tion should be applied, with a view to cleanse the mouth : 1 dram of pulverized borax, with 1 oz. of ho- ney of roses. Where costiveness prevails, it will be preferable to regulate the bowels by mild emol- lient clysters, repeatedly injected, until the desired effect be produc- ed ; for, if the pustules should spread over a considerable part of the ali- mentary canal, laxatives taken by the month, are apt to increase the irritation, and to occasion copious stools, tinged vvitb blood. Where the nipple of the nurse is affected with the thrush, the fol- lowing solution may be applied with advantage ; namely, 2 scru- ples of borax dissolved in 1 oz. of elder-flower water, or tea, adding half an ounce of honey of roses : the nipples should be anointed with sweet oil, before the infant is placed to the breast; in order to prevent immediate contact. As, in some cases, the thrush is situated considerably deeper than the throat, and even within the stomach, great benefit may then be derived from a decoction of car- rots in water; or 1 ounce of lin- seed with 1 pint of water, boiled to the consistence of a thick muci- lage, and mixed with 2 oz. of ho- ney : a table-spoonful of the latter preparation may be given occa- sionally. In order to prevent this trouble- some complaint, infants ought to enjoy a pure air ; while the ut- most attention should be bestowed on the cleanliness of both child and nurse, by daily bathing and washing Avith tepid Avater ; which practices remarkably promote in- sensible perspiration. Farther, the mouth of infants should be fre- quently washed, especially after drawing the maternal milk, and during the progress of dentition : nor should their bowels be neg- lected ; and, when obstructed, they must be attentively relieved by the use of manna, tamarinds, and other mild aperients. Thrush,in Horses. SeeFRUSH. THUNDER, a loud noise occa- sioned by the explosion of a flash of lightning, that is re-echoed from the inequalities on the surface of the earth, and frequently forms a continued rolling or rumbling sound. Various theories have been pro- posed by naturalists, to account for this grand and awful phenomenon; but, like that of lightning, it is now generally understood to arise from electricity. Thunder is frequently produc- tive of beneficial effects on animal and vegetable nature ; as its vio- lent concussions contribute to dis- perse the noxious vapours collected in the atmosphere, during sultry THU mad dry summers : it may also be regarded as a prognostic of the weather. Bradley remarks, that frequent thunder, without light- ning, is generally followed by tem- pestuous winds; but, in the con- trary case, it predicts copious and sudden showers. With a view to prevent fatal ac- cidents, during violent thunder- storms, the erection of Conduc- tors has been strongly recom- mended. It has been remarked, by accu- rate observers, that the noise of thunder is not experienced oftener than 16 to 18 times in the year, at any fixed place. This phenome- non occurs most frequently in the months of May and July ; name- ly, in the proportion of three to one, Avhen compared Avith the months of April and September; but only in that of two to one, when contrasted with June and August. During the months of April and September, the number of thunder-storms is equal; and likewise in June and August.... They arise generally with a south- wind; less frequently Avith a south- west ; still more rarely with east and west; and scarcely ever Avith north, north-Avest, or north-east winds. It is also remarkable, that thunder-storms are the most vio- lent, Avhen proceeding from regions Avhere they seldom occur; that they happen in the afternoon, or in the evening, more usually than in the morning; and are in moun- tainous districts more common than in a plain country. When swallows pursue each other in flights, Avith a loud noise, early in the morning, it may be considered as an almost certain in- dication of an approaching thun- der-storm : many persons, also, THY 117 feel a peculiar heaviness and lan- gour, previously to tempestuous weather; and, though such sensa- tions subside only when the clouds break forth in torrents of fire or rain, yet we are inclined to ascribe these symptoms to some diseased action in the animal frame, or to a preternatural susceptibility of ner- vous impressions. In short, if due attention were paid to the changes taking place among animals and plants, previously to the formation of thunder and lightning, we could, perhaps with the greatest preci- sion, foretel their approach. Lastly, to prevent unfortunate accidents during thunder-storms, we Avould seriously advise every person to keep at some distance from trees, and rather to expose himself to a shower. While i:i a room, it will be proper to avoid the fire-place, fire-irons, gilded mouldings, and all articles contain- ing metallic ingredients....See also Lightning. THYME, or Thymus, L. a ge- nus of spicy plants, comprising 17 species, of which the following are the principal, namely ; 1. The serpyllum, Common, Wild, or Mother-of-thyme, an indigenous perennial, growing on heaths and mountainous places, where it flowers in July and Au- gust. This plant possesses a grate- ful aromatic odour, and a warm, pungent taste: its dried haves, when infused in boiling water, serve as an agreeable substitute for tea : the essential oil obtained from this herb is so acrid, that far- riers employ it as a caustic. A little cotton wool moistened with it, and put into the hollow of an aching tooth, frequently mitigates the most excruciating pain. Bees eagerly visit the aromatic leaves of 118 T I D wild thyme, Avhich is likewise eat- en by sheep and goats, but refused by hogs. There is another variety of this species, cultivated in gar- dens, and called the Lemon-thyme, which has broader leaves, and a more pleasant flavour. 2. The Acinos, Wild Basil, or Basil Thyme, grows on dry hills, in chalky and gravelly situations; floAvering from June to August.... This odoriferous plant is much fre- quented by bees, which collect ho- ney from its flowers. 3. The vulgaris, or Garden- Thyme, is originally a native of the southern parts of Europe, but is now generally cultivated in Bri- tish gardens. It may be propa- gated either by the seed, by off- sets from the roots, or by slips, planted in light, rich and Avell- prepared soils: its aromatic leaves are employed in broths, and for other culinary purposes. In its medicinal properties, this is one of the most powerful aromatic plants; and its essential oil is of- ten sold in the shops, as a substi- tute for that of Marjoram. Tick. See Sheep. TIDE, denotes the rising and falling of sea-Avater ; a phenome- non Avhich is observable on all the shores of the ocean : it is also termed the fiux and reflux, or the alternate ebb and flow. The wrater of the sea Aoavs for about 6 hours from south to north ; during which period it gradually sAvells, so that it enters the mouths of rivers, and counteracts the na- tural current from their sources. It then remains stationary for about a quarter of an hour ; after Avhich it ebbs for six hours ; a similar pause of 15 minutes takes place, Allien it flows and ebbs alternately. Thus, the tide rises and falls once TID in the space of 12 hours and 48 minutes, which period constitutes a lunar day ; as the moon passes the meridian of the earth about 48 minutes later, each succeeding day. The motion of the tides is farther influenced by the moon : hence, if that luminary be in the first and third quarters, or when it is new and full, they are high and swift, being then called spring- tides : on the contrary, when the moon is in the second and last quarters, they neither rise so high, nor flow with such rapidity ; and are therefore termed neap-tides. Various theorieshave been form- ed, to account for the phenomena of tides; the ancients attributing them to the sun ; while some mo- dem enquiries ascribe them to the liquefaction of the ice and snow, in the polar regions ; but they are now generally understood to de- pend on the principle of gravita- tion. In the 1st vol. of the Repertory of Arts, &c. we meet Arith an ac- count of a Tide-wheel, that may be adapted to any kind of mill; and which was invented by Mr. Robert Leslie. Asa mere de- scription of its constituent parts Avould convey but an inadequate idea of its mechanism, the curious reader will resort to the work above cited ; where the whole contri- vance is illustrated with an en- graving. We shall, therefore, only remark, that such wheel, if intended for mills, is by the in- ventor stated to be preferable to all others turned by the tide ; for its velocity is not only greater and more uniform, but a similar quan- tity of water also constantly acts on the wheel, Avhich is so construct- ed, as to turn the same way, both with the ebb and floAV,and in a more TIL TIL 119 simple manner than any hitherto contrived. Thus, it moves hori- zontally, while the generality of tide-wheels revolve vertically ; and the perpendicular shaft may be carried to such a height, as to ad- mit the spur-wheel, or any other piece of mechanism, to be wholly above the surface of the water..... Lastly, it is asserted to be less ex- pensive than other wheels of a si- milar construction, and may be advantageously employed for rais- ing water; its v elocity being fully sufficient, without any cog-wheels, or wallowers. TILE, a kind of thin brick, principally employed for covering the roofs of houses ; though it is sometimes used for paving cellars, kitchens, areas, 8cc. Tiles are divided into various sorts, according to the purposes to which they are applied. Thus, Plain tiles are chiefly used for co- vering houses : and they ought to be lOJ inches in length, 6£ in breadth, and fths of an inch in thickness. Ridge-tilts are of a semi-cylindrical form, and, by the statute,must be 13 inches in length, and also 61 inches in breadth: they are chiefly laid on the ridges of houses. Corner-tiles are first made flat, in the manner of plain tiles, excepting that they are quadran- gular ; the two sides forming right lines ; and their ends, arches of circles: previously to burning, they are bent on a mould, like ridge-tiles; and ought to be 10-| inches in length, and of a conveni- ent size, being generally placed on the corners of roofs. TILLAGE, in agriculture and gardening, denotes the different methods of moving the ground, by means of a plough, spade, or other implement, to a certain depth, so as to bring the soil to the surface, and to turn the upper part down- Avards ; in consequence of which, the earth is less liable to be ex- hausted by the growth of weeds or useless plants. The proper time for this opera- tion, varies according to the nature of the soil: thus, in horticulture, hot and dry ground should be till- ed, either immediately before or after rain ; but, if the Aveather be very dry, it ought not to be stirred, unless it be speedily irrigated : in the contrary case, when the earth is strong, moist, and cold, it will be useful to employ the spade, he. during the hottest weather. In agriculture, the cold, 'rioist, clayey, or stiff soils, generally re- quire to be tilled three times, name- ly, in the spring, in summer, and at seed-time, for wheat; and four times, for barley. The great advantages arising from .tillage, consist, 1. In the pulveriz?tion of the soil, so that its nature may eventually be changed, and the toughest clay be rendered as light or friable as common earth; and, 2. In eradicating noxious weeds, by exposing their roots and stalks to the joint action of the air, moisture, and heat, by which they are converted into manure. On these principles, indeed, the neAV, or hci'se-hoeing husbandry, chiefly depends ; and, though perhaps some agriculturists may have ex- tolled rather too highly, the bene- fits derived from frequent stirring of the ground, yet it cannot be deni- ed, that such practice greatly con- tributes to the improvement of the soil, especially when combined Avith the judicious application of manures. Having already, at some length, described the various modes of 120 TIL TIM cultivating the soil, the reader will revert to the articles Drilling, Harrow, Hoe, Plough, Spade, Sec. [TILIA, a genus of native trees, comprehending tAvo species. See Lime-tree. 1. Tilia Americana. American black Lime, or Linden-Tree....This often becomes a tree of a large size, covered with a dark brown bark, and dividing into many branches. The leaves are large, heart-shaped, pointed, and sawed on their edges, of a deep green on their upper sides, but paler and a a little hairy underneath; and standing on long footstalks. The flovvers are produced upon the small branches, and are remarka- ble for having an oblong bractea or floral leaf upon each footstalk; they are of an herbaceous colour, having narrow petals furnished with nectaries at the base. The capsules are round, a little hairy and about the size of a small pea, having each one roundish seed. 2. Tilia Caroliniana. Carolinian abli(/ue-leaved Lime-Tree.....This is of a smaller growth than the former, rising commonly to the height of about forty feet, Avith a trunk of eighteen ii.ches or more in diameter: covered with a light- ish and somewhat furrowed bark, and sending off many branches.... The leaves are smaller and smooth- er than those of the other kind, somewhat heart-shaped, ending in long points, unequal at the base, or larger on one side of the mid- rib than the other, and slightly sawed on their edges. The bunch- es of flowers stand upon lon^ slen- der footstalks, furnished Avith floral leaves. The flowers are small, and have narrow, pointed petals, furnished vith nectaries or scales at the base ; they diffuse a fragrant odour, and are continually haunted by bees during their continuance. An infusion of the flowers of Lime- tree has been used with success in an Epilepsy. The timber is too soft for any strong purposes, therefore, chiefly used by turners, carvers, he. also, by architects in framing models of buildings, &c. Maishcll'sArbustrumAmericanum."] TIMBER, a term denoting every species of wood, that is felled and seasoned, with the view of being employed in building houses, vessels, and other structures. Of the different kinds of timber- trees, such as Oak, Ash, Beech, &c. we have already treated in the progress of this work, and stated the mo3t appropriate me- thods of rearing them: hence, we shall at present confine our atten- tion to the proper times for fell- ing, seasoning, and preserving tim- ber. The age at Avhich timber-trees ought to l>e cut doAvn, varies ac- cording their nature, and the pur- poses for vvhich they are designed. Mr. Marshall observes, that poplars may stand from 30 to 50 years ; ash and elm-trees, from 50 to 100 years ; but oaks should on no account he felled, till they have attained the age of from 100 to 200 years. The durability of tim- ber, however, depends on the soil and sub-soil, on which the trees have been produced : thus, in loose or absorbent lands, the oak and elm decay at an earlier period than those grown in cool and more re- tentive ground ; but, in dry loams with a rocky sub-soil, the oak ra- pidly decays, after it has attained the age of two centuries. Far- ther, the Cypress, Cedar, and Mahogany, are supposed to be in- TJM TIM 121 destructible by time, or the depre- dations of insects, in whatever ex- posure they may have been raised; and the Alder endures the action of water, for many years longer than any other species of timber : hence it is deservedly employed for piles in constructing dams ; in order to secure the banks of rivers. The season for felling oak, or fir-timber, commences toward the end of April ; though the winter is often preferred for that purpose, and likewise for cutting down ash and elm-trees ; as it furnishes la- bour to persons who would other- wise be unemployed. All branches or limbs, that may injure the trees in their fall, ought previously to be lopped, and the trunk cut down close to the ground, unless it be grubbed or rooted up; which lat- ter method is preferable, as well as more profitable ; because tim- ber, produced from old stocks, is of inferior value. After the trees are felled, it will be advisable to season them, pre- viously to working the timber : it has, therefore, been recommended to pile them, one upon another, with small blocks of wood between each, in an open but not too ex- posed situation; so that the sun and air may penetrate every part; the surface, or uppermost trees, being plastered with cow-dung, to prevent them from cracking. Ano- ther method is. that of burying the timber in the earth ; but the most effectual mode of seasoning it, by heat, is performed at Venice, where the trees are exposed to a strong fire, at Avhich they are continually turned round by means of an en- gine, till they become charred, or covered with a black crust: by this expedient, the internal part of the woo I is so hardened, as to resist vol.. v. equally the effects of earth and water, for a long series of years, without receiving any injury. When boards or planks have been properly dried, additional care becomes necessary to preserve them against the depredations of worms, the effects of air, moisture, he. For this purpose, Mr. Evelyn directs common sulphur to be put into a glass retort, with such a por- tion of aqua-fortis, as will cover it, " to the depth of three fingers:" the whole must be distilled to dry- ness, and rectified two or three times. The remaining sulphur is then to be exposed to the open air on a marble, or in a shallow glass- vessel, where it will liquefy into a kind of oil, with Avhich the timber must be anointed : this mixture, he asserts, will not only infallibly pre- vent the attacks of worms, but also preserve every kind of wood from decay or putrefaction, either in air or water. Timber may also be defended from the influence of air, or moisture, by coating it two or three times with linseed oil ; and some builders have advised the wood-work to be painted : the lat- ter practice, however, ought to be adopted with great caution ; be- cause, though it may in some cases be proper, it should always be deferred, till the planks and si- milar articles have become perfect- ly dry. Lastly, no green timber must be employed for any purpose ; as it is apt to crack and spiinter, .when the work is completed; and will thus disfigure the most expensive buildings. Where such deformity occurs, it has been recommended to anoint the wood repeatedly with a solution of beef-suet: some car- penters, indeed, close the crevices with a composition of grease and R 122 TIM TIM fine saAV-dust; but the former me- thod, in the opinion of M. Cho- mel, deserves the preference ; as he has seen riven or split timber so perfectly closed by such expedient, that the defect was scarcely per- ceptible : this operation, however, ought to be performed while the wood is green. See also Board, and Dry-rot. Timber used for buildings, es- pecially for ships, bridges, canals, granaries, and stables, may be ef- fectually preserved from decay, and particularly the rot, by repeatedly impregnating the wood with strong brine, or a solution of common salt. This simple process is attended with such decided advantage, that wood, thus prepared, will remain perfectly sound for ages. An in- stance of this fact lately occurred in the theatre at Copenhagen, where the lower part of the planks and joists formerly required to be replaced in a few years, till Mr. Volmeister, an architect of that city, discovered and employed the process above stated. Since that period (which includes the term exceeding 12 years) the wood, on removing one of the boards, was found in such a state of preserva- tion, that he could not observe the least appearance of decay. The increase of plantations, in soils properly adapted for the pur- pose, being an object of national importance, we have subjoined a Table; the design of which is, to shew the number of plants that may be set on an acre of land, both according to the Scotch and Eng- lish admeasurement, at the distance of from 1 foot to 30 feet from each other. Thus, the scale from 1 foot to 3 feet gives the number of cab- bages, which may be planted on an acre, for the feeding of cattle ; while the distance from 3 to 6 feet, determines the amount of young forrest or timber-trees, that may be arranged on a similar extent of ground ; the space of from 6 to 20 feet, sheAvs those remaining after the first, second, or third cuttings ; and the interval from 20 to 30 feet, poinls out the fruit-trees, which may be planted on one acre. Another object, Avhich may tend to render the following Table more interesting to the planter, is that of ascertaining the difference between the Scotch and English acres. Hence, the first numbers in the second and fifth columns re- present the square feet contained in those respective measures : so that the English acre is to that computed in Scotland, as 43,560 is to 54,760 feet. TIM TIM 123 V Plants on Plants on o c in an English Acre. u c a Scotch Acre. Short 100 of Long 100 of Short 100 of Long 100 of Q 5 score. 6 Ecore. P 5 score. 6 score. F. I. F. I. 1 43,560 36,300 1 54,760 45,633 1 6 19,360 16,133 1 6 24,382 20,318 2 10,890 9,075 2 13,690 11,408 2 6 6,969 5,808 2 6 8,761 7,301 3 4,840 4,033 3 6,084 5,070 3 6 3,556 2,963 3 6 4,470 3,725 4 2,722 2,268 4 3,422 2,852 4 6 2,151 1,792 4 6 2,709 2,257 5 1,742 1,452 5 2,190 1,825 5 6 1,440 1,200 5 6 1,810 1,508 6 1,210 1,008 6 1,521 1,251 6 6 1,031 852 6 6 1,296 1,081 7 889 740 7 1,117 931 7 6 774 620 7 6 973 811 8 680 567 8 855 713 8 6 602 502 8 6 758 631 9 537 448 9 675 562 9 6 482 402 9 6 606 505 10 4S5 363 10 547 . 456 11 360 300 11 452 375 12 S02 252 12 380 317 13 257 214 13 324 270 14 222 185 14 279 232 15 193 161 15 243 202 16 170 141 16 214 178 17 150 125 17 189 158 18 134 112 18 169 141 19 120 100 19 151 126 20 108 20 137 114 21 98 21 124 103 22 90 22 113 23 82 23 103 24 75 24 95 25 69 25 87 26 64 26 81 27 59 27 75 28 55 28 70 29 51 29 65 30 48 30 60 124 TIM TIM [The following concise state- ment is taken from that very use- ful compilation, " Gleanings of Husbandry," American edition.] " 1. State and condition of several kinds after being exposed to the weather ten years. a. Cedar, perfectly sound. b. Larch, heart sound, but the sap quite decayed. c. Spruce-fir, sound. (/. Silver-Fir, in decay. c. Scotch-fir, much decayed. /. Pineaster, quite rotten. g. Chcsnut, perfectly sound. /■. White Poplar, sound. i. Beech, sound. k. Walnut, in decay. b Birch, quite rotten. 2. Green fir-timber may be sea- soned and rendered fit for imme- diate use, by soaking the planks or round trees, barked, a few days in lime water; or paying them over Avith lime along with water..... Limewater is made by slacking the lime in water, and the hotter it is used after the lime is slacked, the better. Mr. Bordley says that Dr. WHARFiELD,of Elkton, Mary- land, Sawed poplar logs full of sap into boards, and immediately sea- soned them by fire. Some of these boards were put up in two weeks after the tree was felled ; and Mr. B. admired the closeness of the joints. 3. Dry-Rot in timber may be prevented by charring the ends of the joints, and fixing them in an- chorsmiths or foundery ashes laid under the flooring. Leaving one of the boards of the floor loose, and removing it at night, is said to pre- vent it. The Dry-Rot is oAving to a yel- low fungi, and to a Avhite mould spread by a plant, resembling a vine or sea-weed. (Calvaria Hypox- ylon.) 4. Composition for preserving weather boarding ; which is impe- netrable to water, and is not in- jured by the action of the weather, or heat of the sun, which hardens it. Three parts air-slacked lime, two of wood ashes, and one of fine sand, or sea-coal ashes ; sift these through a fine sieve, and add as much linseed oil as will bring it to a consistence for working with a painter's brush ; great care must be taken to mix it perfectly.....it is thought grinding Avould be an im- provement).....two coats are neces- sary ; the first rather thin, the se- cond as thick as can conveniently be worked. 5. Painting wood before the sap is dry, hastens its decay." The time for felling timber, is in the autumrt, after having taken off the bark early in the spring ; and after having suffered the new foilage to put forth and die. This fact, says Dr. Dar-win, was long since observed by S. Pepys, in a paper published in the Philosophi- cal Transactions vol. 17. p. 455. By the pullulation of the nevv buds the saccharine matter in the sap- wood, or alburnum is expended, and it then becomes nearly as hard and durable as the heart wood, being both less liable to de- cay, or to be penetrated by insects. This remark is confirmed by the experience of Mr. Edward Duf- field of Philadelphia county, as stated in vol. 2. p. 484. (with this difference, that he cut the trees in TIM the spring,) and by the judicious and numerous experiments of the celebrated BuFFON.an extract from Avhose memoir, read before the Royal Academy of Sciences, in 1731, may be found in a paper in the Trans, of the Massachusetts Agri- cultural Society, by B. Vaughan, Esq. of HalloAVAvell, District of Maine. After having come to the conclusion above stated, Mr. Vaughan continues. " Other trials, however, Avere made, of which the nature and re- sult were as follow:.....1st. A piece of wood, somewhat defective, taken from the top of a tree which had been disbarked and left ex- posed to the air after it was felled, Avas upon trial found to weigh more and to support more than a like piece, which was sound, and taken from the heart of one of the trees felled in its bark.....2d. The sap- wood of trees which had been dis- barked while standing, was in like manner tried against sap-wood from other trees which had been cut in their bark, and was found somewhat heavier, and considera- bly stronger.....3d. The sap-wood of disbarked trees, if it did not equal the wood at the heart of trie other trees in weight, yet exceeded it much in strength.....4th. But the outer parts of the sap-wood from disbarked trees, contrary to the ge- neral rule, (which is a circumstance highly worthy of remark,) were considerably stronger than the inner parts of the same sap-wood. " The author explains the addi- tion of solidity and strength in those different cases, by supposing that the growth of the trunk (in the ordinary course of nature,) arises from layers of new wdod, which are applied to it externally. TIM 125 by means of the several juices flowing between the bark and the sap-wood. Consequently, Avhen the bark is removed, though the trunk may live, it cannot increase in bulk ; and the materials, destin- ed for this increase, sinking into the cavities of the A'essels of the sap-wood and inner-wood, harden the trunk throughout. " An interruption then of the sap, within certain bounds, ap- pears, according to the author, to harden the Avood in proportion as it is complete ; and if the author's theory above stated, be correct, it has an application here too obvious for it to be repeated.....When the bark is removed, the sap-wood in particular may be presumed to become hard, from its abounding in pores ; and as the pores are largest, according to him, in the outer parts of this sap-Avood, it is hence perhaps that in the outer pores the greatest change is ef- fected. " Under these circumstances, (saysM. Buffon) the sap-Avood is no longer to be called an imperfect wood ; and it thus acquires an im- provement in one or two years, by being disbarked, which it would not have obtained, by the usual course of nature, in less than 12 or 15 years, (this being the time re- quisite for changing sap-Avood in- to inner wood in the best soils.)..... By joining then the sap-wood to the other wood, the bulk of a tree is in effect prodigiously increased, and a tree of forty years will go as far in work (according to M. Buf- fon) as a tree of sixty years old in common circumstances. " The author's general conclu- sion is, that, whenever the exten- sive operation in question in this 126 T I M TIM paper, is performed, it should be during the great flow of the sap ; that is, when the vessels are most open, and the sap most in motion ; and Avhen both these circumstan- ces are likely to remain so for some time.....I3y choosing this period also for the operation, he adds, that it becomes easy to perform it; for in the proper time of the sap, a man climbing upon a great tree maydisbark it, from top to bottom, in less than two hours. " All which has here been said, however, relates to oaks ; for upon oaks these experiments were in general made. But the practice may be extended probably to va- rious other species of trees : M. Buffon thinks to all. " Before M. Buffon closed the above memoir, he received infor- mation from Mr. Hickman, a fel- low of the Royal Society in London, stating, that the practice, which his memoir recommended, was in use in the county of Nottingham, in England. The bark (it is said) Avas better for tanning, and the sap- wood essentially hardened. But though the sap-Avood lasted three times as long as the ordinary sap- wood, according to this account, yet its durability was not pretend- ed to be equal to that of the wood Avithin it.....The trees in Notting- hamshire hoAvever vvere represent- ed as standing six months only, after losing their bark. " M. Du Hamel presented a memoir on the same general sub- ject with that of M. Buffon, in the same year, 1748 ; Avhich Avas noticed in p. 54-58 of the Histori- cal Articles of the Royal Academy of Sciences (prefixed in those days to the memoirs) for the year 1738 ; but the memoir itself was not then printed. " He concludes his memoir by recommending that of M. Buffon above noticed, Avhich according to him proves, that nearly the same results have occurred in experi- ments on these subjects made in the eastern and western quarters of France. " We may take the present op- portunity of suggesting the pro- priety of an inquiry, whether fruit- trees which have been long strip- ped of their bark on account of disease, acquire any additional hardness to their wood, as the re- sult of their new bark being thin ; and if so, Avhether the hardening of their Avood was not one among the particulars necessary to ren- der them productive ; and lastly, Avhether such trees have grown as fast in their stems and branches, as the generality of other trees cor- responding in size and situation ? At the same time it may be Avorthy of examination, whether a ligature placed round a branch, after the manner recommended by M. Buffon, has in the end any effect upon the solidity of the wood Avithin, at least till the groAVth of the branch is checked ? " The query here proposed, respecting the operation of the sun, may be extended to that of the air, the rain, the frost, and even the light.....Internal proces- ses in the tree, such as fermenta- tion of the sap, may also have in- fluence on this occasion. " If we adopt the theory of Messrs. Buffon andDu Hamel, it seems easy to conceive whence the timber of certain trees may become benefited by a removal of their branches, (while the tree is standing.) If the roots and stem continue uninjured, much superfluous sap may now remain TIM TIM 127 in motion; of Avhich a large portion may be deposited in the pores both of the sap-wood and of the formed wood, so as to improve each of them.....Of the existence of this sap in many felled trees, in a manner capable of producing buds and shoots, without the aid either of the leaves or even of new supplies from the roots, we have evident proof from the buds and shoots and even blossoms Avhich arise in the spring from certain stems newly cut down Avhen with- out a leaf. " How far it may be advisable to disbark and to disbranch one and the same tree, is matter for future experiment, and may lead to some decisive facts. " It ought not, hoAvever, here to escape notice, that trees hardened by the loss of their branches, are affirmed to be freed from the at- tack of " worms and other acci- dental corruption.".....If this be true, we have a neAV consideration addressed to our attention, which will equally Avell apply to the case of disbarking timber-trees. " If these methods have in truth the good effects thus attri- buted to them, they may in some degree render needless the dis- pute as to the season of the year proper for felling certain timber trees.....Some uncertainties, which have existed on this subject, may be seen in M. Du Hamel's ac- count of the contradictory practice prevailing respecting it in his time, in different countries. It may be curious to observe, that in our day, Mr. Snodgrass, the surveyor of the shipping in the East India Company's service, (than whom no man perhaps has seen and heard more on the subject, as far as concerns England and the East Indies,) i; in favour of English timber vvhich is winter-fallen.* Indeed the question may admit of different decisions in different countries ; especially as relating to trees of different species and of different ages. " Against all these advantages, we must not admit it as any ob- jection, that hard timber is also hard to work : for upon this prin- ciple none but soft woods ought to be employed in Avork: In other words, to reduce the first cost of the work, we must sacrifice all the * See his letter to Mr. Duntdas, with an appendix, printed in 1797, p. 49;..... in which are many valuable facts for ship- builders. Out of 989 vessels built or re- paired under his inspection in 37 years only one had foundered; while in the British navy above 60 vessels are supposed to have foundered in 9 years (from 1775 to 1784 ) M. Du Hamel ridicules the idea of attending to the felling of timber in particular periods of the moon. (See b. 3. Ch. 5.) [In confirmation of Mr. Svodgrass's opinion stated above, the Editor may add, that the season in which Live Oak is cut in Georgia, influences its duration in a striking manner, as the follow ing fact will shew. Captain Frankford of Philadelphia, brought live oak from St. Simons, in 1795; and with a view to sa- tisfy himself as to the influence of th* season of cutting the wood, he procured some square pieces of a tree which had been felled in July, and also some which had been cut during the winter. Both parcels were permitted to remain in his cellar: The first mentioneddecayedrapid- ly, and were cut up for fire-wood, in 1800; the last still retain that firmness for vvhich live oak-wood is so remarkable. As great part of the wood for the United States frigates was cut during the warm weather, and it is known that some of them, and especially the United States, rotted in three years after she was built, it is probable the decay may be accounted forfrom the above circumstance] 128 TIM TIM attention due to use and to dura- bility. " But it is time to make a re- mark applicable to the United States. It is this : " Discussions concerning the improvement of timbtr are pecu- liarly important in a vast conti- nent possessed of wildernesses of Avoods, for the timber of which more extensive markets would offer, Avere it in better repute for strength and durability. An in- crease of exportable timber would lead to an increase of freights and of seamen : At the same time that an improvement in the qualities of timber, Avould add to the calls for ship-building, and be highly ser- viceable to domestic carpentry..... These considerations will derive neAV weight from recollecting that the American woods contain a profusion of large trees ; the chief of which are not only destitute of the solidity belonging to trees found in pastures ; but, by being drawn up in consequence of hav- ing grown in company, acquire long trunks with few branches, so as to admit of being disbarked with ease up to the true height. " To what heights in the stem, in different species of trees, and at different ages, and under different circumstances, this disbarking may be carried, is to be decided by ac- tual trials.....It seems reasonable, however, to presume, that so much of the upper part of the tree ought to retain its bark, as shall be ne- cessary for procuring to the part vvhich is disbarked, its due supply of sap. " A fact of a miscellaneous nature shall now be introduced, for it may be found to have application to the present subject. " On the meadow-land (other- wise called interval-land) overflow- ed by the dam of the upper mill at Cobessee, below Hallowell, many trees have been standing for a long course of years, which though Avithout vegetation, in con- sequence of the action of the water upon their roots ; yet still remain erect, and (to appearance) toler- ably firm. They soon ceased to liA'e as trees, but yet long existed as timber, though exposed to all the injuries of the Aveather. They also seem to be more free from moss and other " accidental causes of corruption," than could from for- mer theories, have been supposed probable; though some, which were sawed after a long period had elapsed, Avere found too much worm- eaten to be used as plank for ship- ping. u To prevent misapprehension, however as to our general subject, in persons living in parts of the U. States, where the practice of gird- ling trees in Che American form, is adopted, it may be proper to make the following distinction..... The object of the operations in view in this paper is, to retain a lingering life in trees for a certain period. The farmers, on the other hand, who girdle their trees, seek to procure an instant death to the leaf, and an early death to the tree; that they may immediately raise crops, and soon plough the soil Avithout obstruction. They make a cut (or girdle as it is Galled) round the stem of the tree, passing through the bark into the Avood itself, in order to interrupt the communications within the tree, by which the life of the tree is supported.....Objects and proceed- ings therefore so opposite, admit of little comparison in any point of view. TIM T I M 129 « A second reflexion shall here be introduced ; which is, that we should not suppose that the learn- ed French Academicians from whom we have extracted the chief materials for this paper, have mis- taken brittle wood for strong Avood: They considered strength and toughness in all their experiments. This, however did not prevent their discovering, that the wood of the disbarked stems was hard, as well as heavy ; the strength being in proportion to the weight.....It may at the same time be allowed, be- cause it is true, that the best tim- ber, in process of time, when kept dry, will acquire a brittle hardness, so that even soft pine-wood shall change its qualities in this respect. But since all this.timber began with being more or less tough, according to its nature, we have no unfavourable conclusions to draw from it ; particularly as worms seem to avoid this brittle wood, which is accordingly found untouched by them in various buildings in Europe erected many centuries ago. " A third caution, also, is ne- cessary, which has a more gene- ral application.....The experiments related in this paper have not been repeated by the compiler of it..... Yet a repetition of them is neces- sary ; and at the same time they ought to be extended, and the re- sult of the whole communicated to the public. By this means we shall possess, in time, approved rules for operating upon different kinds of trees in different climates, and different situations ; and none will be better circumstanced for the purpose of benefiting by these rules, than the inhabitants of the United States, Avhose timber 'rees arc so many and so various, VOL. V. and are spread through so many latitudes, longitudes, elevations, aspects and soils.....We add, that from the same causes, few have better opportunities than the inha- bitants of the United States for making such experiments." On raising Forest Trees from Seed. It is Avith pleasure that the fol- lowing communication addressed to the Massachusetts Society for the encouragement of Agriculture, is published. It is believed, to be the first attempt in the United States, to supply the enormous and wanton waste of our forest trees ; and the society, with great propriety, bestowed a gold medal to Col. Dodge, for his praiseworthy exertions. " Conceiving that I was posses- sed of land well adapted to the groAvth of forest trees, I made choice of a niece of land, and pret- ty near the summit, from Avhich there was a gradual descent in every direction. It had formerly been covered with a very heavy growth of white and yellow oak, and the different kinds of Avalnut, and hickory, groAving native in this part of the country, lor many years past it had been improved as a pasture, having several trees of the ancient growth scattered over, and still standing upon it..... The piece of ground on Avhich I proposed to make the experiment contained about two acres ; and Avas, for the first time, ploughed up two years before ; and in each of the preceding years planted Avith Indian corn. The native soil is a pretty deep rich mould, inclin- ed to moisture, and very rarely pinched Avith drought. Detached rocks of different siz-s arc scat- S 130 TIM TIM tered over it. The two acres were inclosed Avith a good fence for the purpose of forming a forest- tree nursery. It was then plough- ed once, and harrowed sufficiently to render the mould light and fine, and furrowed both Avays, viz. at right angles, about four and an half feet distant. On a small part of the ground a little barn manure was put in the angles of the furrows; but on the greater part no manure of any kind was laid. " The ground having been thus * prepared, on the 10th of October, 1797, it Avas planted in the cross furrows, in the form of hills ; a part with white and yellow oak acorns; a part Avith that kind of walnuts called the shag-bark ; a part with chesnuts, and a part with oil-nuts, or white walnuts. Four acorns and four nuts Avere put in a hill through the whole nursery, and covered about three, or three and an half inches deep. tS The labour, in preparing the ground, was two and an half day's work of one man and a boy with two pair of oxen ; and the man and the boy one day in planting and covering the seed. " Desirous of varying the expe- riment, I had another piece of ground, containing one quarter of an acre, of a soil and situation near- ly similar, prepared in the same manner. On the first day of No- vember I sowed it, by broad cast, witli the same kind of acorns and nuts, and with the seeds of white ash, and then harrowed the ground with an iron-tooth harroAV. " Just before the frost set in I examined the hills in the nursery, and found the acorns generally sprouted, and some of the sprouts more than two inches in length. The nuts appeared in the same state in vvhich they were planted. In the spring following, I could find only- four of the acorns Avhich had sent up shoots out of the ground, and the nuts did not swell sufficiently to burst their shells. But those soAved by broad cast came up pretty well, and I had them transplanted into a part of the nursery. From these circum- stances I concluded that the acorns and nuts planted in the nursery, Avere put into the ground too early in autumn, and were covered much too deep. " Disappointed in the first at- tempt, I was still determined to make another trial on the ground inclosed for a nursery. In the latter part of October, 1798, I ploughed, harrowed and furrowed it, just as I had done the preceding autumn ; and on the first day of November I planted, in the cross furrows, as before, white and yel- low oak acorns, shag-bark walnuts, chesnuts and oil-nuts, and covered them, excepting four rows, much lighter than the preceding year. The acorns and nuts came up very well, excepting the four toavs which Avere covered about three inches deep. In these rows very few appeared in the spring. By this and similar experiments made since, I have found, that both acorns and nuts vegetate best when only covered over so lightly as that no part of them can be seen above the surface. On the same day I planted a small quantity of the seeds of the elm collected at the time of the seed's falling, which came up remarkably well. " To extend the experiment, I prepared a separate piece of ground, by ploughing and harrow- ing it, as I had done in the nursery, T IM TIM 131 On the 2d of November, I sowed, by broad cast, about five hundred of the shag-bark nuts, and left them on the surface of the ground un- covered. As soon as the frost Avas out in the spring sufficiently to admit the plough, which Avas about the last of March, or the first of April, I ploughed them in very lightly. The nuts soon sprouted, and about the middle of May ap- peared above the surface. Most of them vegetated and came tip far better than any of the other nuts or acorns. " Care has been taken to keep all the forest trees pretty clear of weeds. The nursery has been ploughed and hoed three or four times in the course of each sum- mer, but no hills haA'e been raised about the trees. The labour in tending the ground has been about the same as tending so much Indian corn, and the ploughings and hocings, about the same time in the summer. " The groAvth of the shag-bark walnuts has been remarkably slow. The acorns grew considerably the tAvo first years, and the last sum- mer they appear to have increased somewhat in size, but most of them very little or none at all in height; some of the largest, however, have produced luxuriant tops. The chesnuts, oil-nuts and elms, have grown Avell. Of all the kinds, the white-ash has much exceeded in rapidity of growth. " In the last autumn I had growing upwards of four thousand and two hundred trees, from all the kinds of acorns, nuts and seeds which I had planted. But my nursery, Avhich was on sloping ground, was greatly injured by an unusually heavy rain, just before the frost set in. The fall of rain Avas so great as to occasion seve- ral strong currents of water, which produced deep gullies through the longest direction of the ground. By this unfortunate circumstance, more than six hundred trees were torn up and destroyed. " There are now growing (Oct. 13, 1801,) from the aconis, nuts and seed Avhich I have planted, Avhich are three and four years old this autumn from the time of planting, two thousand seven hun- dred and ninety-two white and yel- low oaks....four hundred andtwelvc shag-bark Avalnuts.......forty-eight oil-nuts....one hundred and ten chesnuts....two hundred and thirty- nine elms....and forty-one Avhite- ash.....The Avhole number, three thousand six hundred and forty- tAVO. On raising young Forest Trees from young shoots on Wood-lots. A communication addressed to the Massachusetts Society for pro- moting .''Igriculture, by Moses Bulled, Esq. of Medfield....The premium of 30 dollars or silver medal, Avas adjudged to the author for his exertions. " 1 have, for more than 20 years, turned my attention 1o raising forest trees, and have had the satis- faction of seeing my endeavours crowned with success. The method, by which I have succeed- ed, is as follows : When the wood is arrived at maturity on a piece of land, I cut it all down, not leaving a single tree ; then I pass over the land with a strong scythe, making it compleatly clean by cut- ting all the shrubs and bushes, vvhich were kept under by the large trees and cattle ; and which, if suffered to remain, would ob- 132 TIM struct the growth of the young shoots. After doing this, I gene- rally have a fine thrifty parcel of young plants and sprouts, Avhich grow rapidly. When the grovvth is about four or five years old, I go over it again, and cut the poorest sorts of wood, where there are enough of better; and also, once in tAvo, three or four years, prune as many as my other avoca- tions will allow. Many of the first trees raised were large enough for hogshead hoops, and many much too large. I have had more than 4000 poles, of the hogshead kind, cut Avithin a few years on 10 acres of my young trees, without tinn- ing them loo much, (I am very carefull that all the best poles are not taken; which is commonly the case, where an indifferent person is suffered to go into a wood-lot for the purpose of cutting hoop-poles, to the great detriment of the owner.) The method I have taken for raising forest trees, I conceive to be the best and cheapest, that can be adopted in this part of the country. I have, by way of experi- ment, planted acorns, chesnuts, walnuts, and set slips of the Eng- lish green av'iHoav ; but have never had great success. On lands long cleared, and the growth entirely killed, I supposed ploughing and planting acorns, he. as recom- mended by Dr. Dean, to be the best. It is absolutely necessary to keep cattle and sheep away from the land Avhere it is proposed to raise forest trees. " When I first began to raise trees for wood, I used to leave some cf the young thriftiest stands to grow scattering on the land. But a few years convinced me of my error, for the trees, so left, soon sent out their branches hori- TIM zontally, preventing the growth of smaller trees, situated near them, and not growing high themselves, afforded little timber and much brush. " I every year clear a parcel of land, where I cut my fire wood, so that I have young trees from one to twenty years growth. " Experience has showen me, that the sprouts of chesnut grdw much more rapidly, than those of other wood, obstructing their growth. In this case, I found it advantageous to cut them down, especially such as are crooked and full of branches. Fresh sprouts will soon spring up from the root, which Avill commonly overtake those of the surrounding growth, making much better and straighter timber Avith feAver limbs. "As avooc! is among the necessa- ries of life,Avood-landis a necessary appendage to every farm. Forest- trees have the power of reproduc- ingthemselves aswell as from their seeds ; and, but for shamefully bad management, they Avould be found growing in sufficient numbers in almost every part of this country. A farmer's wood-lot should be nearly as much the object of his care as his orchard. " In applying the axe to a Avood- lot, Avhich the owner would wish to perpetuate by a series of repro- ductions, the best method is to cut down every tree, as far as the axe- man goes. This will give the young and tender progeny the ne- cessary advantages of a free cir- culation of the air, and of the un- obstructed rays of the sun ; where- as if some of the large trees be left, the shoots, which spring up from the stumps of the otheis, will languish beneath their shade. The part of a wood-lot, that is fel- TIM TIM 133 led by the axe, should be kept as carefully fenced as a corn-field ; or otherwise the browsing of cattle, especially in the spring of the year, will poison and destroy the rising tendrils. Care should also be used to pluck off a part of the ten- drils or shoots around the stumps; leaving only, by the sides of each stump, two or three of the most large and thrifty. " By such a prudent manage- ment, a wood-lot might be render- ed a perpetual fund of timber and fuel." Dr. Daravin observes, " If crooked young trees be repeatedly scratched internally in respect to the curvature, that they will gra- dually become straight, by thus encouraging the growth Avithin the curvature, more than on its convex side." The following judicious observa- tions which shew the importance of preserving forest-trees in the U. States, are from a useful publi- cation entitled, The Weekly Maga- zine, vol. ii. Philadelphia, 1798. " There is, perhaps, none of the natural qualities or productions of this country, of which we may more highly boast, than our Avoods and forests : Avhether we consider them as affording the largest, strongest, or most durable timber, wood, and substances for economi- cal purposes ; their beauty in the formation of groves and avenues for our recreation and delight, or fuel which they furnish, and vvhich is indispensable in those districts, that are destitute of, or at too great a distance from coal. " In order to prevent further de- vastation, as well as to repair the injuries already committed, this very important business ought, in my opinion, to be well considered, and as soon as possible encouraged and established. " The great importance and in- dispensable utility of public forests, and extensive free districtsof wood- land, must be so obvious, as almost to render it unnecessary to specify their advantages: however, since my fellow citizens, in general, may not have sufficiently contemplated this interesting subject in all its various views, I shall attempt to exhibit some of the most striking and interesting. " Large districts of woodland, or native forests comprehending the various situations and qualities of soil, are the best nursery for the various tribes and families of the vegetables of the country, Avhich by means of agriculture, pastur- age, and fire, are in danger of be- ing extirpated ; and thus great in- jury, and perhaps, irreparable loss be rendered to the community, since some of them may possess very useful and salutary qualities, yet undiscovered. " In order that Ave may avail our- selves in the most speedy and com- plete manner, of this very import- ant benefit, I would propose, that every state, county, and township should set apart a certain ex- tent of territory for a public and free forest, to be protected by laws enacted for that purpose; and also, that every freeholder or proprietor, be obliged by law to keep a cer- tain number of acres of woodland, perhaps ten acres to every hun- dred. But freeholds or farm- Mil- der fifty acres, need not be subject to this law; they may have what quantity of wood their owners may choose. Besides, every proprietor of lands lying contiguous to pub- lic roads orhighv. ays, shoubi be obliged to plant and cultivate trees 134 T I M T IM or shrubs of a certain specified description on that part of his field, immediately adjoining the public road or highway ; for which he should be allowed by law a small bounty as a compensation for his labour and expence. And the law of the state might enact certain penalties to be inflicted on person's Avho should wantonly in- jure such trees and shrubs ; be- cause they are for shade and shel- ter to travellers, and a public be- nefit. " The use of wood is great and indispensable for building, fencing, coopering, and other economical purposes, and especially for fuel in the northern rli strict of the Unit- ed States, particularly in regard to the poor, who even at this early day, procure it with difficulty, and at a great expence : but a town- ship forest, or free district of wood- land, to which every citizen would have equal and free recourse, un- der necessary and prudent regula- tions, would fully obviate their ne- cessities. " These forests should be mark- ed out into districts, and each thin- ned in rotation, by taking away the full-grown, and decaying trees, and keeping up within fence or in- closure, the stumps, for the pro- tection of the springs or sprouts. Moreover, the township Avould be aide to sell timber and wood, which, if applied towards discharging the public expences, would be a great relief to its poor. " The subject before us, natur- ally, unfolds another connected with it; I mean the propriety of re-es- tablishing public and private fo- rests, of the most useful and beau- tiful trees and shrubs, natives of t;:.- c< untry as well as exotics, that Avould thrive in the climate of the United States. " We of Philadelphia and its vicinity are well acquainted with the value and usefulness of the wood of the White Cedar [Cupres- sus thyoides]. Yet the inhabi- tants of West Jersey, who reap so great a profit from it, seem to manifest little concern for the pro- tection and preservation of those valuable districts, that produce this useful wood; otherwise they would take more effectuable steps than they have hitherto clone for pre- venting the ravages and destruc- tion of fire ; for replanting and protecting the swamps after the fire hath done its mischief, Sec. Perhaps it would be a politic and prudent ordinance, to vest in the state a large district of territory, comprehending the largest pro- portion possible of cedar swamps, for a public forest: this Avould be a means of at least preventing a total destruction of this invaluable wood. " I shall proceed now to enume- rate the trees, shrubs, &c. which seem to be the most valuable and worthy of the expence and care of cultivation and protection, viz. " Chesnut, Black and Wbite Walnut, Plane-tree, Mulberry, Su- gar-maple, Scarlet and Silver- leaved Maple, Yellow Poplar, or Tulip-tree, the varieties of Hicco- ry, Wild-Cherry, Locust (Robina pseudo-acacia) Honey Locust, the species and varieties of Oak, all the Fines, Red-Cedar, Bald-Cypress, Larch-tree,Hemlock-Spruce,NcAv- foundland-Spruce, Balm of Gilead, Linden-tree, Beech, Elm, Sassa- fras, Ash Avhite and Black, Per- simmon for the sake of its fruit, which is, perhaps, not inferior to TIM the Date, all the species of Mag- nolia, Rhus typhinum, with other species, Snowy Mespilus, Avith some other species ; Haw-thorns, Myrica cerifera (Myrtle-wax tree) j£sculus pavia, varieties; Holly, Anona triloba (Papaw), with many others from the southern states, remarkable for their beauty and fragrance. " Of exotics, Quercus ruber (English oak), Fraxinus excelsior, several species of Willow, Jug- lans regia (Corylus avelania), Fil- bert (Olea Europea), Olive, Vine Raisins and Corinths,Fig, Almond, and perhaps, upon trial and repeat- ed experiment, many more valu- able vegetables Avould succeed in the southern districts of the Unit- ed States, i. e. from Chesapeak Bay in Virginia, to St. Mary's Ri- ver in Georgia. " The East Indies, in all parts, produce a species of tree called by the natives, and by the Europeans there, Teak. I do m>t recollect the scientific name or characters ; but, the timber of the Teak-tAee sutpasses all others for ship-build- ing. I have been informed, by respectable authority, that a ship built of Teak will last twice the length of time of one constructed of the best seasoned oak: it con- tains an oil vvhich prevents the iron- bolts from rusting for a great number of years, and the timber resists the worm in a surprising degree. " I have seen two English India- men, built of this timber at Bom- bay, Avhich, after twice the num- ber of voyages of the English- built ships, were still in good con- dition. The English-built India- men rarely go more than four voyages ; one of those Tenk-built TIM 155 Lbips Avas on her seventh, three years ago, and is still in service. " I remember to have seen an India galley, called the Success Galley, belonging to the Nabob of Arcot, vvhich was built of Teak. This vesrel out-sailed all Suffre- in's fleet at the important period when the battle of Porto Novo Avas fought on the coast of Coromandel. Her commander, at that time, Avas a relation of Mr. Fenwick, our Consul in France, and he told me that the Success Galley Avas, then, seventy years old. " I mention these facts only to shew the advantage that Avould be derived from the acquisition of the Teak. The tree abounds on the Malabar, and Coromandel coasts, on the islands of Sumatra and Java, and other islands ; and seeds or plants may be obtained Avithout the least difficulty. " Would it not be worthy the regard of our commercial men to pay some attention to this valua- ble object? There can be no doubt of the tree's flourishing in our southern states. The present is the period, of all others, when such an object should excite in- dustry and attention." The folloAving extract contains observations highly Avorthy of con- sideration. ll The vast importance of American Wood and Timber, and Wood- lands. " It is well known, that the re- sources of the United States in wood and timber, Avithin a day's hauling of navigable streams are greatly reduced, and in a course of rapid consumption. Our iron- works, smith's shops, brewerie., 136 TIM distilleries, lime-kilns, coopers, house and ship carpenters, and joiners, cabinet-makers, wharf- builders, bridge-builders, carriage- makers, tanners, brick-makers, potters, and private families, consume yearly an immense and encreasing quantity of wood and timber in their trades and dwell- ings. The exports for one year, ending on the 30th September, 1800, were as folloAvs : 19,37 5,625 Staves and heading, 76,027,800 Shingles, 2,121,189 Hoops and Poles, 68,825,280 Feet of Boards, Planks, 8cc. 164,349,894 1 195 Tons of Timber. Dollars. Other Avooden lumber, 73,344 Oak bark, and dye woods, 15,774 Manufactures of wood, 117,651 Besides these astonishing quan- tities and amounts, there were sent out of the United States the folloAving casks made of wood, re- duced to barrels : 60,000 barrels for Pot-ash and Pearl-ash, 16,594 do. for Apples, 2,800 do. for Cider and Malt liquors, 75,045 do. for Beef, 55,460 do. for Pork, 81,199 do. for Biscuit, 653,052 do. for flour, 50,388 do. for Pickled Fish, 80,000 do. for Flaxseed, 10,000 do. for Indigo, 160,000 do. for Indian and Rye meal, 14,550 do. for Linseed oil, and other oils 9S3O0 do. for Tar, Pitch, Rosin, Turpen- tine, Spirits of TIM Turpentine and Varnish, 1,400 do. for WaxandTal-Ioav, 1,500 do. for Molasses, 280,000 do. for Rice, 300,000 do. for Tobacco, 16,000 do. for American Spirits, 403000 do. for Butter, Lard, Biscuit, &c 1,994,088 Total. The consumption of wood for 8000 tons of pot and pearl-ashes, and in barrels and casks for flour meal, liquors, meat, fish, oil, ap- ples, &c. for transportation coast- Avise, and for home use is very great. Our public and private ships require a large quantity of wood to build and repair them. Our buildings for residence, stor- ing goods, covering produce and cattle, mills, Avorkshops, 8tc re- quire a prodigious mass of wooden materials. New-England, and the sandy countries, and the new set- tlements, build very little of brick or stone, nearly all of boards and logs. The manufactures of tar, pitch, turpentine and rosin, des- troy or injure yearly a great num- ber of trees. In addition to all these, the very great consumption and demands of Great-Britain, for timber and wooden articles and materials, and for tar, pitch and turpentine, is likely to be trans- ferred from the Baltic countries to the United States of America, be- cause the Baltic countries AviU he more and more averse to sell them. In their secret feelings, the differ- ences are great and serious, and Avill probably lead to some altera- tion in commerce and economy of wood, on the part of the Northern T I M T I M 137 powers, whose stock is moreover greatly exhausted. Besides all these circumstances, it is certain that the demand for wood to re- build, repair, and improve the West India islands, will be very great. The high prices of coffee, su- gar, rum, molasses, cotton, and other West-India productions en- sure the universal cultivation of those islands, Avhich Avill at least double the demand for American wooden materials to build, and to pack produce. It has become the interest of the people of this coun- try, to consider its property in wood and woodlands with attention and forethought ; and our mer- chants and government will not be unmindful of the importance of our private and public ship-building, our carrying trade, and our naval armaments, whether standing or occasional." It may no doubt seem strange to an unthinking person, that the people of the United States should be so strongly urged to an imme- diate attention to forest trees. But the cause of wonder will be abat- ed when he reflects upon the in- calculable consumption of wood, and is informed, what other coun- tries have done, and are now do- ing on the same subject. About four centuries since, the great scarcity of wood caused a very se- rious alarm in France, for the peo- ple of that country bad long been in the practice now pursued in the United States, viz. to cut down the trees as wanted, without think- ing how they were to be replaced, or what would supply the wants of posterity. Government therefore ordered that every man Avho cut down a tree should plant another, and this rule is observed even to vol.. v. this day. In England and Scotland, also, many thousand trees have been planting on waste plantations, every year for several years past, and there can be no doubt, but that in another century, both those countries Avill be well stocked with timber. The following extract has been communicated to the public, in " A Colic Li'M of Papers upon Naval Architecture," now publishing in England, and deserves particular attention. " Means of fireservivg Timber in Vessels and Bridges. " A man who had been former- ly concerned in ship-building, but for thirty years past has been a bridge-builder, had early in life observed, on examining worm-eat- en ships, that the worm never eat within the seams where the caulk- ing chisel enters, and the oil, ^.c. He had also observed, that the whaling vessels would be eaten to a honey comb, except a little above and below water, where the whale is brought into contact with the vessel, and is beating till it is cut up. " A plank lying under water at a mill of his, had been obliged to be renewed annually,because eaten up by the worm within the course of the year; at length a plank was accidentally put down, vvhich for some purpose had been thorough-' ly impregnated villi oil; it re- mained seven years without being affected....hence he took the idea of impregnating the timber of his bridges thoroughly with oil, by heating the timber as deep as possible, and doing it in that state with the liver oil of the cod- fish ; he had practiced this for 3J T 138 T I M TIM years, and there was no instance of the worm attacking his tim- bers, Avhilst those in neighbouring places were immediately destroyed .....He had used the liver oil, be- cause very thick ; experiment, he said, must sheAV Avhether other oils Avould do equally well. He ob- served that there Avould be no dif- culty in heating the planks of a ship after they were put on as well as before....but I do not recollect his mentioning ever to have tried it in the case of a ship." Having heard that the bridges at Boston had been preserved by oiling the timbers, the Editor vvas induced to inquire into the fact, and he learned, " That the piles of Charles' river bridge, [built in 1786] were originally of oak, burnt [charred] and oiled, and are still sound. The piles of West Boston bridge [built after the for- mer,] were pine, without charring or oiling, and Avorms soon made honey comb of them ; they are all now replaced Avith oak oiled, and will probably continue as long as the other."] TIME, in general, denotes either the succession of natural pheno- mena, occurring in the universe ; or, according to Mr. Locke, it is a mode of duration Avhich is marked by certain periods or measures,but principally by the motion and re- volution of the sun : some philoso- phers, however, have lately defin- ed time to be the duration of a thing, the existence of which is neither without beginning nor end. Consistently with our plan, we cannot enter into any sptculative disquisitions respecting the nature of time : Ave shall, therefore, only remark, that it has been divided into astronomical and civil: the for- mer being regulated entirely by the motion of the celestial bodies ; while the latter division compre- hends the astronomical time adapt- ed to the purposes of civil life ; and is distinguished by years, months, days, hours, minutes, and seconds. FeAv reflections are of greater importance than those on the tran- sitory nature of time ; which is perhaps the only thing in the world, that is absolutely irrecoverable: hence, Ave are often surprized at the conduct of those Avho, under the mistaken notion of killing time, contrive and pursue every species of dissipation, in order to suppress the occasional warning of their de- graded understandings, to stifle the remaining sense of their duties,and in a manner to forget themselves as rational agents, who are appoint- ed to fulfil certain purposes, by which they might distinguish them- selves from the brute creation.... Nevertheless, a moderate partici- pation in the amusements of the clay, or the enjoyment of select company, is highly commendable ; but, when such indulgence exceeds the limits of prudence, it not only deserves severe censure, but is ul- timately attended with bitter re- morse. TIME-PIECE, a termincluding clocks, watches, and other contri- vances, for measuring the pro- gress, or ascertaining the duration of time. The ancients were not acquaint- ed with other time-pieces than the common sun-dial, and water-clocks, or vessels filled Avith any liquid, which was allowed to descend in drops, so that the portion thus dis- engaged, in an imperfect manner indicated the length of time, which TIM T I M 139 had elapsed: for these contrivan- ces, hour-glasses were aftervvards substituted. The present mechanical time- pieces Avith the pendulum, Avere probably invented in Italy, towards the end of the 13th, or beginning of the 14th century; but the smaller machines, called watches, were not known in Europe till the middle of the 17th century, when the steel spring was employed as a substitute for weights, and the spiral or regulating spring, in- stead of the pendulum. The me- rit of this invention is claimed by the city of Numberg, whence Oli- ver Cromwell was furnished with an oval watch, that is still shewn among the curiosities de- posited in the British museum..... In England, these useful chrono- meters were first made by Dr. Hooxe ; and in Holland, by Huy- geks ; but the name of their ori- ginal inventor is consigned to ob- livion. Since that period, numer- ous improvements have been made by Tompion, Sully, Le Roi, Berthoud, Gray, Graham, and other artists, whose names we de- cline to register. From the extensive utility of time-pieces, in measuring witb ex- actness the periodical revolutions of planetary bodies, it was farther conjectured, that such machines might be advantageously employ- ed for the purpose of ascertaining the longitude at sea. Various ex- periments have, by order of the British government, been institut- ed Avith this design ; but the most correct instrument, Avas that con- structed by the late Mr. Haim:i- son, and denominated a ?'//;;r- kceficr; for which the Commis- sioners of the Board of Longitude, in 1764, awarded him the sum of 10,000/. bein0- one half of the pre- mium which was promised by an act of parliament, passed in 1714, to the artist Avhose me- chanical contrivance might be cal- culated to find the longitude at sea. Mr. Harrison's admirable work did not vary more than 43" of time in a voyage from Eng* land to Jamaica: it Avas afterwards improved : and a time-piece, con- structed on his principles, Avas sent out with Crptain Cook, in 1772 ; which, during the space of three years, did not differ more than 14-J seconds per diem ; the remaining sum of 10,000/. Avas consequently paid to the inventor. Our limits not permitting us to enter into the rationale of its mechanism, the reader is referred to the Principles of Mr. Hjrrison's Time-Keeper, he. (4to. 1767, 5*. Nourse), in which its construction, as well as its application, are fully stated, and illustrated with plates. Another time-keeper for ascer- taining the longitude, was invent- ed, a few years since, by Mr. Ar- nold, and which during a trial of 13 months differed only 6. 69" dur- ing any two clays. Its greatest va- riation Avould not have exceeded one minute of longitude, Avhich might thus be computed with the same accuracy as the latitude can be determined. We understand, however, th: t this contrivance has not been introduced into the Navv. TIMOTHY-GkASS,or/W«im, L. a genus of plantr,. comprehend- ing eight species, four being indi- genous ; of which the following are the principal, namely : 1. The nodosum, or Knotty Timothy-Grass, grows chiefly on the dry, hilly, pastures in the vi- cinity of Bath, and flowers in the month of Ju :e....This species, in the opinion oi Mr. Soi.k, is Avell calculated for dairy pastures ; as 140 T I N T IN it affords a large quantity of rich milk, and is eagerly eaten by cows. It is also relished by sheep and other cattle ; though disliked by horses, where they find the mea- dow or fescue-grasses. 2. The prate,is?, or Common Timothy-grass, thri\res generally in moist pastures, and flowers in Jxily. The culture of this grass has been strongly recommended by Mr. Roc que, in the 4th vol. of the Museum Rusticum et Commer- ce ulc. According to him, it is eaten by horses and cows, preferably to any other pasture-grass ; though Dr. Poultiiey observes, that it is disliked by sheep, and is not re- lished by horses or cows : Mr. Sole, and the Rev. Mr. Swayne, likeAvise remark, that the Com- mon Timothy-grass is very coarse, of little value for cattle, and does not deserve to be cultivated in England. Notwithstanding such diversity of opinion, we appeal to the authority of Linnaeus, who expressly states the Common Ti- mothy-grass should be sown on lands, Avhich have been newly drained ; as it is very luxuriant, attains the height of 3 or 4 feet, ;md prospers in wet and marshy situations. Farther, Ave learn from Bechsteim, that its stalk grows to the height of 6 feet; that horses, and swine, are exceedingly partial to this grass ; consequently, that it merits the attention of farmers who wish to improve moist mea- dows over-grown with moss....[See Grass.] TIN, or S: annum, one of the imperfect metals, which ir, obtained principally from the county of Cornwall, Avhere it is sometimes dug up in a native or pure state ; though more frequently mixed with a large proportion of arsenic, sulphur, and iron. The crude ore is first broken to pieces, and wash- ed ; then roasted in an intense heat, which dissipates the arsenic; and afterwards fused in a furnace, till it be reduced to a metallic state. Tin is the lightest and most fu- sible of all metals : it is of a grey- ish-white colour ; has a strong, disagreeable taste ; and, when rub- bed, emits a peculiar odour : it is also remarkably malleable ; and, Avhen beaten into A'ery thin plates, or tinfoil, is employed in covering Looking-glasses. Farther, tin readily unites Avith copper, form- ing the compositions known under the names of Bronze, and Bell- metal : by immersing thin plates of iron into melted tin,they become coated, and are then termed Block- tin, or Latten ; which is manufac- tured into tea-canisters, and vari- ous culinary utensils. [" a. Native Tin : pure native tin is so very rare, that its real ex- istence has been doubted. " (a) 2. Native Oxyde, Spathose tin ore ; tin combined with oxygen and iron ; is found in various mo- difications. " b. Brown Tin-stone and Spar ; consists of calx of tin, calx of iron, and acid of tungsten. " c. Wood-tin, Stream Tin, or Cornish Tin Ore ; found only in Cornwall, in small globular or re- niform pieces, sometimes of a fi- brous or radiated texture; con- taining tin, with oxygen and iron. " d. Tin Pyrites, Sulpherised Tin, or Sulphuret of Tin ; con- tains tin, sulphur, copper and iron, besides it'smatrix; it is distinguish- ed by it's sulphureous smell Avhen heated."....Lettsom's Traveller's Companion. " All the acids attack reguline TIN TIN 141 tin, requiring for their saturation more of the imperfect than of the perfect oxide. The sulphuric acid oxidates it without dissolving it, but the sulphureous acid forms with it a sulphite, or sulphurated SULPHITE of TIN. " Water is sufficient to precipi- tate this oxidated metal. Mr. Mon- nkt has obtained crystals, the sul- phite of tin, which resemble fine needles, interlacing each other. " In pure nitric acid it is direct- ly precipitated in a Avhite oxide. The acid must therefore be consi- derably diluted and no heat em- ployed ; thus the nitrate of tin may be obtained. " This nitrate burns with a Avhite and thick flame like that of phos- phorus ; and detonates Avhen well heated in a crucible. On distil- lation it boils up, and fills the re- ceiver with a Avhite vapour, smel- ling like nitric acid. " By adding a solution of gold to the solution of tin in the nitric acid, a beautiful purple precipi- tate falls. " Tin is dissolved by the muriatic acid, cold or heated, a fetid gas being disengaged. The solution is yellowish, and the muriate of tin crystalizes in needle like forms, and attracts humidity. " The oxide in this salt is im- perfect, and eagerly takes up oxy- gen if presented to it. This it does if brought in contact with oxy- muriatic acid in an elastic state, also in the following process. '• When amalgamated Avith one- fifth of mercury, and distilled with an equal quantity of the Avhole, of corrosive sublimate, an insipid li- quor first comes over, and then Avhite vapours, which condense in- to a transparent liquor, that emits a considerable cp.antity of vapours, by mere exposure to the air. This is the smoking liquor of Libavius ; appearing to be an oxygenated muriate of tin. " Itisdissolvedby the oxy-muriatic acid Avith vehemence, and Avhen the acid is highly concentrated, a magma is obtained, resembling pitch, Avhich hardens in time. " It is dissolved in the common aqua fortis, prepared Avith salt- petre of the first boiling, for the composition for scarlet dye, from cochinclle. This solution often dis- appoints, from the variable pro- portions of the muriate of soda, and nitrate of pot-ash ; Avhen it contains too little muriate, a pre- cipitate falls ; and when the acid is in excess, it affords an obscure colour. The most accurate pro- portions for a good solvent of tin, are two parts of nitric, and one of muriatic acid. ■ " It may be combined Avith other metals in various proportions. The malleability of gold is impaired even by an exposure to its fumes. Silver also suffers a diminution of its malleability by being fused with it. Yv'hcn alloyed with copper, it forms bronze, or bell-metai ; with a very small proportion of iron it becomes harder, and more so- norous. " Of similar mixtures the metal- lic specula for reflecting tel- lescoi'ks are cast, such as 2 parts of copper, 1 of tin, and 1-16th of arsenic. " Three parts of tin, Avith five of bismuth, and two of lead, forms an alloy, which has been termed the soft sqbder, it liquefies in boiling water.....Lichtenburg. kt Two parts of tin with one of bismuth afford, according to Wal- lerius, the compound called tu- tenag, an appellation which is 142 T I N T IK given in the East Indies to zinc... Gren. " One part of tin and one of zinc being melted together, and mixed Avith two of mercury, then agitated in a box rubbed with chalk, forms an amalgama-vImc-Ii wonder- fully augments the poAver of elec- trical machines. ...Kienm ay er. "Its amalgamating with quicksil- ver, occasions its being employed in the formation of mirrors. 1 part of tin, 1 of lead, 1 of bis- muth, and 2 of mercury, form an amalgam employed for covering curvilinear glass mirrors. " When combined with lead and antimony, it forms a mixture called pewter, very generally employed in fabricating vessels for various domestic purposes. " It is also employed in the composition for printer's types. " Tin is also employed in ena- melling. A mixture of lead and tin, 100 parts of lead to 15, 20, 30, or even 40 of tin, is to be first calcined, 100 parts of the above calx fused in a potter's furnace Avith 100 of sand, containing nearly a third of talc, and 25 or 50 of muriate of soda, form the compo- sition for earthen ware. " For enamelling on metal, the sand is previously calcined with a fourth part of muriate of soda, and even of minium. Fluxes for the colours are generally similar com- positions, except that lead tarnish- es Avith some colours. For deli- cate colours therefore similar com- positions to the following may be used : Three parts of sand, one of chalk, and three of borax ; or three of glass, one of borax, a fourth of nitre, and one of white oxide of antimony. '' Painting on enamel may be per- formed either on the raw or on the baked enamel. The colours are produced by the matallic ox- ides. The oxide of gold forms purple; iron, by peculiar ma- nagement, red ; lead, antimony, and silver.....yellow ; copper..... green; cobalt....blue; manganese ....violet. " From the affinity of copper with tin, it admits of being tinned, or of having its surface covered with tin. For this purpose the copper is first scraped, or cleaned by an acid, then heated, some re- sinous substance being applied to prevent oxidation, and the tin is rubbed over its surface. " If care be taken to prevent oxidation, and a proper degree of heat be employed, the tin may be made to enter into combination Avith iron, and iron may thus have its surface tinned."....Parkinson's Chcmicul Pocket Book.'] TINCTURE, in general, de- notes a solution of the more vola- tile and active parts of various bodies, from the three kingdoms of Nature, by means of a proper solvent: see Menstruum. This term is, however, more particular- ly applied to those spirituous prepa- rations, which contain the resinous parts of vegetables, as well as their flavour and colour. The usual solvents, employed for extracting the medicinal virtues of plants, are water, and rectified spirit of Avine ; the latter of which is frequently used for obtaining the active principles from resins and the essential oils, that yield them imperfectly to the former. With a view to make a tincture or clix- ?'■-, the vegetable or other matter i-5 usually bruised, put into a mat- rass, and the spirit is poured on it, to the depth of about two in- ches. The glass is then closed, TIN and placed in a sand-heat for five or six days, or till the spirit be- come perfectly impregnated, and acquire a deep colour. The quan- tity of a tincture, to be adminis- tered for one dose, varies accord- ingto its constituent parts; though it seldom exceeds a tea-spoonful, which is taken at such times as the nature of the complaint may re- quire. TINNING, is the process of coating copper vessels, chiefly used for culinary purposes : it is gene- rally performed in the following manner: If the copper be new, its surface is first scoured with salt and dilut- ed sulphuric acid : next, pulveriz- ed resin is strewed over the inte- rior part of the vessel; into which, after heating it to a considerable degree, rnei'.ed tin is carefully poured, and a roll of hard-twisted flax is passed briskly over the sides and bottom, to reader the coating uniform. The tinning old vessels, a second time, the surface is first scraped, or scoured with iiou- scales, then pulverized sal-ammo- niac is strewed over it, and the melted tin is rubbed on the sur- face with a solid piece of sal-am- moniac. The process for covering iron vessels Avith tin, corresponds with that last described ; but they ought to be previously cleaned with the murLtic acid, instead of being scraped or scoured. As many families living at a dis- tance from towns, either have no opportunity of sending their cop- per utensils to be re-tinned; or carelessly overlook such necessary repair, we think it useful to ob- serve, that the whole process may be easily performed by servants, Avho possess common skill and dex- terity. For this purpose, the ves- T O A 143 sel ought to be previously scoured, and dried ; then exposed to a mo- derate heat, with such a portion of pure grain-tin as may be sufficient to cover the inner surface : vvhen this metal is melted, a small quan- tity of sal-ammoniac should be strewed over it; and immediately after, a whisk or roll of coarse and hard twisted flax most be employ- ed, for spreading the composition uniformly over the sides and bot- tom of the vessel. To improve th^ coating, about a third part of zinc may be added to the tin ; though the latter Avould produce the de- sired effect, if it could be obtained in a pure state. [A new and excellent mode of tinning copper vessels is given in vol. ii. p. 208 :.....it may here be well to observe, that whiting should be used to scour tinned vessel', instead of sand, which is common- ly employed in the United States; and which rubs off this important coat.] TOAD, or Rana buf, L. is the most deformed and hideous of the lower animals. Its body is broad, the back is flat, and covered with a dusky skin marked with pimples; its large belly appears inflated: on account of the short legs, its mo- tions are slow, and its retreat is filthy. Although the external appear- ance of this ugly creature inspires disgust, and even horror, yet it is asserted that the eyes of toads are remarkably briiliant. Insects of all kinds, and particularly flesh- nva;!';ots, and winged ants, afford food exceedingly grateful to toads. Nevertheless, these dreaded ani- mals possess no noxious qualities: on the contrary, it has lately been asserted, that they furnish the means of curing Cancers, by sue- 144 T O B T OB tion. Mr. Pennant, hoAvever, questions their efficacy, and re- marks, " that they seem only to have rendered a horrible complaint more loathsome." Toad-elax. See Flax the Toad. TOBACCO-PLANT, the Com- mon, or NtCjtiana Tabacum, L. is a native of America, where consi- derable quantities are annually raised for exporation ; and also in Spain, Portugal, Turkey, and Malta. There arc eight species of this narcotic plant, but the principal varieties are known under the names of Oronokoe, and Sweet- scented Tobacco: both attain the height of from six to nine feet; being distinguished only by their deep green leaves ; the former of which are longer and narrower than those of the latter. If their culture were not restricted by the legislature (half a pole of ground only being allowed for such pur- pose, in fthysic-gardens; but, if that space be exceeded, the culti- vator is liable to a penalty of 10/. for every rod), they might be pro- pagated from seed, which ought to be sown towards the middle of April, in beds of warm, rich, light soil. In the course of a month, or six weeks, they must be trans- planted into similar situations, at the distance of about two feet from each other. Here they should be carefully Aveeded, and occasionally av ate red, during dry weather..... When the plants are about two feet high, they shoot forth branch- es ; and, as these draw the nutri- ment from the leaves, it becomes necessary to top, or nip off the extremity of the stalks, in order to prevent them from attaining to a greater height; and also to re- move the young sprouts, which continually shoot forth between the leaves and the stem. No far- ther attention will be required, till the leaves begin to ripen; a change which is known, by their becoming rough and mottled with yellow spots, and by the stalk being co- vered with a species of down. The tobacco plants are now cut off closely to the roots, and exposed on the dry ground to the rays of the sun, till the leaves become wilted, or so pliant as to bend in any direction without breaking..... They are then laid in heaps under shelter, for three or four days, in order to sweat, or ferment; being turned every day ; next the to- bacco leaves are suspended on strings, at a small distance from each other, for the space of a month ; at the end of which they may be taken'down, laid in heaps, and sweated a second time for a wee!;, being then pressed with heavy logs of wood. The last operation is that of picking the leaves ; when they are packed in hogsheads for exportation. Uses ."....Various properties have been attributed to this stupefying drug, since it was first introduced into Europe, about the middle of the i6th century. Its smoke, when properly blown against noxi- ous insects, effectually destroys them ; but the chief consumption of this plant, is in the manufactures of Snuff and Tobacco, or the cut leaves for Smoking. It is likewise (though we think, Avith- out foundation), believed to pre- vent the return of hunger ; and is therefore chewed in considerable quantities by mariners, as well as the labouring classes of people ; a disgusting practice-which cannot be too severely censured. For, TOB TOB 145 though in some cases, this method of using tobacco, may afford relief in the rheumatic tooth-ach, yet, as the constant mastication of it in- duces an uncommon discharge of saliva, its narcotic qualities ope- rate more powerfully, and thus eventually impair the digestive or- gans. As a medicine, the use of tobacco requires great precaution ; and it should never be resorted to Avith- out professional advice : it is chief- ly employed in clysters, and as an ingredient in ointments, for destroy- ing cutaneous insects, cleansing inveterate ulcers, 8cc Lastly, in- deed Mr. Fowj.er has success- fully prescribed it, in the various forms of tincture, infusion, and pills, as a diuretic, in cases of dropsy and dysury : if one ounce of the infusion of tobacco be mixed with a pint of water-gruel, and in- jected as a clyster (being occasion- ally repeated), Dr. F. states, that it will afford great relief in obsti- nate constipations of the bowels.... The smoke has, for ages, been ad- ministered in the form of injection, as a sovereign remedy for the dry- belly-ach, prevalent in the West Indies. Beside the varieties of this herb already described, there is another, termed English Tobacco, or Nicotiana minor v. rustica, L. it is originally a native of America ; but, having been raised in some British gardens for curiosity, its leaves are frequently substituted for the genuine drug-. They pos- sess similar narcotic properties Avith the Hen-bane ; and may be dis- tinguished from foreign tobacco, by the pedicles Avhich abound on them, and also by their smallness and oval shape. It is remarkable, that the daily vol. v. smoking of tobacco, is a practice which has only within the last cen- tury become general throughout Europe, especially in Holland and Germany; Avhere it constitutes one of the greatest luxuries Avith which the industrious, poor peasants, as well as the more indolent and wealthy classes, regale themselves and their friends. In Britain, how- ever, the lower and middle ranks, only, appear to be attached to such fumigations ; which, though occa- sionally useful in damp and mephi- tic situations, are always hurtful to persons of dry and rigid fibres, Aveak digestion, or delicate habits ; but particularly to the young, ple- thoric, asthmatic, and those whose ancestors have been consumptive ; or who are themselves threatened with pulmonary diseases. In proof of this assertion, Ave shall only re- mark, that a few drops of the oil distilled from the leaves of this powerful plant, t^ken internally, have operated as fatal poison : and, a considerable portion of such oil being disengaged Avithin the tube of tobacco-pipes, during combus- tion, the noxious effects of inhal- ing and absorbing it by the mouth, may be easily inferred. See also Smoking. Lastly, the ashes of tobacco may be applied to many economical pur- poses : they not only extirpate those small and noxious vermin, earth-slugs, but at the same time fertilize the soil, Avhen strewed on it early in the spring. Farther, by scattering them occasionally over the food of horses and geese, the health of these animals is said to be greatly benefited: they also afford a good tooth-powder; a strong ley ; pot-ash ; and an use- ful ingredient in the manufacture of glass. We understand that U 146 TOB considerable quantities of tobacco- ashes might be easily procured from the King's Avarehouses es- tablished for this merchandize, in London, and other sea-ports ; where large parcels of spoiled leaves are frequently committed to the flames. [The history of this plant, and an ample detail of the mode of its cultivation, pursued in Virginia, may be found in Col. Tatham's work on Tobacco, lately published in London. The use of tobacco is wholly ar- tificial, and no one who used it in any form, ever advised another to follow the example. The reader who is anxious to see its injurious effects on both body and mind, de- tailed in an ample manner, is re- ferred to an excellent paper by Dr. Rush, in his " Essays, Lite- rary, Moral, and Philosophical, Phi- ladelphia, 1798." At present, it is our business to point out the good to be derived from the use of this nauseous vegetable ; and for this purpose, we shall make the following extract from an inaugu- ral dissertation.by Dr. Brails- ford of South-Carolina, Philadel- phia, 1799. "The medical powers of tobacco were generally known among phy- sicians, at an early period, who ascribed many virtues to it in cer- tain obstinate diseases. With re- spect to its operation as a general evacuant, I may, from my experi- ments, and the corroborating as- sertions of various authors, pro- nounce this medicine a valuable acquisition to the materia medica; and that its evident operation on the system, is that of a sudorific, an emetic, a cathartic, and a diure- tic. Hence the propriety of its use, in a variety of diseases. TOB " In cases of ascites and other dropsical affections, it appears to be an invaluable remedy. " As a diuretic, I would venture to assert, that it is excelled by few, if any of our indigenous plants..... The digitalis purpurea, or purple fox-glove, which grows luxuriantly in South-Carolina, has been much celebrated for its diuretic quality, by medical characters ; but I have seen instances where the tobacco has eradicated several violent cases of ascites^ Avhere this had proved but of little effect. " Diuretics," says a much celebrated character*, " have so long been employed with benefit in the treatment of drepsies, that it becomes matter of consequence, to increase the num- ber of the medicines of this class, and to learn how to exhibit, with more advantage, those which are already known." In how great es- timation then should we hold that plant, Avhich is evidently endowed with a power of evacuating the ac- cumulated water by a natural dis- charge, for the relief of ascites and other dropsical affections, in lieu of resorting to a surgical operation, which is painful and disagreeable to the afflicted patient; that Nico- tiana possesses that quality, no one will pretend to deny. " Every practitioner of medicine, who has attentively perused the publication of the ingenious Dr. Fowler, on the effects of tobacco, with respect to its diuretic quality, must candidly acknowledge its sa- lutary effects, in cases of dropsy and dysury. The uniform result attendant on his experiments, to- " * See professor Barton's essay to- wards a materia medica of the United S .ates, page 34. TOB TOB 147 gether with the many proofs of its virtues which have come under my cognizance, clearly evince the inde- finite worth of this plant, and the necessity of administering it in those cases of dropsy, which seem to triumph over medicines of less efficacy, although held in the great- est repute. u„The result of this enquiry, has afforded him very favourable ideas upon the subject, and from the number of facts enumerated by him, we may infer, that tobacco, under proper regulations, may be administered internally, not only as a safe, but as an efficacious, and valuable remedy ; especially, as a ftoxverful diuretic in cases of drop- sies and dysuries. " To illustrate the manner of its exhibition, and also its salutary effects in many cases, I will take the liberty of inserting a few ex- tracts from Dr. F. as related by him, and Avhich were the results of his own observations. " It appears from many experi- ments," says the doctor, " that the average dose for an adult,sufficient to produce the desired effect, will be about eighty drops of the infu- sion ; or to speak with some lati- tude, from sixty drops to one hun- dred, and to be repeated twice a day. " The properest times for ad- ministering the medicine, are two hours before dinner, and at bed- time ; it being observed to disa- gree the most with the stomach, in a morning fasting. And such is the difference between morning and night, that almost every pa- tient will require to take one fourth, and some even cue third less, in the forenoon, than in the evening ; in order to enable them to bear the doses, with equal convenience..... The infusion should always be ad- ministered in some vehicle ; which may either be water, or any other simple drink. " The common dose just men- tioned, relates only to adults of an ordinary constitution ; for it de- serves particular notice, that be- tween constitutions, Avhich are very nervous and irritable, and those which are very robust, or torpid, or long accustomed to the use of tobacco, the doses will ad- mit of very great, and surprising variations. " As an illustration of this point, I shall here annex a comparative view of the doses of the infusion, administered in 94 cases of adults ; taking the medium-dose of each case, and reducing the whole into four classes, according to the num- ber of drops. First class. Medium doses. 21 Cases (3 men, and 18 women), from 35 to 60 drops. Second Class. 57 Cases, (29 men, and 28 wo- men), from 60 to 100 drops. Third Class. 13 Cases, (9 men, and 4 women), from 100 to 1 50. Fourth Class. 3 Cases, (3 men), from 150 t* 300 drops. 94 Seeing the diversity of doses i» so great, I would lay it down as a rule, by way of caution, to begin with 60 drops, or three fourths of the medium-dose, in a case of a delicate constitution ; and to inj crease the number of drops, by five, eight or ten at a time, till b\ their obvious effects on the system, the proper dose shall be ascertained. ': But if the patient should be a male, and the constitution robust, 148 TOB TOB torpid, or accustomed to the use of tobacco, Ave may safely venture to begin Avith HO, 90 or 100 drops ; and thus, with more expedition, re- gulate the further doses according to the effects. " In Nephritis....ln cases of ne- phritis calculosa, or gravel, the in- fusion of tobacco has been given with very good effect; and Dr. F. affirms, that he has seen many cases Avhere it proved of infinite utility, and in some instances per- fected radical cures. Physicians, many years back, wrere not ignor- ant of its virtues in such affections; for they have asserted that it has proved " profitable for those Avho are troubled with a stone in the kidney, both to ease pain and by provoking urine,to expel gravel and the stone engendered therein." Theatrum Botanicum, p. 711. " Ascarides... A species of worms, thus termed from their incessant troublesome motion, which exites an itching. They are small and white, with sharp pointed heads, and generally exist in the rectum. " They oftentimes occasion such uneasines in some people as to in- duce fainting, and frequently prove so troublesome throughout the night, as to deprive them of sleep. They are so completely enveloped in mucus, that it is with difficulty they can be eradicated, and fre- quently they resist the most pow- erful anthelmintics ; but practical authors observe, " that the fumes of burning tobacco injected clyster- wise into the rectum, is of singular efficacy." " Farriers are aware of its im- mense virtues in such affections, for they generally pronounce it to be infallible in expelling those small worms, commonly called bots, which so frequently prove mortal to many horses. iiInAsthma....ln asthmatic cases, this medicine has frequently af- forded relief, by its expectorant quality. Dr. F. observes, that he has tried the infusion in many cases of asthma, where it proved expectorant, and procured relief. For agreeably to the discharge of mucus, we find the remission of coughing more or less considera- ble : but should an inflammatory type prevail, Avhich generally oc- curs in the recent stage of this dis- ease, its use should be protracted, until proper depletive remedies have had the effect of reducing the system to that state, Avhich Avould render its exhibition the more effi- cacious. " In Odontalgia or Tooth-ach..... In such affections, the smoking of a segar, has imparted considerable relief. A piece of lint, impreg- nated with the expressed juice of tobacco, has often, in some instan- ces, acted as a charm, in mitigat- ing the violence of the tooth-ach. The oil of tobacco, dropped on a piece of cotton, of sufficient mag- nitude to occupy the concavity of the affected tooth, has proved almost instantaneous in its relief. It must here be remarked that this remedy should not be adopted by persons unaccustomed to the use of tobac- co, as the oil is extremely nause- ous, and aviU oftentimes induce vo- miting. In these various forms, tobacco acts by its stimulating quality, destroying the sensibility of the nerve, and thereby encoun- tering pain. Opium oftentimes acts in like manner, but neither perfect permanent cures ; for the pains frequently recur, and the only radical remedy, to Avhich we TOB must ultimately resort, is the ex- traction of the affected tooth. " In Colic....The decoction of tobacco, exhibited in the form of an injection, has afforded almost in- stantaneous relief, after other me- dicines had proved ineffectual. " Dr. F, remarks, that by a pro- per administration, the violent ef- fects of tobacco may be avoided. An ounce of the infusion he ob- serves, will be found a medium dose, in the form of an injection, for an adult of an ordinary consti- tution ; and the general rule by which he was guided, is as follows; supposing a common injection to have been administered without effect, I would order one of an ounce of the infusion, agreeable to the preceding observation, in half a pint of milk, or common gruel, to be immediately injected. If this procured no relief, or excited no giddiness, or nausea, continu- ing for the space of 30, 40, or 60 minutes; these last effects in ob- stinate constipations, most fre- quently preceding its laxative op- eration, then I would gradually in- crease the strength of the future injections, till one or other of these effects should take place. " By this mode of proceeding, the poAvers of the medicine, whe- ther successful or not, will be fully tried in the space of a few hours ; a matter of serious consequence, Avhere suspense is distressing, and delay dangerous. tk In the Iliac passion...." It is highly proper," says Dr. Syden- ham, " to give a strong purging clvster, an hour or two after bleed- ing." Wallis's Sydenham, p. 443. In such cases, I have seen the to- bacco infusion made use of with considerable advantage. The doc- tor himself remaiks the salutary TOB 149 effects of tobacco in this disease. " The smoke of tobacco," he ob- serves, " forced up through a blad- der into the bowels by an inverted pipe, has been attended with very beneficial consequences." " It is asserted in the Encyclope- dia, that a strong decoction of to- bacco throAvn up the rectum, has proved of good effect in what is usually called the stone-colic, and also in the iliac passion. In Hernia. (Ruptures.)....It ge- nerally occurs that costiveness is one of the most alarming symp- toms attendant on this disease, for the relief of Avhich, stimulating pur- gatives arc generally administer- ed ; but it not unfrequently hap- pens that they do much injury ; for when they have not the desired ef- fect, they produce a considerable nausea at the stomach, and some- times vomiting, which promotes the pain and tension of the tu- mour. " In such affections," says Mr. Bell, " I would recommend to- bacco smoke thrown up in the form of injections, as preferable to every other remedy." Bell's Surgerv, vol. I. p. 162.' '* In Tympanites Intestinalis.... This is termed a flatulent dropsy, the abdomen frequently becomes considerably distended, and in such cases the chief intention is to dis- charge the flatulencies : various remedies have been indicated for this purpose, and there have been instances where the infusion of to- bacco has proved efficacious after the failure of many of them. " A case of two years continu- ance," says Dr. F. " after the trial of various remedies, has been sur- prisingly relieved by clysters of tobacco prepared in a very stronp- manner. Their operation vv..s 150 TOB TOB moderately purgative, accompani- ed with nausea, vertigo, a copious perspiration, and much discharge of wind." "In obstinate Ulcers...The dried leaves of tobacco, steeped in Water and applied to the parts affected, have sometimes been attended with beneficial effects. "Mr. William Bartram in- formed me, that he knew of seve- ral long standing ulcers, after hav- ing resisted the usual remedies, that were entirely cured by the use of tobacco in the manner a- bove specified. Dr. Earle, of Maryland, communicated to me the case of a child, who had been for several weeks afflicted with an eruption on its head, which evad- ed the-skill of several eminent physicians, that was ultimately cured by an old woman, who daily dressed it with an ointment of to- bacco, previously Avashing the part with a decoction of the same. " In the iic/*...This fulsome dis- order has frequently been cured by the application of tobacco to the affected parts. Mr. Jacobs, a gentleman from Paris, informed me, that the French physicians, make great use of the tobacco wash in obstinate cases of cutane- ous eruptions. The Avash is pre- pared in the following manner: " To one pound of the dried tobacco leaves, add four quarts of Avater ; let these boil slowly over a gentle fire, for the space of half an hour, then pour off the liquor, and add to it one ounce of soda or mineral alkali. The parts affected are to be well rubbed with a suffi- cient portion of this mixture, and to be continued from one to three weeks, according to the virulency of the case. Though it must be remarked, that in consequence of the irritability of many constitu- tions, great caution is requisite, with respect to its use ; as it has, in some instances, occasioned vo- miting, and sometimes convul- sions. The same, he avers, sel- dom fails of curing the itch : the eruptive parts are to be washed three or four times a day, until every appearance subsides; in this way radical cures have been effected, even after the disease had resisted the most powerful medi- cines. " A strong decoction of the stalks with sharp-pointed dock and alum is said to be of good service, used externally, in cuticular dis- tempers : this is also said to be infallible in curing the mange in dogs. See the new Encyclopedia, by George Selby Howard. In Phtheiriasis....Th\s is a lousy distemper, to which most children are generally subject, adults also at times, are afflicted with it..... Moist and warm situations pro- mote the increase of these detesta- ble vermin ; but a cold and dry one very soon exterminate them. Four species are peculiar to the human body, viz. 1st. The pediculi, so called from their being more troublesome with their feet, than from their bite. They generally infest the head, particularly if sore. " A gentleman informed me, that when young, he vvas neglect- ed by his attendants, and for a time was much afflicted vvith the first and third species of these vermin, which occasioned obstinate erup- tions, in his head, and on various parts of his body. Many medi- cines Avere tried for his relief, but without any benefit whatever..... Recourse vvas then had to a strong decoction of tobacco, which was applied three or four times a day, TOB to the parts affected, and in a fort- night or three weeks he was radi- cally cured. " 2d. Morpiones or Crab-lice.... They are thus called from the analogy which they bear to a crab- fish. 3d. Body-lice. These are generated in the apparel of the filthy. 4th. A species Avhich breed und«;r the cuticle, and are called by some authors cyriorus. They are of a round form, extremely minute, and are generally found in the hands andfeet. By creeping under the scarfskin they induce an intolerable itching, and when the skin bursts where they lodge, clus- ters of them are found deposited in a small concavity. " A good diet and attention to cleanliness contribute much to the destruction of these vermin. Mer- curial ointment, and a solution of corrosive sublimate are held in the greatest estimation; but I have heard of instances, where these have failed, and an infusion of to- bacco perfected a radical cure. " A decoction of tobacco proves very destructive to flies, Avhen sprinkled about a room. " Dr. Shannon asserts that, there is a large fly in some parts of Africa, that producesoften a dread- fed disease, by depositing its ova in the mouth or nose. " It happens frequently to ne- groes, and there are several exam- ples of it among the common sol- diers. While they are sleeping in the open air, the fly deposits its ova most commonly in the nose, but sometimes in the mouth. The pain, sAvelling, and inflammation about the face, after the maggots are formed and ready to bre^k forth, are very great, and the poor sufferers are almost distracted..... The number of living maggots T OB 15 that come away, is often consider- able ; and they are of a large size, being nearly half an inch lcng. The usual remedy in such cases is, inhaling the steam of a strong decoction of tobacco through the mouth and nose, according to the seat of the disease; it procures re- lief: perhaps washing the mouth and syringing the nose, might be equally or more effectual.....See Shannon on medicine, p. 382. " Tobacco as a vermifuge is deserving of being held in high repute. " Several of the most powerful medicines, whose virtues as a ver- mifuge, are in the greatest estima- tion, appear to be but feeble in their operation, Avhen compared Avith the great influence of tobacco in tie expulsion of worms. " The celebrated Spigelia Mary- landica of Linmeus, it must be ac- knowledged, is very generally des- tructive to worms ; but, agreea- ble to the first and seventh expe- riments, under the head of anthel- mintics, we find that tobacco ap- pears to be more instantarieous in its operation, though perhaps ulti- mately, not more effectual. Yet, from its more immediate effect on those animals, I should rather pre- sume, that it merits the particular attention of physicians, as a valua- ble medicine, and that, on this consideration, it would, unques- tionably be expedient to give it re- peated trials in those cases, Avhich may resist the more feeble opera- tion of other anthelmintics. " Dr. Shannon on medicine, p. 380, after enumerating several dis- eases peculiar to the Africans, ob- scrA'es, that the Guinea-wcrm is another evil attendant on the ne- groes in Africa, and is generally cured by anthelmintics. 152 T O B TOM " It may be just, therefore, to infer, that the tobacco infusion may- be administered Avith very good effect. " As a Cathartic....In cases of constipations of the abdominal vis- cera, the infusion of tobacco has sometimes been administered, and often with immediate relief l:y oc- casioning a speedy expulsion of the obstructing indurated frrces.... The smoke, says Dr. Cull en, thrown up the rectum, will oper- ate in like manner, and has proved beneficial, after the failure of many violent cathartics ; it enters much further into the intestines than in- jections commonly do, and is there- by applied to a larger surface, by which means it may be rendered much more powerful than the in- fusion. '' A gentleman of my particular acquaintance informed me, that he Avas not in the habit of smok- ing much, but Avhenever he was troubled with any degree of cos- tiveness, it was only resorting to a segar to obviate this inconvenience, which never failed of acting as a lenient purgative, and imparted immediate relief. This method he preferred to the taking of physic ; as it Avas mild in its effects, and left his body agreeably composed. " It is to be regretted, says Dr. Foaa ler, that injections of tobacco are not in more general use; for I am thoroughly persuaded, that in casesof the colic, they would prove more successful than any other kind with Avhich we are acquaint- ed. " From the many facts and ob- servations which I have hitherto adduced, relative to the medicinal influence of tobacco,it is, doubtless, reasonable to infer, that it may prove efficacious in many dis- eases." [In the Tetanus or lock-jaw, in- jections of tobacco decoction, have been used with success ; they not only produce evacuations from the bowels, which are generally obstinately constipated, but tend to occasion a relaxation of the violent spasms so peculiar in this disease : on this account, they might be ad- vantageously given in the disease produced by the bite of mad dog, to produce a suspension of the dis- ease, and give an opportunity for the use of powerful tonic and sti- mulating remedies, which should be given regularly, and persisted in until a good effect be produced.] Toes. See Chilblain, and Corns. TOLU, or Balsam of Tolu, an esteemed drug which is obtain- ed from the Toluifera balsamum, L. a native of South-America, Avhence it is imported in small gourd-shells. This balsam is of a transparent, reddish-brown or yelloAV colour of a thick, tanacious consistence ; and acquires such a degree of brit- tleness by age, that it may be ea- sily reduced to powder. It pos- sesses a very fragrant odour, slightly resembling that of lemons; and has a warm, sweetish taste.... The virtues of this drug corre- spond with those of the Peruvian Balsam ; but it is much milder than the latter, and therefore more frequently employed in affections of the lungs and chest, especially when combined Avith a decoction of Avhite poppies, and the s,vrup either of marsh-mallows or pale roses. TOM-TIT, a well-known dimi- nutive bird, abounding in woods TON and orchards, where it constructs its nest with grass, he. in which the female deposits from three to five very small eggs. Tom-tits have erroneously been supposed to injure the young buds and blossoms of trees, on which account, large numbers are annual- ly caught. They are however, believed to be of great service to fruit-trees ; and though a few buds or blossoms may be occasionally destroyed by them, yet such da- mage is amply compensated; as in- numerable insects are devoured by these birds; and which, insinuating themselves into the buds, would commit irreparable injury. Hence, the increase of tom-tits ought to be encouraged ; as instances have occurred, where numbers of those harmless creatures had been taken in one year, after which the blos- soms of trees were, in the succeed- ing spring, completely destroyed. TON, or Tun, a measure of ca- pacity, varying in its dimensions, according to the nature of liquid or solid articles: thus, a tun of wine contains four hogsheads; a ton of timber comprises a square of 40 solid feet: and a ton of coals amounts to 20 cwt. TONGUE, in the animal eco- nomy, is an organized muscle situ- ated in the cavity of the mouth, moveable in every direction, and destined for the purposes of speech, mastication, deglutition, and suc- tion. On the upper part, it is furnished with many small ner- vous warts, regulating the sense of taste : the whole is covered by the muciparous membrane lining the inside of the mouth; and which, by a duplicature at the lower part, forms the ligament called thofre- num.......If this ligament be too short (which may be ascertained vol. v. TON 153 by the incapacity of the infant to protrude its tongue to the gums, and between the lips; or of suck- ing either the breast, or a finger introduced into its mouth) an in- cision should be made, by a per- son properly qualified ; and the in- fant, immediately after, be placed to the breast; in order to prevent its swallowing the b!ood. -"A simi- lar operation will be requisite, as the only mean of preservation, Avhere a fleshy tumour occurs under the tip of the tongu... Another affection is the Ramda, or swelling beneath, and at the side of. the tongue ; wbich gene- rally arises from an obstructed sali- vary gland : in some instances, it contains a gritty substance, but more frequently a fetid fluid, in consequence of which, the mouth becomes inffamed. Where it pro- ceeds from tainted milk, the nurse ought to be instantly changed, ar.:l the mouth be wj/hed with a de- coction of sage sweetened with honey ; but, if the tumor be hard, it will be i Uisable to extirpate it by the knife: after the operation, the mouth should be frequently rinsed with miik and wattr.....to promote the healing of the wound gentle astringents, such as (fluted tincture of bark or myrrh, wid be useful, when given with due pre- caution. Ulcers of the tongue are some- times produced by the sharp edges ofi.be teeth: in this ca^e, the latter must be filed1 off', and astringent gargles frequently employed. A more serious malady is Ghssi- tis,ov Inflammation of the T^.gue ; the following are its symptoms.... A partial or general tumor; the sides and Ioavct surface are red, and uncommonly painful to the touch. Progressively, the patient's X 154 TON TON speech, SAvalloAving, and respira- tion, become affected ; and, Avhen the complaint is of a violent na- ture, the tongue is so tumefied that it fills up the cavity of the mouth: farther, if the inflamma- tion should extend to the gullet, and thus impede respiration, a symptomatic sore-throat is often induced. An acute head acb, and sometimes delirium occur, which may even prove fatal. More fre- quently, hoAvever, it terminates either by a resolution, or by a fa- vourable suppuration; though, in some instances, it is eventually followed by mortification, scirrhus, or cancer. Causes......Suppressed perspira- tion ; acrid substances taken into the mouth; or, a deposition of morbid matter from other parts, for instance, in rheumatisms, scro- phula, he. Cure....While the patient is able to SAvalloAV,cooling aperients should be given ; and, if the symptoms evince crudities in the stomach and intestines, either emetics or purga- tives, according to the seat of such accumulated matter, will, in the first stage, prove highly efficacious. Blisters, and other vesicatories, applied to the feet and arms; or, in urgent cases, even to the neck, together with bathing the legs in tepid water, cannot fail to be use- ful, by diminishing the inflamma- tion. Warm, emollient fomenta- tion's around the neck, may also be resorted to ; and if %the mouth be charged with phlegm or mucus, the fauces ought to be rinsed with a decoction of chamomile or elder flowers, to which a small quantity of sal-ammoniac may be added: for the same purpose, a decoction of figs in milk, will occasionally prove of service....Should venesection be indicated, it will be preferable to draAV the blood by means of cup- ping-glasses; or, by applying leecb- es to the adjacent parts...-lf a col- lection of pus, or an abscess be formed, the discharge must be pro- moted by an incision, as soon as the matter is sufficiently maturated. But, Avhere the inflammation ter- minates in a Scirrhus, or Can- cer, the reader will find the pro- per treatment stated under those respectiA-e heads. Lameness of the tongue, may originate from various causes: thus, if it proceed from worms, or sup- pressed piles, in the former case, vermifuges, and in the latter, such remedies should be resorted to, as tend to restore that salutary evacu- ation, by the mildest aperients: when this affection arises from violent passions, catarrh, or is symptomatic of palsy, it Avill be useful to employ electricity, setons, and blistering cataplasms to the skin (see Sinapism), which have frequently been attended Avith suc- cess. The palate, or sense of taste, may be depraved by organic affec- tions, or atony of the parts; by incrustations, for instance, in the thrush; in consequence of warts on the tongue, from a vitiated sa- liva; or the destruction of nerves proceeding to this organ; and lastly, from catarrhs, by Avhich the head is generally affected. If such complaint be occasioned by impurities the tongue should be frequently scraped and washed with a mixture of spring Avater, vinegar, and honey. A corruption of the saliva being mostly connect- ed with other disorders, it will also be remoA^ed by the remedies em- ployed for the cure of the latter: we shall therefore only add, tha TOO TOR 155 when it arises from tainted hu- mours (evinced by frequent, foul eructations), the repeated use of thin slices of lemons, or oranges, with a little sugar ; or, rinsing the mouth with a mixture of vinegar and lime-water, Avill often remedy such inconvenience. Where the sensibility of the nerves is diminished, the chewing of horse-radish, sweet flag, and si- milar stimulants, has frequently proved beneficial...See also Dumb- ness. TONSILS, or vulgarly called Almonds, are two round glands situated collaterally at the basis of the tongue ; each of them being provided with a large oval passage opening towards the fauces, whence a mucus is secreted for lubricating the mouth and gullet; such dis- charge being farther promoted by the action of the muscles, compress- ing these glands. The principal affection incident to the tonsils, consists in an enlarge- ment, unattended with pain ; but which sometimes increases to such an alarming degree, as to threaten suffocation : in this case, relief can be obtained only by an operation. When the complaint, however, is consequent on inflammations of the adjacent parts, for instance, in the Quinsy, Scarlet-fever, Sec. the remedies directed under those ar- ticles, may then afford relief. TOOL, a general term denot- ing any small implement, which is used both for manufacturing other complex instruments or machines, and also those employed in the me- chanical arts. Tools are divided into edged- tools, spring-look, pointed-tools, he. But, consistently with the advanced state of the present work, we shall only give an account of a patent, -'-anted in January 1793, to Mr. Arnold Wilde,for makingplane- irons, sickles, scythes, drawing- knives, and all other kinds of edged-tools, from a preparation of cast-steel and iron, incorporated by means of fire....He directs a piece of wrought-iron to be previously heated in the fire, and hammered ; after Avhich it should be formed of the requisite size : it is then to be fixed in a mould of proper dimen- sions, and in such a direction that, Avhen the cast-steel is poured into the latter, the iron may settle in the middle, or on either side..... Next, the steel must be melted in a crucible exposed to a strong fire; and, Avhen it is nearly in a fluid state, the iron should be prepared in a welding heat. After clearing it from scales, or other extraneous matters, the iron is again to be fixed in the mould, and the fluid steel poured into the vacancy left for that purpose; when the vv hole will be united into one solid mass. .....The various tools, above-men- tioned, may then be made of such compound metal in the usual man- ner ; or by any method that should be deemed most convenient to the workman, or manufacturer. Tooth ; and Tooth-ach. See Teeth. TORMENTIL, the Common, or Sept-foil, Tormentilla crecta v. officinalis, L. is an indigenous perennial, groAving in moors, bar- ren pastures, and shady places; flowering from June to Septem- ber....It is eaten by cows, goats, sheep and swine; but refused by horses. The Tormentil is propagated by planting the croAvns of its bulbous roots, at the depth of one inch, and at the distance of five or six square inches...These roots are of great utility, both in domestic and in medical economy : on account 156 T O U of their stro-v^ astringency, they are advantageously substituted for o?k-bark in tanning, and dyeing leather of a red colour, with the audition of the Avater-elder berries, and alum......Leyser observes, in his Original Botany (7th century of his Collection of Plants, in Ger- man), that the inspissated red juice of this root may be employed as an excellent substitute for the foreign drug, called Dragon's blood, in dyeing, staining, he..... Lastly, the tormentil-root has been found remarkably efficacious in the dysentery often prevailing among cattle ; and, being one of the most astringent vegetables of our cli- mate, it may, with equal advan- tage, be used for similar purposes by mankind. [Dr. Wilkinson found that Tormentil-root abounds with the tanning principle....See p. 155.] TORTOISE, or Tcstudo, L. a genous of amphibious animals,com- prehending 33 species, of which the following are the principal: 1. The midas. See Common Tubtle. 