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NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
Bethesda, Maryland
L
■"^SS^XyV.-AVa
THE /
DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPEDIA;
OR,
A DICTIONARY OF TACTS,
AND USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
COMPREHENDING
A CONCISE VIEW OF THE LATEST DISCOVERIES, INVENTIONS,
AND IMPROVEMENTS,
CHIEFLY APPLICABLE TO RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
TOGETHER WITH
DESCRIPTIONS OF THE MOST INTERESTING OBJECTS OF NATURE AND ARTS
THE HISTORY OF MEN AND ANIMALS, IN A STATE OF HEALTH OR
DISEASE ; AND PRACTICAL HINTS RESPECTING THE ARTS AND
MANUFACTURES, BOTH FAMILIAR AND COMMERCIAL.
ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND CUTS.
■»♦■
IN FIVE VOLUMES.
VOLUME V.
BY A. F. M. WILLICH, M.D.
AUTHOK OF THE LECTURES ON DIET AND REGIMEN, &C.&C.
FIRST AMERICAN EDITION; WITH ADDITIONS,
APPLICABLE TO THE PRESENT SITUATION OF THE UNITED STATES
BY JAMES MEASE, M. D.
AND FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
PHILADELPHIA
PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM YOUNG BIRCH, AND ABRAHAM SMALL,
NO. 17, SOUTH SECOND-STREET,
AND T. AND J. SWORDS, PEARL-STREET, NEW-YORK.
ROBERT CARR, PRINTER.
1804.'
&■-.
K». M)
District of Pennsylvania: to wit.
Be it remembered, That on the eighth day of April, in the twenty-
seventh Year of the Independence of the United States of America,
William Young Birch, and Abraham Small, of the said District, have
deposited in this Office the Title of a Book, the Right whereof they
claim as Proprietors, in the words following, to wit:
" The Domestic Encyclopaedia ; or, A Dictionary of Facts, and Useful
" Knowledge. Comprehending, a concise View of the latest Dis-
" coveries, Inventions, and Improvements; chiefly applicable to
" Rural and Domestic Economy. Together with Descriptions of the
" most interesting Objects of Nature and Art; the History of Men
"and Animals, in a State of Health or Disease; and practical
" Hints respecting the Arts and Manufactures, both familiar and
" commercial. Illustrated with numerous Engravings and Cuts.
" In Five Volumes. Volume I. By A. F. M. Willich, M. D.
" Author of the Lectures on Diet and Regimen, isfc. fc5V. First
" American Edition ; with Additions applicable to the present situa-
" tion of the United States. By James Mease, M..D. and Fellow of
" the American Philosophical Society."
In Conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entituled)
"An Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of
Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such
Copies during the times therein mentioned," and also, to an Act, enti-
tuled, " An Act supplementary to an Act, entituled, an Act for the
Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Chai-ts,
and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the
Times therein mentioned. And extending the Benefits thereof to the
Arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical, and other Prints."
C L. S. ) D. CALDWELL,
Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania.
Contents
OF THE FIFTH VOLUME.
SNUFF
Soal
Soap
......Earth
......Wort
Soda
Soft-grass
Soil
Soiling
Solidago
Solomon's Seal
Soot
Sorrel, the Common
.........the Sheep's
.........the Wood
Soup
Sow-bread
Sow-thistle
Sowing
Soy
Spade, (with a Cut,)
Spar
Sparrow
Spasm
Spatling-Poppy, ,
Spearwort, the Great,
............the Lesser,
Spectacles,
Speedwell,
Spencer, Marine,
Spermaceti,
Spice,
Spider,
Spider-Wort,
Spignel,
Spike-Oil,
Spinach,
Spindle-Tree,
Spinning,
PAGE PAGK
1 Spirits, 26
2 Spirit of Wine, 27
ib. Spleen, ib.
5 Spleen-Wort, 28
ib. Splents, ib.
ib. Sponge, ib.
6 Spots, 29
7 Sprain, ib.
ib. Spring, 30
8 Spring-Grass, ib.
ib. Spruce-Beer, 31
9 Spurge, ib.
ib. Spurge-Laurel, 32
10 Spurry, ib.
**: Squill, - - . ib.
ib. Squinting, 33
11 St. Vitus's Dance, 34
ib. Stable, 35
12 Staggers, ib.
ib. Stair Case, 36
13 Star-of-Bethlehem, 37
14 Star-Grass, ib.
ib. Star-Wort, ib.