2. The imbricata, v. caretta, or hawk's-bill tortoise, is a native of South America; Avhere it attains the length of three feet: its shell is divided into the upper part, which covers the back ; and the lower, for the protection of the belly : it is composed of thirteen leaves, or scales that form the beautiful transparent substance, known under the name of tortoise- shell. 3. The orbicularis, or common river-turtle, inhabits the milder cli- mates of Europe, particularly the swampy parts cf Hungary and Sclavonia; its size seldom exceed- ing eight or nine inches in diame- ter. It is covered with a smooth dark shell; lives in morasses; and TOU spends the winter under groundr in a torpid state....The flesh of this species is much esteemed on the Continent, where it is eaten by the consumptive and debilitated, on account of its restorative properties. Turtles live on worms, insects, small fishes, and marine plants; they are reputed for their longe- vity, subsisting for twelve months on simple water, and evincing mus- cular action, after the head has been severed for a fortnight. Their progress through life is remarkably sIoav. Touch-me-not. See Balsa- mine. Touch-stone. See Gold. TOUCHWOOD, or Spunk, Boletus igniarius, L. a species of fungus, or sponge, which grows on the trunks, particularly those of cherry and plum-trees ; where it frequently extends to a size of from two to eight inches. The substance of this vegetable is very hard and tough, of a tawny- brown colour, and is sometimes employed, both in England and in Germany, as a substitute for in- der: Avith this design, it is boiled in a strong ley, or urine, after which it is dried, and boiled a se- cond time in a solution of salt- petre. It is also occasionally used as a Styptic ; being collected in August and September ; the hard external crust is separated, and the medullary part is beaten with a hammer, till it becomes soft. TOURNIQUET, in surgery, an instrument composed of rollers, screAvs, straps, he. for the purpose of compressing a limb, or other part of the body ; in order to pre- vent too great an effusion of blood from Avoundn. The tourniquet is one of the best contrivances in the art of healing: by compressing the blood vessels, T OU it may be so regulated, as com- pletely to check the farther efflux of that vital fluid, from wounded parts ; and thus frequently to save a valuable life. Without entering into a descrip- tion of the various improvements that have lately been introduced into this essential part of operative surgery, we cannot omit to re- commend to our readers, Avho are situated at a distance from pro- fessional aid, to provide themselves Avith this simple and useful instru- ment, which may be had in the greatest perfection, of Mr. Bishop, Philadelphia, whom Ave have men- tioned on a similar occasion. To persons travelling, or inhabiting warm climates, a tourniquet may prove of the greatest advantage; and Ave conceive it to be one of the most necessary articles in a medi- cine-chest, as Avell as in a case of instruments. Where it becomes an object of importance, to suppress the bleed- ing from arteries of the lower ex- tremities, Avithout intercepting the circulation through the whole limb, the following ingenious method of applying a tourniquet has been re- commended, as perfectly safe, by a skilful young surgeon in the me- tropolis. After providing a hard roll of linen bandage, about 4 or 5 inches in width, and 3 in thick- ness, as likeAvise a smooth board, 9 inches in length, 3 in Avidth, and 4 of an inch in thickness, Avith the sides and ends squared at right angles ; the roller is to be' placed mid-way in the ham on the under sides of the knee-joint; the leg be- ing extended in a straight line. Next, the piece of board must be laid over the roller, Avhich is to act as a pad of compression on the popliteal artery that extends from T O U 157 the ham over the hollow of the knee; the length of the board run- ning cross-ways, and projecting on the knee-joint on each side. Now, the girth of the tourniquet is to go round the knee above (not upon) the knee-pan, and over the pro- jecting ends of the board. The screw should rest at the upper part of the limb and the knee-pan, hav- ing also a pad interposed between it and the skin. By this mode of compressing the popliteal artery, an important advantage is gained ; because it allows the arterial circu- lation to proceed uninterrupted through the lateral branching ves- sels ; the large superficial veins are not disturbed ; and the limb re- mains in the same state as if the artery alone had been tied....In all cases of profusehemorrhages, when there is a chance of saving the limb, such method of applying the common tourniquet, will be pre- ferable to the usual manner, by which the circulation of the blood is entirely stopped. Farther, in gun-shot Avounds, compound frac- tures, and secondary bleedings af- ter amputation below the knee, the practice here suggested will gene- rally be attended with the desired effect. Having thus enlarged upon a subject, which materially relates to the safety of every individual, Ave shall only add (as supplementary to the article Styptic), that in acci- dental injuries, or wounds attended with profuse bleeding from large blood-vessels, we are not acquaint- ed with a more simple and effectu- al remedy than the Powd'r of Gum Arabic. This mild application to the orifice of the vein, or artery. speedily forms an incrustation around the part affected ; espe- cially if it be immediately strewed 158 T R A TR A over the spot from which the blood issues; and if the contigu- ous muscles be at the same time gently compressed, till a proper bandage, roller, or tourniquet, can be procured. TOWER - MUSTARD, the Smooth, or Tower-wort, Turri- tis glabra, L. is an indigenous plant groAving in gravelly mea- dows, pastures, and pits, where the stalks attain the height of tAvo feet, and the greenish-white, large flowers appear in May and June.... The taste of this A'egetable resem- bles that of cresses; and, affording wholesome food for cattle, we con- ceive it deserves the attention of cultivators, in the northern parts of the island, Avhich abound Avith dry, stony lands and pastures.... Farther, the flowers of the tower- wort supply the industrious bee with wax and honey. TRAGACANTH,agumobtain- ed from the Astragalus Tragacan- tha, L. a thorny bush, growing in the Levant, in Candia, on Mounts Olympus, Ida, and iEtna. Tragacanth is incomparably stronger than gum-arabic: one dram of the former, dissolved in a pint of water, renders it of the consistence of syrup, Avhile an ounce of the latter is required to produce a thick mucilage : hence it is preferred to other gums in forming lozenges. Compound powder of Tragacanth, consists of this drug, of gum-arabic, and starch, each 1-i oz. and 3 oz. of double refined sugar ; Avhich in- gredients are conjointly pulverized. .....This preparation is one of the mildest emollient remedies in hec- tic cases, troublesome coughs, strangury, and similar disorders, occasioned by a thin, vitiated state of the fluids; the dose being from a half to two or three drams, which may, according to circumstances, be repeated every hour, or atlonger intervals. Train-oil. See Oil. TRANSFUSION of Blood, an operation by which that fluid may be conducted from one animal body into another. This singular and daring attempt Avas first undertaken by Libavius, at Halle, early in the 17th century: he recommended experiments tobe made on calves, sheep, dogs, and other animals. After these had been successfully performed, a whimsical notion of prolonging hu- man life, by the practice of trans- fusion, was publicly maintained, with almost general approbation by Lower, in England; Hoffman, in Germany ; Denis, in France, and other bold physicians. But, when several persons unfortunately fell victims to such experiments, the flattering prospect completely vanished, till the late John Hun- ter resumed the subject, and treat- ed it in a manner peculiar to his pentrating genius. In performing, the process of transfusion, the vein, which is usually chosen for blood-letting, was opened, and a quill, or other tube introduced in a perpendicular direction : the corresponding vein vvas then pierced in a healthy per- son, or more frequently in robust animals; and a similar tube was accommodated to the orifice in a slanting way ; both tubes were then passed one into another, and thus the blood was gradually transfused; the vein being tied up, as is usual after venesection. This operation is certainly inge- nious ; but, as it requires equal judgment and dexterity, we doubt whether it -will ever become an T R A T R A 159 useful branch of the healing art, in be transplanted ; allowing them to the present state of society: nay, grow rude, that is, without being it appears to us, that it cannot be nailed in, or cutting either the side performed with safety, since the or fore-right shoots, during the introduction of the late inoculations, whole summer. In the course of excepting in very desperate cases, the winter, the ground ought to be such as hydrophobia, or other in- opened around their roots, and the ternal poisons, in which the whole strong ones cut-in ; after vvhich mass of the blood i» in a dissolved they must be covered with soil. or tainted state. Besides, this es- Thus, fine young fibres will strike sential fluid is, in every person, of forth; and, in the succeeding au- a peculiar nature adapted to his tumn, or during the winter (the oAvn constitution; and consequent- sooner the better), they may be ly cannot, with resonable hopes of transplanted as standards ; care success, be transfused into ano- being taken to place them, like all ther: hence the visionary idea of other trees which are to be re- renovating the animal spirits by moved into different soils, in a si- artificial means, and of prolonging milar aspect, or towards the same human life beyond the period ap- point of the compass; but, if cut- pointed by Nature, must necessa- tings are designed to be planted rily be defeated.....See also Life, against a wall, Mr. F. advises only Longevity, he. the roots to be divided; as by such [Sir Edmund King's experi- method a considerable saving will mcnts, made in the reign of not only result, in time and money, Charles II, on transfusion, de- but the trees also will bear fruit, in serve to be mentioned. the first year after their: remoAraI. The blood of a healthy spaniel He remarks, that he hasoften trans- was conveyed into the veins of an planted old plum-trees that had old mangy dog ,av1io Avas perfectly been headed down, and consequent- cured in less than a fortnight. The ly made very fine roots ; which he blood of a young dog was trans- divided, and " thereby obtained fused into one almost blind with four or five trees from one, cutting age, and which before could hardly them so as to form them into fine move ; the latter did, in two hours, heads.".. ..See also Fruit-trees, leap and frisk, and yet the young Orchard, and Planting. dog, Avhich received, in return, the [TRAVELING. The many blood of the old dog felt no sort inconvenienciesandthe embarrass- of injury. See Phil. Trans, abridged, ments which young travellers ge- vol. iii. p. 224.] nerally suffer from their inexpe- TRANSPLANTATION, de- rience, and Avant of knoAvledge of notes the act of removing either mankind, render the folloAving di- Cuttings, layers, roots, or entire rections of great consequence to young plants from one soil into them. They are extracted from another. a scarce book, by Count Bf.rch- For this purpose, Mr. Forsyth told, entitled '• An essay to direct directs the side-shoots of trees to and extend the inquiries of Patrio- be cut-in, at different lengths, from tic Travellers, he. London 1789. one to three feet, according to their ....Two volumes large duodeci- sizc, in the ycnr before they are to mo. 160 T R A TR A On the most necessary qualifications for a young person intending to Travel. " Since it is almost impossible to perform any thing well without preparation, it is indispensably ne- cessary for a young gentleman, who is desirous to travel, either for his own improvement, the welfare of mankind in general, or for the happiness of his country in parti- cular, to lay in a certain stocx of fundamental knowledge, before he undertakes the difficult task of travelling to real advantage. Innumerable are the objects worthy of a traveller's attention and inquiry, and some of them are of much more importance than others ; in proportion to the advan- tages that accrue to the public from the application of the know- ledge acquired of them ; let me therefore advise every gentleman, Avho feels an irresistable and lau- dable inclination to collect useful information, and valuable observa- tions, to get such insight at home into those arts and sciences, whose extent and improvement must ne- cessarily prove beneficial to man- kind in general, and to his native country in particular. Reading and reflection will point out many objects worthy of a tra- veller's investigation ; but expe- rience, the first of guides, may nevertheless furnish them with that advice which perhaps will be acceptable to my readers, the hints of intelligent friends ought to sup- ply what neither books, nor medi- tation can teach; therefore it should be the first principle of those Avhose inclination it is to travel usefully, to communicate their plan to public spirited, bene- volent, and well-informed men, and to apply to them for such in- formation on those heads, which should form the principal objects of their inquiry, and particularly respecting the welfare of mankind, and the most dangerous diseases of that political body of which they themselves are members. Philan'.hrophic men will not he- sitate to give a well meaning and inquisitive person all the informa- tion in their power; and though much may be leamod by conver- sation with men of experience and understanding, yet written instruc- tions are ever to be preferred, be- cause a writer has inhVitely more opportunity than a narrator, to re- flect on the true interest of his fel- low-creatures, and the memory at the same time will be much re- lieved. The indispensable branches of knowledge and abilities, for travel- lers, are the following. National Lav;.....A gentleman, desirous to discover wise laws abroad, which, if proposed to the lawgivers of his country, and in- troduced by him, might render his countrymen more virtuous, more industrious, richer, and hap- pier, ought first to be well inform- ed of the smallest defects of the National, Civil, and Criminal Le- gislature, and thoroughly instruct- ed in the Municipal Laws, and Regulations of the Police. Natural History.....The study of the general, and particular natural history of his native country, will enable him to render essential ser- vices to his fellow-creatures ; but he must devote himself to those branches, which are the best cal- culated to promote those ends ; it must also leave a very serious in- fluence upon his mind, as he Avill often be excited to contemplate TR A and adore the stupendous power of the Divine Author of those inimi- table works which he surveys. Mineralogy, Metallurgy, and Chemistry.....The usefulness of mi- neralogy, metallurgy, and chemis- try, is universally known, and needs no illustration ; as also their gene- ral tendency to the advantage of manufactures, and consequently commerce, is readily acknowledg- ed. Mathematics.....The study of mathematics being very extensive, ought to be ■pursued with equal circumspection and industry ; and those branches which are most ap- plicable to common life, ought most principally to engage the at- tention. Mathematics must also have the effect of accustoming the pupil to proceed systematically in all his undertakings, from which he will derive no inconsiderable advantage in his own private economy. Mechanics.....The study of me- chanics is of the greatest impor- tance, and will enable him to un- derstand with ease, the construc- tion and application of many cu- rious, though sometimes very com- plex machines, as looms, mills, and other useful contrivances, which he will have an opportunity to survey in the course of his travels, as well as to introduce in his own country. Hydrostatics and Hydraulics..... The use of hydrostatical and hy- draulical knowledge is so very ex- tensive and advantageous, tbat he would be found much Avanting, Avere he to overlook those interesting branches of practical Mathematics, without the knowledge of which, he Avould inspect in vain many stupendous engines, put in motion by water, which are generally pro- ductive of infinite utility in saving vol. v TRA 161 immense labour, and promoting with ease, many conveniencies of life to the benefit of his fellow- creatures. Perspective.....A more than or- dinary knowledge in perspective is requisite in him, who wishes tp give a correct plan of machines, looms, 8cc. and a traveller^ Avhose knowledge of machines enables ,him to form a true idea of any in- genious contrivance, will be great- ly facilitated in the accurate exe- cution of the representation of those objects which relate to the above-mentioned "sciences. Geography.....Geography is a study of so important and useful a nature, that its necessity is known to every class of men ; to travel- lers it is the first and grand re- quisite, without which he is as ill provided, as he would be in at- tempting a journey without food or refreshment. The use of the globes needs no recommendation to prove their matchless utility, and ought to be considered as inseparable compa- nions to Geography. Navigation and Ship Building.... A knowledge of nautical affairs, renders sea voyages both instruc- tive and agreeable ; for while it improves the understanding, it may at the same time prove the preservation of the life of the tra- veller himself, as well as those of the ship's company, from the dangers, distresses, and mishaps of the sea, by rendering a man ca- pable of executing that which ir- regularity, intoxication, or other circumstances may disable those from performing, on whom the duty and obligation rests of pro- viding for the safety both of them- selves and others. Agriculture....Agriculture being Y 162 TRA TRA the most useful as well as most necessary of all arts, ought to be one of the first objects to engage his serious application : an agri- cultural nation must of course be- come powerful, wealthy, and hap- py ; and each individual ought to contribute to its advancement as much as lies in his power: this will therefore be a very great in- citement to exert himself in the pursuit of rural and domestic eco- nomy. Besides the innumerable advan- tages, an attentive and intelligent observer of agricultural countries may procure to his OAvn native soil, this study will render him still more sensible of the Avants of others, and benevolent towards that most useful, and least esteem- ed class of men, who not only feed, but also defend their country. The state of the labouring poor in his own country, is also such an important object of the traveller's attention and inquiry, that he ought to know it as well as he does the situation of his own family, other- wise he Avill not be capable of com- paring it with the state of the pea- santry of other countries, and con- sequently remain uninformed of what is necessary to be known in many respects. With a proper attention to the different methods of cultivating land in his OAvn coun- try, he will soon accustom himself to observe abroad, how the different soils are cultivated to the best ad- vantage, and a little spot forced as it were to afford subsistence to a most numerous family. Languages.....It is absolutely impossible to travel to advantage without possessing the language of the country intended to be visited for information; the Latin and French are certainly insufficient, because there are many, with whom an inquisitive traveller ought to converse, who are total stran- gers to both languages ; and as it is to be supposed, that there are many publications in the language of the country (not to mention the written National Law, the Muni- cipal Laws, and Regulations of the Police) which must demand his attention ; it is obvious, that an as- siduous study of languages is una- voidably indispensable. It ought also to be observed, that the study of the language in the country where it is spoken, Avould deprive him of too great a portion of his time, which could be employed to more useful pur- poses. I appeal to the experience and candor of gentlemen, Avho have travelled with the knoAvledge of of languages, who must confess, that the capability of speaking the language of the country has a poAverful influence upon the minds of the natives. They commonly entertain a good idea of a foreign- er, who submits to the toil of ac- quiring their vernacular idiom, and he meets with the same easy freedom, and is treated Avith the same friendly familiarity, as if he were a native. It is also very convenient to un- derstand, and to be understood by those who are immediately neces- sary to the progress of the travel- ler, as well as those who are the superintendants of his conduct and effects ; and of the inferior class of the people, who compose the greater part of a nation, and who have no knoAvledge of the afore- mentioned languages. The many impositions, and in- conveniencies to which he is ex- posed, by being ignorant of the TRA language of the country, ought also to excite him to acquire different languages, which will not be dif- ficult to a man of moderate pa- tience, under the instruction of an intelligent linguist. It will not be amiss to mention an infallible method of learning almost any language in six months, as prescribed by the famous Sir William Jones, in his grammar of the Persian Language, who says, the scholar should translate from the language he wishes to learn, into his own, with the utmost ex- actness ; then lay aside the origi- nal, and after a proper interval, turn the same translation back into the original, by the assistance of the grammar and the dictionary. The second translation must after- wards be compared with the origi- nal, and the faults corrected ac- cording to that model. Arithmetic.....Is an art, which, though not in the highest esteem as a branch of polite education, has its uses, and is not much less valuable than others ; a competent knowledge of figures, qualifies the the gentleman, merchant, planter, Sec. to form a quick calculation in matters of comparison, produce, proportion, &c. and if the art of computing by numbers is not al- lowed to be ornamental, it must ever be reckoned amongst the most useful branches of general information. Drawing.....The art of DraAving is one of the most necessary, as well as one of the politest accom- plishments a traveller can possess. The drawing of landscapes, dresses, sketching, and embellish- ing his own minutes, form an agreeable part of his amusements ; but the scientific draw ing, respect- ing complicate machines, engines, TRA 163 &c. with accuracy, in different views) is by far more useful, and accordingly has been mentioned under perspective. A Legible and Quick Hand...,. It is of the utmost importance, that a traveller be accustomed to a legible hand, the want of which will certainly expose him to many inconveniences, and finally occa- sion infinite delay and disappoint- ment. Able copyists are not al- ways to be had ; and experience daily teaches us, that it is impossi- ble to rely upon the honour of strangers, with either prudence or safety. As it is to be expected that an inquisitive traveller, will hear, see, read, and be informed of many remarkable things, none of Which he would leave by choice to the chance of forgetting, a quick hand not only relieves the memory, but insures us the possession of the whole treasure, of which we could only have been able to re- tain perhaps a trifling part. Voluminous papers of conse- quence may be occasionally lent to him, for a short time, which may not conveniently admit of being intrusted to a copyist, or any one else ; and, therefore, he may not be able to reap the advantage he might wish, or his friend intended that he should. It would also be extremely use- ful to be instructed in short-hand writing; and to knoAv a secret al- phabet, in order to conceal such important matters, as may be im- proper for the inspection of prying or designing persons. Swimming.....Though the law of self-preservation inculcates to every one to secure himself against dan- ger, it will not' be superfluous to recommend the art of swimming to a person, who probably, in the 164 TRA TRA course of his travels, may be ex- posed to the danger of being drovvned ; besides the duty of this care of ourselves, humanity directs us to render ourselves as capable as possible to save the lives of our fellow creatures as often as an op- portunity offers. What action is nobler than the preservation of a life ?.....There is even something divine in it 1 Some people imagine erroneous- ly, that swimming cannot be learnt by adults; yet daily expe- rience convinces us that they are mistaken ; for, provided the place of instruction does not increase the natural timidity of the pupil; if the master be expert, he will soon make a progress in this necessary art. There are many machines con- structing for buoying up the body, which might be used in the begin- ning, in order to accustom him to an easy position upon the Avater, and to inspire confidence. The most common, or best known, which occur to me at 4his mo- ment, are the Cuirass of Bach- strom, and the Scaphandre of M. L'Abbe de la Chapelle. [See p. 83 of this volume.] Superficial Knowledge of Medi- cine.....Since there is no travelling Avithout health ; since innumera- ble are the disorders to Avhich hu- man nature is liable, and able physicians and surgeons not every where to be had, it is very advi- sable to lay in a stock of medical knowledge, sufficient to be ac- quainted with the chief causes of diseases, and to prepare simple re- medies for those Avhich most com- monly occur. With .regard to chirurgical knowledge, it will in many instan- ces be extremely useful to be capable of bleeding,* and dressing a wound, to which travellers are often exposed. He should also knoAV the most approved methods of recovering droAvned and frozen persons, and such as. have been suffocated by noxious vapours ; because he will certainly find emergencies, Avhich may call upon him for the exertions of this interesting knowledge, and enable him to preserve a life....the noblest action of which he can be capable. Travellers in hot cli- mates are often affected by the sudden impression of the sun, cal- led by the French Coup de Soleil; .....a never-failing remedy for the dangerous accidents of this kind Avould be of great utility. Music.....A competent skill in this art will, on many occasions, he far more useful to a traveller than he can imagine ; it will agreeably supply a wrant of Society, intro- duce him to many polite compa^ nies, and procure him valuable acquaintances. Few people dis- like music, and if he should be- stow his leisure hours on that in- nocent amusement, so as to please himself by entertaining others, his pains will be amply repaid. Music will also divert him from the gaming-table, and perhaps irregu- lar companies, to which he will be otherwise liable. A portable instrument, as for in- stance, a German flute, is prefe- rable to larger ones. Knowledge of Mankind.......A great many excellent Avorks have been published on this subject in almost all the languages of Eu- rope, by Avriters of experience and * This direction is of great conse- quence.....Edit. TRA TRA 165 ability, by which I stand wholly excused from commenting further on that extensive and difficult sub- ject, and need only add, that in or- der to make a rapid progress in the knowledge of Mankind, every one should inspect his own heart; before he attempts to inquire into the character of others, he should observe his own inclinations and inconsistencies, watch himself on all occasions, know his failings, analize the operations of Iris soul, and then proceed to observe others with the utmost attention, even in trifles. The utility of the know- ledge of Mankind is obvious, it is not difficult to guide men as we please, if Ave are able to look into their heart and head. Knowledge of the State of our own Country.....As certain as it is that a Physician Avill try in vain to cure a Patient, Avhose bodily constitu- tion and disease is entirely un- known to him, so Avill a Patriot's inclination for finding out reme- dies for the diseases of the Political Body of his nation be useless, un- less he knows where and how the real cause of the complaint is con- cealed ; therefore to penetrate to the different roots of those evils which may affect his native coun- try, and to acquire a perfect idea of the situation of his own fellow- subjects, it will be necessary to peruse attentively the hints given him by experienced and intelligent men, and to complete an econo- mical and commercial tour through all the districts of his own country, in the company of a well- informed and inquisitive friend, avoiding all precipitation either in his inquiries, or progress of his journey. The most common as avcU as the most dangerous principles of evil among nations, proceed from the oppression of the peasantry, and from an erroneous system of Agriculture ; which ought to ex- cite him to inquire as minutely as possible into the state of the labour- ing poor ;andintothedifferentparts of rural and domestic economy, and with the same anxiety as if sent for that purpose by Govern- ment. It will be-advisable to write down his observations upon the same plan as he proposed to himself, for his- investigations in foreign countries, and by thus collecting the most extensive and useful in- formation lie can obtain respecting his own country, he will accustom himself to inquire systematically when abroad, and will be capable to compare with accuracy,the state of his OAvn country Avith that of any other. The collection of questions in the course of this work, will per- haps be of use, and facilitate his inquiries in his economical and commercial tour; Avhich last I think needs no further observa- tions, since I hav-e also stated se- parate queries applicable to each manufacture, and sea port in ge- neral. Previous Knowledge of the Coun- try which the Traveller intends to visit.....Since it is confirmed by truth, that a traveller's curiosity is in proportion to his instruction, it will be necessary for him to read the best histories of the an- cient and present state of the country he proposes to visit; to make extracts of them, which he might compare afterwards with his own observations ; to take particu- lar notice of the origin of the nation, its most remarkable pe- riods, the causes of its flourishing, 166 f R A languid, or declining state ; of its present constitution, resources, wealth, power, &o. he. Under the history of the present state are comprised geographical descriptions, modern travels and journies, which will point out what hitherto remained unobserv- ed. It will also be requisite to pro- cure, some time previous to his setting out, the most correct, gene- ral, and special maps of the coun- try, to have them properly fitted up on linen, in order to render them convenient for the pocket; this map must be referred to as often as he wishes to read some ac- count of that country. By the frequency of inspection, the contents of the map will be deeply impressed on the mind ; and by this method he will be able to select such a tour as Avill be probably one of the most instruc- tive : the common road is too well known to afford any thing very new or curious, and consequently fewer discoveries are to be made upon it than upon an unbeaten one. A traveller should also, before he sets out for any place, have an accurate description of the curio- sities of the roads that leads to it, and thus himself verify what has been mentioned by others. The more time he will bestow before hand for the acquisition of knowledge of the country he is inclined to visit, the more leisure hours he will have for occular in- spection and investigation of ob- jects worthy of his attention. All those gentlemen Avho flatter themselves to have travelled use- fully, will agree, that a traveller ought to know what to look for, TRA in order to discover the object of his pursuit before he comes on the spot; othenvise it is too late ; the principal vrork is to see how far the ideas we had formed of an object were founded on reason during anticipation. In spite of the greatest care and attention, a great many ob- jects will escape even a well-pre- pared mind; therefore people cannot familiarize themselves suf- ficiently at home with those ob- jects they intend to inquire after abroad, and ought to accustom themselves to reflect often upon them before they commence their journey. They should also have written instructions from such of their friends as have travelled, how to visit foreign countries to advan- tage, safely, agreeably, and cheap; compare those hints together, and follow that advice which seems the most reasonable. It must naturally be expected, that the method of consulting the experience of intelligent persons Avill save the traveller much time, expence, and trouble, and greatly contribute towards his satisfaction. The proverbial sayings of the nations, contain in a few words their manner of reasoning, and de- serve to be known before he pene- trates the country, that he may be previously informed of the way of thinking of the natives. On the Objects most worthy of a Traveller's Discovery, and inves- tigation in Foreign Countries. The objects deserving a travel- ler's attention being multifarious, it will be necessary to divide them into classes according to their im- portance. TRA In the first C&ws belong....Such objects as affect immediately the welfare of mankind, and conse- quently promote the universal good, and may be investigated by every one endowed with a com- mon share of understanding. In- formation, which has the public utility in view, is generally to be had without expence, and a well- directed spirit of inquiry, would prove the key to their access ; therefore I am of opinion, that no traveller of any description what- ever should neglect inquiring carefully into such subjects as contribute to the felicity of the human race. The second Class contains....Ob- jects, whereof an extensive know- ledge would be capable of increas- ing the prosperity of a traveller's native country, and Avhich are partly blended with the welfare of humanity at large. The third Class comprehends..... Those aims, the objects of which invite, and have respective attrac- tion from personal advantages and improvements, and apply to that sphere of life, in which the travel- ler himself is destined to act. In the fourth Class are included... Such branches of ornamental knowledge as might be cultivated without neglecting, or slighting either one of the preceding classes, and are commonly pursued by every traveller, who wishes to con- vince the world of the improve- ment he has attained by visiting foreign countries. I shall then at- tempt to state the WORTHIEST OBJECTS OF INQUIRY. I. Preservation of Human Life. Since the life of man is beyond all calculable value, let me con- T R A 167 jure every philanthropist to exert himself in collecting those regu- lations, charitable institutions, and studied contrivances, and every other material which can be adopt- ed, and is calculated for preserving it. But by taking information con- cerning wise laws on these heads, a traveller may be able to commu- nicate his valuable discoveries to the lawgivers of his country, and contribute in a great degree to render his countrymen less crimi- nal, and to save the lives of many. In what can the human mind be so happily engaged ■? It will be easy to a public spi- rited man, who by his knoAvledge of mankind has acquired the art of persuading, to convince other nations of the necessity of adopt- ing the laudable system of pre- ventive justice. Next to the judicious provisions I have above spoken of, there are many wise municipal laws, and orders of the police of various countries, which tend immediately to the preservation of its subjects. Excellent regulations for pre- venting the plague are enjoined to the Superintendants of Laza- retto's of Leghorn, Marseilles, Malta, Ancona, &c. New and salutary prescriptions for obviating epidemical, and en- demical sicknesses, and for sup- pressing their progress, are to be met Avith chiefly in Tuscany, and in the Emperor's dominions. Establishments for providing against scarcities of corn, and preventing the poor from perishing by Famine, are to be found in many parts of the continent, par- ticularly in Tuscany, and Prussia. Ordinances for preventing ap- parently dead bodies from being 168 TRA TRA buried alive, are wisely directed and enforced in Austria, different parts of Italy, Sec. A protecting machine for pre- venting the common evil of over- laying and smothering children, has been invented in Tuscany, and its use countenanced, directed and enforced by the government of Florence, and has been since adopted in Germany, Sweden, Spain, and lately in Great-Britain, where, by an accurate calculation, it has been discovered, that since the year 1686 upwards oi forty - two thousand children have been overlaid. Discoveries are' daily made of, before unknown, causes of mortal diseases, poisonous food, such as the fish called Ciquato, at the Ha- vannah, the plant Aethusa Cina- pium. Lin. Cicuta Tirosa. Lin. he. Innumerable objects of this kind may be quoted, to prove how far mankind has advanced in useful discoveries, and to excite philan- thropists to continue to increase them. After the preservation of human life, nothing can offer itself as more worthy of engaging our next consi- deration, than II. The Means of providing for the most neglected Class of Inha- bitants. The traveller's utmost care and attention is now demanded in a minute inquiry into all the chari- table institutions and establish- ments founded for the relief of sufferinghumanity,as hospitals for the sick, for lying-in poor women, foundlings, and orphan-houses, mad-houses, prisons, and, in gene- ral, all such places as contain ob- jects of our compassion. Charitable institutions of innu- merable kinds are to be found in all parts of Europe ; but most ge- nerally in England, Italy,and Spain. The government of Madrid has even sent to Germany for plans of different establishments, as for in- stance, La Ronda de pan y Huevos, a society of gentlemen remarkable for the extensiveness and benevolence of their design. Next to the in- firmities to which we are liable, must consider the III. Employment of the Poor. The means of employing the stout, but indolent poor, the not entirely disabled poor of both sex- es, small children, poor house- keepers, and unfortunate people of the middle class of citizens, who wish to earn their bread pri- vately in an honest manner, de- serve to be considered as objects of particular notice. So does the manner of provid- ing for the poor, infirm, superan- nated, and entirely disabled; the nature and stability of the neces- sary funds, and the system of ma- nagement of them. The manner of supplying the poor with food, agreeable to their respective ages, and at a very cheap rate, must not be forgot. In order to have a perfect know- ledge of the state of the poor, without Avhich it is impossible to judge with any certainty of the de- gree of Avealth and povver of a na- tion, it will be necessary to peruse all the poor laAvs, to enquire how far they arc enforced, and to have occular proofs, as often as circum- stances will permit. After having treated of the employment of the poor, nothing can more justly de- mand our notice than IV. Improvements in Agriculture. It must be the greatest comfort TRA TRA 169 to a feeling mind to increase the methods of subsistence of our fel- low creatures, by an improved ag- riculture, by introducing useful plants, roots, grains, Sec. that hi- therto have not yet been cultivat- ed in the country. A traveller may easily procure himself that pleasure ; he ought to get a list of the most celebrat- ed husbandmen of the country, visit them, and inform himself of the most minute, as Avell as the most lucrative productions of rural economy ; compare that account with the list of the productions of his country, of which he must car- ry with him a duplicate on his set- ting out from home ; and if he finds any seeds, roots, or plants, unknown in his country, neither trouble nor expence must be spar- ed to obtain a very extensive and clear description of the culture, manner of preparing, use, utility, &c. of these productions. If he could have ocular informa- tion, it would be still better, and all he has seen or heard concern- ing that object, must be commit- ted to paper on the spot, also by duplicate; Avhich trifling trouble would be highly compensated, if by some accident or other one co- py should be lost. In many instances it AA'ould be advisable to make our fortunate discoveries known to our friends, who are in the agricultural line, because good things cannot be known too soon ; and travellers are sometimes exposed to lose their papers and valuable informa- tions, which are not always to be regained. V. Discoveries of Machines. Instruments and tools, calcu- lated for lessening the fatigues of the poor husbandman, are vol. v. so much more desirable, as there are many people annually ener- vated and lost, by violent efforts of labour ; which, it is expected, Avill be a great excitement for the traveller's utmost exertions, to bring to light inventions of this nature. All contrivances for clearing land from weeds, ploughing, sow- ing, reaping, threshing, grinding corn, draining, and flooding lands, approved methods of raising grass and vegetables, planting timber and fruit-trees, selling and trans- porting timber, sawing-mills of all kinds, ingenious constructions of carts, and in general, all real im- provements in rural and domestic economy,deserve the greatest care and attention. VI. Discoveries made by, and offer- ed to Patriotic Societies-. Owing to the rapid progress of a general spirit of improvement in Europe, the number of patriotic, economical, and other useful soci- eties are continually augmenting ; even Spain is not backward in that respect; for towards the end of April 1788, forty-six societies of this nature existed in that coun- try. The greatest part of useful dis- coveries are certainlyoffered,sought for, and procured, by those kinds of societies in Europe; and hu- manity is undoubtedly infinitely in- debted to them. Therefore, a traveller should jyet a list of all the societies of this de- scription, that are to be found in each country ; and permission will easily be obtained from the res- pective societies, to survey the re- positories of their machines ; to know for what objects premiums have been given, and promised ; in , Avhat they commonly consist, Z 170 TRA TRA he. Perhaps it will not be diffi- cult to get models, prints, or draw- ings of the machines in question, and the necessary explanations of them. It would also be advisable to establish an intercourse by letters with the secretary, or some active member of each society, in order to be informed from time to time of any new and beneficial disco- veries. After having investigated the progress of agriculture, it will be necessary to proceed to the survey of VII. Manufacture and Commerce. There are many voluminous machines, engines, looms, and other ingenious contrivances to be found in manufactures, of which the traveller should endeavour, as much as possible, to procure mo- dels, prints, drawings, and a very circumstantial description of the construction, expence of making, and utility, as well as the use, he. of such machines ; as also a know- ledge of the residence, and name of the inventor or maker, Avhether they are permitted to be exported or not; how long such machines may last, he. would also be desir- able. The special subsequent queries, applicable to each manufactory, will be sufficient to explain the rest. I willonly adjoin, that a traveller, who surveys a manufactory, should also endeavour to procurea list of all the articles made there, with their respective prices. Next to a well understood sys- tem of husbandry, commerce is the surest way of employing peo- ple in a profitable manner, and of enriching and populating a coun- try. Therefore a traveller, who has the welfare of his country at heart, must be very anxious to get infor- mation, how the inland branches of it are conducted, how the com- mercial intercourse between the country he visits, and his nation, may be increased ; new branches of commerce discovered, rendered flourishing, and decayed ones re- vived. Under this head is comprehend- ed also navigation, fishery, and ship-building, each of which is ca- pable of affording sufficient em- ployment to the industrious class of men, and considerably increase the wealth of a nation. A matter of no small importance is the proper regulation of VIII. Taxes. It is very desirable to know in different countries, how the poor- er class of people is relieved from the burthen of partial, and une- qual taxes, and which system of taxation is the most conducive to the prosperity of a nation. The objects of taxation and finance be- ing so closely connected, that Avhen we mention the one, it is scarcely possible to forget the other. IX. Finance. The various means employed by government, to raise great sums of money, Avithout enervating the subject; the method of preserving the credit of the state at home, as well as abroad ; and the system of Avell understood economy, are ob- jects of the greatest moment to a patriotic traveller. I shall now introduce some ob- servations on laws and administra- tion of justice. X. Laws and Aministration of Justice. The importance and utility of those laws intended to prevent crimes, have been already treated TRA of; but there are many others, both civil and criminal, worthy of being inquired into ; because they contri- bute much towards the happiness or misery of those for Avhom they are made. There are in every country, some remarkably judicious laws, though not always put in force, which deserve to be taken notice of by men inclined for informa- tion. Italy affords an ample scope, and Tuscany more so, of legislative prudence. Before we conclude this section, it will not be amiss to touch upon one of the first objects of the at- tention of the legislative power, that of XI. Education. Education has such a powerful influence upon all our actions, that it may be lookedupon as the spring of the happiness or misery of man in particular, and society at large ; it will invite the attention of a tra- veller, to inquire into the different methods of forming the bodies of children with powers of vigour, and activity, and improving their hearts and understanding. Besides a great many useful ob- servations that may be made, by studying national education; and to apply it to the benefit of our own native country, it will be found an easier matter to judge with some degree of certainty of the national character; because men in general adopt that charac- ter and manners, which education and habit have forcibly impressed on them. On Information, and the Means of obtaining it. I. Travellers ought to lay down as TRA 171 a rule to themselves, never to re- ceive information upon subjects of less utility, as long as more pro- fitable ones are challenging their attention ; nevertheless it vrill be advisable, rather to take the trouble of inspecting ten seemingly useless objects, than to neglect examining one, that might be instructive and profitable. 2. He who looks for information, should never reiy upon the reports of others, except there is a posi- tive impossibility to do otherwise ; we are often misled by our own eyes, and still oftener, if Ave neg- lect surveying things ourselves. 3. He that travels should make asmanyobservationsashc can upon every object that will present itself to him; and thus accustom himself to take notice of every thing, and nothing of consequence will escape his attention. 4. They Avho visit foreign countries for the sake of informa- tion, Avill act with prudence, tocon- ceal the motive of their journey to such persons as may seem very anxious to know it; it will be easy to find a plausible pretext to amuse them with, without a necessity for the violation of truth; great care, must be taken not to put on a mysterious air, or to incur the par- ticular attention of inquisitive per- sons. 5. Before the traveller inquires into the perfect state of important objects, he should endeavour to get information respecting their beginning, their most memorable periods, and epochs, the causes of their increase or decrease, till the present moment, and to review the most authentic documents, and afterwards to form queries in such a manner, that one may lead to the other, in order to curtail the inquiry. 172 T R A TRA 6. He should endeavour as much as possible to obtain a complete list of celebrated men for services rendered to the public, and know for what services the country is the most ready to be grate- 7. Eminent booksellers will be capable of giving a traveller directions and hints concerning authors of useful literary produc- tions, and through them he may also gain access to those sons of genius ; for this reason foreigners should not neglect to visit the first booksellers' shops in every toAvn, as soon as may be convenient. Fa- mous authors of useless publica- tions do not deserve the traveller's attention ; time should not be tri- fled Avith, since there are plenty of more important investigations ever waiting to be made. 8. Men Avith the best of hearts, and improved understandings, will be the best company he can seek after; and he may be assured of being well received by them, if he discovers, that he wishes to con- tribute, by a collection of useful knowledge, to the welfare of hu- manity, and the happiness of his country ; and it may be expected that they Avill communicate to him many observations tending to the felicity of mankind. Instructions procured by conversations with virtuous and well informed men, are very pleasing, because a man may learn with ease in a short time, what has cost them an un- wearied application of many years. The maxims and remarks of such men, should be carefully treasur- ed up, and the greatest part of a traveller's time spent in their com- pany, as far as it can be done Avith- out inconveniencing them. A tra- veller who is so happy as to be ad- mitted into an intimacy with men of merit, should endeavour at his departure from the place of their residence, to establish an epistola- ry intercourse and friendly connec- tion with them, inform them of any important discoveries made in his tour, and beg them to acquaint him of any thing useful to man- kind that may have been produc- ed by them, or communicated to them by others. 9. An inquisitive traveller should also procure the address of all able artists, and a minute ac- count of their ingenious inventions tending to promote the happiness of their fellow-creatures ; it will be advisable to visit this useful class of men as soon as possible, and to communicate to them such discoveries, as have been made in the traveller's country, relative to the public good, and of which he should have a very minute descrip- tion on his setting out. This act of exchange of mutu- al kindness will banish reserve, and open the mind to humane sen- sations, and excite them to shew the traveller whatever advantage their inventions may have produc- ed. Before the traveller leaves the place of their residence, he should establish a correspondence with these artists, in order to have an account from time to time of all neAv inventions and useful contri- vances. A person who visits foreign countries in this manner, must Avithout doubt collect inestimable materials for the improvement of useful arts, and advancement of really profitable science. 10. It Avould not be amiss to have also a list of such persons as are reputed as eccentric geniuses, and extraordinary men ; ;m ac- quaintance Avith those kind of peo- ple, Avould procure the traveller all sorts of useful discoveries,which TRA TRA 173 perhaps are little esteemed in the country, because generated in the brains of a man, who is thought to be uncommon and singular. 11. It is usual, in many places, to publish all sorts of political and commercial accounts, by which a proper judgment of the country may be formed; therefore it will be r. cessary to apply for such in- formation, and chiefly at the offi- ce- cf'hose booksellers, who are the Wav p-inters of the country, ai.d i he.- editors of such works as concern the regulations of finance and comiv. ;rce. I?.. A traveller Avhose intention is to study the genius, manners, and customs of a nation, AviU find them much more original in such provinces, as are at the greatest distance from the capital. The most ancient people, and most ori- ginal language of the country, are to be found among the mountai- neers ; the good or bad effects of the government are also more obser- vable in distant provinces, than in those which are nearer the metro- polis. L>. In order to knoAV the cha- racter and genius of the inferior class of people, he ought to con- ceal his rank in his conversation Avith them, otherwise they will not discover themselves, or converse either free, or openly ; they will endeavour to appear more than commonly civil, and the traveller will not be capable of forming a just opinion of them. 14. To ridicule the manncrsand customs of the foreign country the traveller is in, would argue a great imprudence and want of knowledge of mankind; he should, on the contrary, find out a reasonable ex- cuse for the Aveaknesses of the nation; yet, without making him- self guilty of servility, or flattery, and by conforming with circum- spection to the style of the natives, he av ill gain the confidence of eve- ry description of its inhabitants, which will open the passage to that information which he wants- 15. His being present at civil and criminal procedures, and par- ticularly while interesting subjects are pleading, will greatly contri- bute to his knowledge of the laws, and administration of justice of the country, and enable him to make important observations on the practice of its courts. 16. Travellers should avail them- selves of the advantage of having a list of all the manufactures that are to be found in the country, but chiefly of those that are establish- ed in every place they pass thro', and in its neighbourhood, Avith as extensive a description as the in- structing person can give. 17. A traveller Avill see a manu- facture to much more advantage, and be enabled to ask more in- structive questions about the busi- ness carried on in it, if he will be at the trouble, before hand, to read the whole description of its Avork- manship in the dictionary of arts ; by these means he will be prepar- ed for its inspection, and know chiefly what to look for, and where- in the greatest difficulty consists. 18. When travellers examine establishments of this kind, they should not neglect inquiring into the time of their institution, and the degree of increase or decrease, in order to judge of the state of industry in the country. 19. By inspecting the manufac- tures of a country, the inquisitive traveller should also study the taste and fancy of the natives, in order to inform his countrymen in 174 T R A TRA the manufactural line, how to sup- ply that foreign country with such commodities, as are best adapted to its consumption and uses ; and thus keep up an extensive trade, by which its cultivators may be rendered comfortable, rich, and happy. 20. In passing through villages, he should carefully inquire how much population and consumption have increased, or decreased, dur- ing the last five, ten, or twenty years, and to what causes it is to be attributed. 21. Annals of different places contain often very useful and re- markable anecdotes ; therefore it is highly Avorlh a traveller's atten- tion, to peruse their index, and to extract what may be most use- ful in common life. 22. When a traveller inspects a library, he should not neglect asking, whether it contains manu- scripts that have never yet been ushered into the world, Avhat their titles are, and whether it is to be supposed, that they might be of any particular utility to mankind, if published. 23. When a gentleman travels in countries, which formerly have been remarkable for their splen- dour and riches, he ought to in- form himself very accurately re- specting those places where most antiquities have been dug up, of what kind they are, how they are commonly disposed of; Avhether ancient gold and silver coins are not bought by goldsmiths for the purpose of melting, which Avould be the easiest manner of procuring such coins, Sec. By those kind of inquiries, many precious pieces may be rescued from the fire, and the Republic of Letters enriched by their preservation. Since Spain remains so little investigat- ed, I hope to oblige the curious, by informing them, that in the neighbourhood of Barcelona, Tar- ragona, Morviedro, Valencia, Murcia, Granada, Ecija, Seville, Medina-Sidonia, Corduba, &c. many valuable antiquities of differ- ent sorts might be collected, and often bought up very cheap. On committing Observations t$ Paper. 1. An inquisitive traveller should never be Avithout paper, pen, and ink, in his pocket, because anno- tations made with lead pencils are easily obliterated, and thus he is often deprived of the benefit of his remarks. 2. Travellers ought to commit to paper whatever they find re- markable, hear or read, and their sensations on examining different objects; it is advisable to doit upon the spot, if the time, the place, and the circumstances will admit of it; even such observations that pro- mise but a remote advantage, should be written down as soon as com'enient. 3. The daily remarks ought to be copied from the pocket-book into the journal before the travel- ler goes to rest: by using this me- thod, nothing essential will be for- gotten, and the Avhole remain fresh on the memory. 4. The journal ought to be writ- ten in such a manner as to admit notes to be annexed. Truth must religiously be adhered to, and ele- gance of expression banished from it, if it be in the least unfavourable to veracity. 5. It is very useful to keep ano- ther book besides the journal, wherein a certain number of sheet* TRA TRA 175 are dedicated to each head. This book ought to contain matters of fact only, and nothing dubious should find a place in it. Travel- lers should generally be inclined to doubt, and never take any thing for granted, unless its truth be evi- dent. Printed lists, accounts pub- lished by government, may not- withstanding, ,be false ; neverthe- less they deserve a place in the above mentioned book, because their authenticity seems to be con- firmed by public authority. This book being an extract of the most interesting facts the journal con- tains, becomes the more valuable, in case the journal should be lost, because there is a dependance on the contents of it. Since the journal may compre- hend a great many interestingmat- ters, it may not be advisable for a traveller to carry it about his per- son for fear of losing it, unless in the side pocket, and thus suffi- ciently secured against the at- tempts of common thie\'es. Trav- ellers, who are afraid of accidents, generally keep a double journal, and preserve it in two separate places. It is also imprudent, and often very dangerous for a travel- ler to lend his journal; in case he has promised to a friend to com- municate to him some valuable in- formation, which he should not frequently do, it will be better to take the trouble of giving a copy of that subject, than to put the journ'al in another man's hand. 6. A secret, undecypherable character, already mentioned under the article, Quick and Legible Hand, will ever prove of infinite service. 7. A traveller's memory will be greatly relieved by putting down the queries he wishes to have an- swered ; and the numbering of them will prevent confusion, It is necessary to be remarkably cau- tious with regard to these queries; they should be taken the utmost care of; for should they, by some accident, be lost, and found in some countries, where the government is conscious of its weakness, the in- nocent proprietor might perhaps be looked upon as a spy, and treated as such if discovered. 8. If information is given to the traveller upon any subject of con- sequence, it is proper to mention the name and employment of the persons who communicated it, with the place, and date, in the journal, because the veracity of the intelli- gence depends much on the quality of him who furnished it. On the Means of providing for the Safety of the Traveller's Person and Property. 1. A traveller exposes himself to many inconveniencies, if he cannot depend upon the fidelity, sobriety, secrecy, intrepidity, and aversion to illicit and dangerous amuse- ments of his servant ; for this rea- son, his character cannot be' too well known, before an agreement takes place. A servant selected to accompa- ny a gentleman on his travels, should be conversant Avith the French language ; Avrite a legible and quick hand, in order to be able to copy Avhalever is laid before him ; know a little of surgery, and to bleed well, in case his mas- ter should meet with an accident in a spot where no chirurgical assist- ance is to be expected. Gentlemen should endeavour to attach such useful servants to their persons, by showing them the 176 TRA TRA same care as a father has for his child, and promise him a settle- ment for life on their return. 2. Familiarity Avith fellow trav- ellers beyond a certain degree, is very imprudent, and may some- times produce dreadful consequen- ces ; never ask another man's name, the motive of his travelling, the time he intends to continue in a place ; and if you observe, that people wish to know your concerns, answer them with circumspection, in such a manner, as may make them give up their curiosity Avith- out being offended. 3. The company of drinkers, players, and women, should be carefully avoided, because by asso- ciating with them, reputation, health, money, and Avhat is still more precious, time, is lost, and melancholy experience is bought very dear. 4. There are in all countries to be found some very dissolute coun- trymen of every traveller, whose company is by all means to be avoided ; their chief effort will be to borrow money, to live, and riot at the expence of the unexperien- ced ; to be introduced into respect- able families, to whom foreigners of prudence are recommended ; and to dishonour, and possibly plunder them also. It will be ad- visable to inquire Avhether those of our countrvmcn, whose conduct may be suspected, frequent their ambassador's house, and how they are received there : and even if they are Avell received by the mi- nister, travellers should not be too fond of their company, unless they are men of merit, and of an in- quisitive turn. 5. As soon as foreigners arrive in a capital, they should wait on their ambassador, in order to claim his protection in case of an acci- dent ; and to be presented at court, and to the first nobility, if niey feel a pleasure in such, companies. In some places they will not be admitted into the first com/mnies, unless they are knoAvn to the am- bassador, which leaves an impres- sion of respectability. 6. It would be a ridiculous va- nity for a traveller to carrv dia- mond rings, or very expensive watches, precious snuff-boxet, and Valuable trinkets; they would often expose his life, and serve as a standard to inn-keepers, nnd others of that kind, to raise their chn'ges by. In some countries, it is even dangerous to shew gold coins, sil- ver spoons, and such articles; therefore too much caution cannot be used against exhibiting such dangerous property. 7. The best Avay of conveying papers of consequence, is to put them in a girt of buck-skin, fur- nished with four pockets, each one inch distant from the other; for its easier pliancy, the girt ought to be ten inches broad, and fasten- ed under the waistcoat round the body with six small buckles, and each pocket buttoned with three very small, flat, metal buttons : it Avill be of great use in riding hard, and can, if properly made, contain many papers, which Avould easily be lost out of the pocket. To leave papers of importance behind in the trunk, is by far not so safe, because a fire may happen or the trunk may be lost by some ac- cident. 8. Double-barrelled pocket pis- tols are very Avell calculated for the defence of the traveller, par- ticularly those which have both bar- rels above, and do not require turning: it is necessary to asccr- TRA TRA 177 tain their strength before they are used; and agate stones are pre- ferable to the common flint..... Many people prefer putting a piece of cork upon the balls, and pre- tend that it prevents them from moving. The best position for pistols in a coach is the horizontal one, and the little bolt which ob- viates their going off, is a real improvement. - 9. Since it is impossible to'know what goods are forbidden in differ- ent countries, information on that head should be had before foreigners enter into another territory, in or- der to avoid many inconveniencies, which might arise from trifles : in some countries the Avhole lug- gage is confiscated, if prohibited goods are found with them, and the owners condemned to imprison- ment, or to pay a heavy fine. I in- stance Spain. In case of a traveller having for- bidden articles, he should dispose of them in the least profitable man- ner, rather than expose his honour and his purse; and in case they lay in small compass, should be disco- vered to the postillion, Avho com- monly are in league Avith the cus- tom-house officers, in order to di- vide the produce of this treache- rous contract. The Italian vettu- rinos are famous for this insidious practice. 10. Great precaution is required in the passing of rivers, and over bridges, particularly at night.... Coachmen are liable to drink hard, and by that means frequently miss the passage, and are the ense of the destruction of the traveller, as well as of their ov: i. 1 1. Traveller:, should not per- mit strangers to place themselves behind their vehicle, undo:- any pretext whatsoever, bec.uvj tb.ve vol.. v. are innumerable instances of coach- es having been disabled from pro- ceeding, and unsuspecting travel- lers robbed and killed by this scheme. 12. In suspicious places, the trunk should be placed before the coach ; which place should he ge- nerally made use of as often as circumstances will admit. 13. Extensive woods should ne- ver be passed at night without the necessary precautions; and in dan- gerous places it is safer to walk, in order to be ready for defence, if sudden violence is offered, than to remain sitting in the coach, Avhere little resistance can be made. 14. If foreigners are robbed at night in the streets of large towns, it will be dangerous to pursue the flying thief, because he is seldom or never alone ; and the pursuer is almost sure to be wounded or killed by his lawless accomplices. N. B. The remarks on inns con- tain also many important hints, relative to the safety of the travel- ler's person. On the Mcam of preserving a Tra- veller's Health, particularly in hot Countries, 1. A traveller ought to be per- fectly Avell acquainted with wh.it agrees, or disagrees with his con- stitution, and observe those rules which custom has established in favour of his health, at least as far as circumstances will admit of.... He will act prudently, to pay a strict altention with regard to eat- ing, drinking,dress, exercise, and res:; and conform to the customs, and mode of lite of the.most sober class of the inhabitants of the coun- try he is in. Experience has taught people of all countries, A a 178 TRA TRA Avhich manner of living is the most Avholesome in the climate they in- habit. Though the Siesta (the after- noon's sleep) agrees perfectly well with most foreigners in Spain and Italy ; nevertheless it is liable to bring on apoplexies in cold cli- mates, Avhere meat and soporifer- ous malt liquors are used in great quantity. Travellers in warm countries, Avho may be invited to an afternoon's sleep, ought to ob- serve, that the duration of it should be proportioned to the quick or difficult digestion of the person : one quarter of an hour, or half an hour is sufficient; people should always be awaked before the end of an hour. To sleep in an hori- zontal position would be prejudi- cial ; the fittest place for that kind of rest is an arm chair, or a can- nopee. The head ought to be laid high, and the body bent backwards, and a little turned towards the left side. Every thing that is likely to prevent the circulation of the blood, must be removed, otherwise violent head-aches will be felt. 3. Water is very unAvhoIesome in some places, and ought to be considered so, if soap will not dis- solve in it. If a person should hap- pen to be very thirsty, and no other drink to be had, that Avater should be soaked through a piece of very fine linen, and a little vine- gar, juice of lemon, or a toast put into it. It Avould be still better to boil it, if the circumstances will admit, and drink it when cool.... Wells that are situated in marshy grounds, or near privies, or those which are observed to have a whit- ish scum on the surface of the Ava- ter, are generally reckoned to be unwholesome. 4. Violent exercise after dinner is prejudicial,and more so in warm countries than in cold ones ; there- fore people Avho travel on horse- back, or in a vehicle, whose motion is rather violent, will act prudently, if they eat and drink sparingly..... The shaking of the carriage heats the blood, consequently strong li- quors should be taken with the greatest moderation, particularly in southern climates. 5. Cleanliness requires people to bathe oftener when they are trav- elling, than when they are at home; yet they must be very careful ne- ver to bathe Avhen their blood is agitated, or the stomach full, or the day is very hot. The cool morning and evening hours arc the only times to take this saluti- ferous recreation. EAren the most expert SAvimmer should never bathe in the sea or in a river, without taking along Avith him another person, who knoAVs how to SAvim. He should be careful to choose a bathing place where the bottom is clear sand, and has no sea vceeds upon it; for they frequently con- tain a species of pointed ' shells, which are apt to inflict dangerous wounds if trodden upon. One of the most necessary precautions in bathing, is to plunge into the wa- ter head foremost, otherwise the blood rushing into the head expo- ses the person to an apoplectic attack*. 6. Travellers in carriages are very liable to have their legs swel- led ; in order to prevent being thus incommoded, it will be advisable to wear shoes rather than boots, * After fatigue, the tepid bath should never be omitted, the middle of the day (or before dining) is the preferable time for the purpose....Editor. TRA T R A 179 to untie the garters, to alight now and then, and to walk as often as opportunity permits it, which will favour circulation.1 If the windows of the carriage are kept shut theair is soon affected, and may prove prejudicial to respiration. 7. Feather beds and counter- panes of cotton are very liable to collect noxious exhalations ; for this reason those Avho travel, ought to make use of the hart skins, de- scribed under the remarks on inns. 8. The vapours of charcoal are also exceedingly prejudicial ; peo- ple should be remarkably careful never to permit a pan of charcoal to be brought into their apartment, unless it is quite burnt to ashes ; it would be dangerous to sleep with it in the bed-room; as a great ma- ny lives have been lost in that manner. 9. In marshy grounds the air is remarkably unhealthy, and there are countries, for instance, the Pontin Marshes in the Pope's do- minions, where it is often attended with fatal consequences to sleep even in day time. Foreigners should inform themselvesminutely concerning the salubrityorumvhole- someness of the air of those places Avhere they sleep, and take the ne- cessary precautions to guard against the destructive effects of the latter. 10. Sweet or boiled wines, such as are to be found in the Papal do- minions on the coast of the Adri- atic, delay the digestive faculty for a long time, and as they tend ex- cessively to inflame the blood, they must be used in the most sparing maimer. 11. Fresh fruit, and even the ripest grapes, relax the stomach in hot climates, and an immoderate meal on them would infallibly pro- duce the most dangerous conse- quences, if bread vvas omitted to be eaten Avith them. 12. Travellers in warm climates should abstain from meat as much as possible, particularly at night, otherwise they might be exposed to putrid fevers, which are seldom easily removed. [The personal experience of Dr. Jackson in Jamaica, and of Mr. Jackson in India, sufficiently con- firms this important hint. See Jackson on Fevers, and Jackson's Tour from India to Hamburg.] 13. Sleeping Avith the windows open in hot climates is so umvhole- some, that many have hardly time enough to repent of their impru- dence. Those Avho travel on foot should never sleep under the sha- dow of a tree, or near a hemp field. 14. Thirst is more effectually quenched by eating fresh fruit, and a morsel of bread, than by drinking water: if no fruit is to be bad, it is better to mix a little vinegar, or the juice of a lemon with it, than to drink it by itself. 15. After a long journey on foot, it is unwholesome to take a plen- tiful meal, or to sit near a great fire. 16. Such as are under the neces- sity of remaining in places in a marshy situation, should reside in apartments in the upper stories, and in dry houses; they ought to take proper exercise,Avithout labour, in the sun,or in the evening damps: a just quantity of vinous liquors, and victuals of good nourishment, are necessary in such circumstan- ces. 17. A person Avho is not accus- tomed to walk a great deal, should gradually increase tbe length of the station. If the wind is ver/ 180 TRA high, it is better to have it side- ways, than in the face. 18. Since transpiration is easily impeded, and its effects attended with bad consequences, it is pru- dent for travellers on foot to wear a flannel waistcoat next the skin. 19. Fresh killed meat, greens, and fresh fish, are preferable to any other food, and simple nourish- ment the best. 20. Damp beds are very often found in inns little visited, and in the rooms where fire is seldom made : they ought to be carefully avoided, for they not only bring on illness, but sometimes prove the death of the person Avho has the misfortune to sleep in one. Those who travel should examine the beds, to see whether they are quite dry, and have the bed-clothes in their presence put before the fire. If the mattresses are suspected, it Avill be preferable to lie down on dry and clean straAV. If a friend offers you a bed, endeavour to have it warmed, Avith the necessary pre- cautions, because there are in cer- tain houses certain beds kept only for particular visitors, and therefore they might be damp, if not used for a long Avhile. 21. People whose clothes have been Avet through, should look for very dry beds, have the sheets well aired, put on clean shirts, smoking them first with sugar, or some- thing of that nature, and before they go to bed, rub their skins with dry flannel, which promotes perspiration. Those parts of the body that have been Avet ought to be washed Avith luke-warm water, in which a little soap has bjen dis- solved. Those whom circumstances may not permit to put on dry clothes, should keep their bodies in constant motion, till the clothes TRA are become dry again upon them : this inconvenience ought to be avoided as much as possible, be- cause it brings on rheumatic pains, agues, colics, Sec. to people who are not used to it. 22. Persons who have perspired copiously from the heat of the sun, should shelter themselves as much as opportunity will permit, during the falling of the dew ; if they can- not avoid it, they should by no means sit down. Continual exer- cise favours transpiration, and di- minishes the bad consequences vvhich the cool air exposes people to. 23. Since a body, which is void of food, is more apt to attract contagious sicknesses, a traveller should never visit an hospital in the morning before he has break- fasted ; it will not be amiss to eat a bit of bread dipped in vinegar, and to wash the nostrils and mouth with camphor-vinegar, before visit- ing the sick. During the time he is in an hospital, he should never swallow his spittle, and rather use something to draw it up, such as spunge, and blotting-paper. It is also very wholesome to drink a glass of wine, with a little sugar and the juice of half a lemon, on these occasions. 24. Travellers should not neg- lect to carry Avith them A bottle of vinegar, de quatrc voleurs [A vial of laudanum. One ditto sp. sal. ammoniac. One box of purging pills. A lancet.] On the Means of being supplied with Money. 1. It is very imprudent and use- less f ;r a traveller to carry a large TRA TRA 181 sum of ready money about him ; he ought to be supplied with let- ters of credit from one town to the other. 2. Letters of credit on substan- tial houses, are in many respects preferable to bills of exchange; the latter may happen to be either too small or too considerable, and many times expose the traveller to a te- dious laAv process, as Avell as the disagreeable necessity of delaying his journey ; besides a letter of cre- dit is generally esteemed to entitle the traveller to advice and protec- tion from the merchant or banker. 3. It is advisable to have more than one letter of credit, in order to prevent disappointments and in- conveniences, which must neces- sarily arise from Avant of money, if payment was to be refused. 4. If a traveller takes a letter of credit from a banker, who requires immediate security for the credit which he gives, it will be more advantageous to deposit such notes as bear interest, than to deliver him ready money, for Avhich the banker will perhaps not alloAV any interest; or at least not so much as may be expected: but the guar- rantee of a friend known to, and accepted of, by the banker is most convenient, and in general use. 5. In all the countries ol Europe counterfeited bank-notes and bill-. of this kind are to be found ; there- fore travellers cannot be too care- ful in this respect, and ought never to receive paper money, unless from people of well known credit, particularly in the Pope's domi- nions. 6. In many parts of Europe, gold has sometimes an extra value, which travellers are obliged to al- low to the bankers, and which other persons \ri!l not agree to in payments; therefore it is neces- sary to be well informed in that respect, in order to avoid losses. On Letters of Recommendation. 1. A traveller, whoAvishes to have the benefit of his ambassador's protection, should either be known to him before, or be introduced by letter, or be presented to him by a respectable person. 2. Besides the Letters of Re- commendation to the ambassador, travellers should be furnished with letters for bankers and merchants, which in some respects are more valuable than letters of introduction to the first noblemen ; because they Avill be able and inclined to inform the inquisitive traveller in more interesting matters than the latter: nevertheless, letters for great per- sonages tire always very acceptable, and may be of service on many oc- casions. 3. Travellers should even accept of Letters of Recommendation to the inferior class of people : a fo- reigner can never have too many friends ; and it is a great thing to find a stranger, be he Avho he will, Avho has your interest and welfare at heart. Men of the inferior class may be very usefully employed for the traveller's instruction, provided he has sufficient knowledge of the world, and is capable of judging of the qualifications of every indivi- dual. Man deserves to be studied attentively in all stations of life ; and the visiting of a cottage is of- ten more instructive than frequent- ing a palace. 4. Letters of Recommendation to the higher class of Custom- House officers, may enable a tra- veller to get very essential instruc- tions of them respecting commerce, 182 TRA TRA manufactories, and many other ob- jects : some of them will even con- descend so far as to communicate authentic accounts and valuable documents, which no other person could furnish. On Inns. 1. A traveller should always lodge in the best inn, because, upon the whole, a good lodging will not cost him much more, than if he had chosen an indifferent one; and he will at least be better serv- ed, with an additional security to his property, which is not always the case in inferior inns, where people of all conditions, even to the lowest, resort, and the inn- keeper has not so great an incite- ment to support his credit. In many houses of less reputation of this kind, the expense win1 even be greater, than in those of the first rank, as the proprietors seize evrery opportunity to impose upon the richer order of strangers. 2. Travellers who go post, should never permit the postillion to drive them to such houses as he pleases; almost all of them have secret mo- tives to prefer some to others ; therefore it would be prudent tOv inquire of the post-masters, or inn-keepers of the first reputation, for a list of the best houses of ac- commodation, Avhich are to be met with in the places through Avhich you pass, Whose veracity is at least more to be depended upon, than the drivers. 3. It is of the greatest impor- tance to travellers always to have a room to be in alone, and never allow any person (well-known peo- ple excepted) to sleep in the same apartment, unless absolute neces- sity compels them. ■ Foreigners cannot be distrustful enough to- wards strangers ; many of them travel at the expence of the pub- lic, and insinuate themselves under various pretexts, grow familiar very soon, and are frequently the authors of the ruin of many young, unwary travellers, whose experience is not sufficiently ripened to open their eyes to their dangers. Many of those impostors will render essen- tial services to foreigners, in order to captivate their benevolence ; and those, of all others, are the most artful, and consequently the most dangerous. 4. Servants in the inns should never be hired, unless their hones- ty be well known to the landlord, Avho should ahvays be questioned, if he is answerable for their fidelity. 5. As soon as travellers enter into an inn, they should immedi- ately agree for the price of the room, dinner, supper, firing, &c. and never neglect this useful pre- caution, otherwise they will often be obliged to pay for their negli- gence in that respect an extrava- gant price, especially in Holland and Italy. 6. The best method of avoiding mistakes and double charges, is to pay daily the bill of the landlord, and to take a receipt for it [in a book:] this precaution will always render people more - attentive and serviceable. 7. Many inn-keepers are remark- ably inquisitive, and take particu- lar delight in visiting and exam- ining the traveller's trunk, during the time he is out, and particularly if you forget to agree : they make those researches in order to ena- able them to judge more properly of the circumstances, and conse- quence of their company ; there- fore it will always be prudent t» TRA TRA 183 lock the trunk or boxes, and to conceal from them what could give them a too favourable idea of the traveller's importance. 8. In lonesome country inns, where safety ought always to be suspected, it will be better to per- mit the servant to sleep in the same room, and to have a wax candle burning the whole night: it will also be necessary before the traveller goesto bed, to visit behind it, and to look into the chests, un- der and behind them, and in all such places where concealment is easy. Pocket door bolts in the form of a cross, are applicable to almost all sorts of doors, and may on many occasions save the life of the traveller, where desperate at- tempts may be made by needy as- sassins ; for this reason, it is recom- mendable to be always provided with a pair of those bolts. The safety of the doors should also be carefully examined ; and in case of bolts not being at hand, it will be useful to hinder entrance into the room by putting a table, and chairs upon it, against the door. Such precautions are however less necessary in England, but on the Continent they are much more so. 9. It will not be amiss in such lonesome places, where accidents may oblige a traveller to remain the Avhole night, to show his fire- arms to the landlord in a familiar discourse, without acquainting him of his well-grounded suspicion of insecurity ; and to tell him with a courageous look, that you are not afraid of a far superior number of enemies. Such stratagems have frequently had the most desirable effect, and may yet be practised with every promise of success. 10. Since it is very unwholesome to eat or to sleep in a room, the windows of which have been shut long before, it will be necessary to open them as soon as you enter into it; and it will not be superflu- ous to purify the air of the apart- ment, by throwing a little strong vinegar upon a red hot shovel, [and to make a fire in the chimney .J 11. Travellers never being sure whether the lodgers^ who sleprin the beds before them, were not affect- ed with the itch, A'enereal, or any other disease, they should make use of a preventive of infection : a light coverlet of silk, two pair of sheets, and two dressed harts [or deer] skins put together, six feet six inches in length, three feet six inches in breadth, should be al- ways carried along with them in the box. The hart's skin which is put upon the mattresses, will hinder the disagreeable contact, aud prevent the noxious exhala- tions. The hart's skin is to be covered with the traveller's own sheets ; and if the coverlet be not sufficient to keep him warm, his coat put upon it, will increase the heat sufficiently. It will be neces- sary-at rising in the morning to expose the hart's skin to the fresh air for five minutes before it is packed up again ; and this precau- tion will alone.be sufficient to guard against the unwholesome effects of bedding, much more dangerous in hot countries than may be imagined. If the traveller be not provided with these materials, it will not be prudent to undress entirely ; the necklace, garters, girt, and anv' thing else, Avhich hinders the cir-. culation of the blood, must be un- tied, in order to prevent apoplectic affections. 22. A purse, or any temptation, should never be left on the table, because it stimulates distress some- 184 T R A TRA times to actions, which at other times would raise a blush, and pre- vents the commission of many crimes by the difficulty of perpe- trating them, and of course many an ignominious fate. 13. In many countries the land- lords are not answerable for the property of their company ; there- fore, if they are obliged to stay any time in one place, and intend to remain at the inn, they should ask the landlord, the very moment they make their agreement with him, whether their package is safe, and whether he is responsible for the consequences : in case he is not so, the most prudent way will be to deposit his valuables at a banker's, or the next person's in reputation, and to secure himself by receipt, which should always be demanded. 14. Foreigners, Avho remain for some time in a place, will save money, and be better accommo- dated, by taking private lodgings per week, or per month. On Luggage. 1.Travellers who undertake a long tour, should only carry such bag- gage as is indispensably necessary. Among the many inconvenien- cies of a too cumbrous baggage, the following deserve to be consi- dered, viz. First. The heavy expence of the carriage of it, Avhich in some coun- tries amounts to much more, than the passage of his person and ser- vant. Secondly. Unavoidable loss of time, and the difficulties of the Custom-Houses, particularly if the packages should unfortunately con- tain any contraband goods, which might happen very easily, because travellers cannot be always accu- rately informed of those articles, which may have been recently pro- hibited. That valuable time, which must be bestowed upon packing and unpacking ; which, though the province of the servant, must often command the attention of the mas- ter, who may be anxious, lest his property should be shaken and de- stroyed by the violent motion of the carriage, if not carefully pack- ed up ; or lest any thing valuable should be left behind. Thirdly. The disappointments; if sometimes the coach is damaged by the too great weight of the packages, or if the luggage on some occasions cannot be loaded upon the same coach, and conse- quently be hindered from following its owner. Fourthly. The greater*expence in the inns, where travellers are frequently charged according to the quantity of baggage and con- veniences they carry Avith them. 2. A person who travels for im- provement, is not supposed to be inclined to shine in foreign coun- tries with the ostentatious magni- ficence of equipage; and there- fore the traveller, if he means to proceed with either economy or convenience, should be very cau- tious of incumbering himself Avith a superfluous Avardrobe. 3. The best way of carrying papers that are not bound like books, is to roll them very tight, to cover them with strong paper, in order to prevent them from rubbing against any thing, and to write the title of the contents upon the rolls, to know them again on all occasions. 4. Since it sometimes happens, that the custom-house officers (through mere wantonness) will throw papers carelessly out of the TRA minks of passengers, it will be prudent to keep all the writings together in a* large well defended port-feuiile ; a preference is to be given to those of Russia leather, because water cannot penetrate to, and destroy the contents: that leather is also best adapted to coverings of trunks, as its smell is obnoxious to vermin, and not liable to harbour AA'orms, Sec. in- cidental to hot climates. 5. Short and high trunks are preferable to long and low ones, because they can be put upon any carriage whatever. The so- lidity of a trunk is also one of its -necessary qualities, it being, sometimes, most unmercifully handled by the Custom-House of- ficers. 6. Travellers should never per- mit revenue officers to visit two trunks at the same time, as the owner's eyes and attention may be fixed on one, at the great hazard of his being pillaged by the other. Even, in these cases, experience often proves, that complaints do not produce redress. 7. It is sometimes very dange- rous to accept of commissions, and sealed parcels, because they may contain forbidden roods. 8. A traveller Should also for- bid his servant to take contraband goods with him, because in case of an unfortunate detection, the servant would perhaps be arrested, or the master be obliged to give a considerable security, and to defend the cause of his servant in the pro- per court. 9. The trouble of having his trunk searched, can in some coun- tries be obviated, by having it sealed by the Custom-House of- ficers ; therefore a traveller , who dislikes those visits, should inquire VOL. V. TRA 185 whether this custom is allowed, and the trouble and pains dispensed with. 10. Bound books with stiff covers arc liable to rub against, and greatly injure the baggage; therefore it will be prudent to have them lightly bound in leather, without its being stiffened by paste-board, and after- wards cut off smooth and even with the leaves. In case a person car- ries books with stiff covers, it will be advisable to place them at the bottom of the trunk as firm as can be, as a foundation, and over them with strong paper. 11. Among the requisites for travelling, the following will not be useless : A case of instruments for draw- ing, measures,drawing paper, India ink. A good watch, or exact time- keeper. A mariner's compass. A barometer. A thermometer. General and special maps of the country which the traveller visits, pasted upon linen, and rendered portable by folding. A good telescope. A dark lantern, Avax candles, and a tinder-box. Bolts suited to all sorts of doors. On Sea Voyages. 1. Before a passenger agrees with a master of a vessel for the expence of a passage, he ought to inform himself respecting the age of the vessel, the cai :m, the num- ber the ship's creAV, the quality of the passengers, and the destination of the voyage, he. Each of these circumstances has its advantages and disadvantages, and deserves particular notice. P. B 186 TRA TRA 2. It is also a matter of impor- tance to know Avhether that flag Avhich the vessel carries, is re- spected by the piratical powers of Barbary, or not, if the course of the vessel should lie near to any such ports. 3. Some masters are excessively polite during their residence on shore, and remarkably otherwise when the passengers are on board ; therefore it is necessary to inquire, be lore an agreement takes place, whether the master behaves well, and treats his passengers Avith politeness and attention. 4. If time can be spared, the traveller may sometimes travel re- markably cheap, therefore he should make an early inquiry con- cerning the price of the passage, if circumstances will permit. The masters are generally desirous of having passengers, and a man has a much greater opportunity of economizing by sea, when a num- ber of vessels are bound to the same port ; there is then a rival- ship between them for passengers, and the consideration is, of course, proportionablv moderate. 5. People, who endeavour to make the master believe, that their rank in life is not unimportant, must often pay clear for their ridi- culsus vanity, without meeting with better treatment; therefore, people of rank, who have a proper idea of the A'alue of money, should, and will be on their guard in that respect. 6. There are different things to be observed Avith regard to each sea voyage, Avith which most tra- vellers are unacquainted, and for this reason it Avill be advisable to consult the bankers, and those who are expert in sea affairs, relative to what onght to be observed con- cerning the agreement for their passage, as Avell as other import- ant objects in voyages; for instance, if they intend to embark merchan- dize, or goods requiring certain precautions. 7. In long voyages it is neces- sary to do all that lies in our power to entertain a good harmony with the captain, officers, and fellow pas- sengers ; we ought also to give the same orders to our servants ; and avoiding playing at cards, hard drinking, disputes, and giving of- fence. Small presents, given to the sailors, may on some occasions produce very desirable effect. 8. It would not be a bad scheme to have a letter of recommenda- tion to be delivered on the arrival to the Consul of the country, of which the captain is a native ; this would in some cases render him more attentive, if he was previous- ly informed of this letter. 9. Those who wish to inform themselves of the method of work- ing a ship, and of navigation in general, should be very attentive to every command the captain gives to the creAV, and inquire into the reason of it. Perhaps it may not be difficult to obtain a copy of the ship's journal, which is an in- teresting matter for a passenger. 10. If passengers embark mer- chandize, they should not be too sincere in discovering their inten- tions concerning the disposal of them, because people may some- times take advantage of the impru- dence of such discoveries. 11. The example of the illus- trious Captain Coox, who, during a voyage of three years and eigh- teen days, under every latitude, lost from his whole company of 118 men, only one man, is the greatest proof that the longest TRA voyages may be performed without prejudice to the health, if proper regulations are strictly attended to. It is at all times dangerous for the seaman, to indulge himself Avith too large a meal of animal food, and that even if it is fresh killed : sour crout is the best food that can be used, and at the same time an excellent antiscorbutic : portable soup is an exquisite nou- risher of the body, and particular- ly if boiled up with vegetables: oatmeal, rice, and potatoes, are valuable articles : a proper quanti- ty of cyder, perry, and vinegar, should by no means be forgotten, and the last should be added in a small quantity to almost every dish ; the juice of oranges, lemons, and limes, form a very necessary part of a ship's stores. 12. The muscles of the body must be put in exercise every day ; the passengers should assist the sailors in working the ship ; bathe themselves at least once a week ; attend particularly to neatness ; be as often as possible on deck ; ex- pose their beds daily to the circu- lation of the air; smoke in damp weather ; eat often and little at a time ; sleep moderately ; endea- vour to be perpetually diverting themselves, and to keep up their spirits. 13. Those who are very liable to sea sickness, should keep to- Avards the middle of the ship, where the motion is not so violent. 14. Persons who are subject to a costiveness in the body, should take such medicines Avith them as relax the bowels, without too much stimulation. They should also abstain from heavy food, and drink heating liquors sparing- ly- 1§. Merchantmen, from 100 to TRA 187 200 tons, have seldom any person on board who understands either surgery or physic ; it will therefore be a most necessary caution, to provide such a small chest of me- dicines, as may be immediately relative to such accidents and ma- ladies, as particularly attend on sea voyages. 16. A private lancet is also ne- cessary for a traveller, because a lancet, Avhich has been used in the bleeding of a scorbutic person, will infallibly infect any other man, who may be bled in a short time afterwards. 17. Persons of venereal habits should absolutely avoid any long sea voyages: and all those Avho intend to travel by sea, should peruse and consult the excellent work of Dr. Lind, on Diseases of Hot Climates, on the Scurvy, and on the Health of Seamen. Miscellanies. 1. As the sudden death of the traveller may possibly occasion in- finite distress and disputes in his family, he would consult his own tranquillity, if he committed to paper his peremptory will, before his departure from his native coun- try. 2. A traveller who visits foreign countries for information, ought to be remarkably cautious, with re- gard to the choice of a companion for a long journey ; if the person proposed has not exactly the same turn of mind, the same interest to pursue ; and if he is not a good natured, active, and inquisitive man, he will be an intolerable burden, a real obstruction to useful travels, and convert the sweets of company into bitterness. 3. It is totally improper to hold 188 T R A T R A any discourse in foreign countries on religion, politics, or our own particular affairs, and especially with strangers. 4. Our curiosity becomes a virtue when its aim is purely in- struction, and from a wish to be useful to our countrymen. 5. Those who are naturally des- titute of judgment and prudence, become still greater ibois by their travelling than they were before ; it being impossible for him, Avho is a fool in his own country, to be- come wise by running up and down, which made Socrates say, he must change his r.oul, and not the climate, to become wise. 6. When you corre into any company observe their hun-ours, and suit your own carriage there- to ; by which insinuation, you will make their converse more free and open. Let your discourse be more in queries and doubtings, than per- emptory assertions or disputings. Sir I. Newton. 7. The art of pleasing in com- pany, is not to explain things too circumstantially, but to express only one part, and leave your hear- ers to make out the rest. 8. There is no man but delights to be questioned in his own pro- fession ; when being moved by others, he may seem to publish his knowledge Avithout ostentation. 9. A Avise man counts his mi- nutes. He Iv ts no time slip ; for lime is life, which he makes long by the good husbandry of a right use and application of it. ' ■">. A philosophic traveller looks rpon his country as a sick friend, for whose relief he asks advice of ;M the world. 11. If a person limits himself to the knowledge of other people's discoveries, it Avill be an infallible cause, that he can make none himself. He Avho follows another, proceeds without an aim ; for how should we find that which we are not in search of. 12. The duty of a man is to be useful to men, to a great number, if he can, if not then to a less; if that is impossible, then merely to bis relations ; if that be equally so, at least to himself. In rendering himself useful to himself, he labours at the same time for others ; for a vicious man not only injures himself, but also those to whom he might have been useful, had he proved virtuous : in the same manner, if we labour for ourselves, we labour also for others, because we form a useful member of society. 13. To a nation so particularly illustrious as the English, for the extent of their possessions, the stupendous scale of their com- merce, as well as the free power of exercising those riches, in ren- dering active that sensibility which they intrinsically possess ; it may not be amiss to address a few words in favour of those unfortu- nate men, who not only have the melancholy assurance of their pre- sent misery, by the suffering of it, bwt the additional accumulation of human woe, the idea of being forgotten, whilst labouring under it. By this unfortunate part of society, I allude to the captives under the piratical states of the coasts of Barbary ; men, w ho far from rendering themselves unfor- tunate by their vices, become so perhaps in the very act of extend- ing, or protecting the commerce of that country, to which they belong, and to whose continued protection they must be consequently entit- led. TRA TRE 189 To reflect upon the misery of those objects, who perpetually pre- sent themselves to our eyes, and make a Ha ing and forcible call on our sensibility, is a worthy, is a philosophical virtue: but to turn a mindful eye on more imagery sorrow, which we know to be ex- isting, though we cannot perceive it with our eyes, or receive its com- plaining tones in our ears ; to im- press the imagination with the bust of languishing and distant sorrow, so as to work our sensibility into action, is the highest prerogative of reason and intellect. Vet with that extent of power, and command of fortune, joined to that education, which many English travellers possess, such sentiments would neither be romantic, or such un- dertakings impossible. We should remember, as Cicero says, that there are two sorts of men, each of whom derive a totally different splendor from their expences ; the one are mere prodigals, but the other justly deserve the title of generous ; the first dissipate their property in entertainments, hounds, horses, and gaming: Avhat will prove the remains of a similar profusion ? A fleeting remem- brance, perhaps total oblivion : but men, who are truly generous, con- secrate their fortune to more noble purposes ; to the ransom of unfortu- nate captives, by pirates, is?c. isfc. 14. This sentiment of Seneca is particularly noble, as contradis- tinguished from that idea of learn- ing, merely for a personal accom- plishment. I would oiffy learn, savs he, in order to be able to leach : the most interesting disco- very would cease to have any charms forme, if 1 was only to be the repository of it. No, I would not accept of Wisdom herself, were it on the condition of keeping her secluded within myself. Pos- session is only rendered agreeable by participation. TRAVELLER'S JOY, Hones- ty, Virgin's Bower, or Great Wild-Climber, Clematis Vitalba, L. a hardy, indigenous shrub, grow- ing in hedges and shady places, in calcareous soils, where it flow- ers in June and July.....It is easily propagated by layers or cuttings. The fibrous stalks of this vege- table may be converted into paper: .....the whole plant is very acrid to the touch ; on Avhich account it is frequently employed as a caustic, and for cleansing old ulcers..... Both leaves and branches may, with advantage, be used in dying ; and Damuournky obtained from the latter alone, a yellow decoction. .....Dechstein observes, that the hard, compact, yellow, and odori- ferous wood of this shrub, fur- nishes an excellent material for ve- neering. Treacle, the Common. Sec Molasses ; and Beer. TREACLE, the Venice, or Mithridatk, Theriaca Andro- machi, a celebrated medley of drugs, composed of 60 ingredients; prepared ; pulverized ; and, with honey, formed into an electuary : it was reputed among the ancients to be a specific against poisons, and was formerly employed in inter- mittent, malignant, and other fe- vers. At present, however, it is superceded by the opiat electuary, which consists of purified opium, 6 drams ; caraway-seeds, long- pepper, and ginger, of each 2 oz.; and three times their weight of the syrup of white poppy, boiled to the consistence of honey. The solid substances are to be pulverised, and the opium first separately in- 190 T R E T RE corporated with the syrup, over a moderate fire ; when the other in- gredients should be gradually add- ed. This composition is very pow- erful: the doses vary according to the age, sex, strength, and other circumstances •; so that they ought to be regularly prescribed. Treacle-Mustard. See Mi- thridate-Mustard. Treacle-Hedge-Mustard, or Treacle Wormseed. See Mus- tard, the Hedge. TREE, the largest of vegetable productions, rising to a considera- ble height, with a single stem. Trees are divided into two prin- cipal classes, namely, fruit, and timber trees : the former includes all such as are raised chiefly, or en- tirely, for their edible fruit; an ac- count of vvhich, together with their mode of cultivation, the reader will find in alphabetical order, and also in the articles Fruit-trees, Orchard, &c.».The second divi- sion comprehends those trees, the wood of which is employed in ship- building, machinery, or for other useful purposes, such as the Oak, Larch, he.; the culture of which has been discussed under those respective heads.....See also Tim- ber. The growth of trees is a subject of considerable importance ; but few accurate experiments haA-e been made, in order to ascertain their annual increase in height and bulk. ....In the Philosophical Transations of the Royal Society, for 1788, Mr. Barker states, as the result of his observations, that oak, and ash-trees, grow nearly in equal proportions, increasing about 1, or 1-i inch every year. He remarks, that when the annual grovvth a- mounts to one inch in height, a coat one-sixth of an inch in thick- ness will accrue to the tree ; and as " the timber added to the body every year, is its length multipli- ed into the thickness of the coat, and into the girth," more timber is produced in proportion to the increasing thickness of the stem. The health and vegetation of trees may be greatly promoted, by * scraping them ; by cutting aAvay the cankered parts ; and by Avash- ing their stems, annually, in the month of February or March..... Hence, Mr. Forsyth, in his inge- nious " Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit-trees," he. recommends fresh cow-dung to be mixed with urine and soap-suds; and the composition to be applied to the stems and branches of fruit, forest, or timber trees, in the same manner as the ceilings of rooms are white-washed. This operation, he observes, will not only destroy the eggs of insects, that are hatched during the spring and summer, but also prevent the growth of moss ; and, if it be repeated in autumn, after the fall of the leaves, it will kill the eggs of those numerous insects, which are hatched during that season and the winter ; thus contributing to nourish the tree, and to preserve its bark in a fine and healthy state. A similar prac- tice of washing and rubbing trees Avas devised many years since, by Mr. Evelyn, and Dr. Hales, who direct it to be performed first with simple water and a scrubbing brush, and afterwards with a coarse flannel: the trees, thus managed, throve uncommonly ; and Mr. Mar sham relates, that a beech- tree, between spring and autumn, increased 2 five-tenths inches in thickness, which Avas one-tenth of an inch more than an unwashed tree. Mr. Forsyth's mixture, TRE T R E 191 however, is far preferable to com- mon water ; and, if the use of the latter fluid be attended with such beneficial effects, it may be ration- ally concluded, that the former will be productive of still greater advan- tages. In common with other objects of the vegetable creation, trfes are liable to a variety of diseases; Avhich, if not timely attended to, eventually destroy them. Having already treated of such affections, underthc heads of Canker,Moss, he.; we shall in this place intro- duce a concise account of Mr. Forsyth's improved method of curing injuries and defects in fruit, or the forest trees ; for which His Majesty- has graciously rewarded him; on condition that it should be published. Mr. F. directs all the decayed, hollow, loose, rotten, injured, diseased and dead parts, to be cut away, till the knife ex- tend to the sound or solid wood, so as to leave the surface perfectly smooth. The composition (pre- pared in the manner described vol. i. p. 96, and rendered of the consistence of thick paint, by add- ing a sufficient quantity of soap- suds and urine) should then be laid on with a painter's brush, to the thickness of about 1-Sth of an inch, and the edges finished off'as thin as possible. Next, five parts of dry pulverized wood-ashes should be mixed with one part of bone- ashes, previously reduced to pow- der, and then put into a tin-box, the top of which is perforated w ith holes: the powder must be sprink- led over the surface of the compo- sition, being suffered to remain half an hour for absorbing the moisture ; when an additional por- tion of the powder should be gent- ly applied with the hand, rill the whole plaster acquire a smooth surface. As the edges of such ex- cisions grow up, care ought to be taken, that the new wood may not come in contact with the decayed; for which purpose, it will be advi- sable to cut out the latter, in pro- portion as the former advances; a hollow space being left betAveen both, in order that the newly- grown wood may have sufficient room to extend, and fill up the cavity, so that it in a manner forms a new tree. By this process, old and decayed pear-trees have, in the second summer after its ap- plication, produced fruit of the best quality and finest liavour; nay, in the course of four or five years, they yielded such abundant crops, as young healthy trees could not have borne in 16 or 20 years. By such treatment, likewise, large, aged elm-trees,all the parts of which were broken, having only a small portion of bark left on the trunk, shot forth stems from their tops, to the height of above thirty feet, within six or seven years after the composition had been applied..... Thus it appears, that both forest and fruit-trees may be renovated, and preserved in aflourishing state; while the latter may be rendered more fruitful than at any former period. We regret that our limits confine us to the present short ac- count, and refer the reader to Mr. Forsyth's 'Precise above cited; which is illustrated with 13 elegant engravings. [Under the articles Fruit, Or- chard, some observations on the subject of. fruit-trees by the inge- nious Mr. Bi'cknal were given, and the occasion of the present head is taken to introduce some additional and highly important remarks by the same valuable prac- 192 T R E T RE tical writer ; from the Transactions of the Society of Arts, vol. 20, for 1802, on the varieties of en- grafted Fruit-trees. " Some friends have requested that I would introduce another pa- per on the nature of the valuable varieties of engrafted fruits, as they are of opinion that the Essay in the 17th volume of the Trans- actions of the Society is not suffi- ciently extended for a subject so important to the fruit-growers, and those interested in the productions of fruits. ' As a proof of my wil- lingness to make the orchardist as perfect as I can, I beg you to pre- sent my compliments to the Soci- ety, Avith the following elucida- tions. " This is a subject in rural eco- nomy which ought to be much better understood than it is, in or- iLr to enable the planters to judge of the sorts proper to be planted, either as an article of pleasure, profit, or recreation ; as much of !*ie credit of the plantation must arise from - judiciously choosing trees of the best, new, or middle- aged sorts, and not of the old worn-out varieties, which latter cannot, in the planting of orchards in common situations, ever form valuable trees, and must end in the disappointment of the planter. " Engrafted fruits, I have before said, and I now repeat, are not permanent. Every one of the least reflexion must see that there is an essential difference between the power and energy of a seedling plant, and toe tree which is to be raised from cuttings or elonga- tions. The seedling is endued wnb the energies of nature, while the graft, or scion, is nothing more than a regular elongation, carried peshnps through the seve- ral r< pentings of the same variety; Avhereas the seed, from having been placed in the earth, germin- ates and becomes a new plant, wherever nature permits like to produce like in vegetation ; as in the oak, beech, and other mast- bearing trees. These latter trees, from each passing through the state of seedlings, are perfectly continued, and endued with the functions of forming perfect seeds for raising other plants by evolu- tion, to the continuance of the like species. " This is not the case with en- grafted fruits. They are doomed by nature to continue for a time, and then gradually decline, till at last the variety is totally lost, and soon forgotten, unless recorded by tradition, or in old publications. " Reason, with which Provi- dence has most bountifully blessed some of our species, has enabled us, when we find a superior varie- ty, to engraft it on a wilding stock, or to raiae plants from layers and cuttings, or even to raise up the roots, and thus to multiply our sources of comfort and pleasure. This, hoAvever, does not imply that the multiplication of the same va- riety, for it is no more, should last for ever, unless the species will naturally arise from seed. " Nature, in her teaching, speaks in very intelligible lan- guage, which language is convey- ed by experience and observation. Thus Ave see that among promis- cuous seeds of fruits of the same sort, one or more may arise, Avhose fruits shall be found to possess a va- lue far superior to the rest in many distinguishable properties. From experience, also, we have obtain- ed the power, by engrafting, of increasing the number of this TRE T R E 193 newly-acquired tree, can change its country, give it to a friend, send it beyond the seas, or fill a kingdom with that fruit, if the na- tives are disposed so to do. Thus we seem to have a kind of creative power in our own hands. " From the attention lately paid to the culture of engrafted fruits, I hope we are now enabled to con- tinue a supposed happily acquired tree, when we can find it, for a much longer duration than if such variety had been left in the state of unassisted nature ; per- haps I may say for a duration as long again, or something more. After these sanguine expectations, I may reasonably be asked, to what does all this amount ? for here there is no direct permanency..... and why ? The why is very obvi- ous....because the kernels within the fruit, Avhich are the seed of the plants for forming the next generation of trees, will not pro- duce their like. I allow they may do so accidentally ; but nothing more can be depended on. " For example, suppose we take ten kernels or pips of any apple raised on an engrafted stock : sow them, and they will produce ten different varieties, no two of which will be alike ; nor will either of them closely resemble the fruit from whence the seeds were col- lected. The leaves also of those trees raised from the same primi- genious or parent stock, will not actually be a copy of the leaves of any one of the varieties or family, to which each is connected by a vegetable consanguinity. I inten- tionally used the word actually, be- cause a resemblance may be found, though not much of that is to be expected. " I beg that what has been last men- VOL. v. tioned may not be taken as a dis- couragement to attempts for rais- ing new varieties. I was obliged to speak very strongly, in order to place the culture upon its true foundation. I think it need not be observed, that there is no ac- quiring a neAV variety, but through the means of a seedling plant ; and therefore whoever wishes to succeed must attempt it that way, or wait till others in their planta- tions may more fortunately pro- duce it. " In chusing the seeds, that ap- ple is most likely to produce the clearest and finest plants, Avhose kernels are firm, large, and Avell ripened. The size of the fruit is not to be regarded ; for large ap- ples do not always ripen their fruit well, or rather for cyder the small fruits are generally prefer- red for making the strongest, highest-flavoured liquor. And from what I have been able to col- lect in the cyder-countries, it is there the opinion, that an apple something above the improved crab promises the best success..... This advantage also attends the practice : if there are no valuable apples raised from that attempt, these wildings will make excel- lent stocks to engraft upon. " Gentlemen Avho actually cm- ploy themselves in attempting to acquire new varieties, should re- member that they ought to select all the sets, from the bed of apple- quick, Avhose appearance is in the least degree promising, and plant them together, at such a distance as to allow each to produce its fruit, Avhich will happen in about twelve, fifteen, or eighteen years. My friend Mr. Knight, who un- doubtedly is the first in actual ex- ertions for procuring these happilv 194 T R E acquired new varieties, has had two plants bear fruit at six years old, and one at five. The cyder- countries have offered several pre- miums for procuring new varieties, and some with good effect. Pre- miums have been given both to Mr. Knight and Mr. Alban. " When the new variety is to be raised from a valuable admired apple, I should recommend the placing these seeds in a garden- pot, filled with mould from an old melon-bed ; carrying the pot into a retired situation near the Avater, and giving attention to run the plants to as large a size as is con- venient within eighteen months. With this view, the pot should be placed in the green-house the first winter; and when the plants are afterwards to be set out in the spots, they should not be placed under the drip of trees, or much exposed to the winds. " Two instances have been men- tioned, the improved crab, and most admired apple; but pru- dence says, try all sorts, and something probably will arise ; and the process is attended with little trouble or expense to a per- son who constantly resides in the country : yet, after all this scien- tific care, the apple may want fla- vour, and be in other respects no- thing better than a common wild- ing. "It is an undoubted fact, and worthy of observation, that all the different trees of the same variety have a wonderful tendency to si- milarity of appearance among themselves ; and that the parent stock, and all engrafted from it, have a far greater resemblance to each other, than can be found in any part of the animal creation ; TRE and this habit does not vary to any extent of age. " As an encouragement in at- tempting to increase the number of new valuable fruits, we can prove that the golden pippin is na- tive English. The red-streak, a seedling of Herefordshire, if not raised, yet was first brought in* to notice by Lord Scudamore, and was for a long time called Scu- damore's Crab. The Stire Apple was accidentally raised in the for- est of Dean, in Glocestershire, and took the name of Forest Stire. The cyder made from this apple vvas the strongest the country ever produced, according to any living record. The Haglo-crab, the best cyder fruit now remaining, was discovered in the parish of Ecloe, on the banks of the Severn ; and about sixty or seventy years ago, many scions were taken from this tree by Mr. Bellamy, and en- grafted on seedling stocks about Ross. These are noAv grovvn old ; and to ascertain the age of the va- riety, I went with Charles Ed- win, Esq. to Ecloes, in hopes of seeing the primigenious of this family. The proprietor of the estate acquainted Mr. Eda^in that it had ceased to bear, years ago, and was cut down. Those at Ross are but poor bearers now, and I should suppose the variety must be 140 years old, though Mar- shal, who wrote in the year 1786, mentions these trees Avere prolific, and he supposes the sort to be about eighty years old ; but from present experience, it must be much more. The Tinton Squash- pear is of Gloucestershire; the Barland and Old-field Avere near Ledbury, Herefordshire. The two last pears clearly bear the names TRE of the two fields Avhere they Avere raised. The Barland fell about six years ago, visibly from Aveight and longevity, which was supposed to have been about 200 years. There have been many other names of estimation handed down to us, though the realities are now total- ly worn out, and have ceased to exist. Can any better proof be desired, that engrafted fruits are not permanent, than the regret we feel for the loss of these old valu- able fruits. " To make my paper as short as convenient, I have dwelt only on the apple and pear : yet all the engrafted fruits are under the same predicament of the seed not pro- ducing its like, and the offspring in time falling into a nothingness of grovvth and bearing, though that space of time must certainly de- pend on the natural longevity and hardiness of the sort, soil, position, care, See. All these are more ful- ly expressed in the papers publish- ed in the different volumes of the transactions of this Society, and the two volumes of the Orchard- ist, wherein the whole system is extended, to form a rational culture for the management of standard fruits. " It should be remembered, that as I am iioav alluding to the state of actual permanency, fifty years are to be accounted as nothing; and as often as we come to that point, we are compelled to resort to our first assertion, " That en- grafted fruits are not permanent, they being continued from elonga- tions, and not raised as a repeti- tion of seeds." This is the only rational Avay as yet introduced of accounting for the loss of the va- luable old varieties of fruits. Should TRE 195 a better system be introduced, I shall readily adopt it; but this sufficiently answers the purposes of the planter. " Some years ago, from due in- vestigation and thorough convic- tion, I propagated this principle ; and it Avas published in the 17th vol. of the Society'sTranactions, in the following words: " All the grafts taken from this first tree, or parent stock, or any of the de- scendants, will for some genera- tions thrive ; but when this first stock shall, by mere dint of old- age, fall into actual decay, a nihi- lity of vegetation.....the descend- ants, however young, or in what- ever situation they may be, will gradually decline ; and, from that time, it would be imprudent, in point pf profit, to attempt propa- gating that variety from any of them. This is the dogma which must be received. I do not expect a direct assent, neither do I wish it; for it should be taken with much reserve ; but it is undoubt- edly true." These considerations should stimulate us in searching after new varieties, equal, or per- haps superior, to those of which Ave regret the loss. " Observe, that from the time the kernel germinates for apple- quick, should the plant be disposed to form a valuable variety, there will appear a regular progressive change, or improvement, in the organization of the leaves, until that variety has stood, and grown suf- ficient to blossom and come into full bearing; that is, from the state of infancy to maturity ; and it is this and other circumstances, by which the inquisitive eye is ena- bled to form the selection among those appealing likely to become 196 TRE valuable fruits. But from that time the new variety, or selected plant, compared with all the en- graftments which may be taken from it, or any of them, these shall shew a most undeviating sameness among themselves. " It is readily allowed, that the different varieties of fruits are ea- sily distinguished from each other by many particulars ; not only res- pecting their general fertility, and the form; size, shape, and flavour of the fruit; but also the manner of the growth of the tree, the thick- ness and proportion of the tAvigs, their shooting from their parent stem, the form, colour, and con- sistence of the leaf, and many other circumstances, by which the variety can be identified ; and were it possible to engraft each variety upon the same stock, they would still retain their discriminating qualities, with the most undeviat- ing certainty. " The proper conclusion to be drawn from the statement in the last paragraph, is this....that were any one to put the thought in prac- tice on a full-grown hardy or crab stock, it would produce an excel- lent proof that engrafted fruits are not permanent. For if twenty different varieties were placed to- gether, so that each might receive its nurture from the same stem, they would gradually die off in actual succession, according to the age or state of health of the res- pective variety, at the time the scions were placed in the stock ; and a discriminating eye, used to this business, would nearly be able to foretell the order in which each scion would actually decline..... Should it also happen that two or three suckers from the wilding stock had been permitted to grow TRE among the twenty grafts, such suckers or wilding shoots will con- tinue, and make a tree after all the rest are gone. A further con- sequence Avould result from the ex- periment : among such a number of varieties, each of the free grow- ers would starve the delicate, and drive them out of existence only so much the sooner. It must be observed, that this supposed stem is the foster-parent • to the twenty scions, and real parent to the suckers; and those the least conversant with engrafted fruits knoAV the advantage acquired from this circumstance. And here it is Avorth while remarking, that a Gascoyne, or wild-cherry, Avill grow to twice the size that ever an engrafted cherry did. " By an experiment we have had in hand for five years, it will appear that the roots and stem of a large tree, after the first set of scions are exhausted or worn out, may carry another set for many years; and we suspect a third set, provided the engrafting is properly done, and the engrafter chuses a new variety. Now the Ripston pippin, of Yorkshire, is the fa- vourite, as being a free groAver and good bearer, with fine fruit. This, however, may be certainly depended on, that when a new ap- ple is raised from seed, if a scion were placed in a retired situation, and constantly cut down, as a stool in a copse-wood, and the ap- ple never suffered to fulfil the in- tentions of nature in bearing fruit, the practitioners of the following ages may secure scions from that stool, to continue the variety much longer. Hence, though I have Avritten as much as is in my power against permanency, yet I have taken some pains to assure the TRE planters, that forecast, selection, pruning, cleanliness, and care, will make the orchards turn to more profit for the rising generations, than what they have done for the last hundred years. " To place the nature of varie- ties in its true light, for the infor- mation of the public, I must maintain, that the different varie- ties of the apple will, after a cer- tain time, decline, and actually die away, and each variety, or all of the same stem or family, will lose their existence in vegetation ; and yet it is a known fact, and mention- ed in the 17th vol. of the Transac- tions, that after the debility of age has actually taken possession of any variety, it will yet thrive by being placed against a southern wall, and treated as a Avail-fruit. Who, however, can afford to raise cyder at that expence, except as matter of curiosity, to prove, that when the vital principle in vegeta- tion is nearly exhausted, a supe- rior care and warmth Avill still keep the variety in existence some time longer ? " It should be understood that the cxtemal air of Britain is rather too cold for the delicate fruits, Avhich is the reason Avhy, in the Orchardist, I lay such a stress on procuring warmth for the trees, by draining, shelter, and manure. It Avould be iioav lost time to attempt to recover the old varieties as an article of profit. '; If I have not expressed my- self, in this Essay on the Nature of Varieties, with so much clearness and conviction as might have been expected, it should be considered, that it is an abstrire subject, very little understood, and requiring at first some degree of faith, observa- tion, and perseverance. The pre- TRE 197 judices of mankind revolt against it. They are not disposed to allow the distinction of nature ; and they imagine, that, in the act of engraft- ing or multiplying, they give new life ; whereas it is only continuing the existence of the same tree, stick, or bud. Observe what I said before: the seed of the apple, when placed in the earth, germinates, and unfolds itself into a new plant, which successively passes through the stages of infancy, maturity, and decay, like its predecessors. I might say, all created nature is similar in this respect; though, from the circumstance that A'arie- ties are much longer-I'iA'ed than man, the plants have appeared to be possessed of eternal poAvers of duration : nothing sublunary hoAv- ever, Avhich possesses either ani- mal or vegetable life, is exempt from age and death. " Within the last twenty years I have travelled many hundred miles, and conversed with the most intelligent men in each coun- ty ; and I iioav want to convince mankind, for no other reason than because it is their interest so to believe, that there is in creation an order of beings (engrafted fruits) so formed, that we have the power of multiplying a single variety, to Avhatever number of trees we please ; that the first set arises from a small seed ; that the next and descendant sets are propagatr ed by engraftings, or from cut- tings, layers, Sec. ; and although these trees may amountto millions, yet, on the death of the primige- nious or parent stock, merely from old-age, or nihility of grovvth, each individual shall decline, in Avha'- ever country they may be, or how- ever endued Avith youth and health. I say they shall gradually begin to 198 TRE TRE decline ; and in the course of time or of centuries, to those who would prefer that expression, the whole variety Avill scarcely have a single tree remaining to show Avhat the fruit was. Let those Avho are not disposed to assent to the state- ment, ask themselves what is be- come of the old lost varieties ? did they die, or did Avicked men mali- ciously cut them up ? " I, who am firmly convinced pf the truth of Avhat I have ad- vanced on this subject, have no doubt but that the same would happen by engrafting on the oak or beech, if the mast raised from the engrafted tree did not produce the like ; for there the question turns. " Is it not known that the wood- man, in setting out his sapling oaks, always selects new seedling plants, and never continues one upon an old stool; and that if he should so blunder, that tree, from the stool, will neither have free- dom of growth, nor the size or firmness of timber, equal to the new-raised plant. " I wish I could persuade my friends, that, Avith the same atten- tion with Avhich the woodman acts, the planter is to raise his orchard from the young fruits which thrive in the neighbourhood, or are in health and full bearing in the country whence they are to be brought. " The fruit-grower should look to selection, cleanliness, and care. To me it is a circumstance per- fectly indifferent, whether be is to use Mr. Forsyth's composi- tion, Mr. Bulingham's boiled lin- seed oil, or my medication. 1 only maintain that the wounded parts of trees want something to dc.troy the insects and vermin, and heal the wood, from which the tree* are kept in health. ■" Let those who are blessed with fruit-plantations attend to their preservation, and not leave them to the state of unassisted nature."] TREE-MALLOW, the Sea, or Velvet-leaf, Lavatera arborea, L. an indigenous biennial, growing on the sea-shores, where it flowers from July to October....This being the only native species of eleven plants, belonging to the same ge- nus, we shall briefly remark, that all the Tree-mallows deserve to be more generally cultivated, both in gardens and fields ; not only for their elegant flowers, which abound with honey, but chiefly for the va- luable material obtained from their fibrous stalks :....We learn from Bechstein, that such stalks may, with equal advantage, be convert- ed into paper, and pack-thread or bass, serving as a substitute for hemp. TREFOIL, or Trifolium, L. a genus of fifty-five species, 16 of which are indigenous : of these we shall mention the following: 1. The pratense, or Common Clover; 2. The medium, v. alpestre, or Red, Perennial Clover ; 3. The procumbens, v. agrarium, Hop-clover, or Hop-trefoil; and 4. The rcflau, or White Clover. Which sec. 5. The M'lilotus officinalis, or Melilot-trefoil. SeeMELiLOT the Common. 6. The arvense, or Hare's-foot Trefoil, grows in sandy pastures, corn-fields, and chalky situations ; where it flowers in July and Au- gust. This species is strongly aro- matic ; and, when dried, retains its odour for a considerable time :...it affords a r;reteful food to cattle; TRE T R U 199 and is,by Bechstei?:, recommend- ed as a valuable substitute for oak- bark, in tanning leather. 7. The fragiferum, or Straw- berry Trefoil, thrives in moist meadows, chiefly in the vicinity of London, where it flcwers in Au- gust....This perennial vegetable is industriously cultivated by the Greenlanders, who propagate it by seed, and also transplant the stalks, which thus attain the height of seven feet. Its whitish and reddish flower-heads are nearly globular, and slightly compressed on the up- per surface. The whole plant af- fords as nutritive food to cattle as the Common or MeadoAv-cloA'er. TREFOIL, the Common Biud's- Foor, or Lotus corniculatus, L. an indigenous perennial, growing in meadows, pastures, heaths, and road-sides, where it floAvers from June to August.....This plant is eaten by cows, goats, and horses ; btit, according to Linnjeus, is not relished by swine or sheep ; tho' it is propagated in Hertfordshire as pasturage for the latter animals. ....Dr. Anderson strongly recom- mends it to be cultivated for cat- tle ; and Mr. Woodward remarks, that it may be raised to great ad- vantage : as it attains a consider- able height in moist meadows, and makes good hay.......Its flowers, when dried, acquire a greenish cast: in which respect, they re- semble those of the plants produc- ing Injjigo: it is, therefore, pro- bable, that they may be advanta- geously employed for obtaining a substitute for that expensive dye- ing material. According to Bradley, an in- fusion of the seeds, floAvers, and leaves of the Common Bird's-foot, in wine, operates as a diuretic; and at the same time tends to allay the irritation of the urinary canal. TROY-WEIGHT, is thatmode of weighing certain commodities; in which the pound contains twelve ounces, each of them being divided into twenty penny-weights and the latter into twenty-four grains each: on the contrary* a pound of avoir- dupois consists of sixteen ounces • so that each oz. has eight drams, or drachms ; each dram three scruples; and each scruple, twenty grains.......See also Avoirdupois and Weight. [The proportion of a pound, avoirdupois to a pound troy, is as 17 to 14.] True-love. See Her3-Paris. TRUFFLE, or Trubs, Lyco- perdon tuber, L. (Tuber cibarium of Dr. Withering,) is a species of puff-ball, which groAvs under ground, without any roots or the access of light; and attains a size of from a pea to the largest potatoe. In Britain, however, it is of a glo- bular form, resembling that of a large plumb: and, when young, its surface is whitish ; being inter- spersed with elevated dots, the centre of which contains a brown powder, similar to that of the com- mon Puff-ball : as it becomes old, the colour turns black....This species of fungus may be searched for in hilly forests, Avhich have a sandy or dry clayey bottom, at the depth of four or five inches in the earth ; though it seldom exceeds four or five oz. in weight, while those produced on the Continent, frequently weigh from eight to six- teen ounces....It is one of the most wholesome and nutritive of the es-> culent fungi, and is generally dis- covered by mtans of dogs, which are taught to scent it; so that, on 200 T U M TUM smelling the truffle, they bark, and scratch it up.....In Italy, it is like- wise rooted up by pigs, which are either furnished with a ring around their snout; or, it is taken from them by an attendant. Truffles are highly esteemed at the tables of the luxurious, where they are served up, either roasted in a fresh state, like potatoes ; or, they are dried, sliced, and dressed as ingredients in soups and ragouts. The most delicious are internally white, and possess the odour of o-arlic. Tube-root. See Meadow- Saffron. T UMBREL, a machine employ- ed chiefly in the county of Lin- coln ; for the purpose of giving food to sheep, during the winter. In the 4th vol. of the « Reper- tory of Arts," he. we meet with a descriptiction of a contrivance which is equally simple and useful: we have, therefore, been induced to give the annexed Cut, represent- ing its structure. It consists of a circular cage or crib, which may be made of wil- low, osiers, or similar pliant brush- Avood. The Avhole is ten feet in circumference, being closely wat- tled to the height of one foot, above which it is left open for the space of about 18 inches; when it is again wattled to the height of 8 or 9 inches; an opening, 18 inches broad, being left at the top, for the purpose of putting in turnips, or other provender. The staves, form- ing the skeleton of the machine above represented, are 10 inches apart, so that 12 sheep may feed at one time in each tumbrel. Considerable advantages are de- rived from this method of feeding sheep; as it greatly reduces the expense of provender, which is thus prevented from being soiled TUM TUP 201 with dung, or trodden under foot. In such a state of separation, the stronger animals cannot drive away the weaker sheep ;eachbeing secur- ed by the head, while they are eat- ing. Farther, the construction of the tumbrel being attended with no difficulties, it may be readily pro- cured, and be daily conveyed to any part of a farm : if proper care be taken, this utensil may be pre- served in constant use, for eight or ten years. TUMOR, or Swelling, in animal economy, denotes an en- largement or preternatural tume- faction of any part of the body ; and is either of an indolent nature, such as Cancer, Schirrus and Scrophula ; or inflammatory, as occurs in the female breast, in chil- blains, and various other local af- fections....With respect to the lat- ter, Ave refer to the article In- flammation ; and, as most of the former are distinguished, either by the cause from which they arise, or by other circumstances, whence t they have received particular de- nominations, we shall in this place only give a few directions, relative. to the treatment of indolent tumors in general. When swellings of this nature gradually appear on any part of the human body, and are not attended with either pain or inflammation, the mode of discussing ihem en- tirely depends on their situation. Thus, Avhen the glands are swoln, cold astringent fomentations, or saponaceous and mercurial plasters, conjoined Avith cold-bathing, espe- cially in sea water, will generally be attended with good effects. If the tumor be situated on muscular or fleshv parts, warm fomenta- tions have of en been found of ser- vice ; on bony or tendinous parts, VOL. V. gentle friction, and afterwards mo- derate compression, are in most cases sufficient to remove the ob- struction. [TUPELO TREE,Aj/s*z,L.a genus of trees, comprehending 3 species, all of which are natives of the United States. 1. N. Aquatica, Virginian wa- ter Tupelo Tree, grows in swamps in Carolina and Florida. The ber- ries are nearly the size of a small olive, and are preserved in like manner by the French inhabitants on the Missisippi, where it abounds, and is called Olive Tree. The timber is white and soft when un- seasoned, but light and compact when dry, Avhich renders it very proper for making domestic table utensils. 2. N. Ogeche. The Ogeche Lime Tree. This tree was brought from Georgia by Mr. Bartram, to the neighbourhood of Philadel- phia. It is a tree of great singu- larity and beauty, growing natur- ally in the water. The fruit is nearly oval, of a deep red colour, of the size of a Damasane plum, and of an agreeable acid taste, from Avhich it is called the lime tree. 3. Nyssa Sylvatica, Upland Tu- pelo Tree, or Sour Gum. This species grows naturally in Penn- sylvania, and New-Jersey. The timber of this tree is close grained and curled, and does not split ea- sily ; and therefore much used for hubs of wheels forwaggons and carriages. It also is much used by economists for back-logs of fires, from its incombustible na- ture. The Sweet Gum, is a very dif- ferent tree : it is the liquidamber, i'uracifiua of Linnxus, the leaves of vvhich resemble the maple, and D D 20% T U R TUR the wood dry, light and inflam- mable.] TURBITH, 'or Turpeth, an officinal drug, being the bark from the fleshy roots of the Convolvu- lus Turpethum, L. an exotic species of the Bind-weed, growing in Cey- lon. Turbith is imported in oblong pieces, which are of a brown, or ash-colour externally, and whitish within. The best is brittle ; con- tains a large portion of resinous matter ; and is at first of a sweetish taste ; but, when chewed, it be- comes pungent and nauseous..... This drug is occasionally employ- ed as a purgative ; but is by no means safe, or uniform, in its ope- ration. TURBITH - MINERAL, or Yelloav - vitriolated Quick- silver^ medicinal precipitate ob- tained by cautiously mixing eight parts of vitriolic acid with four of purified mercury; and distilling the whole to dryness, in a retort placed in a sand furnace. The while calx, on being reduced to powder, and thrown into warm dis- tilled water, assumes a yellow co- lour ; and becomes tasteless after repeated ablutions. Turbilh-mineral is a powerful emetic, and has been given Avith frequent success, in doses of from 11 to 6 or 8 grains, to robust per- sons, Avho Avere afflicted with le- prous diseases, and glandular ob- structions, that had resisted the pDAver of other medicines. It has also been recommended, in doses amounting from six grains to a scruple every day, in cases of hy- drophobia ; and some instances have occurred, in which it not only prevented madness in dogs that had been bitten, but also effected a cure, after the disease had actually taken place. Lastly, the water, in which this mineral is Avashed, has been used externally for lotions, in the itch and other cutaneous affec- tions ; but such practice ought ne- ver to be adopted without proper advice ; as it may be attended with danger. TURF, a brown or blackish fos- sil, consisting of a rich earth com- bined Avith the fibrous roots of ve- getables, mineral oils, &c Turf differs from peat, only in its harder consistence ; the latter being obtained from peat-bogs, and the former is dug out of more solid ground, such as dry commons, on which cottagers exercise the right of turbary, by prescription : both species are chiefly used as fuel, in those countries where coal and wood are scarce. After the turf or peat are consumed, their ashes are employed either as a Manure, or they may be advantageously streAved on land infected Avith Chafers. (See Chafer.) Far- ther, it appears from the experi- ment of M. Sage, that turf may be charred, or reduced to a state of cinder, in the same manner as Charcoal ; and thus seiwe as an excellent substitute for the latter; because it not only burns with a more intense heat, but is also of a longer duration. TURKEY, or Meleagris gallo- pavo L. a bird originally from North America; but Avhich has long been domesticated in Britain ; it has a caruncle both on the head and throat; the breast of the male being tufted. When irritated, the feathers of this part are remaka- bly erected ; the prominence on TUR T U R 203 the forehead is relaxed ; and the bare spots of the face and neck be- come uncommonly red. Turkies subsist on grain and in- sects : early in the spring the fe- male frequently wanders to a con- siderable distance from the farm- yard, for the purpose of construct- ing her nest; where she deposits from 14 to 17 white eggs, marked with redish or yellow freckles ; but seldomproduces more than one brood in a season. Great numbers of these birds are reared in the North 6f England ; and, towards autumn, hundreds at a time are driven to the London market, by means of a scarlet shred of cloth, fastened to the end of a stick ; which, from their antipathy to this colour, serves as a whip. Turkies, being extremely deli- cate fowls, are much oppressed by cold; hence the Swedes plunge their chicks into cold water, soon after, or at least on the same day, when they are hatched ; then force them to swallow one whole pep- per-corn each ; and restore them to the parent bird. Thus, they are enabled to resist the impressions of the severest winters and their growth is not retarded. Young turkies are liable to a peculiar disorder, which frequently and speedily proves fatal : on in- specting the rump feathers, two or three of their quills will be found to contain blood ; but, on drawing them out, the chick soon recovers; and afterwards requires no other care than common poultry. Turkies are highly esteemed, on account of their delicate flavour ; for their flesh is not so rank as that of cither geese or ducks, and is likewise more nutritious. TURMERIC, or Curcuma, L. a genus of exotic plants, compre- hending two species, namely; 1. The rotunda, having a round fleshy root, similar to that of gin- ger ; and 2. The longa, with long- yellow roots, which spread to a considerable extent. Both are na- tives of India, whence their roots are annually imported by the East- India Company, paying 2/. per cent, according to their value ; and a farther duty of, 2-ld per lb. for home consumption. Turmeric has a weak, though agreeable smell; and a bitterish, pungent taste : it is naturally of a deep saffron-colour, which it com- municates to Avatery infusions.... This drug is by the Indians, prin- cipally employed for seasoning rice, and other culinary prepara- tions....It is reputed to be aperient, and of considerable efficacy in the jaundice ; but is chiefly consumed in dyeing the finest yellow colours, which are also the least permanent; and giving a brighter, though pe- rishable, shade to scarlet cloth..... See also Yellow. TURNEP, TURNIP, or Knol- les, Brassica Rapa, L. an indi- genous biennial plant, growing in corn-fields, and chiefly in their borders ; where it flowers in the month of April. There are many varieties of the turnip, which are cultivated, both for feeding cattle, and for culinary purposes ; but we shall enumerate only the principal, namely : 1. The Oval, Common White- stock, or Norfolk Turnip. 2. The Large Green-topped Tur- nip attains a considerable size, and is very sweet and soft; but, grow- ing above the ground, it is liable to be injured by severe frosts. 3. The Purple-stock resembles 204 tUR TUR the first variety, excepting that its size is somewhat smaller; the rind is of a dark-red or purple colour ; and its pulp is also more close and firm, than that of the CommonNor- folk turnip. It withstands the se- verity of winter, without receiving material injury, and is more suc- culent in the spring ; but, not be- ing relished by cattle so well as either of the two preceding varie- ties, it is not generally cultivated. 4. The Ruta-Baga, or Swedish turnip, is one of the most valuable roots of the kind. Its inside is either white or yellow ; which co- lour, however, does not affect its quality : it is more hardy than either of the preceding varieties, and suffers no injury from the most intense cold....As this turnip, when ^flowed to seed near the Oval, or Norfolk white, produces numerous varieties ; it has been conjectured, that a new sort may, by a judicious intermixture, be ob- tained, which AviU probably acquire from the one, a sufficient degree of hardiness, to resist the winter; and, from the other, an increase of size, as well as a quicker growth. 5. The Hastings is a new varie- ty, imported several years since, from Tibet, in Asia, by Governor Hastings.....This plant has not been hitherto cultivated to any ex- tent ; but it appears, as far as we can ascertain, to be one of the most wholesome and profitable roots of this species. Turnips, in general, succeed * better in light soils, consisting of a mixture of sand and loam, than in very rich or heavy lands: the crops of the latter will be rank, and run to flower at too early a period of the spring; though their weight may not be perceptibly di- minished. These roots are raised from seed, which ought to be changed annu- ally, or every second year, with- out exception ; as it is apt to de- generate, and the quality of the roots will consequently be impair- ed. The season for sowing, varies according to the time of feeding: thus, if the turnips be intended for feeding cattjle from December to February, the seed must be committed to the ground from the middle of May to the end of June; but, in case they be designed to supply food till May, it should not be sown before the latter end of July, or early in August. The quantity of seed depends upon the method of culture; for, if it be broad-cast, 2 lbs. per acre will be necessary : but a more ad- vantageous mode is that of Dril- ling, in rows three feet asunder, which requires only one pound of seed. Although Ave have given an account, vol. ii. pp. 172-180, of the most valuable Drill-machines, yet as two implements of this descrip- tion have lately been contrived, for the express purpose of drilling turnips, Ave have been induced, for their remarkable simplicity, and practical utility, to furnish our readers with a complete account and delineation of such improve- ments. In the year 1801, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. granted a premium of 10 guineas and a silver medal, to the Rev. T. C. Munnings, for his inven- tion of a Turnip-drill, of which he communicated a model, accompa- nied with a narrative of experi- ments, to determine w the compa- rative advantage of the drill or , //:,f^/.Jf,?;<,fayu//* //e less active for an hour or two, as his strength will be more employ- ed in the digestion of them, than when he has taken a stomach full of oats. According to the experi- ment of a German physician, who gave to two clogs, which .had been kept a day fasting, a large quanti- ty of flesh food ; and then taking one of them into the fields hunted him with great activity for three or four hours, and left the other by the fire. An emetic was then given to each of them, and the food of the sleeping dog was found per- fectly digested, whilst that of the hunted one had undergone but lit- tle alteration. " lience it may be found advis- able to mix bran of wheat with the peas and beans, a food of less nutriment, but of easier digestion ; or to let the horses eat before or after them, the coarse tussocks of sour grass, which remain in moist pastures in the winter; or lastly, to mix finely cut straw with them. " 3. Another way of distinguish- ing light corn from heavy, is by winnowing ; as the surface of the light grains being greater in pro- portion to their solid contents, they Avill be carried further by the cur- rent of air, which is produced by the fan ; though the heavy grains Avould roll further on the floor after rolling down a grate to separate the dust; because their vis inter- ti« Avould carry them further, after they are put in motion ; and their surfaces Avould be resisted by the air no more than those of the lighter grains. " 4. Finally, there is reason to believe that a progressive improve- ment of many seeds exists during the warmer days of winter in our granaries, Avhich probably consists in the process of the conversion of mucilage into starch; in the same manner as the harsh juices of crab-apples and of austere pears, are continually changing into su- gar during the Avinter ; both which processes are probably in part che- mical, like the slow but perpetual change of sugar into vinous spirit, Avhen the juices of sweeter apples and pears, or grapes, are put into bottles in the manufacture of cyder, peny, and wine. " This improvement of wheat, and of bail ey, and of oats, is well known to the baker, the maltster, and the horse-dealer ; as better bread is made from old Avheat, and barley is converted into better malt in the vernal months; and horses are believed to thrive better, and VEG to possess more vigour, av hen they are fed with old than Avith new oats. " VII. 1. The preservation of seeds next demands our attention. Those seeds Avhich are liable to lie upon the ground, as peas and corn, whenthrown downbystormy or wet seasons, should be gathered rather ealier; lest they should begin to germinate, as they lie upon the ground, and would hence become a kind of malt after drying. Other seeds should be gathered, before they would spontaneously fall from their pericaps, to prevent the loss which must otherwise ensue in the reaping, or mowing, and car- rying tbem to the barn, which of- ten amounts to as much as is ne- cessary to sow the land, which pro- duced it, as well as to supply the depredations of birds, insects and vermin. " Moris. B. G. Sage accuses the farmers of some parts of France of collecfing their wheat with ma- ny green weeds immediately after reaping it, and pressing it close together in their barns ; by Avhich the stack undergoes a fermentation with great heat like some hay- stacks ; and that the corn is by this fermentation killed, and -will not grow when sown like hay-seeds from a fermented hay-stack ; and also that the gluten, or vegeto-ani- mal matter of the corn is destroy- ed; and it, on that account, makes less agreeable and less Avholesome bread ; and lastly, that the straw is much injured by becoming mouldy. Journal, de Physique, September, 17.il. " Mons. B. G. Sage adds, that the follow ing process will discover whether wheat has been thus in- jured, which may be interesting both to the baker, and wheat buy- V E G 255 er, Avho wants it for seed-wheat. Make a paste with flour and wa- ter, then wash it with your hands under water, which must be fre- quently changed, till it no longer becomes discoloured. The sub- stance remaining on the hands is the gluten ; if the corn be good, this is elastic, and will contract when drawn out; if the corn has begun to heat, it is brittle; if the corn has fermented, none of the gluten will be obtained. " In this country, where corn is seldom cut too early, or pressed together on the stack, the princi- pal circumstance required is to keep it dry ; as the straw is not liable to ferment like new hay made with young grass, vvhich contains sugar at every joint of the stem. To preserve a stack of wheat dry, a good cover of thatch may seem sufficient; but as this is liable to injury by vermin, it would be an additional security, if at the time of making the stack the sheaves were laid highest in the middle, and lower on every side, so that if any Avet should find its way into the stack, it might drain onwards along the straw of the sheaves, which would thus act like thatch throughout the whole stack. " There are instances of great durability of seeds, Avhich have been preserved dry, and secured from either so great heat or so great cold, as might destroy their life or organism. Thus there is an account of the seeds of Indian- wheat, which grew well in a hot- house after having been kept 34 years, as was accurately ascertain- ed. Bath Society, vol. v. p. 464. And it has been lately asserted, that many seeds of more than 100 years old,which were found in some old herbarium at Vienna, have 256 VEG VEG been made to germinate by the use of oxygenated muriatic acid and water. Philos. Mag. But if the organic life of a seed be destroyed by frost, or fire, or mechanic in- jury, putrefaction succeeds, and decomposition; as when the or- ganic life of an egg is destroyed by violently agitating it, it is known soon to putrefy. " To preserve seeds in barns or granaries our principal attention should be first to make them dry; and secondly, to keep them dry ; because no seeds can vegetate with- out moisture. The art of drying most seeds must consist in duly ventilating them, especially on dry days ; which may be done by fre- quently turning over the heaps of them: and to preserve them dry in this climate the door and win- dows of granaries should open to the south to receive the Avarmth of the sun, with apertures round the building for sufficient ventilation : which must be prevented from ad- mitting rain or snow by shelter- ing boards on the outside. " The heaps of corn should be surrounded with boards to keep them from contact Avith brick or Stone Avails; which, when warm moist south-west winds succeed cold north-east winds, are liable to precipitate the moisture from the atmosphere by their coldness, and to communicate it to all bodies in contact with them. For a similar purpose in stables some have put up a tall Avooden trunk from the chamber to the room below, three or four feet square, and 10 or 12 feet high, with a sliding valve to draw out the corn below, which is poured in at the top ; in three or four places a tin or wooden pipe full of holes is made to pass hori- zontally through the box to give air to the com, the whole of which, when any of it is drawn out below, is moved in descending ; and new surfaces of corn are applied to the air-holes of the horizontal tubes. " The most secure way of pre- serving a great quantity of wheat, according to Mr. Tull, is by gen- tly drying it on a hair-cloth in a malt-kiln, with no other fuel but clean straw, and no greater heat than that of the sunshine. In this situation the wheat remained from four to twelve hours, according to the previous dampness of it. Mr. Tull knew a farmer in Oxford- shire who purchased wheat, when it was cheap, and kept it by thus drying it for many years, and made a large fortune by selling it again in dearer seasons. The life of the seed was not destroyed by this pro- cess ; as he asserts, that some of it grew, which had been kept in this manner seven years ; whereas in drying potatoes on a malt-kiln so great heat was employed as to destroy their life, and violent pu- trefaction ensued. " 2. A due ventilation also, where corn is kept in the common warmth of the atmosphere of this climate, is necessary, except in seasons of frost, and also the admission of light; as otherwise the vegetable mucor, called mould, is liable to grow upon the corn, and injure it; as this mucor like some other funguses will grow, Avhere there is little or no change of air, and without light, as in cellars, if there be sufficient moisture and warmth. " 3. Another method of preserv- ing seeds may consist in secluding them from heat, as in granaries beneath the soil; Avhich are so deep or so well covered with earth, as not to be affected by the difference of seasons. Thus there have been VEG instances of mustard-seed produc- ing a crop on digging up earth, Avhich had not been removed for many years, and, as Avas believed, even for ages. And in ice-houses it is probable, that not only seeds might be long preserved, but per- haps fruits also ; if they were after- wards very gradually thawed by putting them into cold water, that they might not be destroyed by the too great stimulus of sudden heat. " 4. Where it has been neces- sary suddenly to collect and to pre- serve great heaps of corn, without shelter, forthe provision of armies, some have moderately moistened the upper surface of the heap daily, which has occasioned the upper grains to grow, and thus to pro- duce a sward or turf over those below ; which, it is said, has thus preserved the lower part of the magazine. But in respect to gra- naries for the purpose of laying up very large quantities of grain to prevent famines in scarce years, I suppose the stacks of covetous far- mers, who keep their corn in cheap years, hoping to sell it at a better price in scarce ones, is a more cer- tain method, and a cheaper one to the public, to keep up a sufficient stock of corn, than by any other experiment that can be devised. " 5. Gardeners in general pre- fer new seeds to old for their prin- cipal crops, as they are believed to come up sooner, and with greater certainty, and to grow more luxu- riantly. ' But peas and beans of a year old,' Mr. Marshall observes, ' are by some preferred to new, as not so likely to run to straw. And cucumbers and melons are best to be several years old, in or- der to their shooting less vigorous- ly, and thence becoming more vol. v. VEG 257 fruitful. But this principle is car- ried too far by some gardeners, who say these seeds cannot be too old, and will allow 10 years to be within bounds : three for cucum- bers, and four for melons, hoAvever, is age enough. * As to the age of seeds, at which they may be sown, it is un- certain, and depends much upon hoAV they are kept; those of cu- cumbers and melons are good a long time, because very carefully presen-ed. ' Peas and beans will germinate very Avell at seven years of age ; but the seeds of lettuces and kid- ney-beans, and some others, are not to be depended upon after a year or two ; and, generally speak- ing, the smaller seeds are of the least duration.' Marshall on Gardening. " 6. Where seeds of a perishable nature are to be carried to, or brought from, distant countries, I suspect that covering them in su- gar Avould be the most certain and salutary method of preserving them ; and even, that flesh meat, cut into thin slices, and covered Avith sugar, or syrup, or treacle, would be better preserved than in brine, and afford a much more sa- lutary nourishment to our sailors. " Since I wrote the above, I have seen a paper in the Transac- tions of the Society of Arts, vol. xvi. from Mr. Sneyde, of Belmont in Staffordshire, who having ob- served some seeds, which came ac- cidentally amongst raisins, to groAV readily, directed many seeds to be sent from the West-Indies,covered with raisins, and others in sugar, and others in the usual manner of sending them,and found, that those immersed in sugar or covered Avith raisins, both looked well, and grew Ll 258 VEG VEG readily; whereas many of the others would not vegetate. " Since the powder of fresh burnt charcoal is known so power- fully to absorb all putrid vapours, it is probable the seeds mixed with and covered with charcoal-dust, which has been recently burnt, or not long exposed to the air, might be successfully employed for the preservation of seeds either in long voyages, or in domestic granaries. " VIII. 1. To sow seeds advan- tageously, it is probable, that those of our native plants might be suf- fered to drop on the surface of the earth in autumn, or to fall from their parent plant, covered only by their deciduous leaves, in which situation their fruit might contn- bute to nourish them, as our crabs and sloes ; or defend them from insects, as the acrid husk of the walnut; or from birds, as the hard stones or shells of nuts and cherries, since this is the process of nature. " But when the seeds brought originally from other climates are to be soAvn, an attention is requir- ed to the circumstance of season and of soil. Those which will ripen their seeds in the same year, are to be soAved in the early spring, and covered lightly Avith earth to preserve them from birds and insects ; and should be buried thus beneath the soil, soon after it has been ploughed or dug, as its interstices are then replete with atmospheric air; which may be necessary to stimulate into elevation the plume of the embryon plant; as the moisture of the earth is necessary to stimulate the root into its elongation downwards..... Those needs nevertheless, which will not perfect their vegetation in the same year must be sown in the early autumn; and though all seeds vegetate better, when placed but a little beneath the surface of the soil, as one inch, because they have then a better supply of atmos- pheric air, which maybe necessary for their first growth, before they have acquired leaves above ground; yet as many foreign seeds may not be sufficiently hardy to bear our inclement winters, it maybe neces- sary, as some believe, to bury them an inch and a half, or two inches, deep in the soil, to prevent the frosts from doing them injury, as well as to preserve them from the depredations of birds. And the drill semination, or sowing all kinds of seeds in rows, is the most con- venient method for sowing them at a determined depth, and also for the purpose of keeping the young plants clear from weeds by the more easy application of the hoe. " To sow many seeds earlier than is usually practised, is much recommended. There is- a paper by Lord Orford in Mr. Young's Annals of Agriculture, vol. ix. p. 385, Avho seems to have found considerable advantage by sowing barleyr so early as the seventh of February, three and an half bush- els on an acre. But, as much moisture, Avith or without subse- quent frost, is more liable to de- stroy the embryon in its very ear- ly state in the seed, than after it has shot out roots and a summit, and thus acquired some habits of life ; this early sowing must some- times be practised with caution. Seeds may, nevertheless, be sown still earlier in hot-houses, or in warm situations, as peas, beans, wheat, and may be afterwards transplanted in the vernal months with safeiy aud advantage. VEG « The difficulty of determining the best season for sowing seeds in the spring, owing to the varia- tion of the weather in the same latitude, as well as laying down the exact seasons for sowing in differ- ent latitudes, occasioned Linn*us to construct what he terms a calen- dar of Flora ; which was afterwards adapted to this climate by Stil- lingeleet ; which consisted in observing the first appearance of the root scions, or flowers of the uncultivated native vegetables; with directions to sow the cerealia, or harvest seeds, when such plants or flowers became visible. By at- tention to such observations on the uncultivated native plants in many climates, it is probable that inge- nious tables might be produced, which might direct the best time of sowing the useful seeds in all latitudes, and in all situations. " Another table of the climates, where plants grow naturally, and of their native situations in respect to moisture or dryness, hill or val- ley, with the kind of soil where they were originally found, might also contribute to their successful cultivation. " 2. In the gardens near large towns, where the land is more va- luable and better manured, gard- eners sometimes sow two or three kinds of seeds on the same ground, for the purpose of economy........ Thus Mr. Marshall observes, that, on the same ground they sow radishes, lettuces, and carrots; the radishes are drawn young for the table, the lettuces to plant out, and a sufficient crop of carrots is left ; for carrots, if you wish them to be large, should not grow very near to each other. " In defence of this mode of culture it is said, if one crop fails, VEG 259 the others may do well, and there is no loss of ground or time; and if all succeed they do very well.... Radishes and spinach are com- monly sown together by the com- mon gardeners, and many manoeu- vres of intern-cropping are made by them, as the sowing or plant- ing between rows of vegetables that are wide asunder, or present- ly to come off, or in the alleys of things cultivated on beds. " Thus if a piece of horse-radish be new planted; it may be top- cropped with radishes or spinach, 8cc. or if a piece of potatoes be planted wide, a bean may be put in between each set in every, or every other, row; a thin crop of onions upon new asparagus beds, is a com- mon practice,drawing them young from about the plants." Introduc- tion to Gardening. Rivington. " The farmer likeAvise, in the cultivation of grasses for feeding sheep, finds an advantage in sow- ing a mixture of seeds on the same ground, as rye-grass, trefoil and clover, which are said to succeed each other in respect to the pro- duction or maturity of their herb- age. And, for the purpose of pre- venting smut, it may be useful, as I have before observed, to sow in the same ground, in separate rows, two kinds of wheat, one of a for- warder nature than the other; whence if the farina of one kind should be injured by wet weather, that of the other may impregnate the ears of both. The two kinds of wheat recommended are beard- ed and smooth-headed wheat, which are called by farmers cone wheat and Lammas wheat; of both of which there are many va- rieties, and it is asserted, that one third of cone Avheat is frequently sown with two thirds of Lammas 260 VEG VEG wheat, and that the crops are much superior to either of them sepa- rately. " In respect to kinds of soil, those should be chosen, vvhich have been found by observation to suit particular seeds, both in re- gard to their nutritive properties, and the moisture and warmth of their situations. And for those seeds, which produce tuberous roots within the earth, previous to their flowering, as potatoes, pars- nips, radishes, a soil of less cohe- sion should be found or prepar- ed. "3. Add to this that there are some seeds, as those of carrots, that are so difficult to be disseminated in uniform quantities, that it has been customary to mix them previously with sand or garden mould, for the purpose of giving them weight, or bulk, or to detach them from each other. And some even suffer them to begin to put forth their roots in such a mixture of moist sand or garden mould for the purpose of more regularly dispersing them. " In dry seasons, the soaking seeds in water, a day or two before committing them to the ground, will forward their growth, as well as by artificially Avatering the ground before or after soAving them ; and the soaking them in a solution of salt and Avater may have another advantage of giving an opportunity of rejecting the light seeds, which float, and perhaps of destroying some insects Avhich may adhere to them ; the sprink- ling some kinds of seed with lime may also be of advantage for the purpose of destroying insects, if such adhere to them,and of attract- ing moisture from the air, orloAv- er parts of the earth, or for its other useful properties ; but where the seed, soil, and season are adapt- ed to each other, none of these condiments are required. " It may, nevertheless, on other accounts, be very advantageous to steep many kinds of grain-in the black liquor, which oozes from manure heaps. Mr. Chappel, in the papers of the Bath Society, found great benefit by steeping barley in the fluid above mentioned for 24 hours, and skimming off the light grains. On taking it out of the water, he mixed wood-ashes sifted with the grain to make it spread regularly, and obtained a much finer crop, than from the same corn sown without prepara- tion. To this we may add, that to steep the seed in a solution of dung in water, as in the draining from a dunghill, is believed in Chi- na both to forward the growth of the plant, and to defend it from a variety of insects, according to the information given to Sir George Staunton. " There is an old proverb, ' soat dry and set wet;' but where the earth has been lately turned over by the plough or spade, there can be no bad consequence from sow- ing during rain in general; but in some clay grounds much softened by rain, if seed be put into holes, and a dry season succeeds, an im- penetrable crust may supervene by the exhalation of the water, and the setting, as it is called, of the clay: but even this could not frequently occur, when seeds are sown in the moist weather of the autumnal months; but generally in both cases, the growth of the seed would be for- warded by the moisture. " 4. Where the fruit, which sur- rounds any kinds of seeds, can be sown along with them, it may an- swer some useful purpose. Thus VEG VEG 261 the fruit of crabs, quinces, and some hard pears, Avill Re all the winter uninjured, covered only with their autumnal leaves, and will contribute much to nourish their germinating seeds in the spring... So the holly-berry and the ivy-ber- ry remain during the winter months uninjured by the rain or frosts, and undevoured by birds or insects, and contribute to nourish their germi- nating seeds, when they fall on the ground in the spring. The acrid husk of Avalnuts sown along Avith them preserves the sweet kernel from the attack of insects; the same must be the use of the acrid oil of the cashew-nut. The haw- thorn possesses both ■ a nutritive covering and a hard shell for the above purposes ; and the seeds of roses are armed with stiff pointed bristles, as well as furnished with a nutritious fruit, so long known as an agreeable conserve in the shops of medicine, conscrva cynosbati; the former constitutes a defence against insects, and the latter sup- plies a reservoir of nutriment for the germinating seeds. " 5. To this should be added, that in our short and cold summers the viviparous buds of some vege- tables are too luxuriant, and do not produce oviparous buds soon enough to ripen their seeds, as melons and cucumbers, and many other plants, in those seasons vvhich are moister than common. It is believed, that by washing the seeds of melons and cucumbers from the saccharine and mucilaginous mat- ter of their fruit, and by keeping the seed three or four years before it is used, that the viviparous buds become less vigorous, and the ovi- parous ones more numerous, and forwarder in their floAvering ; and for the production of earlier as well as of larger crops, all such luxu- riant vegetables should be sown early in the vernal season, or in the autumnal months, if they are not too tender to bear the winter frosts."] VEGETATION, is the natu- ral process by which plants receive their nourishment. Naturalists have formed various conjectures, to account for the mysterious phenomena occurring in vegetable nature ; and though unable to discover the primary source from Avhich plants are en- livened, yet it is now agreed, and proved, that all vegetables origin- ate from seeds, each of which com- prehends three parts, namely : 1. The cotyledons, or two porous late- ral bodies or lobes, that imbibe moisture : 2. The radicle, or eye, which appears between the lobes : and, 3. The plumula, a small round body attached to the radi- cle, though wholly concealed Avith- in the cotyledons. If a seed be deposited in the earth, in a favourable situation, it imbibes moisture, and evolves car- bonic acid gas ; but, if any oxygen gas be present, it is gradually ab- sorbed by the seed, and the farina- ceous matter,contained in the coty- ledons, acquires a saccharine taste. Numerous vessels then appear in the lobes which convey the nutri- ment to the radicle, that progres- sively increases in size, and at length assumes the form of a root; strikes downwards into the earth ; and thence derives the nourish- ment necessary for the support of the future plant....Now the cotyle- dons shoot above the ground, be- come leaves, and form what bota- nists have termed the seminaileaves. Thus, the plumula is gradually en- larged, and rises out of the earth, 262 VEG VEG spreading itself into branches, fccc; after which the seminal leaves wi- ther and decay, while the different processes of vegetation are carried on in the plant, without their as- sistance. [Plants, are very various, and of course, the structure of each spe- cies must have many peculiarities. Trees have principally engaged the attention of anatomists. We shall therefore take a tree as an instance of that structure of plants: and Ave shall do it the more readi- ly, as the greater number ofvege- bles are provided Avith analagous organs, dedicated to similar uses. A tree is composed of a root, a trunk, and branches Each con- sists of three parts, the bark, the wood, and the pith. The bark is the outermost part of the tree. It is usually of a green colour. If we inspect a ho- rizontal section, we shall perceive that the bark itself is composed of three distinct bodies. The outer- most of these, is called epidermis, the middlemost, is called paren- chyma, and the innermost, or that next the root, is called the cortical layers. The epidermis is a thin transpa- rent membrane, Avhich covers all the outside of the bark. It is pret- ty tough, is reproduced when rub- bed oft*. In old trees it cracks and decays, and a new epidermis is form- ed. Hence, old trees have a rough surface. T'heparenchyma lies immediate- ly below the epidermis ; it is of a deep green colour, very tender, and succulent. Both in it, and the epidermis there are number- Ess interstices which have been compared to so many small blad- ders. The cortical layers form the in- nermost part of the bark, or that next the wood. They consist of several thin membranes, lying the one above the other; and their number appears to increase with the age of the plant. The wood consists of concentric layers, the number of which in- creases Avith the age of the part. Next the bark, the wood is much softer and whiter, and more juicy than the rest, and is called albcr- num or aubier. The perfect wood is browner and harder, and the layers increase in density, the nearer they are to the centre. The pith occupies the centre of the wood. It is a spongy body, containing numerous cells. In young shoots it is very succulent, but it becomes dry, as the plant ad- vances, and finally disappears. The leaves are attached to the branches of plants by short foot- stalks. The whole leaf is covered with the epidermis of the plant; containing many glands. Plants are continually increasing in size. New matter is continual- ly making its appearance in them, and this matter they must receive by some channel or other. Plants then require food as well as ani- mals. Now, what is this food, and whence do they derive it ? These questions can only be exa- mined by an attentive survey of the substances which are contain- ed in vegetables, and an examin- ation of those substances which are necessary for their vegetation. This subject has already been treat- ed of, under articles, Food of Plants, and Manure......Some additional remarks shall now be given. The analysis of vegetables af- fords but three essential principles, namely, carbon, hydrogen, and ox- VEG VEG 263 ygen, or charcoal, inflammable air, and pure air ; and the propor- tions between these principles form all the shades, varieties, modifi- cations, which the vegetable crea- tion exhibits. Analysis further shews, that vegetable fibre, when cleared of all extraneous matter, is scarcely any thing else than a congeries of carbon. But how is carbon conveyed into the body of the plant ? It is well known, that pure carbon, such as is used for burning, mixed with pure, dry earth, affords no nourishment to vegetables ; and it is also known, that when dead plants are so far decomposed, that their texture is softened or destroyed, living vege- tables imbibe all their constituent principles. This difference ap- pears to arise from hence, that, in the last case, the carbon remaining dissolved in the oily, resinous, or alkaline principle, the water, which has the property of disjoining these natural combinations, serves as a vehicle to convey them into the vegetable system. Air, heat, acids, and even rest alone, are sufficient to precipitate the carbon ; so that, the agents proper to facilitate the concretion of the fibre, and to pro- mote nutrition, are every where to be found. The principle of life, which governs and animates every organ, suitably divides this nutri- tive matter. It modifies the ac- tion of external agents, and pre- sides over all the operations of this living laboratory. Hence it is easy to see, that hydrogen, carbon, or oxygen, predominates in the plant, according to the nature of the soil, exposure and climate, and accord- ing to the proportions in which these nutritive principles are pre- sented. Since the only part of plants vvhich is contiguous to the soil is the root, and since the plant pe- rishes when the root is pulled out of the ground, it is evident, that the food of plants must be imbib- ed by the roots. It is highly pro- bable that the great changes, at best which the food undergoes af- ter absorption, are produced, not in the roots, but in other parts of the plant. The sap, as Dr. Hales has shewn us, ascends with such impetuosity from the cut end of a vine branch, that it supported a column of mercury 32i inches high. It is certain, that the sap ascends through the wood, and not through the bark of the tree ; for a plant continues to grow, even when stripped .of a great part of its bark, which could not happen, if the sap ascended through the bark. It is impossible to account for the motion of the sap in plants by capillary attraction, or by any me- chanical or chemical principles whatever; we know indeed, that heat is an agent, but its influence cannot be owing to its dilating poAver; for unless the sap vessels of plants Avere furnished with valves, (and they have no valves) dilatation would rather retard than promote the ascent of the sap. We must, therefore, ascribe it to some other cause ; the vessels themselves must certainly act..... Many philosophers have seen the necessity of this, and have accord- ingly ascribed the ascent of the sap to irritability. Saussure sup- poses, that the sap enters the open mouths of the vessels, at the ex- tremity of the roots ; that these mouths then contract, and by that contraction propel the sap up- wards ; that this contraction gra- dually follows the sap, pushing it 264 VEG VEG up from the extremity of the root to the summit of the plant. This irritable principle is seen in many plants, particularly in the stamina of the barberries, which are thrown into motion when touched. The sap ascends to the leaves, where it undergoes certain altera- tions, and is converted into the pe- culiar juices, which like the blood in animals, are afterwards employ- ed in forming the various substan- ces found in plants. Great part of the sap when arrived at the leaves, is thrown oft" by evaporation, by means of particular organs. What remains must be very different in its proportions from the sap. It is performed chiefly by the upper surfaces of leaves. Leaves have also the property of absorbing carbonic acid gas from the atmosphere, and have been supposed to exhale much pure air. Hence they have been universally deemed highly use- ful, when planted near a house, but though useful as a source of shade, yet the following observations will shew that their benefit does not depend upon their supposed addi- tion of pure air derived from them, to the atmosphere. The air of the atmosphere, ac- cording to the most celebrated chemists, is composed of twenty- two parts of oxigenous gas or air, and seventy-eight parts of azotic gas. There is a constant con- sumption of the oxigenous portion of this air, by the burning of com- bustible bodies ; by the respiration of animals ; by the fermentation and putrefaction of vegetable and animal substances; and by the calcination of metals. The oxi- genous gas, decomposed by respi- ration and combustion only, in the city of London, is supposed to, amount to the enormous quantity, of five millions cubic feet an hour. (Nicholson's Philosophical Jour- nal.) i The atmospheric air of Great Britain, France, of parts of Africa, and of America, has been examin- ed by philosophers, and has been found to be exactly of the same de- gree of purity. The oxigenous gas contained in it, is in the same^proportion, at all times and in all places, in rainy or in dry weather, in depth of winter, and in the middle of summer, on ^ the land and on the ocean, in the * crowded city and remote village. In consequence of a most valua- ble discovery, made by the illus- trious Dr. Priestley, that grow- ing vegetables under certain cir- cumstances, exposed to the light of the sun, yield oxigenous gas; an opinion has been adopted, that they are the sources of the oxige- nous part of common air. This sentiment has been adopt- ed by the chemists of all nations, but has lately been controverted by Dr. James Woodhouse, pro- fessor of chemistry in the Univer- sity of Pennsylvania. (Nichol- son's Philosophical Journal.) The Doctor reasons in the fol- lowing manner: 1st. He says, whenever oxige- nous gas has been obtained from vegetables, carbonic acid, (or fixed air,) has been present. Upon re- viewing the experiments of Dr. Priestley, he finds that this cir- cumstance has actually taken place. The Dr. exposed plants to the in- fluence of light, in atmospheric air, in which spirit of wine, and wax, and tallow candles, had burned out; to air w hich had been vitiated by the death or putrefac- V E G VEG 265 tion of mice and fishes ; and to air which had been frequently taken into his lungs, and found that the purity of the air, vvas in every instance restored. (Priest- ley on air. vol. iii. p. 247 to 347.) In all these cases, carbonic acid, (which is composed of carbon and oxigen) vvas formed ; the vegeta- ble devoured its coal for food, by which means its oxigen escaped, in the form of pure air. 2dly. The seeds of Zea mayz (Indian corn), of apium petroseli- num or parsley, of lactuca saliva or lettuce, of cucurbita citrullus or the water melon, of phaseolus sativus or beans, and of rafihanus sativus or radishes, were planted in earth, and made to vegetate in atmosphe- ric air, confined over water in ves- sels of white glass, and exposed to the action of solar light. This air, wnen examined at various times, was found to be reduced in purity, and when its oxigenous portion Avas completely absorbed, the plants died. Its oxigen united to the coal of the cotyledons of the seeds, or to that of some ani- mal or vegetable matter contained in the earth, in which they were planted, or to that of some decayed portion of the living leaves, and formed carbonic acid, quicker than the living plant could decompose it. To these experiments, we may add, that the celebrated and accurate Scheele observed, that beans growing in atmospheric air, always rendered it impure. odly. Young plants of datura stramonium or Jameston weed, of Phytolacca decandra or the poke, of Zea mayz or Indian corn, &c. growing in earth, were exposed to solar light in from forty to eighty ounce measures of atmospheric air, vvhich vvas examined at various vol. v. times, from one hour to thirty days after the plants had been placed in it. Carbonic acid gas was gene- rally formed, and whenever this circumstance happened, the purity of the air was diminished. When a plant in perfect health, growing in a soil, which contains little vegetable or animal matter, is confined in atmospheric air, it will live a long time without pro- ducing any change in it. Many of the vegetables, which were the subjects of these experiments, did not affect the air in five days; some diminished its purity in three hours, and others altered it in a most slow and gradual manner, causing little change in it, in 20 days. 4thly. Many of the same kind of vegetables Avere also confined in foi ty ounce measures of oxige- nous gas, Avhich had been Avell washed in lime water, and the purity of this air vvas very gene- rally lessened, carbonic acid being formed. 5thly. A small handful of the healthy leaves of a variety of plants, containing no decayed parts, were exposed during four, six, and eight hours to the influence of the light of the sun, in atmos- pheric air confined by water, and its purity Avas found to be neither increased nor diminished. 6thly. The leaves of various ve- getables gathered promiscuously, exposed in the same manner, ge- nerally diminished the purity of atmospheric air, several degrees. 7thly. A handful of the leaves of several hundred different plants, among Avhich may be mentioned, those of the apple, pear, peach, poplar, fringe, and persimmon trees, were separately exposed during several hours in glass ves- M »i 266 VEG VEG sels to solar light, in forty ounce measures of pump water, and from five to nineteen dram measures of oxigen air, were produced in each vessel. Upon analysing the water, it Avas found to contain car- bonic acid, with which it had been impregnated from a necessary, which stood Avithin a yard of the pump. 8thly. The leaves of 13 dif- ferent plants, were separately ex- posed in the usual manner, in forty ounce measures of the water of the river Schuylkill, and about ten dram measures of air Avere pro- cured, the principal part of which was azotic gas, which Avas disen- gaged from the water. No car- bonic acid could be detected in the water of this river. There are three wooden bridges erected over the Schuylkill, which rest upon large wooden logs, upon vvhich great quantities of a species of conferva grow, and which is covered by the water. Upon view- ing this vegetable when the sun shone upon it, for several hours, at different times, for several years, no air could be seen to form upon it, or to rise through the water. 9thly. The leaves of the same vegetables were exposed to light, in the same manner, in the same river water, impregnated with four quarts of the water, saturated with carbonic acid, from the carbonate of lime and the sulphuric acid ; and 77 dram measures of oxi- genous air of a very high degree of purity, were obtained. lOthly. No oxigenous air could be procured by exposing vegetable leaves in boiled, distilled, rain, or lime water ; a proof that they do not decompose water. 1 Ithly. Atmospheric air was impregnated with carbonic acid gas, and an handful of the leav-es of nine different vegetables, were separately exposed in it, to light, seven hours. The fixed air disap- peared, and the atmospheric air was greatly increased in purity. 12thly. The limbs of trees co- vered with healthy leaves, and some vigorous evergreens growing in their natural soil, were confined from one day to a month, in atmos- pheric air over water, and exposed to light, and its purity was never found to be increased, but was ge- nerally considerably diminished. These experiments incontesti- bly prove, that Avhenever oxigen gas has been obtained from vege- tables, by exposing them to the influence of solar light, carbonic acid has been present, and that it is from the decomposition of this gas, that the pure air is obtained. As it is acknoAvledged, that the leaves of plants separate the oxi- gen from carbonic acid, it may be said, that the oxigenous portion of atmospheric air is supplied by the decomposition of this gas, as it is always found in the atmosphere. The quantity of carbonic acid, accidentally diffused, in atmosphe- ric air, (for it is not one of its com- ponent parts) is reckoned to be about one part in an hundred. It must however vary in different places. We would expect to find the most of it in cities, where it is formed by combustion, respira- tion, fermentation and putrefac- tion. If one measure of the air of any great city, be passed up over lime Avater, in an eudiometer, no carbonate of lime will be form- ed, so that the quantity of carbonic acid in this air, must be extreme- ly small. As this gas is also seized upon by alkalies, earths and metals, and absorbed by water, VEI VEN 267 the proportion of it in the atmos- phere may be less than one part in ten thousand. When we consider likewise, that the oxigen is never separated from the carbonic acid by leaves, but when they are exposed in con- tact w ith it to the light of the sun, and that every pefforation made in a living leaf, however minute by an insect, causes the part to decay, and absorb oxigen by day and by night; and that in the autumn, in some countries, all leaves fall on the ground, ferment and putrify, and thus diminish the purity of common air, and that the petals and fruit of vegetables, have the same effect, we must pronounce, that the oxigenous portion of at- mospheric air cannot be supplied by vegetation.] Many valuable hints respecting the phenomena of vegetation, are contained in Dr. Ingenhouse's " Experiments on Vegetables," Sec. (8vo. 6s.), and also in Mr. Gough's " Experiments and Observations on the Vegetation of Seeds," inserted in the 4th vol. of the "• Memoirs of the Literary and Philosophical Society of Manchester." VEINS, in the animal body, are membranous canals, destined for the purpose of re-conveying the blood from the arteries to the heart. They run chiefly by the sides of arteries, but more towards the sur- face ; and are, like these, composed of three membranes, namely, the interior coat, resembling the arte- rial ; the second, or cellular ; and the third, consisting of longitudinal fibres ; the whole being, however, of a more delicate texture, so that they are apt to rupture, in conse- quence of too great expansion. Farther, the veins are provided with numerous thin, semi-lunar valves, which prevent the return of the blood ; a circumstance that would otherwise frequently occur, from a want of muscular power in the venous system : hence, no pul- sation can take place in these ves- sels. The blood Avhich tlu-y re- ceive from the arteries, flows but slowly to the heart; and is con- veyed thither by the contractility of their membranes; the propul- sion of the succeeding columns of that fluid from the arteries ; the contraction of the muscles; and by the act of respiration. In cases of venesection by the lancet, the blood being generally taken from the veins, we deem it a duty, to caution our readers against resorting to unskilful hands, where such an operation becomes neces- sary ; as, from the contiguity of the arteries, as well as the nerves and tendons, serious injuries may be sustained, and which, in many cases, have proved fatal ....If, dur- ing blood-letting- the patient be- come faint, it will be advisable to admit fresh air into the room ; to give mild cordials ; and to lay the person in a horizontal posture ; by these means, the circulation will again be restored, and all farther inconvenience be obviated. For an account of the varicose aneurism, an affection of the veins, we refer the reader to the article Aneurism. Velvet-leaf. See Tree-mal- low. VENEERING, is a species of inlaying or marquetry, in which several thin leaves, or slips of fine wood, are applied to a ground- work of common wood : it is per- formed in the following manner : The wood intended for veneer- ing, is first fixed in a vice, or saw- ing-press, where it is divided into 268 V E N V EN leaves, not exceeding one line in thickness. Such leaves are then cut into small slips, of various forms, according to the design proposed ; and, when the ground- work is duly prepared, they are cemented by means of glue, and submitted to the action of a press, till the whole becomes perfectly dry ; after which the articles are scraped and polished. Ventilation. See vol. i. p. 24. also the article Granary. [The reader is referred to the above parts of this work for obser- vations on ventilation. And the following judicious remarks on this important subject, by Sir George O. Paul, deserve particular at- tention. They are extracted from the Trans, of the Society of Arts, London.~\ " Although particular conclu- sions may be controverted, I may venture to assume as the basis of all observations on this subject, " First, that a certain and fre- quently renewed supply of vital air is essential to the purposes of animal life ; and the more regular and uninterrupted that supply, the more favourable will it be to health. " Secondly, that where the quantity of atmospheric air intro- duced into an apartment is less than nature has bestowed in free circulation, her purpose is in a de- cree counteracted; and although the breathing impure air [i. e. air despoiled of its natural proportion of vital air) for a short time may not produce an immediate sensible effect, an injury may arise to the constitution, proportionate to the extent of that lime. And farther, when (as in the ordinary inter- courses of Society in London) persons are in the habit of placing themseh'es, during a considerable portion of every twenty-four hours, in-a situation to breathe in this de- fective atmosphere, the accumu- lated consequences may be serious and important. " Thirdly, that in rooms from which currents of fresh air may not be excluded, they may be so injudiciously directed as to be use- less and injurious. And, " Fourthly, that if, in addition to the consumption of vital air by the lungs, the persons of those as- sembled in any apartment should be filthy, should their clothing (particularly that made of Avoollen) have been so long Avorn as to have absorbed any considerable portion of the perspiration of the body, or should the apartment itself be damp and foul, the vital properties of the air will be contaminated; and although instant death may not ensue (which has been known to be a consequence), the fevers emphatically termed the gaol, hos- pital, or ship fever, from its usually originating in these places, will be generated with a degree of malig- nancy proportionate to its causes, and, being so generated, will be- come infectious with a like degree of malignancy. " It is about twenty years since the deleterious consequences of in- attention to ventilation were set forth by Mr. Howard. So strong and so general was the conviction of the public mind, not only as to the evil pointed out, but regarding the remedies proposed by that indefa- tigable philanthropist, that the le- gislature thought fit to adopt the whole of his principles, and to make them the basis of several positive laws, under the direction of which the greater number of prisons of the kingdom have since been reconstructed, and the VEN V E N 269 remainder (with few exceptions) altered in conformity to the prin- ciple recommended by him, name- ly, that of introducing currents of fresh air into and through every apartment. " In these prisons, where atten- tion is also paid to personal clean- liness, I venture to say, the gaol fever is unknown, unless brought into them by prisoners committed in a state of previous infection. " By equal exertion on the like principles, the healthiness of the ships of war has been so improv- ed, that they are no longer sources of this desolating pestilence. " Regarding hospitals, I fear it cannot be proved that a relief so complete has been effected. Mr. Howard was not sparing in his strictures on the management of this important branch of our public institutions ; but the improvement he suggested went no farther than simply the introduction of fresh air. The reconciling this advan- tage with that generally diffused warmth, necessary in sick rooms, seems to have escaped his con- templation. " Of the several hospitals con- structed since his observations were made public, most have been planned with a view to facilitate the passage" of outward air through the wards. The directors of old hospitals have adopted alterations more or less tending to the same purpose ; but all seem to have rested at this point: yet, consider- ing the importance of pure air to patients, during the tedious cure of compound fractures, and other accidents or diseases,together with the no less important object of se- curing them from currents of cold air, it cannot be denied that much still remains to be effected. " In the construction of the larger work-houses, termed Hun- dred-houses, similar principles of ventilation have been attended to with evident success, in preserv- ing the health of the inhabitants; but with respect to parish work- houses on the lesser scale, school rooms (both for boys and girls in every rank of life), manufactories, apartments for public lectures, and ladies assembly-rooms, these, to- gether with the circumscribed cot- tages of the poor, remain in a state most dangerous to health from imperfect ventilation. To these sources, and to no other, may be traced the few putrid and con- tagious diseases Avhich occasionally show themselves amongst us ; and which, to the credit of free venti- lation, can no longer justly be call- ed gaol or ship fever. " At a period of demonstrated success of the doctrine recom- mended by Mr. Howard, and adopted by his disciples, the valu- able essays and experiments of Count Rum ford appeared before the public. Whilst opening to the world a new and most useful sys- tem of domestic philosophy, he has advanced opinions unfavoura- ble to those means by vvhich these important effects have been pro- duced. " In theory this ingenious philo- sopher and friend of mankind has decidedly negatived the necessity, and questioned the propriety, of ventilation, by the admission of currents of air. In the construc- tion of those buildings most im- mediately under his direction he has certainly adopted a firactice of a direct opposite tendency. " Opinions of such authority could not fail to be respected ; they must at least raise a doubt in the 270 V E N mind of the most confident advo- cate of an opposite theory. " As the Count's observations and practices tend to invalidate a material part of that system, in the pursuit of which immense sums had been confidently expended in the kingdom, and respecting which I bear more than a common share of responsibility, I felt myself pe- culiarly called upon to scrutinize his objections, and to obviate such as should appear to be denied by experience ; but, at the same time, certainly to abandon whatever ground could not be fairly main- tained by a result. " As my conclusions on the point disputed are formed on cir- cumstantial observations made within a prison and hospital imme- diately under my own eye, and as these particular institutions have not unfrequently been resorted to as examples for imitation, a de- tailed reasoning regarding them may serve for general application. " The county gaol at Gloucester is constructed on the principles of admitting air to pass into and through it, in strait lines, from one extremity to the other. There is no obstruction to a freedom of cur- rent, other than as the streams of air passing through the long pas- sages, open at each end, move with the greater velocity, they of neces- sity carry with them the weaker currents, passing into and through the cells at right angles. " From the time this prison was opened in 1791, until the year 1800, about 1300 persons were committed to it; and, on the ave- rage, about 100 prisoners were constantly confined in it. In these nine years the number of deaths has been thirteen ; and of these, four sunk under the effects of VEN disease brought into prison with them. During the last year, the prison has been crowded in an un- common and very improper de- gree : two hundred and fourteen have been confined ; and the ave- rage number has been one hundred and sixty-seven. One prisoner only has died (a woman aged sixty) in the month of October last. At the opening of the spring assizes, 1801, (the time of the greatest numbers) there was not one pri- soner sick, or in the hospital ward. " By this statement it appears, that the proportion of deaths is so much below the common average, in the ordinary situations of life, that the healthiness of this abode may be said to be peculiar: and it is in proof, that however cur- rents of air may be found injurious to particular constitutions, they are not unfavourable to general health. " Every prisoner in this gaol, when not in the infirmary-ward, sleeps in a room containing from 52 to 57 feet of superficial space, built with brick, resting on an arch, and arched over ; so that no air can enter it but through the openings provided for it. As air is constantly passing immediately under it, and round it on every side, it is necessarily dry : it is ventilated by opposite openings near the crown of the arch. To that opening, which is toward the outward air, there is a shutter, which the occupant may close at will; but it is so imperfectly fitted, that, when closed, a considerable portion of air must enter by its sides. The opposite opening to the passage, the prisoner has no means of closing in any degree. " During the ten years these rooms have been inhabited, there have been three winters in which VEN V E N 271 the cold has been intense. As I had considerable apprehensions of the effects of this situation in severe weather, I directed the sur- geon of the gaol to be constant in his attention ; and particularly in the report of his observations dur- ing the inclemency of these sea- sons. I also made a point fre- quently to visit the prison, and to examine every prisoner as to the effects apprehended ; and, as much to my surprize as to my satisfac- tion, notwithstanding the querulous disposition of persons in their si- tuation, 1 never heard a complaint from old or young, from male or female, suffering by cold in the night apartments*. And farther it is the decided opinion of the two able physicians who have most li- berally undertaken to superintend the health of this prison, that no ill consequences have arisen from prisoners sleeping in the situation above described. " I must contend, therefore, it is a fact established by experience, that in a room containing not more than from 415 to 439 cubical feet of air, in which there is no fire, the body of a person sleeping under a proper allowance of wool- len bed-clothes will so far Avarm the atmosphere around him, or to speak more conformable to modern doctrine, so little of the heat ge- nerated in the body will be carried off by the surrounding air, that he will not suffer by a current f pass- • Fahrenheit's thermometer has never been observed to be below 33° in the severest nights, in the middle region of a cell in vvhich a prisoner was sleep- ing; whereas, in the ordinary apartments of a dwelling-house, water is frequently known to freeze by a bed-side. t The term " current" is not to be ing at a distance over him, provid- ed the apartment be secured from damp. On the points, therefore, of warmth and ventilation combined it must surely be allowed (regard- ing rooms so constructed) there is no farther desideratum. " Prisoners, on their rising in the morning, are removed into small working-rooms or wards si- tuated on the ground-floor. These day apartments are,in like manner, constructed with cross openings near the cieling or crown of the arch ; but there is also in each of them an open fire-place. Res- pecting these apartments, my ob- servations tend to confirm Count Rumfoed's objection to open fires, and his preference to closed stoves. Nay, farther, I am disposed to ad- mit, that openings for free ventila- tion are incompatible with strong fires in open fire-places. " It is certain that, in rooms so provided, the danger arising from impure air is completely guarded against; yet this advantage is gained at the risk of another evil, which, though not so important, should, if possible, be avoided. " The air which in the same room without an open fire-place. would pass inwards by one open- ing, and outwards by the other, being attracted by the fire to sup- ply the constant rarefaction in the chimney, passes invvards from both openings towards the fire place, and the body of a person placed near it, being in its current, is ex- posed to the danger of partial chill. To this circumstance, in these understood in a stronger sense than merely to signify that species of circulation of air, which is directed in strait lines from point to point, by the action of any effi- cient cause. 272 VEN VEN apartments, I am inclined to attri- bute the few complaints of a dy- sentery or aguish tendency, which have occasionally interrupted the general health of this prison. " In the hospital, the scene of my observations, the morbid ef- fects of foul air in the wards have, until lately, been no otherwise re- lieved than, " First.....By introducing cur- rents of fresh air by the windows, with an improved mode of hang- ing the upper sash, peculiar to this hospital, by the effect of which the current of air admitted is turned upwards to the cieling, and prevented from descending on the patients, Avhose beds are placed under the windows ; " Secondly.....By piercing holes in the cieling of the Avards, and by means of plastered channels or wood funnels, leading the foul air, rising into them, to the roof. " In wrarm weather, when the doors of the wards are open, and the fires low, these channels or funnels operate with considerable effect. Much foul air will by its relative specific lightness (not be- ing counteracted by a stronger poAver) ascend them and escape ; a farther portion will pass off by the windows opening to the lee- ward, and ventilation may be duly effected. " But, on the contrary, when the doors are shut, and strong fires are made, these will inevitably at- tract the currents of air inwards and towards them, from all the openings ; and should patients be situated in their course, the effect cannot fail to be injurious. " Besides, as the Avindows are generally closed in the night, (the most important time for ventila- tion,) no other change of air takes place, but what is effected by the open fires, which, whilst supplied immediately from the middle re- gion, are constantly consuming the best air of the room. " Hence it appears that free ventilation, or the transverse pas- sage of outward air, may be incon- sistent with the general warmth required in the apartments of the sick; and that channels for the escape of the foul air, unassisted by a power more constant and de- cisive than the relative specific lightness of that air, is a mean inefficient to preserving a health- ful respiration in the crowded wards of an hospital. " As a remedy to these apparent defects in the ordinary mode of ventilation, it has been imagined that the draft, or determination of the air, to the funnels in the ciel- ing of the rooms requiring venti- lation, is accelerated by the opera- tion of fire ; and by causing an in- creased degree of rarefaction, at the termination of the funnel, to discharge the air rising to the ciel- ing in a degree depending on die correct application of the appara- tus and quantity of fuel consumed. " In all rooms or apartments requiring ventilation, it is presum- ed that (according to the old sys- tem) channels or funnels are pro- vided for the discharge of air as- cending into them. These chan- nels or funnels, so provided, should be rendered air-tight, and brought to terminate immediately under the fire intended to work them. The ash-pit and fire-place should be so closed, by doors, as to pre- vent the fire from drawing the air from the room, surrounding it..... The whole draft or consumption VEN VEN 273 ©ccasioned by the fire will then be supplied from the further termina- tion of the channel or funnel. " This effect may be applied according to circumstances, either to the cieling of the room in which the fire is made, to the room be- low, or to that above it; and the draught thus produced may, by a proper apparatus, be increased or diminished at will. " In the hospital in which I have made the first experiment of this design, I have caused a stove to be so formed as to answer the culina- ry purposes of the ward in which it is fixed, and at the same time to ventilate the ward beneath it; and no additional expense is created in fuel by the operation. " By a fire made in one of these stoves, a ward beneath it, contain- ing about 18,000 cubical feet, filled with patients, (and Avhich, in spite of all former means, Avas ever re- markably offensive,) Avas in a few minutes so relieved of contaminat- ed air, as to be sensibly felt by all the patients in it, without their perceiving any increased current. " The principle of the means of ventilation adopted in this hospital may be applied with perfect faci- lity to ships. " By carrying the funnel from a cabin or ship stove, of any kind or dimension, (observing only to exclude the admission of surround- ing air,) to the hold or under-decks, they may be as completely venti- lated as the wards of an infirmary. In stormy Aveather, Avhen the decks of a ship must of necessity be closed, the fires would perform a service which could no otherwise he attained ; whilst, by the* nature of the apparatus, the fire itself would be secured from the effects «-f lIv* wind. vol.. V. " If the stove or grate over a lady's drawing-room were proper- ly fitted to this purpose, on the evening of her assembly, it might be set in action, and the room be- neath cleared of its impure air, without recourse being had to the opening of windows : the openings in the cieling might be rendered ornamental. " By applying the same princi- ple to German or other closed stoves, the chief objection to their use in crowded rooms would be obviated ; and I should then agree with Count Rumford, that in all rooms, where the indulgence of the habit of open fires was not in ques- tion, such stoves (if constructed of earthen materials) would afford a more ' genial warmth,' and a due circulation be at the same time effected. " So fitted and constructed, they would be incontestably better than open fires for the wards of hospi- tals, poor-houses, manufactories, theatres for lectures, school-rooms, and prisons. Respecting the last- mentioned structures, I must far- ther observe, that if a sutler were appointed in public kitchens under due regulations, the present neces- sity of open fires for prisoners to cook individually for themselves, would be superseded, much to their advantage. " On the other hand, I must also observe, that if closed stoves, acting on this principle, were adopted, Count Rumfosd's objec- tions to the introduction of fresh air would be obviated, with regard to any room in v-hichthty should be in action, provided the opening through 'which it entered was made on a level with the cteiina:. " Air entering at this level would, in the absence of open fires, be N N 274 VEN acted upon by no other draft than the mouth of the funnel in the ceil- ing, and could not descend in cur- rents to the lower region of the room. " In a room so filled Avith com- pany as to vitiate the air within it, the atmospheric air entering, be- ing specifically heavier, would in- deed descend, and be replaced by the ascending impure air ; but, as it would not descend by a stronger impulse than its difference of spe- cific weight, it must be slow in its motion, and would produce no sen- sible current." To the above observations the Author annexes a description and plate of the stove in use for culi- nary purposes, and at the same time to ventilate the ward beneath it, Avhich is highly worthy of being introduced into all houses crouded by living persons. The following plan of ventilation was adopted in the large rooms of the house of industry in Dublin, upon the recommendation of Count Rumford. There are two fire places, one in the office of the master of the work, the other in the hall of merit, with flues extending horizontally, at the height of five feet from the floor, to a chimney in the centre. These communicate a sufficient and equable degree of heat through the two great dining halls. Tavo of Count RuMFonD'sloovers carry off the vitiated air, and a fresh supply of atmospheric air is ob- tained by small apertures, which are made at the bottom of the side walls, and covered Avith perforated boxes. These loovers consist of three six-sided vertical wooden tubes, which passing through the roof of the building, project three or four feet aboVe it, and communi- VEN cate with the room below. By two of the tubes, placed at the two ends of the room, and terminating in two long wooden boxes, which are bored full of holes, and rest on the floor of the room, fresh atmosphe- ric air from without is forced into the room, while the foul air is car- ried off by means of the third tube placed over the middle of the room, with its lower opening even with the ceiling. This tube is furnish- ed Avith a register or damper. See 8 th Report of the Society for better- ing the Condition of the Poor, Lon- don 1799. Ventilation, cleanliness, and the use of soap and water and scrub- bing brush, will do every thing, (nay much more) than can be done by any substitutes for these essen- tial requisites in our preservation from infection, and will continue to be employed by mankind, when the vile suffocating acid fumes of Smith and Morveau will be for- gotten. The ventilation of ships is of great consequence to the health of those on board, to cargoes, and to the preservation of the timber of the' vessel Avhich are knoAvn to suf- fer very materially and rapidly from the action of confined air upon them. Even the durable live oak of Georgia is not proof against the corrosive effects of this agent, as the almost unexampled rapid de- cay of the United States national frigates built Avithin the last eight years fully proves. It is known that the timbers of those ships were placed so close, as to prevent the free passage of any considera- ble current of air between them. Varioo's ventilators for ships have been proposed in England. Dr. Hale's and Sutton's plans were used with success, and lately Mr. Abernethy of London, has VEN suggested some improvement on them, which are certainly Avorthy of attention by all concerned. An account of Hale's ventilators may be seen in the Philosophical Trans- actions ; and that of Abernethy, in a late volume of Philifs's Monfldy Magazine, and in Dr. Gleig's supplement to the Ency- clopedia Britannica of Edinburgh. In the Transactions of the Bath and West of England Society, Mr. South also describes a ventilator for preserving grain on ship board. The United States have not been without attempts on this important head. Mr. Benjamin Wynkoop's contrivance consists of four bellows connected in a frame, and having their nozzcls opening into one tube which descends from the deck to any distance . in the hold of the vessel; and as the frame is con- nected with the side of the vessel, the bellows are worked without manual labour. Captains Lloyd Jones, Irvine, and Moork of Philadelphia, have all borne tes- timony in favour of the utility of the machine. Mr. Richard Robotham of the city of Hudson, New-York, has also obtained a patent from the United States for an air pump ventilator. The following are the words of the patentee. Air-pump-ventilator, for the venti- lating of ships, mines, prisons, hos- pitals, isfc. invented by Richard Robotham, of the city of Hudson, (N.Y.) " It is a single bellows, fitted upon the top of a tube of wood, or a trunk made of plank, which, in a ship, stands in the lowest part of the hold, by the kelson, and runs up through the lower deck. The bellows is fixed on the top of V E R 275 this trunk, with a valve in the usual place, at the inlet. The outlet of the bellows is made of wood, with a square angle, which turns up- wards, and a valve in the upright part, that shuts down, in such manner that the bellows fills from the bottom and discharges at the top. If the bellows discharges one barrel at a time, the insides of the trunks must be six inches square ; it will be then sufficient for a vessel of three hundred tons ; but if they are four or five times this size, the machine may be worked by the labour of one man : or, about one square inch of en- largement may be made in the trunks to each gallon in the bel- lows : then it will fill and discharge about twenty times in a minute. The bellows may be made in various shapes and sizes at plea- sure. This improvement consists altogether in filling the bellows at, or from the bottom, and discharg- ing tlie contents at the top, above the upper deck, or out of a port- hole."] Venus-comb. See Needle, the Common Shepherd's. VERDIGREASE,or Acetite of Copper, is a kind of rust usu- ally prepared from that metal, by corroding it with vinegar. The best verdigrease is mostly manufactured at Mon'pelier, in France, by forming alternate strata of copper-plates, and the husks of grapes, during their vinous fer- mentation ; when they speedily become acid, and corrode the cop- per : alter the plates have stood in such si'.cation for a sufficient time, they ?re moistened with Avater, and .'.xposed to the air ; the ver- digrease being successively scrap- ed off, as it collects on the surface. in this state, the acetite is called 276 VER VER fresh or moist verdigrease, having the form of paste ; which after tri- turating it in proper troughs, is put in bags, and dried in the sun. Crystals of Verdigrease are pre- pared by saturating vinegar with the common acetite of copper, and leaving the solution to clarify; after which it is poured into a kettle, where it is evaporated till a pellicle appear on the surface : when cool, the vessel is furnished with small sticks, on which the crystals gra- dually settle. Verdigrease is chiefly consumed for striking a black colour, when combined with a decoction of log- wood ; but, as it is apt to corrode the texture of the cloth, the So- ciety for the Encouragement of Arts, he. in 1782, conferred their silver medal and ten guineas on Mr. Clegg, for his discovery of a substitute for verdigrease, in dyeing black. He directs equal parts, by weight, of vitriol of copper and of pot-ash, or other strong alkaline salt, to be separately dissolved : the solutions are then to be gradu- ally mixed ; and, if the vitriol be saturated, the water on the surface will become transparent, on adding a few drops of the alkaline solu- tion ; in the contrary case, a blue colour will be produced ; so that more ashes should be added, till a complete saturation be effected.... Mr. C. observes, that these propor- tions of vitriol and alkaline salt, will be equivalent to a similar quantity of verdigrease ; and, on being combined with decoctions of logwood, they impart a fine black dye, which is not injurious to the texture of cloth, hats, or any other article that may be tinged of such colour. Verdigrease is,in surgical cases, sometimes applied externally ; it operates as a mild detergent in cleansing foul ulcers, or other open wounds. On account of its viru- lent properties, however, it ought not to be used as a medicine, with- out professional advice ; and, in case any portion of this poisonous substance be accidentally swallow- ed, we refer to the remedies al- ready pointed out, vol. i. p. 80. VERDITER, a preparation of copper, which is occasionally used by painters as a blue, but more ge- nerally, in combination with a yel- low pigment, or a green colour. It is obtained in the following man- ner : Let pure copper be dissolved in aqua-fortis ; pulverized quick- lime be added to the solution ; and the whole be well stirred. When the precipitate has subsided,it must be repeatedly washed in pure wa- ter ; levigated while moist; and from 5 to 10 parts of quick-lime be incorporated with 100 parts of such precipitate : after vvhich it is fit for use. See also vol. ii. p. 183. VERJUICE,-an acid liquor pre- pared from grapes or apples, that are unfit to be converted into wine or cyder. It is also made from crabs ; which, after being laid in a heap tocsweat, are next stamped or ground in a mill: the pulp is put into bags, and submitted to the ac- tion of a press, in order to obtain all the juice ; which is then poured into barrels, where it undergoes a fermentation for 10 or 12 days; after which it is fit for the pur- pose. Verjuice is principally used in sauces, ragouts, 8cc. though it sometimes forms an ingredient in medicinal compositions, especially in farriery ; and is also employed by wax-chandlers, for purify ingthat substance. When intended for VE S sale, it is subject to the same du- ties as Cyder and Perky. Vermifuge. See Worms. Vermillion. See vol. i.p. 133, and vol. ii.p. 181. Vernal-grass. See Spring- grass. VERVAIN, the Common, or Simplers Joy, vervena officina- lis, L. an indigenous plant, growing in waste places, on stone Avails, and the sides of roads ; floAvering in the months of August and Sep- tember. This plant is eaten by sheep, and its flowers are visited by bees. The roots impart a very agreeable taste to pickled cucum- bers. Among the ancients, the Simplers Joy was dedicated to Isis, •the goddess of birth ; and, though at present exploded in medicine, Hoffman asserts, that the most inveterate and violent head-ach may be cured, by filling a bag with the leaves of Vervain, in a dry state, and applying it around the throat of the patient. [VESSEL, signifies, 1. Any thing in which liquids are put. 2. The containing parts of an animal body. 3. Any vehicle in which men or goods are carried on the water. 4. Any capacity. 5. Any thing containing. In this place reference is had, only to the third explanation. flow lo raise from the bottom of rivere, a vessel that has sunk : from Montucla's edition of Ozan- am's Recreations, translated by Dr. Hut ton. "Thisdifficult enterprise has been several times accomplished, by means of a very simple hydrostati- cal principle, viz : that if a boat L; loaded as much as possible and V E S 277 then unloaded, it tends to raise it- self Avith a force equal to that of a volume of Avater which it displac- ed when loaded, and hence we are furnished with the means of em- ploying very powerful forces to raise a vessel that has sunk. The number of boats employed for this purpose, must be estimated according to the size of the vessel, and by considering that the vessel weighs, in water, no more than the excess of its weight over an equal volume of that fluid ; unless the vessel is firmly bedded in the mud; for then she must be accounted of her full weight. The boats being arranged in two rows, one on each side of the sunk vessel, the ends of cables, by means of divers, must be made fast to different parts of the vessel, so that there shall be four on each side for each boat. The ends of their cables which remain above water, are to be faftened to the head and stern of the boat for vvhich they are intended. Thus, if there are four boats on each side, there must be thirty-two cables, being four'for each boat. When every thing is thus ar- ranged, the boats are to be loaded as much as they will bear, with- out sinking, and the cables must be stretched as much as possible... The boats are then to be unloaded, two and two, and if they raise the vessel, it is a sign that there is a sufficient number of them ; but in raising the vessel, the cables affixed to the boats which remain loaded will become slack, and for this reason they must be again stretched as much as possible. The rest of the boats are then to be unloaded, by shifting their lading into the former. The ves- sel will thus be raised a little more 278 V E S VES and the cables of the loaded boats will become slack ; these ca- bles being again stretched, the lading of the latter boats must be shifted back into the others, which will raise the vessel still a little higher ; and if this operation be repeated as long as necessary, she may be brought to the surface of the water, and conveyed into port or into dock. An account of the manoeuvres employed to raise, in this manner, the Tojo, a Spanish ship belong- ing to the Indian fleet, sunk in the harbour of Vigo, during the battle on the lOlh of October, 1702, may be seen in the Memoirs des Acade- miciens Estrangers, vol. 2d. But as this vessel had remained more than "6 years in that state, it Avas imbedded in a bank of tenacious clay, so that it required incredible labour to detach it; and when brought to the surface of the Ava- ter, it contained none of the valua- ble articles expected. It had been one of those unloaded by the Spa- niards themselves,beforethey were sunk, to prevent them from failing into the hands of the English. Additions by Dr. HuffON. On the same principle is con- structed the camel, a machine em- ployed by the Dutch, for carrying vessels heavily laden over the sand banks in the Zuydcr Zee. In that sea opposite to the mouth of the river Y, about 6 miles from the city of Amsterdam, there are two sand-banks, between which is a passage called the Pampus, suffi- ciently deep for small a essels, but not for those which are large and heavily laden. On this account ships which are outward bound, take in before the city, only a small part of their cargo, receiving the rest when they have got through the Pampus. And those that are homeward bound, must in a great measure unload before they enter it. For this reason the goods are put into lighters, and in these transported to the warehouse of the merchant, in the city ; and the large vessels are then made fast to boats, by means of ropes, and in .that manner towed through the passage to their stations. Though measures were adopted so early as the middle of the 16th century, by forbidding ballast to be thrown into the Pampus, to prevent the farther accumulation of sand in this passage, that incon- venience increased so much, from other causes, as to occasion still greater obstruction to trade ; and it at length became impossible for ships of war and others heavily laden to get through it. About the year 1672, no other remedy vvas known, than that of making fast to the bottoms of ships, large chests filled with water, which was afterwards pumped out, so that the ships were buoyed up, and ren- dered sufficiently light to pass the shallow. By this method vvhich vvas attended with the utmost dif- ficulty, the Dutch carried out their numerous fleet to sea in the above mentioned year. This plan how- ever, gave rise soon after to the invention of the camel by which the labour was rendered easier. The camel consists of two half ships, constructed in such manner, that they can be applied below water, on each side of a hull of a large vessel; on the deck of each part of the camel, are a great many horizontal windlasses, from which ropes proceed through aper- tures in the one half, and being carried under the keel of the ves- sel, enter similar apertures in the VES VET 279 other (half) from which they are conveyed to the windlasses on its deck. When they are to be used, as much water as may be neces- sary, is suffered to run into them : all the ropes are cast loose, the vessel is conducted between them, and large beams are placed hori- zontally through the port holes of the vessel, with their ends resting on the camel on each side. When the ropes are made fast, so that the ship is secured between the two parts of the camel, the water is pumped from them, by which means they rise, and raise the ship along with them. Each half of the camel is generally 127 feet in length : the breadth at one end is 22, and at the other 13. The hold is divided into several compart- ments, that the machine may be kept in equilibrio, while the Ava- ter is flowing into it. An East- India ship that draAvs 15 feet of water, can, by the help of the ca- mel, be made to draw only 11 ; and the heaviest ship of Avar, of 90 or IOC guns, can be so lightened as to pass without obstruction all the sand-banks of the Zuyder-Zee. Leupold, in his Theatrum Ma- chinarum, says that the camel vvas invented by Cornelius Meyer, a Dutch engineer. But the Dutch writers almost unanimously ascribe this invention to a citizen of Am- sterdam, called Mecuves Mein- dertsoon Barker. Some make the year of the invention to have been in 1688, and others 1690.... However this may be, we are as- sured on the testimony of Barker himself, written in 1692, and still preserved, that in the month of June, when the water Avas at its usual height, he conveyed in the course of 24 hours, by the help of the camel, a ship of war called the Maagdvan Enkhusen, which was 156 feet*in length from Enkhuy- sen hooft, to a place where there was sufficient depth ; and that this could have been done much sooner had not a perfect calm prevailed at the time. In the year 1693, he rais- ed a ship called the Unie, six feet, by the help of this machine, and conducted her to a place of safety. As ships built in the Newa, cannot be conveyed into harbour, on accountof the sand-banks form- ed by the current of that river, camels are employed also by the Russians, to carry ships over these shoals ; and they have them of various sizes. Bernoulli saw one, each half of which was 217 feet in length, and 36 in breadth. Camels are used likewise at Ve- nice*." The chevaux de frise, which had been sunken in the river De- laware, below the city, to oppose the passage of the English ships, durirtg the American war, were raised upcJTT the above principles, after the peace.] VETCH, or Tare, Vicia, L. « genus of plants comprehending 30 species, of which 8 or 9 are indi- genous ; and the following are the most remarkable, namely : I. The sylvaiica, or Wood Vetch, grows in woods and hed- ges, especially in mountainous si- tuations ; Avhere it flowers in July and August, attaining the height of from tAvo to four feet. II. The Cracca, or Tufted Vetch,is frequent in shady places, * An engraving of the camel may be seen in, L'Avt ite batir les Vaisseaux ; Amsterdam 1709. 4co. vol. ii. page 93.... See also the Encyclopedia, Pans edition, vol. iii- p. '7. 280 VET VET meadows, and fields ; floAvers in the months of July and August.... Both this, and the preceding spe- cies, are said to restore Aveak or starved cattle to their former strength, more speedily than any other vegetable hitherto discover- ed. III. The sepium......See Bush Vetch. IV. The sativa,Common Vetch, Fetch, or Tare, thrives in dry meadows, pastures, and corn-fields, where it flowers from April to June. This species is one of the most valuable of the Vetch kind, and is divided into three varieties, namely: 1. The Summer Vetch, is raised from seed, which is usually soAvn toward the end of March, or early in April, in the proportion of 8 or 10 pecks per acre, broad-cast; though, when drilled, half that quantity is sufficient, and the crop will be greatly superior. This va- riety is chiefly propagated and'used for weaning lambs and sheep, as well as for soiling horses and cows; its seeds afford an excellent food for pigeons.....Bees obtain a copi- ous supply of honey from the young leaves of this plant, which are marked with black, and the spots of which contain a delicious saccharine juice. 2. The Winter Vetch, is sown in the month of September, in the same proportion as the preceding sort ; a small quantity of beans, or (vvhich is preferable) of black oats, being intermixed, to support the plants; which are generally covered with long dung, to pre- serve them from the frost. This variety is subservient to the same purposes as the Summer Vetch : when ploughed into chalk-lands in the month of May, it serves as an excellent manure for wheat intend-' ed to be sown in the succeeding autumn. In the county of Glou- cester, the Winter Vetch is cul- tivated as pasturage for horses, and is eaten off so early, as to admit of turnips being raised in the same year. 3. The Pebble Vetch, is sown in the spring, but is seldom cultivat- ed ; because it is less hardy than either of the preceding varieties, and does not produce an equal quantity of fodder. [The following paper on the be- nefit arising from the cultivation of vetches as a summer fallow crop, is by Mr. R. R. Livingston.] " The introduction of a plant unknown to our soil and climate, and its relative value here, and in countries in which it has long been naturalized, is always important to agriculture, either as it presents the farmer a new object worthy his attention, or as it keeps him from entertaining false ideas of its value, and Avasting his time and money upon one that will not repay his expense. " Having observed that vetch- es, or as they are sometimes call- ed, tares, were cultivated in Bri- tain and in many other parts of Europe, either for seed or forage, I procured from England nine bushels, six of which are called spring, and three of winter vetches. » 1st Mav, 1794. Ploughed and cross-ploughed one acre of rye-stubble ; the land, a light loam, inclining to sand, upon a sandy bottom, soil much worn out; the preceding crop vvas summer rye. After harrowing fine, I sowed three bushels of spring vetches. When they were up, spread six bushels of gypsum. About one- fifth part-of the field was on a de- VET VET 281 cUvity and very poor; here the crop was thin, yet low and short, the rest of the land was finely co- vered with a thick, close crop. The vines matted in each other, insomuch that the plants moulded at the bottom. When in full blossom they were cut, about the 20th August; they yielded two large waggon-loads of hay, vvhich I compute at 25 cwt. The pro- vender appeared to me remark- ably succulent, and extremely well calculated for coavs and sheep. Mine was applied to the use of the latter, but not having been at my farm since the winter set in, I can give no account of its appli- cation. Second Experiment. " Soil, a loose, slaty gravel, mix- ed with clay, being a dry hillock, containing one acre exclusive of some part in Avood. In 1793, bore buckA\heat ; ploughed tAvice last April, and first of May sowed three bushels of vetches ; strewed over them when they made their appearance, six bushels of gyp- sum. These Avere designed for seed, but the summer proving Avet they continued growing all through the season, the seed at the bottom moulding and dropping out, while they blossomed at the top so that I could not tell Avhen to cut them. They stood till October; when stretched out the plants were four and five feet long, but generally moulded beloAv ; when threshed I only got from them three pecks of seed of a very indifferent quality. " Upon comparing these expe- riments with the usual increase in England, it appeared to me that the quantity of forage obtained was not inferior to Avhat a similar soil would have produced there, and of course that our climate is VOL. V. not unfavourable to the culture, provided we can render them more productive of seed ; which I can hardly doubt. My error was, I believe, in sowing them too thick, and manuring with gypsum, which makes every plant on which it ope- rates, run to haulm. The wetness of the season also contributed to this evil, which may, I hope, be corrected by a little more experi- ence and care. " Upon this head, however, Ave are authorised to say little, but that this experiment has failed, so far as relates to the production of seed ; but that the general health and vigour of the plant gives us reason to hope that future experiments maybe more success- ful. If this should be the case, and We can with facility raise our own seed, (its common product in Eng- land being 25 to 30 bushels to the acre) this plant will be extremely useful to those farmers who Avant a competent proportion of mea- dow, and indeed in another point of view to every farmer1. " If cut for forage it comes suf- ficiently early to plough and sow wheat, for which I should think it the best of all preparations. The ground is so well covered that eve- ry weed is stifled : the air at the roots is stagnant, and the plant be- ing of that succulent kind vvhich feeds much upon the atmosphere, I think it cannot fail to add to the fertility of the soil. Mine appear- ed so mellow and free from weeds when the vetches came off, that I was tempted to sow the piece with lucerne, which looked Aery fine and promising as hen the winter set in. " Our Indian corn comes off too late for wheat, it is therefore usual with us to fallow it with a Oo 282 VET VET summer crop of oats and a small proportion of flax ; this I believe to be bad husbandry, as the corn is an exhausting crop, so is oats, and in this way the ground is al- ways growing worse, and as it is seldom rich enough to bear wheat after oats, we generally summer fallow for wheat, which is render- ed by that means a very expen- sive crop. On the contrary, if we followed our corn with vetches, we should be able to put wheat in the same ground ; and if clover is sown over the wheat in the spring, and permitted to continue only two years, and then followed by com, the labour of farming will be di- minished, and the fertility of the land increased by the double ope- ration of these leguminous crops on tile air, and in the quantity of manure that will be furnished by the additional stock they enable the farmer to keep. As this subject, so v ;i understood in Europe, has hard!