15 Starch, ib.
■ 16 Starling, 39
ib. Staves-Acre, - „ ib.
ib. Stays, ib.
ib. Steam, 40
17 Steam-dish, 41
18 Steel, 43
19 Steel-Yard, 44
20 Stirrup, ib.
22 Stomach, 45
23 Stone, - 46
ib. Stones, (with a Plate), 49
24 Stone-Crop, 51
ib. Storax, ib.
ib. Stove, 52
25 Strains, A 53
VI.
CONTENTS.
Strangles,
Straw,
Strawberry,
Strawberry-Tree,
Straw-Cutter,
Sturgeon,
Styptic,
Sublimate,
Succory,
Suffocation,
Sugar,
Suicide,
Sulphur,
.....,.......Wort,
Sumach-Tree,
Sundew,
Sun-Flower,
Sun-Scorched,
Surfeit,
...........in Farriery,
Suspension, by the Cord,
Swallowing,
Swallow-Wort,
Swamp,
Sward-Cutter,
Swearing,
Sweat,
Sweating-Sickness,
Sweep-Chimney,
Swimming,
Swinging,
Swoon,
Sycamore-Tree,
Sympathy,
Syrup,
Tacamahaca,
Talc,
Tanning,
Tansy,
Tap-Cock,
Tape-Worm,
Tar, - •
Tarragon,
Tarras,
Tartar,
Taste,
Tea-Tree,
Teasel,
Teeth,
Telescope,
Temperance,
Tendons,
lGE page.
54 Tennis, 103
55 Terrier, ib*
56 Tetrao, tb.
59 TheatrS^ 104
60 Thermometer, 105
62 Thirst, 112
ib.- Thistle, ib.
ib. 113
63 Thorn-Apple, ib.
ib. Thrashing, 114
ib. Thrift, ib.
73 Throat, 115
74 Throstle, ib.
75 Thrush, ib.
ib. Thunder, - 116
ib. Thyme, 117
76 Tide, 118
77 Tile, 119
ib. Tillage, ib.
ib. TlLIA, 120
78 Timber, ib.
79 Time, 138
ib. ib.
80 Timothy-Grass, 139
ib. Tin, 140
ib. Tincture, 142
81 Tinning, 143
ib. Toad, ib.
ib. Tobacco, 144
82 Tolu, 152
83 Tom-Tit, ib.
84 Tongue, 153
85 Tonsils, 155
ib. Tool, ib.
86 Tormentil, ib.
Tortoise, 156
87 Touch-Wood, ib.
ib. Tourniquet, ib.
88 Tower-Mustard, 151
90 Tragacanth, ib.
ib. Transfusion. ib.
91 Transplantation, 159
92 Traveling, ib.
94 Treacle, 189
ib. Tree, 190
ib. Tree-Mallow, 193
95 Trefoil, ib.
ib. 194
« 98 Truffle, 199
ib. Tumbrel, (with a Cut), 200
101 Tumor, 201
102 Tupelo Tree, ib.
ib. Turbith, 202
CONTENTS. VI1.
PAGE . PAGE
202 Washing, 344
Turf, ib. Wasp, - 345
Turkey, ib. Water, (with Cuts and a plate) , 346
Turmeric, 203 Water-Aloe, 359
Turnep, (with Cuts), Turning, Turn sol, ib. ib.
215 360
216 217 ib.
Turpentine, Turtle ib.
ib. 218 ......... Proof, 361
Tutenag, Wax, 362
Tutsan, ib. Weaning, 363
Types, lb. Weasel, - - ib.
Typhus, 219 Weasel-Snout, 364
Weather, ib.
Valerian, 221 Weather-Glass, 365
Valisneria, 222 Weaving, ... 366
Vanilla, 223 Weed, - ib.
Vapour, ib. Weigh, ... 368
Varnish, 224 Weights, (to raise) ib.
Vault, 234 Weight, - 369
Veal, ib. Weig-hing-Bridge, 371
Vegetable Kingdom, 235 Well, (with a Cut), 372
Vegetation, 261 Wen, 377
Veins, 267 Whale, - 378
Veneering, ib. Wheat, (with a Cut), 379
Verdigrease, 275 Wheel, 392
Verditer, 276 Whetstone, 402
Verjuice, ib. Whey, ib.