- been attended to here, I will endeavour to state the profit and loss of two farmers, each cultivat- ing (besides their meadows) one hundred acres of. arable land, one in the usual mode of this country, and the other by the intervention of vetches and clover. Common agriculture 100 acres. Profit per acre. 20 acres of Indian corn, 35 bushels at 4.v. 7 0 0 20 — Oats on corn ground of the preceding year, 20 bushels at 2s. 2 0 0 20 — Summer fallow, 0 0 0 20 — Wheat 10bush.at8s.4 0 0 20 — Wheat stubble in pas- ture, 0 2 0 100 —Five years, yield per acre, L. 13 2 0 Expenses per acre for five years. Indiancorn,ploughing,8cc. 2 0 0 Oats, twice ploughed, 1 0 0 Harrowing, and seed, and sowing, and harvesting, 0 14 0 Summer fallow, 1 10 0 Wheat-seed and harvest- ing, I 0 0 Rent on five acres at 4s. a year, 1 0 0 L.7 4 0 Balance of profit on one acre in five years, or on five acres in one year, 5 18 0 L. 13 2 0 Profit on farming by intervention of Fallow Crops instead of Fallow. 20 acres Indian corn, 7 0 0 do. Vetches 25 cwt. at 2s. 6rf. 3 2 6 do. Wheat 12 bushels, 4 16 0 do. Clover 25 cwt. at 2s. 6d. 3 2 6 do. Clover the same, 3 2 6 Five year's produce of one acre or one year's of five, ------- L.21 3 6 Expenses. Indian corn, 2 0 0 Ploughing corn-ground for vetches, 0 10 0 Seed three bushels, and sowing, &c. 0 12 0 Cutting and making hay, 0 8 0 Vetch stubble ploughed once for wheat, seed, and harvesting, 1 10 0 12 lb. clover-seed and sow- ing, 0 15 0 Mowing clover paid by the second crop, 0 0 0 Rent 20s. or 4s. a year, 1 0 0 L.6 15 0 VET VET 283 Brought forward, L. 6 15 0 To balance of profit per acre in five years or on five acres in one, 14 8 6 L. 21 3 6 " Thus while one farmer makes I/. 3s. 5d. a year per acre, upon his hundred acres, clear of expense, the other makes '21. \7s. 5d.; the one gets little better than one hun- dred, while the other gets nearly 300 a year. In the above state- ment I have given one farmer cre- dit for two bushels of wheat more than the other, since I am per- suaded that the vetch crop will improve the ground more than the difference; as the dung given to the corn will not be exhausted by the intervention of an oat crop be- fore the wheat is sown. To this profit should also be added the continued advance in the improve- ment of the crop by the one mode of husbandry, and the continued decrease by the exhausting the land in the other. " The fallow farmer has no fod- der which the rotation crop firm- er does not possess, except the straw of his oats, which we will value at half a ton of hay per acre ; he then has from his oats on 20 acres, Tons 10 0 0 The fallow crop farmer from 20 acres vetches, 25 0 0 From 40 acres clover, 50 0 0 Deduct oat straw, 75 0 0 10 0 0 Superiority to fallow crop farmer, Tons 65 0 0 " He can thus vv inter at one ton a head, 65 head of cattle more than the fallowing farmer, and as each of these will afford at least six loads of dung, he will be able to carry out yearly 390 loads of dung more than the fallowing fanner ; besides that he has one exhausting crop less. It will be. easy to see what difference this must make in a few years in the produce of a farm, and how much more it would be than I have rated it at. We often ask with astonishment, how the British fanner can afford to pay a guinea an acre rent ? The difficulty is solved if we examine the above statement; since the difference between fallowing and establishing a rotation of crops amounts to more than the differ- ence of our rents and theirs ; be- sides that, their produce must be reckoned at a higher price. I know there are some stiif soils on which it would be difficult to es- tablish the rotation I mention; but this should be no argument against it where the soil will admit of it, particularly as clover and vetches may be introduced with a certain- ty of success, even if the ground should be naturally poor, by the addition of only four bushels of gypsum to the acre, vvhich will in- deed add 161. a year to the accrue- able expense ; but it will at tb.e same time, in all probability, add near a ton to the produce. I have gone into this digression for the benefit of farmers into whose hands our publications may fall, and who have not had an oppor- tunity of examining the great im- provements that have of late years been made in Britain, by the in- troduction of ciover and fallow crops instead of fallow. I would not be understood to confine my observations to vetches, which have not yet been sufiiriently tried in this country ; potatoes, carrots, 284 V E T or peas, sown thin, and cut green for provender, may all answer the purpose, but above all, clover. If this last is the only crop to be brought into the rotation, the sys- tem must be changed to the fol- lowing course: 1st, Corn; 2d, Barley and Clover ; 3d, Clover ; 4th, Clover ; 5th, Wheat on one ploughing ; by this means a crop of clover will be substituted to a fallow. The wheat on a clover lay will require but one ploughing, and Avill follow two improving crops. The dung which will be applied to the corn, will serve to bring forward the crop of barley, or oats, if that should be preferred to bar- ley ; clover will do well with either. " I have now.in the ground one acre of winter vetches ; this look- ed extremely well last December, but as I have not seen them since, I know not Avhether they will stand our Avinters; the result there- fore of this experiment must make the subject of a future communi- cation.".... Trans. New York Agri- cultural Society.'] V. The lathyroides: Strangle Vetch, or Tare, abounds in dry pastn res,gravel-pits and corn-fields, in chalky and sandy soils; Avhere its small blueish-purple flowers ap- pear in the month of May. Its culture should be encouraged in sloping grounds, and sandy hills exposed to the sun ; as it affords the most tender and agreeable food to sheep. Beside the different kinds above enumerated, there is another, call- ed the Chinese Vetch, which was a few years since introduced into England : its culture is at present confined chiefly to the county of Glamorgan, where it grows in tufts, from 18 to 24 inches in height. This species promises to VET • be very profitable to agriculturists; as it is said to yield four crops in the year, and to afford food excel- lent for cattle, both in a fresh state, and when made into hay. VETCH, the Bitter, or Wood Peasling, Orobus sylvaticus, L. an indigenous perennial, growing in woods, hedges, and pastures, especially in mountainous situa- tions ; where it flowers from May to July. This hardy plant is chief- ly cultivated in gardens, for the beauty of its numerous blossoms ; either by sowing it in autumn, or by dividing the roots: the latter being very nutritious, are in Scot- land applied to the same uses as those of the Heath Pea.....The leaves of the Bitter Vetch are much more relished by cattle, and especially by game. VETCH, the Chickling, or Vetch ling, Lathyrus, L. a genus of plants consisting of 13 species, 7 being indigenous ; and the prin- cipal of these are : 1. The ApJiaca, or Yellow Vetchling, grows in sandy corn- fields, and meadows, where its greenish-yellow -flowers appear from June to August. Dr. Wi- thering remarks, that the legu- minous fruit of this, as well as the other species of Vetchling,are very nutritious, and may be eaten either in broth, or be converted into bread ; though a larger proportion of wheaten or rye-flower be re- quired for such purpose. 2. The sylvestri-. See Pea, the Narrow-leaved Everlasting. 3. The pratensis, Everlast- ing Tare, Common Yellow, or Meadoav Vetchling, which abounds in pasture-lands, in woods, thickets, and hedges : it grows to the height of six feet; flowers in July and August. This species VET V I N 285 is reputed to be an useful vegeta- ble in the feeding of cattle ; though Mr. Swayne remarks, that they seldom eat it, if there be a varie- ty of other grasses in the same field; and, as it produces few seeds, which are mostly devoured by in- sects, it does not appear to merit attention. Nevertheless, Bech- stein observes, that the Yellow Vetchling, both in afresh and dry state, affords excellent food for cattle in general, and therefore deserves to be cultivated in mea- dows. 4. The latifolius, Broad-leaved Vetchling, or Everlasting Pea, is frequent in woods and hedges; flowering in the months of July and August. It is often raised in gardens chiefly for the beauty of its variegated flowers ; but Dr. Anderson believes it may be use- ful to the farmer ; and, as it at- tains the height of 10 or 12 feet, having very strong stalks, he sup- poses that it would afford a large crop of hay. There is an exotic species of the Chickling, namely, the tubcrosus, which the Germans term Earth- nut, or Sow-bread; growing in stony and mountainous fields :.... this plant is a valuable addition to meadows ; not only on account of its odoriferous flowers, which blow from May to July, and arc eagerly frequented by bees ; but also for its black tuberous roots, vvhich are in Holland eaten as fruit, and boiled for culinary use ; hav- ing the sweet and agreeable taste of nuts. These roots contain a larger proportion of mealy parti- cles than potatoes : and Bergius extracted from one pound of Earth- nuts, three ounces of a beautiful starch : whereas the same quanti- ty of Ihe foi mcr yielded only one ounce. Why, therefore, should it not be used for bread ? VETCH, the Corn, Wild, or Hairy Tare, Tine-tare, or Rough-podded Tare, Ervumhir- sulum, L. an indigenous plant, growing in sandy corn-fields, hed- ges, and meadows, where it flow- ers in the month of June. This vegetable is eaten by horses, cows, goats, and sheep ; but it ought to be carefully eradicated ; as, during wet seasons, whole crops of corn have been overpowered, and their growth completely stiffed by this pernicious weed. VINE, the Common, or Vitis vinifera, L. a native of Japan, and the warmer regions of Asia: it has forceuturies been raised inRri- tain ; though its culture is most successful in the temperate cli- mates, or between the 30th and 50th degree of northern lati- tude. There are numerous varieties of this valuable shrub, which are cultivated for the delicious grapes they afford. Without entering in- to an account of their respective periods of maturation, Ave shall simply state the names of the most remarkable sorts : point out such as are peculiarly serviceable; and conclude with an account of their culture. 1. The July grape, or Morillon Noir Hatif....2. The Royal Musca- dine....3. The Malmsey Musca- dine....!. The Black Muscadine.... 5. The While Muscat of Alexan- dria....6. The Red Muscat of Alex- andria...^. The White Muscat of Lunel....8.The Black Muscadel.... 9. The Red Muscadel.....10. The Black Damascus....11. The Black Tripoli... 12. The BlackSpanish,or Alicant.... 1 3. The Black Lisbon.... 14. The Black Frontiniac, or Mus- • 286 V I N VIN cat Nuir...\5. The Red Frontiniac, or Muscat Rcuge....\6. The White Frontiniac, or Muscat Blanc... 17. The Grizzly Frontiniac.... 18. The Red Hamburgh.....19. The White Hamburgh...20. The White Morillon....2i.*The Early White Grape or Teneriffe....22. The Cio- tat, or White Parsley-leaved Grape .....23. The White Corinth.....24. The Aleppo Grape....25. TheRed Grape of Syracuse...26. The Caur, or MoroccoGrape...27. The Black Raisin....28. The White Raisin.... 29. The Malvoise, or Blue To- kay....30. The Genuine, or White Tokay.....31. The Lombardy..... 32. The Smyrna...33. The Brick... 34. The Claret....35. The Syrian Grape....36. The Auverna, or Ge- nuine Burgundy....37. The Cat's Grape....38. The Greek Grape.... 39. The Black Corinth....40. The Cornichon...4\. TheRed Chaselas. ...42. The Black Prince...43. The Black Burgundy....And, 44. The Wrhite Early Leipzig.....See also vol. iv. p. 194. To these may be added, the White, or Common Muscadine, having fine, round amber-coloured berries, and a rich vinous flavour. The White Sweet-water, vvhich bearslarge white fruit, and abounds with an agreeable juice......The Small Black Cluster,produccs ova! berries, which have a pleasant sac- charine taste.....The Large Black Clusterpresents more bulky grapes than the preceding variety ; but vvhich, on account of their rough, harsh taste, are not edible in afresh state, and therefore chiefly con- verted into Port-wine...The Miller Grape, or New Muscat of Jerusa- lem, yields large round, red fruit; which, in prosperous seasons, at- tains nearly the size of goose-ber- ries....The Black Hamburgh pro- duces fine clusters of oval, black berries, that possess a sweet, vi- nous flavour....All these varieties are recommended by horticultu- rists, as being eminently adapted to small gardens....It is a remark- able historical fact, that, a few cen- turies since, the extensive Vale of Gloucester vvas industriously plant- ed with this delightful shrub; from the grapes of which, England was then chiefly supplied with excel- lent native wines. The vine is generally propagat- ed from seed, cuttings, or layers; though it is sometimes raised by engrafting, or inoculation..,, In the first case, the seed should be set toward the end of Februa- ry, or early in March, in pots con- taining light rich mould ; and be plunged in hot-beds of a moderate beat. During warm Aveather, they ought to be gently watered in the afternoon, Avhen the frames should be carefully closed. About the end of August, the young plants are to be gradually exposed to the air, so that they may become hard- ened before the approach of win- ter ; but in the latter season, they must be sheltered by frames, co- vered with mats. After having attained the height of about six inches, it will be proper to remove them into larger pots, filled with similar soil; to immerse them a- gain in the hot-bed ; and to tie them to slender sticks, or rods, in order to prevent them from trail- ing. Towards the end of the suc- ceeding March, or in the begin- ning of April, they may be plant- ed against the wall, at vvhich they are intended to remain. In this si- tuation, Mr.Forsyth directs them to be cut at the third eye, if they be vigorous ; but, in the contrary case, at the second: the lower bud, • VIN VIN 287 however, must be rubbed off, as soon as it appears. If vines are designed to be rais- ed from cuttings, these ought to be selected from strong and full grown shoots, which should be cut perfectly smooth, immediately be- neath the part where they were produced, and have one or two joints of the last year's wood. The cuttings must be planted against walls, at the distance of one foot from each other, and at such depth, that the second eye may be level with the ground; but the knver eye ought to be rubbed off, on its first appearance ; because, if that operation be delayed, the upper eye will be injured in removing the former. Runners and lateral shoots should likewise be cut off, excepting two which are to be trained against the wall. Vines may also be propagated by layers. For this purpose, let the most vigorous shoots be laid in pots filled with fresh mould, and placed about tAvo inches beneath the surface of the ground ; the in- cision being made in the old wood beloAv a joint, so as to leave one or two eyes on each. When the shoots or layers have taken root, they must be separated from the parent stock; manured with rot- ten dung or leaves ; and watered twice a week during dry summers: all lateral excrescences should also be picked off, and the layers treat- ed in the same manner as the cut- tings. During the first year, vines will not advance rapidly ; but, in the second, the strongest may be easily distinguished, and these may be suffered to stand, while the weaker ones must be transplanted to other situations. The quality and size of grapes depend greatly on the strength of the plant on which they grow..... Mr. Forsyth, therefore, recom- mends the vines to be cut down to two or three eyes, in the first year, if there be a superfiuity of naked wood. In the following year, a considerable increase of fine wood will be obtained, when all runners, &c. must be picked off; and the main shoots be nailed to the wall, progressively as they in- crease in length. During fine weather, it will be advisable to ex- amine them every second or third week, and speedily to remove eve- ry lateral shoot. No farther at- tention will be required, excepting that all weeds must be careful- ly eradicated ; for otherwise the growth of the vines would be im- peded. In the month of Februa- ry, in the second year, the prun- ing should be repeated ; and three buds be left to each of the strong- est main shoots ; but in those of a weaker growth, two eyes only must be permitted to remain. Mr. F. observes, that his composition ought to be applied as early as possible, after each pruning; for the -vine, being very porous, spee- dily imbibes moisture, and thus quickly decays : should it acciden- tally have been cut at a late sea- son; it will be necessary to sprinkle the powder of the preparation be- fore quoted over the Avound, till the bleeding or flow of the sap be completely checked. Numerous insects prey upon the vine; vvhich, unless timely de- stroyed, will totally kill the plant: as we have already stated the best methods of exterminating them, in the articles Hot-house, In- sects, Red Spider, Pine Ap- ple, he. we shall here only re- mark, th?t their depredations may, in a great measure, be prevented 288 VIN VIN by watering the vines, three times in the w eek ; a simple expedient by which the luxuriance of this shrub, as well as tb.e swelling of its fruit, Avill be greatly promoted. When the clusters are very large, and the grapes begin to ripen, it will be useful to cover them with nets ; or Avith buntine, a stuff that serves for the flags of ships ; and vvhich will not exclude the sun and air from the fruit, while the lat- ter is protected from the ravages of birds. The leaves, however,should only be plucked off in small por- tions, as often as the grapes are ga- thered ; by which method these will continue in succession for a much longer period than could be effected, by hastily removing all the foliage from their branches. Those readers, who are desirous to obtain farther information, relative to the raising of grapes, will consult Mr. Speechley's " Treatise on the Cul- ture of the Vine," 4to.; and Mr. Forsyth's Treatise on the Culture and Management of Fruit-trees," he. in which the subject is amply discbssed. Vines are chiefly valued on ac- count of their delicious Grapes ; but they may be made subservient to many other useful purposes: thus, the young twigs, Avhen dried. cut into small pieces, and moisten- ed Avith Avater, aiford a wholesome food for cattle, and particularly for horses. Dr. Darwin conjectures, that the leaves of thevariety, which produces purple grapes, would im- part a colour, and astringency of taste, to British wines, similar to those derived from the skin of the same grape, in foreign vinous li- quors...The wood of vines reduced to charcoal, affords (according to Jacobi, a reputable German wri- ter) an excellent blue colour for painting and drawing. He em* ployed equal quantities of fixed vegetable alkali, and vine-coal: af- ter melting the former in a cruci- ble, he gradually introduced the latter; both were allowed to act on each other, till the ebulition ceased; when the compound' was poured out, dissolved in rain-water, and precipitated Avith spirit of vitriol: in consequence of vvhich the ley, and especially the sediment assum- ed a deep blue cast. After edulco- rating this powder, by repeated washings in fresh water, and then calcining it, he obtained a very bright and pleasing blue pigment, which acquired a dark blackish hue, on dissolving it in oil of vi- triol ; though its lustre and shade, were instantly re-produced, on di- luting the solution with pure wa- ter....Lastly, we learn from Bin- der, another German author, that the purified stones or seeds of grapes, when moderately roasted, andgroundinacoffee-mill,serveasa good substitute for chocolate; which, on the proper addition of sugar, cinnamon, and a little Vanilla, is very grateful to the palate, and cannot be readily distinguished from the genuine sort prepared of cacao. [The article Vine is preserved entire; as some useful hints may be derived from it, though the directions refer chiefly to the cul- tivation of the vines in a hot- house.....We shall now describe, 1. The species and varieties of North America. 2. The most approved culture of vines in the United States. 3. The art of making Avine. Description of the species and varie- ties of Vines in North America. The following very interesting VIN VIN 289 paper on the vines of the United States, Avas drawn up last spring, by Mr. Wm. Bar tram, at the re- quest of the Editor. The inser- tion of it in the present Avork, is ne- cessary to enable the reader to speak with certainty as to the spe- cies which may be cultivated, or met with, and thus prevent that confusion which the want of a true classification of our vines has hi- therto produced. " The most obvious characters which distinguish the grape-vines of America from those of the old continent, are, 1. The berries of all the American species and vari- eties that I have seen, approach the figure of an oblate spheroid ; that is, the poles are flattened, and the transverse diameter is longer than the polar: however, I have observed that Alexander's grape* and some of the bul or bul- let grapes, approach nearer to an oval or elipsis, Avhich is the figure of all foreign or European grapes that I haA'e seen; viz. a prolate spheroid....2. Most of the Ameri- can species and varieties have a glaucousand yellowish pubescence on the under surface of their leaves ....3. All that I have observed in the northern and eastern districts of the United States are polyga- mous ; i. e. those vines which bear fruit (female) have hermaphrodite flowers (pentandria monogynia); but the males have only five sta- mina, without any female organ, and are always barren. One should suppose, from Walter so strong- ly marking this character as to in- duce him to place Vitis in the class Dioecia, when Linnjbus and the other European botanists had placed it in Pentandria (he him- self being an European), that all the grape-vines of the old conti- vot.. v. nent are hermaphroditousandPen- tandrian. I know not, from my own observation, whether the bull- grape of Carolina is hermaphrodi- tous or dioecious, and therefore rest satisfied with Walter's as- sertion. " With regard to the vine of A- merica, I find a great difficulty in discriminating the species from va- rieties or hybrids, vvhich, per- haps, may be partly accounted for from some of our vines being dioe- cious, and there being a much greater number of male vines than of fruit-bearing ones, whose farina fecundans, mixing with the air. and winds, is carried to a great dis- tance to the female organs of her- maphrodite flowers. I shall now give my opinion of the distinct species or established races from which all the varieties or mules have originated. " 1st. The Common BliJe Grape, or Bunch Grape, Vitis sylvestris, or V. occidentals. This is the most common grape. The acini or berries are of the oblate figure, of various sizes on differ- ent plants, and of as various tastes. ....Some are sweet and pleasant enough, having a musky flavour. They are nearly as large as the Burgundy grape ; are black Avhen ripe, having a glaucous bloom, like the damascene plum. The leaves of this species are large; their under surfaces covered with a clay-coloured down or pubescence. They are tri-lobed, each lobe sub- divided ordentated. Some varie- ties have very deep sinuosities, al- most touching the mid-rib. " 2d. Fox-grape, Vitis vulpina of Bartram, V.foliis eordatis sub- trilobis, dentatis ; subtus tomenlosis, Linn.. Spec, plait. V. vulpina dicta Virginiana alba ; Pluckn. aim. 3?'i.. P p 290 VIN VIN Vitis vulpina dicta acinis peramplis fiur/iureis in racemo fiaucis, sapore ftctido et ingrato fir&ditis, cute eras- sa curnosa Clayt. n. 696. The last part of the description is decisive; every word true when applied to our fox-grape of Pennsvlvania; andDr.CLAYTON'sauthority should be relied on, as he was a native of Virginia, spent his life there, and was an excellent botanist. The leaves of the fox-grape are large and lobated, not much dnlike those of the common bunch grape, but not so deeply sinuated and tooth- ed ; their under surface thickly co- vered with a yellow pubescence or down ; the fruit bunches short, having few acini or berries on them, but these few are large, and of an oblate figure. Some are as large as a musket-ball, and are of different sizes and colours ; black, red, purple, green and white, when ripe. All possess a strong rancid smell and taste, have a thick coriacious skin, and a tough jelly- like pulp or tegument which en- closes the seeds. Between this nucleus and the skin is a svvret lively juice, but a little acerb or stinging to the mouth if pressed hard in eating them. There is another property of this ' grape which alone is sufficient to prove it to be the Vit. vulpina, that is, the strong rancid smell of its ripe fruit, very like the effluvia arising from the body of the fox, which gave rise to the specific name of this vine, and not, as many have imagined, from its being the fa- vourite food of the animal; for the fox (at least the American species) seldom eats grapes or other fruit if he can get animal food. " The vines, though they make vigorous and extensive shoots, never mount high, but ramble over shrubs and low trees to a great distance from the original root. This appears to be the V. tauri. na of Walter, and the labrusca of LlNNJEUS. " 3d. Bull-grape, Vitis tauri- na of Bartram, Vit. vulpina of Linnjeus and Walter. This excellent grape is called by the inhabitants of Georgia, Carolina and Florida, Bull-grape.* The preceding species is called fox- grape from Pennsylvania to Flori- da. The bull-grape has a stiff, lig- neous, smooth stem, of pale ash- colour, and mounts to a great height by climbing up trees. The leaves are cordated and serrated, thin, and both surfaces naked or smooth. The racimes or fmit bunches short, containing 15 or 20 grapes at a medium. The berries or acini are large, near the size of a rifle-ball; of a black co- lour when ripe ; having a blueish nebule over them, which being rubbed off, they appear of a deep blood-colour. In figure they ap- proach to an ellipsis or prolate spheroid : however, at a little dis- tance they appear black and round. This species is deservedly esteem- ed the best native grape in Ame- rica, and would make a rich and delicious wine. The juice is sweet, rich, and lively, and there is but little of the tough jelly-like sub- stance enclosing the seed. The skin of the grape is rather thick, yet there is a- sweet melting pulp within, which mixes with the saccharine juice when eaten. * Mr. Bartram lately informed me, that the word bull is an abbreviation of bullet; tbe grapes being so called from their approaching the size of a bullet. The name " taurina" is, therefore, not the most proper. VIN This undoubtedly is the first Ame- rican grape which merits attention and cultivation for wine. Itthrives in every soil and situation from the sea-coast to the mountains; it even thrives and is fruitful when grow- ing in the barren sandhills of Ca- rolina and Florida. " 4th. Winter-grape, Vitis se- rotina. Cotyledon palmated. This is a vine remarkable for its sweet flowers. It mounts to the top of high trees; the stems and twigs more hard and ligneous than the bunch grape, to which I think it approaches the nearest. The leaves are small, cordated, smooth, thin and serrated. The fruit bunches branched, but the berries small and black, not so large as currents: the fruit not ripe till late in the autumn, and the juice extremely sour and ill-tasted, so that even birds will not eat them till winter frosts have meliorated them. " I shall now mention the varie- ties that appear to me to have arisen from a commixture of the several species or races. " Alexander's or Tasker's grape is a large grape, black or blue, the size of the fruit of the Vit. vinifera of the old continent. The grapes approach to the elliptical figure. They are, when fully ripe, perfectly black, and as sweet as any grape. Many persons think them too luscious. Before they are quite ripe, some think they possess a little of the stingy taste of the fox-grape, but my taste never could discover it. It has been supposed to be a hybrid between Vit. sylvestris (common bunch grape) and Vit. vinifera, because it was found on the rocky hills near the river Schuylkill, above the upper ferry, in the neighbour- V I N 294 hood of an old vineyard of Euro- pean grapes ; but I believe it to be an American. " Bland's grape. This is an ex- cellent grape. The bunches large, branched, and well shaped, six or eight inches in length. The ber- ries large, about the size of the common white grape of Europe, and round or oblate ; when per- fectly ripe, of a dark purple or red wine colour; the juice sweet and lively, having a little musky flavour, with a small portion of an agreeable astringency, somewhat like our best bunch or wild grapes, though much sweeter than any of 'them. If this grape is what I ti>ke it to be, a genuine American, it is a hybrid or variety. It was found in Virginia, where it is called the Virginia muskadell, and sent to me by the late Col. Bland. This excellent grape bids fairest, next to the bull-grape, to afford a good wine. " There seems to be no end to the varieties of Vit. sylvistris, or bunch grape, in size and taste of the fruit, as also in the leaves. There is a middle-sized round grape, called Raccoon-grape, which appears to be much of the nature of the fox- grape : they are black when ripe ; have much of the sting} taste and rancid smell of the fox-grape, and the tough jelly pulp that envelopes the seed ; the skin thick ; but they are not more than half the size of the fox-grape, " Thus it appears to me that we have in the United States, four species of Vitis or grape vines, viz. 1. Vitis sylvestris, or Vit. Ame- ricana, or occidentalis, common bunch grape. 2. V. vulpina, fox-grape. :,. V. taurina, bullet-grape. 4. V. serotina, winter-grape, by 292 VIN VIN some called Bermudian grape, and innumerable varieties and hy- brids. By varieties I mean different sorts of an individual species, and by hybrids, spurious offspring by intermixture of species. Of the latter sort arc, I. Alexander's, or Tasker's grape. 2. Bland's grape. 3. Raccoon-grape." The variety of vines which cover every part of the American continent, and the success which has attended the attempts to cul- tivate foreign and native grapes upon the large scale, by Colonel TASKERin Maryland ; by the Hon. Mr. An til in Monmouth county, New Jersey; by Dr. Howard, near New Brunswick; and by Mr. Alexander on the Schuyl- kill, long before the American revolution, is sufficient to prove that our climate is perfectly con- genial to the cultivation of the vine. But the recent experiments of Mr. Legaux at Springmill, though made, according to his own i ccount, in a situation, and under circumstances not the most favourable for success, leave no room to doubt, that there is as much chance of good crops of grapes, as of any other fruit culti- vated among us, and that even the number of bad years in the United States, are fewc* than in those parts of the continent of Europe, where the vine is accounted a staple ; that violent rains, exces- sively high winds, and hail storms, which so often blast the grapes of the European vigneron, rarely oc- curs here, and finally that those still more destructive insects, (riibouri and F'eche, are unknown in the United States. With a knowledge of these advantages why should we any longer import grapes from Portugal or Spai^, or wine from any country ? The luxurious inhabitants of our sea- ports, will probably long be averse from encouraging the cultivation of vines; but the inhabitants beyond our mountains, are guilty of un- pardonable extravagance, in pay- ing 15*. for a quart of wretched Sherry, Lisbon, or Teneriffe wine, Avhen they might drink their own wine at one-fourth the expence, and this too, Avithout the loss of a moment's attention to their/?roz«/ articles, wheat and mayz. For their benefit principally, the Edi- tor has taken much pains to con- dense the most valuable informa- tion within his power, on the sub- ject of cultivating the vine, and the making of wine ; and will be happy in hearing the result of any experiments which his rea- ders may make, tending to ren- der the processes more easy or certain. 1. On the vine considered in re- gard to climate, soil, exposure, sea- sons, culture, he. Cours D'Agric. torn. x. " Soil, climate, exposure, culti- vation, ought to be appropriated to the inflexible nature of vines; and the least violation of this natural character, essentially alters the product. The plants of Burgundy transported to the south, no longer produce Avines so agreeable and delicate. 2. Soil.....If avc could judge of the quality of the vine by the vi- gour of its vegetation, it is in fat, moist soil, well duhged, that it ought to be cultivated. But wc are taught by experience that the goodness of wine is never propor- tioned to the force of the vine..... VIN VIN 293 Clayey (or argillaceous) soils are improper for vines ; but a calca- reous soil (chalky, limestone) is in general proper, being dry and light, affords a proper support to the plant; the water with which it becomes impregnated, circulates and freely penetrates through the whole stratum; the numerous ramifications of the roots imbibe it at every pore, and the wines produced are spirituous. Soils light and pebbly are also favour- able. Volcanic earth, also produces delicious wines. The best wines are produced among the remains of volcanoes. The wines of Tokay and the best wines of Italy are the productions of volcanic soil." An anonymous writer in the 33d vol. of Young's Annals of Agriculture, who appears to be well instructed on the subject, says, " The lands best suited to the cultivation of vines in America, are situated in a latitude somewhat lower than in Europe. There is strong reason to believe that wines similar to those made in the neighbourhood of Bourdeaux, call- ed Vin de Medoe, Vinde, Grave, red and white, might be produced in Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Vir- ginia. Some parts of Pennsylva- nia, some lands three or four miles from the banks of the Susque- hanah, and of the Potowmack ; those which lie between the Sus- quehanah and Baltimore; those vvhich lie on the road from Balti- more to Alexandria, appear in their nature, in their declivity, in their aspect, in their degree of elevation, and in the sorts of oaks and plants they produce, to resem- ble the environs of Bourdeaux..... Those lands consist of a mixture of sand, gravel, quartz, * in pebbles generally white, sometimes of various colours, about the size of an egg, more or less, mixed with some flinty, and some calcareous ones, and also of a small quantity of black vegetable earth, which is found on the surface, and appears formed by the dead leaves of vege- tables. Those lands, though not much elevated, are free from all sediment of water, and their de- clivity is gentle. " The land should be at the dis- tance of about a mile from any woods; the greater distance, the better the vine will succeed. In the forests of Virginia, the author of this treatise has eaten, in the middle of September, between Baltimore and Alexandria, black grapes of small size, very sweet and ripe, similar to those from which the Vin de Medoc or claret is made t« They had been ga- thered in the middle of the woods, and there is reason to believe, that with proper cultivation, this species of wild grapes might be improved so as to make excellent wine.".... " Stiff ground, says Mr. Antii ., j may be mended by sand, ashes, soot, the rubbish and mortar of old buildings, dust of coal kilns, gra- vel, fowls' and sheep's dung, or the old dung of neat cattle. Worn out ground may be renewed by fresh mould, creek mud, and deep ploughing." * Quartz consists of flint and clay, and a little lime.....Edit. f Will any of the readers of this work, in the vicinity of the above mentioned grapes, ascertain by means of Mr. Bar- tram's description, the kind of grapes alluded to, and communicate with the Editor ? | Trans. Amer, Phil. Soc. vol. i. 294 VIN VIN " 3. Exposure.....The same cli- mate, the same cultivation, and the same soil, often furnish wines of very different qualities. The summit, the middle, and the bot- tom of a hill give productions very different. On the top, the tempe.- rature is variable and cold, the grapes less abundant, and mature Avith difficulty, and the wine aris- ing from them, is of an inferior quality to that furnished by the sides of the hill. The bottom of the hill produces vines of great vigour, but the grapes are never so saccharine or agreeable as those which grow towards the middle region." European writers constantly re- commend an eastern or southern exposure for the vine. Mr. Antil of New Jersey, also ad vises a S. and S. I". aspect ; but Mr. LEGAtxof Springmiil, finds an eastern ex- posure unfavourable, and the Edi- tor saw at Mr. Notnagel's little vineyard, near Bristol, that more grapes were blasted in 1802, in the parts looking to the east, than in any other exposure. In Penn- sylvania, a northern exposure is preferable, because it keeps back vegetation in the spring, and thus saves the vines from late frosts. " 4. Seasons.....The vine is fond of warmth, and the grapes never come to perfection but in dry soil, exposed to the rays of an ardent sun. Rains which fall Avhen the grapes are increasing in size, are favourable, they assist the organi- zation of the vegetable ; and fur- nish it with its principal nutrition. Winds are always prejudicial to the vine. The farmers, therefore, carefully avoid situations exposed to Avind ; they prefer calm situa- tions, well sheltered, where the plants may be exposed only to the benign influence of the lu- minary towards which they are placed. Fogs are destructive to the blos- soms, and do essential hurt to the grapes. 5. Culture.....The culture of the vine has its rules as well as its boundaries. The soil where it grows must be often dug up ; but it refuses the manure necessary for other plantations. All those causes which powerfully concur to give activity to the vegetation of the vine, alter the quality of the grapes. The culture ought to be directed in such a manner that the plant may receive only poor nourishment. Dunging is forbidden at Gaillac, for fear of lessening the reputa- tion of the while wine." "The first step to be taken,says Antil, is to provide a stockofvine cuttings, not only enough to plant the vineyard, but a small nursery too. If these cannot be had all at once, begin to lay up a year or two beforehand, and plant them in your nursery in even rows, at four inches distance, and the rows three feet asunder, that they may be ho wed and kept clean ; and scat- ter some short straw and chaff along between the rows to keep the ground moist and the weeds down. The reason of planting the cuttings so close in the nursery is, to prevent their shooting their roots tco far into the ground. which would render them very difficult to take up without dam- aging the root, and more tedious to plant out. " Do not plant various sorts of vines in your vineyard, if you mean to make good Avine. The most experienced vignerons say, that grapes of one sort make the best wine: that if they are mix- VIN VIN 295 ed, they hurt the wine, by keep- ing it constantly upon the fret, by means of their different fermenta- tions. If my vineyard contained one acre of ground, I should chuse to have but two sorts of grapes in it, if I meant to make a profit of it by selling the wine ; if it contained two acres, I would have four sorts in it; and if it con- tained three or four acres, I should not chuse more. But if it con- •tained six, eight or ten acres, per- haps I might incline to have a greater variety; but then I should prefer those kinds that make the best wines and such as do not come in at the same time, from whence I should reap many ad- vantages. " The next thing to be consider- ed is the quality of the vines to be made choice of. This must be limited, and adapted to the cli- mate, where the Vineyard is plant- ed. The most hardy and the earli- est ripe, will best suit the most northern states, I mean those of New-Hampshire, Boston, Rhode- Island and Connecticut. The vines proper for these countries are. 1. The black Auvernat, 2. The black Orleans, 3. The blue Cluster, 4. The Miller Grape, The black Hamburgh, The red Hamburgh, The white Muscadine, The Muscadella, The Melie Blanc, The white Morillon, The white Auvernat, The grey Auvernat, " All these are ripe September. " All the foregoing sorts Avill do very well for New-York, New- Jersey, Pensvhania, and Dela- a* w Cf? curly Ware. I mean for the clear and open parts of these countries ; to which may be added the following sorts, which I recommend by way of trial, they being more ten- der, but ripen in September ; they should have the warmest birth in the vineyard. The Chasselas Blanc, called the Royal Muscadine, The Malvois or Malmsey, The grey Frontiniac, The red Frontiniac, The black Lisbon, The white Lisbon, The Chasselas Noir. All the foregoing sorts will do very well for the states, of Mary- land, Virginia and North-Carolina, to which I shall add the following sorts, and recommend them for trial, but then they must have a warm place. The white Frontiniac, Tb.e malmsey Muscat, The claret Grape of Bordeaux, The white Oporto, The black Oporto, The black Damask, The Chicanti of Italy, which makes a rich wine much admired in Italy. All the above-mentioned sorts will do well in South-Carolina, and in the country still farther south. To which I shall add the following sorts, as being still more tender and later ripe. The raisin Muscat, The Alicantand Malaga Raisin Grape, The red Muscat of Alexandria, The white Muscat of Alexan- dria, The gros Noir of Spain, Thj St. Peter's Grape." The anonymous writer in the 33d volume of Arthur Young's annals before-mentioned, recom- 296 VIN VIN mends " to procure cuttings of the vine, called in Medoc carmenct, and in Les graves de Bordeaux, petite vigne dure ; or otherwise cuttings of grand carmenet, carbonet, or grande vigne dure, three different names given to the same species, in the vineyards of different par- ishes in the environs of Bordeaux. The sprouts should be three feet long, cut in November or Decem- ber ; and bound together in bun- dles of one foot diameter. The ex- tremities of these bundles must be closed, where the branch has been cut from the vine, with clay three or four inches thick, and the whole must be wrapped up care- fully in mats or coarse cloth, and may be packed in the hold of a ship, and arrive in February." From the experience, however, of the editor and his friends who have found much difficulty in na- turalizing foreign vines, he recom- mends the cultivation of the native grapes of the United States, par- ticularly the vitis sylvestris, or small blue or bunch grape; Bland's, Tasker's or Alexander's, and the bull-grape of Carolina and Georgia. "In many parts of Virgina, North and South-Carolina, and in Geor- gia, the soil is chiefly a hot dry sand, and what strength nature af- forded, has been exhausted by to- bacco, Indian corn, rice, he. How- ever these, grounds, where they lie near to rivers and creeps, may ea- sily be recruited ; for these rivers abound Avith rich mud, which is the best kind cf manure for such lands, and it would be no great ex- pence to procure a sufficient quan- tity of it to cover a piece of ground large enough for a vineyard, espe- cially if it be consicered, what a number of hands the gentlemen of these countries have, who might be employed at such times, when other business is not very urgent: But then this mud must lie some time upon the ground, before it be mixed with the soil, at least a sum- mer and a winter ; for at first it will bake very hard, and be verv crude; but the winds, dews, rain's and frosts, with the help of the sun, will soften, mellow, and bring it into proper temper. Theu it must be equally spread and well mixed with the soil. Thus may the land be recruited, and kept in good heart, from time to time, and from a barren useless piece of ground, it may become profitable both to the owner and his country. The nature and quality of the vines being considered and made choice of, the next thing to be known is, how to make choice of cuttings to plant. Avoid all branches that have not borne fruit, all suck- ers, nephews, lateral and secondary branches, and especially the long running barren branches.These dif- ferent sorts seldom produce fruitful vines. Choose the cuttings from the teeming part of the vine, from among those branches that were set apart for bearing fruit; and among these, choose such as are short jointed, and have been most fruitful the last summer; let them be cut down close to the old wood. The upper part of the same branch is less ripe, and more loose and spungy and more apt to fail, and very seldom makes so firm and lasting a vine. These branch- es must be trimmed and cleared from the nephews and the lateral or secondary branches; great care must be taken not to wound the buds or eyes, which a careless hand is very apt to do. If the bud be bruised wilh the back of the knife, so that the cotton, that VIN lies under the thin bark, that cov- ers the bud, and is wisely intend- ed to preserve it from the injuries of the weather, be rubbed off, the bud will perish. Therefore as the buds lie close to these lateral branches, and are in so much dan- ger of being wounded, it is best and safest to cut the branches off, a little-above the height of the bud, that the little stump or stub left behind may be above the top of the bud, so shall the eye be left se- cure. " These branches being thus trimmed, remain whole and at full length till the next April*, which in the northern states is the best time for planting. They should be separated from the mother plant, sometime in September, or as soon as the vintage is over, that being the best time for the trim- ming of vines; because the wounds which the mothers receive are healed up, and securely closed from the severity of the winter sea- son. If this work be left till Fe- bruary or March, the parent suf- fers by her fresh wounds in long rains, sleets and frosts that follow ; or if the weather be favourable, she grows faint and exhausted by excess of bleeding, and her eyes are drowned in her own blood. " The best way I have found for preserving the cuttings through the winter, is as follows. At or near the north-west corner of your vineyard or garden, the fence being good and close, let a small trench be dug five or six inches deep and * Mr. Legaux recommends the au- tumn to plant vines, but many in Penn- sylvania, who liave successfully culti- vated them, adhere to the spring, and plant early in March. Editor. vol.. v. V I N 297 wide, and so long as may contain all your branches. In this, plant them thick and close with the but ends down, and fill up the trench, as you go, with the ground, that came out of it, and press it down well with your hand, all about the bottom of your branches ; let the dirt rise two or three inches above the surface of the ground, to pre- vent the water from settling about the vines, which would rot them. Between every sort, drive down two stakes and fix a label to one of them, to distinguish the vines from each other, by their proper names. Before you plant your A-ines in this manner, drive down two or more crotches, according to the quantity of vines, at about three feet from the trench, and parallel Avith it, upon Avhich poles are laid, to support the upper part of the branches about twelve or fifteen inches from the ground.... Thus they all lie sloping without touching the ground, which pre- serves them from growing mouldy and from rotting. The vines then are to be covered with straw, laid lengthways upon them, up and down a little beyond the trench, so that,the water is carried off be- yond the foot of the vines by this straw roof; and yet the straw must not be laid on too thick, lea^t it continue moist too long, and occa- sion mouldiness. Across the top, a pole is laid, and across the bot- tom, and fastened down to prevent the straw from blowing away..... Thus they remain 'till spring. In the beginning of April when you are ready for planting, the weather being moderate and calm, the frost out of the ground, and nature teeming with fresh vegeta- tion, then cut your branches for planting. If one cutting from Q Q_ 298 v i N VIN every branch be sufficient for your purpose, then cut the lover part about twelve or fourteen inches lorr. But as it is most likely, that you will not be so lucky, as to have enough of these, then do what necessity requires, and make two or three cuttings of every branch, not kr.s than a foot long ; and having a trench made ready, place them in it clor.e together, the but or lower end down, and cover them up Avith earth to the upper eye, 'till you are ready to plant, carefully placing every sort by themselves, with a label denoting the kind. This direction is calcu- lated for the three [or middle bread states]. The more northern states will be a month later, and the more southern states will be at least a month, some two months earlier; they must conduct themselves ac- cordingly. To these last states, I would recommend the cuttings to be longer, that they may be plant- ed deeper, the better to preserve the vines from excessive heats and droughts. " Your ground as I said before, being well manured and brought into good heart if old, or being na- turally rich if new, and having been, at least twice, deep ploughed and well harrowed the summer before, in the fall of the year it must be deep ploughed the third time, and always across the hill or rising ground, and let it lie rough just as it is pbngh.-d, all winter, which will pnvailv prevent wash- ing, and the iYoV.s will mellow it flknd prepare it the better for vege- tation. '' In the spring of the year, as soon as the ground is dry, let it be well harrowed bcth ways, v. ith a sharp iron tooth barrow av.d laid down-smooth and cren ; and take this caution along with you, which I now give once for all, never to meddle vrith the ground of your vine- yard when it is wet, or even moist at top, nay, I would have you avoid as much as possible, walking in it at such a tinr*. Your own expe- rience will soon teach you the rea- * son of this caution. For you will find that, the lighter and moreopen and loose the soil of a vineyard is kept, the more the vines will flou- rish, and the more fruitful they will prove. " When your ground is in pro- per order, provide a small stake of four feet long for every vine; and begin to lay out your vineyard in the most regular manner the nature and shape of the ground will ad- mit of. If you mean to plough and harrow your vineyard, with a small single horse plough, and a small corn harrow, you must leave a border of 10 or 12 feet on each side of every square, to turn your horse upon, lest he trample upon and destroys the outside vines.... There will be no need of such borders along the upper or lower side of the squares, unless you chuse it for regularity's sake ; be- cause your vineyard should never be ploughed up and down hill, but transversely, unless you mean to have it gullied, and the rich soil washed away by hard rains. " The following method of lay- ing out a vineyard, I think is as easy, as regular and as expeditious as any, for a long square or a four square piece of ground. Your squires being laid ou^, and having concluded bow far your vines sball stand every way from one another, in which every man is to please himself; st.elch a line of a proper length, and stitch small pieces of red, blue, green, or any other co- VIN VIN 299 loured cloth at such distance from each other as you mean to plant your vine;. I will suppose eight feet*, because upon the most ma- ture deliberation, I think that the best distance for vines to stand at in t! is country, as I shall after- wards show more fully. " The line being ready, stretch it along the head or upper part of your square, so that a rag appears at each corner. Then drive down a stake at every rag: This done, move your line down to the lower side of the square, vvhich is oppo- site to the first, and stretch your line along that, having a rag at each comer, and drive down a stake at every rag: then turn your line the other way, up and down, and fasten it to ihe upper, and to the lower outside stakes, so that a rag be at each slake, and drive down a stake at every rag, and so go on from stalje to slake, till the whole be completed. If you have been careful not to disturb or move the line, when you drove down the stakes, and have driven them all on the same side of the line, your square will be uniform, and the stakes near the ground, vrill range exactly every way. " If your vineyard be large enough to divide into four, si.-c, eight squares, or more, according to the different sorts of grapes you design to have in it, and you are not pinched for room, you will find it very convenient on many ac- counts to have cross walks of 12 * The anonymous author in Yov.vg's Annuls, before r.vntion-i, rcxmmci.ds six feet: a less distance \i. certainly im- prope r. Editor. feet, between the squares, notoi !y to turn upon av ben pl< ughing, but for carting in nn nure, vvhich will be. a great saving el" labour, besides bring attended with many other a«.i'.ai:i..a.es. " Having staked jour ground, u Ir. n it is diy, and having aa many vine cutt'.r.gs as you can plant in half a cay, soaking in rich dung water, in a pail, the but-ends be- ing dov, n, nig holes at every stake larger or snialkr,according to your own judgment: for it matters not, so they are deep enough to con- tain the plant. But b^re I mv.st clear up a point, which has led many people into, mistakes, and rendered this work more tedious, and that is the throwing into the holes, in which the vines are plant- ed, rich mould mixed with old dung, thinking that this must be a great advantage to the v'n.c. This is a great mistake. For as soon as the vine shoots its roots beyond this rich mixture, into the common soil, vvhich is many degrees poorer and colder, the roots, as it were, recoil and shrink back at a cold- ness and poverty, they had not Lccn used to, and the vegetation is slopped, and the plant dwindles into poverty and barrenness; and if you examine the plant at bottom, you \riil find that instead of extend- ing, its roots to their usual length, it has shot out a great number of small fibres like threads, which ex- tend no farther than the geoil mould, and these being quite in- sufficient to answer the demands cf nature, the plant perishes, or remains in an inactive and barren s'.-ilc, whereas, had the vine been planted in the common soil at first, it would have met with no altera- i'rjn, no sudden change to check 300 V I N VIN its growth*. This shews that the soil should be well mixed ; and let me tell you once for all, that the vine delights in a warm, com- fortable, fruitful soil: but proves unfruitful and perishes in a soil cold and barren. Yet a soil may be too rich, or made too rank by dung, and this extreme is also to be avoided. But to return to plant- ing our vines, the holes being dug according to your mindf, plant your vine, setting the foot forward from the stake, and bend it a little, without cracking the bark, and bring it gently up against the stake, so that one eye only remains above the surface of the ground. Let not the eye touch the stake, but look from it. Then mixing the ground well together, throw it in, and press it gently about the vine, till the hole is almost full, and throw the rest in lightly, without pressing, so that it may rise up to the eye of the vine, which ought to be about two inches above the common surface. By this means, the vine will be preserved from drying winds and the hot sun, till it begins to grow. Some place four or five paving-stones about the foot of the vine, not so close but that the roots may shoot out be- tween them, and condense the air in hot dry seasons, and nourish the * This directicn is of great conse- quence. The ground must be uniformly rich ami light, for at least three fe-et be- low the surface; ov success need not be CApccicd. Editor. f Mr. Montmolliv recommends to dip the lower end of the cutting in a mix- ture of bee's-wax and hog's-Iurd, to pre- vent the loss of bap wnicii sometimes lakes place. Editor. vine with moisture, and cool and refresh.it when parched with ex- cessive heats. In the northern states, the vines should be planted on the south side of the stakes, for the sake of the sun : In the south- ern states, they should be planted on the north side to avoid too great heat. The upper eye only shoots out branches, from vvhich the head of the vine is formed. If any shoots should rise from below, which sometimes is the case, the sooner they are removed, the better; these are called suckers, and very much exhaust the vine. And thus you proceed till all be finished. " When your vines are all plant- ed, if you have any cuttings re- maining, plant them in a nursery or along the north side of your stakes, for you will have occasion for them, as many of your vines will miscarry, and the sooner their places are supplied the better. If some of your vines do not shoot till July, do not give them up ; they may grow notwithstanding. I have had many that have not shot till August, and yet have done well. The filling up all the vacancies, where the vines have miscarried, is absolutely necessary to be done so soon as possible, either the fall after the vines were planted, with plants, if you have any growing in your nursery, which are best set out as soon as the leaf is fallen; or the next spring, with cuttings, which is the best season for plant- ing them ; for the latter having no root suffer greatly in the winter season, and if planted in the fall, most of them perish. Some plant two cuttings in a hole, lest one should miscarry. To this the chief objection is, that hereby the regu- larity of* your vineyard is hurt, VIN VIN 301 many of the vines standing out of rank and file. For a well regu- lated vineyard resembles a fine regiment under proper and exact discipline. If some of your vines prove weak the first summer, and do not recover slrenglh the second summer, though manured and cul- tivated well, root them out, for they very seldom are worth rais- ing ; and plant healthy vines in their stead, out of your nursery. " In digging up the plants from your nursery, be careful to take them up without wounding or bruising the roots, and having a pail or small tub, half full of rich dung water, put the plants with the roots down, into that, so shall they be preserved from the sun and dry- ing winds, which would soon parch and dry up these young tender roots and kill the vine. When you have dug up about a dozen or twenty plants, proceed to planting, , in the following manner: Your holes being dug deep, and suffici- ently wide, for the roots to be spread in at full length, throw in some loose earth, and spread it over the bottom of the hole, and fix in your plant near the stake, so high that the little branches rbe an inch or two above the surface of the ground. The roots, you will perceive, for the most part grow in rows, one above another. The upper roots of all, which are called the day roots, must be cut away; the under roots of all must then be spread at full length, and covered with earth, then the next must be served in the same man- ner, and so on till all be regularly extended and covered. " Your vines being all planted as above directed ; and the vine cuttings, with one eve only above ground, and that almost covered with light earth, to preserve them from suffering with heat and from drying winds till they be- gin to grow; this upper bud only will shoot out branches, and the lower ones will throw out roots : And this is much better than to have two or three buds above ground, and branches growing from them all, which only serve to weaken the vine, and to hinder the forming of a good head, which is the first and chief point to be gained and well secured.' "We now proceed to the manage- ment of the vine in its infant state, upon which will very much depend the success of your vineyard. " There are but two ways of forming andmanagingof vines to ad- vantage for vineyards, viz. By stakes orespaliers."CHAPTALi, says'The method of cultivating vines on poles or props ought to be com- manded by the climate. This method belongs to cold countries where the vine has need of the whole heat of the sun. By rais- ing them therefore on poles, placed perpendicular to the ground, the earth, being uncovered, receives all the activity of the rays, and the whole surface of the plant is ex- posed to their action, and allows the vines to be placed nearer to one another, and the produce to be thus multiplied on equal sur- faces. But in warmer climates the earth requires to be sheltered from the excessive heat of the sun: the vines are therefore suffered to creep on the ground. But when the increase of the grapes has at- tained to its maximum, and nothing is necessary but to bring them to maturity, the cultivators collect in bundles the different branches of the vine, uncover the grapes, and by these means facilitate the ma- 302 VIN VIN titration.' The northern and south- ern states of the Union may profit by these facts. " I shall begin with the proper culture of vines that are designed for stakes. " In this case the head of the vine is formed near the surface of the ground, and this method is now generally practised throughout Avine countries, and indeed it is the only method proper for coun- tries, where the frosts in winter are so hard as to hurt vines. " The first summer after the Vine is planted, you have nothing lo do, but to tie up the little bran- ches to the stakes with a soft band, as soon as they are grown about a foot or fifteen inches long, which will save them from being torn off by hard winds; to keep the ground clean and free from weeds and grass. If you have any litter, short straw and chaff, the shives of broken hemp or flax, the chaff of flax seed, the dust and chaff of buckwheat, and the straw trod fine with horses when it is dry, any or all of these spread over your vine- yard after it is hoed or ploughed and harrowed, will keep down the grass and weeds, keep the ground moist and light, and will greatly preserve the good soil from wash- ing away. If this be done the first three or four years, it will greatly forward the vines; bring the ground into good heart, and finally, prepare it to produce good crops, by keeping it loose, airy and light, in which vines greatly delight." The writer in Young's Annals, above noted, recommends four plougbings ; the first time in Fe- bruary, when the furrow must be levelled, and left in that state for six weeks; (this however is in general too soon) the second time, the furrow must be reinstated. The third time, the same operation as the first must be repeated, tak- ing care not to plough when the vine is in blossoms or flowers. The fourth, in August, as at the second time. The grass must be destroyed by hoes;" For this pur- pose the light shim or scuffle des- cribed in vol. 3. p. 295, would an- swer well. " In the month of September, when the leaf begins to wither and fall off, as I have already observed, cut down all the branches, to one good bud each, and always remem- ber that the lowermost bud next the old. wood, is called the dead eye, and is never reckoned among the good buds. When thus trimmed, take away the dirt from the foot of the vine, about four inches down, and cut away all the upper roots that appear above that depth. These are called day roots, and must be taken away every full,, the first three years. The best way is, not to cut them off close to the body of the vine, but about a straw's breadth from it, so shall they not be so apt to grow again. Let the foot of the vine he left •-pen, after the day roots are cut away, that it may dry and harden, till the hard frosts come. Then the holes are to be filled again, and the head of the vine covered with chaff and short straw mixed, or Avith bog hay, or salt hay, or with horse litter, that is free from dung and grass seeds ; for these should be carefully kept out of a vineyard, which AviU save the labour of root- ing out the grass that would spring from them. Some cover the head of the vine with the ground when they fill up the holes ; but this is Avrong, it greatly endangers the vine, as I have found by experi- VIN VIN 303 ence, for I have lost many of them by this management, before I dis- covered the danger. The ground, in warm rains, moulds and rots the vine. For the same reason, suffer no dung to be among the straw, hay, or horse litter, with which you coA'er your vines. The heat of the dung, in Avarm rains or muggy warm weather, will mould and rot them ; the cooler and dry- er they are kept, the better. When you trim your vines, if you find that any of them have mis- carried, which is very common, plant others in their room imme- diately, of the same sort in your nursery ; or provide cuttings of the same kind, and preserve them till spring, and plant them in the va- cant places, that your vineyard may be full and compleat as soon as possible. " The second summer let the shoots grow, till they are ten or twelve inches long, then choose eight, that are short jointed and much of a size, that grow on all sides of the vine, and with your finger strike off all the rest. If any one branch among the Avhole number, appears much more thrif- ty than the rest, you may perhaps be tempted to s.*ve it ; but let net your eye spare it. It will only prove a ihief and a robber. It will draw to itself the chief nourishment of the vine, and starve the rest of the branches, and after all will bear but little fruit. The short jointed branches, prove the best bearers, and these standing on all sides of the head, preserve the vine in full strength and vigor. For this rea- son the rounder the head of the vine is formed, the better. If the branches be suffered to grow from one side of the head, the other side suffers greatly, and is apt to perish. " This year there should be two stakes to a vine, one on each side, to fasten the branches to, by this means they are spread at a distance from each other, and grow the stronger and better. Whereas, when they are huddled all together, and fastened up to one stake, they suffer greatly for want of the sun- and air to dry them after rains, mists and heavy dews: and in close muggy weather, they will mildew and rot. Let your vine- yard always be kept clean and free from weeds and grass; and the dryer the ground is, and the hotter the weather, the more effec- tually they are destroyed, by hoe- ing, ploughing and harrowing..... But remember never to meddle with your ground when it is wet. " This second summer your main "branches should be suffered to grow about five feet long, and then the ends of them must be nipped off, in order to keep them within proper bounds. The lateral or secondary branches should be nipped off at the end, when they are about a foot long, the nephews also should be nipped off when they are about six inches long. This is much better, than the taking all these smaller branches clean away, which is the practice of some*.... For I have found, by experience, that when these secondary branch- es are clean taken away, the main branches suffer ; they grow flat, and appear distorted; which plainly shows, that nature is deprived of something, that is essentially ne- cessary to her well being. It is quite necessary to nip off the main branches, when they are grown about five feet long. They grow the larger and stronger, the wood ripens the better, the lower buds are well filled, and better prepared 304 VIN VIN for the bearing of fruit. Some time after the tops of the main branches are nipped oft", they will shoot out a second time, and then they generally throAv out, from near the end, two branches instead of one ; these also must be nipped off; at the same time the lateral or secondary branches must be looked to and nipped off, if any of them are shooting out anew. u In the fall of the year, as soon as the leaf begins to wither and fall off, cut the branches down again to one good bud each, and take away the earth round the heads of the vines, as before di- rected, and cut away the day roots, and manage them in the same manner as you did the fall before. Now as some of your forward vines will bear fruit the third year from the planting, and as it is natural for you to desire to know what sort of fruit your vines will bear : I would advise you to set aside two or three at most, of each sort of your most thriving vines for that purpose, and instead of cutting down all their branches to one bud each, like the rest, leave two branches on each of these vines, with two or three good buds each, which will shew some fruit to your satisfaction..... But be persuaded to prevent the rest from bearing fruit till the fourth year, and the weaker vines till the fifth year, for it greatly weakens a vine to bear fruit when so young. " The third summer manage your vines in the same manner as the second, tying up all the branch- es to the stakes, one above ano- ther ; only of those vines that are to bear, fruit, the fruit-bearing branches should be tied up above the rest, that the fruit may have the benefit of the sun, the air and winds, all which are necessary and conspire to bring the fruit to ma- turity ; and this should always be the practice. This year a third stake is to be provided, which in the spring is drove down just on the north side of the vine, upon a line with the rest, for order sake. To this stake , the branches that bear fruit, will be best fastened, because there will be the more room for the branches of reserve, which are to bear fruit the next year, to be distinctly fastened to the side stakes. These branches of reserve are now of great importance to the owner, as the next crop will de- pend upon the right management of them. They are, therefore, to be carefully tied up at proper dis- distances, to the side stakes, that they may grow well, that the wood may ripen, and that the buds may be Avell filled. When they are grown about five feet long, the ends must be nipped off, the lateral branches kept short, and the nephews restrained ; Avhereas, if they are all tied up to one stake, the wood remains green and spun- gy, and does not ripen, the buds do not fill well; and Avhere the band is, all the branches mildew and rot. As to the few vines that bear fruit this summer, let the fruit-bearing branches be nipped off five joints above the fruit, and let the side branches and nephews be kept short as above directed. " In the fall of this third sum- mer, preserve two of the best short jointed branches of reserve. one on each side of the head of the vine, for bearing fruit the next year: the rest cut down to one good bud each. If some of your vines be very strong and flourishing, you may preserve four branches for bearing fruit,but by no means more, one on each quarter of the vine; the brandies on the few vines, that VIN bore fruit this year, must be cut ■down to one good bud each ; for the same branch must never be suffered to bear fruit two succes- sive years, unless you fall short of branches of reserve, in that case, let the old branch bear a second time, but they seldom or never bear so large clusters, nor so fair fruit. On all the vines, that bore fruit this year, not above two branches on each, should be kept for bearing fruit the next year; they will last the longer, and bear fruit the more plentifully hereaf- ter. The rest of the management is the same with that of the last year ; only some time in the latter end of November or somewhat later, if the hard weather keeps off, a small long trench on each side of the vine, is to be dug with a hoe, and the branches that are kept for bearing fruit, are laid down gently into them, without forcing them so, as to crack them, or split the bark, or strain the wood too hard, and must be co- vered over with the earth. If any part appears above ground, it must be well covered Avith straw, bog or salt hay, and indeed if the whole that are buried were also covered in the same manner, Avith straw, Sec. it would be best; for the branches being of an elastic nature, they are very apt, upon the thaw- ing of the ground, to rise with their backs above the ground, and remain exposed to the Aveather, so that your crop may be lost notAvith- standing your trouble, which a small covering of* straw or hay will prevent. If any of them should be so stiff and stubborn as not to bend down, then bind straw round them and the stake. '; In the spring of the fourth year, the branches that have been vol.. v. V I N 305 preserved for bearing fruit, must be carefully trained up to the side stakes, the higher the better; and the branches that shoot out from the head this spring, which are called branches of reserve, and are designed to bear fruit the next succeeding year, must be tied up to the stakes below the fruit bear- ing branches, and one or two to the middle stake, if there is room ; for oftentimes the fruit bearing branches, occupy the middle as well as the side stakes, and espe- cially in a plentiful year. The management of the vine in its bearing state, calls for a close and particular attention." The writer in Young's Annals, says, 'In about four years, when the sprouts, planted m a great plantation will have taken root, towards the end of the Avinter, they must be bent, and bound about ten inches above the ground. For that purpose stakes must be pro- cured one inch or more thick, and tAvo feel three inches long. They must be sharp at one end, and driven into the ground with a mallet, about half their length, at the distance of two feet from one another, and on the same line as the vines. Care must be taken to place one of them close to each vine. To these stakes fixed as above, is fastened a long pole or reed, eighteen feel long, or more, and one inch thick or more, and tied horizontally at about ten inches above the ground, leaving about five inches of the stakes above them. These poles must be fastened to the stakes with oz> icrs *. * The common yellow or basket wil- low of the Ua.tcd States, if Hunted ney 306 VIN VIN 1 To these horizontal poles are tied the branches of the young vines, to keep them near the ground, by which means, the fruit is warmed by the reflection of the sun from the ground, and arrives at maturity. In order to fasten each vine, the stake is cut three or four inches from the ground ; only two divergent branches', about twelve or fifteen inches long are left. They are bent in the form of an arch, and fixed to the poles with oziers. These branches are called the arms ; the grapes hang .from these branches, and some- times touch the ground. In that case the earth is removed two inches from the grapes to prevent them from rotting.' " Some who have written best upon this subject, recommend the taking away all the lateral or se- condary branches and the nephews close to the body of the fruit bear- ing branch, and to leave only the main leaves of that branch, think- ing, by this method, that all the nourishment of the vine is thrown into the fruit. They also order the top of the branch to be taken off, within three joints of the upper- most cluster of grapes. Others again are for following nature, and suffer all the branches to extend themselves as they will. These I look upon to be, two extremes, and think that a middle way, is every way best, mosi rational and safest. I know, that when these smaller branches are taken clean away, the main branches, instead of growing round, full and plump, vvhich is their natural state, be- ■water, and kept cli>sc!y trimmed, becomes A'erj pliable, and answers very well f r binding... .Editor. come broad, flat and distorted, and have an unnatural appearance..... Besides these branches, when kept within proper bounds, serve to shade the fruit from the scorch- ing rays of the sun, and to screen them from violent winds, from hail and beating rains, from damps and fogs, cold nights, and dews, which are all injurious to the fruit, as well as the cold dry north-east winds, and the cold driving north- east storms. " Before I proceed to the ma- nagement of vines for the frame or espalier; it will be necessary to acquaint you with some things of a general nature. " When vines are trimmed in the fall, which they ought to be as soon as the leaf withers and falls off, they seldom bleed. If vines have been neglected and not trim- med in the fall, let it be done in February,if good weather happens, or early in March. If it be done later, they will bleed too much, and endanger the crop. Searing the wound, as soon as it is made, will prevent the bleeding. In trimming, keep about two inches from the bud, or half way between bud and bud. The rule is, to cut sloping upward, on the opposite side to the bud, that the slope may carry off the tears from the eye, but I neA'er found this any kind of security to the eyes below. If searing every wound be thought too much trouble, the only remedy, besides that, is, to wash the branches that are wounded .and bleed, and especially the buds, with a rag dipped in warm Avater, without touching the wound, which in eight or ten days will stop of itself; the liquor forming a stiff jelly upon the wound, like coagulated blood, and drying by degrees, heals up VIN VIN 307 the wound. The washing must be deferred till they have done bleeding. Unless this is done, the eyes below will be in danger of being blinded. For so glutinous is the sap, that it binds up the bud it reaches, so that the leaves can- not open and unfold at the time of vegetation. In cutting off large limbs from old vines, it sometimes happens that ants fall upon the pith, eat their way in, and make a hollow, where the water settles and rots it. In this case the re- medy is, to cut such branches close down to where it is solid and green, and it will bark over and heal. " It is common for large buds to shoot out two or three branches each. One only on each should be suffered to grow; if you expect fruit on them, be not in a hurry to strike them off, till you know which is most fruitful, and save that. Vines that are close planted in a vineyard, cannot- be expected to. bear so much fruit, as single vines, or as those that are planted at a distance : and this is a suffi- cient reason for restraining them, and for limiting the number of bearing branches, if you mean to make good wine, to keep your vines in full vigour, and to pre- serve them for many years." It is the practice of some vig- nerons to lay down and bury 1 or 2 branches the 2d or 3d year, thus enabling the vine to "shoot out roots from every joint, and to be- come very strong, and even to thrive more than the parent vine. This practice is called in France Provigner, and is constantly follow- ed by Mr. Montmollin who cul- tivates vines with great success, near Philadelphia. In the succeed- ing year, the branch which had been laid down, must be cut off close to the main stem. In set- ting out vines, room should always be left for laying down, hence the propriety of planting the cuttings at eight or ten feet distance from one another. " When vines have been cover- ed with earth during the winter season, let them not be uncovered in the spring, till the hard frosts are over, and then let it be done in a fair, warm, drying day, that they may dry before night, for if they should freeze before they are dry, it would greatly hurt, if not ruin the crop. " The head of the vine, proper- ly speaking, when it is formed near the ground, is composed of the butt-ends of the branches, that are cut down to one good bud each, which ought to be eight, at least, in number. These branches, the second year of the vine's grovvth, shoot from the solid wood chiefly, and then is the critical time to prepare for forming a proper head to a vine ; therefore, preserve eight of the best short jointed branches, that grow on all sides of the stock, and much of a size, and these must be carefully tied up singly to the stakes, that the buds may fill well, and that the wood may ripen, on vvhich greatly depends the future success of your vineyard, as this is the foundation of the whole.If more than eight branches have grown from the head, the rest must be struck off with the finger. If one of the branches outgrows the rest, and appears more flourishing, that in particular must be struck off.... For if suffered to grow, it will rob the rest of their due proportion of nourishment, and ruin the vine.... Fight branches are sufficient for a thrifty young vine, four of vvhich 308 VIN L,V I N are intended for bearing fruit, when that time comes, and the other four are designed for branches of reserve. The third year, Avhich is the first year of the vine's bearing, the lowermost good bud on the bearing branches, will produce one or two clusters of grapes each..... The fourth year, two or three of the lowermost buds will bear fruit, and after that five or six of the lower buds will bear fruit, but sel- dom more ; so shall you have five or six branches, growing from each bearing branch, producing fruit, which 20 or 24 bearing branches upqp one vine, and each of these branches yielding two, three or more clusters, according to the fruitfulness of the year, and the due cultivation of your vineyard. " Nay, if your vines are well chosen, as I have directed, and properly cultivated, and your soil kept clean and well improved, you shall, in a fruitful year, see some of the secondary branches and even the tendrils bearing fruit. This happened to some of my vines in the year 1767. I had four suc- cessive crops hanging on several of my vines at one, and the same time, one under another, which I sheAved to several gentlemen, who admired, and were surprized at such a production : but I took away all but the first crop, lest my vines might be too much Aveakened by over-bearing. I mention this to shew Avhat nature will do in a fa- vourable year, under proper ma- nagement. And here I must re- mark, that the greater the vintage, the better the wine, but a meagre thin crop produces thin weak wines, which require dexterity and art to make them fit for use ; but this I shall instruct you in, when I come to the making of wine. " In transplanting vines or tree* of any kind, I have by long ex- perience found, that removing them in the fall, after the leaf is* fallen, is much surer and safer, than doing it in the spring. For if trees are well staked, so as to stand firm against hard Avinds, the ground will be so well packed about the roots, that they will grow in the spring, as if they had not been removed, and are in no dan- ger, if a dry season should hap- pen, especially if some horse litter or old hay be thrown round them in the spring, so as not to touch the stem. Whereas if they are removed in the spring, and a drought succeeds,belore the ground be well settled about the roots, many of them will miscarry, " As vines are best planted upon rising grounds to prevent too much wet, and as it is necessary to keep the soil loose and mellow, it there- by becomes the more liable to washing away by hard rains, vvhich must be a great injury to a vine- yard ; now if by any means so great an inconvenience might be avoided, it would be a great point gained ; and, therefore, it very well deserves our attention : For it is no small cost and labour to renew the soil, that is sometimes carried off by sudden floods of rain. I have tried several ways to prevent this evil, so as neither to injure the vines, nor hurt the crop. The fol- lowing method, where a person has the conveniency, I find to be the most effectual. Lay broad flat stones, not exceeding two inches in thickness, close along the lower side of the vines, after the ground has been made loose and mellow* These stones being broad, and not Aery heavy, do not press hard upon the roots of the vines, nor VIN V IN 309 yack the ground too close. They reflect great heat up to the vine and fruit, which helps to bring it to full maturity; they preserve the soil from washing aAvay, they keep the ground moist in the driest times, and hinder too much wet from penetrating down to the roots near the head of the vine, which chiefly occasions the bursting of the grapes, when they are near ripe, after a shower of rain. To prevent this evil, is one reason for cutting away the day roots, which extend themselves along near the surface of the ground. But where such flat stones are not easy to be had, I would recommend short straw mixed with chaff, the shives of flax and hemp, the chaff of flax seed, which is also an excellent manure, old half rotten salt hay, or bog hay, free from grass seeds, spread thin between the rows ; if it be spread thick, it keeps the ground too long wet and cold in spring, which retards or keeps back the groAVth of the vines..... These I have experienced to be profitable, and very much to hinder the soil from Avashing away. On the side of steep grounds, of hills and mountains, stones in propor- tion to the descent, or logs of wood, where stones are not to be had, must be laid along the lower side of the vines, to keep the soil from washing away, which otherwise it will do, to the great damage, if not the ruin of your vineyard; and therefore when you begin a vineyard, remember that this is one, and an essential part of the cost. " A vineyard AviU thrive the better, and the crops wiil*be more sure, if it be- well screened, by sdmc good fence, buildings, moun- tain, or thick copse of wood at a small distance, from those points that lie to the north of the east, and to the north of the north-west; the winds from those quarters, in the spring of the year, being very unfriendly to vines. But then a vineyard should be quite open to all the other points of the compass. For vines delight much in an open, clear, pure, warm air, free from cold damps, fogs, mists, and from condensed air, arising from bogs, swamps, and wet clay grounds, and from large tracts of neigh- bouring woods. The north-west winds, indeed are rather advanta- geous to a vineyard : For although in America, they are extremely cold in winter, and occasion severe frosts, yet as the vines are then covered, they do them no harm. Besides those winds are generally drying and seldom bring wet; in the spring and summer they are always cool; and I find, by long ex- perience, that they are quite neces- sary, to brace up, harden and con- firm the leaves and tender new shot branches of all trees and vegeta- bles, Avhich otherwise remain lan- guid and weak. " There are three seasons when careful and experienced vignerons deny access to their vineyards, first when the ground is wet, because then the weight of a man presses down and packs the earth too close and hard upon the rootsof the vines. Secondly, when the vines are in blossom, because if they are then disturbed by handling, shaking, or rubbing against them, the farina or fine dust that is formed on the blossom, which impregnates or gives life to the fruit, is shaken off and the fruit miscarries. Third- ly, when the fruit grows ripe, be- cause the temptation is too strong to withstand, and people will pluck 310 VIN VIN off the fairest, ripest grapes, which vignerons do say is an injury to the whole bunch ; be that as it may, it certainly is a great injury to the owner, for the fairest, ripest grapes make the richest and finest fla- voured Avines. " I now pass on to the manage- menUof vines upon espaliers : but then*you are to remember that, the training up of vines to these frames, is only fit for the southern or war- mer climates, where the Avinter frosts are not so severe, as in our more northern regions; for as they are to stand exposed to alhveathers, the germ or bud, from which the grapes do spring, are apt to be chilled and destroyed by the se- verity of a sharp season, and espe- cially by moist sticking snoAvs freezing hard on the branches. " The first year the young vines are trimmed and managed in the same manner you have been before directed. '* The second year, set apart two of the best short jointed branches, on each vine, that you may be se- cure of one, in case the other should fail; for all vignerons well knoAV, that vines shoot forth more barren and unfruitful branches, than fruit- ful ones ; therefore ahvays set apart short jointed branches for bearers, and strike off all the rest of the branches with your finger. Again, chuse fruit-bearing branch- es, that grow as near the head and shoulders as possible ; train them up as straight as you can, one on each side of the stake : when they are grown about 15 inches long, bind them gently with a soft band to the stake ; for they are then yet very lender: and, as they grow longer, bind them a second and a third lime ; and, when they are grown up to the top of the stake, which must be five feet high, nip off the ends. When you have ta- ken away the tops of the vine she will try to recover herself, and will shoot out two branches at the top instead of one ; but these you must also nip off, and keep short, but take away none of the lateral branches qr nephews till you come to trim them in the fall, only nip them off to keep them within pro- per bounds. In the fall when the vine-leaves begin to wither and fall, cut away one of these standards from each vine, close to the stock, leaving such as you best like, which is now out of danger, and trim away from her all the branches I and nephews, and cut off her top within three feet and a half of the ground ; leave four buds at the top, and cut off all the ends of the buds below them ; all these wounds will be healed before the hard Aveather comes on, which should not be over severe where espaliers are used; the two upper buds will be the arms of the vine, the two lower buds -will be shoulders, and just under these the vine is fastened to the espaliers, and is called the head of the vine. It requires the great- est skill to manage and cultivate vines thus educated, and trained up to espaliers. " The third summer the espa- liers being regularly set up, six feet high, in a line with the vines, the posts being of some lasting wood, as of red cedar, locust, mul- berry,-or good thrifty chesnut, in the middle space between vine and A-ine ; and the rails being four in height, and placed on the north side of the vines, the lowermost about thfee feet from the ground: the vine must be fastened with a soft yet strong band to a stake firmly fixed down near the foot of V IN VIN 311 the vine, and fastened to the frame, near the lower rail, the four buds rising above it. When these buds shoot forth their branches, they must be regularly trained up to the rails above by a careful hand; because these branches, at first, are very tender. When the brahches are grown up to the top of the frame, the ends must be nip- ped off even with it, and kept down even with the frame, that they may keep within the limits assigned them. The lateral branches and nephews also must be kept within proper bounds and not suffered to grow too long. If any fruit should appear this third year, wdiich may happen, let it be taken away. " In the fall of this third year, the lateral branches and nephews must be carefully cut away from the main branches, so as not to hurt, or rub against the lower buds, with the back of the knife, which is frequently done, by cutting off the branches too near the germ or bud. The four main branches, that sprung from the four buds, must now be cut down to tAvo good buds each. In cutting off the main branches, cut slanting upwards, and let the slope be on the opposite side of the bud, that if it should wee]), the tears may drop free of the bud. In cutting, approach not too near the bud that is left, but keep at two inches distance from it, lest you endanger it, by letting in the cold air and wet upon it, before the wound can heal. " If any fruit should appear on any of the .branches, that grow from the shoulder;, which is often the case, let them be taken away as soon as they appear; for these being branches of reserve, they are designed to bear fruit the suc- ceeding year: the arms only arc to bear fruit the present year : these directions will serve for the fourth, the fifth, and the succeeding years. " In the fall of this third year, I have above directed you to cut the four main branches, that grew from the four buds, down to two good buds each, but this is design- ed for the strong vines only ; those that are weak, must be cut down to one good bud, each branch ; and if any fruit should appear on the weak vines the fourth or even the fifth year, strike them off as soon as they appear ; and 6nce for all, be persuaded not to overload young vines with fruit. " The fourth year Avhen vou trim your vines in the fall, you may cut the arms down to one good bud each, instead of taking them clean away ; these will bear fruit the next, and then you can save the two lower buds, that grew on the branches that sprung from the shoulder, for branches of re- serve, by taking away ihe frail a. soon as they appear, and these will bear fruit the year after. " The sixth year you may have three good buds on each branch for bearing fruit, and the seventh year you may have four buds on each branch, which will make eight hearing branches, which are suf- ficient for the strongest vines. " Vines that are designed for espaliers, must be planted further asunder than those that are intend- ed for stake. "• One general rule is, in trim- ming vines, that the young wood, that grew this year, must be pre- served for bearing fruit the next year, and those branches, that did not bear fruit, are better for the purpose, than those that did bear fruit ; and lor this reason, strike off, with your finger, the young 312 VIN VIN clusters from those branches which you reserve for bearing fruit the succeeding year. When I men- tion a branch, I mean a main branch of young wood, not a side or lateral branch, that grows upon these young main branches. " When the arms have borne fruit, they are to be cut clean away in the fall of the year, as soon as the vintage is over, provided you have branches of reserve, growing on the shoulders, to supply their places ; buj if you have been so unlucky as to have failed in these, you must cut the arms down to two, three, or four buds each, according to the strength of the vine ; but then remember, not to suffer any fruit to grow on the branches, that spring, from the lower bud on each old arm, these being noAV absolutely necessary for branches of reserve, in order to recruit the arms the next year. " As some of our southern states have a hot sandy soil, and are sub- ject to great heats and parching droughts, and thereby find it very difficult to raise and preserve vines, so as to become fruitful; I shall here offer some thoughts and di- rections, which I imagine most likely to succeed in these parching hot countries. "In the southern states I think it necessary to shade the young vines the first two or three years, during the hot dry seasons, by driving down firmly in the ground, branch- es of trees thick set with leaves, on the south side of the vines, and to Avater these young vines twice a week, during the hot dry seasons, in the evening; thebranches should not be tied up to slakes, but should be suffered to run on the ground to shade and keep it moist and cool. These vines must be trim- med in the same manner as those which are designed for stakes, ai soon as the leaf falls, or the vin- tage is over. The third year, in- stead of driving stakes down to fasten up the branches to them, let short crotches be drove down about six feet asunder, and pretty strong poles laid across upon them, so that they may lie about 14 in- ches from the ground, and so near to each other, that the branches of the vines may conveniently run upon the poles without dipping down and running upon the ground; if the ends of the vines should run beyond the sidesof this bed of poles, they must be turned and confined to their proper bed : because it will be necessary to have a walk or path of two feet wide between bed and bed to regulate the vines, and to gather in the vintage. " This bed of poles'should be so placed, as to extend three feet on each side of the row of vines, so that the rows of vines, standing eight feet asunder, there will be a path of two feet between row and row for the necessary purposes be- forementioned.Particularcaremust be taken, not to take away too many branches from these vines, unless there should happen an un- common wet season, nor to keep them too short, because they are designed to shade the ground as much as possible ; but then in the beginning of August, or about a. month before the different sorts of fruits begin to grow ripe, each in their proper time, take away the lateral branches and cut off the tops of the main branches, but this must be done, not all at once, but by degrees, to let in the sun and the air ; the wetter the season, at this latter part of the summer, the more branches must be taken away, and the shorter the main brandies must be cut, and if ne- VIN VIN 313 cessary most of the leaves must also be plucked off: the fruit will ripen the better. " Here I would observe, that the same management Avith regard to the thinning the branches and the leaves at this season of the year, is necessary for vines that are fast- ened to stakes or espaliers, in or- der to meliorate and hasten on the full ripeness of the fruit; and re- member that the longer white grapes hang on the vines, even after they are ripe, if the season be dry, the richer wine they make.... But itns otherwise with the black grapes ; when they are full ripe, they must be gathered and made up into wine, if not, they rot and dry away suddenly, and perish in less than a week. "A vineyard planted on a piece of good strong new ground needs no^dung the first seven years. The best, manure for a vineyard is such as is warm and free from grass seeds, for grass is a great enemy to vines: fowl's dung of every kind, except water-fowl; soap- ashes, or other ashes sprinkled thinly between the rows of vines, but not too near them ; for this manure is very hot and sharp, and is best spread on the ground in the fall, that it may mix with the soil, and be properly tempered be- fore the heat of the next summer comes on, otherwise it would burn up the plants ; the rich soil that is washed down and settles along the sides of brooks and rivers, and in many low places along roads and highways ; sea sand, mixed wilh common soil that might be taken up along the highways ; in short, sand of every kind mixed in large proportions with good soil, is very comforting to vines, for those vines produce the sweetest vol. v. and richest grapes, and the strong- est and best flavoured wines, that grow in rich sandy soils: the mortar of old buildings, that has been made of lime and sand, pounded fine ; the dust of char- coal, the small coal and the earth that the coal kilns are covered with when burnt; the soot of chim- neys ; the small cinders and black dirt found about smith's shops: all these are excellent manure for loamy or clay grounds to Avarm, to open and to dry them, and especi- ally if a large quantity of sand be mixed with it; creek mud, or the mud along the sides of rivers thrown on in the fall, or thrown up and sweetened all winter, and laid on in the spring, is a rich ma- nure for sandy lands, or for clay and loamy lands if mixed with a good quantity of sand. All warm rich untried earth is excellent, so is street dirt of cities." Grapes often drop off when about ripening, without any evi- dent cause. To prevent this, ci- tizen Lambky of the department of the Seine and Oise, directs the following mode, which he says he found successful, viz. Cutting a circular incision in the wood, and taking away a ring of the bark about the length of two millimetres. The wood acquires a greater size about' the incision, and the operation accelerates not only the maturity of the wood, but likewise that of the fruit. The vines on which the incision is made too deep, and further than the bark, will be spoiled both in wood and fruit. Monthly Magazine, vol. viii. p. 557. "The best method I ever discov- ered to get rid of birds, was to de- stroy their food, that ripens about S s 314 VIN the time as the grapes. Their food consists of wild cherries and poke- berries chicly*. Wasps are great enemies to grapes ; the best way I have met widi to destroy them, is to hang up phials here and there, along the outward rows of vines, filled half full of water well sweet- ened with honey, molasses, or coarse black sugar, the mouth of the phial must be so wide as easi- ly to receive a wasp into it, and not much wider, the wasps soon find out the.molasses by its sceni, and getting into the phial, are drowned in the sweetened water. Another way I have discovered, which comes very near to the for- mer, if it does not exceed it, which is to cover flat wide earthen pans, all over the bottom with honey or molasses without water, if there be three or four of these pans placed at a good distance, the whole length of the vineyard, eve- ry wasp to leeward, that'is within smell of them, will come to the feast, they will soon entangle them- selves in the molasses, that if you attend them, you may make it a deadly feastto almost all that come; when the wind comes from ano- ther quarter, place your pans along another part or side of your vine- yard, that so the wind may blow from the vineyard to the place from whence you would draw the wasps, * Mr. Leoaux drives av-ay birfis in the following mod.'. I'erceiving that they only committed depredations just before the rising and setting of ;he sun, lie has two boys to patnle the vii:evard, each with a whip in one hand, and a rat- tle in the other, making all the time, as much noise as they could for l buit an hour and a half. This process was con- tinued for three weeks every year. Editor, V IN and so go round till you have de- stroyed them all. "The same grub, which is a short smooth earth worm, that cuts off the English beans, he. is very hurtful to young vines ; if the earth were taken away round the foot of the vine, about two inches down, and some tar and hog's- lard, mixed in equal quantities, were daubed round that part of the vine, I think, though I never have made the experiment, it would prevent the mischief. " Vine fretters also are often in- jurious to vines ; they a:* very small animalcule, or insects, of what species, I have never exa- mined, but they appear in great numbers, in mere clusters, upon the young tender branches, upon the juice of which they feed; the only remedy I know, is to take away the branch with them upon it, and so destroy them bodily ; but if the branch cannot be spared, they must be mashed and rubbed off by a careful tender hand; if they are chiefly destroyed the first two or three years, they are not so numerous nor so troublesome af- terward." Rose bugs arc also very de- structive to vines. They may be drawn off from the grapes, by plant- ing many rose bushes round the vineyard. " It is common with gardeners and vignerons, who cannot bear to see a good piece of ground lie idle, to raise a crop of cabbages, cauli- flowers or brocoii, between vines Avhen young. This is very wrong and very injurious to vineyards..- The soil cannot be too fresh for a vineyard. " I have already mentioned the planting of vines at a proper dis- tance, and in this 1 have exceeded VIN VIN 315 the common distance practised in most vine countries ; and that for reasons which I shall now assign. " The advantages of this manner of planting I think are many; with a single horse plough, having a foot fixed in the fore part of the beam, by way of gage, to prevent the plough from going so deep as to cut the roots of the vines; a man, with the help of a careful boy to ride and guide the horse, (the horse always supposed to be tame and under good government,) may plough a full acre or more in a day, which is as much as six men will generally dig up vvi'.b hoes, and isevery way much better done; the furrows lying across the de- scending ground, will very much prevent washing away by hard rains ; the ground lies light, hol- low and loose, by which means it readily receives all the benefit of the atmosphere, the dews, &x..... After this it requires no more cul- ture for twelve or fourteen days time, or more, according to the weather. If a drought succeeds the ploughing, it will need no other stirring till rain comes, pro- vided the ground turned up mal- low and crumble, which it will do if it vvas not wet when it was ploughed. If the weeds should ap- pear, it must then be harrowed with a sharp iron tooth harrow ; which the same man, boy and horse can manage; the man if careful and diligent, can with ease harrow three acres a day, and if this be repeated three, four or five days, after every rain, or upon the first appearance of weeds, they may with great ease be kept down. Again, when vines are planted at a proper distance, a wheel or a hand-barrow may pass freely through them,which w ill greatly fa- cilitate the manuring of the ground and the gathering in of the vin- tage ; or a horse with panniers on each side, made flat on the side next his body, or a long square basket fixed on a hand-barrow and slungacross two hardy boys' shoul- ders, would give dispatch to either work. Vines loo, planted at a dis- tance, produce the best and richest wines, and to crown all, it is the opinion of men knowing and ex- perienced in these things, that a vineyard planted at eight or ten feet distant each way, will pro- duce as many and as fine grapes, as one planted within half thai dis- tance, though there be twice as many vines. " The German double pick, or sarkling iron, is the best instru- ment for digging a vineyard ; this instrument digs the ground with more ease than the hoe, and nei- ther cuts nor wounds the roots..... It is fixed on the handle like a hoe, and bends downward as that does. " Stakes are a necessary article, and must be about an inch and a quarter square, not less ; if both ends Avere dipped in boiling tar, it will greatly help to preserve the stakes from rotting. The stakes should be six feet long, so as to stand five feet out of the ground, and should be drove by a line and stand strait. " The materials proper to make bands of, to bind the vines to the stakes are, the sweet flag, other- wise called the Calamus Aromati- cus. These long flat leaves cut in June and dried in the shade, and then bundled up and kept in a dry place for use do very well, but then they must be made wet when you bind with them. The long flat leaves of reed, the rushes and three square that grow in marshy 316 VIN VIN or meadow ground preserved and used in the same manner do as well." Bass of Russia matts is very useful. " Having now gone through the necessary directions for planting and managing vines for vineyards, I proceed to the making of wine, a subject though short and easy, yet calls for great nicely and ex- actness. The making, fermenting and preserving of wine is a mys- tery to the people of America, but when the methods of managing these things are brought to light and explained, nothing appears more simple and easy ; but before I proceed to this work, it will be necessary to give some directions about gathering the grapes. " Grapes must be fully ripe be- fore they are gathered ; gather them in a fair day, when they are perfectly dry'; and take away all the rotten and unripe grapes, for they spoil the Avine : If your vin- tage be large, and you gather more grapes than you can mash and press out in one day, let them be gathered Avithout bruising, for bruised grapes soon contract an unsavory taste and hurt the wine; however, if they are mashed the same day they are gathered, the bruising will, do no hurt." Chaptai.ju advises to cut off the tails of grapes very short with a pair of scissars, and to choose none but sound grapes, and .those clus- ters which -pfcT-^st, sagged, re- jecting those which nave been sheltered, and near the ground, and to prefer those which ripen at the bottom of the vines. They are then to be put into small baskets to prevent the loss of juice, by the superincumbent weight; and when full they ought to be put in carts, e>r on the backs of men or horses. " I would advise the gathering of them to be directed by some grave discreet person ; for as this work is done generally by servants and children, it is made matter of pastime and frolic ; and so many grapes are torn off, and either bruised or scattered on the ground, to the no small damage of the owner, both in the loss of fruit, and in hurting the wine : and these things should be impressed on the minds of the gatherers before they begin, that every thing may be done regularly and in order, by which means more work will be done, and to much better pur- pose. " If while frosts happen before some of your grapes are fully ripe, let them still hang on the vines, and they will grow ripe, rich and high flaA-oured ; but they must be gathered before the weather be so hard as to freeze the grapes, for that will spoil them: the light frosts that only kill the leaves do not hurt the fruit, unless it be such as are late ripe, these should be carefully covered from all frosts, they should grow against walls or board fences fronting the south or south-east, and at nightbe covered with mats or frames thatched with sjtraw, which should be so contriv- ed as to be set up to cover the friiit or let down at pleasure. " As the wine made from black grapes has a different manage- ment from that made of white grapes, I shall begin with the white ; these then must be ga- thered as I mentioned before in a fair day, when the grapes are per- fectly dry ; and both the rotten and unripe grapes being carefully plucked off from every bunch, the clusters are then thrown into the mash vat, and two or three men, V IN VIN 317 according to the quantity, having washed their feet and legs very clean in bran and water, get into the vat and trample and mash the grapes thoroughly, so that none escape." Chaptall says, as a general rule, that the grapes must be equally pressed, to insure an uni- form fermentation : and the vat filled in 24 hours, to avoid the in- convenience and imperfections ari- sing from a successive series of fermentations, and when unexpect- ed rain suspends the collection of the grapes, the juice of those al- ready collected and placed in the vat, must ferment separately. " The first and second pressing being mixed together is put into hogsheads, and filled Avithin four inches of the bung, that it may have room to work and ferment, the casks placed in some warm room or dry cellar. Then having a small spile fixed in the middle of the head of the cask, the third or fourth day, draw a little of the wine in a glass, and if it be pretty fine, draw it off immediately into a clean dry well scented cask, the larger the better, so you have wine enough to fill it, which you must do within two inches of the bung, and stop it close, leaving only the vent-hole open for a second fer- mentation ; after a few days it will Avork a second time, but not so much as at the first; if your wine be strong and good, Avhich you may know by the age of your vine- yard, and by the goodness of the seasons, it will be best to leave the bung-hole open for this second working, the wine will be the bet- ter: for strong wines require a greater fermentation than weak wines, and the stopping of the bung-hole, checks the working,and prevents weak wines from spend- ing themselves too much, on the contrary, if strong wines have not a thorough working, they are apt to grow thick and ropy : by this you may form a proper judgment what degree of fermentation is proper for the wine that is under working, and govern yourself ac- cordingly. Three or four days after the second fermentation be- gins, carefully watch your wines every day, again try them in a glass, and if they be pretty fine, prepare a cask sweet and good, burn a good large brimstone match in it, and as soon as the match is burnt out, whilst the cask is full of smoke, draw off the wine into it; noAv fill up your cask to the brim, and bung it up tight and stop the vent hole ; the smoke of the brimstone Avill hinder any further fermentation ; and this is called stumming or sulphuring; then make a mortar of clay and horse dung mixed up with strong flaxseed jelly, and cov- ering the bung and vent hole close with it, let it stand till it is fit for use. " When you first rack off, if you have any old wine that is rich and good, of the same kind or colour, put four or six gallons of it, and tAvo gallons of good brandy into your cask (this quantity is suffi- cient for an English hogshead) and then rack off your Avine into it for the first time, this will great- ly strengthen and preserve it. " When wine, is in fermentation, all the gross parts are tjirown up to the top of the cask, or vessel that it ferments in, and there meeting the air, they contract a harshness. If then they are suffer- ed to pass down through the body of the wine, which they certaDd; will do as soon as the fermentation is 318 VIN over, they will communicate those evil qualities to the Avine. For this reason, draw off your wine both times before the fermentation be quite over." These general rules are of great consequence. " I now pass on to the making of red wines from the black grapes. Red wines have a different ma- nagement from the Avhite ; the whole of one or even two days treading or mashing, (wnere the vintage is great) is thrown into a large vat, the must, stalks, skins and all, and stands in some warm dry place or cellar. The vat is covered close with sheets or blan- kets, or both, and thus it remains, according to custom from four to seven or even ten days, according to the coldness or heat of the weather. This is done to obtain a strong fermentation, in order to give a deeper colour to the wine ; and this is the only end proposed by it; the manager of this work, visits the vat twice a day, and in a glass views the colour of the wine and tastes it ; if the tincture be not deep enough to his mind, he knows by the taste of the wine, whether it will stand a longer fer- mentation : if it will not, he con- tents himself with the colour it has, and draws and presses it off, and fills it into casks, leaving about two inches from the bung, for a second fermentation. When the second fermentation is over, Avhich generally happens in four or five days, he then draws itoff into clean well scented casks, and adds to it six gallons of good old wine and two gallons of brandy to an Eng- lish hogshead, which contains from 60 to G3 gallons. Where the same kind of Avine is not to be had, he makes use of Port wine. He then fills the cask quite full and VIN bungs it up tight, leaving only the vent hole open to let out the ge- nerated air. Note: when I say, where the same kind of wine is not to be had, he makes use of Portugal wines, this is mentioned for our practice, not that the French make use of such wines, for they always have wines enough of their own of the same kind. " Besides the main pulp or core of the grape, which is Avhite in black grapes as well as others, there sticks to the inside of the skin, a considerable body of rich pulp, of a deeper die in some than in others. This pulp gives the colour to the grape, this same pulp also gives the colour to the wine, for the same grape is capable of making white wine as well as red wine ; if the main core which is first trod out, be only used, the wine will be white ; but if the red pulp be mixed with it, it makes it of a rich purple colour ; as this is a clear case the great point of improvement is, to dissolve or ex- tract this rich pulp, without injur- ing the wine. That the present method is the best and most effec- tual to that purpose, T can by no means think; the violent fermen- tation through which the wine is made to pass, in order to procure the tincture, must exhaust the spi- rits in a very great degree, and leave the body in a weak and lan- guid state, and subject it to harsh- ness, to turn eager or vapid in a short time ; I think I have reason to conclude, that if the husks or skins, after four days lying in the murk^were taken out, and thrown into the mash vat, and trod over again, and especially if some of the must, or rather wine, be now and then thrown over the husks, in order to wash away the pulp, VIN that a full tincture may be obtain- ed, without torturing the wine, as the present manner is, and with- out running so great a risk of spoil- ing it." On the proper fermentation of the juice of grapes depends the quality of wine. For this reason the following extracts are given from Chaptall's excellent trea- tise on the subject, and are parti- cularly valuable inasmuch as they refer to the practices pursued in various parts of France, each of which has a climate nearly similar in the United States. " The method of disposing grapes to fermentation varies in different countries. The stalks are harsh and austere, and wines produced from grapes not freed from stalks, do not participate in that quality ; but these are weak and almost insipid wines, and are apt to become oily. Fermenta- tion also proceeds with more force and regularity, in must mixed with the stalks, than in that which has been freed from them. Near Bourdeaux the red grapes are freed from the stalks, when it is pro- posed to obtain good wine, and when the grapes are not quite ripe, and when frost has taken place be- fore they are collected, but when the grapes arc very ripe, it is per- formed with less care. The stalks facilitate fermentation, and effect a more complete decomposition of the must, and produce all the alkohol it is perceptible of yield- ing. But it is added, this is only necessary when the wine is to be distilled. When delicate wine is to be prepared for drink, it is ne- cessary to withdraw the stalks from the fermentation, to pick the grapes, and to clean them with care. In the south, where the VIN 319 wine is naturally generous, the stalks would add a disagreeable harshness to the liquor. They may be freed by a fork with three prongs, which the workman turns and agitates in the vat, and by be- ing drawn up to the surface, are removed by the hand, or by a sieve of ozier twigs, distant from one another about half an inch, and having above it a close ozier pad or presser, about four inches thick." It is more than probable, that the juice of the grapes of the U. States, will bear to have the stalks mixed with it, but it would always be best to make two parcels, one with the stalks, and another with- out. " The 54th degree of Fahren- heit is generally considered the temperature most favourable to spirituous fermentation; below that degree it is languid, above, it be- comes too great. Fermentation is slower, as the temperature has been colder at the time of collect- ing the grapes. In consequence, it fias been recommended to place the vats in covered places; to remove them from clamp and cold situations, to cover them, in order to moderate the cold of the atmosphere; to heat again the mass by introducing boiling must, and to make choice of a warm day for collecting the grapes, of to ex- pose them to the sun. " Must shut up in close vessels undergoes very slowly the pheno- mena of fermentation, and pro- duces more generous wine, as the aroma and alkohol are retained, which are in part lost in fermen- tation in the open air. If the dis- engagement of the gas vvhich es- capes by fermentation, be checked by keeping the fermenting mass 320 VIN in close vessels, the movement then slackens, and the fermenta- tion terminates with difficulty and after a very long time. " The activity of fermentation is proportioned to the mass ; but it is not ahvays of advantage to carry on the process in a large mass. Extremes must be avoid- ed ; and care must be taken not to obtain it with too great precipita- tion ; the volume must be varied according to the nature of the wine and the object proposed. A small mass will preserve the aroma, a large mass developes the spirit. Ripe, sweet, and almost dry grapes produce a thick must, and fermentation is slow in com- mencing, and a great mass of liquid is required, otherwise the wine remains thick, and too luscious, and requires long keeping to per- fect it. " The temperature of the air, the state of the atmosphere, and the weather which prevails during the vintage ; all these causes and their effects must be always present in the mind of the agriculturist, that he may be able to deduce from them rules proper for directing his conduct in regard to this object. "When the must is very aqueous, (as in many seasons) boiling it is of advantage. Drying the grapes before fermentation is founded upon the same principle. Saccha- rine grapes require the addition of tartar, which must be boiled in a kettle with the must. " The carbonic acid gas disen- gaged -from the vintage, and its hurtful effects to respiration, have been known since fermentation itself was known. This gas, re- tained in the liquor by all means that can be opposed to its evapora- tion, contributes to preserve the VIN aroma, and a portion of alkohol vvhich exhales along with it. This carbonic acid holds in solution, a pretty considerable portion of al- kohol. " As the object and effect of spirituous fermentation,are merely the production of alkohol, by de- composing the saccharine princi- ple, it thence follows that the for- mation of the one is always in pro- portion to the destruction of the other, and that the alkohol will be more abundant, as the saccharine principle is greater ; for this rea- son, the quantity of alkohol may be augmented at pleasure by ad- ding to the must the sugar which seems to be wanting. " It must never be forgotten that the fermentation ought to be ma- naged according to the nature of the grapes and agreeably to the wine that may be required. Weak Avines must be fermented in casks, strong wines ought to be suffered to work in the vats. " The period for taking the wine from the vats, ought to vary ac- cording to the climate, the season, and the nature of the Avine pro- posed to be obtained, and of other circumstances, vvhich must always be kept in view. In general the following consequences may be es- tablished : " 1. The must ought to remain in the vats the less time, according as it is less saccharine. Light wines, cannot bear the vat above from six to twelve hours. " 2. The must ought to remain the less time in the vats, accord- ing as it is proposed to retain the acid gas, and to form brisk wines; in that case, it is thought sufficient to tread the grapes, and to put the juice into the casks after^ it has been left in the vat 24 hours, and VIN VIN 321 sometimes without having been in the vat at all. In this case, the fer- mentation, on the one hand is less tumultuous; and on the other, the gas can with less ease be volati- lized ; which contributes to retain that highly volatile substance, and to make it one of the principles of the liquor. " 3. Must ought to be left in the vats less time, according as it is proposed to obtain wine less co- ld\ired. This condition is of great consequence in regard to brisk wines, one of the most valuable qualities of which is their want of colour. " 4. Must ought to remain in the vats less time, according as the temperature is warmer, and the mass more voluminous Sec.; in that case, the briskness of the fer- mentation makes up for its short- ness of duration. " 5. The must ought to remain in the vats less time, according as it is proposed to obtain wine of a more agreeable flavour. " 6. The fermentation, on the other hand, will be longer, accord- ing as the saccharine principle is more abundant, and the must thicker. " 7. It will be longer if the wines are destined for distillation ; in which case, every thing ought to be sacrificed to the production of alcohol. " 8. The fermentation will be longer, according as the tempera- ture has been colder when the grapes were collected, and accord- ing as the wine is required to be coloured. " From these principles it may be conceived why in one country the fermentation in the vat termi- nates in 24 hours, while in others it continues for 12 or 15 days; vol. v. why one method cannot be gene- rally applied, and why particular processes may be attended with errors, Sec. " Gentil admits as an inva- riable sign of the necessity of re- moving the wine from the vat, the disappearance, in regard to taste, of the sweet and saccharine prin- ciple. This disappearance, he observes, is only apparent, but the savour of the little that remains is concealed ; the alcohol, the savour of vvhich predominates, terminates its decomposition in the casks..... It is also evident that this sign, which is not at all applicable to white wines, cannot be employed for wines destined to remain lus- cious." It is highly probable that the important rule suggested by Gen- til, would answer very well for the wines made from the native grapes of the middle United States. But the great point is to draw it off, before the feculent matter which rises in fermentation, falls down again. " New casks destined for re- ceiving wine, must be well im- pregnated with salt and water, to extract the injurious bitterness of the wood. Old casks must be well scoured and washed. The wine should be drawn from the vats into a reservoir and carried to the casks. The liquor which floats over the deposit of the vat, (Surmout) is to be drawn off and put into casks : it forms a lighter kind of wine, more delicate and less coloured. The head remain- ing after the wine is drawn off, will still yield wine, if pressed, but it must be separated, and pres- sed by itself and it will produce good vinegar.'' ik Wine made from young vine- T r 322 VIN yards is always thin and weak, and so are wines from old vineyards, when the seasons have been cold, stormy and Avet. Assistance is given two Avays, either by the help of some old strong wine, one fourth part at least, and four gallons of brandy to an English hogshead, or if that is not in your poAver, then half of the must is to be boiled away to one half of its quan- tity, that is, if one half of your must contains forty gallons, that must be boiled away to twenty, this greatly enriches it, and makes it of the consistence of liquid honey. As scon as it is cool, mix it with the rest of the must, and let it ferment together, and then manage it as before directed of other wines; when your vineyard comes to be ten or twelve years old, it will yield much stronger wines. " The boiling of must is ma- naged in the following manner, which must be carefully attended to ; the copper or kettle being well cleaned, rub .the inside all over with a woollen rag dipped in sweet oil, vvhich preserves the wine from contracting a nauseous, copper or brass taste; then throw in the must, and kindle a gentle fire under the copper, with brush or small split wood ; the copper standing so high, that the wood need not touch the bottom of it, when you put large wood under to make it boil fast; for if at any time your wood touches the bottom, the wine will be burned and spoiled. Gently raise your fire by slow degrees, stirring your must cfien from the bottom, and take off the scum as it rises, till all be clear; then raise your lire by larger wood, and make it boil faster and faster, as it settles down or Loiis away, till one half VIN be consumed, being always care- ful, that none of the wood touches thebottom of the copper ; the must thus boiled away is called defru- tum, or the rob of grapes. If you neglect to raise the sediment from the bottom of the copper, it will burn and spoil the wine, for it turns bitter. " All the vessels and instru- ments made use of must be per- fectly clean and sweet; and every thing that has an offensive or dis- agreeable smell, must be removed from the place where wine is made, and from the cellars where it is kept; and the cellar ought to be dry and warm. It must also be free from mustiness, and in good weather, the windows next the south and west must be opened, to admit the warm dry air. " Hogsheads well bound with iron are the only safe casks for wine ; for, old wine pipes, or hogs- heads with wooden hoops, con- stantly want repairing every year, but iron bound casks Avill hold many years, Avithout any expense; I mean for standing casks, out of Avhich the wine is racked into other casks for sale ; but then as soon as they are empty, the lees must be taken out and saved for distilling into brandy ; and the same day the cask must be filled with water, or else they will be destroyed by a small worm, which will pierce it like a sieve. " Every man that has a vineyard should have a still and good worm, that he may distill all the lees, the husks and the scum into good brandy, which he will want for the preservation of his wines. " I now pass on to the different management of wine after fermen- tation ; one method I have already mentioned : some after the second VIN VIN 323 fermentation, leave the wine in the same cask upon the lees, and add- ing the old wine and brandy to it, (for which they make room) they stop up the bung hole, and leave only the-vent hole open to let out the generated air, till the month of March, filling up the cask, from time to time, as the wine subsides or wastes, and then draw it off into a clean, well scented and well stummed cask, and stop all close with mortar. " Others again in the month of March, before they rack it off and stum it, roll the cask back- ward and forward in the cellar to the wine thereby to communi- cate the strength of the lees to the wine, and then let it stand and settle till it is fine, and rack it off into clean, well stummed casks, and stop and plaister all up close." Clarification of Wines. The Avine must be first drawn off from its lees in dry, cold wea- ther. The pump used in Cham- pagne is preferable, according to Chaptal, to every other mode of drawing off wine. " To a leather pipe, of from four to six feet in length, and two in- ches in diameter, are adapted, at each end, wooden pipes, nine or ten inches in length, which de- crease in diameter tOAvards the ends, and are fixed to the leather pipe by means of a piece of pack- thread. The bung of the cask in- tended to be filled, is taken out, and one of the extremities of the pipe is put into it. A good cock is fixed, in the cask to be emptied, two or three inches from the bot- tom, and in this is inserted the other extremity of the pipe. By this mechanism alone, the half of the one cask is emptied into the other; for this purpose, nothing is neces- sary but to open the cock ; and the remainder may be made to pass, by employing a pair of bel- lows two feet in length, compre- hending the handles, and ten in- ches in breadth. The bellows force the air through a hole formed at the anterior part of the small end ; a small leather valve, placed below the small hole, prevents the air from rushing out Avhen the bellows are opened, and to the extremity of the bellows is adapted a per- pendicular wooden pipe to Convey the air downwards ; this tube is fitted into the bung-hole, in such a manner, that when the bellows are worked, and the air forced out, a pressure is exercised on the wine, by which means it is obliged to issue from the one cask, and to ascend into the other. When a hissing is heard at the cock, it is speedily shut; this is a sign that all the wine has passed." To clarify the Avine thus dravvn off, isinglass jelly mentioned un- der article Cydek, may be used, but in warm climates, Chaptal observes, "the use of this substance is dreaded, and * its place is sup- plied by whites of eggs: ten or twelve are sufficient for half a muid, or 72 gallons English..... They should be well beaten up, and mixed with a pint of new milk'" " To revive claret injured by floating lees, two pounds of cal- cined flints, avcII pounded, ten eggs, and a large handful of salt, are beat up with two gallons of wine, vvhich are then poured into the cask ; two or three days after the wine is drawn off. " Wire cellars'must be dry some depth below ground ; its apertures 324 VIN VIN ought to be directed towards the north ; it must be at a distance from the street, highways, work- shops, sewers, necessaries, and ought to be arched at top."* " From experiments," Mr. An- til says," I am clearly of opinion, that the faeces or lees which are left in wine or cyder is the true cause of their frequent fermenta- tion : it is from this idea of the thing, that I have all along so strongly insisted upon the removal of the lees in the beginning, upon the first as well as the second fer- mentation. " I shall now propose the ma- nagement of some small quanti- ties, in different manners, by way of experiments, in order, if pos- sible, to arrive at some tolerable perfection in this new undertaking. " 1st. Let a keg of four gallons be filled three-fourths with musk, that is, with the must and skins of black grapes, for making of red vyine, (the skins having been well squeezed) before any fermenta- tion ; let the bung-hole be stopped close, and leave the vent-hole open, to let out the generated air, and after the second fermentation fill up the keg with old wine, and let the vent hole remain open, and let it stand so till February, then draw it off, and manage it as occasion shall require ; if it be clear, sweet and good, bottle it; if you find it thin and weak, you must help it as in other cases. " 2d. Let a keg of four gallons be filled with the wine that is drawn off, after the first fermenta- tion is over, the keg having first * These directions apply to red Avines. For Madeira, Lisbon, Xeres (Sherry) and Tenerifl'e wines, the warmer the place iu vvhich they are kept, the better. Editor. been well stummed, stop all close, and let it stand till February, if it then be fine, bottle it, if not, stum a second keg well, and draw it off, and stop all close, and let it stand till the next winter, if it then be fine, bottle it; if not, fine it down, and then bottle it for use : if, at the second racking,' you find it thin and weak, add some brandy and old wine to it. " 3d. Let white grapes hang on the vine a month after the vintage is over, let others hang till they shri- vel, make trial of these at differ- ent times; let them be mashed as much as possible Avithout break- ing the grape-stones ; let them stand in the murk two, three, or four days, well covered with a blanket three or four double, then drain off the wine, and mash the skins very well over a cullender the second time ; then strain out the stones, washing the skins very well with the wine, till all the pulp, that sticks to the inside of the skins, be got off, fill your keg with this wine three-fourths, and fill up the rest with good old wine ; stop up the bung, leaving the vent- hole open till the second fermen- tation is over, then stop the vent- hole, and let it stand till February • I think this wine will be good; but then in all these cases the vent- hole, must now and then be just opened, to let out any generated air, lest the keg be in danger of bursting, as soon as the air puffs out stop it again, that as little air as possible, may get in." " By varying these experiments, you may at last come at the most perfect way of making, fermenting, and preserving of wine." American farmers have long been in the practice of making wines from our native grapes.... VIN Some samples of these wines, the Editor has tasted, and found them very good. But in every case, except one, a large proportion of brown sugar was added, which gave the liquor a high colour, and a sAveetish taste that detracted from the natural briskness of the liquor. This addition of the su- gar is made to prevent the acetous fermentation taking place, but there can be no doubt, that the pure juice of the common blue or bunch grape (Vitis sylvestris) will make good wine, without sugar, if a small proportion of brandy be added to it, as is constantly done in all wine countries, even in Madeira. This opinion is strength- ened by a fact lately communicat- ed by a medical friend long resi- dent in Chester county, viz. that the Chicken grape, or small blue grape, as the Vitis sylvestris is call- ed, when preserved and eaten freely in pies in winter will slight- ly inebriate. This fact is very im- portant. Mr. B. Waring of Columbia, S. Carolina, lately sent a bottle of wine to Philadelphia, made from grapes of his own raising, with- out sugar, Avhich resembled a fine Sauterne wine, in colour and taste ; and he informed the Editor, that he added only one gallon of bran- dy to every twelve of juice....See Wine.] Vine, the Wild. See Bryony, the white. VlNE-FRETTER. See PlANT- LOUSE. VINEGAR, an agreeable pun- gent acid, which is obtained from wine, cyder, beer, or other fer- mented liquors. [The principal requisites to form good vinegar, according to Pah- m e n t i kr, (Cours D'Agric. torn, x.) V I N 325 are, 1. Contact with the air ; 2. A temperature not exceeding 20° of Reaumur (77 of Fahrenheit); 3. The addition of some extran- eous vegetable matter to promote the acetous fermention ; and 4. The presence of alkohol. This last requisite has not been generally known in the United States ; its importahce, however, was discover- ed by Col. Anderson, now of New-York, several years before Parmentier wrote, and he has since been in the practice of add- ing some cyder spirit, to make cyder vinegar, during the progress of the acetous fermentation. " The inhabitants of the cyder and perry cantons," says Parmen- tier, " make vinegar of these two liquors, thus; in a cask of 800 pints, they mix six pounds of sour (aigre) yeast, (made with leaven and rye-flour,) with hot water, and pour it in the cask ; after agi- tating the Avhole with a stick, they let it remain, and in six or eight days, vinegar of good strength is produced. It is very necessary to draw off this vinegar as soon as done, because it is more subject to become vapid than wine-vinegar.... The bung must be kept close." Mr. Joseph Cooper, of New- Jersey, makes his vinegar of good bodied cyder, fills the barrel one- third full, and permits it to stand with the bung-holes slightly cover- ed for at least nine months. If the fermentation does not proceed with sufficient rapidity, he draws off a few quarts of the liquor, and after boiling and skimming it, re- turns it again into the cask. Mr. CoorER confirms the utility of the practice of adding cyder or rye- spirit to Aveak vinegar to increase its strength. Mr. William Sheaff, of Flii- 226 VIN V IN ladelphia, adds one quart of bruised and ripe sumach-berries, after be- ing boiled with half an ounce of creme of tartar, to every barrel of cyder destined for vinegar. He fines it, by pouring in one quart of fresh blood, beaten up with a hand- ful of salt. To prevent a mould forming on vinegar, several methods have been proposed. 1. To prepare vinegar very strong and sour. 2. To con- centrate the vinegar by freezing, after vvhich a hole is made in the crust of ice which covers it, through which the part not congealed is let out, and afterwards may be bottled. By this process, more than one half is lost. [Very weak vinegar that will not keep is best treated in this last manner.] 3. To fill the bottles and keep them well corked. 4. To distill the vinegar in a glass retort. The following is the easiest method. Boil vinegar in a well tinned kettle for a quarter of an hour, and bottle it, or fiil the bottles Avith vine- gar, and put them into a kettle full of water upon the fire. After the water has boiled for an hour, the bottles are taken out of the pot, and corked. Vinegar thus boiled will keep for several years without growing turbid or mouldy...... Scheele's Chemical Esaays.'] Wine-vinegar :....Let any quan- tity of vinous liquor be mixed with its own lees or feces, or Avith the acid and austere stalks of the ve- getable from Avhich wine was pre- pared. The whole must be fre- quently stirred, and either exposed to the sun, or deposited in a warm place : after standing a few days, it will ferment,become sour; and, in a fortnight, it will be converted into vinegar.....Such is the usual manner cf producing this acid; which is frequently rectified by dis- tillation, when it is knoAvn under the name of distilled vinegar. Cyder-vinegar, may be made by fermenting new cyder with the must of apples, in a warm room, or in the open air, where it should be exposed to the sun ; and, in the course of a week or nine days, it will be fit for use. Another method of preparing vinegar, is that published by M. Heber : it consists in exposing a mixture of 72 parts of water, and four of rectified malt-spirit, in a temperature of from 70 to 80° of Fahr en h en, for about 2 months; at the expiration of which the ace- tous process will be completed.... A cheaper, though more tedious mode, is that of dissolving 2 lbs. of molasses in nine quarts of boiling water: this solution must be poured into a vessel containing a large quantity of cowslips; and, when the mixture becomes cool, a gill of yeast should be added. The whole is then to be exposed to the rays of the sun: at the end of three months, it may be bottled for use, and will be of peculiar service in pickling. Tarragon-vinegar is manufac- tured, by infusing one pound of the leaves of that vegetable (which. have been gathered a short time before it flowers) in one gallon of the best vinegar, for the space of 14 days; when it should be strained through a flannel bag ; and a dram of isinglass, dissolved in cyder, must then be added ; the whole be carefully mixed, and decanted into bottles for a month. Thus, the liquor will acquire a most exquisite flavour.; it will become remarka- bly fine, and almost colourless..... [See Artemesia.] There is a method of procuring a very powerful essence of vinegar; VIO vvhich, however, can be practised only during the intense frosts of winter: it simply consists in ex- posing this liquor in basons, or other shallow vessels, Avhen the watery parts are converted into ice; but the spirituous, or acetous basis, remains in a fluid state ; so that, by repeated exposure, one pint of strong vinegar will in very cold seasons, be reduced to about a table-spoonful of the essence. This preparation possesses a fine flavour, and a pungent, almost corrosive taste: hence it forms an excellent spice or sauce to fish in general, but particularly to lobsters and oys- ters. VIOLET, or Viola, L. a genus of plants, consisting of 44 species ; of which the following are the prin- cipal: 1. The canina. See Dog's Vio- let. 2. The tricolor. See IIe&rt's- 1ASK. 3. The odorata, or Sweet Vio- let, is perennial; grows in warm lanes, hedges, and ditch-banks, especially in clayey or marly soils: flowers in the months of April and May...Both the blossoms and seeds of this plant are mildly laxative; and, when taken in doses of from 40 to 80 grains, the powdered root operates as a purgative, and like- wise as an emetic...Large quanti- ties of violets are cultivated at Stratford-upon-Avon, for their pe- tals, to impart the colour to syrup of violets ; an officinal preparation of which is kept in the shops, and proves an agreeable and useful lax- ative for children. Such syrup may also be employed in many chemical inquiries, for discovering the presence of an acid, or an al- kali ; the former changing the blue roi our to a red, and the latter to a V I T 227 green: though slip3 of Avhite pa- per, stained with this juice, and preserved from the access of air and light, may serve as a substitute for that purpose. VIPER's BUGLOSS,the Com- mon, or Echium vulgare, L. an indigenous biennial, growing in sandy corn-fields, walls, and rub- bish, particularly on the clay thrown out of coal-mines : it flowers from June till August....This vegetable is not relished by cows, and is re- fused by horses and goats ; but its strong hairy flowers are fondly vi- sited by bees....From the flower- stalks, Dambourney obtained a dye of a tine olive-green shade. Viugi:;'s-bower. See Tra- veller's-joy. VITRIOL, a compound salt, formed by the combination of zinc, copper, or iron, Avith the sulphuric, or vitriolic acid ; and which is ei- ther white, blue, or green, accord- to the metal employed. White Vitriol, or Vitriol of Zinc, is found in the mines of Goslar, in Saxony, in a native state, and con- sists of White transparent pieces ; but, the quantity thus obtained be- ing insufficient for the demand, this salt is generally prepared by mixing 5 parts of sulphuric acid with 20 of distilled water, and gradually adding 3 parts of zinc; when the ebullition ceases, the li- quor is strained ; and, after being evaporated, it is deposited in a cool place, where it shoots into Avhite crystals. It is sometimes employ- ed by painters, for the purpose of speedily drying cil-cclours: its taste is nauseous,though SAveetish; being frequently given as an eme- tic, in doses of from 5 to 6 grains to half a dram ; the operation of which is very powerful; and such drus* ought therefore to be regular- 328 V I T VI V ly prescribed. But its chief utility is that of an astringent and desic- cative, in external applications: thus, when dissolved in the propor- tion of 16 grains in 8 oz. of water, Avith the addition of 16 drops of weak vitriolic acid, it forms an useful collyrium, or eye-water. A solution of 2 drams of white vitriol, and a similar quantity of alum, in a pint of water, is likewise em- ployed for cleansing foul ulcers, and repelling cutaneous eruptions. Green Vitriol consists of sulphu- ric acid diluted with 10 or 12 times its weight of water, in which iron- filings are dissolved : when the ef- fervescence ceases, the mixture is for some time placed in a sand- bath ; next, the liquor is strained through paper; and, after being evaporated, it shoots into rhomboi- dal crystals, which are also termed Salt of Steel.....Green vitriol is given in doses of from half a grain to 5 grains ; according to the age, strength, or case of the patient; being one of the safest forms in which iron can be administered. See vol. Hi. p. 390, Blue Vitriol, is chiefly imported from Italy. It is made by strati- fying plates of copper with sul- phur; and, on slow combustion, the sulphuric acid corrodes the copper: the metal is then boiled in water, till the saline particles are dissolved ; when, after repeat- ed solution, and subsequent eva- poration, the whole is reduced to the chrystallizing point. Vitriol of copper is chiefly employed ex- ternally as a caustic, to remove the flesh of fungous ulcers; for which purpose it is very useful: on account of its virulent proper- ties, bowever, it ought never to be administered internally, without medical advice. Vitriolic Acid, Sulphuric Acid, or Oil of Vitriol, an use- ful liquid, prepared by the com- bustion of sulphur in close ves- sels, with the addition of l-8th or l-12th part of nitre, and a little water, to condense the vapour: after Avhich it is concentrated and purified by evaporation. Beside the purposes to which it may be applied (and Avhich are stated in the articles Bleaching and Sul- phur), this acid, when properly diluted, has successfully been ad- ministered in hemorrhages, fevers of the typhus kind, and the itch; in doses of from 40 to 60 drops in water ; but, when combined in the proportion of one part, with eight of lard, or other unctuous matter, it forms an efficacious ap- plication to the parts affected, in chronic cutaneous eruptions, and likewise as a rubefacient in rheu- matisms and local palsies. VIVES, in farriery, a disorder affecting horses, and which differs from the strangles only in this re- spect, that the tumors in the for- mer do not suppurate ; and may therefore be dispersed by covering the diseased animal with blankets; by rubbing the tumefied part with the ointment of marsh-mallow; by moderate blood-letting, when a plethoric habit requires it; and giving one or two gentle purga- tives. But, if these remedies fail to remove the inflammation, it will be necessary to promote a suppu- ration, and to adopt the treatment stated in the article Strangles. Vives appearing in old horses, indicate an internal decay, which no medicines can remove; or are symptomatic of the Glanders: in the latter case, the animals must be treated in the manner pointed out vol. iii. p. 158. ULC ULC 329 ULCER, is an ichorous or pu- rulent solution of soft parts. This affection may arise from a variety of causes, such as cancer, scro- phula, scurvy, he. but, as a dis- cussion of these would exceed our limits, we shall only give an out- line of the general treatment. [Ulcers, and particularly those which appear in the legs, have hi- therto been too generally abandon- ed to the care of quacks, " either," says Dr. Rush, " because the dis- ease was considered as beneath the notice of physicians, or be- cause they were unable to cure it." The same excellent physician very justly ascribes the difficulty of curing sore legs, to the indiscri- minate mode of treating them, oc- casioned by a Avant of theory which shall explain their proximate cause. He is of opinion, that sore legs are a disease of the whole system: this he infers from the causes vvhich induce them, acting more or less upon every part of the bo- dy ; from their following or pre- ceding diseases, which obviously belong to the whole system, as fevers and dysenteries ; from their becoming in some cases the out- lets of obstructed female dischar- ges ; from the symptoms of sore legs, vvhich are often febrile; and lastly, from the remedies which cure them, acting more or less upon the whole system. These propositions he supports, by de- tails in an excellent paper on the subject, in the 2d vol. of his works. Dr. Rush with great propriety, divides the remedies to cure the complaint, into such as are pro- per where the arterial system is affected by too much tone: these are, 1. Blood-letting. The efficacy cf this remedy in disposing ulcers to heal, he exhibited in the Penn- von. v. sylvania hospital; and he acknow- leges to have learned the use of the remedy from the late Sir John Pringle. The Editor can add his testimony in favour of its effi- cacy. 2. Gentle purges. 3. Nitre.... From 15 to 20 grains may be given three times a day. 4. A tempe- rate diet, and total abstinence from fermented and spirituous liquors. This remedy (for such tempe- rance may be) is of the greatest importance when ulcers affect the labouring class, among whom this very commonly prevails, and Avith great obstinacy. It is utterly im- possible to effect a cure so long as they indulge in daily potations of liquid fire, which keeps the system in a constant fever and irritation. They must be abandoned not gra- dually, but at once, if a cure be expected. The local remedies in this state of the system should be, 1. " Cold water."....Of the effi- cacy of this remedy, when applied in a particular way, the Editor has heard the following Avell attested case : A man who had long been af- flicted, Avas effectually cured by holding his sore leg against a small stream for ten or fifteen minutes, every day for a few Aveeks. 2. " Soft poultices of bread and milk.".....Dr. Underwood in his Treatise on Ulcer;, directs them to be made thus. Finely grated bread ; moderately stale, is to !,tr sprinkled into boiling miik, with one hand, Avhilst it is k( pt, stir- ring v\ ith the other. The difficulty with which the spoon is moved, will shew when a proper quantity of bread is put in ; after which it should remain on the fire not more than two or three m'.nutes U u 330 ULC at most, and is to be turned out boiling ; by which nreans the bot- tom will retain its heat, after its surface is become cool enough to allow of its application. It should be spread upon a piece of double linen cloth, by the help of a round edged knife, greased with hog's lard or oil, to the size required. These directions are given, be- cause every physician who has occasion to prescribe a poultice, knows how seldom it is properly made. 3. " Rest, and a horizontal pos- ture of the leg." Too much cannot be said in favour of this remedy of sore legs. Where the inflammation is con- siderable, rest is indispensably ne- cessary ; and many ulcers which were trifling in the beginning have become very tedious, owing to the irritation from working, Avalking, or riding. In sore legs, attended by too little general and local action, Dr. Rush advises, 1. Bark in large doses, but with a constant reference to the state of the system, which may render its disuse for a short time frequently necessary. 2. Mcrcum. It acts as a uni- versal stimulant, and should be given to salivation. 3. E.vcrci. e. 4. A nutritious and moderately stimulating diet. Wort has done great service in sore legs. The manner in which he directs it to be prepared and taken is as follows : To three or four heaped table spoonfuls of malt finely powdered and sifted, add two table spoon- fuls of brown sugar, and three or four of Madeira, Sherry, or Lis- bon wine, and a quart of boiling water. After they have stood a ULC few hours, it may be drank r* berally by the patient, stirring it each time before he takes it, so that the whole substance of the malt may be conveyed into the stomach. A little lime-juice may be added, to make it more plea- sant. The above quantity may be taken once, twice, or three times a day at the pleasure of the patient, or according to the indi- cation of his disorder. 5. Opium eases pain, and co- operates Avith the other remedies in invigorating the Avhole system. The local applications should consist of gentle esc orotic reme- dies, which excite an action in the torpid vessels of the affected part. Arsenic, red preciptate, and blue vitriol, have all been employed with success for this purpose..... Dr. Griffiths employs tartar emetic with success. They should all be used, if necessary, in suc- cession to each other. After the use of these remedies, astringents and tonics should be applied, such as an infusion of Peruvian, or white oak bark, the water in which the smiths extinguish their irons, lime-Avater, bread dipped in a Aveak solution of green vitriol, (so much commended by Dr. Underwood), and compresses wetted with bran- dy, or spirits. " Tight bandages are likewise proper here." Dr. Underwood prefers a roller of W. l.h flannel, cut across, and sewed together selvage ways (the hard selvage thread being first cut oft) where- by the roller is made to yield to every motion, and varying shape cf the limb, and admits of, and assists the patient in walking..... " The bandage should be four in- ches wide, and ought to be carri- ed from the extremity of the foot, ULC till it rises to the calf of the leg." In summer a cotton roller will be more proper. " It is of the utmost conse- quence in the treatment of sore legs, to keep them clean, by fre- quent dressings and washings." The following remarks on the treatment of ulcers, are commu- nicated by Dr. James Hutchin- son, house pupil of the Pennsyh vania hospital, whose experience has been very extensive in the disease. , " The patients afflicted wilh this complaint when first visited, were generally found to have their ulcers considerably inflamed, sloughing, and discharging an offensive mat- ter. The remedies most success- ful, when they put on this appear- ance, are low diet, confinement to bed, and emollient poultices, of bread and milk, or flax-seed ; af- ter submitting to these remedies for a few days, the surface of the ulcer will become clean and red, and the granulations will begin to rise. In this stage the cure can be greatly expedited, by approxi- mating the edges of the ulcer with stripes of sticking plaster, spread on linen or leather, and then cov- ering the whole with a plaster of simple cerate ; a bandage is after- wards to be applied, extending from the toes to the knee, in such a manner as to press equally on all parts. These dressings are to be renewed every 24 hours. When the patient's business compels him to take exercise, this method is ab- solutely necessary for the cure of an ulcer. If the granulations should rise so high as to be above tiie level of the surrounding skin, they are to be kept under by touch- ing them a\ith lunar cat.s'ic. It -'ten happens that after the ulcer ULC S31 becomes clean, it 'hews no dispo- sition to fill up, and has an indo- lent appearance, dressing it with red precipitate ointment, will gene- rally cause the granulations to rise and thereby fill it up. When the ulcer is completely healed, a bandage ought to be worn for several weeks after, together with a piece of sheet lead over the part where the ulcer existed, to defend it from accidents."] A new and ingenious method of treating old ulcers of the legs, has lately been recommended by Mr. Baynton, of Bristol; and which has since been succesfully adopted by many respectable surgeons. It consists in carefully drawing the skin that surrounds the ulcer, to- wards its centre; and which is gradually effected at each dress- ing, by the aid of slips of adhesive plaster (for instance, that of dia- chylon, or lytharge), spread on smooth linen cloth. These slips must be made 2 inches broad, and of such a length that, after passing round the limb, from 4 to 5 in- ches may remain : the middle of this piuce is to be applied to the sound side of the limb, opposite to the inferior p£trt of the ulcer, about one inch below the lower edge of the sore, and the ends are drawn over the ulcer with as much gradual extension as the pa- tient can bear. Other strips are then to be placed in a similar manner, each above and in con- tact with the other, until the whole surface of the sore and limb be completely covered, at least one inch below, and two or three inches above, the diseased part. Next, the limb is to be defended by rollers of soft calico,passed round as smooth- ly as possible, above and below the ulcer. In cases of violent inflamma- 332 V O M tion, and considerable discharge, Mr. B. recommends repeated af- fusions of cold water : the patient should take frequent exercise, and apply this bandage early in the morning; asthelimbisthenlesslia- ble to swelling. In a short time, the pain, vvhich at first is considerable, will be found gradually to abate, while the limb recovers its tone and sensibility. VOMITING, is the inverted vermicular motion of the muscular fibres of the stomach and intes- tines ; being attended with con- vulsions of the abdominal muscles and midriff: when this action is so mild as to be confined to the sto- mach, it is then termed nausea.... As vomiting is a frequent symptom in other diseases, especially in fe- A'ers, we shall here consider it only as a primary complaint. Causes .'...Crudities accumulated in the stomach ; such as bile ; mucus ; hard, indigestible food ; scirrhus, and other organic affec- tions ; acrid and poisonous sub- stancestakenpy the mouth; Avorms; ruptures ; nephritic complaints, or stone, as well as violent passions. Cure :...If the stomach be foul; or if hurtful substances have been swallowed, emetics should be >ad- ministered in the manner described, vol. ii. p. 451 ; but, in cases where poisons have been taken, the anti- dotes recommended under their respective heads, should first be re- sorted to ; and the cure be com- pleted by strengthening medicines. In callosity, or scirrhosity of the stomach, benefit has often been derived from the internal use of soap, mercurials, and other altera- tives....Worms require the treat- ment already suggested, for their expulsion....If vomiting has been induced by violent passions, espe- UR I cially by anger and vexation; it will be advisable to take a tea- spoonful of vitriolated kali in spring water, and, on the following morn- ing from 10 or 15 grains of powder of rhubarb : the beverage should consist of barley-water, and other diluents, with cream of tartar, and a few grains of nitre. Persons of an irritable temper, and conse- quently more liable to a return of this complaint, ought at hast to abstain from spirituous liquors, and high-seasoned food. Where the vomiting, or nausea, continues after the stomach is cleansed, about a scruple of salt of wormwood should be taken in wa- ter ; and immediately after, two tea-spoonfuls of lemon-juice in the same liquid ; Avhich remedy may be repeated every two or three hours ; drinking balm-tea in the intervals. The Columbo-root has, likewise, been of great service in these cases. Infants at the breast are often troubled with vomiting: if the milk be coagulated, and the stools have a similar appearance, or a green colour, and an acid odour, the testaceous powder should be given, as directed, p. 99 of this vol. after which the infant ought to drink pure whey ; but, during the attack, luke-warm water must be administered ; farther, a mix- ture of sweet-oil and laudanum may be rubbed in, or warm cu- shions filled with aromatic plants, be applied to the pit of the stomach. If such vomiting be followed by greatdebility, a few tea-spoonfuls of mulled red-wine, with a little nut- meg, may be allowed with benefit; though this practice should never be adopted on trivial occasions. URINE, is that part of the blood which is separated by the extremi- U RI ties of the arteries connected with the k/idnies. It drops by the ure- ter into the urinary bladder, where it usually remains a few hours ; and is prevented from returning into the ureters, by their entrance being oblique, and provided with valves. As this secretion is of import- ance in the animal economy, we shall give a concise view of the principal diseases arising from that source. It deserves 10 be previ- ously stated, that the obstruction of the urinary passage is always at- tended with greater and more im- mediate danger, than that of the bo web..... vv' hen the inclination to knake water is succeeded by a dis- charge of a few drops only, it is termed a strangury; if the diffi- culty of voiding it be attended with pain, a dysury ; and a total sup- pression, is called ischury. Causes ......lhe most frequent are, an acrid state of the blood ; spasms ; compression of the neigh- bouring parts ; scirrhous, or cance- rous tumors forming internally ; suppressed perspiration ; repulsion of rheumatism, gou:, and cutane- ous eruptions ; slone in the bladder or kidnies; inflammation of the bladder, he. . Cure :......In urinary affections arising from acrimony, suppressed perspiration, or spasms, it wiil be advisable to take antispasmodics, combined with mild :.udor;lics ; for instance, emulsions with tinc- ture of guaiacum ; camphor, he at the same time, warm fomenta- tions should be applieu to the lower belly ; or, tepid bathing, fallowed by emollient clysters, may be of still greater advantage. If the dis- order originate from a repulsion of rheumatic, gouty, and other morbid matter, attempts mu^i be URI 333 made to reduce the affection to its former seat, by means of diaphore- tics ; blisters applied to different parts, and the use of warm baths. In cases of inflammation of the bladder, or stone, we refer the reader to vol. i. p. 295 ; and p. 47 of the present volume. In every stage of these painful maladies, the patient should take lukewarm, mucilaginous liquids ; such, as solutions of gum-arabic in water; cr linseed-tea; and a bland,, nutritious diet. If, how- ever, th*e desired relief be not speedily obtained, proper medical aid ought to be procured, without delay. Sometimes the urine is involun- tarily emitted, but without pain ; a complaint which frequently, af- fects children. It generally origi- nates from indolence ; so that mo- derate correction -will prove the most certain remedy : it may, how- ever, also arise from a weakness of the sphincter of the bladder; in which ca::e, tonics, such as bark, valerian, he. together with blisters applied to the loins, or to the sacral bone, Avill be the most proper means. But, where it proceeds from worms, anthelmintics may be employed with advantage. Another affection of the urinary system, is diabetes, or an immode- rate and long-continued discharge of urine, the quality of vvhich is, in most cases, preternaturaily chang- ed : thus, in some instances, it has the smell, colour, and taste of ho- ney ; while, in others, it is entirely limpid.....It is a remarkable cir- cumstance in this affection, that the excretion of urine exceeds the quantity of liquid taken by the patient. Causes :...Sp isms ; genera? debi- lity, or local weakness in the Lid- 334 USQ nies , strong diuretics, and Avhat- ever may induce a laxity of the body......This malady is seldom cured, unless it be attended to in its earlier stages. Treatment ......The remedies hi- therto prescribed for this affection, are tonics, such as bark, Avith small doses of rhubarb, or mixed with the diluted vitriolic acid ; and the daily use of mucilaginous drinks, conjoined with lime-water, either alone, or with milk. But the most important point appear^ V» be, ab- stinence from all vegetable food ; a practice vvhich has been attended with the best effect. [See Dia- betes.] Lastly, there occurs sometimes an alarming affection of the blad- der, when the urine is mingled with blood....If this malady be suffered to continue for a long period, it may prove fatal; but, in general, it is not attended with danger. Causes ......Violent exertions and local injury; inflammation of the kidnies ; drastic and diuretic me- dicines ; excess in sensual plea- sures ; suppression of the piles, he. Cures:... When the disorder arises from debility, tonics, combined with astringents, should be employed. If acrid matters produced such bloody discharge, it will be neces- sary to resort to mucilaginous sub- stances and antispasmodics; such as chamomile, rue, opium, Sec. but, when it is occasioned by suppress- ed evacuations, these ought, if possible, to be speedily restored.... Where the passage is ulcerated, it will be useful to take the Peruvian bark with sal ammoniac, or lime- water and milk. In cases of Stone, the reader will find the proper re- medies stated under that article. USQUEBAUGH,a strong, com- pound, spirituous liquor, vvhich is uvu prepared in the following manner: Take of cloves, cinnamon, and nutmegs, each 2 oz. ; of caraway, anise, and coriander-seeds, each 4 oz.; and half a pound of liquorice- root, cut in slices. Let these in- gredients be bruised, and distilled with 11 gallons of proof-spirit, and two gallons of water, till the fiiinu begin to vise. When the liquor is about to run, 2 oz. of British saf- fron, tied in a linen bag, should be fixed to the extremity of the worm, so that the spirit may filtre through and extract all the virtues of the saffron. When, the distillation is completed, the whole should be sweetened with a sufficient quan- tity of double-refined sugar, and decanted for use. Usquebaugh is chiefly employed as a cordial, and may occasionally be drunk with advantage, by per- sons who have undergone great bodily fatigue ; but, as the posses- sion of such luscious beverage is apt to introduce detestable habits, we conceive, that diluted rum, or other simple spirit, would afford a proper substitute for this expensive com- pound. Usuky. See Interest. UVULA, in animal economy, denotes a soft glandular body, of a conical figure, that is suspended from the palate, or posterior part of the roof of the mouth, perpendicu- larly over the chink of the wind- pipe, which lies at the root of the tongue. The uvula is by Nature design- ed to modify the current of cold air, previously to its entering the lungs. As the aftections, to which this part is exposed, do not essen- tially differ from those of the Ton- sils, we shall conclude with re- marking, that a gargle, consisting of a decoction of Peruvian bark, U V y U V U 335 rage, rose-leaves, or other aslrin- gland is so relaxed or inflamed, as gents, has generally proved eflica- to be attended with a difficulty of *ious, in cases where this useful swallowing. w. WAG WAG Wages. See Labour. WAGGON, a species of wheel- carriage, the form of which varies, according to the different purposes for vvhich it is designed. Few implements of husbandry are of greater importance, or ad- mil, perhaps, of more essential im- provements, than wheel-carriages. Hence we cannot but express our surprize at the infatuation of those farmers, who employ large wag- gons, on the erroneous principle, that a greater quantity may thus be carried at one time ; while they overlook the injury which such un- wieldy machines necessarily occa- sions, both in their fields, and par- ticularly on roads, by making deep ruts, and otherwise tearing or breaking up the soil. The princi- pal objection to the use of these heavy vehicles on farms, is their weight; which requires an in- creased number of horses or cattle, that might le more profitably em- ployed in tillage. The same obser- vation is applicable to the common road or stage-waggons : these usu- ally weigh about 2£ tons, and are drawn by 8, 10, or more horses, acoording to the distance to which they travel. Now, a single horse, of a moderate size vviil, in a well- constructed vehicle, and on tolera- ble roads draw 30 cwt. with ease, independently of the weight occa- sioned by the cart: and it will per- form this task for a series of days, months, and even years. But, if the common waggons were laden according to such draught, they ought to carry from 20 to 40 tons; a weight exceeding their strength, and incompatible with their mode of construction. The superiority of small carriages being too evident to require any farther demonstra- tion, we shall subjoin a table, ex- hibiting the load vvhich waggons and carts are, by act of parliament, permitted to draw on ihe turnpike- roads ; and wdiich includes both the whole incumbent load, and the vehicle itself. 336 WAG WAG Waggons, with wheels not exceeding 9 inches, Ditto, with wheels not exceeding 6 inches, Ditto, with wiieels not exceeding 3 inches, Carts, with wheels not exceeding 9 inches, Ditto, Avith Avheels not exceeding 6^ inches, ' Ditto, Avith wheels not exceeding 3 ] inches, Summer Weight. Winter Weight. tons. civt. qrs. tons. cat. qrt. 6 0 0 4 5 0 3 10 0 3 0 0 2 12 0 1 10 0 5 10 0 3 15 0 3 0 0 2 15 0 .2 7 0 1 7 0 Our limits not admitting a far- ther disquisition, we request those readers, who wish to obtain addi- tional information on this subject, to consult Dr. Anderson's "Dis- sertation on the Means of Con- structing Waggons, and other Car- riages employedfor the Purposes of Agriculture ;" an ingenious essay, which is inserted in the 4th vol. of his " Recreations in Agriculture," he. See also the article Cart. [The above table is preserved, from an opinion that the English regulations maybe advantageously adopted in the United States, where it is highly pleasing to see a spirit prevailingin favour of those great sourses of riches to a coun- try, Turnpike Roads. The great importance of enabling ahorse oroxtodravv Avith the great- est power, is self-evident; and bence the reader is presented with the following observations, by Mr. Walker, extracted from his " Lectures on Philosophy," 4to. It is evident, that where the neck rises from the chest of the horse, the shoulder-blades form the resting place of his collar, or harness, into a slope or inclination ; and as this slope forms an angle] with a perpendicular to the hori- zon, of about 14 or 15 degrees, it is evident, the line of his draught should form the same angle with the horizon, because he will then pull perpendicularly to the shape of his shoulder, and all parts of that shoulder will be equally pres- sed by the collar. The following figure may render this more intel- ligible, and show that a horse draws more conformably to Lis mechanism in a sloping, than an horizontal line. WAG WAG 337 The horse himself, considered as a lever, has in this inclined draught a manifest advantage over bis obstacles, in comparison of an horizontal draught, as may be seen by the next figure. When a horse is yoked to a post, or has any great obstacle to overcome, he converts himself into a lever, making his hind feet the fulcrum, and the centre of gravity of his body to lean over it, at as great a distance as possible, by thursting out his hind feet; by this means acting both by his weight and muscular strength, and lengthening the acting part of the lever a b, he overcomes the diffi- culty more by his weight than by his muscular strength ; for the muscles of the fore legs act upon the bones to so great a mechanical disadvantage, that though he ex- erts them with all his might, they serve in great difficulties, for little more than props to the fore part of his body. Hence we see the great use of heavy horses for draught. But the great mechanical advan- tage of the inclined draught, may be more particularly seen, by call- ing the line a b the acting part of a lever, and the nearest approach from the fulcrum b to the inclined line of draught, (that is, b c) the re- sisting part of the lever ; compare this with the resisting part of a lever, touching the horizontal line of draught, (that is, b d) and it will be found nearly double; conse- quently, agreeably to the known properties of the lever, a weight at g would require douhle the exer- tion in the horse to remove it, that the same weight would require was it placed at e. These advan- tages, great as they are, are yet so obvious,that one wonders how they could be overlooked. Let any one with the model of a horse from a toy-shop, set his hind feet on the edge of a table, and it will be found that he will draw double the weight along the table a, that he can upon the table *. vol. v. Xx 338 WAG WAG The obvious conclusions from this experiment is, that single horse carts are preferable to teams ; that four horses, with each a properly constructed cart, -will draw much more, and with more ease to themselves, than when they are yoked in a team to one cart; be- cause, in that case, three of the horses must draw horizontally, and consequently in a manner incon- sistent with their mechanism, and the established laws of mechanics. The horse's collar is also drawn against his throat, by which his breathing is interrupted ; and in cart teams, (Avhere the horses are not marshalled, as in wraggons,) one horse is standing still, perhaps, while another is wasting his strength in pulling him forward.... One horse to relieve himself, leans on one way out of the line of draught, whilst another is leaning a contrary way; in short their strength is seldom united. From a number of experiments made by Mr. Walker, for the purpose of determining the pro- per draught, there appeared, to be an evident disadvantage in drawing from above the centre ; and on the contrary, a considerable increase of power in drawing from the axles. Hence he concludes as the splinter bar, or point of draught, in most carriages, is placed about one fourth the diameter of the fore wheel above its centre, it is evident, that a pressure equal to one fifth of whatever weight lies upon it, is actually added to the natural weight, by this situation of the point of draught. For 24oz. sur- mounted the obstacle when the pull was from the centre, and 30oz. were required to surmount it, at half the length of a spoke above the centre. From Mr. Walker's experi- ments to ascertain the best propor- tions between the heights of the fore and hind wheels ; it appeared, that there was little superiority or inferiority in all the variety of com- binations of heights in fore and hind wheels. Fore wheels, how- ever, of four feet eight inches, and hind wheels of five feet six inches, seem to have Avhat little,advantage there is. To the objection which might be made against these di- mensions, founded upon the incon- veniences arising to the coach- WAK WAL 339 tfnaker in altering the routine of his business, he replies it is cer- tainly as easy to fix the splinter- bar under the futchells, as upon them -, and I see no great outrage that would be done to appearance and fashion, if the buttons on which the traces are looped, were under the splinter-bar instead of being a-top. In these cases the draught would have all its mecha- nical advantages, and the horses Would draw agreeably to their form and anatomy ; the pole would have the same command of the car- riage down hill, and the same command in turning as in the present method.] WAINSCOT, denotes the tim- ber-work employed for lining the walls of apartments : it is usually made in the form of pannels, and painted, in order to serve as a sub- stitute for hangings. According to the modern prac- tice of building, rooms are wains- coted only to the height of two or three feet; the intermediate space, to the ceiling, being usually cover- ed with paper. The walls, how- ever, ought to be thoroughly dry, before the wainscot is fixed ; as the moisture exuding from the bricks is apt to loosen the pannels, and thus disfigure the workmanship. With a view to prevent such acci- dents, charcoal and wool are usu- ally placed between the timber and the wall; but the most certain me- thod of preserving the wainscot, consists in priming the inner sides of the joints with white lead, or with admixture of Spanish-brown and linseed oil. WAKE-ROBIN. Cuckow- riNT,or Lords and Ladies, Arum maculatum, L. a native and hardy perennial, growing in shady places, ditch-banks, and rough grounds ; flowering in May and June. Both the bulbous root, and the leaves of this vegetable, in afresh state, are extremely acrid. Never- theless, the former has sometimes been used internally as a powerful stimulant, and externally as a sub- stitute for blisters. When dried and pulverized, these roots Jose all their acrimony, and afford an al- most tasteless farinaceous poAvder. According to Dr. Withering, good bread may be prepared from them, as well as an exceWenistarch. .....The French manufacture from the same root, when properly dried and reduced to powder, a harmless cosmetic ; whicb is sold under the name of cypress-powder. Such preparation may also, and, we con- ceive, with greater advantage be used in domestic economy, instead of soap. Wall. See Building. Wall-barley. See Barlet; WALL-CRESS, the Common, or Codded Mouse-ear, Arabia tlmliana, L. an indigenous plant, growing on walls, roofs, and in dry, sandy pastures : it flowers in the month of May.....The Wall- cress seldom exceeds the height of 4 or 5 inches ; it produces small white blossoms, vvhich are succeed- ed by long slender pods, containing minute round seeds....This plant is said not to be relished by sheep, and is wholly refused by hogs ; but we are informed by Bechstein, that sheep are so remarkably par- tial to the Codded Mouse-ear, as " to run after it." Wall-pepper. See Pepper- Stone-crop. Wall-worth. See Dwarf-EL- der. WALNUT-TREE, or Juglans, 340 WAL L. a genus of exotic trees compre- hending 8 species ; the principal of which is the regia, or Common Walnut-tree. It is originally a native of Persia, and attains, in this country, the height of from 50 to 60 feet; having a beautiful erect trunk, that branches out into a large spreading crown, which is furnished with pinnated leaves..... There are numerous varieties, generally raised for their palatable fruit, which ripens from the begin- ning of September till the end of October ; but the most esteemed are the Double Walnut, the Large Walnut, the French Walnut, the Thin-skinned, and the Late Wal- nut. The Common Walnut-tree is propagated by drilling the ripe, dry nuts, together with their ex- ternal rind, at the distance of one inch from each other, and in rows nine inches asunder, in a light garden soil, that has been well ploughed or trenched. If the au- tumn be dry, they may be sown in that season ; in the contrary case, the nuts must be preserved in dry sand till the month of Fe- bruary, or early in March, when they may be set in the manner above directed. In the succeeding winter, it will be advisable to shel- ter the nuts either with rotten dung, decayed leaves, or with tan- ner's waste, over which flat.stones or slates may be placed, till they begin to shoot, when such cover- ing will become useless. Should the ensuing summer prove dry, it will be proper to water the young plants ; and those in a prosperous condition may be removed in au- tumn, into beds arranged in rows one foot asunder, and at the dis- tance of four inches from each WAL other in the row: the weaker planta must be suffered to remain in the seed-bed for another year. Thus, the Walnut-trees ought to be train- ed with single stems, till attain- ing the height of six or seven feet; when they may be suffered to form heads; as the branches will then be above the reach of cattle. The trees should now be trans- planted to a deep rich soil (though they also flourish on chalky lands), six feet asunder, and in rows at similar distance, in the form of a quincunx, till they bear fruit. Such as promise to be the most produc- tive, may then be selected, and left for bearing, while the others are to be planted out for timber : the for- mer must be thinned as they in- crease in size, by removing every intermediate tree, till they stand at the distance of from 24 to 48 feet from each other, according to the richness of the soil, and the progressive growth of the trees. In trimming the stems of Wal- nut-trees, Mr. Forsyth directs the shoots and small branches to be separated close to the bole, or trunk; but, when the operation of lopping is performed, or any diseased, da- maged, or cross branches, are to be pruned, he recommends the ex- cision to be made at a fork, or eye ; as part of the branch will other- wise decay, and thus materially injure the tree: in both cases, however it will be requisite imme- diately to apply the composition already described. The Walnut is equally valuable as a timber, and as a fruit-tree. Its wood was formerly often employed both for building' and in the manu- facture of household-furniture; but being very brittle, it is at pre- WAL WAL 341 sent superseded by mahogany, and other foreign timber. Neverthe- less, it is highly prized by joiners and cabinet-makers, for tables, gun-stocks, and other light arti- cles ; as it is beautifully veined, and admits of a fine polish. Far- ther, these trees are well calculat- ed for planting them in the bor- ders of orchards ; because their large spreading heads shelter the smaller, and more weakly fruit- trees, from the effects of boiste- rous winds:....an infusion of their leaves in boiling water, mixed with soap-suds, urine, and lime-water, has, according to Mr. Forsyth, been found very efficacious in de- stroying worms, and slugs in the ground, as likewise for exterminat- ing insects on trees. The fruit of the Walnut-tree is used at two different periods of its growth, namely, when green, for pickling, and in a ripe state, at the desert. For the former purpose, the nuts are fit in July or August, when they are about half, or three- fourths grown; but those only which are free from spots, should be selected, and plucked off the trees carefully by the hand. Walnuts attain to maturity in the months of September and Oc- tober, when they are usually beaten down by means of long poles ; for, as this fruit grows principally at the extremities of the branches, indolent or timid persons find it too troublesome to gather it by hand. The former practice, how- ever ought to be relinquished ; as it is very detrimental to the ferti- lity of the trees, and breaks or otherwise mutilates the young shoots: besides, the nuts cannot be easily preserved, when beaten down before they are sufficiently ripe. The best method of gathering walnuts, is that of shaking the trees only at a time when the fruit has commenced spontaneously to drop ; so that they may thus be easily obtained. If the nuts are to be kept for a considerable time, in a fresh state, they should first be well dried in an airy place, then packed in boxes, casks, jars, or other convenient vessels, in alternate layers of fruit, and fine, clean sand, that has been previous- ly deprived of all moisture by the sun, or in an oven. Thus, wal- nuts may be preserved in a sound state till the approach of summer ; but, in case the kernels be shri- velled, Mr. Forsyth recommends such nuts to be immersed in milk and water, for the space of six or eight hours, previously to being used; by vvhich expedient they will become so fine and plump, as to be easily divested of their inter- nal skin. [The Juglans nigra, or black Walnut of North America, is a grand forest tree, and highly va- luable for cabinet work. The nuts are large and nearly round, and contain a large kernel, of pleasant taste, abounding with oil, which is expressed for the purpose of mix- ing with paint for inside work, but might be usefully substituted (if not rendered rancid in the opera- tion of expression) for imported olive oil. The husk or shell of the nut, dyes different shades of brown. The Juglans alba oblonga, or white Walnut or Butternut, gene- rally grows to a less size than the black walnut. The nuts are oval; and, freed of the hull, are rough, and furrowed, containing a soft, oily, sweet kernel. When ripe the nuts are covered with a viscid se- 542 W A It WAR Cretion. The young nuts pickled Fire-place, and Stove, we shall make an excellent condiment for now lay before our readers the fol- fish or beef steaks, quite equal to lowing Cut, which represents a the Maderia nut, commonly called simple, and perhaps the least ex-. English walnut. An extract of the pensive, mode of communicat- bark made into pills, constitutes a ing warmth from the kitchen-fire, mild and safe purge. The bark throughout houses, manufactories, and shells of the nuts dye a good or other buildings, by means of brown colour. See Hickory- steam. tree.] WARBLES, in farriery, are '—- —' small, hard tumours arising on a horse's back, and generally oc- casioned by the heat, or friction, of the saddle, in travelling. As these injuries frequently oc- cur in horses, after hard journies, or a severe chase, we would advise every person, to whose care these noble animals are entrusted, mi- nutely to examine the back every time when the saddle is removed. If anyhardness or inequality should be perceived, from which a warble may probably ensue, the affected part must be bathed with the fol- lowing liniment, that alone will be sufficient to check the progress of the swelling : Take of extract of lead, half an ounce ; camphorated spirit of wine, two ounces; soft water, half a pint. Previously to adding the water, the extract ""£> and spirit should be well shaken, so that they may be duly incor- A> ;s a COpper furnished with porated. a still-head, and fixed over the WARMTH, a term expressing gre. a moderate degree of heat. B, a ieaden or copper tube, pro- The warming houses, in a cli- ceeding from the vessel, and being mate so variable as that of Britain, heated by the steam of the boiling is an object of the first importance, water. jt }s carrjed through eight hoth to health and domestic com- rooms (as delineated in the figure fort: hence, the invention or dis- aDOva given) ; traverses that side covery of the most economical me- 0f the wau where the chimney is thod of effecting such purpose, has usuaiiy erected ; and is likewise engaged the talents of many able provided with stop-cocks, C, C; philosophers and artisans. Having by means of which the course of already stated several of their use- the steam may be accelerated, ov ful contrivances, in the articles retarded, at pleasure. WAR WAR S43 D, is the spot at which the steam is discharged, after having circulated through the rooms. E, is a cistern, by which the copper may be occasionslly sup- plied with water. This contrivance was proposed many years since, by Col. Wil- liam Cook : it deserves to be more generally known, on account of its obvious simplicity ; uniting convenience with economy, in warming a number of rooms by one grate : a considerable saving in fuel will thence result, while the kitchen-fire may, at the same time, be employed in roasting, or in any other culinary process....See the article Room. [WARPING, signifies, 1. Tow- ing of ships. 2. Preparing webs of cloth for the loom. 3. That spe- cies of irrigation which deposits a quantity of sediment from the flowing tide, and which form a stratum of soil or manure when the waters have receded from it. It is in this last sense that we shall notice it. The origin of this great im- provement in husbandry, is un- questionably derived from the Egyptians. Every one acquaint- ed wilh the history, of the Nile, knows, that the sediment left by that river in its annual over-flow- ings, acts as excellent manure, and enables the inhabitants to reap abundant crops. In England the practice has been partially fol- lowed, particularly in the coun- ties of Lincoln and York ; and also in Italy, according to Simonde. The improvement consists in letting in the tide at high water to deposit the warp, and permit- ting it to run off again as the tide falls. But to render it efficacious, the water must be at command, to keep it out and let it in at plea- sure ; so that there must not only be a cut or canal made to join the river, but a sluice at the mouth to open and shut as wanted ; and that the waters may be of a proper depth on the land to be warped,and also prevented from flowing over contiguous lands, banks are raised around the fields to be warped, from three or four, to six or seven feet high, according to circum- stances. Thus a soil of any depth is formed, which consists of mud of a vast fertility, though contain- ing not much besides sand. Mr. Tat ham, from whose ex- cellent work on " Irrigation " (see vol. 3. of this work, p. 395) has collected several accounts of the utility of warping, from the agri- cultural surveys of the counties of England, from all which the great advantage of the practice is rendered evident, and encourages its adoption in the United States. It appears, that many estates, which before the commencement of warping, were worthless, had been rendered as valuable as any in the kingdom. The lands in the vicinity of muddy creeks in New Jersey, might be considerably ameliorated by warping; the sub- ject is therefore suggested to the consideration of the proprietors. Lord Hawke whose details of the benefits derived from warping, are highly important, gives the following directions with respect to the cultivation of the lands thus improved : " The land " says he, " must be in tillage for some con- siderable time after warping, for six years at least. The land, when laid down, and continued in grass is not warped ; for the salts in the mud would infallibly kill the grass-seeds. When it is 344 WAR WAS proposed to sow the land again with corn (grain) then the land is warped ; when they find the grass decline, then they warp and plough it out. As the land varies in quali- ty, so does the time in Avhich it will produce good grass ; the land is never fallowed but in the year when it is warped." In Italy, (particularly in Tusca- ny) warping is called comblec, and is fully described by Simonde in his late work on the Agriculture of Tuscany.] WARTS, are small, hard, indo- lent excrescences, or tumors, that have a rough surface, and appear principally on the face and hands of young persons ; though some- times settling on other parts of the body. But, if such deformities oc- cur in individualsadvancedin years, and are of a livid hue, with a smooth surface, they frequently become cancers, and ought to be treated in a similar manner. Warts do not, in general, require immediate attention : for, unless painful or troublesome, they will, in most cases, gradually disappear. Where, however, they increase in size, and are attended with pain, it will be proper to remove theni by a ligature. Another method of ex- tirpating them is by evulsion, or plucking them out; but such prac- tice is by no means to be recom- mended ; as the warts speedily re- turn. A preferable mode of era- dicating them, is by the applica- tion of escharotics, or mild caute- ries ; for instance, crude sal-ammo- niac, which must be moistened with water, and rubbed on the tu- mors, two or three times every day ; or wetting them with the liquid salt of tartar; spirit of hartshorn, or tincture of Spanish flies ; either of which has been successfully employed for this pur- pose....Another mode of extermi- nating warts, as well as corns, has been recommended, by the follow- ing plaster: Dissolve 1 oz. of gum galbanum in vinegar; evaporate the solution to a proper consist- ence ; and add half an ounce of common tar, 2 drams of simple dyachylon plaster, 20 grains of verdigrease, and an equal portion of sal-ammoniac : let the two last ingredients be finely pulverized, and the whole be duly incorporat- ed. Previously to its application, the warts ought to be well nibbed with moistened soap, again dried, and the plaster renewed every 12 hours. In obstinate cases, how- ever, it will be necessary to resort to internal remedies, and tochange the milk-diet of children, by al- lowing them a greater proportion of animal food. WART-WORT, Churn-staff, Cat's-milk, or Sun-spurge ; Eu- phorbia hclioscopia, L. an indige- nous plant, growing in gardens, corn-fields,and cultivated grounds; flowering in July and August.... This vegetable, though eaten by cattle and sheep, imparts to the flesh of the latter animals a dis- agreeable flavour, and is also de- trimental to their health.....The milky juice exuding from the stalk, tinges paper of a fine azure-blue colour. WASHING, in general, signi- fies the cleansing of bodies or sub- stances with water, and other ab- stergent ingredients. Washing essentially contributes to cleanliness, and consequently to the preservation of health; hence, all persons ought to be habituated to this salutary practice, from their earliest period of i he. Great cau- tion, however, is requisite in wash- WAS WAS 345 ing infants: for which purpose, the water ought at first to be tepid, or of a moderate warmth ; then gra- dually reduced to a cool tempera- ture ; and at length, it may be used as cold as the common at- mosphere of the season. The head and neck must, farther, be rubbed during the whole process, with a wet sponge; and, together with the rest of the body, be immediately wiped dry with clean cloths; which, in the winter, should be previously warmed. Thus, children will be early inured to habits of cleanli- ness ; and the attention of parents to this important object will be amply rewarded. WASP, or Vespa, L. a genus of insects comprising 139 species, three of which.only are natives of Britain. 1. The Crabro. See Hornet. 2. The Vulgaris, or Common Wasp, is from half to three quarters of an inch in length ; it is divided into 3 classes ; namely, the queens, or females, which are furnished with stings, and are much larger than any other wasp, on account of the numerous eggs they contain. The males are less than the queens, and are not pro- vided with stings : the number of these two classes is nearly equal in a nest, amounting in general to 200 or 300. The mules are princi- pally employed in constructing the nests, and in providing the other wasps and the young insects with food : like the females, they are furnished with long stings. The common Avasps build their nests in the ground, Avhere the females deposit their eggs singly: these are hatched in the spring ; and in the course of three Aveeks, the young insect^ pass through the different states of larvae or grubs, VOL. v. and of chrysalids ; when they be- come perfect Avasps. The mules come first into existence ; immedi- ately enlarge the hole ; and form the nest with fibres of wood, leaves, &c. ; they feed the young males and females (more judiciously than some human parents) adapting the quantity and nature of such pro- vision to the weakness of their stomachs. This food consists, first of the juices extracted from fruits and meat, but afterwards of the bodies of insects. As soon as each wasp acquires sufficient strength, it flies into the fields, and gardens, where the fruit is plundered, and bees are killed, with the view of obtaining their honey. Similar de- predations are committed through- out the summer; but, in the month of October, Avhen their supply be- gins to diminish, the males and mules attack the newly-hatched insects of their own species, and destroy them, together with the larvae, chrysalids, and eggs: they then fall upon one another, till the frost and rain exterminate nearly the whole, excepting a few fe- males; which, in the ensuing spring lay new eggs, and thus become the parents of a numerous progeny ; as a nest of wasps, towards autumn, consists of from 14 to 15,000 cells. 3. The coarctata, or Small Wasp, is about half an inch long : it is hatched like the preceding species, with which its habits also correspond. The nests of the Small Wasps are constructed of woody fibres, reduced to a fine substance resembling paper: they are of an oval form ; being suspended from the branches of trees; and covered with a kind of varnish, that renders them impenetrable to water. Wasps are not only destructive to grapes, peaches, and the mere Y y 346 WAS WAT delicate kinds of fruit, but also to bees ; the hives of vvhich they at- tack and plunder, frequently com- pelling those industrious insects to change their habitation. To pre- vent such depredations, Mr. For- syth recommends several phials, or small bottles, to be prepared, towards the time when the Avasps appear. These vessels are to be filled, half or three parts full, with a mixture consisting of the lees of beer or Avine, and the sweepings of sugar, or the dregs cf molas- ses : next, they must be suspend- ed by yelloAV pack-thread, on nails driven into different parts of gar- den-Avalls, so as to reach nearly the bottom. When the bottles are filled with insects, the liquor must be poured into another vessel, and the wasps crushed on the ground. Should the weather prov'e very hot, so that these marauders become very numerous, and will not enter the glasses exposed for their recep- tion, Mr. F. directs them to be touched on the back with a little oil, when they will instantly fall down; their bodies acquiring a black or green colour ; and the la- teral pores through which they breathe, being closed up by the oil, they consequently perish. As the proper remedies for pro- curing relief in the painful sensa- tion arising from the sting of these insects, are similar to those em- ployed for the Sting of Bees, we refer the reader to vol. i. p. 244. If, however, any wasps be acciden- tally swallowed in beer, or other liquor, a small portion of honey, vinegar, and sweet-oil, may be mixed together ; a tea-spoonful of wdiich should be frequently taken ; till the pain and inflammation abate. The efficacy of this remedy has been fully proved by experience. Waste Lands. See Land. Wtatch. See Time-piece. WATER, a transparent fluid, destitute of colour, taste, and smell: it was formerly considered as one of the four elements: when perfectly pure, it does not sponta- neously undergo any perceptible change; remains liquid in the common temperature of the at- mosphere ; becomes solid, at 32 degrees of Fahrenheit's ther- mometer ; and is converted into vapour, at 212°.; but resumes its fluidity, on being reduced to any intermediate degree. Water is capable of dissolving most of the natural bodies, and particularly salts ; while it consti- tutes a material part both of the animal and vegetable kingdoms. Till the latter end of the 18th century, water was generally be- lieved to be a simple element, which might, by repeated distillation, be converted into earth: it is now, however demonstrated to be a com- pound. Water may be divided into two general classes, namely, saline, and fresh. The former is derived from the different seas which surround the globe: it contains a large por- tion of common salt, magnesia, &c. See Sea-avater. Fresh water may, farther, be di- vided into atmospheric, vvhich in- cludes hail, rain, and snow-water, and also dew ; stagnant, such as that of lakes, ponds, and marshes ; and running, which comprehends spring, well, and river-water. To these may be added Minkkal Waters, being impregnated with various earthy and metallic ingre- dients, from which they derive pe- culiar properties. Water is one of the most useful elements in the arts and manufac- WAT WAT 347 tures, as well as in rural and do- mestic economy : hence, various machines have been invented, for the purpose of raising and diffus- ing this salutary fluid....the follow- ing contrivances deserve particular notice. The machine, of which the an- nexed figure will convey an accu- rate idea, was executed at Oulton, in Cheshire, by Mr. Wkitehurst, for the service of a brewhouse, and other offices, belonging to Philip Egerton, Esq. Its design is, to raise water by the momentum, or force which this fluid acquires when confined : it having effectually an- swered the purpose, we have been induced to give a description of its constituent parts, from the 65th vol. of the "Philosophical Transac- tions of the Royal Society," for 1774. A, represents the original reser- voir, or spring ; the upper surface of which corresponds with the ho- rizontal line B, C, and also with the bottom of the reservoir K. D, the main pipe, which is 1 \ inch in diameter, and nearly 20u yards in length. E, is a branch -pipe of similar di- mensions, for the use of thekitchen- oflices......Mr. Whitehurst ob- serves, that these offices are situ- ated 18 or 20 feet, at the least, be- neatb the surface of the reservoir A, ami that the cock F, is about 16 feet 1) low it. G, represents a valve-box ; and g, exhibits the valve. II, is an air-vessel. o, o, represent the ends of the main-pipe, which are inserted in the air-vessel, and are bent down- wards, to prevent the air from be- ing driven out, when the water is forced into it. W, denotes the surface of the water. Mr. Whiiehur st remarks that, as water discharged from an aper- ture beneath a pressure of 16 feet perpendicular height, moves at the rale of 32'feet in one second'of time, its velocity from the ccck F, will be in a sinii'ar ratio. And, though the aperture of such cock be not nearly equal to the diame- ter of the pipe D, yet the pressure of the fluid contained in the pipe 348 W A T WAT will be very considerable : so that if a column of water, 200 yards high, be thus set in motion, and then suddenly stopped by the cock F, its great force will open the valve g; and condense the air in the box H, as often as the water is drawn from the cock. This con- densation was sufficient to force the water into the reservoir K, and even to burst the vessel H, within a few months after its first construction ; though it was made of sheet-lead, in the proportion of 9 or 10 lbs. to one square foot; and Avas apparently very firm. Hence it may be rationally concluded, that the impetus of the water is far su- perior to the simple pressure of the column I, K; and is therefore equal to a greater resistance (if it were required) than a pressure of four or five feet perpendicular height. This ingenious contrivance is now applied to a variety of ma- chinery, by the patriotic Mat- thew Boulton, Esq. of Soho, near Birmingham ; who obtained a patent in December, 1797, for an improved apparatus, and methods of raising water and other fluids.... Mr. B. has substituted valves for cocks, and manufactures the pipes of such materials, as are calculated to prevent accidents from bursting. .....For a more specific account of these improvements, the reader will consult the 9th volume of the " Repertory of Arts," he. where they are illustrated with two en- gravings. The following machine, Avhich is constructed on the principle of Hiero's Fountain, forms the sub- ject of a plate in Dr. Darwin's admirable work, entitled " Phyto- logia ;" it is designed to raise wa- ter to a great perpendicular height, for the irrigation of land, in such situations as have the advantage of a small fall. a, b, is the stream of water. b, c, c, represents the water-fall, supposed to be 10 feet. d, e, are two leaden or iron- vessels, containing a certain quan- tity of water, which may be com- puted to be about 4 gallons each. /, g, h, i, k, I, are leaden vessels, each holding about two quarts. o, p, two cocks, each of which passes through two pipes, opening the one and closing the other. q, r, is a water-balance, that moves on its center s; and by which the two cocks o, and p, are alternately turned. t, u, and to, x, are two air-pipes of lead, both internally one inch and a quarter in diameter. Vi 2; y, z; y, z; are water- " pipes, each being one inch in dia- meter. The pipe b, c, c, is always full from the stream a, b: the small cisterns g, i, I, and the large one d, are supposed to have been previ- ously filled with water. The fluid may then be admitted by turning the cock o, through the pipe c, c, into the large cistern e. This wa- ter, Dr. Darwin remarks, will press the air, confined in the cis- tern e, up the air-pipe w. x, and will force the fluid out of the cis- terns g, i, I, into those marked h, k, and C.....At the same time, by opening B, the water and condens- ed air, which previously existed in the large cistern d, and in the small- er ones marked/, h, k, will be dis- charged at B.... After a short time, the water-balance, q, r, s, will turn the cocks, and exclude the water, WAT WAT 349 while it opens the opposite ones : In the year 1783, an excellent the cisterns,/, h, k, are emptied in engine was erected at Windsor, by their turns by the condensed air the command of His Majesty, from the cistern, d, as the water for the purpose of raising water progressively enters the latter from from a deep well, to supply the the pipe, b, c. wants of the Castle. It consists 350 W A T WAT simply of a grooved wheel, 3 feet in diameter, which is fixed on an axis that revolves horizontally over the well : an endless rope, suffi- ciently long to reach into the wa- ter, is passed over the wheel. Far- ther, a winch is attached to one end of the axis, by means of Avhich it maybe turned ; and, on its op- posite extremity, there is another wheel, weighted with lead, that acts as a fly, and serves to increase the velocity. When the wheel is turned, every part of the rope is drawn through the water, and ascends to the top, carrying with it a considerable quantity of that fluid : thus, by the pressure of the rope on the wheel, during its revo- lution, the water is discharged into a cistern placed for its reception.... This expedient vvas suggested by a sagacious mariner; and so re- markable is the facility with which the whole may be worked, that, though the well is nearly 200 feet in depth, the machine may be turned by one hand, and sufficient Avater be raised to fill a pipe ; the diameter of vvhich is equal to that of the rope. In those situations, where it is an object of some importance to raise water to the height of a few feet, by-the power of the wind, for the purpose of draining morasses, or of watering lands on a higher level ; we conceive the horizontal wind-mill, with a centrifugal pump, to be a most useful machine : we have therefore annexed a represen- tation of it, similar to that given by Dr. Darwin, in the work above quoted. The machine here delineated, consists of a windmill-sail, which is placed in an horizontal direction, similar to that of a smoke-jack, and is surrounded by an octagon tower. The diverging rays of such tower, a, b, a, b, if on a small scale, may be made with deals two inches in thickness ; but, on a large plan, they should be construct- ed of brick work. These upright pillars are connected by means of oblique boards, represented at A, B, which are placed horizontally from pillar to pillar, with respect to their length ; and at an angle of 45 degrees, with regard to their breadth; so as to form a complete octogan, including the horizontal windmill-sail near the top :....as the wind strikes against any of such boards, from whatever quar- ter, it is bent upwards, and then acts upon the horizontal wind-sail. Farther, these boards may either be fixed in their respective situa- tions, or be made to turn upon an axis a little beneath their centres of gravity, so as to close them- selves on that side of the octagon tower, which is most distant from the wind. Below the shaft of the wind-sail, a centrifugal pump is fixed, with two arms, as represented at C, D. It consists, simply, of an erect, bored trunk, or of a leaden cylin- der, furnished with two opposite arms, having a valve at the bottom; which is so constructed as to pre- vent the return of the water ; and another valve at the extremity of each arm, for excluding the access of air above the current of the Ava- ter, while the latter flows out. c, c, c, c, a circular trough for the reception of the streams from C and D, to convey them to those situations where the water may be required. In December, 1733, a patent was granted to Mr. Joseph Bra- ma h, for his invention of a water- cock upon a new construction..... WAT W A T 351 352 WAT WAT His privilege is now expired;but, as the principle on vvhich he pro- ceeds could be explained only by the aid of an engraving, Ave refer ibe reader to the 1st vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," he. Another patent was obtained, in January, 1791, by Mr. Joseph Brooks, for his invention of a buoyant machine, calculated to raise water from a lower to a high- er level, without the aid either of fire or of wind, and without taking any water from the uppermost le- vel :....the curious reader will find a particular description of this contrivance, in the 7th vol. of the work' above quoted. In the year 1801, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. adjudged their silver medal to Mr. H. Sarjeant, of Whitehaven, Cumberland, for a Machine for raising Water, of which we have given an engraving. This engine was erected at Irton- Hall, which is situated on an ascent of 60 or 61 feet perpendicular height: at the foot of this eleva- tion, about 140 yards distant from the offices, there runs a small stream of water ; and, in order to procure a constant supply of that necessary.fluid, the object was to raise such stream to the house, for culinary and domestic uses. With this view, a dam was formed at a short distance above the current, so as to cause a fall of about four feet: the water was" then con- ducted through a wooden trough, into vvhich a piece of leaden pipe, two inches in diameter, was in- serted, and part of vvhich is de- lineated at A. The stream of this pipe is di- rected in such a manner as to run into the bucket B, when the latter is elevaled ; but, as soon as it be- gins to descend, the stream passes over it, and flows progressively to supply the wooden trough or well, at the foot of which stands the forcing-pumpC, beingthree inches in diameter. D, is an iron cylinder, attached to the pump-rod, which passes through it: such cylinder is filled with lead, and weighs about 240lbs. This power works the pump, and forces the water to ascend to the house, through a pip0, one inch in diameter, and which is 420 feet in length. At E, is fixed a cord, which, when the bucket approaches to within four or five inches of its lowest projection, extends, and opens a valve in the bottom of the vessel, through which the water is discharged. The machine, here described, had at the time of Mr. Sarjeant's communication to the Society above mentioned, been six months in use, and fully answered the pur- pose for which it was designed.... The artizans employed were a plumber, blacksmith, and car- penter : the whole expense, ex- clusive of the pump and pipes, did not exceed 51. The latest contrivance* within our knowledge, for facilitating the motion of machinery, is the un- dershot water-wheel, invented by the late Mr. Besant, of Bromp- ton; on whose widow, the So- ciety for the Encouragement of Arts, he. in 1801, conferred a reward of ten guineas: and, as it pro- misee to be of great service in many situations, we have given a repre- sentation of it in the annexed plate. Description of the late 'Mr. Be- sant's Undershot Water-wheel. Fig. 1, a.....A, represents the C WAT body of the water-wheel, which is fallow, in the form of a drum, and is so constructed, as to resist the admission of water. B, is the axis on which the wheel turns. C, The float-boards, placed on the periphery of the wheel, each of vvhich h firmly fixed to its rim, and to the body of the drum, in an oblique direction. D, is the reservoir, that contains the water. E, the pen-stock, for regulating the quantity of water, which runs to the wheel. F, represents the current, that has passed such wheel. Pig. 1,6, is a front view of the water-wecl, exhibiting the oblique direction, in which the float-boards C, are placed on the face of the vvheii. In the common water-wheels, more than half the quantity of that fluid passes from the gate through the wheel, without affording it any assistance : the action of the floats is resisted by the incumbent atmos- phere, at the moment when these leave the surface of the tail- water ; and, as a similar propor- tion of Avater with that which passed betAveen the floats at the head, necessarily flows between them at the tail, the motion of the wheel is greatly impeded. On the contrary, by Mr. Besant's con- trivance, no water can pass, ex- cepting that which acts with all its force on the extremity of the wheel: and, as the floats emerge from the water, in an oblique direction, the weight of the atmosphere is thus prevented from taking any effect. Although his new wheel is consi- derably heavier than those con- structed on the old plan, yet it re- volves more easily on its axis ; the VOL. V. W A T 353 water having a tendency to float it. Lastly, repeated experiments have proved Mr. Besant's wheel to be so decidedly superior, that, when working in deep tail-water, it will carry weights in the proportion of three to one ; on which account it will be particularly serviceable to tide-mills. As a constant beverage with meals, water is certainly prefera- ble to any other liquid. Its rela- tive salubrity, depends on the peculiar properties which it pos- sesses ; on the various animal, vegetable, or mineral particles, with which it may be impregnat- ed, and the places whence it is procured. Thus, the water from Springs, being conveyed and filtered through different lavers of stone, sand, Sec. before it arrives at the surface of the earth, is much purer than most other waters. The transparency of that obtained from wells, varies according to the strata of earth through which it rises ; but the most wholesome fluid is derived from sandy soils where it has undergone a perfect filtration. The water of lakes and ponds, in general, has similar properties with that of rivers, but, being less agitated, it acquires a greater de- gree of impurity, and is conse- quently unfit for culinary purposes; though, on account of its softness, it may be advantageously employ- ed in washing linen....Rain-water collected in the vicinity of towns, of marshes or of mines, especially during the summer, is likewise im- pure : it ought, therefore, to be used solely for cleaning houses, or linen, and watering gardens. The fluid, obtained by dissolving snow, is somewhat purer ; and hail-water has still fewer extraneous particles, in consequence of its congealing in 354 W A T WAT the air ; so that it cannot, during its descent, combine with noxious ingredients. As>he health of mankind mate- rially depends on the wholesome- ness of the water which is intro- duced into the human body, by food and drink, different expedients have been devised, for preserving it in a state of purity, especially on long voyages. Hence, it has been recommended to add a small quan- tity of lime to every cask of water. Dr. Butler (in his Essay quoted in article Sea Water), advises A. oz. of fine, clear pearl-ash to be dissolved in 100 gallons of fresh water, and the cask to be closed in the usual manner. The pro- portion of the pearl-ash may be increased or diminished, according to circumstances. As an instance of its efficacy, Dr. B. relates, that be put one oz. of such alkali into a cask containing 25 gallons of Thames-water, and suffered it to stand for upwards of a year and a half, opening it once in 4 months ; when he found it perfectly sweet. He adds, that he afterwards used some of this preserved fluid for boiling Pease and Burgoo; that it made the former as soft, and an- swered the different culinary pur- poses as Avell as water newly drawn from rivers. In the first volume of the " Rap- port General des Travaux de la So- cle te' Philomatique de Paris," Ave meet Avith a Memoir by ±,l. Vau- quELiN, on several means of pre- strving water, on long voyages..... With this view, the inside of the casks vvas washed with lime-water, which changed into a calcareous carbonate, and thus effectually pre- vented putrefaction. The same de- sirable object may be attained, by adding a small portion of vitriolic acid and of alkali, to every cask; which will preserve the water in a pure and salubrious state, for at least 12 months. Charcoal has also proved to be eminently adapt- ed to such purpose : the most ad- vantageous mode of employing this substance, is that of charring the inner surface of the staves, previously to constructing the casks. The latest method of preserving fresh water in a sweet state, at a great distance from land, is that communicated to the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. in 1800, by Samuel Bentham, Esq. and for which he was pre- sented with their gold medal. It consists simply in stowing water in wooden cases or tanks, lined with metallic plates, known under the name of tinned copper-sheets: the joinings of such cases being carefully soldered, so that the wa- ter cannot find the least access to the Avood. These tanks may be manufactured of any shape adapt- ed to the hold of the ship, and thus contain any quantity of water ; so that considerable stowage-room may be saved on board of vessels, vvhich is at present occupied by the casks. In justice to Mr. Bentham we add, that two tanks of water thus preserved, were submitted to the examination of the Society ; and though they had been three years and a half at sea, the fluid was per- fectly sweet, Avholescme, and fit for any culinary purpose. On the other hand, if water has become putrid, it may be divested of its pernicious properties, by the process recommended, vol. i. p. 40 ; by boiling, or by distilla- tion ; and by filtering it through the machines delineated and de- scribed in the article Filtration; WAT W A T 355 or through Mr. Collier's patent vessels for purifying oil and other liquids ; a specification of which is given in the 10th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," &c. and il- lustrated with a plate. In October, 1790, a patent was granted to Mrs. Johanna Hem- pel, for her invention of a com- position ; which, on being formed into vessels, is said to possess the advantage of filtering water or other liquids, in a cheaper, more easy, and expeditious manner, than could be effected by any other pre- paration. The proportions of the materials, employed for this pur- pose, vary according to the size of the basons, or jars to be manu- factured. Thus for vessels intend- ed to contain a quantity of Avater not exceeding one gallon,/owr parts of tobacco-pipe clay must be incor- porated with nine parts of coarse sea, river, drift, or pit sand, and worked on a potter's-wheel into any form, as fancy or convenience may direct. But, as the compo- sition thus prepared, is apt to crack in the fire, if it be wrought into basons, he. of a larger capa- city, the patentee recommends such vessels to be manufactured of equal parts of the clay and sand above mentioned. She fur- ther states other proportions of clay, loam, he. which may be em- ployed according to the size of the bason or other vessel ; and for a specification of which, the reader will consult the 2d vol. of the " Re- pertory of Arts," he. To conclude this important sub- ject, we shall state a few other simple methods of restoring putrid water to its original purity. Dr. Lind directs a small cask, open at both ends, to be placed within a larger vessel, the head of vvhich has been taken out : clean sand and gravel are then to be put into both vessels, so that the level of the sand in the inner cask be higher than the bed in the inter- mediate space between the two barrels; sufficient room being left for pouring in the water. A cock should now be placed in the ex- ternal cask, above the gravel or sand ; and somewhat lower than the surface of the materials in the interior vessel. The water is pour- ed in, at the top of the cask last mentioned ; it sinks through the mass of sand; and, after passing through the bed in the intervening space, it ascends, so that it may be drawn off perfectly sweet and clear: when the surface of the gravel be- comes loaded Avith impurities, it should be removed, and fresh sand be substituted. According to the experiments of M. Lowitz, 1^-oz. of pulverized charcoal, and 24 drops of the sul- phuric or vitriolic acid, are suffi- cient to purify 3i pints of putrid or corrupted water, Avithout com- municating to it any perceptible acidity : he directs the oil of vi- triol to be first mixed with the Avater ; after vvhich the charcoal must be added ; but, if the sul- phuric acid be omitted, it will be requisite to employ a triple por- tion, or 4^-oz. of charcoal. When spring-water has acquired an un- pleasant, hepatic flavour, it may be greatly improved by filterincrit through a bag half filled with pow- dered charcoal. This substance may again be dried, and pulverise J, when it will answer the same pur- pose a second time ; and, if it lose its purifying effect, by repeated use, such property may be recov- ered, by making it red-hot in a close vessel. Prof. Hufeland recom- 356 W A T mends carbon to be reduced to fine powder ; a spoonful of which must be mixed with a pint of stagnant, corrupted, or bad water: the whole should be well stirred, then suf- fered to stand for a feAV minutes, and afterwards passed slowly through filtering paper. He re- marks, that the same powder will serve repeatedly ; and after drying it, he advises travellers to keep it closely corked in a bottle ; because the influence of the air would ren- der it useless. Lastly, if either of the expedients already described, cannotbe conveniently adopted, the putrid tendency of Avater may be corrected, by mixing vinegar, or acid of lemons, with the corrupted fluid ; and, in case any quantity of the latter should have been acci- dentally swallowed, its injurious ef- fects may be obviated, by imme- diately taking small, but repeated, draughts of vinegar. \Water as a Manure.... The fer- tilizing property of water is well known. But it has lately been discovered, that when rendered putrid by the immersion of certain vegetable matters, its fertilizing properties are greatly increased.... Flax in particular, has been found by Mr. Billingsby, a well known English farmer and improver, to have this effect in a remarkable manner. Mr. Tat ham mentions, that he " saw in 1790, a pool con- structed in the centre of a garden in Richmond, into which the wa- ter Avas conveyed by pipes ; these pipes communicated to a pump erected in a house at the end of the garden, wherein all vegetables gathered for the table were prepa- red by the gardener, who Avas a Frenchman. A cistern with holes in the bottom, Avas placed beneath the spout of the pump, so that WAT when the vegetables were put into it lo be washed by pumping the water, the foul water and filth was « immediately conducted into the ■ putrescent reservoir in the center, whence the garden was watered." This plan should be adoped where- ever it is practicable. In all mills worked by water, s some inconvenience is found to arise from the irregularity of speed, occasioned by the variation of the head of water at the pen- trough. The specific weight being necessarily proportioned to the perpendicular altitude of the water, its velocity is increased by a great- er, and diminished by a less head. No accurate judgment as lo the quantity really admitted, can be ' formed from the position of the shuttle. The space only is regu- lated by this ; but the quantity of water passing through that space depends on its specific gravity, in proportion to which its course is accelerated. Hence an irregular movement of machinery, and much inconvenience, where precision is requisite, as in the manufactory of silk and cotton. To remedy this, Mr. Quaile contrived to regulate the quantity of water delivered,!))-a float, and taking the whole of the water from the surface, instead of delivering it from the bottom of the pentrough. For this useful in- vention, the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts in London, pre- sented Mr. Quaile with a silver medal in 1793. By this contrivance also, room may be saved in the extent of the dam, as the water may be suffered to rise to a great height, without the inconvenience attending the increased velocity of its discharge. In cases also of temporary defi- ciency, the water which remains, W A T WAT 357 will by this means, be worked to the greatest advantage. For a de- scription and plate of this contri- vance, the reader is referred to the Transactions of the Society of Arts, for 179.3. Under the article Irrigation, an account of the simple and ef- fectual contrivance of Mr. David Witmer, Avho lives nine miles east of Lancaster, on the turnpike, was promised under an expectation that a draught could be procured in time for a plate. This however did not arrive in time; a short de-- scription will perhaps not be un- acceptable to our country readers, and be sufficiently intelligible to persons acquainted with mill or pump work. Mr. Witmer first laid horizon- tally in the bottom of the spring, a log of wood, bored through in the manner that pumps are bored : this log has three holes in the up- per side, which communicate with the longitudinal perforation : into the middle hole he has inserted the conveying pipe which is also a bored log ; and into the two holes on each side, or towards the end of the log are inserted two forcing pumps ; in the log or pipe that lies horizontally, there are four valves, two of which open to admit the water when the pistons of the pumps are elevated alternately, whilst the other two are shut: these again open when the pistons are depressed to permit a passage up the pipe which stands betwixt them. The pistons are eleA'ated or de- pressed by means of a very sini- p\e piece of machinery, consisting of a small overshot water-wheel, six feet in diameter, with floor- boards one foot in length. This wheel is turned by a small stream of water ; and, upon its axis there is a crank which communicates an alternate elevation and depression to the piston rods. The water is forced thirty five feet up until it comes to a pipe be- fore the house : this pipe has two perpendicular perforations vvhich connect at the top, and also con- nect with two separate hollow logs below. A fosset is fixed in this pipe, through which the wa- ter runs in a perpetual stream, un- less when stopped; it then rises in the pipe, and falls down the se- cond bore, and is conveyed by per- forated logs under ground, to the house adjoining the dwelling house, and the overplus water is conveyed to the garden. Thus at an expense not exceed- ing 100 dollars, Mr. Witmer's house is fiirnished with a constant supply of water, and his grounds adjoining, sufficiently irrigated: after the water has been thus ele- vated 35 feet, by applying a small pipe, such as is used with fire en- gines, a stream may be conveyed 25 feet higher, to any part of the building.] WATER-BOILER. For this useful contrivance we are indebted to the ingenious Timothy Kirk, of York-town, Pennsylvania. The following cut will give a good idea ofit. A, a frame consisting of six posts, connected by railing at the top and bottom. B B, a cistern with a partition in the middle. C C, two tubes passing through the middle of each cistern, ex- tending from the bottom a few inches above the top. 358 W A T WAT D D, small cross tubes connected of oak plank well jointed, and se- Avith the tube C C as a mean of cured by wedges in the frame supplying the fuel. marked a. A cistern of three feet E E, two cocks to draw off the square, must have a square open- contents, ing in the plank which forms the V, the tube disconnected with the bottom, of 26 inches, covered with cistern. a sheet of copper or iron, secured G, a grate placed at the bottom with nails to the plank, to vvhich of the tube parallel to the bot- the tube is fixed by means of riv- tom of the water in the cistern, etts ; the whole to be set in brick- on which the fuel rests while work, with a round hole directly consuming. under the bottom of the tube, in The cistern is formed of pine or order to contain the ashes through 35 WAT W A T 359 which, (by means of a flue left for the purpose) the air is communi- cated to the fire in the tube ; for as soon as fuel is supplied by means of the tubes, they must be closed with caps to prevent the entrance of the air, otherwise than by the bottom through the flue and grate : on this, much of the impor- tance of the contrivance depends. Mr. Kirk has constructed one cis- tern on the above plan, containing six barrels of water, which he boiled with 56 pounds of wood, and he thinks that the addition of 56 pounds more, would keep the same quantity of water boiling during 24 hours. Mr. Kirk con- structed one of a round shape, with iron hoops containing two barrels of Avater, which has been tried by a person engaged in the manufac- tory of salt, and found with thirty pounds of wood to be capable of evaporating ten gallons of water in less than an hour, and hence he concluded, if a large cistern was formed, (say thirty feet long, by three wide)to contain twelve tubes, much more might be evaporated in proportion to the fuel consu- med. Such a boiler should be con- structed upon every farm, for the purpose of boiling corn for hogs and horses, and dranks or mashes for cows, and stall fed cattle. Upon submitting the above to Mr. Benjamin Dearborn of Boston, when in Philadelphia, he made the following remarks : " I. The principle on which the boiler is constructed is good, as has been proved many years ago. " 2. The form of the boiler and the tubes, and the manner of con- necting them are ingenious, and are new to me : but if the wooden vessel be square, the frame which confines it should be so construct- ed as to wedge the joints together each Avay ; yet I think a vessel of a conical form, hooped as the in- ventor describes, must be prefer- able to any other shape. " 3. If the tubes instead of be- ing conical, were cylindrical with a moveable cover, the fuel might be inserted at the top, without the necessity of cross tubes at the bot- tom. I have seen stoves on this construction." Portable furnaces are also made in this way. ] WATER-ALOE, or Fresh- water Soldier, Zostera Abides, L. an indigenous perennial, grow- ing in fen-ditches and slow- streams ; flowering in the months of June and July. This plant af- fords nourishment to a great va_ riety of insects, some of which pursue it even to the bottom of the water. It is eaten by hogs, but refused by goats. From its ashes, an excellent alkaline salt may be obtained, by filtrating and evaporating the ley. Bon m e r ob- serves, that such salt is not only well adapted to the curing of beef and other meat, but also forms a valuable ingredient in the manu- facture of glass ; nay, that it is occasionally used in England as u substitute for pot-ash, in the pro- cess of making soup. Water-avens. SeeAvExr. WATER-CALTROPS, or Tra. pa natans, L. a valuable exotic, originally from Asia, though like- wise growing wild in the ponds and ditches of Germany: its fibroin roots strike deeply into the soil; and, when the stalk attains the sur- face of the water, its extremity presents a pyramidal bud, which, on the access of air, unfolds and spreads the convoluted leare-...... 360 WAT WAT The plant flowers in June or July ; and produces its excellent fruit in August or September. Although the water-caltrops be, on the Continent, considered as a troublesome weed in lakes and fish- ponds, yet Ave are persuaded that it may, with great advantage, be introduced into many marshy situ- ations, especially those destitute of fish ; to vvhich animals it is certain- ly pernicious. The kernel con- tained in the nut of this aquatic vegetable, may be eaten, either raw or boiled : when dried and reduced to flour, it affords one of the most nutritive ingredients in broths, puddings,andother culinary dishes. Pliny informs us (book xxii. chap. 12,) that the ancient Thracians converted this fruit into bread; and fed their horses with the leaves.... Formerly, the black roots of this luxuriant plant were reputed to be poisonous ; but it has lately been ascertained, that the Japanese boil and eat them, generally, in their daily soups. Water-can. See Yellow Wa- ter-LiLY. WATER-CLOSET, an useful contrivance, the purpose of vvhich requires no explanation. In December, 1789, a patent was granted to Mr. Thomas Rown- tree, for an improvement in the construction of water-closets ; by arranging the several parts, in such manner that the whole apparatus may be moved at once, without be- ing taken to pieces. His machine may, likewise, be adapted to the apartments of the sick, so as not to occupy a larger space,, or to be more cumbersome, than a common night-chair ; while the fetor is ef- fectually suppressed by means of certain tubes. A more diffuse ac- count of Mr. RowNTREt-'s prin- ciple, occurs in the 11 th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," he. Another patent was obtained by Mr. Thomas Binns, for his in- vention of a machine applicable to privies and water-closets ; from the peculiar construction of which, the bason is not only cleansed by the introduction of water, but a suf- ficient quantity of that fluid is left in the vessel, without the assist- ance of any person. This machi- nery, however, having been found too bulky, Mr. Binns, procured a second patent in November, 1800, for his contrivance of an improved apparatus, answering the several purposes of a water-closet, bidet, and easy chair; which are com- prized in one-third part of the room occupied by the common portable water-closets. From its lightness, and small size, the new machine is well calculated for travelling, for camps, and for ships.....In the 7th and 15th vols, of the work above quoted, the inquisitive reader Avill meet with full specifications of both patents, av hich are farther illustrat- ed with engravings. Water-colours. See Colour- making, vol. ii. p. 17 8. WATER-GLADIOLE,or Car- dinal Flower, Lobelia Dort* manna, L. is an indigenous peren- nial, growing in mountainous lakes, especially in Cumberland, West- moreland, Wales, and Scotland; where its beautiful pale, blue flow- ers appear in the months of July and August....The whole of this plant, which grows beneath the surface of the water, abounds Avith a milky juice. It may be easily propagated by seeds, by offsets, or by cutting: and, vegetating with great luxuriance, it deserves to be raised in moistor marshy situations. WATER-PEPPER,Lakeweed, WAT W A T 361 or Biting Snakeweed, Polygo- num hydropiper, L. an indigenous plant, growing on the sides of ri- vulets, lakes, and ditches ; flower- ing from July to September...... The whole of this vegetable pos- sesses a very acrid taste: its fresh leaves have, nevertheless, with ad- vantage, been applied externally, for cleansing old fistulous ulcers, and consuming fungous flesh. An infusion of these leaves is said to promote the urinary discharge in phlegmatic habits; and has fre- quently been of service in scor- butic complaints. When mixed with soft soap, the ashes of the lake-weed are used, as a nostrum, for dissolving the stone in the blad- der.... According to Dr. Wither- ing, the acrimony of this herb rises on distillation ; and two or three half pints of the Avater, drank daily, have been found very effec- tual in some nephritic cases. It imparts a yellow colour to avooI. The Water-Pepper is refused by every species of cattle....See also Blister. WATER-PROOF, a term ap- plied to those stuffs, which have undergone certain chemical or me- chanical processes, and thus be- come impermeable to moisture. Having already stated, under the heads of Boor and Leather, the most proper means of rendering those articles water-proof, we shall at present confine our attention to the expedients that have been de- vised for making linen and wool- len cloth, paper, he. capable of re- sisting humidity. In July, 1797, a patent was granted to Mr. Henry Johnson, for his invention of a vegetable li- quid, the design of Avhich is to bleach and cleanse woollen,orother stuffs ; to prepare them for the re- vol. v. ception of a certain compound, cal- culated to render them not only water-proof, but also more durable and elastic, when manufactured into articles of dress, which he terms Hydrolaines.....In order to obtain first the vegetable liquid, the patentee directs horse-chesnuts, or the rinds and kernels of oranges, that are usually throAvn away, or the offals and gall of fish, to be boiled for four or five hours ; after which they are suffered to cool and settle, for a few days: in cases where these substances cannot be easily procured, 8 quarts of water may be added to every pound of British barilla, and the mixture al- lowed to dissolve for two or th rec days. Next, one pint of pearl- ashes, or of purified kelp, or wood- ashes, must be added to either of these preparations ; and, after tb.e whole has been duly mixed, for 24 hours, a certain portion of Ryegate- lime is slacked in the compound, for the purpose of imparting the caloric ; of precipitating the carbon of the ashes ; and moderating the causticity of the liquor. Now 40 quarts of water are to be boiled with one quart of fish, linseed, or other oil ; adding to this decoction half an ounce of the salt of sorrel, or of sugar, or of the rectified salt of tartar; the object of which is to combine the oil with the waicv. Lastly, after this composition has stood for 12 hours, it is to be strain- ed, and one quart of such oily wa- ter to be mixed with every twelve quarts of the liquid, prepared in the manner above described : when the mixture is completely settled, it forms, what the patentee calls, a blanching lixivium. The linen, woolen, cotton, or silk stuffs, hats, or leather, are to be immersed in such lixivium, and 3 A 362 W A T WAX extended on a frame. Caoutchouc is then to be dissolved in spirit of turpentine (the smell of which may be dissipated by the addition of equal parts of oil of Avormwood and spirit of wine), so as to form a varnish : this liquor must now be applied to the wrong side of the stuffs that are to be prepared, by means of a solid piece of India rubber; and minute shreds of cloth, avooI, silk, or Avorsted, should be sifted over the varnish: in the course of two or three days, it will be perfectly dry; and the shreds, by their adhesion to the dissolved caoutchouc, will form a lining im- permeable to water. In 1801, another patent was granted to Messrs. Ackermann, Suardy, and Co. for their inven- tion of a process, by which every species of cloth may be rendered water-proof.......As the patentees have not thought proper to pub- lish the particulars of their process (though such concealment is con- trary to the nature of Letters Pa- tent), we shall briefly remark from our own observation, that their method appears to be a simple im- pregnation of cloth with wax pre- viously dissolved, and incorporated with water, by the addition of pure vegetable alkali, or pot-ash. This being the cheapest and most expe- ditious mode of reducing wax to a fluid state, we are farther inclined to believe that our conjecture is Avell founded ; because all the Avoollen cloth prepared in the ma- nufactory of Messrs. Acxermanx, Suardy, and Co. feels somewhat harder than such as has net been waxed ; for the same reason, it will stand a shower of rain only so long as it has not been subject to fric- tion ; and wc understand from those who have worn fiatent water-proof coats, that in the sleeves particu- larly, they are very apt to admit moisture through the different folds. Nevertheless, their process is entitled to attention ; and it de- serves to be adopted principally in those cases, where the manufac- ture is not liable to be impaired by friction ; such as coverings for tents ; for horses exposed to the rain when at rest; and especially for paper in which gunpowder, or steel and other goods, are to be packed. The following simple process is stated to be that employed by the Chinese, for rendering cloth water- prorf: Let an ounce of white wax be dissolved in one quart of spirit of turpentine ; the cloth be im- mersed in the solution, and then suspended in the air, till it be per- fectly dry. By this method, the most open muslin, as well as the strongest cloths, may be rendered impenetrable to the heaviest show- ers ; nor will such composition fill up the interstices of the finest lawn ; or in the least degree affect the most brilliant colours. Watering-of-land. See Ir- rigation. W AX, a solid concrete, abound- ing in the vegetable kingdom, whence it is collected by bees..... In the article Bee's-wax, we have stated the manner in which this substance is obtained, and likewise the uses to vvhich it is applied : at present, therefore, we shall direct our attention to the blanching or whitening of Avax, and to the pro- cess by Avhich it may be artificially extracted from vegetables. With a vieAV to bleach wax, it is cut in smail pieces, melted, and poured into cold water, Avhere it granulates. In this state, it is ex- posed to the sun and air ; melted, WE A W E A 363 and granulated repeatedly; then submitted to the influence of the sun, air, and dew, in the interval between each liquefaction. When the wax is perfectly blanched, it is dissolved for the last time, and cast into flat moulds, in which it is again exposed to the air, for one or two days, in order to render it more transparent. [See Bleaching.] Wax may be extracted from the leaves and petals of numerous ve- getables (see the General Index of Reference); by collecting, bruising, and dissolving them, first in water, and then in alkohol, or spirit of wine, till every other ingredient that is soluble in these fluids, be completely separated. The resi- duum is now mixed with six times its weight of a solution of pure ammonia: Avhen it has been tho- roughly macerated, the liquor must be decanted ; filtered ; and, while it is briskly stirred, a sufficient por- tion of sulphuric acid must be gra- dually added, to super-saturate the alkali. Thus, the wax will be pre- cipitated in the form of a yellow powder ; which, on being carefully Avashed with simple water, and melted over a slow fire, possesses all the properties of bees-wax. Way-bennet. See Wall-BAR- ley. Way-bread.See Greater Plan- tain. Wayfaring-tree. See Mealy GUELDER-ROSI.. WEANING, is the act of gra- dually removing an infant from the breast, and habituating it to take common food. Weaning requires to be conduct- ed Avith some precaution : it vrill therefore, be advisable to inure children to take proper aliment out of a boat or tea-cup, at the age of 3 or 4 months ; so that they may not too suddenly, and sensibly, feel the loss of the brea::t. To facili- tate this change, the human milk should be occasionally with-held from them, while the mother or nurse may partake of such aliment as tends to diminish the secretion of that salutary fluid. Children committed to the care of wet-nurses, ought, in prudence, not to be allowed to suck, after the age of six or eight months; as their infantine faculties then begin to unfold; and they are apt to ac- quire an undue degree of affection for their foster-mothers. On the other hand, they should not be precipitately removed from the breast; because this tender part is thus liable to become inflamed, and ulcerated; so that scirrhous tumors, and even cancers, may arise from such conduct. Lastly, the diet of children, when weaned, ought to be light, and adapted to the strength of their stomach, and constitution : hence, all coarse food must be strictly avoided, during the first and se- cond year of life ; for such mista- ken indulgence often lays the foun- dation of diseases originating from a bad digestion ; of scrophula, or other glandular affections; and even of eventual consumption, at the age of puberty. WEASEL, the Common, or Mustella vulgaris, L. a diminutive animal of prey, frequenting barns, granaries, and out-houses : its body seldom exceeds 6 or 7 inches in length, and the legs are remark- ably short. Weasels propagate hi the sum- mer, when they retire to low grounds, near mills ; and either conceal themselves among brush- wood, or in old willows; the fe- male producing from 6 to 8 young 364 W E A WE A ones, that are blind at first, but soon acquire their sight, and are enabled to join their parents in nocturnal depredations....Like the Polecat, and Ferret, weasels emit a very offensive odour; and, though of a diminutive size, they are formidable enemies to many larger animals. Among rabbits, poultry, and young birds, weasels commit extensive depredations, and they likewise devour incalulable numbers of eggs. But to counter- balance, in some measure, these depredations, they also destroy many noxious anjmals, such as rats, mice, and moles. The folloAving method of en- trapping weasels has often been practised with success : It consists of a wooden box, or hutch, resem- bling the kennel usually provided for a house-dog ; but it is divided in the middle by an open wire-par- tition, extending from one end to the other ; and being again sepa- rated into two cages, one of vvhich may be baited with a tame rabbit, and the other with a live fowl; while the remainder of the hutch may be formed into a falling box, for secu; ing the depredator. This trap nay be placed in coppices, and hedge-rows.....See also Mar- tin. WEASEL-SNOUT, Yellow Archangel, or Yellow Dfad- nf.ttle, Galeobdolon luteum, L. is an indigenous perennial, growing in woods, shady places, and moist hedges; blowing in the month of May. The flowers of this plant aflbrd to bees an abundant supply of honey. WEATHER, a term denoting the state of the atmosphere, with respect to Hkat, Cold, Hail, Rain, Snow, &c. Having already discussed, in the course of this work, the pheno- mena of the meteors above men- tioned, we shall at present com- municate a few simple rules, vvhich may serve to prognosticate the weather, or to ascertain its future variations, with tolerable accuracy. For this purpose, Mr. Kirwa'm f" Transactions of the Royal Irish Academy," vol. v.) has laid down the following plan, from observa- tions that had been made in Eng- land, during a period of 112 years; namely, from 1677 to 1789. 