Vervain, 277 Whin-Chat, ib.
Vessel, ib. Whiskey, - - 403
Vetch, or Tare. 279 White-Swelling, ib.
284 White-Washing, 404
285 Whiting, ib.
Vine, ib. Whitlow, 405
Vinegar, Violet, 325 ib.
327 J Widgeon, ib.
Viper's Bugloss, ib. Willow, 406
Vitriol, Vives, ib. ..........Herb, 409
328 Wind, ib.
Ulcer, - - 329 410
Vomiting, * 332 Wind-Gall, 411
Usquebaugh, 334 412
Uvula, ib. Windmill, (with a Cut), ib.
Wind-Pipe, 413
Waggon, 3.15 Window, (with a Cnt,) 414
Wainscot, - 339 Wine, - 416
Wake-Robin, ib. Winnow, 420
Wall-Cress, ib. Wire, ... 422
Walnut-Tree, ib. Withers, ib.
Warbles, 342 Woad, ... ib.
Warmth, (with a Cut), ib. Wolf's-Bane, 423
Warping, 343 Wolves-Teeth, 424
Warts, 344 Wood, . - - - ib.
Wart-Wort, ib. Woodcock, 4;y
viii.
Wood-pecker,
Woodroof,
Wool/
Worms,
.........in Husbandry,
Wormwood,
Wort,
Wound,
Wounds, in Farriery,
Woundwort,
Wren, - -'
Wrestling,
Writing,
Wry-Neck,
Xanthoxylon,
Xanthorhiza,
Yam,
PLATES IN THE FIFTH VOLUME.
I. Plate of a Machine for clearing stones from land;
and of a Straw-Cutter, to face p. 49.
II. Munning's and Knight's Turnip-Drills, and Trans-
planter, p. 205.
III. Searjant's Machine to raise water; and Besant's
Undershot Wheel, p. 352.
IV. Hoisting Machine, p. 368. »
V. &? VI. Weighing Bridge, p. 371.
VII. Xanthorhiza Tinctoria, p. 448.
CONTENTS.
PAGE PAGE
428 Yard, 449
430 Yarn, ib.
ib. Yarrow, 450
437 Yawning, ib.
438. Yeast, 451
ib. Yellow, 457
439 Yellow-Fever, 458
ib. • Yellow-Hammer, 465
443 Yellow-Rattle, ib.
ib. Yellows, ib.
444 Yew-Tree, 468
ib. Yoke, 470
ib. Youth, ib.
445
Zaffre, 473
446 Zedoary, 474
447 Zinc, ib.
448 Zizany, 476
INDEX
TO THE CORRESPONDING SYNONYMS, OR INVERSIONS OF TERMS
OCCURRING IN THE FIFTH VOLUME.
Sole; see Soal.
Somnambulism; see Sleep-walk-
ing.
Sour-trefoil ; see Sorrel, the
Common.
Spanish Fly ; see Fly, the Span-
ish.
Spanish Lilac; see Lilac, the
Common.
Spear-thistle ; see Thistle.
Spelt; see Wheat.
Spicknel; see Spignel.
Spinell; see Ruby.
Spunk; see Touchwood.
Square Barley; see Bere.
Squash ; see Gourd.
St. James's Wort; see R.agwort,
the Common.
Starwort, the Water; see Star-
grass.
Stinking Flower-de-luce ; see
Flower-de-luce.
Storm-glass; see Weather-glass.
Strasburgh-turpentine; see Tur-
pentine.
Strawberry-trefoil; see Trefoil.
Stricken; see Quarter-evil.
Suffolk, or Skim-cheese; see
Cheese.
Sug;ir-cane; see Sugar.
Sulphuric-acid; see Vitriolic-
acid.
Summer-barley; see barley.
Sun-fish; see Shark, the Bask-
ing.
Sweet-cicely ; see Cicely, the
Sweet.
Swine-pock ; see Chicken-pock.
Swine's-cress; see Scurvy-grass.
Swiss-cheese ; see Cheese.
Sympathetic Ink; see Ink.
Tangle; see Sea-wrack, the Es-
culent.
Terras; see Tarras.
Threshing; see Thrashing.
Tine-tare; see Vetch, the Corn.
Tombac; see Zinc.
Traas ; see Tarras.