1. When no storm has either preceded or followed the vernal equinox, the succeeding summer is in general dry, or at least so, five times out of six. 2. If a storm happen from an easterly point, on the 19th, 20th, or 21 st day of May, the ensuing summer will, four times in five, be also dry....The same event ge- nerally takes place, if a storm arise on the 25th, 26th, or 27th days of March, in any point of the compass. 3. Should there be a storm, either at south-west, or at west- south-west, on the 19 th, 20th, 21st, or 22d of March, the following summer is wet, five times out of six. In England, if the winters and springs be dry, they are mostly cold ; but, if moist, they are gene- rally warm ; on the contrary, dry summers, and autumns, are usually hot; as moist summers are cold. Thus, if the humidity or dryness of a particular season be deter- mined, a tolerably correct idea may be formed respecting its tem- perature......To these indications may be added the following max- ims ; which, being the result of observations made by accurate in- quirers, may so far be depended WE A upon, as they will afford a crite- rion of the mildness, or severity, and of the dryness or moisture, of future seasons. I. A moist autumn, succeeded by a mild winter, is generally fol- lowed by a dry and cold spring; in consequence of which, vegeta- tion is great ly retarded. 2. Should the summer be un- commonly wet, the succeeding winter will be severe; because the heat or warmth of the earth will be carried off by such unusual evaporation. Farther, wet sum- mers are mostly attended with an increased quantity of fruit on the white-thorn, and dog-rose; nay, the uncommon fruitfulness of these shrubs is considered as the presage of an intensely c6ld winter. 3. A severe winter is always in- dicated by the appearance of cranes and other birds of passage, at an , early period in autumn; because they never migrate southwards, till the cold season has commenced in the northern regions. 4. If frequent showers fall in the month of September, it sel- dom rains in May ; and the re- verse, 5. On the other hand, when the wind often blows from the south-west, during either summer or autumn ; when the air is un- usually cold for those seasons, both to our sensations, and by the ther- mometer; at the same time, the mercury being low in the barome- ter : under these conditions, a profuse fall of rain may be ex- pected. 6. Great storms, rains, or other violent commotions of the clouds, produce a kind of crisis in the at- mosphere; so that they are at- tended with a regular succes- WEA 365 sion, either of fine or of bad wea- ther, for some months. Lastly, an unproductive year mostly succeeds a# rainy winter ; as rough and cold autumn prog- nosticates a severe winter.....See also the article Climate. WEATHER - GLASS, or Storm-glass. An ingenious con- trivance of this nature has lately been announced by Wiegleb, in Germany ; and the inven'.ion of it is likewise claimed by Mr. Fran- cis Anone, of Fligh Holborn: it consists of a glass tube, con- taining a liquor that holds in so- lution a compound substance, the transparency, or turbid appearance of which, indicates the changes in the atmosphere. Thus, if the weather promise to be fine, the solid matter of the composition will sjttle at the bottom of the tube, while the liquid is pellucid ; but, previously to a change for rain, the compound will gradually rise ; the fluid will continue transparent; and small stars will be observed moving or floating about the glass. Twenty-four hours before a storm, or very high wind, the sub- stance will be partly on the surface of the liquid, apparently in the form of a leaf; the fluid in such case, will be very turbid, and in a state resembling fermentation. During the winter, small stars being in motion, the composition is remarkably white, and somewhat higher than usual, particularly when white frosts, or snow prevail. On the contrary, in the summer, if the weather be hot and serene, the substance subsides closely to the bottom of the glass tube. Lastly, it may be ascertained from what point of the compass the wind blows, by observing that 366 WEA WEE the solid particles adhere more closely to the bottom, on the side opposite to that, from which the tempest happeps to arise....This instrument has been satisfactorily employed both at sea and on shore: being small, "portable, and toler- ably exact, it may often serve as a substitute for the more bulky and expensive contrivances in common use....See also Barometer. W7EAVING is the art of work- ing a Aveb of linen, silk, wool, or any other material, by means of looms. Having, in the article Cloth, given an outline of the manner in which weaving is performed, we shall at present notice two im- provements that have lately been introduced in this important branch of our staple-manufacture. The first is, Mr. Robert Mil- ler's method of weaving all kinds of linen, woollen, or other stuffs, by means of looms worked by wa- ter, steam-engines, or horses; for which he obtained a patent in June, 1796.....Our limits not ad- mitting of diffuse acccunts, which would also require the aid of en- gravings, we refer the reader to the 8th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," he. where the specification is illustrated with two plates. In the year 1800, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. con- ferred a bounty of 15 guineas on Mr. Thomas Clulow, for his in- vention of a loom, designed to weave figured ribbons. The great advantage attending the use of this machine is, not only a considerable saving of time, but ribbons may thus be woven with greater neat- ness, and beauty, than by the com- mon looms ; the work being ne- cessarily stopped in the latter, while the figure is formed by the hand ; whereas, by Mr. C.'s con- trivance, the tire-cords, or those which trace such outline, without retarding the progress of the Avork, are acted upon by straps affixed to the centre treddle. A farther ac- count of this useful improvement, will be found in the 18th vol. of the Society's " Transactions," &c. See also article Loom. WEED, a term applied to all rank, coarse vegetables, that grow spontaneously, to the detriment of other plants. Weeds are usually divided into two classes, namely, annual, and perennial. With a view to eradi- cate the former, it will be advis- able to plough them up, shortly before their seeds are formed, or at least previously to their attain- ing to a state of maturity.....The small seeds of weeds, that are se- parated in winnowing grain, ought to be carefully burnt; because, when thrown upon dung-hills, and afterwards spread on land among manure, they vegetate with in- creased luxuriance. Perennial weeds are extermi- nated with the greatest difficulty; as they strike very deep root. The usual method of extirpating them, < is that of bringing them to the jj[( surface by the plough; after which they are gathered by hand: but, ,: as this mode is very expensive, it j will be more advantageous to cut J them half-through, about the mid- 1 die of June, or when they are in ^| full vigour: for the sudden inter- J ruption of their circulating sap, J causes that fluid to stagnate in the * roots; in consequence of which the I plant generally perishes: thus, such weeds may be collected by means of Mr. S/.ndilands' Wrack-Har- WEE WEE 367 row, (see vol. iii. p. 252) then burnt, and strewed on the land by way of Manure....See also vol. iv. p. 32. Weeds often abound in the beds of navigable canals and rivers. As their eradication, however, is tedi- ous, and sometimes occasions con- siderable expense, M. De Bktax- court Molina, in 1796, present- ed to the Society for the Encour- agement of Arts, he. a model of a machine designed to mow or cut them, so that they may then be carried down with the stream ; or, if the current be not sufficiently rapid for that purpose, they n ay be collected on the surface of the 4 Avater, and employed as manure. For this contrivance, he was re- Avarded with the premium of forty guineas; but, as a plain descrip- tion Avould not convey an adequate idea of the principles on which it is constructed, we refer the reader to the 14th volume of the " Tran- sactions " of that Society, where a complete account is inserted, and illustrated with an engraving. k [ " Operations " says Dr. An- M. derson, " may be conducted ei- ther so as to be calculated for the extirpation of weeds in general, without having a view to any par- ticular class of weeds ; or, as be- ing calculated, in an especial man- ner, for the extirpation of some particular class of weeds, such as, 1. Weeds that spread by the * root, and are chiefly propagated in that way, viz. a docks, pcren- £ nial; b dandelion, this also spreads ..£ greatly by seeds ; c hemlock, this r| | also ; d colts-foot; e crow-foot; / perennial convolvulus; g wild liquorice ; // perennial lychnis ; i couch-graSs ; k lion's-tongue ; / horse-tail (equisetum) ; m net- tles, he. 2. Shrubs and perennial weeds, that increase chiefly by seeds...... Of this description the following are those that chiefly abound in this country,(England) viz. a furze, goss, or whins; b broom; c heath; d brambles ; e briars ; / docks ; g dandelion ; h hemlock; i wild carrot; k narrow leaved sorrel, 8cc. 3. Biennial plants. The most common of these are, viz. a rag- wort, b rattle, c narrow leaved dock, d biennial thistle, e hem- lock, Sec. 4. Annual weeds that are pro- pagated by seeds only, viz. a wild oat, b charlock, c corn poppy, d spurry, e duckweed,/ annual so- lanum, g annual ragwort, h annual thistles, &c. 5. Aquatic plants, viz. a rushes, b flags, c reeds, 8cc. 6. Moss, as affecting pastures, lichens, and other plants of the cryptogamia class, as affecting trees and perennial plants,misIetoe, and other parasitical plants, he. " Mr. Dean, (« N. England farm- er") in order to destroy weeds, directs " the land to be employed in hoed crops for two or three years in successiop, not omitting autumnal weeding. A crop of peas, or any crop that forms a close cover to the surface may do much." A crop of the Cassia Chamxcrista, (which see) would answer very well. Mr. Dean adds " if all other methods were to prove ineffectual, laying tillage- land down to grass, and sowing it with cleaned grass-seeds, Avill not fail. " ] Weevil. See Corn-chafer. [The Society of Meaux in France 368 W E I WEI has invited all those who may think proper to make use of the following very simple method of preserving grain from Weevils and other insects, to communicate the result of those trials. Soak cloths, made of flax, in water, wring thern, and cover your heaps of grain with them : in two hours lime you will find all the Weevils upon the-cloth, which must be carefully gathered up, that none of the insects may escape and then immersed in water to de- stroy them. A plant of henbane, placed in the middle of a heap of corn, drives them away : in this case, it is ne- cessary to watch and crush them as fast as they come out, which they do in a short time....See also voL iv. p. 492.] WEIGH, or Wet, a species of provincial English weight, employ- ed for cheese, wool, Sec. : it con- tains 256lbs. avoirdupois. A weigh of corn should comprise40bushels; that of barley or malt, amounts to 6 quarters; but in Essex, and some other counties, a weigh of cheese consists of 300lbs. • [WEIGHTS to raise....In build- ings, heavy stones and timbers are often required to be raised, which require many men. The annex- ed plate represents an elevation and section of a simple and very effectual contrivance, for the pur- pose of saving labour, which has been used with great success in Philadelphia. The letters, a, b, c, d, represent the frame of this machine, Avhich is 10 feet long, by 5 feet Avide, and made of 3 inch, by 7, Avhite oak scantling, Avell pinned and strapped together, [e e e e, in elevation.) There are six Avheels,....2 of Avhich are 4 feet....2 of 1 foot....and 2 of I 8 inches diameter on the pitch lines, by 21 inches thick, the cogs are about 1 of an inch thick. As ■ the 4 small wheels are fixed on one axle, it is therefore made to move sidewise occasionally as the smallest *, or second sized wheels are used......there is necessarily a double set of bushes for this axle (f, in elevation,).i..for when the' small wheel is used, it must be moved two inches (or half the dif- ference in diameter between the smail wheels) up to the large wheels. The rope being guided by snatch-blocks, the machine is made to act upon buildings, ves- sels, Sec....The lower part of the frame is floored, that it may be loaded to prevent its being dragged, stakes are also driven in the ground for this purpose. There is nothing new in this machine but its application to the erection of buildings. Mr. Latrobe architect, and engineer, introduced it at the erection of the new build- ing for the Pennsylvania Bank, and in the buildings of the Water- Works, for the purpose of hoisting * the heavy materials used in their * erection, particularly marble. In that part of the roof of the Pennsylvania Bank, Avhich is of marble, there are several blocks of from 5 to 7| tons weight, the heaviest of which were hoisted by two of these machines, and eight men, in the short space of fifty-five minutes. And the columns of the Centre Square Engine House, Avhich weigh about 9 tons each, were set by the same force. The same kind of machines were em- * The smallest wheel is used when the utmost power of the machine is requir- ed. >js I'-vav; IMachine. Elevation. Plan and Section.through tht &udaif the presence of fixedair.or suffocating choke damp. The following easy method of expelling the foul air from wells, was pursued with success by Mr. Robert Patterson of Philadel- phia. It is much more practica- ble than that of Mr. Robertson, noticed under the articles, Aiu, Vapour. He took a hoop a little less in diameter than that of the well, to which he fastened a piece of cloth, nearly in form of a scoop net.... 1 hree cords were made fast to the hoop at equal distances from each other, each about the length of the diameter of the hoop and knotted together. This vessel wis let down to the bottom of the well, by a strong line over the windlass, vvhich vvas placed directly above the cen- ter of the well ; he took hold of it with his hand, and running from the well's mouth, forcibly drew up the vessel, with the whole volume of incumbent air. Two or three repetitions of this simple process,- completely cleared the well of all its noxious air, and the workmen descended with safely. The ex- periment has been frequently re- peated, and always with equal suc- C'CHS. Mr. Latrobe mentioned to the Editor, that he frequently saw an experiment tried inEn^landlbund- ed upon the same principle as that of Mr. Patterson''. A rope was fastened to a bush of furze, and let down the well; a person then hav- ing laidhold of the rope,run quickly back from the well, forcibly drawing up the furze bush, and causing a cur- rent of air after it, and thusforcing up the deadly vapour. Another successful method, is to lower down a dish, containing quick lime, in a state of efferves- cence, into the well. The carbonic acid (fixed air) seizes greedily upon the quick-lime, and leave* the space it formerly occupied, to be filled with the common atmos- pheric air. Repeatedly dashing- buckets of water down the well, also dissipates the fixed air.] In the year 1794, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. conferred their silver medal on George Butler, Esq. for his in- vention of a Bucket for drawing water from deep wells. It consists of a common barrel, the head of vvhich is taken out: across the top are fixed two thin bars of iron, having in the centre a small piece of the same metal, vvhich Mr. Butler terms a standard. This is furnished with a collar, which has 4 moveable arms; and above it, there are a mortise containing a small brass pulley, and a loop, to which the well-rope is secured: farilu-r, a cord is tied to one ex- tremity of the collar, vvhich, after passing over the pulley, communi- cates with a valve applied to the l<)\ver head of the vesv:l.......The bucket, thus constructed, when let down into the well by a rope, is filled through such valre; and, on being drawn up, the iron cross WEL WEL above mentioned is passed against two parallel bars, so that the valve is opened, and the water discharged into a trough, or vessel, prepared for its reception.....The principal advantage, arising from this con- trivance is, that the bucket is not only filled expeditiously, but it is also brought up steadily, so that no water is spilt; and, if any of it accidentally drop, it falls directly from the valve into the well, with- out wetting the descending rope; a circumstance of considerable im- portance ; for, by such continual moisture (which is necessarily oc- casioned by the common buckets), it speedily decays, while the ves- sels are seldom drawn up com- pletely filled. A more minute ac- count of Mr. B.'s invention will be found in the 12th volume of the " Transactions" of the Society a- bove mentioned, where it is illus- trated, with an engraving. A patent vvas granted in Au- gust, 1798, to Mr. John Ashley, of Islingtom, for a method of rais- ing water from wells of any depth, upon a very simple and permanent construction ; of which, however, we have not met with a specifica- tion. [The following simple and con- venient mode of constructing what is called in the U. States, Sweep, the editor is favoured with, by Mr Benjamin Dearborn, to whom it was shewn by some person whose name he forgets. In con- venience it is superior to the com- mon kind, as the bucket, when this is fixed, is drawn double the perpendicular distance which the end of the sweep moves where the pulley is fastened. Its simplicity is such, that the only remark ne- cesary to make is, that one end of the cord is to be fastened inside of the well, at or near the top. The contrivance in other respects, con- sists of a strong post, firmly set in the ground, at a small distance from the well, and which is about eight feet above the surface of the earth, as represented at a....With the top of this post is connected a baulk, b, that turns on an iron pin ;.....c is a pole, linked to the smaller end of each baulk., and on which the pail d is suspended, that swings when empty over the well e. In order to raise water by the apparatus here described, a person lays hold of the pole, which is pulled down till the bucket de- scends into the well for filling it; when it is again easily lifted up- wards by a small force at c, being assisted bv the weight delineated at/. SlSSf.__1.1= WEN WEN .. 377 WEN, is an indolent tumor, or an enlargement of the thyroid gland, which is situated in the an- terior part of the neck. This af- fection frequently occurs, and is endemial in some parts of Eng- land ; for instance, in Derbyshire. It is uncommonly prevalent among the inhabitants of marshy, low countries, surrounded by woods, bordering on rivers and standing waters, or exposed to southerly, hot winds ; and especially among females, young people, children, and persons of a delicate or tender habit: even strangers, who settle in these parts, are not exempt from its attacks. Nevertheless, if timely attended to, it is often cured; but, where it is hereditary, or has been suffered to remain after the age of adolescence, its removal is ex- tremely difficult. The principal causes of wens, are scorphulous matter; violent exer- tions ; poor, or indigestible food ; and bad water. Several authors suppose it to arise from the use of snow-water: thus, Forster, in his voyage round the world, ob- served glandular obstructions to originate from drinking solutions of ice. Cure....Where this malady pro- ceeds from a vitiated lymph, as in the Scrophula, it will be neces- sary to have recourse to the treat- ment recommended under that article. Should it have been in- duced by frequently taking solu- tions of ice, or snow, great benefit may be derived from the use of water, saturated with fixed air..... With a view to dissolve the tumor, various remedies have been de- vised ; of vvhich the following de- serve particular notice: E'.tciric.ity in conjunction vyilh alteratives ; for instance, mild mercurials and roL. v.' antimonials; hemlock; or 30 grains of the liver of sulphur dissolved in a quart of water, 2 table-spoon- fuls of which are to be taken every 3 hours. During such course, Pe- ruvian bark, or other tonics, ought to be used as auxiliaries. Among external remedies, camphor com- bined with sweet-oil; or a solution of sal-ammoniac in vinegar, have often successfully been applied to the tumor. Internally,the use oiburntsponge (as directed in the article Scro- phula) has been attended with the best effects, in dispersing wens. [The following prescription is warmly recommended by the re- spectable Mr. J. Ring of London, who says, " He has been very suc- cessful in the cure of bronchoctle with it. " Take of burnt sponge 2 oz.: powder of gum arabac 2 dr.: cin- namon £ a dr.: simple syrup a sufficient quantity to make 24 lo- zenges. The mass is to be well beaten, and the syrup added slow- ly. The lozenges are to be dried before the fire, on a plate that has been slightly oiled, or in a galli- pot, tied over with skin. One of them is to be taken twice or three times a day. Mr. Ring says, he knew an instance, where one was taken twice a day, for a great length of time, to no purpose ; but when the number was increas- ed to three, the good effect was soon evident. The bronchocelc, or goitre, as this disease is called, pre- vails in several parts of the United States, particularly in the western part of Pennsylvania, and in the Genesee district of the state of N. York. It also prevails in Canada to an alarming degree. The above prescription deserves the attention of sufferers by the complaint, 3C 378 WEN WH A Wens frequently make their ap- pearance in the side of the cheek, or the back of the neck. To re- move these, the mere bathing with salt and water has been found ef- fectual, as the following account shews. From the Gentleman's Magazine. Chisholme, Roxburgshire, Aovember 20, 1799. Mr. Urban, Having had a wen of the stea- tomatous kind, of brge size, and long standing, upon the side of my face, immediately before and below my right ear. I was inform- ed by different people that, if I would apply salt and water to it, I would get rid of it. In August, 1798, 1 put a quantity of salt and Water in a saucepan, and boiled it for four minutes, with which I bathed the whole surface frequent- ly while it continued warm, as also after it became cold, so often as ten or twelve times daily ; al- ways stirring up the salt deposited at the bottom of the bason, and incorporating it again with the wa- ter, before I applied it. On the 11th day from the first application, while shaving, I observed a small discharge ; while assisting by a gentle pressure, the whole con- tents were soon emptied, without the smallest pain, and without blood. Being informed of some others who had been benefitted in like manner from the same application, and knowing myself of some late instances under my own immedi- ate direction, I feel it a duty thi's to make it public ; being convinced it can produce no bad effect, and every person having it in bis power to make the trial. At the same time, I beg leave to caution that no one should be disheartened from the length of time it may be ne- cessary to continue the applica- tion ; as, in some cases, it has re- quired 3 or 4 months, though in the last, only thirty days ; but in all, without pain or inconveniencies of any kind, or any previous no- tice of the discharge, till it actu- ally took place. William Chisholme.] WHALE, the Common, or Ba- Ixna mysticetus, L*. is the largest inhabitant of the ocean, frequent- ing the north-seas, where it is from 70 to 90 feet, and in those of the Torrid Zone, to 160 feet in length. Its head is uncommonly large, so that it is equal to* one-third of its length : in the middle are two ori- fices, through which it spouts wa- ter to a considerable height; and to- wards the back,there are two small eyes, protected by eye-lashes, like those in quadrupeds. The tail has the form of a crescent; and the colour of the whole body is vari- ous, the backs of some being red, and the belly perfectly white. The female produces one, or not ex- ceeding two young whales, after a gestation of nine or ten months, vvhich are suckled in the manner of other n.ammillary animals. The whale is a very useful fish: its flesh, however, is rank and un- fit to be eaten ; but the small la- minae, known under the name of whale-bone, vvhich are taken from the upper jaw, furnish a lucrative , article in commerce. The tongue consists of a soft, spongy, fat sub- stance ; which, when boiled down, often yields five or six barrels of oil ; tbcuiib the most valuable part is the Blubber, or fat, found be- neath the skin, to the depth of from WHE W H E 379 eight to twelve inches, and which is converted into train-oil. Whales are chiefly caught in the vicinity of Greenland j though a fishery has lately been success- fully commenced in the South Sc-a. As their fat is of essential utility in domestic life, the maritime powers of the north annually send nume- rous vessels on this pursuit. Each ship is provided with six boats, which are respectively furnished with harpoons, appended to ropes from 200 to 300 fathoms in length. When a whale is perceived float- ing on the surface of the ocean, and spouting up torrents of water, the boats approach and a harpoon is discharged. The wounded fish plunges into the deep; and if the rope belonging to one boat be run- out, that of another is speedily fas- tened to it, to prevent the little bark from being carried down with the whale. As soon as the un- wieldy creature re-appears,another, and,it necessary,a third harpoon, is discharged, till it rises to the sur- face, and at length expires. The whale bone is then taken out, the blubber cut to pieces, and stowed in hogsheads. The proper season for the whale- fishery, is from May to July ; and great are the advantages derived from it, not only as an object of commerce, but also as a nursery for seamen. WHEAT, or Triticum, L. a ge- nus of plants,comprehending about 16 species, of which the lollovving are the principal: I. The repens. See Dog's- grass. 11. The gstivum, or Spring Wheat, is probably a native of Southern Siberia andSicily, whence its culture has been gradually dis- persed throughout Europe : it ri- pens about the same time as the Winter, or Common Wheat, even though it be sown in February or March. This species is divided into the following varieties, name- ly: l.The T. xstivum, spica et grana rubente, or spring-Wheat, with a red spike or ear and grain. 2. The T. testivum, rubrum, spi- ca alba, Red Spring-Wheat, with a white ear. 3. The T. aslivum, spica et gi-a* na alba, or Spring-Wheat, with a white spike and givin. These, and all other varieties of the same spe- cies, are beardless, and may be sown from the .end of February till early in May. They 'are not easily affected by moisture, or se- vere frost, and afford excellent starch. III. The hybernum, Winter or Common Wheat is principally raised in Britain: its grains are somewhat fuller than those of the preceding species ; and its chief varieties are : 1. The T. hybernum, spica et grana rubente, or Common Wheat, with a red ear and grain. 2. The T. hybernum rubrum, spica alba, or Common Wheat, with a white ear. 3. The T. hybernum rubrum, spica et grana alba, or Winter Wheat, with white ears and grains. ...These varieties are also destitute of beards, and should not be sown earlier than in September, nor later than in November....They produce the most valuable wheat, which yields the largest proportion of flour. IV. The turgidum, Thick-spiked, or Cone Wheat, each plant bearing from four to eight ears, and each of the latter from 30 to 70 grains j it differs from the preceding spgr 380 W H E cies, both in its bearded ears, and its small plump grains, which are more convex on the back than those of the Spring or Winter Wheat... The principal varieties are : 1. The T. turgidum conicum al- bum, or White Cone Wheat. 2. The T. turgidum conicum ru- brum, or Red Cone Wheat. 3. The T. turgidum aristiferum, Large-bearded Cone-wheat, Clog- wheat, Square-wheat, or Rivets. 4. The T. turgidum, spica mul- tiplied or many-eared Cone-wheat. .....These varieties are well-calcu- lated for strong, damp, soils ; but the corn is apt to lodge, if it be sown too closely. Its grain is said to be productive of more flour than any other sort of wheat, though it is much browner, and of an inferior quality. V. The Polonicum, or Polish Wheat, resembles the preceding species ; but its stalks attain the height of 5 or 6 feet; the leaves are white-striped from 12 to 24 inches, and the ears six inches, in length. This noble 'grain is not cultivated to any extent in Britain, though remarkably fruitful, and yielding abundance of flour. It ought to be sown sparingly ; as it is apt to lodge, in consequence of which the quality of the corn is impaired. VI. The Spelta, Spelt, or Ger- man Wheat, is principally raised in that country, and nearly resembles barley ; though its stalks are short- er. In Tburingia, it is generally sown about Michaelmas, in stony, mountainous lands,which are other- wise fit only for oats. In France, Swabia, Franconia, and on the banks of the Rhine, it is more ex- tensively cultivated, even in better soils....:It is well known in com- merce, that the incomparable Nu- WHE remberg and Frankfort starch and flour are solely obtained from Spelt- wheat. Hence, we are induced to recommend its culture in the nor- thern parts of this island, vvhich abound in rocky pasture grounds, especially in Scotland, where they are often rented at 1 s. 6d. per acre. We must, however, remark, that this excellent grain cannot be di- vested of its husks by thrashing, and that it requires the operation of a mill for that purpose; but it ought to be sown or drilled together with the husks. VII. The Siberian SpringWheat, has but lately been introduced into Britian : it attains to maturity as early astheCommon SpringWheat, and increases in the proportion of 25 to one. VIII. The Switzerland Spring Wheat, ripens a fortnight earlier than the common sort of that sea- son. IX. The Egyptian Wheat is re- markable for its uncommon fruit- fulness : its straw is strong and tough, whence it has received the name of recd-wheat. The grains, however, do not yield so large a proportion of flour or meal as any of the preceding species or varie- ties ; and the flower is scarcely su- perior to that obtained from the finest barley. X. The Zealand Wheat is chiefly raised in the county of Kent: ihe straw is long and tough, resembling reeds; the ears are large; the grains white, and full-bodied....... This species is well calculated for poor soils ; for if it be sown on rich lands, it is apt " to run up lo straw." Lastly, there is a species of Spring Wheat, cultivated in the island of Jersey, and vvhich is termed Froment Tremais; being WHE *nly three months in the ground : its cars and grains are small, but yield a nutritious flour....Like the Cone-wheat, the last seven species are furnished with long beards. The White, or Spring and Sum- mer Wheats, flourish best on light soils, while the other kinds and varieties are more advantageously raised on strong lands. The ground, however, ought previously to be well tilled and pulverized : thus, if a crop of wheat be taken after clover has been ploughed in, it will prove uncommonly fine and abundant. This beneficial corn is propagated, by sowing it either broad-cast, or by Drilling it with Mr. Cooke's, or similar drill-machine ; or by Mr. Jervas Weight's implement for sowing wheat and other grain; which may be affixed to a plough, or manufactured of any requisite size......Mr. W. obtained a patent for this invention, in 1784 ; and, farmers may avail themselves of his contrivance, described in the 15th volume of the " Repertory of Ann,1' where it is farther illustrated by an engraving. Wheat may also be dibbled; but, though a considerable saving is thus obtained in the quantity of seed, yet such method is by no means preferable to drilling. With- in a few years, indeed, it has been proposed to increase the plant by dividing the root; and various ex- periments have been successfully made, with a view of saving seed- corn : the most remarkable is that of Mr. Charles Miller,of Cam- bridge. He sowed some wheat on the 2d of June, 1766 ; on the 8th day of August in the same year, a sing!', plant was taken up, divided into 18 parts, and each p..rt sepa- rately transplanted. Between the WHE 381 middle of September and Octoljer, these plants were again removed, their roots divided into 67 portions; which were likewise set at a pro- per distance from each other, for enduring the winter. Next, they were dug up a third time, and di- vided in a similar manner, between the middle of March and the 12th of April; in consequence of which, they produced five hundred plants. Thus, a single grain yielded in one season : Ears 21,109 In number 570,000 fold ! In measure 31 pecks. In weight 47 pounds. For a more particular account of this experiment, the reader will consult the 58th vol. of the " Phi- losophical Transactions of the Royal Society".....The superiority of the Transplanting System over the Drill-Husbandry, is also fully de- monstrated in the 3d vol. of the " Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England'Society." Wheat is subject to the Mil- dew, and various other disoiders, of which we have already treated, under the heads of Barley, Corn, &c. Hence we shall, by way of supplement, communicate two other remedies, which are recom- mended as being singularly effica- cious in preventing the Smut...... M. Hochheimer, whose authority is often questionable, relates in his German collection of economical and other facts, that wheat mois- tened wilh strong vinegar, in the proportion of 24 lbs. of the grain to one pint of this liquor, will be perfectly secure from that distem- per. Tbe corn should thus be pre- pared, shortly before it is sown ; and, though it be kept for a fort- night in such acidified state, on account of rainy weather, yet it !82 WHE WHE will not receive the least injury.... The next remedy is that proposed by Mr. Robert Somerville (" Communications to the Board of Agriculture," vol. ii.), who attributes this disease to an insect resembling the wood-louse, though infinitely smaller ; depositing its eggs in the chaff, or downy-part of the wheat: and, as there vermin, if sown with tiie seed, would either totally des- troy the stem of the future plant, or cause it to produce smut-balls, he advises the infected or suspected grains to be washed in water ; by which expedient, ail light or im- perfect seed may not only be skim- med off the surface, but the greater part of the eggs of such insects will be separated. As, however, some of these eggs, notwithstand- ing this precaution, adhere to the grain, Mr. S. recommends the following preparation, that is pre- ferable to infusions of lime, ar- senic, and other mineral ingre- dients, vvhich often retard and de- stroy vegetation : Take of tobac- co-leaves, of pulverized hellebore, and of Barbadoes aloes, each one pound; boil the two first sub- stances, for about an hour and an half, in 10 English gallons of wa- ter. The fluid should next be strained through the sieve ; then put into a vessel over the fire ; and the aloes be added in a state of powder. The whole must now boil, till the last ingredient be com- pletely dissolved : the liquor ought afterwards to be removed from the fire, and poured into a large vessel: when perfectly cold, it should be diluted with such a quantity of pure water as will amount to 30 gallons. The seed ought to be immersed in this preparation, and briskly agitated for 20 minutes; after which it must be dried on canvas, or on the floor....Mr. S. remarks, that if 2 lbs. of coarse glue or gum-arabic be dissolved, its tenacity will cause the bitter ingredients to adhere more firmly to the grain. The expense of this compound is said not to exceed seven or eight shillings, and to be sufficient for twelve bolls (six Eng- lish quarters) of wheat; and, tho' such liquor be not prejudicial to vegetation, it is so nauseous, that neither pigeons, nor any other of the devouring tribe, will touch it. Mr. Somerville, therefore, pro- poses the following method of des- troying vermin on the growing crop : A piece of double flannel, about two yards in breadth, and sufficiently long to go across a ridge, ought to be provided with cords at each end, to serve as hands, and also furnished with small pieces of lead at the bottom, as re- presented in the following figure. cccccccccccccc WHE WHE 383 A, the flannel. B, B, the cord. , cccccccccccc c c, are the weights. This cloth, or blanket, must be dipped in the preparation above described, or in a strong decoction of rue, chamomile, and similar bitter herbs ; which is equally dis- gustful lo vermin of every descrip- tion. One person is then to lay hold of each end of the cord, and to draw the flannel after them in the direction of the ridge, so as to touch the top of every plant: the same operation is repeated a se- cond time over each ridge, in a con- trary direction ; by which means, both sides will come in contact with the liquid, and the depreda- tions of insects, in general, be ef- fectually prevented. This sweep- ing, however, ought, if possible, to be performed in dry weather ; because those particles of the nau- seous ingredients, which may be left upon the cars, will more firm- ly adhere, than if the latter were in a wet state. The proper period for reaping wheat, is by no means ascertained; some farmers asserting that it is most advantageous to cut the grain before it is perfectly ripe, while others are of opinion, that it ought lo stand till nearly ready to be reaped and housed. The anony- mous author of the " Farmer's Calendar," observes, that the safest way is that of adopting a middle course, with a particular regard to a fair time. If, however, there be any appearance of blight, Mr. A. Young thinks, that farmers cannot cut their wheat two early. He re- marks, that the green state of the straw is no indication that the grain is immature ; because the straw of blighted corn never acquires a bright yellow colour : but remains green till it becomes black. When the stalk is in this conditiop, the circulation of the sap ceases ; and the grain daily decreases in size. He therefore advises the wheat to be cut; laid down on the stubble ; exposed to the dew; frequently turned ; and, when perfectly diy, the grain may be tied up in sheaves, and carried to the barn. Thus, thousands of bushels may be annually saved, that might af- ford good marketable grain ; part of which would otherwise never be thrashed out of the ears, while the remainder would be so light and brittle, as to be dispersed in winnowing: the straw will at the same time be tough, and fit for thatching; whereas, without adopt- ing such method, it could not fail of being beaten to pieces in thrashing.....See also the article Granary. To Prepare Seed Wheat. [Various steeps have been propo- sed to expedite the vegetation of the seed, and to protect it from mildew or rust. The experienced Du Hamel was of opinion that washing the seed well in plain water answer- ed better than any artificial im- pregnation, and Mr. Wagstaffe of Norwich, (Bath Soc. Trans.) is of the same opinion. Mr. Cha- i'ELlk 's experiment, however, mentioned in vol. i. p. 180, is de- cisive as to the great advantage derived from soaking barley seed in the black carbonic water of a stable manure heap, in a dry sea- son. Mr. William Johnston, of Jenkintovvn, formerly mentic ti- ed in vol. ii. p. 284, stated to the Editor, that he also steeped his 384 WHE grain intheblack water of a manure heap, in which was dissolved some nitre, and then sifted gypsum over it: the grain thus prepared was sown, and from thirty acres of ground he produced 702A bushels of wheat. The following experiment is taken from the " Balance, " a pa- per published at Hudson, (New York) and is worth repeating. " A man in this state, in pre- paring his seed wheat for sowing, steeped one bushel, twelve hours in pickle, and then roiled it in plaister, and sowed it through the middle of a field containing eleven or twelve acres ; on each side of this throughout the field he sowed wheat that had been rolled in plais- ter, but not pickled. Soon after the grain began to vegetate, he perceived a striking difference, and that, during the whole grovvth, the stems of the pickled seed were much superior in thriftiness and luxuriance. " After reaping, thrashing, and measuring the grain, and making a comparison between the ■products of the pickled and unpickled seed, the owner has affirmed it, as his opinion, that, if he had pickled the whole of the seed, which was sown in that field, his crop would have been increased thereby not less than seventy or eighty bushels." Mr. Cartier, of Quebec also, advises to wash seed wheat thrice thoroughly in water, then to steep it eighteen hours in strong brine, and to sift lime over it, stirring it well with a shovel, until the wheat be equally dusted, in the propor- tion of half a gallon to every bushel of wheat. Some exceed- ingly smutty wheat, was prepared in the above way, and immediately sown, and produced a good and WHE clean grain. Carey's Museum, vol. vii. p. 273. Modes of Sowing Wheat. The following modes of sow- ing wheat are practised in various countries. 1. Broad cast. 2. Drilling in continued rows like garden peas. 3. Drilling clusters ; in rows. 4. Dibbling: dropping seed in holes. However easy the broad cast mode of culture may be to the farmer, he is deprived of the bene- fit arising from hoeing, which the other modes readily admit of. When the second mode is prac- tised, the plants are horse-hoed between the rows. It is generally agreed that this mode yields more than the broad cast. WALTEltRuTHERFORDEsq.ofN. Jersey, speaks highly of a mode of drilling vvhich is pursued in N. Jersey. The drill was invented by a fanner, in Somerset county, in that state, and consists of a seed- box over a cylinder that turns with the wheels, and having four holes in the box, answering to notches sloped in the cylinder, thus per- mitting the seed to fall into drills at 13 inches a part. The drill is drawn by a pair of horses, with a tongue to turn it: when turning, the wheel is to be held fast, and brought round, to run in the out- side drill: the head lands are afterwards to be drilled. Eight acres a day may be put in, pro- vided the ground be previously well harrowed. The advantages.of this method as stated by Mr. Rutherford and according to the experience of many farmers, are 1. It takes WHE WHE 385 somewhat less seed. 2. The seed is much better covered. 3. The ridges on each side mouldering gradually on the green grain, it does not freeze out, during the winter. 4. It is sheltered from the bleak spring winch. 5. It draws off the wet. 6. A crop thus put in, stands the drought well, the roots being well covered. Mr. Rutherford observes fur- ther, " Where the land is richly manured, perhaps this method may not be necessary, and if the fallow be covered with large stones or stumps of trees, it will be im- practicable ; but on land considera- bly exhausted, our farmers have experienced it to be advantageous; I reckon it yields double the old method (broad cast.) When I first practised drilling, it was on ?. field that, the year before, was in summer grain : one part of it gave a much better crop than the rest; and I found that without di- rections, the teams-man sowed this part by hand." See Transactions of the New York Agricultural So- ciety, volume 1st. Drilling in clusters, permits horse-hoeing and hand-hoeing: and yields still more than wheat drilled in a continued line. Mr. Bordley is of opinion that f dibbling yields the mos^t productive crop : but that eight or ten grains should be dropped in each hole. This method is tedious and expen- sive, where labour is scarce. Mr. Bordley invented a sim- ple strong machine vvhich dropped five or six grains of wheat in each cluster on about eight acres. The clusters were seven inches apart •in the rows; and the rows were about nine inches from one another. A horse on each side of a bed walked in the water furrows, and VOL. V. sowed an intire bed in eight rows at a time. A light pole extended between the horses, from the neck of one to that of the other. It appeared that, as Lr as nine grains in a cluster, and from Mr. Singleton's experiments, in Tal- bot county, as far as 15 grains in every cluster, the produce in wheat vvas progressively the better. Mr. B. recommends to drop the seeds so as to touch one another if pos- sible, as they thus proved greatly superior to the same number of grainsspread within circles of three inches, the centres whereof were seven inches from the centres of other similar clusters ; when the dibbled were only six inches apart. Mr. B. estimated his crop at 15 per cent, better than drilled wheat in continued rows, both be- ing hoed alike : which would be J or 33 per cent better than broad cast wheat not hood. Mr. B. further observes ; " af- ter a number of instructive expe- riments on eleven acres of wheat harrowed in, and compared with wheat at the same time ploughed in ; of wheat sown on a broad level; on round ridges of various heights; and on fiat beds having deep part- ing furrows, the ridges and beds with their water furrows being seven feet wide, Some running North and South, and others East and West, I clearly preferred beds to ridges ; because it is immate- rial in what direction they lie, the sun shining equally on the whole horizontal surface ; and because the soil being alike in quality on the whole bed, the wheat grew equally well from edge to edge. The wheat, in reaping, also, vw-.s better saved, no short wheat being observed as on the edges of ridges, and the furrows beingopened deep, 3 D 386 WHE WHE the rains presently glided into the furrows, and were by them con- veyed into the main drains of this flat land,without ever drowning the wheat, or hardening the ground upon the flat beds. " Page 89, 90, 2d Edit, of Notes on Husbandry. Preparative cropfor Wheat....rYhe most experienced farmers in Penn- sylvania, are now in the constant practice of preparing wheat by ploughing down clover after having stood two years. But they have not sufficiently attended to the proper distance of time that ought to in- tervene between the ploughing down, and the sowing wheat. The great point to be attended to, is to sow the wheat at the period when it is expected that the clover is rotting, and when of course the seed will derive the benefit from the extrication of those elastic fluids( which are the great supports of vegetation,) and of the heat of the fermenting plant. Hence, Mr. Macro says, (Young's Annals, vol. i.) " that 20 years experience has convinced him, the best way of sowing clover lands with wheat, is to plough the lands 10 or 15 days before you sow it, that the land may have some time to get dry, and after rain enough to make it dress well." Hence too the propriety of Mr. Macro's practice of ploughing in the clover on a fall of rain, and of waiting for a due state of the ground. Mr. Bordle? adds, that if rain falls after burying the clover, and be- fore sowing the wheat, it may be necessary to wait for the ground becoming only moist, rather than sow when it is wet and heavy. If the farmer ploughs in clover, when the ground is dry,he may choose to wait for rain before he sows.Though for this reason alone he need not wait. I have found it generally safe to sow during a drought, when the soil is very dry; but not when a light rain has fallen on very dry ground. In the former case, the seed is safe till a rain falls, which is usually in plenty after a drought; and the seed then quickly grows up: in the other case, it is slightly damp- ed, and it swells, but the moisture is so soon evaporated as to leave the seed to dry-rot and perish." An experienced person made the same observations to the Editor, with respect to sowing seeds in a garden. Mr. Steele, of Montgomery county, (whose admirable plan for extirpating wild garlic, was men- tioned in vol. iii. p. 148) commu- nicated the following experiment: He ploughed down part of a ten acre lot, one half of which he harrowed and sowed with wheat, the other half vvas permitted to re- main about 14 or 20 days, and vvas then ploughed a second time, har- rowed and sown with wheat. The clover at the second ploughing was found completely rotten, and the wheat sown upon this twice plough- ed piece, yielded nearly double the crop of the other vvhich had been ploughed but once. In the above experiment it is probable, that the piece first. ploughed had been sown before the decomposition of the clover took place ; the part twice ploughed, by some management, may not have had the rotten clover turned out as is commonly done when a clover lay is ploughed twice ; but there can be no question as to the superiority of the crop, if after being once ploughed, it had beea merely harrowed and sown, at the period, and instead of the se- cond ploughing ; for by this ope- WHE ration, much carbonic acid (fixed air,) must have been evolved, which would have been retained. Gypsum, a manure to wheat..... In the Friends Settlement in Lou- don county, Virginia, south of the Blue Ridge, a great quantity of fine wheat is raised. The soil is of a deep chocolate colour. Mr. Wm. West, of Delaware county, Penn- sylvania, vvas told last spring, that the crop of 1802, averaged 30 bushels to the acre. Gypsum was scattered on the wheat in the spring, in the proportion of one bushel to the acre, and was said to be attended with the most remark- ably good effect of trebling the produce of the land. Gypsum is found useless in Pennsylvania for winter grain. See article Gyp- sum. This surprisingly good effect of gypsum upon wheat, which is so contrary to the experience of our farmers in Pennsylvania, ought lo be carefully attended to. The in- telligent farmers of Loudon coun- ty, should inform us of the nature of their soil, and their medical men should analyze it. If gypsum could be generally made to in- crease the product of wheat, as it lias of clover, a Second Mine would be opened to the people of the United States. The means of getting out wheat from the straw are three. I. By the flail. 2. By treading with horses. 3. By threshing mills. The method by means of the flail is well known. The second, is but partially used in the United States, though there can not be a doubt of its superiority to the mode by the flail. It is a (omraon prac- tice in Marj land ant! Virginia. Mr. Bordley observes "some WHE 387 farmers shift their treading floors from field to field ; whence much rough dirty wheat goes to market. Those who have a proper earth,on a perpetual floor used for treading crops of wheat, year after year, will have it glossy, and the wheat from it will have no more dirt than if threshed on plank with flails; provided they are attentive in tak- ing off the horse-dung directly as it is dropped, andnotletthe horses stop, to stale, until each journey ends and they are led off; and, provided, that as soon as the tread- ing season is over, they cover the floor thick with straw, to remain till a week or two before they are to tread in the next season. Cat- tle may be foddered on it all win- ter, keeping it full of litter, to pre- vent horses from sinking and poaching the ground. When horses in halters are led in ranks, and each rank kept as far apart from the others as possible, time is given for taking off the dung dropt before the next rank tram- ples on it; and in this detached way of travelling, the horses are kept cool. Mr. Bordley states the advantages to be : 1. An entire crop of wheat beat out before the end of July, which preserves it against the moth-fly. 2. Little opportunity is left for pilferers, and the wheat is ready for an early market. Treading floors are from 60 to 100 feet*diameter, some are only 40 feet; others again 130, and more. The larger the diameter the easier to the horses. I never knew a horse disordered on a large floor, (above 60 feet). The track or path, on which the sheaves are laid and the horses tread, is from 12 to 24 feet wide. Mr. Bordlet submits the fol- 388 WHE lowing method as the best within his knowledge. The floor is un- incumbered with any fence. A barn 60 feet square is in the mid- dle of it, around which the horses travel, on the bed of sheaves about 25 feel broad ; so that the diame.cr of the whole treading rioor is 135 feet. If the weather be likely to con- tinue fair, the morning is suffered to pass away until the dew is off the stacks and floor. A row of sheaves is first laid flat on the floor, with the heads and butts in a line, across the stack of it, as a bolster for receiving the other sheaves with their heads raised on them ; and these sheaves range with the path and circle, the butts resting on the floor. Other sheaves are in like manner ranged, with the heads raised on the former sheaves, till the whole floor is filled, appearing with nothing but heads of wheat, sloping upwards. The bands are to be cut, layer by layer. A west- erly wind is to be wished when treading ; and it is preferred to place the stacks eastward of the floor, to give a free passage to the west winds. In my treading, 24 horses are formed at some distance from the floor into four ranks; when the floor is ready, a boy mounted, advances in a walk with the rank haltered together, and enters c:i the bed of wheat; another rank follows, as soon as the#first has obtained a distance equal to a fourth part of the circumference of tbi bed, and so of the other ranks. They are forbid to go out of a walk, till having walked upon the bed five or six rounds ; word is given to move on in a sober, slow trot, and to keep the ranks at theirfu".! distance from one another. WHE The trot is continued till the horses have-travelled 8 or 9 miles ; t'-ey are then led off to l>e fed, ,.er- ed and rested, vl. le the odden light straw is t:\'v. i off, r , deep at to where tb.e sh u es be somewhat close, a:Ki but partially bruised. One third of the width of the bed, is turned over on the other two thirds from the inner side or circle of the bed. The horses are again led on, and trot out their second journey, till the straw be again light and clear of wheat. It is then taken off, as deep as to what lies more close. The horses are again rested, 8cc. while, the outer third of the bed is turned upon the middle part of the bed. A third journey is sufficient. The straw being taken off, the whole remaining bed is turned up from the floor, and shook out with forks and handles of rakes. The horses tread this well; their journies are then finished. A neighbour viewing the tread- ing of wheat on my floor, said Jhe method h admirably easy to the horses, and that most of the time is spent in taking off and carrying away the straw ; but he thought it would be a saving, if the outer half of the bed be trodden till enough, and then the horses shift- ed on the inner half of the bed; and whilst this is treading, the straw might be carried off from the outer half, first trodden. 3. Many threshing mills have been invented in England and Scotland : but they have all been highly expensive, and so compli- cated that they were easily de- ranged; and hence, even at this day, opposite opinions are enter- tained as to their utility. In the " Sherborne Mercury," for Janu- ary 12, li,j!, mention is made WHE WHE 389 of a threshing machine, erected exhausted of the nourishment. for J. Hanning, Esq. of Dorset, which they had imbibed, so that it which threshes and cleans 400 could not reach the ear or grain. bushels of grain and sacks it in If with this sudden heat and dry- 12 hours, with the assistance of ing state of the air, the plants be, five men." What a treasure struck with rust, and are still suf- would such an implement prove fered to stand longer, the grain, to an American farmer !. receiving no more nourishment, On this subject Dr. James An- can never fill; but by cutting it derson observes, to the Editor, instantly, and setting it sheltered " that no threshing machines re- to cure gradually, the best chance quiring a greater power than that is had for obtaining marketable of one good horse, can ever give good wheat. satisfaction to an intelligent far- "The reaping corn 10 or 14 mer; because, when it works days earlier than my neighbours, faster, the man who feeds it, is too (says Mr. Parkinson) is an ad- much hurried to be able to do it vantage I have attended to. As well; in consequence of which the corn begins to decay first at the, grain is laid in unequal lumps that root, all the nourishment it can re- derange the operations, and great- ceive, while standing uncut, after ly augments the force required : the decay of the root, must be de- for these obstructions must, to be rived from the straw. The dews overcome, break the machine, and may feed the grain at one time ; never perform the work well." but when nearly ripe and the root This is an important general rule, decayed,the sun and wind have so well worth attending lo. much power as to ripen it too The threshing mill of Mr. quickly, or scorch or dry it before Hoxie, of Hudson, New York, its,natural period of maturity. was mentioned in p. 114, of the " Riding on the road about har- present volume, to which we refer, vest time, he observed a field of The following observations upon wheat that had taken the mildew. harvesting wheat, u.id on the mil- The straw was of a remarkably dew deserve attention. deep green, and instead of being- " What stage'of ripeness is the dead, appeared to have acquired best for cutting wheat, is not as- a greater verdure ; though after certained in America ; but I have such appearance comes on, it seen enough of cutting early to be never receives any nourishment convinced that it commonly is suf- or grows larger. Instead whereof fered to stand too long. the straw becomes distempered, " At the time of reaping, we ge- spotted, and discoloured. The ncrally have a clear *oky and a pe- sooner it is then cut the better. culiar drying air, which in some He took 12 ears of the wheat, harvests ripen wheat very sudden- which, as well as the straw, were ly, so that the plants from an ap- green as grass, and at thesametima parent state of vigour, are killed in mildewed. A great deal of rain a day or two, and receive no fur- had fallen the forepart of the day ; ther nourishment from tb.e root or but the ears of wheat were ffretty blade ; and even the ster.v, become dry. He tied them in a bunch. S90 WHE WHE intending to hang them up in his house to dry and ripen. Several weeks afterwards, having been forgot, he took them out of his •great coat pocket ; when the straw was found to be still green. The grain was then rubbed out, and to his astonishment he never saw bet- ter. It was fine in colour, and well filled ; but what remained in the field, from which he took these ears, was very small and of little value. This is a strong case, which ought to make an im- pression on the minds of our far- mers. He adds....From hence it would seem, that if the farmers would cut their wheat when it is struck with mildew, and set it up in the field in small stacks of about a cart load each, so as neither to heat nor mold, it would be better than to let it stand, as is the prac- tice, uncut. " Hehad, at the same time, taken twelve ears of wheat from an ad- joining riper field, vvhich were likewise found in the other pocket of the great coat. Though these, when gathered, appeared so much superior to what had taken the mildew, they did not turn out near- ly so good as the others. From the above circumstances, Mr. Park- inson was ever after partial to cutting wheat when the straw ap- peared of a reddish cast, or some of it green with the joints full of sap; and it fulfilled his expecta- tions. The straw, he adds, is bet- ter for chaff; the flour much fairer and heavier ; and for fine flour it will grind into broad bran. But he does not think that if the wheat escapes the mildew, it ought to be cut so green. " The farmer may take into consideration at what time it will be best that he cut down his wheat; for a slight degree of rust it need not be hurried ; but when greatly rusted in its advanced state of ri- pening, and when considerably scabbed (vvhich never happens but in the moment before it ripens) immediately cut down, and guard it against sun and wind, slightly, lest by securing it too close, it heat and be entirely spoiled..... What in wheat is by some called scab, by others is called empty ears." Captain Romans, in his account of Florida says, that a Mr. Young of Georgia, mixed rye among his seed wheat, and thus escaped the blast. It was repeatedly tried till he was convinced of its efficacy; and then he sowed five acres with wheat, surrounded by a list of 25 feet breadth of rye, and this also succeeded. Mr. Bordley heard an English farmer say, that rye sown mixed wjth wheat, will pre- ventthe wheatfrombeing blighted, in England. Beside the mildew, the wheat has to encounter two great enemies, in the fly and moth. The one at- tacking it in the ground, and the other after it is cut. The first insect has been already noticed in vol. 3d', p. 54. where the valuable observations of Joseph Cooper, Esq. may be found. This insect is now known to be a Tipula, belonging to the Diptera order of Linn^us, and to the eleventh order or Antiliata of Fabricius. The other insect is a species of moth. It is believed to be de- scribed by Du Hamel ; its history is accurately detailed by L. Car- ter, Esq. of Virginia in the 1st vol. of the Trans, of the American Philo. Society. Mr. Carter is of opinion, that the egg is lodged WHE WHE 391 in the grain before it hardens ; and the time required by common the same opinion was expressed wheat, and that twenty bushels per to the Editor, by an intelligent hour can be turned out. farmer, in the neighbourhood of Wheat blanched in this way, Philadelphia. When the grain is may be kept for any length of threshed and laid in heaps it heats time, without any risk, and might and hatches the insect, but if kept be laid 20 feet thick in the ware- cool and free from the air, it will house withou t injury. escape. It is found best to thresh To what American shall the speedily after cutting the grain, U. S. be indebted, for the intro- and before it is sweated. duction of this useful machine into Mr. Robert Ferryman of his country ! ! England, has invented a machine Connected with the subject of to take off the outer coat of wheat, wheat, may be mentioned the/ire** previously to being ground, by for packing flour invented by Mr. which the whole of the grain may Evan Evans of the Federal city, be used in "bread, without any of and which is in actual operation at the inconveniences hitherto found Mr. Oliver Evans' store inPhi- in bread, made from the whole of ladelphia. The following cut and the meal. explanation will give an accurate It appeared in the examination idea of this very useful contrivance, of Mr. F. by a committee of the by which a barrel of flour may be House of Commons ; that blanch- packed in a minute. ed wheat grinds in two thirds of 392 WHE Explanation.....A, the barrel of flour : B, the funnel, resting upon the edge of the barrel by a shoul- der : C, D, the driver: E, F, the lever : G, 11, the connecting bars, fastened by a strong pin to each side of the lever at G, and to the driver at II: I, I, two strong posts put through the floor, and keyed below the joists at K : the lever works between them on a strong pin L : the lever brought down-by the hand, moves the pin G, in the dotted circle I, and the connecting bars draws.down the driver C, forcing the flour into the barrel; and, as it becomes harder packed the power of the machine in- creases, as the pin G, approaches the posts I; this with its dispatch, is what constitutes its excellence ; for a weight being hung to the end of the lever, continues to pack more powerfully as the lever de- scends ; by which^ goods may be packed very hard in a short time. To increase the power, the under sliding part of the lever is drawn out to increase its length ; the le- ver is raised again by the weight M, fastened to a line passing over the pullies N, O.] Yvtheat, thft Cow. See Cow- wheat. WHEEL, is a simple ma- chine, consisting of a nave, fel- lies, and circular brim, or pieces of wood generally surrounded with iron ; and thus revolving on ks axis. In the year 1793, the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. rewarded Mr. Joskimi Dixon with the sum of 15 guineas, for hjs contrivance of a Preservative Wheel, that may be affixed to a walking wheel-cranc\; by means of vvhich all accidents to labourers will be obviated, in case the weight WHE should at any time overcome the power. His implement is attached to the axis of the crane-wheel; over the latter are passed two ropes, of vvhich the men may take hold, so as to suspend themselves with the greatest safety, during the time of danger. Pullies are likewise placed near such preser- vative wheels, over vvhich the ropes turn, and are thus prevented from taking fire, in consequence of the friction. For a more explicit ac- count of this useful invention, we refer to the 11th vol. of the So- ciety's " Transactions ;" where his statement is elucidated by an en- graving. A patent was granted in August, 1799, to Messrs. George Dod- son, and John Skidmore ; for a method of making the naves or stocks of wheels, of cast-iron, brass, or compound-metal. A des- cription of their process is inserted in the 12th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," he. together with an ap- propriate plate. Wheel-drag. See Drag. Wheel-carriages. See Car- riage, Cart, Waggon, he. [" In the second volume of ths Communications to the Board ofAg- griculture, is an excellent paper ' On the effects which carriage- wheels, with rims of different shapes, have on the roads.' By AlexanderCumming, Esq. F. R. S. Edin. " Mr. C begins with shewing, that the properties of all wheels, so far as regards this lirtquiry, de- pend upon their affinity to the cy- linder or the cone : and in order to shew the nature and tendency of each class, he proceeds to state such properties as unavoidably arise from the shape of these bodies. WHE WHE 393 « In the first place, the cylinder having all its parts of equal diame- ter, will, in rolling on its rim, have an equal velocity at every part of its circumference, and necessarily advance in a straight fine : and as all the parts of the rim have an equal velocity, none can have a ten- dency to drag forward, or retard the progress of the others : they all advance with one consent, with- out the rubbing of any part on the surface on which they roll. As there is no rubbing, there can be no friction ; and consequently a cy- linder perfectly round, hard, and smooth, would roll on a surface perfectly level, hard and smooth, with the least possible resistance, however great its weight, or the pressure on its rim. It therefore follows, that all the power that is employed in drawing forward a cy- lindrical body, in a straight line, on a compressible substance, is ultimately applied in compressing, smoothing, and levelling the sub- •tancc on which it rolls. The roll- ing of a cylindrical body, therefore, can have no tendency to alter the relative situation or position of the parts of materials on which they pass, nor any how to derange them, but by a progressive dead pressure, to consolidate, level, and smooth them. These properties of the cy- linder are practically confirmed by the effect which frequent rolling with a cylinder has on gravel walks; it renders them compact, hard, smooth, and impervious to rains ; and consequently secure against the devastations of hard frosts.... Nor does it break or grind the gra- vel, more especially after the first time of rolling, when all the parts are laid flat and smooth. If a cy- linder be cut into several lengths, each part will possess all the above YOL. V. properties ; and if the rim of a car- riage-wheel be made exactly of the same shape, it must necessarily have the same tendencies ; and its rolling will have the same effect on roads, provided it be not narrow, that cylindrical rollers are observed to have on garden walks*. " All these properties of the cy< linder depending wholly upon the equality of every part of its diame- ter, and consequently upon the ve- locity of every part of its circum- ference, are peculiar to it; and it is impossible to gain equal advan- tages with any other shape of the circumference of a wheel. But as conical rims' have been universally preferred for a series of years, it is natural to suppose that there were obvious reasons for such preference. On this ac- count, Mr. C. proceeds to inves- tigate the properties that must necessarily arise from the shape of the cone ; in order to see how far this preference can be justified. The cone diminishing gradually from its base to its point, the ve- locity of every part of its circum- ference in rolling on an even plane, will be dimished as the diameter; and at the very point, where there is no visible diameter, there will be no perceptible motion, the cone revolving round it, as a fixed point, or centre. If the cone revolve about this centre, the space described by each part of the cone in rolling round its point, being as the velo- city with which that part moves, the cone will roll in this din aim " The advantage of increasing the breadth of cylindrical rims is too obvious to be insisted on: as the surface which sus'ains the pressure of the load is in- creased, the pressure on each part of it is diminished; and consequently the pow- er of crushing the materials on which cher roll. ' 3 E 394 WHE without rubbing, and with the same facility that the cylinder does in a straight line. But if the cone be made to advance in a straight line, the natural velocities of its several parts will not be as the spaces over which they are compelled to ad- vance ; therefore a rubbing or fric- tion will take place at its circum- ference, from the different velo- cities of its parts, which must ren- der the draught heavier. And if the cone be supposed cut, and se- parated into several parts, and each to form the rim of a broad wheel; each part, if rolled in this separated state on a level plain, would roll in the same circle round the conical centre, that it did when all the parts were connected. And the difference of velocity of the parts of each wheel, and consequently the friction and resistance at its rim, when advancing in a straight line, may easily be determined. It will also clearly appear, that the rubbing at the rim of each, will, in passing over a given space, be in- creased as its diameter is dimin- ished, and its breadth augmented: so that a wheel of this shape must have the smallest part of the rim absolutely dragged along the sur- face of the road a certain portion of all the way it goes, which will be a great weight to the draught. But the evil arising from this friction at the rim of conical wheels is not confined to the increased labour of the cattle only; the greatest efficacy is also given to their increased exertions in destroy- ing the hardest and most valuable materials of the road3: the larg- est part of the wheel dragging for- ward the smallest, and it with equal force resisting, there arises an ac- tion and counter-action, and the largest and smallest parts of thq WHE rim advancing with different velo- cities, and pressed by the weight of a heavy load, become alternate fulcrums to each other, for the des- troying and grinding of the hard- est materials that can be procured. Whoever takes the trouble of en- quiring into the requisites of a well constructed pulverizing mill, will find them combined in the conical broad wheel of a heavy-loaded waggon. The materials beingthus ground to powder, this is raised in a cloud of dust, to the great annoyance of the traveller, to re- medy which, watering is used near the metropolis, which keeping the roads moist, anticipates and in- creases the effects of wet seasons. When the roads are moist, pli- ant, and compressible, the effect of the conical rim is altered, but not less destructive: on the ap- proach of wet seasons, the body of pulverized matter that lies upon the more solid gravel vvhich sup- ports the wheels, is soon mixed with water, and forms a body of sludge, vvhich excludes air, and keeps the roads in a constant state of moisture ; this soon renders the interior parts of the roads so moist and pliant, that the pressure of a heavy waggon-wheel will make the whole breadth of its conical rim to apply flatly, and press hard up- on the more solid materials that lie under the sludge: the parts of vvhich being now in a state more susceptible of altering their relative positions, comply with the motion of such parts of the wheel as im- mediately press upon them : thus all former concretion is destroyed, induration prevented, and the ma- terials vvhich form the crust of the road are left in a broken unconnect- ed state, ready to imbibe the water which the sludge on its surface WHE WHE 395 supplies constantly and abundantly. How different is this from the con- solidating effects of cylindrical rims under the same circumstances. In rolling on paved streets, no- thing can be conceived more calcu- lated for their destruction than the conical rim of a broad wheel. Let us suppose the largest part of the circumference to bear upon one stone of the pavement, and the smallest part of it upon the ad- joining stone; the one will be pushed backwards, and the other dragged forwards by the force of the horses that draw the carriage ; if this force be sufficient to open the joints between them, so as to ad- mit water, the mischief is done : a wet joint imbibes more water ; this softens the gravel with vvhich the paving is laid, and leaves it less able to resist the next effort, by vvhich the joint gets more loose, and admits water sufficient to float and discharge the gravel, Cylin- drical wheels will not only pre- vent all this mischief, but also im- prove the streets by producing the effect of the rammer wherever the wheel passes. Conical wheels likewise increase the friction on the axis by their constant tenden- cy from a rectilinear direction: this likewise occasions a rubbing against the sides of deep rutsj which throws up the dirt towards the middle of the road, greatly ob- structs the progressof the carriage, and increases the labour of the horses. Such are the effects that un- avoidably arise from the conical shape of wheels, and they seem as much calculated for the destruc- tion of roads, as those of cylindri- cal wheels are for their preserva- tion and improvement: and seeing that the cylindrical rim is the most favourable that can possibly be adopted for the preservation and improvement of roads, and that the conical is the most de- structive, a certain advantage;must be gained by using the former in- stead of the latter ; and as this ad- vantage must be in proportion to the space and surface that is rolled, it cannot be thought excessive, Mr. C. thinks, to rate that differ- ence at one shilling for every acre of road that is rolled with an im- proving roller instead of an im- pairing one. Mr. C. then goes on to inquire what may be the probable amount of the advantage that may thus be gained to the nation yearly by adopting cylindrical rims for the wheels of such waggons only as travel the turnpike roads. The number of waggons in England is upwards of 96,600 : and supposing that only a tenth of that number is employed on the turnpike roads, and a fourth of that tenth, or a for- tieth of the whole, to have wheels twelve inches broad: and of the remaining three-fourths, that one- half have wheels six inches broad, and the other half, wheels only four inches, the statement will be as follows: Number of waggons employed on the roads Waggons with twelve-inch wheels D° with six-inch wheels 1)° with four-inch wheels 9,660 2?415 3^622^ 3,622-1 -9.66') 396 WHE WHE A wheel 12 inches broad, will, in rolling 30 miles, cover a space of 158,400 feet,and the four wheels of a waggon rolling a double sur- face, will, at the same rate, in a day's journey, roll a surface of 633,600 feet, vvhich is equal to the whole surface of four miles of a road 30 feet wide; and something more than 14* acres. So that 2,415 waggons, with 12-inch wheels will, in a day's journey of 30 miles, roll, 35,012 acres. 3,622 waggons with 6-inch wheels 26,259 3,662 waggons with 4-inch wheels 17,506 The number of acres rolled in a day by all the waggons 78,777 " And supposing all the wag- gons, at an average, to travel only 90 days in a year, they vvill roll a surface equal to 7,089,930 acres ; which, at one shilling only per acre, will exceed 350,000/. per an- num. " Independent of pecuniary es- timates, the quantity of surface that is rolled yearly by waggons that travel the roads of Epgland, is equal to the entire surface of l,948,8SO miles of road 30 feet wide. It is surely therefore of importance to use such wheels to roll this very extensive surface, vvhich will improve instead of im- pairing it. " In the preceding estimate no allowance was made for such wag- gons as are used in agriculture, and that seldom come upon the public roads ; but as every improve- ment of the private, as well as of the public roads, must be a national benefit, our author proceeds next to consider what udvr.tagesmay be gained on the private roads by the same means. " 86,940 waggons are supposed to be employed for the purposes of agriculture, which is nine times the number that has been supposed to travel on the turnpike roads: but as they do not keep constantly even upon the private roads, he sup< poses them to travel the roads only 1 day in a month, at which rate they vvill, ceteris paribus, roll one-ninth more surface than all the waggons that travel the public roads at the rate of eight days in the month. " But supposing it only equal, as the quantity of surface that would be rolled annually by all the wag- gons travelling the turnpike roads in England, is equal to the surface of 1,948,880 miles of road 30 feet wide ; and in taking an equal quan- tity for the private roads, the whole surface that is rolled yearly by waggon-wheels, on the public and private roads together, if uniformly diffused, would cover every part of the surface of 3,897,760 miles of a road 30 feet wide; and in pro- portion as the length of road on vvhich this traffic is supposed to be carried on is shortened, so much the oftener would it be rolled. The circumference of the terraqueous globe is computed at 24,900 miles, and if a road 30 feet broad was made quite round it, the waggons that travel the roads of England would annually roll every part of its surface 150 times. " Now suppose two such roads made close to each other, and in every respect similar, as to forma- tion, materials, and exposure, but that the one is rolled by cylindrical and the other by conical wheels, 75 times in the year, the former will be rendered more compact, close, and impervious to water, WHE each time of rolling ; and in the end, vvill be so solid and hard, and its surface so close and smooth, and so free from dust in summer and sludge in winter, as neither to admit nor lodge water, which is the most effectual means possible of guarding against the destructive influence of wet seasons and severe frosts, and consequently of keeping the roads in continual good repair at the least expense. But the other road being rolled also 75 times, but with conical wheels, they will in dry seasons pulverize and destroy the best materials intended for the protection of the roads ; and in wet seasons, they alter the ar- rangement, and destroy the texture of the component parts of the crust, and leave them in a broken uncon- nected state, ready to imbibe wa- ter, which is constantly supplied by the sludge on the surface; which also effectually excludes the sun and air ; and thus the roads become rotten, and Break into holes and ruts ; and if a rainy season be succeeded by severe frosts, they will raze to the foundation every part into which the water and frost have penetrated. " If any man of observation, who has had an opportunity of attend- ing to the nature and repair of roads, and the expenses attending such repairs, seriously consider all the above circumstances, and make his own estimate of the number of men, quantity of new materials, as well as the extent of labour and expense that would be yearly ne- cessary, but more especially after a wet autumn and a severe winter, to restore the road that had been rolled by conical wheels, to an equal state to the road that was rolled by cylindrical wheels he will probably, make his estimate to ex- WHE 397 ceed any thing that has been here stated. The road rolled by the conical wheels will not only be much more expensive than the other, but is liable, for some months in the year, to be in a very disa- greeable and dangerous state, and at no time so pleasant as the road which is' rolled with cylindrical wheels, on account of the dust in summer, and the deep sludge in winter. And the draught of car- riages is at all times, and especially after repairs, much heavier than on that road which remains always unimpaired. " When the advantages of cy- lindrical wheels are fully proved, and universally known, there is no doubt that light, smooth rims, truly cylindrical, and broader than are now used, will be adopted univer- sally for carriages of pleasure and dispatch, as well as for those of burthen ; which, considering the immense number of carts, coaches, he. he. in this kingdom, will add greatly to the advantages already stated; and the savings that must arise in the repairs of private roads from the use of broad cylindrical wheels, will very soon repay the first expense of making them of a sufficient breadth toadmitcarriages of any dimensions, which will to- tally obviate the only reason that now exists for using a bended axis and conical rim, and pave the way for the universal adoption of a straight axle and a cylindrical wheel. " The narrowness of roads in their early state, made it necessary that the wheel-carriages should also be narrow, and it is more than pro- bable that the carriages first used were only for the purposes of hus- bandry, and drawn by one horse. But in process of time, it was found 398 WHE WHE expedient to enlarge the carriages, and to increase the number of horses ; but the narrowness of the roads, and the depths of the ruts that were already cut in them, made it necessary that the wheels of the new carriages should run in the tracks of the old. To gain the advantage of a wider carriage with- out making the wheels run wider it became necessary to alter the original construction ; the axletree was now fixed immoveably to the body of the carriage, and the wheels made to turn independently of each other on its ends, which were made to incline, or bend down- wards, by which means the wheels stood farther apart at top than at bottom ; and thus room vvas gained for the body of the carriage, with- out widening the track of the wheels. The axis being for this reason bent, and the wheels no longer standing parallel, it was necessary, in order to gain a flat bearing of the whole rim, to shelve it off towards the outer edge, as much as the ends of the axis were bent from the straight line, and thus the rim became conical. The reasons for this structure now no longer exist. " If the breadth of cylindrical wheels, and the lengths of the axles be made to bear a regular proportion to the number of draught horses; and the fore wheels to run narrower than the hind, so as to roll a double surface; the roads formed fiat, and proper regulations made for quartering the roads; every waggon might be made as efleclually to improve that part of the road on which it rolls, as if the horses had been em- ployed for that only purpose. It i.s true, that the rollers in this case are not so broad as might be de- sirable for that purpose, but if the effect be not so extensive, it is more dense and compressive ; and if the roads are made so nearly flat that carriages may with equal con- veniency drive upon every part of them, they will be more equally traversed, and more uniformly im- proved than at present; the des- tructive effects of the conical wheel vvill be evaded, and the draught of the horses made much easier. " The author next proceeds to ex- amine what sum would pay for the labour of the horses that might be thus made to roll the roads gratis, if they were only employed for the purpose of rolling them; and on the supposition that the number of waggons that travel the roads is 9,660, each on an average drawn by three horses, the number of horses will be 28,980 : and taking an equal number for those wag- gons that use the private roads, the whole number will be 57,960 ; and supposing them to be employ- ed only 90 days in the year, at 4*. a day for each horse, it would amount yearly to upwards of a million sterling, without reckoning the expenses of the men necessary to attend the rolling. " Our author then goes on to examine the bad effects which arise from using wheels that have not an equal bearing of their whole breadth, but bear on a narrow part of the middle of the rim. These wheels which were contrived to evade the wise regulations of the legislature' with respect to broad wheels, he shews are still more destructive than the flat conical rims, as they plough up the roads. He next proceeds to inquire into the best methods of constructing roads, and objects to the convex or barrelled roads which have been WHE WHE 399 generally preferred. These roads he observes certainly possess the advantage of carrying off the wa- ter towards the sides when they are just finished, and have their surface ofthat perfect smooth form which the theory always supposes ,them to have : but as soon as any ' ruts are formed, they obstruct the running of the water towards the sides, and retain and conduct it longitudinally along the road, con- trary to the original intention; and as no proper means have been used in forming the roads, to carry off the water from those ruts, it remains in them, and is mixed deeper and deeper with the mate- rials of the road by every wheel that passes, till at last, the hard protecting crust is worn through, and the wheels penetrate to the soft materials of which the road was originally formed, and deep holes are thus made, which, by the constant passing of all carriages in the same track, are enlarged into dangerous gulphs; and all those evils arise from the convex form, vvhich obliges all carriages to drive on the very highest part only ; and thus the imaginary ad- vantages of convex roads vanish in practice, and in place of advanta- ges, we meet with evils of the most formidable nature. " When the crown of the convex road is rendered impassable by the constant traffic of all carriages in the same track, if any be com- pelled to travel on the declivity on either side, the wheels force the hard materials down the sides; aided by their own (weight and the tremulous concussions of the roads, and thus the best materials of the convex road are insensibly shifted from the middle towards the sides; from the only part of the road coa- \ stantly frequented, to the extremi- ties, where they can be of no ser- vice. " Flat r«ads, that are level from side to side, our author observes, are much more pleasant to travel than the convex ; every part of the whole length being equally conve- nient, is frequented, and equally worn, and there being no such de- clivities as on the sides of convex roads, the materials have no ten- dency to shift from the spot on which they are laid ; no deep ruts are formed, because the road is equally traversed, and the traffic of carriagesequallyand voluntarily dif- fused over every part of its surface; the track of every wheel, however shallow, becomes a small channel or drain to conduct the water in small quantities along the road, in which direction it was intended to flow, provision being accordingly made to gain a proper current, and to carry the water off the road by shallow channels across it; at proper and convenient distances; and here it is to be observed, that as each carriage takes its own course,there being neither rut nor declivity to prevent it, every carriage making new channels to carry the water from the surface of the flat road lenthways; the more carriages that pass, the sooner will the roads get dry ; and thus the frequency of carriages passing on a flat road, in rainy seasons, has a tendency to keep it dry, and in that respect, to improve it; whereas on a convex road, the frequent passage of car- riages tends to its immediate des- truction. " Mr. Cumming next proceeds to illustrate his doctrines of the ef- fects of conical and cylindrical wheels on different kinds'of roads, by a series of well contrived expe- / 400 WHE WHE riments with models. The appa- ratus is particularly described, and the interesting results given at length, which we cannot copy in this work, as it would extend our account to too great a length ; we shall only observe, that the con- clusions from the result of the ex- periments, and from the theory stated in the preceding part of the paper, concur in proving, that so far as regards the labour of cattle, or the facility of the progress of carriages, as well as the preserva- tion of roads, the cylindrical shape of a wheel is preferable lo any other. We have endeavoured to place before our readers a rude sketch or outline of Mr.CuMMiNG's excellent paper, which contains 63 quarto pages; and should the subject be interesting to any of them, they will find their trouble repaid by turning to the Communi- cations to the Board of Agriculture, vol. ii. p. 351." Wheel (lifting) the American lifting wheel is described by Mr. Wm. Tat ham, in his late work, entitled " National Irrigation," p. 39. which -has been already refer- red to, and which ought to be con- sulted by every farmer. The diameter of the wheel is equal to the perpendicular height of the summit level to which the water is to be raised at a single operation ; allowing for so much thereof as should clip into the stream to fill the buckets, and so much as should pass above the uppermost trough to discharge the water from them. This shape is then reduced to an exact circle by the means of a line and chalk, extended from its centre, and the surplus plank be- ing hewn down to the scribe of the circle, an axis of about two feet six inches in length, is fitted to it with arms of the same plank, and two small iron gudgeons to turn upon. Flutter boards are then fitted on with the saw, and cleated at convenient distances ; with a close box between every second and third of them, nailed upon the rim of the wheel. These boxes (by some, termed gaining and loosing buckets) have two aper- tures or holes for receiving and discharging thf water ; and as the bucket is immersed in the stream below, by the power of this little rapid acting upon the successive flutter boards, the water is taken in at one hole and discharged out at the other, as the wheel revolves it over the trough above. These are sometimes formed out of a worn-out cart wheel fixed upon an axis, which answers for a small elevation. The nearest descrip- tion of an invention similar to this wheel, which I have met with in any of the English authors, is that described by Mr. Ferguson, in p. 152 of his Lectures, under the name of the Persian wheel. This wheel of Mr. Ferguson's acts in the same manner by a flutter board) and discharges by strikeing the bucket against a pin at the sum- mit point of its revolution ; but the German lifting wheel has greatly the superiority in respect to simplicity and cheapness, vvhich brings it within the reach of every man who occupies land ; and, pos- sessingequalpowerwiththePersian wheel, may be considered steadi- er in the fixture of its flutter boards, and the best medium between this and the ruder contrivance describ- ed by Sir George Staunton, as one applied to similar purposes in China.] WHE WHE 401 402 WHE WHI WHETSTONE, is a kind of sand-stone, dug up chiefly in Der- byshire, and other northern coun- ties. It is of a dusky-yellow co- lour ; resists the action of acids, though permeable to water : being of a rough, and coarse structure, it is easily crumbled or broken between the fingers, and will not strike fire against steel. This fos- sil affords an useful article of trade, and is employed for sharpening knives, scythes, bills, and; other implements of rural and domestic economy. WHEY, is the serum or watery part of milk, vvhich remains after the cream and coagulable matter of that fluid are removed, either by churning, or by separating it with Rennet, vinegar, cream of tar- tar, Sec. Whey is an agreeable and whole- some liquid : the best is that sepa- rated by rennet; as a considerable portion of curd and saccharine particles are suspended in it: where- as the serum, arising from the spon- taneous decomposition of milk, possesses an acid taste, is totally divested of the nourishing proper- ties of milk ; and ought to be used only in certain cases of fever, or inflammation. On the other hand, the latter is a pleasant, cooling, beverage, during the heat of sum- mer, and may be advantageously drank by the scorbutic and con- sumptive. Scalding Whey is prepared by a simple expedient, adopted in the midland counties, for improving the quality of Whey Butter. It consists in suspending each meal of cream, as it is taken • off the whey, over the fire, till it become scalding hot; care being taken that it may not boil. Thus, the butter is greatly improved; and, if the milk have become rancid or bitter, from the cows having eaten fur- nips, or barley-straw, such disa- greeable taste will be completely removed. Mustard Whey is made by boil. ing 1| oz. of mustard in a pint of milk, and an equal portion of wa- ter, till the curd be entirely sepa- rated ; after which the liquid is strained through a cloth. This preparation is one of the most plea- sant and ejficacious forms, in which mustard Tran be tak-e%» the dose being one tea-cupful,Twhich may be sweetened with a little sugar, and taken three or four times in the course of the day. White*wine Whey is made by pouring equal parts of white wine and skimmed milk into a hason; and, after they have stood for a few minutes, by adding a douWe por- tion of boiling water. In a short time, the curd will collect, and subside at the bottom : the whey is now to be strained into another vessel, and sweetened with sugar: a sprig of balm or slice of lemon will greatly improve its flavor. This kind of whey affords a salu- brious beverage ; and, v. hen taken immediately before retiring to bed, it is particularly serviceable to those who have undergone severe bodily fatigue ; or been exposed to the inclemency of the weather; as it vvill excite a.gentle perspira- tion, and thus obviate a sudden cold or catarrh. Whins. See Furze the Com- mon. WIIIN-CIIAT, or Matacilla rubetra, L. a bird found on British heaths and commons, during the summer months : it is about five inches in length ; the upper parts of its body being blackish, edged with rufous spots, and the lower WHI extremities are reddish-white; but the legs are black. Win-chats build their nests early in the spring, near some low bush or stone, where the female depo- sits five dusky-white eggs, mark- ed with black spots. These birds, subsist principally on insects; and, when fat, the flavour of their flesh is esteemed equal to that of the Ortolan. WHISKEY, a spirituous liquor, chiefly prepared in SaMland and Ireland, by distilling barley. With respect to its relative salu- brity, whiskey is doubtless prefer- able to any home-made brandy drawn from malt; as the former, though strong, is not very pungent, and, if properly distilled, it is free of any empyreumatic taste or smell. A moderate and occasional use of it, by way of cordial, after "great bodily fatigue, may, to some hard- labouring persons, notbe injurious; but, when such practice is carried to excess, as in Scotland and Ire- land, it deserves severe animadver- sion ; and, though the legislature has wisely imposed heavy duties on the distilleries, we fear that the immense consumption of this li- quid fire, can be prevented only by the most vigorous measures. If, however, the lower classes of people cannot be legally restrained in their vicious propensities, the only remedy left to the power of . government, would be the prohibi- tion of employing grain for such vile and destructive purposes. See the article Spirits. White. See Colour-making, vol. ii. White-bean. See FIaw- thokn. White-Bottle. See SPAT- LING-POPPY. WHITE-SWELLING is atu- W H I 403 mor of the joints, but chiefly of the knee : at first, it is not per- ceptibly enlarged ; being of the same colour as the skin; very pain- ful, and diminishing the power of motion. There are two species of this disorder, namely, the rheu- matic, and scrophulous. As it is of the first consequence to distin- guish these maladies, the origin of which is essentially different, we shall state the symptoms peculiar to each. The rheumatic white-swelling is attended with acute pain over the whole joint; and which is in- creased by heat: the patient finds (he greatest relief in a relaxed po- sition ; the tendons become rigid ; and the joint appears as if the bones were enlarged. The tumor in- creases to three or four times the size of the knee, and feels elastic to the touch ; while the limb de- creases, or sometimes becomes dropsical: at length, abscesses are formed, discharging matter which soon degenerates into a fetid ichor. Unless, therefore, a cure be timely effected, the patient is attacked with a hectic fever, which gene- rally closes the scene of misery. In the scrophulous kind, the pain is more acute, and confined to one spot: as the disorder gains ground, the swelling, and stiffness increase, while the ends of the bonesbecome visibly enlarged. Similar elasticity is perceivable, and abscesses are likewise formed, which, on being opened, discharge an offensive hu- mour : the bones decay, and pieces are often ejected through the ori- fices of the wounds. The adjacent parts become progressively affect- ed, till the sufferings of the patient are also terminated by the hectic fever. As the distinction above pointed 404 W II I WHI out, sufficiently explains the proxi- mate causes, we shall only mention those which occasionally occur; and the principal of vvhich are, suppressed perspiration ; injudici- ous treatment of cutaneous dis- orders ; especially of the measles, small-pox, rose, Sec.; external vio- lence, such as falls, blows, and frequent kneeling. Cure....ln the rheumatic white- swelling, which, at first, is of an inflammatory nature, it will be ad- visable to adopt a cooling regimen. Farther, blood should be taken from the diseased part, by cupping or scarification ; a practice which is far preferable either to venesec- tion or to the application of leeches; and it may be repeated according to the strength of the patient, and urgency of the symptoms. Next, a blister must be applied to the opposite side, and kept open, till the scarified part is healed. Internally, mild cooling laxatives should be occasionally taken, and heating liquors, as well as coarse food, must be strictly avoided. If a stiffness of the knee remain, after the swelling has subsided, great benefit will be derived from the application of pure, warm olive oil, and from gentle frictions, repeated three or four times every day. But where suppuration has already taken place (which may be ascer- tained by the softnessof the tumor); or, if the disorder make rapid pro- gress, professional advice should be speedily procured. In the scrophulous white-swelling, the treatment specified under the head of Scrophula, should be resorted to without delay. When this affection is confined to the smaller joints, it has by those means,been sometimes cured; but, when the larger joints, for instance, the knee, ancle, See. are thus dis- eased, amputation is the only remedy. If, however, the whole system be tainted with a scrophu- lous acrimony, even that operation is frequently ineffectual. White-thorn. See Haw- thorn. WHITE-WASHING, is the act of cleansing ceilings and walls, with a solution of lime in water, to which a little size is occasionally added, m The practice of white-washing apartments eminently contributes to the preservation of health: hence we would recommend the proprie- tors of cottages, to enjoin their tenants regularly' to perform this operation, at least once annually. In countries abounding with lime, the expense vvill be trifling ; and, even though the article should be purchased, the whole cost will not exceed one shilling. It ought to be remarked, however, that hot or quick-lime is preferable to any other, and must be employed as soon as possible after it is slacked ; for, by attending to this circum- stance, its effects, in destroying vermin, and removing Infection, will be considerably increased. WHITING, or Gadus merlan- gus, L. a well-known fish, of an elegant shape, rarely exceeding 10 or 12 inches in length, and gene- rally weighing from eight to six- teen ounces.' During the spring, extensive shoals of whitings frequent the British seas ; but seldom come nearer the shore than within half a mile, or retire farther from it, than about three miles. They are caught in considerable numbers by the hook and line, and afford great diversion : in the rivers Thames and Medway, these fish are pro- WHI hibited to be taken, if less than six inches in length ; nor are they allowed to be caught at any season, excepting from Michaelmas to Ember-week. As an article of diet, the whit- ing is justly valued; being exceed- ingly delicate, tender, and nutri- tious ; so that it affords proper aliment for invalids, and persons having a weak digestion. Whiting, in Mineralogy. See Chalk. ^ WHITLOW, orWHiTLoE, a painful swelling of the extremities of the fingers, beneath the nails, and usually terminating in a dis^ charge of serous fluid, that is fre- quently so acrid as to corrode the periosteum, or membrane lining the bones, which thus become ca- rious. It is always attended with inflammation, and sometimes to so violent a degree as to affect the whole arm. Where whitloes arise from ex- ternal causes, it will be proper to apply emollient poultices, in order to affect a suppuration. Should such tumors, however, proceed from unknown causes, it will be advisable to apply a few leeches, and afterwards ardent spirits, or other astringents; but, if the bones have already become carious, a total or partial removal of the af- fected part can alone effect a cure. The following preparation has been extolled, as being very efficacious in common cases of whitloes; though we cannot vouch for its success : Take equal parts of pel- litory of the wall, previously bruis- ed, and hog's-lard ; let them be properly mixed, folded in several papers, and surrounded with wood- embers, of such a degree of heat as to incorporate the ingredients, without burning the covering. The W I L 405 ointment, thus prepared, must be spread on a piece of soft linen, and applied to the whitloe, two or three times every day, till the tumor be. healed. WHITLOW-GRASS, the Com- mon, or Nailwort, Drabaverna, L. a native plant, growing on walls and in dry pastures; blowing in the months of March and April. According to Dr. Withering, the Nailwort is one of the earliest. flowering plants, and may be used as salad. It is also eaten by horses, sheep, and goats ; but not relished by cows, and is totally refused by hogs. Whortleberry, the Red. See BlLBERREY. » WIDGEON, the Red-headed, or Anas ferina, L. a bird of pas- sage, frequenting fenny places in the winter season : its breast is black ; the back and coverts of the wings are of a pale grey, intermix- ed with narrow black lines ; and the legs are of a lead colour. Widgeons subsist on small fish of every kind ; their flight is rapid: and they frequently associate with wild Ducks, Teal, and other aquatic birds. Considerable num- bers of the former fowl are exposed for sale in the markets of the me- tropolis, under the name of Dun Birds, and are greatly esteemed at the tables of the luxurious. Wild-briar. See Dog-hose, the Common. Wild-climber, the Great. See Traveller's-joy. Wilderness. See Maze. Wilding. SeeCRAn-TRFE, Wild-parsley. See Milk- weed, the Marsh. Wild Pear-tree. See Haw- thorn. W'ild-radish. See Radish. W ild-rocket. See Rocket. 406 W I L WIL Wild-tansy. See Silver- weed. WILLOW, or Salix,h. a genus of trees comprising 42 species ; 22 being indigenous, of which the fol- lowing are the principal: 1. The viminalis. See Osier. 2. The capreata. See Sallow. Beside the purposes to which this species may be applied, its soft, white, and smooth wood, is used for making handles tohatchets,prongs spades, and other rural implements: it also furnishes shoe-makers with cutting and whetting - boards, on which they cut leather, and sharp- en the edges of their knives. In Sweden, the young bark is not only used for tanning, but also, in com- bination with that of the alder-tree, for dyeing linen-yarn of a fine black colour. 3. The purpurea, v. Helix, v. motiandra, Rose, Purple, or Red Willow, grows in hedges, wa- tery places, and the sides of rivers, where it blossoms in the months of April and May. Its long, slender, and flexible shoots, are manufac- tured into baskets, cradles, and other articles of wicker work.... This species eminently deserves to be cultivated in the sandy banks of rapid streams ; as it is one of the most useful trees for consolidating loose soils, and even drift-sands. 4. The triandra, or Smooth Willow, grows to the height of from 6 to 10 feet, in moist woods, hedges, and the banks of rivers ; flowers in the month of April. Its bark, in doses of from one to two drams, have been successfully em- ployed in agues. 5. The pentandra, Sweet, or BAY-LEAVED WlLLOW, is found in forests and hedges, principally in the North of England, where it flowers in April. The wood of this species remarkably crackles in the fire ; the young shoots are eaten by sheep and goats ; the leaves af? ford a yellow dye ; and the pliant branches are converted into ham- pers, or the larger kinds of bask- ets. For medicinal purposes, the bark from young trees is even pre- ferable to that of the preceding species. Lastly, the down of the seeds, when mixed with one-third part of cotton, has been found to be an useful substitute for that vegetable wool, in the manufac- ture of stockings, and other ar- ticles. 6. The vitellina, Golden, or Yellow Willow, abounds in osier-holts, and flowers in May.... Its shoots are used by cradle or basket-makers ; its white, tough, pliant twigs, are employed by nur- sery men and gardeners, for tying up the branches of wall and espa- lier-trees. The wool surrounding its seed-vessels, when mixed with cotton, affords excellent yarn for various manufacturing purposes. 7. The amygdalina, or Almond- leaved Willow, grows on the banks of rivers, where it flowers in April or May; and a second time in August. The tough branches of this species are employed like those of the preceding. 8. The fragillis, or Crack Wil- low, attains a considerable height in moist woods, hedges, and on the banks of rivers ; it blossoms in April or May....This tree grows with uncommon luxuriance, and vvill admit of being cropped every year: it has received this name from the remarkable brittleness-of its branches ; which, if stricken with a finger, break off at the shoot of the current year. The WIL W I L 407 bark of these branches, possessing uncommon bitterness and astrin- gency, has been recommended as a substitute for the Peruvian : it is certainly preferable to that of all other native trees ; and, if given in doses about one-third exceeding the proportion of such expensive drug, it may, with advantage, be used where the latter is indicated. When administered in powders, of from one to two drams, it has also proved efficacious in removing in- termittent fevers. On account of its early blossoms, which are very grateful to bees, it should be raised near their hives: a decoction of the roots imparts a reddish brown colour. 9. The herbacea, or FIerba- ceous Willow, is the smallest tree of the willow kind ; its stem not exceeding 2 feet in height, and the branches being scarcely one foot long. It grows in moist, moun- tainous situations, chiefly on the sides of Snowdon, and the moun- tains of Westmoreland, Yorkshire, and Scotland ; where its yellow flowers appear in July. This spe- cies is, according to Hoffmann, fondly eaten by horses and other cattle. 10. The rubra, or Red Wil- low, is a very scarce species, be- ing found wild only in the Osier- holt, between Maiden head and Windsor : it flowers in the month of May. There is a variety of it, known under the names of the Norfolk, Hertford, Hereford, and Broad-leaved, Red-hearted Hun- tingdonshire Willow, vvhich may advantageously be planted in moist situations, on account of the luxu- riance and rapidity of its growth. The tough, light wood of this tree is employed for gates, hurdles, and Other agricultural implements: the pliant twigs are in great request for making baskets, cradles, and also for tying up wall fruit-trees. 11. The cinerea, or Sallow- willow, is the most common of the kind,abounding in moist hedge rows, and woods ; where it attains the height of more than six feet, and blossoms in April. This spe- cies is chiefly remarkable for its beautifulflowering branches, which are gathered about a week or ten days before Easter, and sold under the name of palms. 12. The alba, White or Com- mon Willow, abounds in woods, hedge rows, in wet meadow, and pasture-grounds, where it attains a considerable size ; flowering in the month of April. Its blossoms are eagerly visited by bees ; its leaves and young shoots are eaten by horses, cows, sheep, and goats : the wood is employed in making poles, hoops for casks, stakes, and likewise for fuel : the bark com- municates a cinnamon colour to yarn, and is not only advanta- tageously used in tanning leather, but has also, like that of the Crack and Smooth Willows, been suc- cessfully administered in agues.... The Rev. Mr. Stone (" Philoso- phical Transactions of the Royal Society," vol.liii.) directs such bark tobe gatheredinthe summer,when it abounds with sap, and to be taken in doses of one dram, every 4 hours, between the fits : in a few obsti- nate cases, Mr. S. found it neces- sary to mix one-fifth part of Peru- vian bark with that of the Common Willow. As this tree frequently grows in wet, marshy, situations, where agues are most prevalent, its bark promises to afford a valuable substitute for the foreign drug, especially as the price of the latter has lately been so exorbitant, that 408 W I L WIL the poor cannot easily procure it; while its quality becomes every year more impaired, by base and fraudulent adulterations. Beside these indigenous species, there are two exotics, which de- serve to be mentioned : 1. The Babylonica, or Weep- ing-willow, is a native of the East, whence its culture has been introduced into Britain. It flourish- es by the sides of rivers, attaining to a considerable size; and its long, depending branches, contri- bute greatly to diversify the scene- ry : it is raised chiefly for orna- ment. 2. The Dutch Willow has lately been transplanted into England. Its wood is chiefly employed for posts, rails, gates, Sec. to vvhich purposes it is well adapted. All the species above enume- rated, delight in moist' situations, excepting the sallow, which thrives better in a dry soil. They may be easily propagated by planting sets, cuttings or truncheons of willows, about 6 years old, either in spring or in autumn ; as they speedily take root, and in the course of a few years, amply repay the ex- pense and trouble bestowed on their culture. In order to ensure success, the truncheons ought pre- viously to be steeped in soft water, for a few days : both ends must then be obliquely smoothened ; the upper part be covered with soil, and exposed wilh its orifice towards the east. The earth should be mo- derately compressed with the foot, around the stem, so that it may more readily absorb.mois- ture : in the third year, the top should be cleared, to promote the growth of the bark. The Yellow Willow, however, ought never tu be planted too near wells or springs, because its spreading roots retard their course : thus, Mr. Bordley (in his " Essays and Notes on Hus- bandry," he.) mentions an instance, in which a spring was completely choked up, by their rapid absorp- tion of water. On the contrary, this species may with advantage be propagated in swampy situa- tions ; as its roots tend to consoli- date the ground ; and, after a few years, the soil will generally be converted into a firm meadow. [The salix latifolia, or broad- leaf willow, possesses greater me- dicinal properties than any of the other species of salix ; and is now substituted by many British phy- sicians for the Peruvian bark. Dr. Wilkinson, has published a dis- sertation on this species, and from his work the following account is taken. " This species of salix may he distinguished by the shape of its leaves from all others, except the S. Pentandra, or bay-leafed wil- low. The leaves of the latter are smooth, and shining, of a deeper green, and have not the downy ap- pearance on the under surface, vvhich is so remarkable in the 5. Capreaia. It is found in woods and hedges on hilly situations, and de- lights in cold, clayey, moist grounds. u The most proper time to gather the bark, is in May or June; it should be cut in small pieces, and dried in the shade. This bark is very astringent to the taste, and somewhat bitter, but it looses the latter quality when dry : the tormentil root has nearly the same taste, but is more astrin- gent. It gives out its virtues more freely to soft water in decoction, WIL WIN 409 than in infusion: Dr. Wilk- inson directs one ounce and a half of the coarse powder of the bark, to be infused in one quart of water, for six hours ; then to boil it over a gentle fire for a quarter of an hour, and strain for use.... The dose two or three large table spoonfuls, three or four times a day ; but in the ague and fever, one or two ounces may be given every third hour in the interval of the fit. When boiled with a small quantity of Juassia root, it is ren- dered much stronger. " Dr. W. relates a number of cases of the successful use of the decoction, in cases of general ^debi- lity, or relaxation of the body from various causes, and in which bit- ters and tonics are usually prescrib- ed ; and in some instances with benefit, after the common reme- dies had failed : in particular, p. 99, he relates' a case of extreme ema- ciation from an ulcered foot, which was perfectly cured, after having resisted the continued use of Peru- vian bark, and the exertions of the physicians of two public chari- ties." It is not known whether the salix latifolia is a native of the United States, but it deserves the attention of our medical men in the country, for if found native, they might also substitute it for the Peruvian bark, and other foreign bitters.] WILLOW-HERB,* or Epilobi- um, L. a genus of plants consisting of 13 species, 8 being indigenous ; of which the following are the principal : l.Thehirsutum, Great Hairy, or Large-flowered Willow- herb, or Codlings and Cream, is perennial: grows in moist hedges; ditches, the banks of brooks, rivers, and lakes ; where it flowers in vol. v. July. The young tops of this vegetable possess a delicate odour, resembling that of scalded cod- lings : but which is so transitory, that after they have been gathered five minutes, their fragrance is entirely dissipated. Horses, sheep, and goats eat the plant; though it is not relished by cows, and is wholly rejected by hogs. Accord- ing to Bechstein, this herb] re- markably absorbs the inflammable air generated in moist situations ; so that it deserves to be cultivated in the neighbourhood of dwellings on marshes, bothon account of such useful property, and its large beau- tiful purple flowers. 2. The angusiifolium, or Rose- bay Willow-herb, is also peren- nial, being frequent in woods and hedges ; where its rose coloured flowers appear from June to Au- gust. This species is eaten by sheep, cows, and goats ; but is refused by horses and hogs. An infusion of the leaves produces intoxicating effects ; though the suckers of the roots, when pro- perly dressed, afford a wholesome dish. The inhabitants of Kamt- schatka brew a kind of ale from the pith of this plant, vvhich tbey convert into vinegar ; and the down with vvhich its seeds abound, has in combination with cotton, or fur, been advantageously manufactured into stockings, and other articles of wearing apparel: this fibrous substance may also be profitably employed as a material for making paper. WIND, is a perceptible agita- tion or commotion of the atmos- phere, occasioned by a strong- current of air from one region to another. The temperature of climates be- ing greatly modified, by the winds; 3 G 410 WIN WIN and navigation depending almost' entirely on their influence, the ori- gin of this powerful agent has na- turally engaged the attention of many inquisitive naturalist?: hence different theories have been framed with a view to account for the cause of these changes ; but, as none of the conjectures appear to us conclusive, or satisfactory, we shall briefly state the effects produced on the -human frame, by this airy meteor......Thus, a south wind debilitates and relaxes the whole system ; and disposes the body to catarrhal diseases : on the contrary, the north wind in- vigorates the animal fibre, and re- markably contributes to health ; because it dissipates noxious va- pours, while it purifies the air, and renders it serene....Winds blowing in the earlier parts of the day, are of a drying nature ; and, conse- quently, walking in the forenoon is more salutary than at any other period ; whereas the even- ing breezes, being generally damp and cool, are less beneficial both to the healthy and infirm: besides, the latter are frequently accom- panied with rain....The relative salubrity of these various winds, however, greatly depends on local circumstances : for, if they blow across the sea, over mountains, or continents, they necessarily con- vey, and communicate to the at- mosphere, a greater or less degree of cold or humidity....See also Anemoscope ; Climate ; and Weather. WIND, or Broken Wind, a disorder incident to horses : in this affection, they cannot breathe free- ly, and their natural functions are impaired: it is usually preceded by a dry cough, and may be known by the animals eating litter, and swal- lowing frequently copious draught* of water. Farriers are by no means agreed, respecting the cause of this mala- dy : Mr. Gibson attributes it to an injudicious-or hasty method of feeding young horses, especially those for sale ; so that their lungs, and the other organs contained in the chest, become preternaturally enlarged ; in consequence of which, the chest is not sufficiently capa- cious to admit of their due expan- sion. According to his advice, the diseased animal should be bled two or three times ; when its bowels must be opened by a dose of calo- mel, and the following balls be given for several days:....Let 8 oz. of aurum mosaicum (which con- sists of equal parts of mercury, tin, sal-ammoniac, and sulphur); 4 oz. of myrrh, and an equal quan- tity of elecampane, both reduced to powder ; bay-berries and ani- seed, each 1 oz.; with half an oz. of saffron, be triturated together, and made into balls, with a sufficient quantity of oxymel of squills..... This preparation may be divided into 12 doses ; but, as the aurum mosaicum is a tedious and expen- sive preparation, either 8 oz. of Dulverized squills, or a similar por- tion of gum-ammoniac, or 4 oz. of reach, may be safely substi- tuted. Mr. Gibson directs the food of broken-wintkd horses to consist principally of corn, slightly moist- ened with urine or pure water ; and, if two or three cloves of gar- lic be given with each meal, they will afford great relief; as that root stimulates the solids, and dis- solves the viscid fluids, which im- pede the action of the lungs. Mr. Taplin, however, conjec- tures that broken-wind originates WIN from obstructions in the minute vessels of the lungs; which are occasioned by foul feeding, want of sufficient exercise, and inatten- tion to cleansing the intestines of horses, by occasional purgatives ; so that the elasticity of the whole system is impaired. He is there- fore of opinion, that a cure can only be effected in an early stage of the disease ; and, with this view, he recommends frequent, but mo- derate bloodlettings, which should be succeded by a regular course, or three doses, of the following pur- gative balls, namely: Take of Socotrine aloes, nine drams, jalap and rhubarb, of each 1| dram, gum-ammoniac, calomel, and gin- ger, of each 1 dram, and 60 drops of oil of juniper. These ingre- dients are to be carefully incorpo- rated, and formed into 3 balls, with a proper quantity of syrup of buck- thorn. Three days after the opera- tion of the third dose, Mr. Taplin directs one ball, prepared in the following manner, to be taken every morning, for such a period as will enable a person lo judge, whether there be any prospect of recovery: Take 8 oz. of the best white soap, 3 oz. of gum-ammo- niac, and a similar quantity of guai- acum, 2 oz. of aniseed, and the same portions of liquorice, myrrh, and Benjamin ; also balsam of Peru, Tolu, and oil of aniseed, of each i an oz. these articles are to be compounded into a mass, with Barbadoes tar, and divided into 20 doses, or balls. Throughout the whole treatment of this malady, whether Mr. Tap- LiN's or Mr. Gibson's directions be followed, it will be advisable to allow but little hay and water, lest any accumulation should takeplace W I N 411 in the intestines......The animal should likewise be moderately ex- ercised ; and the greatest precau- tion taken to prevent a cold. Thus, it vvill speedily be ascertained, how far a total or partial cure may pro- bably be obtained. Wind-flower. See Anemone. WIND-GALL, in farriery, sig- nifies a windy swelling, on both sides of the back sinew, above the fetlocks, in the fore or hind-legs of a horse ; though these tumors may likewise arise in various other parts of the body. Wind-galls are generally occa- sioned by strains or bruises on the sinews; which, on being over- stretched, produce ruptures of the fibres ; but, if these swellings hap- pen in the interstices of large muscles, and appear distended, similar to air bladders, they may be safely opened, and dressed as a common wound. On their first appearance, wind- galls should be treated with re- stringents, and covered with ban- dages ; hence, the tumefied parts ought to be bathed twice a day with strong vinegar ; or the swell- ing may be fomented with a decoc- tion of oak-bark, pomegranate, and alum, boiled in verjuice ; applying to it a roller previously soaked in this liquid. Some farriers employ red-wine lees ; others use curri- er's shavings moistened with the former, or with vinegar, as a substitute for the bath and fomen- tation. Should, however, these applica- tions prove unsuccessful, it has been recommended to open the parts affected with an awl, or by means of a knife ; or, which is still pre- ferable, to apply mild blistering plasters, that will effectually dis- 412 WIN WIN charge the confined humour ; dis- perse the inclosed air, and gradu- ally accomplish a cure. WTND-INSTRUMENTS, or those which must be played by the breath, are generally opposed to such as are stringed, or those of the vibrating kind. The principal wind-instuments are the fife, flageolet, flute, French- horn, hautboy, bag-pipe, clarionet, and trumpet....Playing on the most fashionable of these, is esteemed an elegant acquirement; but we deem it necessary to remark, that though the occasional indulgence in such practice, may afford an innocent and agreeable relaxation, yet it should not be too frequently en- joyed : for, as the muscles of the abdomen, are thus necessarily contracted, the circulation of the fluids is impeded; and asthma, cough, pulmonary consumption, or other fatal maladies, are often the melancholy consequence....... See also Flute. WINDMILL, is a contrivance for grinding corn, or raising water : it is put in motion by the action of the wind upon its sails, or vanes. * In the 55th vol. of the " Gentle- man's Magazine," for 1785, we meet with an account of a wind- mill for raising water, by Mr. Merriman. It is furnished with a large sail, affixed to a mast, that inclines to the horizon, and thus imparts motion to certain pieces of machinery termed braces, vvhich are connected with/o7-cer* ; so that every gale of wind will act on the apparatus, and raise a greater or less quantity of water. During tempests, the mast vvill bend, and the sail yield to their force; so that when their violence is abated, the upper parts are restored to their original position, without injuring the works.....The mechanical de- scription of such contrivance be- ing foreign to our plan, the in- quisitive reader will consult the work above cited. As wind-mills essentially contri- bute to agriculture and domestic convenience, we shall present our readers with a delineation of a specimen of those empoyed in the vicinity of Lisbon; because the construction of their sails is in some respects different from, and, in the opinion of Lord So- merville, superior to, those used in Britain. The advantages of mills, on this construction, are stated by his Lordship to be the following: 1. That the broad part of the sail is at the end of the lever, or branch, and thus an equal resist- ance may be overcome with less length of branches, or arms. These being consequently shortened, a considerable weight of timber will be rendered unnecessary, and a material saving of expense, be obtained, in the height, prime- cost, and subsequent repairs of the mill. 2. The sails, constructed on the plan above represented, may be set to draw in a manner similar to the stay-sails of a ship ; and, as they are swelled more than those in England, Lord S. remarks, that they will render it unnecessary to bring the mill so frequently to the wind ; a practice which, in ma- chines of the usual construction, is always attended with considerable trouble. In November, 1783, a patent vvas granted Jo*Mr. Benjamin Wise- man, for his invention of sails, with horizontal levers, designed to communicate motion to windmills. WIN WIN 413 His patent is now expired ; but, as a description of such machinery would be unintelligible without the aid of engravings, the reader is referred to the 4th volume of the " Repertory of Arts," he. ; where his specification is illustrated by two plates. A patent vvas likewise granted in December, 1795, to Daniel Maunsel, Esq. for his invention of a horizontal windmill, upon new principles, for grinding com, and for other purposes : an account of his complex machinery is inserted in the 7th vol. of the work above cited, and elucidated with two en- gravings. WIND-PIPE, or Trachea, is a tube composed of cartilaginous rings, and situated in the fore part of the neck,before the gullet. After descending to the third or fourth joint of the back, it divides itself into two branches, called bronchia, which enter the substance of the lungs, and there spread themselves in numberless ramifications, termi- nating in the air-cells, that consti- tute the chief part of the lungs. Towards the posterior part, the rings are fleshy, or fibrous; in consequence of which structure, the wind-pipe is enabled to shorten or lengthen itself, as well as to di- late or contract the diameter of the passage. The internal surface is lined with a very sensible mem- 414 W I N WIN brane, which, like the whole tra- chea, is continued from the larynx, being the upper part of the former, below the root of the tongue ; and lubricated by means of numerous glands. This membranous form facilitates the descent of food ; and, by its contraction and dilatation,en- ables us to expel and admit the air in greater or smaller quantity, and with more or less velocity, as may be required, in speaking or sing- ing. The affections to which this part is exposed, are but few. Thus, if acrid or corrosive vapours, or exhalations, have been inspired, demulcents, and mucilaginous drink, for instance', oil, milk, or linseed tea, should be swallowed in copious draughts, and the steam of the same liquids frequently in- haled ; or, the throat ought to be diligently gargled with them, in order to sheath the internal sur- face, and prevent the inflammation. For this purpose, a spoonful of the following mixture should be taken at short intervals; namely equal parts of sweet-oil, syrup of violets, and honey of roses, properly in- corporated. But, if the inhaled vapours have been of a corrosive nature, such as those of arsenic, aqua-fortis, he. the treatment re- commended under the article Ar- senic, should be immediately adopted. Sometimes improper substan- ces, such as crumbs of bread, coarse dust, he. enter this pas- sage ; and, though they may often be expelled by a fit of coughing; vet great precaution is necessary, that such effort be not too violent; because ruptures of blood-vessels, or instant suffocation, have often been the melancholy consequence. Should, however, the substances fallen into the wind-pipe, be point- ed, or of large dimensions, they generally produce fatal effects; unless relief be timely obtained by an operation, vvhich has occasion- ally proved successful....See also Gullet. With respect to inflammation of the wind-pipe, we refer the reader to vol. iv. p. 35S. WINDOW, an aperture left in the walls of houses, with a view to admit the light, and which is ge- nerally provided with glass, dis- posed in sashes. A patent was granted in May, 1783,toMr. William Playfair, for his method of making bars for sash-windows, of copper, iron, or any mixed metal, containing cop- per. Although the term of his pri- vilege is now expired, yet as amere description would be insufficient to explain the manner in which the requisite forms are imparted to the metals, the curious reader will con- sult the 8th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," he. where a full specifi- cation is inserted and illustrated with an engraving. Another patent was obtained in 1801, by Mr. David Young, of Connecticut, in North America ; for a new mode of raising sash- windows. His contrivance is re- markably cheap and easy: it con- sists simply, in boring three or four holes in the side of the sash, and inserting in them common bottle- corks, so that the latter shall pro- ject about the 16th part of an inch. Such corks press against the win- dow-frames, along the usual groove; and by their elasticity, support the sash at any requisite height...See also Country-house ; Farm-house, £re. [The proper distribution of windows in a house, is an object of WIN W I N 415 great importance. The following just observations on the subject of lighting apartments general- ly, are taken from Mr. James Malton's late elegant work entit- led " Collection of Designs for Rural Retreats," a work which cannot be too warmly recommend- ed to the consideration of all who are about to build. The common rules observed by builders in the United States, in the arangement of windows, exhibit any thing ex- cept taste and utility. " Experience and observation," says Mr. Malton, " have deter- mined me to be decidedly of opi- nion, that the cheerfulness of rooms depends chiefly, if not in- tirely, on the mode of conveying in the light ; not on the quantity of it. It is not abundance merely that makes it cheerful; an apart- ment may be too light, it may be glaring. Furniture, dimensions, , and proportion, may have consi- derable influence. in making a room cheerful, but all these aids combined are insufficient when light is ill diffused. " I am fully satisfied, that an apartment is made cheerful by a sufficiency of light flowing in from a centre. Convinced of the above position, I have throughout the designs contained in this work (Designs, he.) uniformly aimed, wherever it vvas necessary lo con- sider beauty especially, to throw the light into the rooms from the middle of a side or end, as either best suited. In internal areas, light is more attracting, and first engages attention, it is therefore that light should be central; and is best situated, when opposite to the door by which an apartment is entered. " A moderately sized well-pro- portioned room, sufficiently light- ed from one window in the mid- dle of a side or end, will be cheer- ful, from the united circumstances, of immediately drawing regard to a centre, by that regard not being distracted by rival lights; and by the light being uniformly distri- buted over the space it is confined in. These objects are best effect- ed when the apartment is lit from a bow in the middle. " An apartment to be well lit, should have the light to flow in uninterruptedly ; this it does not do when the walls are thick, and jaumbs are. kept square ; the jaumbs should be splayed to convey the light well into an apartment. If a room be large, and cannot be handsomely lit from one opening of flight, there should be then three openings, or five or seven ; the middle should be distinguished by an opening, not by a pier. " In the smaller class of town- houses, where three windows can- not be introduced into the drawing room ; by the adoption of splayed sides, three advantages vvill be ob- tained, setting aside the more elegant appearance to the eye, the room would be better lit, the mid- dle pier would be greatly reduced, and the necessity would be avoided of battening so much, to receive the necessary depth of boxing to contain the shutters. " It is a mistaken notion that by the extra sized side piers, made in consequence of having but one window in the side of a room, the corners next the light are very- dark. But I have observed it not to be so, and I know theoretically, from the reflection of light, that it vvill not be so. The great and brilliant body of light emitted through a middle window, strikes 416 W I N WIN centrally on the opposite side of the room, and is reflected back again with adequate force and brightness ; and inasmuch as that centre is light, so vvill the opposite side be also, by reflection." Mr. Malton (and with great propriety) appoints the space over the chimney piece for the looking glass, instead of the pier, between the windows. " How one window can be made handsome, and even to appear more elegant than two," I shall next explain. " I propose that in rooms up to 20 or 21 feet in front, within, but one window only, be employed ; which window, if not a bow, may be such as are represented in the following Cut, and which might be variously ornamented, agreeably to the general elegance of the apartment. W WJJ!Wl«W»U«7grnyr-JB'llKm»E ■ ^g? The above is for a 16 feet front : The proportion is one and two thirds the, breadth of glass of two separate windows. The small pilasters between, might be fluted or otherwise ornamented; the lower pannels of the splayed shut- ters might be plates of looking- glass, or the windows might be down to the floor, and finished in the utmost style of elegance."] WINE, is an agreeable, spiri- tuous, aromatic liquor, prepared by fermenting the juices of those vegetables which contain saccha- rine matter. Its constituent parts are : 1. Sugar, or the sweet juice, usually termed must, from which the liquor is. obtained ; 2. Alkohol, or pure spirit, that is disengaged! during the vinous fermentation ; and 3. Water, which is the most in- WIN W I N 417 nocuous part of the whole, and tends to moderate its properties, that may otherwise prove hurtful. A receipt to make an excellent American Wine, by Joseph Cooper, Esq. of Gloucester county, New Jersey. " I put a quantity of the comb, from which the honey had been drained, into a tub, and added a barrel of cyder, immediately from the press ; this mixture vvas well ttirred, and left for one night. It was then strained, before a fer- mentation took place ; and honey was added, until the ^ strength of the liquor was sufficient to bear an egg. It was then put into a bar- rel ; and after the fermentation commenced, the cask was filled every day, for three or four days, that the filth might work out of the bung-hole. When the fer- mentation moderated, I put the bung in loosely, lest stopping it tight might cause the cask to burst. At the end of five or six weeks, the liquor was drawn off into.a tub ; and the whites of eight eggs, well beat up, with a pint of clean sand, were put into it: I then added a gallon of cyder spi- rit ; and after mixing the whole well together, I returned it into the cask, whLh was Well cleaned, bunged it tight, and placed it in a proper situation for racking off, when fine. In the month of April following, I drew it off into kegs, for use ; and found it equal, in my opinion, to almost any foreign wine: in the opinion of many judges, it was superior. " This success has induced me to repeat the experiment for three years ; and I am persuaded, that, by using clean honey, instead of the comb, as above described, such VOL. V. an improvement might be made, as would enable the citizens of the United States to supply themselves with a truly federal and wholesome wine, which would not cost a quar- ter of a dollar per gallon, were all the ingredients procured at the market pi ice ; and would have this peculiar advantageover every other wine, hitherto attempted in this country, that it contains no foreign mixture, but is made from ingre- dients, produced on our own farms." We shall now state the method, in which Foreign wines are obtain- ed from the fruit of the vine. See also Vine. When the grapes are sufficiently ripe, they are gathered, and sub- mitted to the action of a press ; from vvhich their juice runs into vessels furnished for that purpose. Here it remains for several hours, or for a few days, according to the - temperature of the atmosphere : when the fermentation commen- ces, the liquor rises, and a consi- derable portion of fixed air, or car- bonic acid gas, is evolved. At the expiration of some days, the fer- mentation ceases : when the liquor becomes clear, and cool, it is poured into other casks or vessels, where it undergoes a slight de- gree of a new fermentation ; in consequence of which, it becomes divested of all feculent particles, while its taste and flavour are re- markably improved. In order to clarify it still farther, the Albu- men, or whites of eggS,IsiNGLASS, 8cc. are either suspended or dis- solved in the cask ; and various other expedients are practised, most of which have already been stated in the article Clarifica- tion, as well as in different parts of this work : a summary of these 3 H 418 WIN WIN materials, the reader will find in the General Index of Reference..... With the same view, it has been recommended to filter turbid wine through fine sand laid on a sieve ; but, as the mucilage of the foul liquor speedily fills up the inter- stices, the following method may be preferably employed: it con- sists simply in showering such sand on the wine, through a sieve ; so that the weight of this mineral may carry along with it, and de- posit all the mucilaginous and gross particles of such wine..... Should, however, any matters ac- cidentally remain, Dr. Darwin directs a little gum-arabic, or a few whites of eggs, to be added ; after which the sand-shower is to be repeated, till the fluid become perfectly clear. The colour of wines is, in gene- ral, independent of their proper- ties ; being in many instances ar- tificial, and imparted to those li- quors, after they have come into mercantile hands. Thus, white wines are tinged red, by decoc- tions 'of logwood, the juices of elder and bilberries ; in France, by the husks of tinged grapes; and, when a proper colouring matter is required, solutions of stick-lac, and turnsol, have been proposed as useful substitutes. There are, however, other ingredients fre- quently employed by unprincipled persons , and which produce dele- terious effects on the human sys- tem. As it is of great importance lo expose such adulterations, we shall communicate a few simple means, by which they may be dis- covered, both by the taste, and by the eye. Thus, if new white wine be of a sweetish flavour, and leave a certain astringency on the tongue; if it have an uncommonly high co- lour, which is at the same time disproportionate to its nominal age, and to its real strength ; or, if it have an unusually pungent taste, resembling that of brandy, or other ardent spirits, such liquor is gene- rally sophisticated....Farther, when red wine presents either a very pale, or a very deep colour ; or possesses a peculiarly tart and astringent taste ; or deposits a thick crust on the sidesor bottoms of glass-vessels, it has then probably been coloured with some of the substances above mentioned; and which may be easily detected, by passing the li- quor through filieringpaper; when the tinging matters will remain on its surface. Such fraud may also be discovered, by filling a small phial with the suspected wine, and closing its mouth with the finger : the bottle is then to be inverted, and immersed into a bason con- taining pure water; when, on with- drawing the finger from its aper- ture, the tinging or adulterating matter will pass into the water, so that the former may be observ- ed sinking to the bottom, by its greater weight. Wines frequently become tart, and even sour, in consequence of the fermentation having been mis- managed ; or by keeping them in improper places ; or from unfore- seen accidents : in these cases, cy- der, or the juice of carrots and tur- nips, is commonly mixed with the liquor, to overcome its acidity ; but, as such juices do not always sweeten the wines to a sufficient degree, the latter are often adul- terated with alum, or with sugar of lead; preparations, that cannot fail to be productive of tbe worst effects; as they doubtless are slowly operating poisons. Hence we deem it our duty to give an WIN analytical account of the principal tests, or test-liquors, discovered by ingenious chemists, both for the health and satisfaction of our rea- ders. If wine be adulterated with alum, M. Beraud directs a small qu an - tity of the suspected liquor to be mixed with a little lime-water : at the end of ten or twelve hours, the compound must be filtered; and, if crystals are formed, it contains no alum : in the contrary case, the residuum, after filtration, will split into small quadrilateral segments, that vvill adhere to the paper on which it is spread. In order to detect the litharge, or sugar of lead, 10 or 12 drops of a solution of yellow orpiment and quick-lime should be poured into a glass of wine : if the colour of the fluid change, and become successively dark-reddish, brown, or black, it is an evident proof of its being adulterated with lead. As orpiment, however, contains a large proportion of Arsenic, it is apt to produce effects equally fatal with those resulting from the sugar of lead: we shall, therefore, subjoin a few other tests, which are per- fectly harmless. Thus, Fourckoy (" History and Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris, for the year 1787," Sec.) directs a few drops of vitriolic acid, or of pure saccharine acid, to be intro- duced into a certain portion of the suspected liquor. These vvill cause the lead to sink to the bottom of the glass, in the form of white powder ; which, if laid on a piece of solid charcoal, may be reduced to metallic globules, by means of the lamp and blow-pipe. Never- theless, he preferably recommends a solution of hepatic gas in dis- tilled water: this, he observes, W I N 419 will, on being added to wine so- phisticated with lead, produce a black sediment, and thus shew the smallest quantity of that metal ; whereas, in pure wine, no preci- tation will take place : the preci- pitate of lead may be readily dis- tinguished from that of other mi- nerals, by its deep colour. Dr. Watsok (" Chemical Es- says," vol. iii.) advises 1 oz. of quick-lime, and half an ounce of flowers of sulphur, to be boiled in one pint of water : when the liquor is cpld, it must be carefully bottled up ; and, on adding a few drops to the wine, or cyder, impregnated with lead, jlhe colour of the whole will become of a lighter or deeper brown, according to the quantity held in solution. But, as this test also precipitates iron, when dissolv- ed in any vinous fluid, we think the following probatory liquor may be preferably employed : it vvas in- vented and published in 1791, by Dr. Hahnemann, but the merit of his claim has lately been assumed by an obscure German chemist in London ; and we understand, that the recipe for this test has been surreptitiously sold to a French speculator, on whose account it is now retailed by several venders, under his directions. Dr. H.'s original test has, within the last three or four years, been simplified and improved, so that it is now prepared in the following manner: Let one dram of the dry liver of sulphur, and two drams of cream of tartar be shaken in two ounces of distilled water, till the whole become saturated with hepatic gas: the liquor must now be filtered through blotting paper, and kept in a phial closely stopped. In order to try the purity of wine, from 16 to 20 drops of this test are lo be 420 WIN WIN poured into a small glass : if the wine become only turbid, with white clouds, and a similar sedi- ment be deposited, it is then not impregnated with any metallic in- gredients. Should it, however, turn muddy or black; its colour approach to a deep red ; and its taste be at first sweet, and then astringent; the liquor certainly contains the sugar, or other per- nicious preparation of lead. The presence of iron is indicated by the wine acquiring a dark-blue cast, similar to that of pale ink; and* if there be any particlesof verdigrease or copper,a blackish-grey sediment will be formed. In making all these experiments, the test ought to be newly prepared, and the trials made in the open air. A small portion of sulphur is always mixed with white wines, in order to preset ve them-: but, if too large a quantity be employed, the wine thus impregnated be- comes remarkably intoxicating; oppresses the organs of breathing ; and excites intense thirst; while cutaneous eruptions, palpitation of the heart, gout, and numerous other nervous affections, are often induced. Sulphur may, however, be easily detected: for, if a piece of an egg-shell, or of silver, be immersed in the wine, it instan- taneously acquires a black hue. Quick-lime is also frequently mixed with wine, for imparting a beauti- ful deep-red colour: its presence may be ascertained, by suffering a little wine to stand in a glass, for two or three days; when the lime, held in solution, will appear on the surface, in the form of a thin pellicle or crust. The last, and certainly the least hurtful adulteration of wine, is that with water, which n.ay be detected by throwing into it a small piece of quick-lime : for, if the lime be slacked, the wine must have been diluted ; as, on the con- trary (vvhich however will seldom be the case), such liquor may be considered as pure. The moderate use of wine cer- tainly conduces to health,especially in weak and languid habits : hence it has been emphatically termed the* " milk of the aged :" it accelerates the circulation ; invigorates both the bodily and the mental faculties; increases the action of thestomach; and is of essential service to con- valescents, especially to those who are recovering from the severe attacks of typhus, or other malig- nant fevers. On the other hand, intemperance in wine is productive of DRUNKENNESS, OV INTOXICA- TION, with all their attendant evils, and not unfrequently lays the foundation both of acute and of chronic disorders : the mental powers are impaired; and linger- ing death only terminates the suf- ferings of the debauchee. Hence, we seriously advise parents, to beware of giving wine to their children indiscriminately; because, to them, it can be of service only when taken as a medicine: and those injudicious persons, who en- courage young people to take wine habitually at their meals, are guilty of an abuse, which cannot be easily repaired by future abstinence. WINNOW, or more properly, Winnowing-mackine, is a con- trivance employed for separating, by an artificial current of air, the chaff from the grain, after it has been thrashed out of the straw. In the year 1797, a patent was granted toMr. S. W. Dix, for his invention of a vvinnovving-machine, designed to clear grain from the WIN W I N 421 straw, instead of thrashing. It eonsistsof an upright square frame, furnished with a hopper for receiv- ing the corn, whUe in the ear: the grain is separated from the chaff, by means of the friction of a large circular rubber. The implement is set in motion by a pair of ribbed rollers, connected with the main axle, by a baud or strap ; and this axle is turned by the aid of a com- mon hand-winch. The advantages resulting from the use of this contrivance, are by the patentee stated to be as follow : 1. No grain vvill be scattered ; and the farmer will be enabled to carry in one waggon, ten times more corn in the ear, in sacks, and without the straw, than possi- bly can be conveyed with the straw, at one load. 2. As the same quantity of com may thus be conveyed in one day, as is usually performed in ten, it follows, that not only nine days la- bour, both of men and cattle, may be saved, but also the risk of wet weather, which frequently injures the grain, and increases the ex- pense of housing, is in this man- ner effectually avoided. 3. The corn being in the ears without any straw, and such ears being rough, it will lie lightly, so as to admit a free current of air: hence, sweating and shrinking of the grain will be prevented; which accident often happens, when ma- naged according to the prevailing method. 4. The ears of corn, thus sepa- rated from the straw, will occupy incomparably less room in tiie barn ; consequently farmers will be enabled to guard it more com- pletely from the depredations of rati., i<<\ce, and ether vermin. 5. iUe reed, or prime s'raw. being thus preserved in a sound state, will be more fit for thatching, collar-making, the manufacture of hats, &c. for it is neither broken nor split, as generally happens when the flail is employed : at the same time, all the natural chaff remains in an integral state for feeding cattle. Lastly, every grain is by means of such contrivance separated from the ears: thus, the advantages of a thrashing and winnowing ma- chine are combined ; and Mr. Dix is of opinion that every farmer, who adopts the various methods proposed in the specification of bio patent, will find an increase of pro- duce, far exceeding the most san- guine expectations. It is, however, to be justly ap- prehended, that most agriculturists who are already provided with large barns, and who are accus- tomed to submit their corn to the action of the flail, in tb.e manner of their forefathers, will not be dis- posed to introduce new methods, unless convinced of their superi- ority, by the most decisive result of experience. And, as we cannot, in this instance, produce vouchers to attest the excellence of Mr. Dix's plan, we decline entering into any examination of its merits. [Winnowing machines, or fans, as they are called, were firet intro- duced into Philadelphia by Adam Echard, forty or fifty years since, from a Holland model. Some years since, a Mr. Every presented a model of the same machine lo the Society of Arts in London, and obtained a premium of 50 guineas for the invention. It is represented in Bayley's Plans of Machines, folio. Excellent fans are con- structed in Philadelphia.] W in i ex-cr e b s es, or Winter- 422 WIT Rocket. See Mustard, the Hedge. WIRE, is a cylindrical piece of gold, silver, copper, iron, or other metal, forced and drawn through holes of an iron frame : it is made of various sizes, according to the purposes for vvhich it is designed. Whiten-tree. See Sallow. WITHERS, a term in farriery, denoting the juncture of the shoul- der-bone, at the bottom of the neck and mane. This important part of the horse's body, is liable to bruises, generally occasioned by a narrow saddle ; frequently form- ing imposthumes ; and, if impro- perly treated, becoming fistulous. On the first appearance of the welling, it should be bathed with hot vinegar, three or four times in the day : but, if this fomentation be insufficient to disperse the tu- mor, an ounce of oil of vitriol may be added to a quart of vinegar, or haif an ounce of white vitriol dis- solved in a small portion of water, may be mixed with the' former li- quid, and the compound be ap- plied to the part affected. If the swelling be attended with pain, heat, and small watery pustules, it ought to be bathed with the fol- lowing preparation : Take 2 oz. of crude sal-ammoniac, and boil it in a quart of lime-water : when it has subsided, pour off the decoc- tion, and add to it half a pint of spirit of wine ; after which, the tumor should be dressed with lin- seed oil, or elder-ointment, in order to soften the skin. In critical swellings, however, repellents should, on no account, be resorted to ; but it will be pro- per to apply suppurating poultices. Experienced farriers advise, never to open these tumors till they spon- taneously burst; as otherwise the WO A excoriation will become spongy, discharge a bloody ichor, and speedily degenerate into a foul ul- cer. Where fungous flesh happens to be troublesome, and the matter discharged is of a yellow colour, and an oi'y, viscid, consistence, pledgets soaked in the following composition have proved very suc- cessful : Dissolve half an ounce of blue vitriol in a pint of water; add oil of turpentine, and rectified spirit of wine, each 4 oz. ; white- wine vinegar 6 oz. ; oil of vitriol, and oxymel of verdigrease, each 2 oz. Farther, let the tumefied pari be washed with a mixture of spirit of wine and vinegar. But; when the cavities of the wound are fistulous, the callosities must, if practicable, be extirpated with a knife, and the remainder de- stroyed by escharotics. WO AD, or Isatis, L. a genus of plants comprehending six species, of which only the tinctoria, or Wild Woad, is a native of Britain. It is biennial; grows in corn-fields, prin- cipally at New Barns, in the Isle of Ely; where it flowers in the months of June and July. The stalk attains a height of from 3 to 4 feet; and the leaves are eaten by cows, but refused by horses,goats, and sheep: these leaves are highly valued by dyers, for the beautiful blue colour which they impart to wool; hence, this vegetable is cultivated to a considerable extent. Woad prospers in a deep, fat loam, though a moderately rich and mixed soil is the most proper: as this plant remarkably exhausts the ground, more than two crops should never be taken in succes- sion.. The land ought to be plough- ed four times ; first, shortly before the winter ; a second lime in the spring, when it will be advisable WO A W O L 423 »o form the ridges ; a third time in June ; and, lastly, towards the end of July, or early in August: in the intervals between each ploughing, it will be necessary to harrow the soil, so that all weeds may be destroyed. Woad, in this country, is sown early in August, and generally broad-cast, though the drill-hus- bandry is the most advantageous. At the end of two or three weeks, the plants must be hoed, at the dis- tance of at least six inches ; after vvhich they will require no farther attention, except a careful weeding in October, and particularly in the month of March. The proper time for gathering the leaves, is determined by their full grovvth, and the first change of colour at their points: they are cut with an edged tool, and collected into baskets by women and chil- dren. If the land be good, three or four successive crops may be taken ; but the two first are the finest, and produce from 25/. to 30/. per ton; whereas, the third or fourth do not sell for more than 7 or 8/. per ton. After the leaves are gathered, they are submitted to the action of mills, similar to those employed for grinding oak-bark ; ami in which they are reduced to a kind of pulp. The woad is then laid in small heaps, which are closely and smoothly pressed down. As often as the crust, formed on the outside, cracks or separates, it is again closed, to preserve the strength of the colouring matter. In this state, it remains for a fort- night ; at the expiration of which, the heaps are broken up ; the ex- ternal part is worked into a mass, and the whole is formed into oval balls, either by the hand, or by means of moulds. The balls are now exposed to the sun, under shelter: when perfectly dry, they are ready for sale; or are prepared for the vat, in the manner stated in article Dyeing....Such is the pro- cess vvhich woad undergoes, before it becomes fit for dyeing blue co- lours ; but M. Astruc is of opi- nion, that, if this vegetable were cured in the same manner as in- digo, it would produce a colour of equal lustre to that obtained from such an expensive foreign drug. Thus, considerable sums of money, that are annually exported for indi- go, might probably be saved; a con- jecture which \:> now corroborated by the test of experience.....Da:.i- bourney directs to boil the fresh leaves of woad with diluted bul- locks' blood, or more . effectually with caustic soap-boilers' ley : in this simple manner, a dark green decoction of a blueish shade will be obtained ; and, after clarifying ,► the liquor, it will form a blue pre- cipitate ; which, dissolved in oil of vitriol, and properly diluted, im- parts a beautiful colour to woollen cloth. Farther, even the leaves, in a state of fermentation with pure water, on adding a small portion of a caustic alkaline ley, afford a fine blue sediment, resembling the true indigo. [This useful article abounds in the western states, and also in Pennsylvania, according to the re- port of an experienced native of Britain, who is settled near the head of Ohio, in Washington coun- ty, Pennsylvania. It appears, that the farina is much richer than that in England; and that instead of two crops, vvhich are produced in England, five are yielded in the United States. This plant is well worth cultivation.] WOLF'S-BANE, the Large 424 W O L WOO Blue, or Monk's-Hood, Aconi- tam Napellus, L. is an exotic pe- rennial, growing wild in the moun- tainous parts of Switzerland and France......The juice of this plant possesses a disagreeable smell and an acrid taste: of the latter, how- ever, it is in a great measure di- vested by inspissation. Being one of the most active vegetable poi- sons, when taken in large portions, it excites sickness, vomiting, di- arrhea, giddiness, delirium, faint- ing, cold sweats, convulsions, and death. Dr. Stoerk, of Vienna, informs us, that tiie Wolf's-bane is a very effectual remedy in glandular swell- ings, the itch, amaurosis, in gouty < id rheumatic pains, intermittent fevers, and in convulsions. He prescribed 10 grains of the pow- der to be taken at night, and in the morning ; but the dose is to be gradually increased to six grains of the inspissated juice, twice every day. Other physicians have em- ployed a tincture prepared of one part of the dry, pulverized leaves of this herb, and six 'parts of spirit of wine ; in doses of 40 drops..... In Britain, however, this remedy has not answered the high expecta- tions formed of its virtues : though it doubtless is a very active, and useful medicinal plant, if duly pre- pared, and regularly prescribed. A decoction of the roots of the Wolf's-bane, affords an efficacious liquor for destroying bugs...if this root be reduced to powder, mixed with oatmeal and honey, or any other palatable vehicle, and thus exposed to rats or mice, it will cor- rode and inflame their intestines, so as speedily to' prove a fatal re- past......The juice expressed from this plant, is occasionally poured on flesh, i.nd thus employed as a bait to allure wolves, foxes, and other beasts of prey. Lastly, it is remarkable, that the best antidote for the poison of the Monk's-hood, is asserted to be the root of the anthora, a species of the same genus called kcatthful, or wholesome yionk's-hood. Wolf-fish. See Sea-wolf. WOLVES-TEETH,in farriery, frequently occur in old horses, when the upper bones of the mouth considerably project over the lower ones : thus, the almost only incon- venience resulting from this cir- cumstance is, that the points of the teeth prick, and lacerate, either the tongue or gums, and thus distress the animal when feeding.....In or- der to remedy such defect, the su- perfluous prominences, or unequal points of the teeth, may be tiled down; by which simple expedient, these useful bones will be reduced to their natural size. Wolverene. See Bear. WOOD, denotes the fibrous sub- stance, of which the branches, trunks, and roots of trees-, are prin- cipally composed. [The Society for the Encourage- ment of Arts, in London, bestowed in 1801, a silver medal to Mr. R. Knight of Cheapside, for the dis- covery of a me thod of breaking up logs of wood for the purposes of fuel, by blasting them with gun- powder......The following is the mode of procedure. First, an entrance for an auger is made by a gouge. The auger is thin introduced, and a hole bored of a proper depth to receiye the rending or blowing screw. A charge of gun-powder is then in- troduced ; a screw, having a small hole drilled through its centre, and a head formed into two strong horns, is then turned into the bote woo till it nearly touches the powder ; a quick match 18 inches long, is then to be put down the touch-hole till it reaches the charge, and fire set to it, the attendant retiring..... The hole of the screw must be well cleared previously to the in- troduction of the quick match : this match may be made of a twine, or cotton twist, steeped in a solu- tion of salt-petre. A strong round bludgeon or stick, must be used to wind the screw into the wood, and a leather thong attached to it, in order to fasten it occasionally to the screw, to prevent its being lost, in case it should be thrown out when the block is burst open; a circumstance vvhich does not often occur ; for in all Mr. K.'s experiments, when the wood was tolerably sound, he found the screw left fixed in one side of the divided mass.] Having already stated the most approved methods of seasoning wood, under the article Timber, we shall at present direct our at- tention to the most advantageous expedients that have been devised (or preserving this useful substance; and conclude with an account of the best modes of imparting to it different colours. To render timber more durable, it has been recommended to saw the trees into scantlings; or, where the wood is designed to be used entire, to hew it into the requisite shape ; when it is to be laid in a bed of sand (contained in a case or shell of brick-work) and heated by means of a furnace, built beneath. As soon as the wood becomes hot, the sap exudes, and is imbibed by the sand; in consequence of which, the quality of the timber is greatly improved. This method has been successfully tried ; but, as it is too yol. v. ,W O O 425 expensive, Dr. Lewis advises all wood, that is exposed to the incle- mency of the weather, to be coated with a preparation of pulverized pit-coal and melted tar, reduced to the consistence of paint, which he has found very efficacious. In those cases, however, where piles, or other masses of timber, are subject to the action of water, the most simple mode of preserving it, is that employed in the Bermuda Islands, and other parts of Ame- rica. It consists in covering such wood repeatedly with train or whale-oil, allowing each coat to become perfectly dry, before an- other is applied.....For preventing the combustion of wood, the rea- der vvill consult the article Fire- proof. Mahogany, ebony, and the finer woods, being very expensive, ar- tisans have contrived various pre- parations for tinging timber, so as to be with difficulty distinguished from them. Thus, ebony may be imitated, by boiling clean, smooth box in oil, till it become perfectly black; or, by washing pear-tree wood, that ha> been previously planed, with aqua-fortis, and drying it in a shady place in the open air; after vvhich, writing-ink must re- peatedly be passed over it, and the wood dried in a similar manner, till it acquire a deep black colour. It may then be polished with wax and a woollen cloth, which vvill give it a fine lustre. In the new " Transactions of the Royal Society of Gottingtn," Prof. Beckmann has published the re- sult of numerous experiments, re- lative to the staining or dyeing of wood. He directs, for instance, a piece of plane-tree to l>e put into a glass vessel, containing pulverized dragon's-blood mixed with oil or 3 I 426 W O O WOO turpentine, and placed over tl»e five : in a short time, the wood will acquire a beautiful colour, resem- bling that of mahogany ; and the dragon's-blood, adhering to the sur- face, may be separated by applying rectified spirit of wine. If gam- boge be dissolved in spirit of tur- pentine, it will impart a bright-yel- low colour ; and one part of dra- gon's-blood, with two of gamboge, communicate various shades to the wood of the beech and plane-trees. A fine walnut-tree tint may be obtained, by rubbing common wood with a mixture, prepared of the bark of the trees, or the sheMs of walnuts, previously dried, pulve- rized, and reduced to a proper con- sistence with nut-oil. Another preparation for commu- nicating a perfect mahogany-colour to inferior woods, especially those of the elm, maple, and sycamore- trees, consists of the following in- gredients : Dissolve two drams of dragons's-blood, one dram of wild alkan et (Anchusa tinctoria, L.), and half a dram of aloe, in half a pint of rectified spirit of .wine. Previ- ously to using this tincture, the wood ought to be moistened with aqua-fortis; when two or three coats of the former, each being al- lowed to dry before the next is applied, will be sufficient to pro- duce the desired effect. In March, 1778, a patent was granted to Mr. Humphrey Jack- son, for his method of beautifying, and preserving the colour of every kind of wood, by means of a stain, varnish, and powder. He directs the substance first to be polished with the following composition : Take pumice-stone andburntalum, of each equal parts ; lapis calami- naris, and green-vitriol calcined to redness, of each half a part; let the whole be reduced to a fine powder, and rubbed with a woollen cloth on tiie wood, till it acquire a fine polish: the stain must now be prepared as follows : Let 6 lbs. of stick-lac be boiled in three gallons of water, till the colour be extracted, when the liquor ought to- be strained : half a pound of madder-root is also to be boiled in three quarts of water: next, half a pound of cochineal, a similar quantity of kermes, and 4 oz. of clean scarlet-rags,are to be digested in a glass vessel, containing one gallon of spirit of wine, and a so- lution of 2 oz. of pearl-ash in half a pint of water, till all the tinging matter be combined with the li- quor. After straining it, the de- coction of stick-lac must be added, and a sufficient quantity of aqua- fortis be mixed with the whole, to impart a proper red colour; when the compound may be laid on with a brush.....In order to prepare the varnish, the patentee directs one pound of clear white amber, half a pound of copal, a similar quan- tity of spirit of turpentine, as well as of the oils of rosemary, and lavender ; and six pounds of nut- oil, to be digested in a sand-heat, till the oils acquire the consistence of syrup : the liquor is now to be strained for use ; and, when the varnish becomes clear, it must be applied to the stained wood with a painter's brush ; after which it should be suffered to dry. A patent vvas likewise granted, in November, 1791, to Samuel Bentham, Esq. for his invention of a method of planing wood. Our limits will not admit of an analysis of his diffuse specification: we shall therefore only state that, by his contrivance, the operation of planing is simplified to such a WOO degree that animals, steam, water, machinery, and other brute or inanimate agents, may be advan- tageously employed. A minute account of his patent is inserted in the 5th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," &c. Various other methods of stain- ing wood blue, green, purple, red and yellow, are practised by artifi- cers. Of these, we shall commu- nicate only the most expeditious, and least expensive. Blue....Take iwo drams of the best indigo reduced to a fine pow- der; put it in a glass with 2 oz. of oil of vitriol, and agitate them with a new clay-pipe.....After standing 10 or 12 hours, at the farthest, in a temperate place, pour it into a large glass vessel, or china bowl, and add such a portion of pure water as may be expedient to give it the tint required....Those, to whom the saving of time is an ob- ject, may purchase this staining liquor ready prepared, from the dyer. Another mode of tinging wood blue, is that of dissolving verdigrease in distilled vinegar; then making a separate solution of 2 oz. of pure pearl ashes in a pint of water : the former liquid should be first repeatedly applied to the surface of the wood, till it be of a sufficiently deep green colour; when the latter preparation must be drawn over it, with a soft painters brush, as often as may be necessary to change it to a proper blue cast. Green :—Dissolve purified ver- digrease in distilled vinegar, or in aqua-fortis diluted with 15 or 20 times its weight of water, and ap- ply the solution to wood previously warmed. Pubple: Take 1 oz. of log- wood, and 2 drams of Brazil-wood; WOO 427 boil them together in a quart of water, slowly, over a moderate fire : when-one half of the fluid is evaporated, it must be strained, and several times laid on the wood, with a proper brush, till it have re- ceived a dark-red shade. Thus prepared, and being allowed to become perfectly dry, it may be changed to a fine purple shade, by drawing over it repeatedly a weak solution of the purest pearl-ash, namely, one dram in a pint of water. Some dexterity, howeveT, must be exerted on this occasion ; as, by too sudden and frequent applications of either of the two liquids, the colour is very apt to assume a dark blue, instead of a purple shade. Red :—Take 2 oz. of Brazil- wood, and 2 drams of purified pot-ash ; mix them with a quart of water ; and let the composition stand in a warm place for several days ; stirring it occasionally.— When sufficiently extracted, the coloured liquor must be decanted, moderately warmed, and in that state applied to the wood as man^ times as may be deemed necessary for giving it a more or less bright cast. Next, a solution of alum, in the proportion of 2 oz. to a quart of water, is to be laid on the wood (while it is still wet from the former stain) with a soft brush, or other instrument.—After pobshing the articles thus stained, their co- lour may be rendered still more beautiful and permanent, by giv- ing them one or more coats, with a varnish prepared of shell-lac. Yellow :—This delicate tint may be easily imparted to wood, which is naturally white : for this purpose, take 1 oz. of pulverized turmeric, and a pint of rectified spirit of wine ; shake them in a \ 428 WOO WOO glass bottle ; allow the infusion to stand for several days, closely co- vered : then decant the liquor, and lay it on the wood repeatedly, as may be found necessary.—A cheaper method, however, con- sists in applying weak aqua-fortis to wood previously warmed, and immediately after the stain is given holding it to the fire, at some dis- tance, till it acquire the desired cast. But it should be remarked, that the aqua-fortis must be suffi- ciently diluted with water; as otherwise, the wood is apt to ac- quire a brown or blackish hue. In order to improve the articles thus stained, the same expedients may be adopted, as those suggested in the preceding paragraph. To conclude:—As it is fre- quently an object of some import- ance, to close and secure the chinks, flaws, or other accidental defects in wooden vessels, in the most expeditious manner, we con- ceive that a tough paste, com- posed of whiting, a solution of gum arabic or tragacanth, and a proper quantity of oak-bark re- duced to a fine powder, may be advantageously applied lo tubs or casks, with a view to prevent far- ther leaking. But on such occa- sions, it will always be more ad- visable to empty the vessels ; and, after drying them, to use a ce- ment, consisting of pitch, bullock's blood, linseed-oil, turpentine, and the finest brick-dust, melted toge- ther in an iron pan : before, how- ever, this powerful lute be laid on, all the crevices or chinks ought to be properly caulked, or filled up with tow or oakum. Wood-ashes. See Ashes. Wood-bine. See Honey- suckle, the Common. WOOD-COCK, or Scolofiax rusticola, L. a bird of passage, generally appearing in England to- ward the latter end of October, and retiring early in March.—It is about 14 inches in length, and, with expanded wings, 26 in breadth; the crown of the head, hind-part of the neck, back, and coverts of the wings, are beautifully marked with ferruginous red, black, and grey colours; though the breast and belly are barred with numerous transverse lines of a dusky hue. Wood-cocks, on their first ar- rival, take up their residence in copses of 9 or 10 years growth ; but seldom continue in one place longer than 12 or 15 days. They subsist on worms and insects,which their long bills enable them to extract from soft grounds, and moist woods. In the evening, these birds repair to pools and springs, whence they retire to open fields and meadows, for the remainder of the night. The sportsman may, therefore, with ad- vantage, take his stand in those narrow passes on the borders of woods, communicating with streams ; or he may watch these fowls about the close of the even- ing near the pools vvhich they fre- quent. As an article of food, the wood- cock affords, to the luxurious, one of the most delicious dishes : its flavour is consideredsuperiorto that of the Partridgk. Wood-louse. See Slaters. WOOD-PECKER, or Picus, L. a genus of birds comprising 10 species, 4 of which are frequently met with in Britain : the following of these are the most remarkable. 1. The viridis, or Green Wood- pecker, is about the size of a throstle ; of a greenish-yellow shade ; and feeds entirely on in- woo sects: its principal employment consists in climbing up and down the trunks or boughs of trees, vvhich it perforates with such exactness, as if the holes were made with hu- man art. After having sufficiently excavated an unsound tree, the fe- male deposits 5 or 6 semi-transpa- rent, white eggs ; and the young brood are taught to ascend and de- scend trees, before they are able to fly.—These active birds are said to occasion great havock among bees, in the winter season. 2. The minor, or Least-spotted Wood-pecker, scarcely weighs one ounce, being only about 6 inches in length, and 11 in breadth : it is likewise a formidable enemy to bees :—in the winter, this bird fre- quents orchards, whither it resorts for the purpose of picking up the larvae of caterpillars, and other in- sects. It also builds its nest in holes of trees, previously scooped out with its penetrating bill ; and is known in some parts of Eng- land, by the name of hickwall. [This family of birds is remark- able, for the gay and variegated colours of their plumage ; as also in the structure and formation of their feet, tail and bill ; their short strong feet and position of their toes, and the stiff pointed feathers of the tail, assist them in climbing and attaching themselves to the trunks and limbs of trees, and the beak formed like a hatchet, and wedged, is well adapted for per- forating the barks and chipping decayed wood, to obtain their prey. We have nine species in the Uni- ted States, lour of which we shall particularly notice. 1st. Picus principalis, (white- billed Wood-pecker, Carpenter.) This is a large bird, above the weight of the domestic hen, and his WOO 429 wings extended, measu'.ss near 4 feet, has a high peaked crest of beautiful crimson red feathers, his bill large and strong, wedge shap. ed and white as ivory. The re- maining part of his head, neck and body, Mack and white. Two or three of these birds working to- gether, will in a short time reduce the trunk of a decaying tree to a heap of chips. They build their nest in the trunks and limbs of trees vvhich they excavate for that purpose. 2. Picus auratus (Golden wing Flicca.) This is a fine bird drest in featfiers of splendid colours and elegantly variegated. A rich crim- son pile covers the back part of the head, which with the upper side of the wings, back and tail, are dusky brown, variegated. The lower part of the neck, joining the breast, is of a dove-blush. Breast and belly yellow, finely speckled with black, and a dark or black cresent lays on the breast. Under side of the wings, and their shaft are of a splendid golden yellow. Some eminent zoologists have been inclined to establish this bird in the family of Cuculus, from the form of the bills and of some of his habits: but we adhere to Cates- by and Linnjel's's arrangement: for although his beak is not so well formed for hacking wood, yet his general configuration, and habits of language, sufficiently declare him to be of the family of Picus. 3. Picus pileatus. (Woodcock.) In size next to P. principalis, but yet not half so large ; of a colour mostly a deep black, having a few spots of white on the quill:feathers. His head ornamented with a high crest of crimson feathers. Cheeks and throat variegated with black, white and yellow feathers: they 430 WOO WOO utter aloud crowing and screaming noise : their habits, and vjgilance in chipping wood is similar to P. principalis, and like it, they inha- bit forests, and in consequence are become scarce in the cultivated districts: their flesh is eaten, and much esteemed by epicures. 4. Picus eryocephalus. (Red Head.) This is a fine bird, about the size of a Jay or Thrush. He has no crown or pecked crest, but the whole head and neck is of a deep and splendid scarlet colour: wings, breast and belly white, quills of wings and tail speckled black and white. They build in hollows of trees near our habita- tions : they are fond of ripe apples and pears. The red head migrates, leaving us, passing south, gene- rally a few weeks before Christ- mas, and returns to us the succeed- ing spring, about the last of April. It is a general observation, that if these birds leave us in the autumn, or early in the winter, it prognos- ticates a long and severe winter. It may be proper to observe, that all the four species here noticed, are passengers in severe winters, re- treating southerly. Wm. Bart- ram.] WOODROOF, the Sweet, or Asperula odorata, L. an indigenous perennial, growing in woods and shady places ; where it flowers in the month of May. This plant possesses an exceedingly grateful odour, that increases on being mo- derately dried: it has a sub-sa- line, and somewhat austere taste, which, together with a peculiar fine flavour, it also imparts to vi- nous liquors. According to Lin- n-eus, the smell of this herb, ex- pels ticks, and other insects. The swee't woodroof is supposed to attenuate viscid humours, and strengthen the bowels ; to remove obstructions of the liver and bili- ary ducts; and vvas formerly es- teemed a medicine of great effica- cy in epilepsies and palsies. The plant is eaten by cows, horses, sheep, and goats ; having the re- markable property of increasing the milk of animals, and especially of those first mentioned. See also Tea. Wood-sage. See Wood-Ger- MANDER. Wood-sorrel. See Sorrel the Common Wood. Woody-nightshade. See Nightshade. WOOL, in general,signifies the hairy substance which forms the covering of Sheep. The growth of wool is always completed in one year, when it spontaneously decays, and is natu- rally renewed ; in which respect it resembles the hair of most of the lower animals; though that of sheep is considerably finer, and grows with more uniformity, each filament advancing at an equal distance ; separating from the skin nearly at the same time ; and, if it be not previously shorn, it falls off naturally ; the animal being al- ready provided with a short coat of young wool, that undergoes simi- lar changes in the subsequent year. Another circumstance, that dis- tinguishes wool from hair, is its va- rious thickness in different parts of the same sheep ; being closer at the points than at the roots ; and the part, which grows during the winter, being considerably finer than that produced in the sum- mer. Wool, when first shorn, is called a fleece, and every fleece is divided into three kinds, namely : The prime or mother wool, vvhich is taken from the neck and back ; the seconds, or that of the tails and a woo legs ; and the thirds, which is ob- tained from the breast, and beneath the belly. [Other authorities say, that the back and belly give superfine wool; the neck and sides fine, and that the breast, shoulders and thighs yield a coarse quality.] The finest and most esteemed sorts of British wool, at present, are those obtained from the Rye- land, South-Downe, Shetland, Cots- wold, Herefordshire, and Cheviot- sheep : and as this article forms the most extensive staple commodity of British commerce, various and successful attempts have lately been made to improve its quality. To effect this desirable object, re- course has been had to intermixing or crossing the different breeds ; and, by the patriotic exertions of the British Wool Society, the Board of Agriculture, Lord Somerville. and Dr. Parry, the British wool is now little inferior to the best kind imported from Spain. Our limits not permitting us to detail the results of their useful and interesting experiments, we shall only remark, that those who are about to select a flock of sheep, whether for fattening, or chiefly on account of their wool, should not venture to purchase any animals without the assistance of an emi- nent wool-stapler ; for such person, being conversant with the different qualities of wool, is doubtless bet- ter enabled to form an accurate judgment, than could be expected from any farmer or agriculturist. Besides, the situations to vvhich sheep have been accustomed,ought to be carefully investigated. Those, for instance, which have been habi- tuated to hilly or mountainous pas- tures, should not be removed to a verdant plain : nor must the re- WOO 431 verse plan ever be adopted; for it is not the gigantic size that consti- tutes the value of sheep, but ail ability to withstand the seasons, togelherwith a disposition to fatten kindly, and to produce the largest quantity of fine wool, in poor lands. It is principally by attending to the natural habits of this noble animal, that the Spanish wool has acquired such celebrity. But as a complete account of the management of sheep in Spain, would exceed the limits of this work, we shall only recommend to the consideration of our country readers, Lord SoMERViLLE's"Sz/«fe/n/b/- lowed during the Two last Years by tiie Board of Agriculture," isfc. 1800 ; also the 2d vol. of " Com- munications to the Board of Agri- culture ;" and, lastly, Dr. Par- ry's " Facts and Observations tend- ing to shew the Practicability and Advantage lo the Individual and Nation, of producing in the British Isles, Clothing Wool, equal to tiiat of Spain," he. 4to. p. 93. 4s. Ca- del and Davis, 1800. The utility of wool, as a warm and useful clothing (see Cloth, Flannel, 8cc.); and when no longer serviceable as a garment^ its shreds or rags in the manufac- ture of Soap, having already been sufficiently explained, it will be needless to enter into farther de- tail. We shall conclude with briefly stating the different exclu- sive privileges that have been granted for dressing, preparing, and manufacturing wool, and wool- len cloth. The following are the principal patents of which specifications have been published, namely : 1. In March 1787, Mi'.JohnHarmar's, for a machine designed to raise a shag on wcolh-n cloth:.2. Mr. 432 WOO Geo. Jeffrey's, in March, 1791, for a new method of dyeing stuffs, and woollen cloth of various co- lours : The Reverend Edmund Cartwright's, in May, 1792, for a machine designed to comb wool. [By this curious and useful ma- chine the following advantages are obtained. Each 'machine in the course of a day's work of 12 hours work a pack and a half, or 360 lbs. of wool ; and the saving of labour is at the rate of 11 50/. sterling per annunt; but the mills are calcu- lated to work by night also. Five sets of these machines, saved in one year 5750/. on the single operation of combing, which is only a preparative operation for the spinning. When worked by night, the profit on the labour of the five machines is estimated at 10,000/. It is represented by a plate in 1st. volume of the Repertory of Arts.~\ 4. Messrs. Henry Wright and John Hawkins, in June, 1793 ; for their invention of certain.ma- chinery, that may be employed in combing dressing, and preparing wool. And 5. Mr. Thomas Con- top's, in January, 1795 ; in conse- quence of his newly invented ma- chine for batting wool. These various contrivances, however, be- ing too complex to admit of plain descriptions, the inquisitive reader vvill consult the 1st, 2d, 3d, 8th, and 12th volumes of the " Reper- tory of Arts," he. where full spe- cifications are inserted, and illus- trated with several engravings. [Process for cleaning, carding, and spinning clothing wool. The first thing which is to be done to the wool, when it is put woo into the hands of the maufacturer, is to clean and free it, as much as possible, from the greasy matter, which, by perspiration, issues from the body of the animal ; ad- heres to the wool; gives it nour- ishment, and brings it to the re- quisite degree of maturity. For this purpose, a liquor is prepared, consisting of three parts rain or river water, and one part of urine: when this liquor is brought to a scalding heat, so as that the hand can hardly be borne in it; about 20, 30, or 40 lbs. of wool, according to the size of the kettle, must be put into a net, and plunged into the hot liquor. It must then be well stirred, and agitated for about ten minutes, so that all the parts of the wool may be well soaked, and the perspirable matter drawn out or loosened by this bouking, that it may be brought out by the washing which is immediately to follow. But it would be very detrimental in many respects if this bouking water or bath, has not the degree of heat which has been mentioned. For if it were but lukewarm,'it would not loosen the animal perspiration sufficiently. And if it were too hot, the sweat would boil into the wool, and only settle the faster. The one, therefore, is as detrimental as the other. It would be mucji better to have the wool worked up without any bouking or clearing at all, than to have it done under either of those mistake1- For cloth vvhich has been made of wool badly bouked, will never get pro- perly clean in fulling. It must then lie much longer in the earth or soap, which renders it less valu- able. There is even a great risk, that it vvill always remain greasy woo WOO 433 and sweaty ; because it is difficult to get the sweat out when it is once hardened and boiled in. The manufacturers know by their own experience, that the fullers, in their own way of work- ing, follow a certain routine, and proceed in the old accustomed manner, which the smallest diffi- culty will be apt to stop in its progress; and likewise, that these people vvill not give themselves the least trouble, to obviate, or remedy even the smallest obstacles. It is therefore a great advantage, to deliver them the cloth, as well prepared for fulling as possible. In order to avoid the too great heat of the water, the wool ought to be cooled, from time to time, by lifting it up above the kettle, with the stick, which is usual for stir- ring and airing it. In this ease, the same care ought to be taken, as is required in dyeing the wool. For either by putting more wood under the kettle, or by taking it away from under it, the water is kept in the necessary temperature as above mentioned. When the wool has lain a suffi- cient time in the bouking liquor, and is sufficiently soaked through, it is taken out of the kettle, and thrown in a heap, on a wooden railing or hurdle, where it is left for about half a quarter of an hour to drain. During this time the liquor perfectly penetrates the wool; and it gets sufficiently cool to be fit to be rinsed or washed in the current of a river. The wool must not be washed whilst too hot, because the cold water would cool it too suddenly ; whereby, the sweat that is in it would harden, and then it would not be an easy matter to get it out of the wool. Bal again, if the wool vol. v. was to get too cold, the running water would not be able to carry away entirely the sweat which had been chilled and got stiff therein already. It must, therefore, be brought into the run, when it is neither too cold, nor too warm: moreover, the frequent use and the natural qualities of the water, will soon afford the knowledge requi- site for this part of the work. That water which has the strongest current, and is the purest, is the best fitted for this purpose, because it takes off the sweat with more certainty, and renders the vvcel much whiter. As the wool leaves its sweat or dirt in the bouking liquor, which will form a sediment at the bottom of the kettle, it is proper to strain it by inclination each time it is used ; and if the matter is properly car- ried on, the same liquor may serve for six months. In Languedoc, the wool is cleared from its sweat by making the bath of common water only, without any addition of urine, and by soaking therein, first, the raw country wool, the sweat or grease whereof perfectly cleanses the Spa- nish wool, and makes it even whiter than if it had been put into urine. As both, ways of proceeding are equally good, it would be unne- cessary to force the manufacturers to clean their wool of the sweat according to the first mentioned method in preference to the se- cond, and so vice versa. The only end is, that the wool is to be well cleaned, and it is unimportant whether this be done in the first manner or the second. The wool which has lain in the warm bath in the manner before described, must, when it is to b? 3 K 434 WOO washed, be put into large baskets of wicker work, either round or rquare. These baskets are 5 or 6 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 3 feet high. In these the wool is carefully washed and frequently stirred, in order that the ;>;reasi- ness and other dirt that may be in it, may be carried off by the cur- rent of the water. Out of the first basket it is put into the second; and sometimes even into the third, if it is to be very clean and pure. No more than 6 or 7 pounds must be put into the baskets at once, and this, when it is rinsed clean, is gradually taken out, and other wool put into it, and this may be continued as long as there is wool that wants washing after the bouk- ing in the kettles. From this circumstantial de- scription, it appears,that the wash- ing of the wool must not be delay- ed too long, after it comes out of the kettle ; for as has been said already, it must be still lukewarm when it is put into the fresh water for rinsing. After the wool is washed, it is hung up in garrets upon thin rods which are called drying rods.... Here it is dried as quick as possi- ble ; but this rather to get it out of the way, than from any fear that it should loose any of its quality if it lay long undried. It is not proper to dry it at the fire : the fire might take away the fatness and silky substance in the wool, which is absolutely necessary for the well working of it; but it will do very well to dry it in the sun. When the wool is dry, it is beaten, that the dust may come out. This work is done either on a hurdle of wooden strips, or on ropes, plaited into a square frame, put upon two tresscls. On this WOO 5 or 6 pounds of wool are lai-i; and beaten with sticks of about an inch thick. The wool is then put into the hands of women who pull it, and pick those parts that stick too closely together: but they must be very careful not to pull the wool to pieces, nor to tear the hair. These women pick out the coarse lumps, with the bits of straw, thistles, and other things, which frequently adhere so close, that they must be cut out with scissars. It is true this work does not seem to be of any great consequence, nevertheless it is highly necessary, in as much as it prepares the wool, that it may be easily carded ; for this reason, great care ought to be taken of this operation. ri he wool then comes into the hands of the carders, whose first care is to grease it. They use for this purpose; olive oil, and to one pound of wool, which is in- tended for chain, they take * of a pound ; and, to the filling wool the fifth or sixth part. In many manu- factures, they make use for this purpose of rape-oil or hog's-lard, but the latter is not as good as the common sweet or olive oil. The former dries and hardens the wool, and makes it so tough, that it is not so good for spinning after- wards, nor is it an easy matter lo get the grease again out of the stuffs that have been manufactur- ed thereof. Sweet-oil (olive-oil), therefore, is ahvays preferable wherever it can be had. Amongst the different kinds of sweet-oils, the green Seville-oil is to be pre- ferred, particularly if it be clear and pure. Carding is one of the most ne- cessary operations, in the manu- facture of wool. It is upon this, that the goodness of the cloth WOO W O O 435 principally depends. For if the wcol is not well carded, it is im- possible to spin it smootii and even. Many other very bad conse- quences originate from this cause ; for the mixed goods get an un- even colour thereby, and appear, here and there, spotted or striped,if the colours have not been well mix- ed and absorbed one by the other. Therefore, the dyed wool which is intended to be mixed, must pass once oftener through the cards than white wool. It would be even very desirable if the cards for the last carding, were much finer than for the former, although the manu- facturers do not make it a prac- tice. There are three kinds of wool- cards of the same size. The whole difference depends upon the qua- lity of the iron wire, of vvhich they are made; and the number of teeth in each. Those cards wherewith the wool is to be worked for the first time, are called breaking cards; they must be made of a stronger wire, and the teeth less numerous. The others wherewith the work is repeated once or twice, consist of a finer wire, vvhich, with respect to the wire, are in proper proportion with the former. The proportion of the strength of the wire and the number of teeth, depends upon the kind of wool which is to be carded. The teeth of the cards must be perfectly even, in order that the card may not lay hold quicker in one part, than in another: the teeth must be set even and per- fectly well fixed "and distributed. If there is a fault in this, the wool will be carded better or worse in one place, than in another. As the cards for the first, as well as for the second and third card- ing, are exactly of one size, it naturally follows, that, the wire in the cards, used for the second and third carding, being finer than that of the first kind of cards, the num- ber of the rows of teeth must be greater, and the teeth in the rows more numerous. One of the cards is fixed on a wooden bench or frame which serves for a seat for, the wool carder, in such manner, that the work, vvhich he has to do, lies be- fore him. The other card he moves backwards and forwards with both his hands, by means of a handle vvhich is fixed on the top of the card. Before they begin to work with these cards, tbey ought to be filled with shear-wool, for vvhich there are three reasons: First, the shear- wool supports the teeth in the cards, and prevents them from bending: Second, the carder then cannot lay on so much wool on the card at once, and the wool gets better carded. And lastly, if the cards were not filled in this man- ner, a part of the wool would re- main in them, vvhich could not be taken out. The shear-wool vvhich is used for this purpose of filling the cards, is that wool which comes off when shearing the cloth. The carder performs his work in this manner; he first works the wool wilh the coarse cards, and afterwards draws it once or twice through the clearing cards. For white wool, two kinds of coarse cards are sufficient; but for wool of mixed colours, three kinds are necessary. It is lo be observed, that too much wool must not be put in the cards at once, because then the wool will not be drawn clear enough. Whether the wool be suf- 456 WOO ficiently carded, may be known by holding it against the light. If it be well drawn out, it appears thoroughly clear, loose, and lying even and straight: but if it be badly worked, there are little lumps or twists seen in it, which is a certain sign, that the wool vvas not equally carded. By carefully observing these directions, well carded wool will be obtained. This is afterwards de- livered into the hands of other carders, who work it with small cards, in such a manner, that it is now made into rolls for spinning. This last carding is done on the knees, with small cards, which may be three inches wide, for the wool for the chain, and four in- ches for the wool for the filling. The difference in the size of the two last mentioned kinds, is there- fore necessary; because the rolls for the filling ought to be some- what thicker than tnose for the chain ; and consequently the wool which is intended for the filling must be spun into a thread about one third thicker or coarser than the wool for the chain. It is of consequence that this work should be well done, because it is a great assistance to spin the yarn afterwards in that due pro- portion, which must be observed between the chain and the filling. If this be not done, the manufac- ture of cloth never can be brought to any perfection, let the care and attention bestowed upon the other parts of the labour be ever so great. As soon as the wool is converted into rolls, it is delivered into the hands of the spinners. There are two kinds of spin- ning, the one for the chain, and WOO the other for the filling. They ought always to be kept separate. The yarn for the chain must be fine, close, and well twisted, that it may have strength enough to bear the constant motion of the gears, and the strokes of the reed in the box. To this may be added, that it is the chain which binds and keeps together the filling. The proportion of the thickness of the thread between the chain and the filling, which has been observed in the common cloth manufactures, is usually one third ; so that if the yarn for the chain weighs 20 pounds, that for the fill- ing must weigh at least 30 pounds, and must be less twisted, because it is intended for the purpose of spreading on the surface of the cloth, and of covering the chain. The chain and the filling are spun on the same wheels. The wheels made in the Holland fash- ion are the best, because the frame of the wheel before, is even with the floor, and the hind part there- of is raised about a foot above it, whereby the wheel is kept in a kind of equilibrium, is easily moved, and can be much better governed by the spinners, than if it stood horizontal. Besides this, the spin- ners who draw their thread from below upwards, are by such a sloping direction, better enabled to observe the inequalities, use- less hairs, and little lumps in the wool, than if they had to draw the thread straight towards them." The following slight sketch vvill shew the process pursued in pre- paring wool in the British manu- factories, and at the same time, give an idea of the number of peo- ple to whom we are obliged for every coat we wear of English. WOR W O R 437 cloth. The fleece is sorted, ac- cording to its different qualities, by the wool stapler, and the Spa- nish has all its pitch marks clip- ped off. It is then carried to the Dye-house, and when cleansed from its impurities, (by scouring it in a furnace of hot water) dyed, and returned to the manufacturer ; afterwards, woven in the loom, burled, by nipping off its knots and burs; milled by the fuller, dubbed with cards of Teazle: [Dispsacus Fullonum] stretched on the tenter-hooks ; dressed ; shear- ed ; pressed between heated planks and press-paper; and packed for the markets. " JVanier's excur- sions from Bath.'] Woolen Cloth. See Cloth. Wowk. See Labour. Work - house. See Poon- 1I0LSE. WORMS, are the meanest of the lower animals. Those vvhich infest the bowels of the human body, are generally divided into three kinds, namely, 1. the asca- rides, or small round and short vv hite worms ; 2. the teres, or lum- bricus, a round and long worm ; and 3. the taenia, or tape-worm. Having already treated of the first and third kinds, under their re- spective heads, we shall now give an account of the second, or round wori.i. Symptoms of Worms:...Paleness of the face ; itching of the nose ; dilatation of the pupil; grinding of the teeth during sleep ; voracious, or bad appetite ; fetid breath ; nau- sea, while the belly is mostly in- flated, hard and painful. Erup- tions.often appear, particularly on the face : and, in the morning, the patient is affected with a copious flow of saliva, and an uncommon craving for dry food, such as bread, potatoes, he. The manner in whkh wbrms originate in the human body, is not yet ascertained; but, in general, it has been observed, that they are found principally in persons and children of a weak and relaxed di- gestion ; in such as eat great quan- tities of fruit, and raw vegetables, as well as in the inhabitants of the sea-coast. Hence persons, who sub- sist chiefly on fish, are often trou- bled with worms. Cure....To expel such as already exist in the body, and to prevent their re-production, it will be ad- visable to administer strong purga- tives and tonics. With the former intention, a variety of medicines have been recommended, and many unprincipled empirics have levied contributions on the credulous; but one of the most efficacious reme- dies, is a composition of jalap and calomel, when used in the manner directed, p. 92 of this vol. The dose should be repeated t-.vice or three times, during the space of a fort- night. The following treatment has likewise, in many instances, been attended with success. Take of pulverized worm-seed, two drams; jalap, valerian, and iEthi- ops mineral, of eacb one dram; mix the wdiole with a sufficient quantity of treacle, or honey, to form an electuary ; of vvhich a tea- spoonful is to be taken twice a day. The operation of these medicines may be considerably increased by clysters, consisting of strong: so- lutions of salt with the addition of oil. The principal tonics to be used against worms, vvill be the Peru- vian bark, valerian, and steel; but none of these active drugs can 438 W O R WOR with safety be resorted to, with- out proper advice. The patient's diet should be duly regulated : his' beverage ought to consist of cold Water, or sweetened with honey, carefully avoiding new beer, and all fermented liquors. With regard to solid food, the bread ought to be well baked, and a slice spread with treacle and scraped carrot, garlic, or pulve- rized wormseed, eaten every morn- ing, has often been productive of good effect?. Onions, horse-radish, salted and dried animal food (even sound Dutch herrings, occasion- ally), as well as spices, and ripe fruit, are here proper articles of food. On the other hand, all such substances as tend to occasion fla- tulence ; especially white cabbage, pease, dried beans, potatoes, and other farinaceous articles ; for in- stance, pastry, confectionary, and whatever is of a fat and oily na- ture, particularly pork, ham, Sec. must be carefully avoided. Children troubled with worms, should take moderate exercise ; and be directed to masticate their food properly. It is farther abso- lutely necessary, that the motions of their limbs and body should never be constrained by tight gar- ments, particularly those around the belly and hips ; as such inju- dicious practices cannot fail ulti- mately to impair their digestion. [An infusion of the West India plant Spigelia Anthelmia is a power- ful vermifuge : it is given in infu- sion, in the dose of two table spoonfuls to children four or five years old ; of the juice, one table spoonful is to be s^iven. From five to t-Mi grains of the dried plant may be given. The Carolina pink root, or Sf.igelia Manjlandica, is a well known and powerful vermifuge. See also Cabbage tree bark, Calomel, Couhage, Melia, Fern, Tenia, Vermifuge.] WORMS, or Earth-worms, in husbandry, are very injurious creatures, especially in corn-fields ; where they consume the young roots, and thus destroy the greater part of the crop. To prevent such depredations, it has been recommended to manure the soil with soot, or salt; or to sprinkle it with sea-water ; and, where this cannot be easily pro- cured, with a solution of bay-salt in common water. The brine of salted meat may likewise be em- ployed in gardens; or, if walnut- leaves be steeped in water for a few days, the fluid will acquire such a degree of bitterness, as to prove a certain poison to reptiles of every description. Worm, the Glow. See Glow- worm. Worm, the Silk. See Silk- worm. . Worm, the Tape. See Tape- worm. Worms, in Ecg<. See Dogs. Worms, in Horse--. See Botts. Wormwood, the Common. See Mugwoht. WORMWOOD, the S:c a, or Sea Southern-wood, Artemisia maritima, L. is an indigenous pe- rennial growing en the sea-coasts, and flowering in Ihe month of August.....In its wild state, the odour of this plant is similar to that of the Marum Germander (see vol. iii. p. 15.); or of Camphor; but, when cultivated in gardens, it becomes less fragrant. Its vir- tues correspond wilh those of the Mugwort, or Common Worm- wood, though in ah inferior de- gree. W OU The Sea Wormwood is fre- quently used as an ingredient in distilled waters: when triturated with fine sugar, it is formed into a conserve. This marine plant is eaten by horses ; but refused by cows, goats, and slu-vp. WORT, is an infusion of malt, from which different kinds of Ale and Beer are brewed. Wort possesses considerable an- tiseptic properties, and has often proved an excellent diet-drink, which remarkably promoted the cure of the true Scurvy :....it may also be advantageously used as common beverage, in cancerous ulcers, and in all other cases, where a strong putrid disposition prevails in the fluids. WOUND, in surgery, is a re- cent and violent solution of con- tinuity, in a soft external part of the body ; being attended with an effusion of blood.....To enter into a full discussion of the different kinds of wounds, as denominated from the parts affected, would ex- ceed the limits of this work : we r.hall, therefore, first give a short account of wounds in general, and afterwards treat of such casualties, according to their particular situa- tions. The danger attending a wound, depends chiefly on the part vvhich is injured, and on the constitution of the patient. If, however, the heart, any of the large internal bloodvessels, the spinal marrow, or the brain, be wounded, the as- sistance of an expert surgeon ought instantly to be procured ; as the event generally proves fatal. Si- milar consequences may be appre- hended, when nerve? proceeding to the heart, are materially in- jured. On the other hand, if the wound W O U 439 be superficial, or what is usually termed a cut, in the upper or lower extremities, especially in the mus- cular part of the arm, hand, finger, or in the leg or foot, it will be ad- visable immediately to compress the wounded part (without exa- mining its size or dimensions), so as to exclude every access of air, and to prevent the efflux of blood : next any tenacious matter, such as glue, shoe-maker's wax, gold- beater's leaf, or the common sticking-plaster of the shops, should be speedily applied. Thus arti- sans, working'with edged tools, very properly treat the frequent accidents of this nature: and, though the wound may extend even to the bone, yet it will in this simple manner, be safely and ex- peditiously healed. Nay, dailv experience evinces) that external injuries of the head, neck, breast, he. may be successfully treated by a similar method, especially by the aid of slips of adhesive plaster ; vvhich, in the latter situation, must be applied to the part during the act of inspiring ; so that it may- net be displaced by the alternate expansion and contraction of the muscles in breathing; and that it may prove no impediment in that important process of the animal economy. Where, however, a wounded part has been-neglected, aid exhibits rough edges ; or, if the skin and muscles have been lacerated, a different treatment must be adopted : in these cases, a pledget or lint dipped in sweet- oil, should be applied to the in- jured spot, and the whole covered with a piece of fine oil-cloth. After 24 hours, the first dressing may be removed, without tea:ing cr breaking the small fibres adhering to the lint; when the nicest 440 W O U WOU ought to be renewed. On such occasions, a proper bandage will be indispensably necessary, in or- der to promote the juncture of the lips of the wound ; but in case the latter shew a disposition to sup- purate, the use of oil will be hurt- ful ; as the wound must be treated in the manner pointed out, under the article Ulcer. In fresh wounds, or in severe bruises, the application of cold wa- ter is strongly recommended by Nannoni, an Italian; and Ar- quebusade water, [vvhich see] by Theden, the first German sur- geon. Percy advises the follow- ing efficacious ointment: Take a small glassful of the clarified juice expressed from the green leaves of the burdock, and a similar por- tion of almond or olive-oil: these liquids must be duly incorporated in a pewter vessel or mortar, by means of a leaden pestle. Thus a green ointment vvill be obtained. which may be spread on lint or soft linen, and applied to the wound every 12 hours, or oftener. This preparation softens the cal- lous edges of the ulcer, and clean- ses the latter, while it equally pro- motes suppuration and cicatriza- tion. If the fungous flesh grow too rapidly, the simple juice of burdock, without the oil, will be preferable. At each dressing, the pledget or lint may be covered with a fresh leaf of the same plant; vvhich may also be laid on the newly formed scar, with a view to render it more firm. As the un- guent above described is in great estimation on the Continent, Dr. Unzer adds, that it may be pre- served for a considerable time, when kept in a cool place ; or, for long voyages, it should be boiled, and allowed to become cold, two or three different times, till it ac- quires a thick consistence. M. De Kessel, a respectable German writer,observes from long experience, that new honey spread on folded linen, affords an excel- lent remedy for fresh and bleeding wounds, which ought not to be washed or otherwise handled; pro- vided they contain no foreign sub- stances ; for instance, glass, splin- ters, Sec. If they happen to be deep, or have large orifices, the honey-plaster should be repeated every four or five hours, and after some days, only once in twenty- four. He farther states, that such application not only stops bleed- ing, but also prevents inflamma- tion, swelling, and suppuration, while it checks the growth of fun- gous flesh. In all open wounds, it is an ob- ject of the first importance, that the patient, especially during the act of dressing them, breathe a pure, salubrious air ; for, a foul or contaminated atmosphere, such as that of hospitals, and crowded ha- bitations, always increases the danger ; so that small, superficial injuries have, from that source, frequently been attended with fatal effects. Tight bandages often occasion a considerable swelling of the adja- cent parts : in such cases, the roller ought to be very gradually remov- ed ; as, otherwise the tumefaction of the compressed places vv ill sud- denly increase, and sometimes ter- minate in mortification. Flence, Petit recommends the bandage to be renewed every three hours, so that it may each time be less tightly fastened. In wounds vvhich, from their nature, cannot be spee- dily healed, the use of Goulard- water, or other preparations of wou W O U 441 lead, is extremely improper; as they should, from their commence- ment, be dressed with suppurating remedies. Hence, in all cases of febrile heat, and external inflam- mation, emollient poultices, com- posed of the crumb of bread boiled in milk, must be instantly applied, and changed several times in the day ; or, as often as they become cold, withoutdisturbing or touching the wounded part with the fingers. In order, if possible, to obviate the symptoms of inflammation, it will, in some instances, be advisa- ble to draw blood from a vein of the arm or foot; to resort to open- ing medicines, such as neutral salts, with a few grains of nitre ; to apply similar clysters ; and, on the whole to observe a cooling regimen. Such treatment is par- ticularly necessary, in consequence of stabs or cuts given with sharp- pointed or edged instruments, and in other wounds proceeding to interior parts. Hence, persons who had been dangerously wound- ed in the chest, in the abdomen, or in the thighs, have completely recovered [by frequent bleeding,] by abstaining from all animal food, even from broths, and salted and pickled provisions of every descrip- tion ; while they subsisted for se- veral weeks exclusively on barley- water, wort, or other mucilaginous vegetable decoctions; without using any medicines, or applying oint- ments. Foreign bodies, such as iron, lead, splinters of wood, glass, linen, he. should, if possible, be speedily extracted from wounded parts ; and, in all serious accidents of this nature, surgical aid ought to be procured without delay. When the wound is not inflamed, such extraction may he promoted by vol. v. enlarging its orifice with a proper instrument; afterwards immersing the limb in tepid water, or repeat- edly applying to it a cloth soaked in a similar fluid. But, if any pointed bodies, for instance, pieces of glass, cannot be thus removed, the wounded part should be ex- posed to the steam of water, and frequent emollient cataplasms be laid over it, with a view to facili- tate the ejection of hurtful matters, by means of a speedy suppura- tion. As soon as the tumor thus treated becomes soft, and presents a yellowish-white spot in its cen- tre, it must be opened ; though such favourable change sometimes requires an attentive treatment, for several weeks. Wounds inflicted by blunt in- struments, or by the grazing of a bullet, or by the large and blunt teeth of animals, provided they be not poisonous, should also be treat- ed in the manner already stated; though it vvill, in these cases, be useful to apply a pad of folded linen, moistened with sweet-oil, or with a tepid mixture of vinegar and water; because such wounds partake of the nature of bruises. With a view to afford greater se- curity, the parts thus bitten, may preferably be washed with milk, or with luke-warm vinegar and water. There are many instances on medical recor.l,where smallwounds of the veins, inconsequence of un- skilful blood-letting, have been at- tended with fatal effects: thus, if a tendon, or cutaneous nerve, be injured, or the orifice in venesec- tion be made too small, the whole arm or leg will become inflamed, and the swelling suddenly spread to the points of the fingers or toes. In these cases, the whole limb 3 L 442 W O U wou ought to be speedily tied up with a proper bi-mdage, and dressed with lead-water; and Bra m bill a re- commends emollient, anodyne, and antispasmodic remedies to be ap- plied to the wounded part...There are, however, instances, where the method before suggested would be insufficient to effect a cure The celebrated FIeister recommends a mixture of oil of turpentine and spirit of wine, to be applied to such wounded nerves : others advise warm spirituous liquors; and Sher- wen justly praises the efficacy of warm oil of turpentine, which is used by country people, in deep wounds inflicted by a needle, or other pointed instrument, with a view to prevent suppuration : and he observes, that cooling and emol- lient external remedies are unavail- ing in those nervous casualties, consequent on blood-letting. [See Lock. Jaw.] Persons wounded by gun-powder, especially in the face, should not attempt to extract such particles of the powder as may have pene- trated through the skin ; because they are apt to break, and sink deeper into the muscular fibres : the only application necessary, on these occasions, is Goiiiard-vvater, or, more effectually, the ointment composed of oil and lime-water, stated under the article Burns. With respect to gun-shot wounds, we shall only remark that, accord- ing to the experience cf the ablest surgeons on the Continent, such injuries are always more speedily healed with oil and emollient cata- plasms, than wilh essences, bal- sams, and other beating drugs. But, as the opinions of professional men greatly differ on tins subject, we must refer the curious reader to Mr. John Bell's late publica- tion, entitled " Discourses on the Nature and Cure of Wounds," (8vo. 9s.) and shall add a few remarks of Dr. Robert Jackson, extract- ed from the 11th vol. of" The Lon- don Medical Journal," where this skilful practitioner expresses him- self to the following effect....The practice of dilating, poulticing, Sre. of gun-shot wounds, appears to be justifiable only in those cases,where it becomes necessary to extract the ball, or the fragment of a bone ; or in which inflammation is about to commence. In all other in- stances, Dr. J. considers dilatation as superfluous, and even as contri- buting to retard the cure : in his opinion, it is sufficient to bind the wound with linen rags, or similar bandage, to prevent the access of air. Cataplasms, says he, may be serviceable in cold climates ; but, in warm countries, bandages moist- ened with laudanum, or spirituous liquors, and even the affusion of cold water upon wounded limbs, dispose them to heal in a very re- markable manner. He confirms these observations by numerous cases of soldiers who were wound- ed in the contest with America; and who recovered more speedily by this treatment, than by adopting the practice of dilatation, and sup- puration. See also the articles Styptic, Tourniquet, and [Ge- ranium Maculatum.~\ Wounds of the joints, such as the knee, foot, he. heal most ex- peditiously by the simple applica- tion of cold water; provided the orifice of such wounds be immedi- ately contracted by means of ad- hesive plaster. If they happen to be deep, Schmuckeii advises blood to be drawn from a vein: while he observes, that, by renewing the compresses with fresh water, as w ou soon as they become warm, such injuries have generally been cured, without producing inflammation, or any other symptom....See also Tendons. WOUNDS, in farriery, maybe occasioned by various accidents; but, as our prescribed limits do not admit of a minute detail, we shall at present state only the treatment, which may be most advantageous!y adopted, on common occasions. In all fresh wounds, occasioned by cutting instruments, it vvill be sufficient to bring the lips together by ligature, or by suture : after which, rags dipped in brandy should be applied : or the orifice may be covered with a pledget spread with the following ointment: Take of Venice turpentine, and bees-wax, each 1 lb. ; of olive oil li lb. ; and 12 oz. of yellow resin : let these ingredients be melted together, and 2 or 3 oz. of finely-pulverized ver- digrease be added: the whole be- ing stirred, till it become cold.... See also art. Horse. In cases of scalds or burns, where the skin remains sound, it will he advisable to bathe the part with camphorated spirit of wine, and to cover it with rags dipped in the same liquor: salt may also be applied to the burn or scald with considerable efficacy. But, if the skin be once broken, the part af- fected must be anointed v\ ith lin- seed or sweet-oil, and a plaister, consisting of bees-wax and oil, be laid over it. If, in consequence of the pain, a slight degree of Fever occur, the animal must be bled, and treated in the manner direct- ed under that article. The most important, and also the most frequent, of the simple wounds, however, are those of broken knees : this injury is some- W O U 443 times occasioned by accident, but more commonly by the negli- gence of grooms; the careless- ness of bad riders on rough roads; or, by exhausting the horse's .strength through excessive la- bour. On such unfortunate occa- sions, the wounded parts must first be washed with a sponge dip- ped in warm water, to prevent the inflammation that would otherwise ensue, from the particles of gravel or sand adhering to the flesh :...... next, they ought to be gently wiped with dry cloths, and bathed with a mixture, consisting of equal parts of camphorated spirit of vine, and vinegar: thus cleansed, they should be covered with a pledget of tow, dipped in the same composition. But, if the wound be so deep, as to produce a considerable degree of inflammation, it vvill be necessa- ry to promote suppuration, and to treat it in the manner pointed out vol. iii. p. 465....For the proper ma- nagement of the more dangerous wounds, the reader vvill consult the articles Hoof-boxy, Hoof-hurt, Over-reach, Punctures, Qi it- tou-bone, &c. WOUNDWORT, or Stachys, L. a genus of plants consisting of 22 species ; 4 being indigenous ; of which the following are the principal. 1 The palustris, or Marsh- Woundvvort. See Clown's All- heal. 2. The sylvatica, or Hedge- nettle Woundwort, is peren- nial , grows in hedges and woods, where it flowers in the months of July and August....The whole of this plant possesses a fetid smell; and under its shade, toads are said to retreat for shelter. A yellow dye is obtained from its leaves and branches. It is eaten by sheep and 444 W R E goats ; but refused by horses, cows and hogs.....Bfchstein observes, that the stalks of the Hedge-nettle Woundwort, when managed in the mannersimilar tothat pursued with hemp, afford a woolly substance, which may be spun into yarn ; and on bleaching it, becomes remarka- bly whit-j. WREN, the Common, or Mo- tacilla troglodytes, L. is a very di- minutive bird, inhabiting all parts of Europe, and especially Eng- land, where it maintains itself, during the severest winters. It is from 3 to 4 inches in length; the head, neck, and whole body, are of a deep brown colour. Wrens construct their nests in the corners of out-houses, stacks of wood, or holes in walls, being nearly of an oval shape, and composed chiefly of moss, lined with feathers: the female lays from 16 to 18 mi- nute white eggs, marked with red spots ; and produces two broods in a year....These creatures subsist on small worms and insects : they have a pleasing note in the fiairing season, as well as in the winter, especially when fed with poppy- seed ; and the voice is much strong- er than could be reasonably expect- ed from a little warbler which scarcely weighs 3 drams. WRESTLING, is a wanton combat, or engagement between two unarmed persons, who exert all their strength and dexterity to throw each other on the ground. Wrestling was in great repute among the ancients; but, with the modern nations, it is seldom prac- tised. Indeed, it is almost forgot- ten in Britain, excepting in a few of the less civilized counties, where it forms a favourite game at wakes. This exercise, however, like that of cudgel-playing, ought to be abo- WRI lisbed ; on account of the accident* thus wilfully occasioned ; for every nerve is strained by the candidates for rural fame, who thus fre- quently lay the foundation of some severe chronical complaint,ormeet with dislocations, fractures, and other casualties, vvhich often ter- minate in lingering illness, or pre- mature death. WRITING,is the art of convey- ing our ideas to others, by means of certain characters. As the history of this noble in- vention is lost in the remote pe- riods of antiquity, it would be fo- reign to our plan, to enter into a detail of the opinions and hypothe- ses that have been formed by anti- quarians, with a view to account! for its origin....Hence we shall no- tice the patent which was granted in February, 1780, to Mr. James Watt, for a new method of Copy- ing Writings. He directs a piece of thin, unsized paper, of the same dimensions as that which contains the original writing, to be moist- ened with water ; or, which is pre- ferable, with the following liquor: Take 21bs. of distilled vinegar, and let 1 oz. of the sedative salt of bo- rax be dissolved in it: next, 4 oz. of oyster-shells, calcined to white- ness, are to be put into the vine- gar : the mixture must be repeat- edly shaken, during 24 hours-; when it is suffered to stand till it deposit its sediment. The clear li- quor should nowbe filtered through blotting-paper into a glass vessel ; 2 oz. of bruised Aleppo-galls be added ; and the mixture kept in a warm place for 24 hours, being frequently shaken : at the end of that period, it must be filtred a second time, and afterwards dilut- ed with one quart of pure water. Now it should again be suffered WRI to stand for 24 hours ; and, if any sediment be deposited, it ought to be strained a third time....When the paper has been moistened with this liquor, it should be placed between two thick unsized pieces of the same material, in order to absorb the superfluous humidity ; and, thus prepared, it must be applied to the writing which is to be copied : a piece of clean writ- ing paper being placed over both. The whole is now directed to be submitted to the action of a rolling press : in consequence of which, the written characters will appear on both sides of such moistened paper....The patentee employs a peculiar press, of his own inven- tion ; which, however, cannot be satisfactorily described, without the aid of delineation : hence, the in- quisitive reader will consult the 1st. volume of the " Repertory of Arts," he.; where this specification is il- lustrated by an engraving. [The Polygraph, invented by Mr. J. Hawkins, and improved by Mr. C. W. Peale, of Phila- delphia, is the most simple and complete writing apparatus, yet invented. Two or three copies, (or rather originals) are taken at the same time......The apparatus folds up in a large portable writing desk, and is sold for fifty Dollars.] Besides the simple method of restoring illegible writing, already stated under the article Deed, we shall mention two other expedi- ents, either of which may be used, accordingly as the characters are more or less obliterated : Boil half an ounce of best Aleppo-galls in 4 oz. of water, till one half of the fluid be evaporated ; filter the de- coction through blotting-paper, and apply it by means of a soft paint- WRY 445 ers' brush, to the effaced part of the writing; on vvhich it must be suffered gradually to dry : thus, the illegible letters will in most cases, become black, and re-ap- pear. If, however, this mode of recovering them should not prove successful, the following applica- tion has often effectually answered the purpose : Take a leaf of white unsized paper; moisten it with a strong solution of green vitriol in water ; so that it may be damp, without being wet. Next, apply such paper to the illegible part of the writing, by means of the flat hand, in order to communicate its moisture to the latter; when it must be allowed to dry in the open air. In this manner, the almost dissipated astringency of the galls will be renovated, so that the va- nished characters will generally re- appear on the surface. Let it, however, be remembered, that both preparations must not be tried on the same paper; as they would certainly change the whole to a black colour. WRV-NECK, or Jynxtorquilla, L. is a bird of passage, somewhat larger than a lark ; of a brown and black colour, with wave-like stripes; appearing in Britain in the spring, and preceding the Cuckow: it has received its name from a whimsi- cal habit of turning and twisting its neck, so as to bring-the head over its shoulders : it also possesses the faculty of erecting the feathers of its head, similar to those of the Jay. Wry-necks construct their nests of dry-grass in the hollows of trees: the female lays 6 or 8 white eggs, vvhich have a very thin shell: it is remarkable, that the young brood, while in the nest, utter a hissing noise, not unlike that of snakes.... 446 WRY W Y M During the period of incubation, the male attentively supplies the hen with ants, which furnish to these birds a very agreeable repast. M. Buffon informs us that, to- ward the end of summer, the Wry- neck becomes exceedingly fat; and that its flesh, in point of delicacy, is equal to that of the Ortolan. Wymote. See Marsh-mal- X. X AN XAN XANTHOXYLON, Prickly Yellow Wood, or Yellow Her- cules, is a native of Jamaica, and other tropical countries, where it grows to the height of 16 feet, and is about 12 inches in diameter..... This straight tree somewhat re- sembles the common ash: the bark of the trunk is covered with nume- rous prickles ; and the wood is of a bright-yellow cast. The wood of the Xanthoxylon is chiefly employed for the heading of hogsheads, for bedsteads, and nu- merous other purposes: it also pos- sesses remarkable medicinal vir- tues. The fresh juice, expressed from the roots, affords certain re- lief in the painful disease, termed dry belly-ache. This important fact was discovered in the West- Indies, by watching a female slave, who collected the root in the woods, and gave two spoonfuls of its juice to a negro, suffering under that colic, at an interval of two hours. Such medicine occasioned a pro- found, but composed, sleep of 12 hours ; when all sense of pain, and other distressing symptoms, had vanished: the cure was completed, by giving an infusion of such ex- pressed roots in water, by way of diet-drink. Farther, the juice of the Prickly Yellow WTood, when preserved in rum, and administered in doses not exceeding a wine-glassful, has effectually removed the most ob- stinate epileptic fits ; but Dr. He- ney has not mentioned the manner in which this preparation ought to be managed. [Two species grow in the United States. 1. X. fraxinifolium or ash-leaved X. growing in Pennsylvania, and Maryland: and X calvis Hercules or Prickly Yellow Wood, which grows in the more southern states. The bark and capsules are of a hot acrid taste, and when a small quantity is chewed, powerfully promotes the flow of saliva. It is used in this way to relieve the tooth-ache. A tincture of the same X AN X A N 447 parts of the tree is a common coun- try remedy for the chronic rheu- matism. In the West-Indies, a decoction of the bark is used with great suc- cess as an internal remedy, and also as a wash for foul ulcers, which it powerfully cleanses, and disposes to healthy granulations...........The powdered bark is also mixed with the dressings. In the London Medical and Physical Journal, vol. 2d. and following, there are seve- ral cases related of the efficacy of this medicine in the above disease. XANTHORHIZA, tinctoria, Shrub Yellow Root. Is a native plant of N. Carolina, first brought by the late John Bartram, from that slate, and planted in his gar- den at Kingsess in the county of Philadelphia, where it has conti- nued to flourish in a most luxuri- ant manner. It is denominated Simplicissimaby Marsha \.\.,Afuifo- lia by L'Herretier, and Mar- boisia by Mr. Wm. Bartram, in honour of Mr. De Marbois.....X. tinctoria is a more expressive name than any it has yet received. Dr. Woodhouse has given an excellent account of this valuable plant, in the 5th vol. of the Medi- cal Repository of New-York, from vvhich the present extract is taken. " The stems are three feet high, and somewhat thicker than a goose quill. The root is from three to twelve inches long, aod about the diameter of a man's little finger, sending off numerous scions. The leaves are placed alternately, hav- ing long petioles and pinnated, terminating in an odd one ; the folioles sessile, and lacerated deeply on their edges. The peduncles are branchy, and are placed im- mr.diately benealh the first leaves, from vvhich cause, the flowers ap- pear before the leaves, very early in the spring." The stem and root are of a bright yellow colour, and possess a strong bitter taste. The Xanthorhiza tinctoria, con- tains a gum and resin both of vvhich are intensely bitter ; the resin is more abundant than the gum. It imparts a drab colour to cloth, and a handsome yellow to silk, but the dye will not take on cotton or linen. The different mordants which were used, altered the shade of the yellow colour considerably, but did not appear to render it more permanent. While every shade of this elegant colour can be obtained from that truly valuable dyeing drug, the quercitron bark, (black oak), Dr. W. thinks it will always supercede the Xanthorhiza, and every other native dye, among vvhich that of the hydrastis Cana- densis, may justly be reckoned the most superb. The watery extract of the grated roots, mixed with alum, and added lo Prussian blue, was first used by Mr. James Bartram, for colour- ing plants, and the plumage of birds of a green colour....The green is far more lively and elegant than thai made with gamboge and Prus- sian blue, which is generally used for painting in water colours, and stands well in the shade, but soon contracts a dull colour when ex- posed to a bright light, and to a high temperature. Various sub- jects coloured by this green, and iiv losjd in a book, were as lively after one year, as when first paint- ed. It is a strong and pleasant bit- ter, and preferable to all our native bitters. It sits easy on the sto- mach, in the dose of two scruples (40 grains.) 448 X A N X AN The colour of the leaves appears to reside in a resin, which is altered by the combined action of light and oxygen, by either of which, sepa- rately, it cannot be affected. As the Xanthorhiza is a strong and pleasant bitter, and very nearly allied to the columbo-root, it pro- mises to become a valuable addi- tion to the American Materia. It is preferable to all our native bit- ters. The Aristolochia Sipho, (Dutchman's pipe,) is a weak aro- matic bitter. The root of Actea racemosa, (black snake-root,) is a nauseous bitter. Chironia angula- ris, (Centaury,) Gentiana Sapona- ria, (blue Gentian ;) Veratrum lu- teum, (Devil's-bit;) the red berries of cornus fiorida, (dog-wood,) and the bark of several species of salix, or willow, are weaker bitters than the yellow root. Dr. Woodhouse has often used the powdered stem and root of the Xanthorhiza with success, in the dose of two scru- ples to an adult, in many of those diseases in which bitters are re- commended, but generally com- bined with other remedies. It is a medicine, which sits easy upon the stomach, and produces no dis- agreeable effects. Reference to the Plate. A, a branch representing the fo- liage, flowers, and fruit of the X. tinctoria. a, a flower somewhat magnified. b, a branchy peduncle, showing the capsules. c, a capsule. d, a capsule open, showing the single seed. /, a portion of the root, sending off a scion. The Editor is indebted to Dr. Woodhouse, for the use of the an- nexed plate.] Y. YAM YAM YAM, or Dioscorea bulbifera, L. is a nativa of Ceylon, whence its culture has been introduced into the West Indies, and other parts of America : it is divided into two varieties, known under the names of red, and white ; from the colour of their bulbous roots. Yams flourish best on poor soils; and retain their beautiful verdure till a late period in the year: hence, they are said to ameliorate the ground nearly as much as a crop of turnips. Being propagated by setting the eyes, their culture cor- responds with that of potatoes; and, like these roots, yams often prove an excellent preparatory crop for wheat. Farther, they are very productive; so that the red variety Xant/ior/ii~owl full of hops in two quarts of water to one q art ; put eight table-spoonfuls cf Hour into a pan, and strain the hop-waler boiling on it ; when mixed, it should be thick batter, and when milk-warm, stir in a breakfast-cup of good yeast, pour it into three porter bottles, stop- ping them with paper; put thum in a miliv-pm near the fire, and as soon as the mixture rises to the top of the bottles, remove them to the cellar until it subsides, then cork the bottles, and set the :ii on a cool cellar floor, or in an ice- ho.ire. In very warm weather, the corks ought to be taken out every day, to let out the carbonic acid air, and the bottles again stopped. 2. Another receipt directs the addition of a table-spoonful of gin- ger, which is to be boiled with the hops ; and the further addition of a table-spoonful of brown sugar before the flour is stirred in. 3. Perpetual yeast:.....Mix one pound of flour with boiling water, to the thickness of gruel, add to it half a pound of brown sugar, mix them well together ; put three spoonfuls of purified yeast into a large vessel, upon which put the abore ingredients, vvhch will soon ferment. Collect the yeast off the top, and put it into a small necked pot, and cover it from the air; keep it in a dry place, and mode- rately warm. When used in part, replace it with flour made into a thin paste, and sugar, in the for- mer proportion. It will keep for half a year or more. No yeast is necessary except the first time.... Cdumbian Magazine, December, 1788. 4. The editor can recommend yeast made after the following re- ceipt, as preferable to any other kind. Boil twelve clean washed, mid- dle sized potatoes; and at the same time, boi!, in another vessel, a handful of hops in a quart of water; peel, and mash the pota- toes in a marble mortar, pour part of the hop-water, while hot, upon the potatoes, mix them well, and pass them through a sieve; then add the remainder of the hop-water, and half a tea-cupful of honey, beat all well, and add a small portion of leaven to bring on the fermen- tation. Put the whole in a stone jug, and set it by the fire, (in the winter). All the utensils must be scalded every time they are used, and washed perfectly clean. Onetea cupful of the above potatoe yeast, will answer for two quarts of flour. In summer, the yeast ought to be made every second day. YEA YEA 455 The following mode is most commonly adopted out of the great towns in the United States : Four table-spcoiisliil of bran or shorts, and one of hops are boiled in a quart of water, and set by the fire to ferment. A small quantity of salt to the water, wherewith the flour is kneaded, is an im- provement. With ihis, bo.sever, the practice is to use leaven saved from * former baking. Where bread is made from lea- ven alone, some sugar should be added to correct the sour taste, and probably a small quantity of pearl-ash, v.x-uld add to the rising of tne bread, as well as correct the acid of the leaven.] An useful substitute for yeast, may be obtained by nearly filling a bason, or tea-cup, with bruised, or split pease, and pouring on them boiling water : the whole is now to be set on the hearth.or other warm place, for 24 or 48 hours, accord- ing to the temperature of the sea- son : at the end of that time, a froth, possessing all the properties of yeast, will appear on the sur- face of the fbiid. This method, we understand, is commonly practised in the eastern countries ; and the barm, thus procured, is said to render the bread light and palata- ble. [See article Breao.] To ihe different modes of pro- curing yeast, already specified, we shall add an easy and expeditious process, which appears to be very plausible ; and has lately been communicated to the editor, by an anonymous correspondent; though be cannot vouch for its success.... Take six quarts of soft water, and two handfuls of wheaten or barley- meal ; stir the latter in, before the mixture is pF.ced over the fire, where it must very gradually sim- mer, and at length boil, till two- thirds of the fluid be evaporated, so thatit may consist of two qvarts. When this decoction becomes cool, incorporate with it (by means of a whisk) a powder, consisting of two drams of s. It of tartar, and one dram of cream of tartar, pre- viously mixed. The whole should now be kept in a warm place.... Thus a very strong yeast for brew- ing, dis illing, and baking, is said to be obtained. For the last men- tioned purpose, however, such barm ought to be first diluted with pure water, and passed through a sieve, before it be kneaded with the dough ; in order lo deprive it of its alkaline taste. The preservation of yeast, for a considerable time, is an object of equal importance to that of pro- ducing it artificially : htnee, it has been recommended to put a quantity of that commodity into a canvas bag, and to submit the whole to the action of the screw- press, so as to deprive it of all moisture; in consequenceof which, the barm will remain in the bag, as firm and tough as clay : in this state, it must be packed in casks, well secured from the access of air, and may be kept in a sound state for any period of time. We believe, however, it would be more safe and advisable to form the pasty yeast into circular, flat ves- sels, resembling tea-saucers, and in that state to dry the whole mass, either in the open air under shade, or in the moderate warmth of a baker's oven. Mr. Felton Mathew's mode of separating beer from yeast, and preserving the latter (for vvhich he obtained a patent, in Fcf-iuarv, 17lJ6), in many respects corre- sponds with that just described : 456 YEA YEA the principal difference is, that he directs the bags to be p'aced in troughs perforated with hoies, to prevent the former from bursting ; and then to submit them to the action of a lever, aided by in- cumbent weights. When the beer is thus expressed, the yeast remain- ing in the bags, will crumble into coarse powder: this must be spread on canvas, hair-cloth, or similar porous materiahand gradually dried in a malt-kiln, or in any room or stove, where a regular temperature of from 80 to DO degrees is main- tained ; and, lastly, as soon as it becomes perfectly dry, the barm must be packed in bottles or casks, from which the air is completely excluded. Another mode of preserving yeast, consists in throwing a withy, or the young shoots of willows twisted together, into the vessel v here the yeast is working ; and suspending them in a warm room, till the next opportunity of brew- ing arrives. We conceive, how- ever, the following expedient to be preferable, both in point of clean- liness and economy; it being suc- cessfully practised by some careful house-. Ives: Take a clean woorl- en bo.v'i, of such size as mv.y be most convenient: spread a regular co.-ting of yeast around its inner surface; and, as often as this dries, repeat the process, till a thick cake be formed: the vessel must be kept in a dry place. When any bar r, is wanted, a small piece may be rut out ; and, after dissolving it in warm water, the solution will answer all the purposes of fresh yeast, whether designed for baking, w-foi-brewing. '; he following process being ad- vantegcously emplcyeii in ' ierma- ny, for preserving bann, so as to be fit for all domestic uses, after a considerable time, we have inserted it for the benefit of our country- readers : When the yeast is taken from new beer, it must be put into a clean linen bag, and be laid in a ve-sel half full of dry, sifted wood- ashes : the whole is then to be covered to the thickness of three or four inches with similar ashes, and be pressed together. In this situation, the barm should remain for a day, or longer, if it be neces- sary ; when the ashes will absorb all the moisture, and the ye?st ac- quire the consistence of a thick paste. It must now be formed into small lumps, or balls ; dried in a moderate heat ; and kept in bags, in an airy, dry place : when any barm is wanted, a few of such balls may be dissolved in warm water; or, which is preferable, in beer ; and they vvill answer every purpose of fermentation. Besides its utility, in baking and brewing, late experiments have fully proved, that yeast is of sin- gular efficacy in putrid fevers, pu- tiiJ sore throats, and similar ma. Infant complaints : for the first discovery of this important fact, we are indebted to the Rev. Ed:iund Cartwkijht. The dose of barm, according lo his experience, and that of other practitioners, is two large spoonfuls, to be repeated every three hours: in some cases, this has been sufficient; but, in others, it was necessary to admin- ister the Peruvian baik, b-.tweea each • dose. In a few instances, indeed, emetics and laxatives were riven previously to taking the yeast; but. in general, this simple remedy seV.oni failed to effect a cure ; provided due attention was bestowed on the diet and regimen 7i the patient. YEL Y E L 457 YELLOW, is one of the seven primitive colours. The principal article affording a yellow dye, is the Weld, or Dyer's Green-weed; of the culture of which, the reader will find an ac- count in that article. An excellent yellow dye may likewise be prepared from the flowers of the acacia. These must be gathered, before they be fully blown, and dried in an earthen ves- sel over a moderate fire, till they crisp, or curl up, in the same man- ner as tea-leaves. The ripe seeds of the same tree are then added in the necessary proportions; and the whole, when boiled in river-water, wilh the addition of alum, will im- part a yellow colour of any shade required. [The United States have several fine native yellow vegetable dyes, among which the Hydrastis Cana- densis, Quercus tinctoria, (Black- oak,) and Xanthorhiza, deserve to be particularly mentioned. See those articles.] In the 61st vol. of the " Philo- sophical Transactions of the Royal Society," for 1771, the following receipt for preparing a beautiful yellovr dye, is communicated by Mr. Peter Woulfe: Take half an ounce of pulverized indigo, and mix it in a deep glass vessel, with 2 oz. of strong spirit of nitre, previously diluted with 8 oz. of water, to prevent the indigo from taking fire. Let this mixture stand for a" week, and then digest it in a sand heat, for one or two hours ; adding 4 oz. of water. The solu- tion is now to be filtered: when mixed with water, in the propor- tion of one part of the former to four or five of the latter ; and, on adding a little alum, it communi- vol. v cates a durable yellow colour. Mr. Woulfe remarks, that none of the tinging matter separates from the water, during the operation of dye- ing, except the portion adhering to the cloth ; so that this preparation . promises to be of essential service 1 to dyers. He farther states, that cochineal, cudbear, or orchal, and similar colouring substances, when treated in this manner, will also im- part a yellow tinge to silk and wool. The chief yellows used in paint- ing, are Dutch pink, Turbith-mine- ral, King's and Naples yellow : of these we have given a concise ac- count; see Colours; but, as the preparation of the two last-men- tioned pigments has not been ac- curately stated; we shall subjoin, by way of supplement, a few hints respecting the manner in which they are compounded, for the use of artists. Eing's-yellow:....yl\x 20 parts of pulverized arsenic with one part of the flowers of sulphur: let them be sublimed in a proper ves- sel, in a sand-heat. "When the sublimation is effected, the colour will be found in the upper part of the glass, whence it must be care- fully removed, and levigated till it become a fine powder....This pig- ment may also be obtained, by subliming orpiment in a similar manner; and it may be rendered of a deeper or lighter colour, by increasing or diminishing the pro- portion of sulphur. Naples yellow is prepared by le-. vigating, on a dry stone, 12 oz. of white lead: 3 oz. of antimony ; 1 oz. of alum ; and a similar quan- tity of sal-ammoniac. These in- gredients must now be exposed, in an open crucible, to a moderate heat for some hours ; after which, 3 N 458 Y E L YEL the fire ought to be increased for a short time ; and, at length the mixture should continue for three hours, in a degree of heat suffi- ciently powerful to keep the cru- cible red hot. At the expiration •of that term, it will acquire a beau- tiful yellow colour; which may be rendered of a brighter golden shade, by augmenting the propor- tions of antimony and sal-ammo- niac. Yellow pigments of various shades may also be obtained, by triturating flowers of sulphur, or yellow ochre, in different propor- tions, with a solution of gum in water : and, lastly, the calx of iron, when precipitated by quick-lime, from a solution of green vitriol, has been recommended as a sub- stitute for yellow ochre, in house- painting.... Another method of pre- paring the celebrated Naples yel- low, is that of M. Passery, who makes use of the following ingre- dients, namely: antimony, 1 lb. ; lead \\ lb. ; alum and common salt, of each 1 oz....We have in- serted this recipe, on the authority of Mr. Wiegleb ; who simply enumerates the articles here stated, without communicating the pro- cess of compounding them. Yellow Ink may be prepared, by previously dissolving a small por- tion of alum and gum-arabic in pure water, and then infusing a few grains of dry saffron in the same solulion....It may, likewise, be obtained by slowly boiling 2 oz. of Avignon, or French berries in one quart of water, with half an ounce of alum, till one-third of the fluid be evaporated; when 2 drams of gum-arabic, 1 dram of sugar, and a similar quantity of pulverized alum, are to be dissolv- ed in this liquid: the mixture should then be filtered, and pre- served in bottles. Sympathetic Yellow Ink, is direct- ed, by Wiegleb, to be prepared in the following manner :....Take a handfull of the leaves of common marigold (Calendula officinalis, L.) and macerate them for eight days, or longer, in half a pint of the best distilled vinegar; when the liquid must be separated from the leaves, by expressing them through white linen or cotton, and preserved in a glass bottle carefully stopped. If the desired colour is to be of a pale shade, an additional quantity of water may be added. Invisible characters may be formed with this liquor on white substances, such as linen, silk or paper; and the yellow tint will appear on im- mersing them in the following liquor:...Take a sufficient quantity of violet or daisy flowers; bruise them in a marble mortar ; add a small portion of water; express the liquid through white linen, and also preserve it in a glass bottle.... An infusion of turnsol vvill answer the same purpose. YELLOW FEVER, is one of the most fatal epidemics to vvhich the inhabitants of warm clfmates are subject. As the 'opinions of physicians, concerning the nature and treat- ment of tbe Yellow Fever, are va- rious and contradictory, we shall avail ourselves of the clear and sa- tisfactory view of this malignant disease, lately given by Dr. Tho- mas Dancer, in bis excellent work, entitled " The Medical As- sistant, or Jamaica Practice of Phy- tic," (4to. Kingston, Jamaica ; and Lond.Murray and Highley,p. 384. 1/. 1*. in boards), designed chiefly for the use of families and planta- tions." This intelligent practi- YEL Y E L 459 tioner justly observes, that the mis- understanding on the subject has probably arisen from an improper use of terms, or from the variable character of the disease ; accord- ing to the prevailing constitution of the season : the quantity and force of contagious matter, and other causes. He is fully convin- ced, that it is not regularly one and the same disorder: but is often a compound, at one time partaking of the nature of the Malignant Fe- ver, at another resembling the Bi- lious Remittent. Hence, it is not uniformly contagious, and the fe- ver of new-comers may not always be malignant: there are instances in vvhich, on their first arrival, they had a common fever, which after- wards changed into the yellow fe- ver : though the reverse of this ge- nerally occurs. Means of Prevention : Dr. Dan- cer observes, that, though bleed- ing is precarious and hazardous after the fever has commenced, it may, nevertheless, in particular cases, where the habit is very full, 8cc. be considered as a mean of preservation. Young and athletic persons, therefore, may, on their first arrival, lose a few ounces of blood : their bowels should, on the same principle, be kept open ; and every species of intemperance, as also exposure to the sun, and even- ing air, ought to be carefully avoid- ed. It is, however, of still greater consequence to retreat, as soon as possible, from the shipping and sea-shore, the seats of infection, to a pure, airy, cool situation in the country, and there to remain for some months. Dr. D. has known many young men, who thus have avoided any dangerous fever ; and Borne who, by returning too speedi- ly to the towns or sea-ports, fell victims to the disease. " The prevailing mortality among new comers (says this accurate observer), is a good deal to be at- tributed to their own misconduct. Coming out in convoys, they ar- rive in numbers; meet at taverns ; and, allured by scenes of novelty, they walk the streets, indulge lo excess in the use of the country fruits; and enter too readily into the customs of the seasoned inha- bitants, which are not at all suited to persons in their situation." According to the experience of Dr. Clark, the best preventive of this destructive epidemic, is mer- cury. Hence, he advises all per- sons, who have sufficient leisure, to undergo one or two courses of that medicine, after their arrival in the West Indies ; to take a few laxatives ; to confine themselves to a moderate use of wine ; and to live principally on fruits and vege- tables, for the first two months: for, by pursuing such conduct, " they may rely almost to a cer- tainty on escaping the fever." With respect to the character- istic symptoms of this malignant disorder, we cannot, on comparing several authors who have written on the subject, select a better or more correct description, than the following, given by Dr. Dancer; whose words we do not hesitate to quote ; especially as many of our readers, or their relations, residing in Jamaica, or other parts of the Western World, must feel greatly interested on the occasion: " This fever, then, peculiar to new-comers, attacks suddenly ; with alternate fits of heat and cold ; violent pain in the head and back. The face is prodigiously flushed ; the eyes are 460 Y E L YEL red and watery ; the w hole physi- ognomy of the patient is very pecu- liar, denoting anxiety and dejec- tion of mind: and this unnatural appearance continues, till recovery begins to take place. The pulse, in the beginning, is frequent, full, and hard, sometimes irregular; the heat of the body very great; and the patient labours under great inquietude. This state of the fe- ver continues for a longer or short- er period : sometimes only for a few hours ; at others, for several days ; and, when the ardent symp- toms begin lo decline, if not soon- er, an irritation at the stomach commences, which is hardly, by any means, to be subdued, or even allayed. The patient now feels himself in other respects well; his pulse and heat being nearly natur- al, and he has seldom any return of fever; but the irritation and anguish at the stomach continu- ing, he at length vomits blackish matter; his eyes and neck first become yellow, and then the whole body. Blood flows from the mouth and nose: Delirium, preceded by a hurried perturbed state of mind, and great restlessness, at length comes on ; ending in total in- sensibility, &c. and ultimately in death." The yellowness of the skin, how- ever, is not a constant symptom ; for sometimes it does not appear, or at least not till after death. Dr. Dancer farther observes, that the yellow fever is particularly distin- guished by its sudden attack; as it is seldom, like other fevers, pre- ceded with any* symptoms of lan- guor, weariness, he.; by its hav- ing no very sensible abatement or remission, till it totally subsides; by the extraordinary anguish about the fore-part of the chest, and at si- the same time a torpid state of the ;u- bowels ; so that the strongest pur- ine- gatives, and in large doses, are of- ral ten attended with little or no effect. :ry Such are the general symptoms, se, attending this fever in Jamaica; ill, but numerous variations often oc- r ; cur in America, and other warm it; climates, where it is modified by ;at the season of the year, or other cir- fe- cumstances, which our limits vvill rt- not permit us to detail: we shall, a therefore, briefly mention the sup- ral posed origin of this malady, and ip- exhibit an account of the treatment »n- that ought to be adopted. ch The yellow fever is certainly by endemial in the West Indies: its en cause is reputed to be a peculiar sis contagion, which very generally lis affects persons recently arrived ir- from a cold climate, and especially rn Europeans, or those who have not nd long resided in hot countries. Fe- u- males, and negroes are, in general, sh exempt from its influence ; but rst mulattoes, and tawnies, or such as >le are descended from European and th black parents, are equally subject by to the fever with the whites. From id, the West Indies, this epidemic has •th been conveyed to America, where in- it committed dreadful ravages, in in the year 1793, especially in the province of Pennsylvania : nor is vv- any person, who has once been 1; seized with it, secure from a second ir, attack. )r. Cure: Conformably to the symp- he toms above stated, and drawn n- from actual observation, by Dr. as Dancer, we shall first exhibit his e- mode of treatment, in the different n- stages of the yellow fever, as ap- ' lv- plicable to the climate of Jamaica. or He previously remarks, that his ac- s; count, though incomplete, is suffi- ut ciently full and accurate, to enable at any person to distinguish that dis- YEL Y E L 461 ease from any other, except the malignant fever; to which it has an obvious affinity. Where the yellow fever attacks in the manner of a common remit- tent, and shews no symptoms of malignity, till after some continu- ance, Dr. D. observes, that the fol- lowing treatment may not be deem- ed necessary or suitable ; though, he thinks it is, on the whole, the safest plan, to consider every fever with which a new comer may be seized, as being of this kind ; for, unless the method of cure suited to it, be adopted in the beginning, it cannot afterwards be employed vv ith any probability of success. On a supposition, that a person newly arrived in Jamaica, or any other tropical country, be suddenly attacked with violent pain of the head and back, with heat and flushing of the face, he. in the manner before described, Dr. D. recommends, in the first place, to let the patient be put to bed, as soon as he is taken ill ; then an opening clyster to be administer- ed ; and, immediately after, a dose of calomel and jalap to be taken, either in powder, mixed with syrup of tamarinds, or made into pills.... The dose must be regulated by the constitution of the patient, and the greateror less violence of the symp- toms ; so that from 5 to 10 grains of calomel, and from 15 to 30 grains of jalap, have been occa- sionally prescribed. Some time (from 2 to 3 hours) afterwards, a tea-cupful of tamarind-water, or a decoction of tamarinds with cream of tartar, should be drank ; and, if stools do not freely follow, the pre- ceding, or a smaller dose may be repeated in the course of 5 or 6 hours. If plentiful evacuations have taken place, but without any abatement of symptoms, small doses of calomel and antimonii.l powder should be given, in the proportion of from 5 to 10 grains of the former, to 3 or five grains of the latter ; to be taken every three hours in barley-water, or thin pa- nada? During the intervals, Dr. D. directs the following saline ju- lep : Salt of wormwood, or salt of tartar, 2 drams, to be dissolved in half a pint of mint-tea. To every two table-spoonfuls of this solu- tion, add one table-spoonful cf strained lime-juice ; which mixture is to be swallowed during its effer- vescence, or immediately after. In order to ascertain the exact quan- tity of the acid requisite to neutra- lize the saline draught, it should be tried first, by pouring into the latter small portions of the former, till the frothing be completed. At the same time, the mercurial fric- tions must be commenced; namely, two drams of the strong mercurial ointment, rubbed into the inside of the knees orthighs,every six hours; or, in some cases, every three hours ; or otherwise, half an ounce every six hours. If, in 12 or 15 hours from the first attack, there be no obvious remission, in conse- quence of such treatment, the fric- tions ought lo be continued every three hours ; and, if the bowels have not been opened, ten grains of calomel must be given in com- bination with jalap ; or, in the con- trary case, with one quarter of a grain of opium, to prevent the ca- lomel from acting on the bovreis, if already tooloc-.e. Thin barley- water, or other diluents, may be allowed frequently, and the medi- cines above specified be continued, till the moulh becomes sore, and the breath affected ; unless a dis- tinct remission of the fever be p-^r- 462 Y E L ceived. Should the stomach be- come irritable, and retchings com- mence, a blister must be instantly applied, either to the pit of the sto- mach, or between the shoulders ; the vitriolic alher be administered in a little water, or in the saline julep before described. • The quantity of mercurial oint- ment to be used, as well as the ca- lomel to be taken,during the whole course of this malady, is some- times very considerable, before ei- ther the glands of the mouth are affected, or any remission of the symptoms take place. In some cases, more than 1000 grains of ca- lomel have been given, and several ounces of mercurial ointment have been rubbed in, not only with im- punity, but with evident success. In general, when the salivation commences, the fever and irrita- tion at the stomach subside. Ne- vertheless, it vvill be necessary to continue the frictions, in a more moderate degree, to support the flow of saliva. Although Dr. D. does not pre- tend that this mode of treatment is uniformly efficacious, yet, on com- paring it with any other in use, it is, in his opinion, eminently suc- cessful, and affords the patient a double chance ; because it does not hinder the employ mentof any other means that could be devised, if mercury were not administered.... The violence, however, with which the fever frequently attacks, leaves in many cases, but little hope from any plan or cure whatever : hence, Dr. Blane justly observes, that there are instances, where the disease is determinedly fatal, or where the animal functions are, from the beginning, so deranged, that there are no possible means of restraining the morbid motions; YEL and dissolution necessarily takes place. In more favourable circum- stances, however, Dr. Dancer re- marks, that the sore mouth, result- ing from the use of mercury,though often very distressing, is seldom at- tended with any danger, or incon- venience of long duration. Fie quotes on this occasion, Mr.BLANE, who, in his late publication on the use of the nitric acid, says, that although this sometimes causes sa- livation, yet it is the most powerful means of allaying ptyalism, in- duced by mercury. Indeed, this affection of the mouth is not easily removed ; but it may be greatly alleviated by the frequent use of proper gargles, such as the follow- ingdirectedbyDr. Dancer: Sage- tea, 1 pint; vinegar, 4 oz. and honey, 1 oz ;....or, sage-tea, 1 pint; honey, 1 or 2 oz ; and alum, 1 dram. The following gargarism we can recommend, from the frequent experience of its good effects in similar cases, namely : Equal parts of distilled vinegar and lime-water; adding a small portion of syrup of red roses, sufficient to sweeten the mixture. The Peruvian bark may, occa- sionally, be given in the latter stages of the yellow fever, to com- plete the cure ; but, as it is not always found to agree, Dr. Dan- cer concludes with saying, that " food and wine are the only things farther required." However inconsistent to theory, ortopreconceivednotions,thismode of treatment may appear to others, Dr. Dancer affirms, that " it has stood the test of experience, and ought to be adopted, till a better one has been discovered." Having thus fairly stated his practice, in this virulent disorder, he briefly recapitulates that of other physi- YEL Y E L 463 cians: and, as it may be of some service to persons who reside in those tropical climates, or propose to visit them at any future period, we shall also subjoin a concise view of* the various modes of treating thuf malady, practised by Drs. Hillary, Mosely, Rush, Clark, Blane, and Jackson. With a view to moderate the rapid motion of the fluids, and to abate the violence of the yellow fever, during the first two days, Dr. Hillary directs blood-letting, in the proportion of from 12 to 20 oz. according to the age, strength and other circumstances attending the case of the patient. The next in- dication is, to evacuate putrid bile, and corrupted humours, with such expedition as maybe consistentwith safety: hence Dr. H. advises small but frequent draughts of warm water to be swallowed, with the occasional addition of a little oxy- mel, green tea, he.; when a grain or a grain and an half, of crude opium is given, in order to com- pose the stomach after the violent retching, pain, and anxiety, neces- sarily occasioned by severe vomit- ing. And, as this organ is unable to retain either solid or fluid mat- ters, the body should be kept open, by means of a mild purging clyster. The third indication is, to prevent the putridity of the fluids, and also the approach of gangrene, by ex- hibiting proper antiseptics....For such purpose, Dr. H. prescribes a slight infusion of the Virginian Snake-root; as it braces the sto- mach, and enables it to bear the Peruvian bark.....A more particu- lar account of Dr. Hillarv's treatment, may be found in his " Observations on the Air and Dis- eases of Barbadoes. " Dr. Mosely recommends re- peated bleeding in the first stage, and continued purging with vitrio- lated tartar. Dr. Rush bleeds copiously and repeatedly ; gives purgatives com- posed of calomel and jalap ; then continues the calomel alone, till it affects the mouth. He conceives, that as the symptoms of the yellow fever are extremely violent, and its progress is uncommonly rapid, the most efficacious remedies ought to be employed, as early as possible. Hence venesection should, in his opinion, not be deferred beyond the first day ; for it is of peculiar ser- vice to persons of robust and ple- thoric habits, especially such as have recently arrived from Europe. And, though this operation may not be performed sufficiently early to save life, yet it contributes greatly to relieve the sufferings of the pa- tient. Farther, it vvill be advisable to take some blood, every day, while the fever continues: the quantity to be drawn depends on the state of the pulse. The blood appears thick and sizy ; and, it is a remarkable fact, that patients of every age can support the loss of that fluid, much better in the yel- low, than in any other inflamma- tory fever. After venesection, pur- gatives are administered: with this intention, small doses of calo- mel, consisting of 2 or 3 grains, taken every hour ; or, of 5 grains, combined with half a grain of opi- um ; or, of 10 grains of calomel mixed with 15 grains of jalap ; to be swallowed every 5 or 6 hours, have been prescribed by Drs.Rusn, Clark, and other practitioners, with the best effect. Instances have occurred, in which patients have taken from 100 to 230 grains of calomel, within three or four days ; in all of whom the violence 464 YEL Y EL of the disease abated, immedi- ately after salivation commenced. ......Blisters, applied to the legs and thighs, have likewise proved very useful. According to Dr. Jackson,great benefit has been derived from the affusion of cold water on the body of the patient, after hav- ing lost 20 or more ounces of blood. But, as this remedy has in some cases produced contrary effects, from being injudiciously employed, Dr. Blane proposes the application of cloths soaked either in cold water, or in a mix- ture of that fluid and of vinegar : by such treatment, patients have been recovered, whose cases were apparently desperate. As vomiting is the most dis- tressing symlom in the yellow fever, various remedies have been proposed, wilh a view to check it, and to dispose the stomach for the reception of the Peruvian bark, or other tonics and antiseptics. With this intention, the saline draughts above mentioned, when in a state of effervescence, have been ad- vantageously swallowed. Similar effects have resulted from the use of acid juices, such as those of oranges, and lemons, combined with wine, hot water,^sugar, and nutmeg; then succeeded by fre- quent doses of magnesia and mint- water....M. Desportes affirms, that milk, boiled with a little flour or bread, and given repeatedly, in the quantity of one spoonful, ope- rated more powerfully than any other remedy, for stopping billious vomiting. Dr. Blane, however, stales, tbat this symptom was re- lieved by fomenting the stomach with stupes, or cloths, dipped in a decoction of bark, and sprinkled with camphorated spirit, or with the tincture of bark. But the most efficacious means, which he pre- scribed for checking such symp- tom, was that of blisters laid on the stomach : these were attended with the greatest success ; and his practicehasbeen justlyfecommend- ed by Drs. Clark, and Maclkan. When the irritation of the stomach has subsided. Peruvian bark may be administered ; and, if such drug disagree, it may be given in the form of a clyster.... Farther, it may perhaps be of some service to try the essence of spruce ; as that vegetable preparation has been retained on the stomach, when every other remedy was discharged by the mouth : it must be diluted with hot water, in the proportion of 3 oz. to one quart; and half a pint of the solution should be swal- lowed every two hours. Lastly in the more advanced stages, camphor combined with opium, may be given with advan- tage, particularly in the evening; as perspiration and sleep will thus pro- bably be procured, and consequently the patient will be greatly relieved. During the continuance of the yellow fever, few patients are able to take any food: they ought, therefore, to be kept as quiet as possible; and should endeavour to dispel all intense thought or care; for anxiety cannot fail to aggra- vate the violence of the disorder. Those of our readers, wdio wish to acquire more extensive informa- tion respecting this terrible scourge, in all its various modifications, vvill meet with complete statements in Dr. Clark's " Treatise on the Yellow Fever, as it appeared in the Isle of Dominica,"hc. Svo. Murray and Highley, 3s. &d. ;....in Dr. Jackson's " Outline of the His- tory and Cure of Fever," he. 8vo, YEL 5s. ;....in Dr. Rush's « Account of the Bilious Remitting Fever, as it appeared in the City of Philadel- phia, in the year 1793," 8vo. Maw- man 6*. ,....in Dr. Maclean's, " Inquiry into the Nature and Causes of the great Mortality among the Troops at St. Domingo," 1797, 8vo. 7s.;.....and in Dr. Blane's valuable * Observations on the Diseases of Seamen," 3d edit. 8vo. 1799, 7s. Murray and Highley. YELLOW-HAMMER, or Em- beriza citrinella, L. is a well known diminutive bird, which inhabits Britain, and other parts of Europe: according to Mr. Pennant, its bill is of a dusky hue; the crown of the head, and the belly, are of a pale yellow, or straw-colour ; the hinder part of the neck is tinged with green ; and the breast is of an orange-red. Yellow-hammers frequent mea- dows, where they construct their large flat nests of dried moss, roots, and horse-hair ; and the fe- male lays six white eggs, streaked with purple veins.....These birds are of considerable service to the husbandman, By devouring innu- merable insects during the sum- mer ; but, in winter, they resort for sustenance to farm-yards, in common with sparrows and other birds. YELLOW - RATTLE, Cox- comb, or Penny-grass, Rhinan- thus Crista-galli, L. a native plant, growing in meadow s, pastures, and woods ; blowing in the months of lune and July.....This vegetable sometimes overspreads whole mea- dows with its yellow flowers : in a green state it is eagerly eaten by cattle ; but, when dry, it forms a hard and tough fodder. Hence, careful farmers cut off the flowers, vol. v. YEL 465 before the seed attains to matu- rity, in order to prevent its propa- gation. YELLOWS, or Jaunoice, in farriery, is a disorder to which horses are occasionally subject: it is known by the dusky-yellow ap- pearance of the eyes, the inside of the mouth, and of the lips. The animal looses all his vigour, and refuses to take any food ; a slow fever prevails, which increases, together with the yellowness, ac- cording to the malignancy of the disease. His dung is hard, dry, and of a pale yellow or green cast: the urine isof a dark-brown colour; and is discharged with great pain and difficulty : after it has lain for some time on the pavement of the stable, it acquires a bloody hue. In a short time, if the horse be neglected, he becomes delirious and frantic. When aged animals are thus attacked, there is little prospect of recovery ; but, if the distemper be recent, and the horse young, it vvill be advisable to adopt the treatment already pointed out, vol. iii. p. 351. Should no relief be obtained in the course of two or three days, the animal must be bled copiously ; and the following laxative clyster, be injected : Let two handfuls of marsh-mallows: one handful of chamomile flowers; and one ounce of fennel-seed, be boiled in three quarts of water, till one-third be evaporated : the liquor must then be strained, and incorporated with 4 oz. of treacle, and a pint of lin- seed, or any common oil. After such clyster has been in- jected, it will be necessary to ad- minister two or three purges, each consisting of \\ oz. of pulverized Indian rhubarb; 2 drams of saffron; and 6 drams of socotrine aloes, 3 O 466 YEL YEL mixed with syrup of buckthorn ; which ought to be given once in 48 hours: on the intermediate days, the following balls and drink should be introduced between each dose: Take half an ounce of iEthiops mineral; a similar quan- tity of millepedes ; and 1 oz. of Castile soap: let them be formed into a ball, and washed down with a decoction made of 4 oz. of mad- der-root ; the same weight of tur- meric ; half a pound of the sliced roots of burdock ; 4 oz. of Monk's rhubarb ; and 2 ounces of sliced liquorice : these ingredients must be boiled in one gallon of forge- water, till one quart be evaporated ; when the liquor should be strained, and sweetened with honey. By this treatment, the violence ef the disease will generally abate in the course of a week, or ten days; a change which may be as- certained by the eyes and mouth losing part of their yellow cast; though it vvill be advisable to con- tinue the medicine above directed, till such colour totally disappear : when the animal is in a state of recovery, a few purges should be given, and he ought to be moder- ately exercised, in order to recruit his exhausted strength. [The yellows, or yellow-water as the complaint is most generally called, has prevailed with great mortality in Pennsylvania and N. Jersey, within the last 15 years, among horses. The symptoms, in addition to those mentioned above, are as follow. " The tail is occasionally projected horizontally and dropped in an unusual manner, frequent and ineffectual attempts are made to dung. The flanks are hollow, partial chills take place, and the hind legs arc stiff and straddle wide ; finally, all the limbs failing, the horse falls to the ground and writhes in agony. " On dissection, the liver is found schirrous, dry, and may be even rubbed to pieces. In one case it was reduced to one-fourth its original size." Richard Peters, Esq. to whom the Editor is indebted for the above remarks, thinks that horses feeding in open pastures, in warm weather, exposed to the chilling damps of night, are most subject to this disorder ; and there- fore advises that they be permit- ted to sleep under a shed. He has known a horse affected with the disease, that had pastured in a field for a long time alone, and had no communication with any other horse. Fie also knew two or three horses that died with the disease in stables containing SO or 40 horses without spreading the disease. The remedies which Mr. Pe- ters successfully used, when the disease appeared among his horses in 1799, were : 1. copious bleeding, viz. a gallon of blood the first day, and half a gallon every day for three or four days. 2. Frequent doses of the following prescription, two drams of calomel, joined to two oz. of aloes. 3. Large doses of nitre. 4. Roweling and blis- tering, and the free use of mercu- rial ointment about the neck, mouth and cheeks. He observed the salivation to appear, about the period that the blister drew, and from that hour the animal exhi- bited signs of recovery. He also used clysters of a decoction of black snake root (actea racemosa) and peach-leaves, to which some salt and molasses were added..... If the clysters are rejected he di- YEL YEL 467 rects the gut to be scraped, to pro- mote the evacuation of hardened dung: deanliness, good nursing, hard rubbing, to clothe the horse and to keep him from the night air. Every thing in his opinion depends upon early attacking the disease.; for after a certain time, which occurs probably in the first 24, or at furthest 48 hours, nothing will cure ; and as 12 and often 24 hours are required for the opera- tion of any purgative, it should be given on the first attack. The above treatment vvas pursued by a gentleman on the recommenda- tion of Mr. Peters, and with suc- cess. In the Medical Repository of New York, vol. 3. Dr. Sayre, describes the Yellow Water as it prevailed in New Jersey. He also used frequent and copious bleeding, and large doses of calo- mel and jalap, with success.] YELLOWS, a disorder affect- ing black cattle, which, if it be not timely attended to, will induce the Murrain, and other fatal dis- tempers. Symptoms ;....Every morning, a general tremor over the animal, particularly in the hinder legs, loins, and thighs ; the eye-lids ap- pear hollow ; the whole body as- sumes a yellow cast; the nose is dry ; and, if the creature have taken a severe cold, the ears hang down ; the dewlap, shoulders, and loins swell; the udder of cows become tumefied, and produce little milk ; wdiich, in a few days, acquires a peculiarly yellow tinge, coagulating when boiled; and, lastly, the fore-teeth become so loose as to be in danger of dropping out. It will be necessary to ob- serve these symptoms with ac- curacy, and particularly that first mentioned; because, if they re- main unnoticed for a few days, the disease will settle on 6ome of the interior parts, and be followed by uncommon weakness, wheez- ing, dropsy, or other fatal dis- temper. This malady is conjectured to proceed from the folds, io the in- ner membrane of the neck of the gall-bladder, Incoming too weak to perform their functions ; so that the bile, instead of being conveyed into the intestines, preternaturaliy forces itself into the biliary ducts, whence it passes through the ve?i* porta, and mixes again with the blood : hence, that fluid acquires a coreosive quality, becomes thick or sizy, and consequently circulates slowly throughout the system.... From such disorganization, the livers of the diseased animals are incapacitated from performingtlieir functions, so that the supply of bile is inadequate to the quantity thus unnaturally expended ; and the blood concretes in different parts of the body, forming painful tumors, both internally and exter- nally. This distemper is most to be apprehended, for about five weeks, in the commencement of the spring and autumn, when the days are warm, and the evenings cold : in those seasons, the grass being very rich and sucoulent, the animals are apt to eat too freely. The following remedies have been recommended, as being pe- culiarly efficacious in removing the yellows. First, take a handful of the tops of rue, and a similar por- tion of the greater celandine : let them be cut into small pieces, mix- ed with I oz. of pulverized tur- meric (or, if this cannot be pro- cured, of red Saunders-wood), and boiled in three pints of stale beer 468 YEW YEW or ale. When the liquor is luke- warm, it must be given to the ani- mal, and the dose repeated at the expiration of two days. Should a diarrhoea or scowering take place, the following preparation may be administered in the interval: Let 2 lbs. of oak-bark be boiled in one gallon of, water, till one-fourth part be evaporated : it is then to be strained, and 2 lbs. of rice should be boiled in such liquor, till it be soft: half a pound of burnt crust of bread, taken from the lower part of a loaf, and 2 quarts of milk, are next to be added ; and the whole is suffered to simmer for about 20 minutes, when it should be divided into two portions, and given in a warm state to the animal. By this treatment, cattle may be re- covered in the course of a few days ; provided they have not been too long neglected: for, when the disease has gained ground, such remedies ought to be continued for an additional length of time. Yellow-Weed. See Dter's- Weed. YEW-TREE, the Common, or Taxus baccata, L. a native of Bri- tain, and other parts of Europe, as well as of America: it grows in mountainous woods, hedges, and rocky soils; producing its flowers in March or April, which are suc- ceeded by bright-red, soft, oblong berries, containing a mucilaginous white juice, and arriving at per- fection in September. The yew-tree thrives most luxu- riantly in a moist, loamy soil: it may be propagated by sowing the ripe berries in autumn, in a shady bed of fresh earth, and covering them to the depth of half an inch with similar mould : when the young plants appear, they ought to be carefully weeded, and "occa- sionally watered in dry seasons.... In this situation, they must remain for two years; after which they ought to be removed, in the month of October, into beds of unmanur- ed soil, at the distance of 6 inches from each other, and in rows one foot asunder ; being gently watered till they have taken root. Here the plants should again continue for two years ; at the expiration of which, they must be transplanted, in autumn, into a nursery, and placed 18 inches from each other, in rows three feet apart. When the young trees have stood three or four years in the nursery ; it will be advisable to set them, in September, or October, in dry ground ; and, at length, in the sub- sequent spring, to place them in cold, moist situations, where they are designed to remain. The pe- riod of their growth is computed at 100 years; and their duration in the ground, at four centuries. Formerly, the yew-tree vvas cul- tivated in Britain, chiefly for the manufacture of bows; but, since these implements of war have been superseded by fire-arms, it is ge- nerally raised as an ornament to parks and plantations, on account of its ever-green leaves. This use- ful tree admits of being frequently pruned ; and may be made to as- sume any particular figure : hence the gardens of our forefathers were filled with ships,birds, quadrupeds, men, and other vegetable mon- sters. But such absurd fancies are gradually disappearing; a more natural system of horticulture is making rapid progress; and the yew is at present advantageously planted in hedges, as a fence for orchards and shrubberies, against severe winds. The wood of this tree is hard and YEW YEW 469 smooth; beautifully veined with red streaks; admits of a fine po- lish ; and is almost incorruptible : hence it is advantageously employ- ed by turners and cabinet-makers, for manufacturing spoons, cups, as well as tables, chairs, and various other articles. It is also usefully converted intocogs for mill-wheels, axle-trees, flood-gates for fish- ponds ; and may perhaps be effec- tually substituted for box ; so that considerable sums of money might be annually saved, which are now exported to the Levant, in order to supply engravers, and other artists, with that wood. The red berries of the yew-tree have a sweetish taste, and abound with mucilage: they are not only devoured by hogs and birds, with- out any pernicious effects resulting from them, but are also frequently eaten with impunity by children ; though, in some persons, this fruit is apt to produce noxious effects, especially if the stones be swal- lowed. We are nevertheless, per- suaded, that a very copious and strong spirit may be easily extract- ed from these berries, by distilla- tion ; and that their conversion to this purpose might annually save many thousand bushels of grain, vvhich are unnecessarily wasted in the still, while the abundant ve- getable productions of the woods, hedges, and commons, are suffer- ed to decay, or are heedlessly left to become a prey to wild birds, and other animals. See also Spirits, p. 26. The leaves of the yew-tree are reputed to be poisonous to the hu- man species, as well as to cattle of every description. Attempts, how- ever, have lately been made, to employ them for feeding horses, in times of scarcity ; and, if our ac- count be accurate, we have read in some recent publication, that such leaves were given to those animals with perfect safety, when cut toge- ther with hay or straw, so as to use, at first, only the tenth or twen- tieth part of this foliage, and gra- dually to increase the proportion of the latter, and to reduce that of the former, lo one-half, or even a smaller quantity. Thus, it appears to be perfectly consistent with rea- son and analogy, that the oily and astringent principle of the yew- tree leaves may be corrected, by sheathing it with a large portion of balsamic huy, and absorbent straw ; yet we cannot, on this oc • casion, speak from positive txpe rience. According to agricultural writers, the loppings and bark of this tree are equally pernicious to cattle, especially when in a half- dried state ; several sprigs having been found in the stomachs of dead animals, entire or undigest- ed. It is, however, an erroneous supposition, which still prevails in some country places, that the very shade of its foliage is hurtful to animal life. On the other hand, Bechstein informs us, that the wood of the yew-teee, when reduced to powder by a file, mixed with paste, and baked in an oven, has been highly extolled in Germany, as a sove- reign remedy for the bite of a mad dog : it is, therefore, taken in doses of half an ounce. Dambourney observes, that a decoction of yew-tree berries im- parts a handsome chamois dye to wool previously immersed in a weak solution of bismuth....On boiling the red root of this tree, together with the bark of the common birch-tree, he obtained a beautiful cinnamon colour, with 470 YOU YOU a mordore tint; but the wool was first boiled for a considerable time in a solution of tin : and, by adding alum, the dye assumed an aurora, or bright-red colour. YOKE, in agriculture, is a wooden frame, adapted to the necks of oxen, by means of vvhich they are coupled and fastened to the plough, or other vehicle. It is composed, 1. of a thick piece of wood, that passes over the neck, and is strictly called the yoke, 2. of a bow, which encompasses the neck, and 3. of the wreuthings, or stitchings, that serve to connect the whole. Beside these parts, there are employed, a ring, denominated the ;/ ,h-;.';;-; and a chain, for securing the traces. The yokes chiefly used in Eng- land, are those known under the name of the Roman Ox-yokes, which are preferable to the cumbersome frames formerly employed: because the animals thus acquire a greater power of draught. As, however, the Roman yokes are apt to chafe the necks, and the oxen are com- pelled to draw with their noses close to the ground, we conceive the Portuguese and French methods of working oxen to be the most effec- tual ; and, having already given an account of them, we refer the reader to the article Oxen. Yolk. See Egg. YOUTH, or Adolescence, in general, is that happy period of hu- man life, vvhich commences from childhood; continues as long as the fibres increase in dimensions or firmness ; and terminates at full grovvth: among the Romans, it was computed from the age of 12 to 25, in male;-, and to 21, in females. In modern limes, the term ado- lescence, includes the age of from 15 to 25 years, and some- times to 30. During this important stage of our existence, the principal revolu- tions take place, both with respect to mind and body. While the lat- ter progresHvely acquires muscular energy, and adopts a more solid deportment, the faculties of the former begin to unfold ; and the young member enters into society, with all the advantages which arise from the tender regard, interest, and indulgence, evinced by the generality of mankind, towards inexperienced youth. As it would be incompatible with our limited plan, to enter into a disquisition respecting all the mental and bodily imperfections, and diseases, incident to young persons of either sex ; or to ana- lyze the changes taking place dur- ing the transition from the period of childhood to that of puberty, we shall here discuss only the dan- gerous influence of the power of imagination^ on tiie juvenile cha- racter. None of the mental faculties exhibit such interesting and di- versified phenomena, as that of Imagination. While this power- ful agent is restrained within due limits, it often supplies the place of a benevolent guide, through the intricate meanders of life, where we frequently meet with more ap- pearance than reality; and in which it is of the utmost importance to be impressed with a due and lively sense of the good and the beautiful, as well asof virtue and truth. On the contrary, no sooner are the boun- daries of the imagining faculti/ transgressed, than we are involun- tarily led to submit to this dreadful tyrant, who is capable not only of YOU disturbing our repose and happi- ness, but even to deprive his vic- tim* of life. Hence, it should be one of the most necessary maxims of intellectual nature, always to guard against this formidable pow- er ; and to regulate its reciprocal influence ; so that we may main- tain a certain superiority. But in order to evince the essential neces- sity of adopting this rule of prac- tical life, and at the same time to demonstrate the danger attending the neglectof it, especially to youth, we shall quote an instance related by Prof. Hufeland, in one of his admired Popular Essays, in Ger- man ; of which no translation has yet appeared. A student at Jena, about sixteen years of age, having a weak and irritable nervous frame, but in other respects healthy, left his apartments during twilight, and suddenly returned, with a pale, dis- mal countenance; assuring his com- panion that he vvas doomed to die in 36 hours, or at 9 o'clock in the morning of the second day. This sudden change of a cheerful young mind naturally alarmed his friend; but no explanation was jgiven of its cause. Every attempt at ridi- culing this whimsical notion was fruitless; and he persisted in affirm- ing that his death was certain and inevitable. A numerous circle of his fellow-students soon assembled with a view to dispel those gloomy ideas, and to convince him of his folly, by arguments, satire, and mirth. He remained, however, unshaken in his strange convic- tion ; being apparently inanimate in their company, and expressing his indignation at the frolics and witticisms applied to his peculiar situation. Nevertheless, it was conjectured that a calm repose dur- YOU 471 ing the night would produce a more favourable change in his fan- cy ; but sleep was banished, and the approaching dissolution en- grossed his attention during the nocturnal hours. Early next morn- ing, he sent for Prof. Hufeland, who found him employed in mak- ing arrangements for his burial >- taking an affectionate leave of his friends ; and on the point of con- cluding a letter to his father ; in which he announced the fatal cata- strophe that was speedily to hap- pen. After examining his condi- tion of mind and body, the Pro- fessor could discover no remark- ble deviation from his usual state of health, excepting a small con- tracted pulse, a pale countenance, dull or drowsy eyes, and cold ex- tremities : these symptoms, how- ever, sufficiently indicated a gene- ral spasmodic action of the nervous system, which also exerted ils in- fluence over the mental faculties. The most serious reasoning on the subject, and all the philosophical and medical eloquence of Dr. Hufeland, had not the desir- ed effect; and, though the stu- dent admitted that there might be no ostensible cause of death discoverable, yet this very circum- stance was peculiar to his case ; and such vvas the inexorable des- tiny of his fate, that he must die next morning, without any visible morbid symptoms. In this dilem- ma, Dr. H. proposed to treat him as a patient. Politeness induced the latter to accept of such offer; but he assured the physician, that medicines would not operate. As no time was to be lost, there being only 24 hours left for his life, Dr. H. deemed proper to direct such remedies as prove powerful excit- ants ; in order to rouse the vital 472 YOU YOU energy of his pupil, and to relieve him from his captivated fancy..... Hence he prescribed a strong eme- tic and purgative ; ordered blis- ters to be applied to both calves and at the same time stimulating clysters to be administered. Quiet- ly submitting to the Doctor' s treatment, he observed, that his body being already half a corpse, all means of recovering it would be vain. Indeed, Dr. H. was not a little surprised, on repeating his visit in the evening, to learn that the emetic had not, or but very little, operated ; and that the blis- ters had not even reddened the skin. Now the case became more serious ; and the supposed victim of death began to triumph over the incredulity of the Professor, and his friends. Thus circum- stanced, Dr. H. perceived, how deeply and destructively that men- tal spasm must have acted on the body, to produce a degree of in- sensibility from which the worst consequences might be apprehend- ed.... All the inquiries into the ori- gin of this singular belief, had hitherto been unsuccessful. Now only, he disclosed the secret to one of his intimate friends, namely, that on the preceding evening he had met with a white figure in his pas- sage, which nodded to him ; and, in the same moment, he heard a voice exclaiming : " the day after to-morrow, at nine o'clock in the morning, thou shalt die." He continued to settle bis domestic affairs ; made bis will; minutely appointed his tuneral; and even desired his friends to send for a clergyman; which request, how- ever, was counteracted. Night appeared, and he began to com- pute the hours he had to live, till the ominous next morning: his anxiety evidently increased with the striking of every clock within hearing. Dr. H. was not without apprehension, when he recollected instances in which mere imagina- tion had produced melancholy ef- fects. But, as every thing depended on procrastinating, or retarding that hour in which the event was pre- dicted ; and on appeasing the tem- pest of a perturbed imagination, till reason had again obtained the ascendency, he resolved upon the following happy expedient: Hav- ing a complaisant patient, who refused not to take the remedies prescribed for him (because he seemed conscious of the superior agency of his mind over that of his body), Dr. H. had recourse to lau- danum, combined with the extract of hen-bane : 20 drops of the for- mer, and two grains of the latter, were given to the youth, with such effect, that he fell into a profound sleep, from vvhich he did not awake till eleven o'clock on the next morning. Thus, the prognosti- cated fatal hour elapsed ; and his friends waiting to welcome the bashful patient, who had agreeably disappointed them, turned the whole anair into ridicule. The first question, however, after re- covering from his artificial sleep, vvas the hour of the morning : but, on being informed, that his pre- sages had not been verified by ex- perience, he assured the company, that all these transactions appeared to him not unlike a dream ; and he could not conceive how he had been subject to such folly. Since that period, he has enjoyed a per- fect state of health, and has been completely cured of his fancy. There are, nevertheless, several instances recorded, in which per- sons have truly predicted the day YOU YOU 473 and hour of their death. In the 17th century, it was a fashionable practice among the higher classes, to apply to an astrologer, for learn- ing the accurate duration of their lives. Such aberration from the human intellect, could be ascribed only to an absurd or defective sys- tem of education ; when youth were not taught to discriminate be- tween natural causes and effects ; or, when parents granted every species of indulgence, which alike excited their sensual desires, and pleased a wild, disordered imagi- nation. Many, indeed, are the gradations, in which that peculiar morbid sensation, generally term- ed irregular fane/, displays itself under different forms, even in mo- dern times. It cannot be denied, that the numerous phenomena of nervous disorders, especially the diversified symptoms displayed by hypochondriacal and hysterical per- sons, doubtless originate chiefly from the same source. We often smile at such complaints as are supposed to arise from a diseased mhuj, but certainly not with jus- tice. In short, there is no disor- der more to be dreaded, and none has a more solid foundation, than that in vvhich the sensations of our material nature, and the ideas of our very existence, are in a manner unhinged : nay, it is incomparably more easy to sustain a real evil, than to be tormented by an imagi- nary one, the force and extent of which cannot be ascertained. Youth-wort. See Sundew the Round-leaved. z. ZAF Z AF ZAFFRE, is the oxyd or calx of cobalt, employed for imparting a blue colour to porcelain and pottery ware ; it is prepared, according to Cronstedt, in the following man- ner. When the cobalt is dug out of the mine, it is first broken into small pieces, and all heterogeneous matters are carefully separated..... The mineral is then submitted to the action of stamping mills, in vol. r. vvhich it is reduced to a fine pow- der, that is sifted through brass wire sieves. Next, the lighter par- ticles are carried off by water, and the cobalt is put into a reverberato- ry furnace, terminating in a long horizontal gallery ; through which the arsenic, usually mixed with the mineral, sublimes: farther, the cobalt is frequently stirred with long iron hooks or rakes, till it ceases to emit any fumes ; when 3 P 474 ZED ZIN it remains in the form of a dark grey calx, denominated Zaffre. Considerable quantities of this oxyd, are manufactured from the cobalt dug out of the mines in the Mendip-hills, and also in Corn- wall; beside vvhich, there are large supplies annually imported from Saxony : such zaffre, however, is seldom pure ; being mixed with a considerable proportion of pulve- rized flints. The blue of zaffre is the most per- manent of the different colours employed in glass-works ; as it re- sists, unchanged, the most intense heat : hence, it is also advantage- ously used for giving various shades of blue to enamels, and to the crys- tal glasses that are made in imita- tion of lapis lazuli, turquoise, sap- phire, and other precious stones. ZEDOARY, or Kxmpferia, L. a genus of exotic plants, consisting of two species ; namely : 1. The galanga, Common Galangal, or Long Zedoary ; vvhich has long, thick, tuberous roots, and produces single white, flowers, with purple bases ; and, 2. The rotunda, or Round Zedoary, has thick, round roots, presenting whitish flowers, that are frequently tinged with green, yellow, red, and purple..... Both, species are natives of Siam: they may be raised in hot-houses, by dividing the roots in the spring, and planting them in pots of rich, light mould, where they should be copiously watered during the sum- mer, but less frequently in the winter. The roots of the Zedoary are imported in oblong pieces, about the thickness of a linger; or in round masses, generally one inch in diameter; paying a duty of 6-Id. per lb. They possess an agreeable fragrance, but a bitterish aromatic taste ; both of vvhich may be im- parted to water. The Zedoary is a warm stoma- chic, and has been recommended in dyspeptic cases, for relieving fla- tulency, and invigorating the ner- vous system. Such root may be advantageously used by artisans, as an excellent yellow colour: and it may likewise be employed in painting with water colours. For this purpose, it is prepared in the following manner: Boil 1 oz. of the root in a quart of water, till the fluid have sufficiently imbibed the colouring matter, for communicat- ing a yellow tinge to paper : it is then to be filtered through a ljn|) cloth. The decoction may be eva- porated or dried in shells ; after which, it may again be diluted, and will easily spread with the pencil. ZINC, or Spelter, is a semi- metal, naturally obtained in a state of combination with different mi- nerals, in England, Hungary, and other parts of the globe : it is of a whitish colour, nearly resembling that of lead, though it does not so speedily tarnish. Zinc melts a short time before ignition ; but, when heated to red- ness in the open air, it is liable to combustion, and burns with a dazzling blaze: so that a loose white oxyd is precipitated, which is known under the name of flowers Qf^inc. ^ This crude semi-metal is of great utility in the arts. Combined with gold, in equal portions, it forms a hard, v, bite compound, that admits of a fine polish, and may be ad- vantageously manufactured into specula, for optical instruments. Zinc and tin, melted together, produce a kind of pewter ; and, as the former spreads more uniformly, ZIN While it is much harder, and less fusible than tin, it has been pro- posed as a substitute for the latter, in tinning copper-vessels. Spelter and copper readily unite in the fire ; provided the combus- tion of the former be carefully pre- vented during the process : in this state, it forms a metal, distinguish- ed by-'&e general name of yellow copper; but which is divided into several sorts, according to the res- pective proportions contained in the alloy. Thus, three parts of copper and one of zinc, constitute Brass : five or six of the former, and one of the latter, aflbrd Pinch- beck.....'Tombac is composed of a still larger proportion of copper to that of zinc : it is of a deeper red than pinchbeck, and bears the name of its inventor. Prince's Metal consists of a larger propor- tion of zinc than either of the pre- ceding compositions.....Similor, or Manheim gold, resembles pinch- beck : it is manufactured into spu- rious leaf-gold, laces, and similar shewy articles. Zinc is dissolved in all acids ; though the sulphuric is most fre- quently employed : and, in the proportions stated, p. 227, of the present volume, it forms white Vitriol. An useful substituteJMr white- lead, in painting house*s7nas lately been discovered in zinc, by M. de Morveau. He directs this mine- ral tq be calcined in a crucible, placed horizontally in the cavity usually made for retorts, in rever- feeratory furnaces. The oxyd thus obtained, is then to be washed in water, with a view to separate such particles as may not have been per- fectly calcined; and, when it is re- duced to powder, a small portion a reverberatory furnace, for six hours ; in order to disperse all the ferruginous particles vvhich it may contain. Next, the zinc is to be reduced to powder, by the action of a mill, and mix^d with one- eighth part of pulverized charcoal, by weight; after vvhich it must be removed to a close or muffled fur- nace, provided with two apertures, one on each side, " and (as the patentee expresses himself),dilated at the end from the furnace, by a distance of about 20 feet;" the other end joining the body of the furnace: such apertures should 476 ZIN ZlN each be furnished with a door at the farthest extremity, and which ought to be sufficiently large to ad- mit a man to enter, for the pur- pose of collecting the colour. Thus the zinc must be introduced into the furnace, through the top or upper part: when it becomes red hot throughout, a large dense, white cloud, with a bright blue flame, will pass into the recepta- cles or apertures above-mentio' ed, where it will collect in the form of a pure, white metallic calx. The ozyd of zinc is now to be diluted with water, and ground or triturated in a proper mill : from this machine it is conducted, by means of gutters or spouts into fine sieves, whence it passes into se- veral cisterns full of water, com- municating with each other by si- milar gutters ; so that the finest particles float into the farthest re- servoirs. After standing about 24 hours, the water may be drawn off, and the colour collected into pans, receivers, or other vessels, capable of bearing heat, in vvhich they are dried ; and in this state, the paint vvill be ready for sale ; but previ- ously to its application, it ought to be properly levigated. According to M. Rinman, a fine green colour for painters may be procured from the oxydes of co- balt and zinc. He directs any por- tion of cobalt-ore to be dissolved in the nitro-muriatic acid (aqua regia), and to be mixed with half that quantity of nitrat of zinc : a lixivium of pot-ash is then to be added ; and when the precipitate is ignited to whiteness, it will be fit for use. Beside its utility in the arts, zinc is of considerable service in medi- cine. Itsfiowers are advantageous- ly employed as an antispasmodic, particularly in epilepsy, and in the acute spasms of the stomach, to which persons of delicate consti- tutions are subject: they have also been given with success in some cases of dry asthma. The dose is from one to two grains, taken twice in the day, and gradually increased to 8 or 10 grains; but, being a very powerful remedy, it ought never to be resorted to, without medical advice. For an account of the affections in which the vitriol of zinc may be of service, the' reader will consult the article Vitriol. ZIZANY, the Water, or Zi- zania aquatica, L. is a native of North America, where it grows in wet and marshy situations....The root of this vegetable is fibrous, and strikes forth many angular, smooth stalks of a serpentine form. The panicle on the central stalk is ge- nerally four feet long, while those on the others never exceed twelve inches. The large, oval, yellowish, mealy seed attains to maturity in September, and has the agreeable taste of rice ; on which account it is much esteemed by the American Indians, who carefully collect and convert it into Bread, or other culinary dishes. Hence Linnjeus recommends its culture?in situa- tions abounding with reeds, and producing no other useful plant. END. INDEX To the Latin Names of Plants, Animals, Minerals, Dis- eases, and other subjects occurring throughout this Work. u — ACARUS Asiro, Common Mite; A. baccarum, Red Spider. Accipenser Sturio, Sturgeon. Acer campestris, Common Ma- ple ; A. Pscudo -platanus, Syca- more-tree ; A. saccharinum, Sugar- Maple. Achillea Millefolium, Common Yarrow; A. Ptarmica, Sneeze- wort Yarrow. Aconitum Napcllus, Large Blue Wolf's-bane. Acorus Calamus, Sweet Flag. Actaa spicata, Herb Christopher. Adonis autumnalist Autumnal Pheasant's Eye. Adoxa Moschatellina, Tuberous Moschatel. JEesculus Hippocastanum, Com- mon Horse Chesmit; [JE. Pavia, Scarlet; JE.. Flavia, Yellow ; JE. Alba, ' JE. Spicata flowering.] JEthusa cynapium, Fool's Pars- ley ; JE. Meum, Spignel. Agaricus, Mushroom; A. cam- pestris, Champignon ; A. cantha- rellus, Chanterelle Mushroom; A. cinnamonn us, Brown Mushroom; A. clypeatus, Long-Stalked Mush- room ; A. muscarius, Fly-killing Mushroom ; A. orcades, Meadow Mushroom ; A. Quercinus, Agaric of the Oak; A. semi-globatus, Se- mi-globular Mushroom ; A. viola- eeus, Violet-coloured Mushroom. Agrimonia Eupatoria, Common Agrimony. Agrostemma Githago, Corn Cockle. Agrostis Spica-venti, Silky Bent- ▼ ol. v. grass; A. stolonifera, Creeping Bent-grass. Aira aquatica, Water Hair- grass ; A. caryophallea, Silver Hair- grass ; A. cespitosa, Turfy Hair- grass ; A. fiexuosa, Heath Hair- grass. * Ajuga, Bugle, Aychamepithys, Ground-pine; A. rcpians, Com- mon Bugle. Alauda arvensis, Common Sky- lark ; A. arborea, Wood-lark. Alcea rosea, Holly-Hock. Alsedo ispida, Common King- fisher. Alchemilla vulgaris, Common- Ladies-m'antle. Alisma Plantago, Great Water Plantain. Allium, Garlic ; A. Ascalonicviv, EschalJot ; ./'. C:pa, Onion ; A. oleraccum, Streaked Field-garlic ; A.fiorrum,L.cek; A. Schanoprasum, Chive ; A. ursinum, Broad- ieaved Garlic. Aloe Caballina, Fetid, or Horse aloe; A. Hepatica, Common, or Barbadoes Aloe ; A. fierfoliata, Socotrine Alee. Alopecurus agrestis, Slender Fox- tail-grass ; A. bulbosus, Bulbous Fox-tail-grass ; A. pratensis, Mea- dow Fox-tail-grass. Alsine media, Common Chick- weed. Althaea officinalis, Marsh-Mallow. Alumina, Pure Clay. Alyssum sativum, Gold of Plea. sure. 4 A 2 INDEX. Amaurosis, Gutta Serena. Ammodytes tobianus, Sand-eel. Ammonia pura, Caustic Veget- able Alkali. Amomtcm, Ginger ; A. cardamo- mum majus, Greater Cardamom ; A. C. minus, Lesser Cardamom ; ..'/. zinziber, Common Ginger. [Ampclis garrulus, Cherry-bird.] Ampelites, Canal Coal. Amygdulus, Almond-tree ; A. communis, Common Almond-tree ; A. Persica, Peach. Amylum, Starch. Amyris gileadensis, Balm of Gi- lead Tree. Anagallis arvensis, Scarlet Pim- pernell. Anarrfucas Lupus, Sea-Wolf. Anas anser, Goose ; A. a.ferus, Wild Goose ; A. a. mansuetus, Tame Goose ; A. boschas, Duck ; A. creca, Teal; A. cygnus ferus, Wild Swan; A. c. mansuelus,Tame Swan ; A. ferina, Widgeon. Anchusa semper virens, Ever- green Alkanet, or Bugloss; A. offi- cinalis, Greater Garden Bugloss ; A. lutea, Yellow Alkanet; A. tinc- toria, Dyer's Alkanet. Anemone, Wind-flower ; A. Al- pina, Blue Mountain Anemone ; A. nemorosa, Wood-Anemone ; A. pratensis, Dark-flowered, or Mea- dow Anemone ; A. Pulsatilla, Pasque-flower; A. ranunculoides, Yellow Wood-Anemone. Anethum fxniculum, Common Fennel. Angelica Archangelica, Garden Angelica; -/. sylvestris, Wild Angelica. Anguis fragilis, Blind-worm. Anthcmis cotula, Fetid Chamomile; A. nobilis, Common Chamomile ; A. tinctoria, Ox-eye Chamomile. Anthcricum calyculatum, Marsh Spider-wort. Anlhoxanthum odoratum, Sweet- scented Spring-grass. Antirhinum, Snap-dragon ; A. Elatine, Fluellin ; A. Linaria, Toad-flax ; A majus, Greater Snap-dragon ; A. Orontium, Calf's- snout. Anthyllis, Kidney-Vetch ; A. vulneraria; Ladies-finger. Aphanes arvensis, Parsley-piert. Aphis, Plant-louse. Apht/iae, Thrush. Apis, Bee. Apium, Parsley ; A. graveolens, Celery; A. Petrosclinum, Com- mon Parsley. Aquilegia vulgaris, Common Co- lumbine. Arabis thaliana, Common Wall- cress. Aranea Calycina, Garden Spi- der ; A. domestica, Common House Spider. Arbutus, Strawberry-tree ; A. Alpina, Mountain 'Strawberry-tree; A. Unedo, Common Strawberry- tree ; A. Uva ursi, Bear-berries. Arctium Lappa, Burdock. Ardea major, Heron ; A. stella- ris, Bittern. Areca catechu, Fassel-nut; A. oleracea, Cabbage Palm. Arenaria marina, Sea-spurrey Sandwort. Argilla, Clay ; A. aerata, aerafeed Argile ; A. apyra, Porcelain Clay ; A. Lithomarga, Fuller's Earth. Aristolochia Clemalitis, Slender Birthwort 5 A. longa, Long Birth- wort ; A. rotunda, Round Birth- wort. Arnica montana, German Leo- pard's-bane. Ai-racMs Hypogaios Americanus, Ground-Nuls. Artemisia, Mugwort ; A. Absin- thium, Common Wormwood ; A. dracunculus, Tarragon ; A. mariti- INDEX: ma, Sea Wormwood ; A. vulgaris, Common Mugwort. Artocarpus, Bread-fruit-tree. Arum maculatum, Wake Robin. [A. Trypkyllum, Indian Turnip.] Arundo, Reed ; A. arenaria, Matweed; A. calamagrostis, Small Reed; A. epigeios, Wood Reed; A. phragmites, Common Reed. Asarum Europteum, Asarabacca. [Asclepias Syriaca, Swallow wort.] Aspalathus, African Broom. Asperugo procumbens, Catch- weed. Asperula odorata, Sweet Wood- roof. Asphodelus luteus, Common Yel- low Asphodel; A. ramosus, Branch- ing Asphodel. Asplenium, SpleenwOTt; A. Sco- lopcndrium, Hart's-tongue; A. Tri- ehomanes, Common Maiden-hair. Aster Tripolium, Sea Star-wort. Astragalus, Milk-Vetch; A.gly- cyphyllos, Common Milk-Vetch: A. Tragacantha, Tragacanth-tree. Atriplex hastata, Wild Orache ; A. laciniata, Frosted Orache; A. Uttoralis, Grass Orache ; A. portu- lacoides, Shrubby Orache. Alropa Bella donna, Deadly Nightshade; A. mandragora, Man- drake. Avena, Oat: A. elaticrr, Tall Oat-grass; A. fatua, Bearded Wild Oats ; A. fiavescens. Yellow Oat; A. nuda, Naked Oat; A. pra- tensis, Meadow Oat; A. pubescens, Rough Oat; A. sativa, Common Oat; A. stipiformis, Skegs. I)u I una mysticetus, Common Whale. Baliota nigra, Black Horehound. Barytes, Ponderous Spar. Be/lisptrcnnis, Common Daisy. Berberis vulgaris, Common Ber- berry. Beta, Beet; B. albissima, Man- gel-wurzel ; B. hortensis, Common White Beet; B. maritima, Sea Beet. Betula, Alder-tree; B. alba, Common Birch; B. alnus, Com- mon Alder-tree ; B. lenta, Canada Birch ; B. nana, Dwarf Alder-tree. Bidens cernua, Nodding Mary- gold. [Bignonia Catalpa, B. Sempervi- rens, B. Crucigera, B. rudicuns.'] Blatta orientalis, Eastern Cock- roach. Boletus, Spunk; B. hirsutus, Shaggy Spunk; B. igniarius,Touch- wood. Borago, officinalis, Common Bo- rage. Botrytes, Cauliflower. Brassica, Cabbage ; B. alpi:ia, Savoy ; B. campestris, Field Cab- bage; B. Eruca, Rocket; B. Mo- nensis, Isle-oi'-Man-Cabbage; B. muralis, Wall Cabbage; B. Napus, Rape ; B. oleracea, Sea-colewort; B. rapa, Turnip. Briza media, Common Quaking Grass. Bromelia ananas, Common Pine- apple. Bromus mollis, Soft Brome-grass; B. piyiatus, Spiked Heath Brome- grass ; B. Secalinus, Smooth Rye Brome-grass, [or cheat.] Bryonia alba, White Bryony. Bubon gummiferum, Gum-bear- ing Macedonian Parsley. Bunium bulbo-castanum, Great Earth-nut; B.fiexuosum, Common Earth-nut. Buxus angustifolia, Narrow-leav- ed Box ; B. semper-virens Com- mon Box; B. suffruticosa, Dutch Box. Bussus candelaris, Yellow Pow- der-wort. 4 INDEX. Cacalia suaveolens, Alpine Colt's- foot. Cactus cochenillifer, Indian, Fig- tree. Cadmia E"ossilis, Calamine. [Calicarfia Americana.'] Callitriche autumnalis, Autum- nal Star-grass ; C. verna, Vernal Star-grass. Caltha palustris, Marsh-mari- gold. [ Calycanthusfioridus, Sweet scent- ed Shrub.] Cambogia gutta, Gamboge-tree. Campanula glomerata, Clustered Bell-flower; C.lalifolia, Giant-Bell- flower ; C. rapunculbides, Creeping Bell-flower; C. rapunculus, Ram- pion Bell-flower; C. rotundifolia, Round-leaved Bell-flower. Cancer, Lobster; C. crangon, Shrimp ; C. grammarus, Common Lobster; C. major, Common Crab; C. squilla, White Shrimp. Canis, Dog; C. avicularius, Spa- niel ; C. Graius, Greyhound ; C. sanguinarius, Blood-hound; C. ter- rarius, Terrier; C. villaticus, Mas- tiff; C. vulpes, Fox. Cannabis sativa,Common Hemp. Cantharidcs, Spanish Fly. Capparis spinosa, Common Ca- per. Capra Hircus, Common Goat. Cardaminc pratensis, Common Ladies-smock Cardialgia, Heart burn. Cardium, Cockle. Carduus acaulis, Dwarf Thistle; C. Benedictus, Blessed Thistle ; C. lanceolatus, Spear-Thistle ; C. ma- rianus, Milk-Thistle; C. tomen- tosus, Woolly-headed Thistle. Carex acwta,Slender-spiked Seg; C. arenaria, Sea-Seg; C. vulpina, Great Seg. Carlina vulgaris, Common Car- line Thistle. Carpinus Betulus, Common Horn-beam-tree. Carthamus tinctcrius, Common Saffiower. Carum carui, Common Caraway. Caryophyllus aromaticus, Clove- tree. Cassia, Cassia; C. fistula, Purg- ing Cassia ; C. Senna, Senna. [Cassine, Youpon, South-Sea- tree.] Castor, Beaver; C. fiber, Com- mon Beaver ; C. mochatus, Water- rat ; C. zibethicus, Musk-rat. Cavia cobaya, Guinea Pig. Centunculus minimus, Bastard Pimpernell. Cephdlalgai, Head-ach. Cerussa, White Lead. Cervus, Deer; C. Dama, Fal- low Deer ; C. Elaphus, Stag. Chaerophyllum sylvestre, Wild Chervil; C. temulentum, Rough Chervil, [C. arborescens.] Charadrius Pluvialis, Common, Plover. Chelidonium, Horned Poppy ; C. corniculalum, Red Horned Poppy ; C. majus, Greater Celandine. Chenopodium, Goose-foot; C. al- bum, White Goose-foot; C. Bo- nus Henricus, Perennial Goose- foot ; C. maritimum, Sea Goose- foot ; C. olidum, Stinking Goose- foot ; C. fiolyspermum, Upright Blite, [C. viride botrys, Cut leav- ed ; C. aristatum awned, anthelmis- ticum, wormseed Jerusalem oak.] Chlorosis, Green Sickness. Chrysomela saltaioria, Turnip- fly. Cicada, Flea-locust. Ckhorium, Succory; C. Endivia. Endive ; C. Intybus, Wild Succo- ry. Cicuta virosa, Long-leaved Wa- ter Hemlock. Cinchona, Peruvian Bark-tree ; C. Brach-.jcarfia, Dwarf Bark-tree • C. Caribwa, Jamaica Bark-i.e- ; C. Florib::nda,^\. Lucia Eaik-lree- C. offcinaii'j, Peruvian Bark-t.ee; INDEX. 5 C. Trifiora, Triple-flowered Bark- tree. Cistus creticus, Cretan Rock- Rose. Citrus, Citron; C. Aurantium, Orange; C. Decumana, Giant Ci- tron ; C. Lima, Lemon-tree ; C. Medica, Citron-tree. Clematis Vitalba, Traveller's Joy, [C. Crispa Virgin's bower.] Clupea, Herring; C. ahsa, Shad; C. encrmsicolus, Anchovy; C. ha- rengus, Herring; C. sprat/u*,Sprat. Coccinella, septem-punctata, La- dy-bird. Coccus Cucti, Cochineal Insect; C. Hesperidum, Green-house Bug; C. Ilicis, Kermes; C. Lacca, Gum- lac-insect; C. malorum, Apple-tree Coccus ; C. Phalaridis, Canary- grass Coccus ; C. Polonicus, Scar- let grain of Poland. Cochlearia, Scurvy-grass ; C. Anglica, English Scurvy-grass; C. Armoracia, Horse-radish ; C. Co- ronopus, Common Wort-cress ; C. officinalis, Common Scurvy-grass. Cocos, Cocoa. Coffea, Coffee-tree. Colchicum autumnale, Meadow Saffron. [Collinsonia. Canadensis.] Coluber Berus, Common British Viper ; C. natrix, Common Snake. Columba anas, Domestic Pigeon. Comarumpalust re, PurpleMiirsh- locks. Conium maculatum,- Common Hemlock. Convallaria, Solomon's Seal ; C. Majalis, Lily of the YidL-y ; C. multifiora Common Solomon's Seal; C. Polyjonarum, Sweet- smelling Solomon's Seal. Convolvulus, Bindweed ; C. ar- vensis, Small Bindweed ; C. Jalap- pa, Jalap ; C. Scammor.ia, Syrian Bindweed; C. scopanus, Bushy Bindweed ; C. sefiium, Great Bind- weed ; C. soldanella, Sea Bindweed; C. Turpethum, Turbith. [C. panduratus, wild Potatoe.] Conyza squarrosa, Flea-bane. Copafera Balsamum, Balsam of Copaiba-tree. Corallina, Coral. Coriandrum sativum, Common Coriander. Ccrnus sanguinea, Wild Cornel- tree ; C. suecica, Dwarf Cornel. Corvus, Crow; C. corax, Ra- ven ; C. corone, Common Crow; C. frugilegus, Rook ; C glanda- rius, Jay ; C. monedula, Jack-daw; C. pica, Mag-pye. Corylus, Hazel-nut-tree ; C. avel- lana, Common Hazel-nut-tree ; C. avellana fi~uctu rotunda maxima, Pound-nut; C. Hispanica, Spanish Hazel-nut-tree; C. saliva, Al- mond-nut ; C. sativa, fructu ob- longo rubente maxima, Blood-nut. Costae, Ribs. Crambe, Sea-Kale ; C. maritima, Cliff-Cale. Crataegus, Hawthorn ; C. Aria, White-beam Hawthorn ; C. Oxya- cantha, White-thorn ; C. tormina- lis, Wild Service-tree. Crithmum maritimum, Rock Sam- phire. Crocus, Saffron; C. sativus, Common Saffron ; C. vermis, Spring, or Garden Crocus. Crotolariajuncea,Chinese Hemp. Croton tinctorium, Dyer's Wild Ricinus. Cucubalus Bthen, Spatling Poppy. Cuc«/u.scan»rKtf,CoBimouCuekow. Cucumis, Cucumber; C. cngurij, Water Melon ; C. colocynthus, Co- loquintida ; C. melo, Common Me- lon ; C. sativa, Common Cucum- ber. Cucurbit a, Gourd ; C. lagenarij, Bottle-Gourd; C. lignosa, Lig- INDEX, neous-shelled Gourd; C.Melo-pepo, Erect Gourd ; C. Pepo, pompion ; C. verrucosa, Warted Gourd. Culex, Gnat. Cuminum Cyminum, Cummin. Cupressus semper-virens, Com- mon Cypress-tree. Curculio granarius, Corn-chafer. Curcuma longa, Long-rooted Turmeric ; C. rotunda, Round- rooted Turmeric. Cuscuta Epithymum, Lesser Dodder; C. Europaa, Greater Dodder. Cyclamen Europ temporaria, Common Frog. Ranula, a swelling on the Ton- gue. Ranunculus, Crowfoot; R. acris, Butter-cup; R. aquaticus, Water Crowfoot; R. arvensis, Corn Crow- foot ; R. auricomus, Sweet Wood Crowfoot ; R. bulbosus, Bulbous Crowfoot; R. ficaria, Pilewort , R. Flammula, Lesser Spearwort; R. lingua, Greater Spearwort; R. sceleratus, Round-leaved Water Crowfoot. Raphanus, Radish ; R. Rapha- nistrum, White-flowered, or Joint- ed Charlock ; R. sativus, Common Radish. Reseda lutea, Base-Rocket; R. luteola, Yellow-weed, or Dyer's- weed. Rhamnus catharticus, Purging Buckthorn ; R. Frangula, Alder Buckthorn. Rheum palmatum, Palmated- Rhubarb; R. rhaponticum, Com- mon Rhubarb. Rhinanthus Crista-Galli, Xe\- low Rattle. Rhodioia communis, Rosewort, the Yellow. Rhus copallinum, Narrow- leaved Sumach ; R. coriaria, Elm- leaved Sumach ; R. cotinus, Yel- low Sumach ; R. typhiman Virgi- nian Sumach. [R. glabrum, Smooth Pennsylvania sumach ; R. canadense, R. toxicodendron, poi- son oak, R. vernex, Swamp su- mach ; R. radicans, Poison vine.] Ribes Alpinum, Sweet Moun- tain-Currant; R. grossularia,Rough Gooseberry ; R. nigrum, Black Gooseberry ; R. reclinatum, Red Gooseberry; R. rubrum, Com- INDEX. 15 mon Red Currant; R. uva- crispa, Smooth Goose-berry. Ricinus communis, Castor-nut. Robinnia pseudo-acacia, Acacia, the False. Rosa arvensis, White-flowered Dog-rose ; R. canina, Dog-rose; R.centifolia, Hundred-leaved Rose. R. Gallica, French Rose ; R. mun- di, Rose of the World; R. rubi- ginosa, Sweet Briar ; R. spinosissi- ma, Burnet Rose; R. villosa, Ap- ple-Rose. Rosamarinus officinalis,Rosemary; R. o. angustifolia, Narrow-leaved Rosemary ; R. o. latifoUa, Broad- leaved Rosemary. Rubeola, Measles. Rubia tinctorium, Wild Madder. Rubigo, Rust. Rubus arcticus, Dwarf Crimson Bramble ; R. casius, Dew-berry Bush ; R. chamoemorus, Cloud- berry ; R. corylifolius, Hazel-leav- ed Bramble ; R. fruticosus, Com- mon Bramble ; R. Idxus, Rasp- berry ; R. occidentalis, Virginian Raspberry Bush ; R. odoratus, Sweet-scented Raspberry; R. saxatilis, Stone Bramble. Rumex acetosus, Common Sor- rel ; R. acetosella, Sheep's Sorrel; R. acutus, Sharp Dock ; R. aqua- ticus, Water-Dock; R. crispus, Curled Dock; R. obtusifolius, Broad-leaved Dock ; R. sanguina- rius, Bloodwort. Ruscus aculcatus, Common Knee-holly. Ruta graveolens, Common Broad leaved Garden Rue. Saccharum officinarum, Sugar- cane. Sagina procumbens, Pearlwort, the Procumbent. Sagittaria sagittifolia, Common Arrow-head. Salicorviu fruticoca, Shrubby Samphire; S. herbacea, Jointed Glasswort. Salix alba, White Willow ; -T. amygdalina; Almond-Laved Wil- low ; 6". Babylonica, Weepi.i^ Wil- low ; S. caprcata, Sdiovv; V. cine- rear Sallow Willow ; i. fragiUs, Crack-Willow ; V. herbacea, Her- baceous Willow; -S'. pentandra, Sweet Willow ; S. purpurea, Rose Willow ; 5. Rubra, Red Willow ; 5. triandra, Smooth Willow; S. viminalis, Osier. Salmo alpinus Charr ; S. eperla- nus, Smelt; S. fario, Trout; S. salar, Common Salmon ; S. Thym- alus, Umber, or Grayling. Salsola fruticosa, Shrubby Salt- wort ; A", kali, Prickly Saltwort. ' Salvia pratcnsis, Meadow Clary; 5. officinalis, Common Large Sage; S. tomcntosa, Balsamine Sage ; S. Vcrbenaca, Wild English Clary. Sambucus ebuluv, Dwarf Elder; 5. nigra, Common Elder. Sanguis Draconis, Dragon's Blood. Santalum album, Yellow, or White, Sanders. Saponaria officinalis, Common Soapwort. Saiureia hortensis, Summer Sa- vory ; S.montana, Winter Savory. Satyrium hircinum, Satyrion. Saxifraga granulata, Saxifrage the Common. Scabiosa arx'cnsis,Field Scabious; 5. succisa, Devil's-bit Scabious. Scandix odorata, Cicely the Sweet; S. Pecten, Common Shep- herd's Needle. Scarabxus Melolontha, Chafer. Schxnus mariscu3, Rush-grass, the Prickly. Scilla maritime, Common Squill. Scirpu* lacustris, Bull-rush ; S. maritimu", Salt-marsh Ciub-rirdi ; S. palustris, Marsh Creeping Club- rush. 16 INDEX. Sciurus vulgaris, Common Squir- rel. Sclerantkus annuus, Annual Kna- well. Scolopax arquata, Curlew; S. gallinago, Snipe; S. rusticola Woodcock. Scomber Thunnus, Tunny. Scrophularia nodosa, Great Fig- wort. Scutellaria galeraculata, Com- mon Scull-cap. Secale sereale, Common Rye. Sedum acre, Wall-pepper; S. refiexum, Yellow Stone-crop; 5. rupestre, Rock Stone-crop ; 5. Te- lephium, Orpine Stone-crop. Selinum palustre, Milk-weed, the Marsh. Sempervivum tectorum, Common House-leek. Senecio Jacobxa, Ragwort ; 5. vulgaris, Common Groundsel. Sepia, Cuttle-fish. Scrratula arvensis, Corn Saw- wort ; 5. tinctoria, Common Saw- wort ; [S. spicata.] [Sesamum, Benne or Binny.] Silene nutans, NotinghamCatch- fly. Silex, Flint. Sinapis alba, White Mustard ; S. arvensis, Charlock ; 5. nigra, Common Mustard. Singultus, Hiccough. Siscn Amomum, Common Bas- tard Stone-parsley. Sisymbrium am/ihibium, Radish Water-cress ; 5. Nasturtium, Com- mon Water-cress ; S. Sophia, Flix- weed Water-cress. Slum angustifolium, Upper Wa- ter Parsnep ; S. laiifolium, Broad leaved Water Parsnep ; S. nodifio- rum, Creeping Water Parsnep ; 5. ninarum, Skirret. S.irilax sarsaparilla, Sarsaparilla. Solanum, Nightshade ; S. Dul- camara, Woody Nightshade; S. Lycopersicon, Love-apple ; S. ni- grum, Common Nightshade; S. tuberosum, Potatoe. Solidago Virgaurea, Common Golden Rod. [S. Casia, Throat- wort, Rattlesnake Golden-Rod.] Sonchus arvensis, Corn Sow- thistle ; S. oleraceus, Common Sow- thistle ; S. palustris, Marsh Sow- thistle. Sorbus aucuparia, Quicken-tree; S. domestica, True Service-tree ; S. hybrida, Bastard Mountain-ash. Sparganium eiectum, Greater Burweed. Spartium junccum, Spanish Broom; to render impermeable to moisture, see Water-proof. Clysters, their use as an anti- dote for mineral poisons, see Cop- per ;—for Horses, see Horse-me- dicines ;—substances proper for, see Fenugreek; Mutton. Coaches, close, bad effects of, on travellers, see Breathing. Cocci how to destroy, see Hot- house, [Peach-fruit.] Cochineal, substitute for, see Bane-berries. Coffee, to improve, see Succo- ry ;—substitutes for, see Acorns ; Beech-nut; Seeds of the Common Broom; Chesnut. Cold, its effects on Vegetables, and method of preventing, see Frost. Cold Bathing, directions for, see Bath. Colds, symptoms of, and me- thod of cure, see Catarrh ; Olive- tree ; Pitch. Colic, symptoms of the, see Belly-ach ;—remedies for, see Ammoniac ; Cardamom ; Castor- oil ; Clary ; Holly ; Cascarilla—in Farriery, see Gripes. Colours, vegetable, see Fruit- trees. Combs, material for, see Box. Complexion, delicate, how to preserve, see Freckles. GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 33 Compost, different kinds of, see Manure. Consumption, a principal cause of, see Dancing ;....medicines for, see Arvenusly ; Birch-wine ; Hart- fell-water ; Hemlock; Chickweed ; Colt's-foot; Cucumber ; Daisy ; Fox-glove ; Issues ; Liverwort; Oysters ; Phosphorus ; Sago ; Tortoise. [Mercury.] Contagion, to prevent, see Olive-tree. [Acids.] Copess, how to strengthen, see Hazel-nut-tree. Corn, best method of storing, see Granary. Corn-Marigold, how to extir- pate, see Chalk. Corns, the causes of, see Foot. Corroborants, see Angelica; Copaiba. Corrosive Sublimate, remedy for the poison of, see Antidote. Cosmetics, see Teasel; Wake- Robin ; Benzoine, Bismuth, Fu- mitory. Costiveness, remedies for, see Beet; Charcoal; Breath ; Prunes; Sow-bread ; Cassia ; Flummery. Cough, substances which re. lieve, see Dame-wort; Fir-tree . Galbanum ; Ground-Ivy ; Gum ; Hound's-Tongue ; Ipecacuanha ; Mastich ; Pectorals; Pitch; Squill; Sulphur. Counterpanes, material for mak- ing, see Poplar. Cow-dung, its use as a medica- ment, see Bruises. Cows, food for, see Common Burnet Saxifrage; Burnet, the Upland; Cow-parsnep; Cow- wheat ; Cress ; Nettle ; Dodder; Dyer's Green-weed ; Eye-bright; Fescue-grass ; Feverfew ; Fo;>!s- parsley Fox-tail grass; Furze ; Gold-of-Pleasure ; Goose-foot ; Goose-grass ; Gout-weed ; I lop ; John's-vvort ; Lentil ; Meadow- grass ; Medick ; Melic-grass ; Milk-Vetch ; Oat; Parsnep ; Pea; Potatoes ; Quaking-grass ; Rye ; Sneeze-wort; Sow-thistle ; Speed- well ; Spindle-tree ; Spurrey; Wood-roof; Yam ; Sec....Causes, which affect the taste of their Milk, see Butter; ....Directions for the choice of; see Black Cat- tle....Remedy for the Consump- tion in, see Mullein.........when Sick, how to treat, see Distem- per. Cradles, materials for, see Birch- tree ; Osier; Willow. Cramp in the Stomach ; reme- dy for, see Bismuth. Crickets, to destroy, see Lily, the Water. Crimson Dye, see Dog's-grass; Goose-grass. Crops, on the rotation of, see Field. Crossing of Breeds, its utility, see Cattle. Crow-foot, see Blister. Crows, their utility to Hus- bandmen, see Chafer. Curl, on the causes and cure of, see Potatoes. Cutaneous disorders, remedies for, see Anise ; Birthwort; Dcok ; Elm-tree ; Lime ; Sponge ; Suc- cory ; Sulphur....see also Cosme- i tics. D. Dairy, hints for its management. see Butter. Damp, to prevent its noxious effects, see Flannel. Daws, to destroy, see Jack- daw. ■ Deafness, remedies for, see Agi- tation ; Electricity. Death, apparent, proper treat- ment for, see Drowning. Debilitated persons, proper foot! 24 GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. and management of; see Debi- lity. Demulcents, see Manna. Deobstruents, see Bryony ; Pen- ny-royal. Detergents, see Copaiba; Fir- tree ; Madder. Diabetes, remedy for, see Lime. Diaphoretics, see Ammonia; Antimony; Burdock ; Dame- wort ; Flartshorn ; Nightshade. Diarrhoeas, remedies for, see Berberries ; Cypress ; Deer ; Hartshorn ; Nutmeg ; Olibanum ; Opium ; Rhubarb ; Shepherd's- purse ; Spa-water ; Cascarilla. Digestion, to promote, see Asa- foe tida. Diseases of Bees, see Bee- hives ; of Dogs to treat, see Dog. Dish, a wholesome vegetable one, to prepare, see Tulip. Diuretics, see Burdock; Fen- nel ; Fumitory ; Nettle ; Tobacco- plant. [Serratulus spicata.] Dodder, to extirpate, see Flax. Dolphin, or Bean-fly, to destroy, see Bean. Dresses of females, in what re- spects injurious to health, see Cli- mate. Drops}-, remedies for, see Ab- domen ; Anise ; Bay-tree; Broom; Bryony ; Dandelion ; Elm-tree ; Fox-glove ; Gallic ; Lily ; Milk- wort ; Orache ; Sea-air. Drowning, a contrivance for preventing, see Bamboe-habit ; Cork-tree ; Spencer-Marine. Dry Baths, their utility ; see Bath. Ducks, their uses in destroy- ing insects, see Black Canker. Dung remedy for the inconve- nience of, in Agriculture, see Arable Land....substitute for, see Compost. Dyes, permanent; see Dyeing. Dyeing, see Leather ; Bismuth; • Bramble ; Lime-tree ; Tutsan. Dyspepsy ; remedy for ; see Zedoary. Dysenteries, relieved by Cher- ries ; Cypress : Dock ; Hartfell- water; Hound's-Tongue ; Mas- tich ;' Nutmeg ; Nux Vomica ; Opium ; Quince-tree ; Rose-bay ; Service-tree Cascarilla. E Ear-ach, see Ear. Ear-trumpets, their bad effects in Deafness, see Ear. Ear-wigs, how to destroy, see Oil. Earthen-ware, substitutes for lead, in finishing, see Glazing. Eating, excessive, consequences of, see Brain ;—too fast, see Mas- tication. Eels, how to catch, see Bobbing. Eggs, whites of, see Albumen. Emetics, see Club-moss ; Fox- glove ; Ipecacuanha ; Oxymel of Squills ; Spearwort ;—operation of, how to restrain, see Salt. Epidemic Diseases, preservative against, see Flag. Epilepsy, remedies for,- see Dog's Violet; Mushroom ; Night- shade, the deadly ; Phosphorus ; Zanthoxylon. Errhine, see Sow-bread. Eruptions caused by shell-fish, see Muscle ;—remedies for, see Chalk. [Esparcet, see Grasses.] Etiolation, its uses and disad- vantages in vegetation, see Light. Evacuations, how promoted, see Excretion. Exercise, partial, consequences of, see Game. Eye-lashes, inverted, how to treat, see Eye ; water, see Vitriol. GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 25 Eyes, affections of, how reliev- ed, see Anemone ; Antimony ; Blisters ; Buckthorn ; Hair, Sec F. Famine, treatment for persons suffering under, see Hunger. Farcy, see Asarabacca. Farms, large,their consequences, see Poor. Fawn-colour-dye, see Soot. Fences, method of constructing, see Bank-fence ;—materials for, see Plantation ; Planting ;—Mr. BakewelPs method of making, see Hedges. Fevers, remedies for, see Selt- zer-water ; Abstinence ; Barley ; Butter-milk ; Butter-burr ; Cam- phor; Cherry; Cornel-tree; Harts- horn ; Hop ; Nitre ; Phosphorus ; Sassafras; Tartar; and Casca- rilla. Figs, see Gargle. Filtering Machines improved, see Filtration. Fire, plans for securing houses from, see Buildings. Fish-broth, to prepare, see Broth. Flannel, utility of, when worn next the skin, see Autumn. Flatulency, remedies for, see Alum ; Angelica ; Asafoetida ; Cardamom Flax, refuse of, its utility ; see Fruit-trees ;—substitute for, see Swallow-wort, Fleas, to expel, see Savory. Flies, to destroy, see Black- Fly ; Fly ; Mushroom ; Oil. Floor, composition for, see Blood ;—for houses, best kinds of; see Fire;—for barns, method of constructing ; see Barn-floors. Flour, vegetables which yield, see Bread. vol. v. Flux, remedy for, see Cinnamon. Fodder, see Acacia; (Acacia, the False,) Angelica ; Bent-grass ; Bird's-foot, Bistort; Soft Brome- grass ; Buck-wheat ; Burnet; Butter-burr; Cabbage ; Canary- grass ; Kale ; Cinque-foil; Pars- nep ; Carrot; Serradilla; Pota- toe ; Maize. Food, solid, a cause of diseases; see Climate. Freckles, remedy for, see Albu- men. French-Bread, to prepare, see Bread. Frog, for Horses, Mr. Cole- man's artificial, see Shoe. Frogs, how to extirpate, see Fumitory. Frost-bitten parts, how to treat, see Cold. Frosts and dew, how to protect plants against, see Fog. Fruit, how to raise in winter, see Fruit-trees ;—to protect from Insects, see Caterpillar ;—a cata- logue of the best, see Orchard ;— how to rear, see Forcing and Nursery. Fomentations, see Myrtle. Fuel, see Coal-balls ; Sunflower; and Tulip-tree. Fumigation, see Sulphur-wort. G Galls, their uses, see Oak. Gangrene,seeAntiseptics,Dame- wort, Germander, Nitre, Sec. Gardens, new method of water- ing, see Kitchen-garden. Gargles, see Cinquefoil ; Fig- tree ; Myrrh. Gas, see Fixed Air. Gastric Juices, its uses, see Mortification. Giddiness, in sheep, remedy for, see Pimpernell. 4 D 26 GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. Ginger, see Milk-weed. Glass, see Grass-wrack ;—to join when broken, see Cement. Gloves, materials for, see Larch- tree, Poplar, Sre. Goats, food for, see Brome- grass ; Purging Buckthorn ; Car- line ; Chamomile ; Cheese-ren- net ; Cherry ; Cinquefoil ; Colt's- foot ; Columbine ; Corn-cockle ; Currant-tree ; Dandelion ; Dyer's Greenweed ; Fescue-grass; Fever- few ; Fool's Parsley; Furze; Germander ; Gold of Pleasure ; Goose-foot; Goose-grass ; Gout- weed; Groundsel; Hazel-nut-tree ; Juniper; Knawell; Ladies-Mantle; Ladies-Smock ; Lark-spur ; Lily ; Lovage ; Lousewort ; Lungwort ; Mare's-tail ; Marjoram ; Marsh- locks ; Matweed ; Meadow-grass; Medick ; Melic-grass ; Mother- wort ; Nightshade ; Oat ; Ox-eye- Primrose ; Quaking-grass ; Sca- bious the Field and Small ; Sloe- tree ; Snakeweed : Sneezewort ; Solomon's Seal ; Sow-thistle ; Speedwell; Spindle-tree ; Spurrey; Starwort ; Thrift ; Willow-herb ; Wood-roof, Sec. Gold-dyes, obtained from the Angelica, Artichoke, Buck-wheat, Fig-tree, Sec. Goose-dung, its uses as manure, see Dung. Gout, see Germander ; Ground- pine ; Horehound ; Vichy-water, Sec. Grain, how to ascertain its re. lative value, see Corn ;—its pro- portion of flour in a bushel, see Flour ;—how to preserve, see Gra- nary ; —how to clear from insects, see Corn-chafer. Grass, proper time for moving, see Hay. Grass-land, its fertility increas- ed by a manure of Bones ;—its ad- vantages for Pasture, see Cattle. Grates, how set to prevent smo- ky chimnies, see Chimney. Gravel, see Garlic, Onion, Sec. Grease, in horses, to remove, see Burnet, the Upland. Green-dyes, vegetables from which they are prepared, see Ane- mone ; Asarabacca ; Bugloss ; Bird-cherry; Smooth Rye Brome- grass ; Purging Buckthorn; Buck- wheat ; Bell-flower; Carp-gall; Cheese-Rennet; Clover ; Lily ; Liverwort; Privet; Reed ; Tan- sy ; Burnet the Great, Sec. Green Pigments, produced from Anemone ; Bell-flower ; Fleur-de- luce, Zinc, Sec. Greens, substitutes for, see Dead-nettle ; Nettle ; Nipple- wort ; Sec. Grub, to extirpate. See Cater- pillar. Gums, how to treat when ulcer- ated. See Gum-boil; also Cate- chu, Dock, Lac, Sec. Gunpowder. See Cautery. Gutta serena, relieved by Ane- mone. Gut-tie, account of. See Calves* II. Hair, to restore on the head, see Baldness ; Box-tree ; Butterwort; Myrtle, Sec. Hair-powder, materials for, see Beech-mast Oil, Comfrey,Sec. Hats, see Beaver ; Poplar; Seal, Sec. Hay, see Guinea-grass, Butter- cup, Sec. Head-ach, remedies for, see iEther ; Blisters ; Coffee ; Hair ; Leech ; Nutmeg, Sec. Heartburn, see Crab-fish, Lo- zenges, 8ec. Heaths, how reclaimed, see Land. Hedges, fence for, see Furze • GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 27 Buckthorn the Sea ; Hawthorn ; Holly ; Horn-beam-tree, Sec. Hedge-rows, how to make, see Oak. Flemp, substitutes for, see Sun- flower ; Tree-mallow, Sec. Hives, improvements on, see Bee-hives. Hoarseness, remedies for, see Cabbage, Olive-tree, Sec. Hogs, vegetables for fattening them, see Acacia ; Acorns ; Arti- chokes ; Beech-nut; Buck-wheat; Butter-wort; Chickweed ; Crow- foot ; Dandelion ; Dodder ; Duck's- meat; Earth-nuts ; Fern ; Fescue- grass ; Feverfew ; Fool's-Parsley; Groundsel ; Hawthorn ; Hop ; Meadow-sweet; Parsnep, the Wa- ter ; Pea ; Potatoes ; Sea-waure ; Sneezewort; Sow-thistle ; Timo- thy-grass ; Yarrow ; Sec. Hoofs of Horses, fomentation for, see Scabious. Hooping-cough, relieved by Asafcetida ; see also Chin-cough, Penny-royal, Sec. Hops, the best kind for Beer, see Brewing ;—substitutes for, see Asparagus ; Broom ; Buck-bean ; Clary ; Germander ; Mugwort ; Tansey, Sec. Horse-balls, on the use of, see Farriery. Horse-dealers, see Badger. Horse-dung, how to employ in gardens, see Hot-beds. Horse-hoe, see Drilling. Horse-radish, see Blister; its uses for the Skin, see Cosmetic. Horses, cure for weeping eyes of, see Eye ; food for, see Chamo- mile ; Corn-cockle ; Cornel-tree ; Cow-parsnep ; Currant-tree ; Dy- er's Green-weed ; Eye-bright; Fescue-grass ; Feverfew ; Furze ; Gold-of-Pleasure ; Goose-foot ; Goose-grass; Hazel-nut-tree; Hop; Ladies'' Mantle ; Lentils ; Lovage ; Matweed ; Meadow-grass; Me- dick ; Melic Grass ; Mother-wort; Osier ; Ox-eye ; Parsnep ; Pea ; Potatoes ; Rupture-wort; Rye ; Sloe-tree ; Snakeweed ; Sneeze- wort; Speedwell; Spurrey ; Star- wort ; Thrift; Timothy Grass ; Willow-Herb; Woodroof; Worm- wood. Hot-beds, substance for making, see Oak. Hounds, proper method of treat- ing, see Greyhounds. Houses, to prevent taking fire, see Country-houses, and 1 ire. Hunger, to prevent, see Pea, the Heath. Husbandry, the Drill,advantages of, see Drilling. Hydrophobia, see Nightshade, theDeadIy,[AnagallisCantharides] Orache ; Vinegar, Sec. Hypochondriacal compLints, re- lieved by Asafcetida ; Balm ; Ora- che ; Sassafras. Hysterics, remedies for, see Amber ; Ammoniac ; Angelica ; Asafcetida ; Beaver-oil ; Cheese- Rennet ; Clary ; Mandrake. I. Jail Distemper, see Fever. Jaundice relieved by Alum; Duck's-meat; Eggs; Ground-pine; Nettle ; Ox-eye ; Strawberry. Jelly, a nutritious one, how to prepare, see Arrow-root; Mutton ; Poplar; Rice. Indigestion, relieved by Moffat Waters ; Tunbridge-Water ; Sec Indigo, substitutes for, see Anise ; Common Burnet Saxi- frage, Trefoil, Acacia the False, Sec. Infection, to prevent, see Con- tagion ; Olive-tree. Inflammation, remedies for, see Duck's-meat; Excoriation; House- leek ; Squill. 28 GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. Ink, black, vegetables which produce, see Bane-berries ; Blue- bottle ; Sumach-tree ;—Green, see Anemone;—Sympathetic,see Yel- low-ink. Insects, best means of destroy- ing, see Apple-tree ; Caterpillar ; Chafer ; Fir-tree ; Flour ; Fruit- trees ; Oat; Coccus. Ipecacuanha, substitutes for, see Asarabacca ; Flerb-Paris, [Ipeca- cuanha.] Iron-moulds, to remove, see Sor- rel. Isinglass, how to substitute for glue, see Glue. Itch, ointment for, see Dock ; Elecampane ; Vitriol, [Tobacco,] Sec. K. Kite, electrical, its construction and uses, see Lightning. Knit, in cows, how to cure, see Cows. Lacker, purple, see Alkanet. Lake, see Madder. Lamp, see Bitumens. Land, exhausted, how to recruit, see Arable Lands. Lawns, how to make, see Grass. Laxatives, see Daffodil ; Dock ; Flax ; Fumitory ; Manna ; Night- shade ; Peach-tree ; Rose, the Da- mask ; Violet. Laxity, remedies for,see Betony; Cardamom ; Cassia ; Catechu. Lead, relief for the poison of, see Antidotes. Leather, how to make water- proof, see Boot. [Leather-wood, DircaPalustris.] Leaves, how to rear trees from, see Propagation. Leeches, see Kidney. Legs, crooked, to remedy, see Bandy-legs*;—pains in, removed by Blisters. Lemons, a substitute for, see Berberries. Leprosy, remedy for, see Elm- tree. Libraries, how to preserve from Insects, see Book. Lice, to destroy, see Butterwort. Light, new method of obtaining, see Air. Lightning, how to secure beds from, see Bed-room. Lilies, effects of keeping them in bed-chambers, see Apoplexy. Limbs,deformed, how pro ("lie see Distortion. Lime, substitutes for, see Oys- ter-shells ; Infection ;—Water, its use in clarifying Malt-liquors, see Beer. Liqueur, a delicious one, how made, see Quince-tree. Liquid for restoring sour beer, and directions for preparing, see Beer. Liquors, hot, cautions respect- ing them ; see Epilepsy. Lobsters, to preserve, see In- sects. Locked-Jaw relieved by Castor Oil; see also Jaw ; Opium. Locust, how to destroy, see Ca- terpillar. Longevity, how to promote, see Life. Lozenges, see Mint. [Lucerne, see grasses.] M. Magnesia, its use as an antidote, see Copper. Mahogany, how to imitate, see Wood. Maize, see Paper. Malt, substitute for, see Maize ; —.how to know the best kind of see Brewing ;—liquors, their phy- sical properties, see Beer. GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 29 Manna, see Bile. Manures, see Arsenic ; Ashes ; Blood; Bones ; Chalk-lands; Coal; Faggots ; Gypsum ; Horn ; In- sects ; Leaves; Malt; Marie; [Peat;] Pigeon ; Privies ; Reed ; Saw-dust; Sea-sludge; Sea-waure ; Stickle-back, Sec. Manuscripts, Scd. directions for preserving, see Deeds ;—to copy, see Writing, and Letter. Marble, to clean, see Alabas- ter. Mats, material for making, see Bull-rush. Mattresses, a valuable material for stuffing, see Moss. Maturation, how promoted, see Fig-tree. [Mazagan beans, to raise early in summer; see also Beans.] Meadow-Land, to increase its fertility, see Ashes. Mice, to destroy in Granaries, see Corn ; Knee-holly ; Mullein. Milk, see Air ; Anise ; Burnet, the Upland ; Cabbage ; Salep ;— skimmed, useful for preserving animal food, see Flesh-meat. Milking, proper times of, see Cow. Millet, substitute for, see Blitc. Mites, in grain, how lo eradi- cate, see Com. Mock-Turtle Soup, how to make, see Turtle. Moles, to disperse, see Garlic. Mordore-dye, see Bistort the Great. Mortar, composition for mak- ing, see building; [Cement.] Mortifications, a specific for, 6ee Antiseptics ;—checked by the use of the Cautery. Moths, see Arvenusly ; Chris- topher the Herb; Insects ; Laven- der. Jflow-burnt, see Barley. Mugwort, see Paper. Mushrooms, substitutes for, see Arvenusly ;—may be raised from the Poplar. Musk, substitute for, see |£os- chatel. Nervous diseases, remedies for, see Balm ; Blisters; Celery ; Sa^e. Nephritic disorders, relief for, see Birch-wine; Cyper-grass; Raisin-wine. Nettle-seeds, their use in im- proving animal-hair, see Horse. Night-air, its noxious influence, see Bed-time. Ni^ht-caps, thick, consequences of wearing, see Head. Nipples; chapped, cure for, see Borax. O. Oak bark, substitutes for, < c Tanning. Obstructions, see Madder ; Sea- vvater. Oil, how purified, see Charcoal; Sand ;—afforded by the Angelica ; Bay-tree ; Beech-mast; Celery ; Charlock; Cherry; Gale; Lilac • Orange; Privet; Rape ; Ray- fish ; Acacia; Sanders ; Stickle. back ; Sun-flower ; Acorns ; Blad. der-nut-tree ; Cornel-tree; Net- tle; Nettle-Hemp;—of Olives, a preventive of infection, see Plague. Oil-paint, substitutes for, see Paint. Opium, substitutes for, see Hemp; Herb-Paris ;—safe method of taking, see Acids ;—its violent effects on the brain, see Anodyne ; —externally good for wounds, rheumatisms, Sec. see Anodyne ; Mortification. Orange, see Colour-making ;— dyes, vegetables which yield, Sas- safras ; Bay-Ire •; Rhubarb; Li- verwort. SO GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. Owls, use of, see Mouse. Oxen, directions for the choice of, see Black Cattle;—for fatten- ing, see Bullocks ;—and Horses, comparative advantages of, in agri- culture, see Horse. P. Packing, material for, see Moss. Pain, violent, remedies for, see Anodyne. Paintings, how to clean, see Picture. Palsy, relieved by Opium, see Anodyne ; Bay-trees ; Blisters ; Fir-tree ; Phosphorus ; Rosemary. Paper, materials for, see Aloe; Bark ; Bull-rush ; Burdock ; Cab- bage Palm ; Cotton ; Cyper-grass; Nettle ; Traveller's-Joy ; Mallow; Tree-Mallow ; Willow ; Broom : Hop-bines ; [Gunny-bag,] Sec. ; see also Book. Papier-mache, see Amber. Paste, for book-binders, to pre- vent worms, see Books ;—substi- tute for, see Asphodel; dies' nuts. Peach-colour dye, see Rose. Pearl-white, Colour-making. Pears, dwarf, method of produc- ing, see Dwarf-trees. Perfume, see Orange. Perspiration, how to promote, see Bathing ; Bath ; Consump- tion ;-—profuse, how checked, see Soda. Phlebotomy, see Blood-letting. Phlegm, to attenuate, see Birth- wort. Pica, or longing, remedy for, see Sea-wrack. Pickles, new, see Buck-bean ; Caraway. Pigeons, food for, see Vetch. Pine-tree, the Scotch, its uses, and method of culture, see Fir. Plants, treatment of, see Irrita- bility ;—proper for moist ground, see Draining ;—best method of packing, see Exotics ,—how to preserve with their natural fresh- ness, see Herbal. Plant-louse, see Hot-house. Plasters, see Fir-tree ; Olive- tree. Plethoric individuals, rules for, see Diet. Pleurisy, medicine for, see Milkwort. Plough, the drill, see Drilling. Poisons, antidotes for vegetable, see Acids ;—for mineral, see An- tidotes. Ponds, how to stock, see Carp and Fish. Pork, best method of salting, see Beef. Posts, best substance for mak- ing, see Acacia ; Larch-tree, Sec. Pot-ash, see Alkali, vegetable. Potatoes, most economical me- thod of cooking, see Steam ;— utility of, as food, see Diet. Pottage, recipe for making, see Diet. Poultry, vegetables, Sec. vvhich fatten, see Acacia; Buckwheat; Chafer ; Duck's-meat; Millet ; Nettle ; [Bignonia.] Prints, see Bleaching. Pruning, see Apple-tree. Puddings, ingredient for, see Fescue-grass ;—to improve, see Panada ;—best method of dress- ing, see Steam. Purgatives, see Bindweed ; Buckthorn ; Fox-glove ; Jalap ; Liverwort; Mandrake ; Plum- tree ; Scammony ; Senna ; Stone- crop. Purple-dye, see Heath ; Linen ; Cornel-tree ; pigments, vegetables which afford, see Bilberry, Sec. Putrefaction, how prevented, see Charcoal. Putrid Diseases, see Fever. GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 31 Quinsy, remedies for, see Aca- cia ; Anise ; Cudweed. R. Rabbits, food for, see Milk- Thistle. Rats, how to disperse, see Gar- lic ; Granaries ; Valerian. Ravens, singular efficacy of their gastric juice, see Cancer. Red Dyes, vegetables which af- ford, see Birch-tree ; Bloodwort ; Cheese-rennet; Goose-grass; Rhu- barb ; Sloe-tree ; Sumach-tree; Madder ; Marjoram ; Mordants; [Gallium.] Red-water, in Sheep, to re- move, see Parsley. [R. frigerator.] Rennet, substances for, see But- ter-wort ; Cheese-rennet. Resin, see Poplar. Rheumatism, reliev cdbyOpium; see also Anodyne ; Bagnio ; Blis- ters ; Bryony ; Cajeput-oil; Cam- phor ; Dock ; Electricity ; Fir- tree ; Flax ; Lac; Mineral Waters ; Mustard ; Pitch ; Sec. Rice, substitute for, see Millet. Rickets, remedy for, see Mad- der. Ripple, see Clover. Rock-salt, its advantage in pick- ling, Sec. see Beef. Roofs, fire-proof, how to make, see Reed. Rope, materials for, see Aloe ; Birch-tree. Rose-pink, see colour-making. Rot, in sheep, by what occa- sioned, and method of cure, see Cattle ; Sundew ; remedies for, see Buck-bean ; Parsley ; Salt; Sec. S. Salad, vegetables which may be eaten as, see Avens ; Bell-flower; Brook-lime ; Burdock ; Burnet; the Upland ; Lungwort ; improve- ment in, see Borage ; Ox-eye. Salt, see Beef; how to recover from Pickle, see Bacon ; method of purifying, see Basket-salt; of Lemons, substitute for, see Sorrel; springs, indication of, see Star- wort ; water, improved method of distilling, see Air. Sap-green, how prepared, see Green. Saponaceous Plants, which may be substituted for soap, see Bur- dock ; Horse-chesnut; Orache ; Soap-wort; Wake-Robin. Sassafras, its use in brewing and distilling, see Bay-tree. Scab, in Sheep, see Dock ; Ele- campane ; Farsley. Scald-head, remedy for, see Ele- campane. [Melia.] Scarlet Dye, see Liverwort. Sciatica, see Rue. Scouring, in cattle, see Calf. Scurvy, remedies for, see Agri- mony ; Alum ; Angelica ; Anise ; Cheese-rennet ; Citron ; Coffee ; Colt's-foot; Garlic; Goose-grass; Lac ; Salep ; Sea-waure, Sec. Sea, to prevent its encroach- ments, see Lime-grass. Secretions, to promote, see Sa- vin ; Scurvy-grass ; Senna ; This- tle. [Seneka root, see Polygala Seneka.] Sheep food for, see Acacia Arrow-grass ; Bell-flower ; Bird- cherry ; Bistort; Borecole ; Buck- thorn ; Burnet; Catchweed ; Cat-, mint ; Cheese-rennet; Cherry ; Christopher the Herb; Cinquefoil; Colt's-foot ; Corn-cockle ; Cornel- tree ; Corn-salad ; Cow-wheat; Cress ; Dodder ; Dog's-tail-grass; Dropwort ; Dyer's-green-weed ; Eye-bright ; Fescue-grass ; Fever- few ; Furze ; Germander ; Gold- 32 GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE of-Pleasure ; Goose-foot ; Goose- grass ; Goutweed ; Hop ; Horse- beans ; House-leek; John's-wort; Juniper; Ivy; Knawell ; Ladies Mantle ; Ladies Smock; Lark- spur ; Lentil ; Lily ; Lovage ; Lungwort ; Marjoram ; Meadow- grass ; Medick ; Motherwort ; Nightshade ; Oat ; Ox-Eye ; Parsley ; Parsnep ; Pea ; Plan- lain the Ribwort ; Primrose ; Quaking-grass ; Rupture-wort ; Rye ; SaiVlovver ; Salt-wort; Sca- bious, the field, and small ; Sloe- tree ; Snake-weed ; Sneezewort ; Solompn's-Seid ; Sow-thistle ; Speedwell; Spindle-tree ; Spur- rey ; Star-wort; Woodroof, Yar- row. Shrubs, method of conveying from a distance, see Plant. Silk-worms, food for, see Cow- slip ; Elm-tree. Smoke of lamps, Sec. how to collect, see Smoking. Smut, how to cure, see Arsenic ; Barley ; Corn. Snake, remedy for the bite of; see Ammonia. [Serpent. Potash.] Soap, substitutes for, see Ful- ler's-Earth; Saw-dust. [Horse chesnut.] Soporifics ; see Dog's- Mercury. Sore-throat, remedies for, see Abstinence ; Elder tree ; Fixed air. Soups, ingredient for, see Fes- cue-grass; their injurious effects on invalids, see Beef-tea. Spanish-flies, caution against the indiscriminate use cf, see Blisters ; —substitutes for, see Butter-cup ; Crow-foot. Spasmodics, see Opium. Spinach, substitutes for, see Bine; Daisy. Spine, see Distortion. Spirits how to correct, see Charcoal ;—afforded bv the fruit of the Dog-rose ; Guinea-corn ; Hawthorn; Quicktn-tree, Sec. Splinters, to promote the extrac- tion of, see Needle, the Shep- herd's. Sprains, see Liniment; Spirit of Wine. Spur in grain, remedy for, see Corn. Stables, Sec. how to purify, see Fumigation. Staggers, in horses, to prevent, see Goats. Starch, plants which afford, see Arrow-head ; Arrow-root; Bry- ony, the W kite ; Burdock ; Com- frey ; Pile-wort; Snow-drop ; Solomon's-seal; Wake-robin, Sec. [Indian Turnip ; Horse-chesnut.] Sternutatory ; see Mustard, the Hedge. Stings of insects, remedy for, see Bee; Gnat; Tar. Stomachic, see Mugwort. Strangury, see Gum-arabic. Straw, see Thatching. Styptics, see Agaric ; Bistort ; Gall ; Puff-ball; Sheperd's-Purse ; Sponge ; Sumach-tree ; Tourni- quet, Sec. Sudorifics, see Diaphoretics. Suffocation by vapour, treat- ment for, see Charcoal. Sugar, substitute for, see Mo- lasses. Sulphur, see Lead. Surfeit in horses, see Parsley. Swallowing, difficulty of, how relieved, see Mezereon. Sweet-meat, see Lemon. Swellings, remedies for, see Fenugreek ; Goose-grass ; Holly ; Nightshade, the Deadly ; Ox-eye ; Sea-water; Sponge. Sympathetic-Ink, see Bismuth. T. Table-beer, recipe for making, see Beer. GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. S3 Tanning, substitutes for Oak- bark in, see Angelica; Avens; Berberries; Birch-tree; Bistort the Great; Briar ; Broom ; Bur- net the Great ; Burweed ; Clary ; Dock ; Feverfew; Horehound, the White ; Larch-tree; La- vender-Thrift; Loose-strife ; Myr- tle ; Silver-weed ; Sloe-tree ; Tor- mentil; Trefoil; Yarrow ; [See Vegetable Substances.] Tapioca, substitute for, see Or- chis. Tea, substitutes for, see Ash ; Betony ; Bilberry ;—to make from Beef; see Beef-tea. Teeth, purifier of, see Dock. Test-stones, see Basalles. Thatch, how to render Fire- proof, see Moss. Thistle, its use, see Paper. Timber, to preserve from de- cay, see Beech-tree. Tippling, see Clover. Tobacco, substitutes for, see Buck-bean; Cudweed ; Milk- weed ; Pea, the Heath ; Sumach- tree ;—to improve, see Larkspur. Tonics, see Bitters ; Buckthorn, Sec. Tooth-ach, relieved, and cured by jEther ; Agitation; Anemone; Cajeput-oil; Marjoram ; Opium; Thyme, Sec. Touch-stones, see Basaltes. Trees, best method of rooting up, see Berne-machine ;—to de- fend from the injuries of Animals, see Diseases of Plants ;—frost-bit- ten, how to recover, see Frost;— blasted, see Lightning ;—injured, composition for, see Blight. Trout, Sec. how to carry alive to a considerable distance, see Fish. Tulips, how to preserve, see Flower. Tumors, see Swellings ;—in horses, to discuss, see roll-Evil. VOL. V. Turf, guide in digging for, see Sundew. Turnip-fly, how to extirpate, see Cabbage, and Fly. U. V. Vapours, mephitic, to disperse* see Vinegar. Varnish, see Eggs;—vegetables, Sec. which yield, see Aloe ; Am- ber ; Bitumens ; Copal. Veal and Lamb, how preserved in Germany, see Flesh-meat. Vegetables, to keep ; see Pre- servation ; how to protect from cold, see Frost;—poisonous, how to deprive of their injurious qua- lity, see Cassava ;—when putrid, to correct, see Charcoal ;—proper time of watering, see Cold. Veneering, materials for, see Broom, the Common; Traveller's^ Joy. Venison, its properties as food, and best method of preparing, see Deer. Vermifuges, substances proper for, see Fern ; Gamboge ; Liver- wort, the green-ground ; Mulber- ry-tree ; Sugar ; Spurge-laurel ; Tansy ; Timothy-grass ; [Melia, Tobacco.] Vermin, to prevent their depre- dations, see Aloe ; Oil;—in Cat- tle, remedy for, see Meadow Saf- fron. Vigogne dye, see Bell-flower, Mezereon, Sec. Vinegar, vegetables whence it may be prepared, see Bramble ; Citron ; Quicken-tree ;—an excel- lent article for making, see Grains. Violet dye, see Rose. Vulneraries, see Anemone ; Daisy ; Leadvvort. Ulcers, remedies for, see Ane- mone ; Arsenic; Basilicon; Birth- 4 M « <7 £. GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. wort; Buckthorn ; Cock-roach ; Euphorbium; Louse-wort; Night- shade, the Deadly ; Sorrel; Ver- digrease ;—how checked, see Cau- tery ;—of the throat, remedies for, see Mustard, the Hedge. Ultramarine, substitutes for, see Smalt. Urine, discharge of, to prevent, see Squill;—retention of, effica- cious remedies for, see Gourd; Ice ; [Saw-wort ; Polygonum.] W. Walls, cheap plaster for, see Cement. Warm-Bathing, directions for, see Bath. Warts, to destroy, see Ammo- nia ; Poppy, the Homed. Waste-Land, how to improve, see Moor. Water, its utility to debilitated persons, when impregnated with ferruginous particles, see Baths;— to purify, see Alum ;—salt, how to make fresh, see Sea-water;— its advantage as a beverage, see Drinking ;—Colours, how to pre- pare, see Colour-making ;—Level, see Irrigation. [Water-proof, see Boot, Lea- ther, Shoe.] Wax, vegetables from which it is collected, see Bees. Weights, and ponderous bodies, machine for raising, see Jack. Wells, how to purify, see Air ;—bad consequences of the present mode of lining them, see Bricks. Wheat, best method of preserv- injr, see Corn ; Granary ;—Ger- man method of blanching, see Barley ;—sprouted, how to reme- dy, see Corn. Wheel-drag, an useful one de- scribed, see Drag. White-lead, substitutes for, see Paint, and Zinc. Wicks for Candles, see Cotton- grass. Wigs, pernicious consequences of Wearing, see Hair-powder. Wine, to clarify, see Albumen ; Alum; Common Burnet Saxi- frage ;—to improve its flavour, see Burnet, the Upland ;—Vegetables which yield, see Alder-tree; Birch- tree ; Bird-cherry ; Bramble ; Bil- berries ; Sycamore-tree; Quince- tree, Sec.—bottles, see Bottle. Wood, composition for preserv- ing, see Board ;—how to stain, see Mahogany ;—to silver, see Bis- muth ;—to prevent the combustion of, see Alum. Wood-caterpillars, how destroy- ed, see Caterpillar. Wool, undressed, its use, see Moth ;—best method of preserv- ing, see Cloth ;—substitute for, see Willow. Wounds, of Horses, how to treat, see Horses ;—remedies for, see Basilicon ; Carolina-Poplar ; Fir-tree; Needle, the Common Shepherd's ; Opium. Worms, to destroy, see Aloe ; Box ; Loose-strife ; Mustard, the Hedge ; [Calomel ; Melia, Sec] Writings, easy mode of Copy- ing, see Letter. Y. Yarn, materials for, see Duck's- meat ; Woundwort. Yaws, see Limes. Yeast, experiments to make ar- tificial, see Fermentation. Yellow-dyes, substances vvhich * GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 35 yield, see Acacia; Agrimony, the Common ; Agrimony, the Hemp ; Balsamine ; Berberries ; Birch- tree ; Alder Buckthorn ; Purging Buckthorn; Buck-wheat;Burdock, the Lesser ; Chamomile ; Crab- tree ; Feverfew ; Furze ; Fustic ; Gale; Golden-Rod; Herb-Robert; Horn-beam ; John's-wort; Mari- gold ; Moss ; Mugwort; Nettle ; Plum-tree ; Poplar ; Ragwort. [Hydrastis Canadensis, Oak, (Quercitron.] %* The reader is requested to supply the occasional deficiencies, or omissions, by reverting either to the primary articles, or by con- sulting the Indices of Synonyms, Sec which are prefixed to each Volume. THE END, PRINTED BY ROBERT CARR, NO. 10, CHURCH-STREET. A • --■ . « ... • :'^, ; f J ' V * - •* **■ H V- ■ ) „, * • 'A ' ^.7.. i V * !< ^^:- *"!<■.. '..:''. •■ '.i f'-% V • I SCT*' •>s-< iL*J