Tree-moss ; see Liverwort, the
Officinal Stringy.
Trefoil-buck-bean ; see Buck-
bean.
Venice-turpentine; see turpen-
tine.
Venice-treacle ; see Treacle, the
Venice.
Wakefulness; see Waking.
Water-chickweed ; see ' Star-
grass.
Water-crow-foot; see Crow-
foot.
Water-crow-foot, the Round-
leaved; see Crowfoot.
Water-dropwort; see Dropwort.
Water -fennel; see Star-grass.
Water-flower-de-luce; see Flow-
er-de-luce.
Water-rat; see Rat.
Water-starwort; see Star-grus;.
Watering of Gardens; see Kit-
chen-garden.
Way-thistle; see Saw-Avort.
Weeping-willow; see Willow.
Westphalia-cheese; see Cheese.
Wey; see Weigh.
Wh'ipt-syllabub; see Syllabub.
Whistling-swan ; see Swan, the
Wild.
Whitloe; see Whitlow.
Wild-basil; i,ee Thyme.
INDEX.
Wild Burnet; see Burnet, the
Great.
Wild-liquorice; see Milk-veteh.
Wild-thyme; see Thyme.
Willow, the Sweet; see Gale, the
Sweet.
Willow-herb, the Hooded; see
Scull-cap, the Common.
Willow-herb, the Purple-spiked;
see Loose-strife, the Purple.
Wiltshire-cheese; see Cheese.
Winnowing-machine; see Win-
now.
Wolf's-bane, the Great; see Leo-
pard's-bane.
Wood-strawberry; see Straw-
berry.
Wormseed; see Mustard, the
Common Hedge.
Wort-cress; see Scurvy-grass.
Yellow Bed-straw; see Cheese-
rennet.
Yellow Dead-nettle; see Weasel-
snout. .
Yellow Gum; see Gum.
Yellow-flag ; see Flower-de-
luce.
Yellow Hepjpules; see Xanthoxy-
lon.
Yew-leaved Fir; see Fir-tree.
Yorkshire Sanicle; see Butter-
wort.
Zanthoxylon; see Xanthoxylon.
ERRATA.
Page 38, column 2, line 14 from bottom, for mashed read washed.
Page 80, col. 2, line 10, after recovering, read swamps. Page 124, col.
1, line ±7 from bottom, before " Mr. Bordley," add a [, and another at
the end of the paragraph. Page 357, col. 2, line 15 from bottom, in some
copies, for In, read For. Page 409, col. 1, line 14, for Juassia, read
Quassia.
THE
DOMESTIC EN
s
SNU
SNUFF, a well-known prepara-
tion, the basis of which is tobacco,
reduced to powder ; other matters
being incorporated, with a view to
impart a degree of pungency and
peculiar odour.
It would be an endless task, to
enumerate the various compounds
that have been introduced to the
notice and patronage of the public,
in different countries : hence we
shall only remark, that there are
three principal kinds of snuff, which
are known under the names of
granulated; imfialfiable; and the
bran, or the coarse part remaining
after the second sort has been sifted.
The practice of taking snuff,
though less detrimental to health,
is not less whimsical than that of
smoking; for, if continued to ex-
cess, it occasions such a copious
discharge of mucus from the nos-
trils, as will eventually impair the
sense of smell, sometimes even
corrode the membrane lining the
nose, and occasion deep ulcerations
in thut organ. An instance occurs
in the Transactions of the Learned,
vol. v.
CYCLOPAEDIA.
SNU
(Acta Eruditorum), for the year
1715, of a person who, by his ex-
travagant use of snuff, at length
was troubled with a polypus in the
sesophagus, which rendered him
unable to take any nourishment,
and literally starved him. Another
consequence of indulging in this
singular custom is, that it fre-
quently affects the voice; for, as a
kind of stricture is thus induced at
the base of the nose, which com-
municates its influence to the pa-
late and organs of speech, the vo-
tary of such custom is consequently
stimulated to take additional quan-
tities, in order to remove the ob-
struction.
The occasional and moderate use
of snuff, however, is in some cases
beneficial. Thus, if a person be
subject to head-ach, or to diseases
of the eyes, or ears, a few grains
of such powder will often afford
speedy relief, in consequence of
instantaneous sneezing. On the
other hand, we would advise those
who know the satisfaction of clean-
liness, to avoid as long as possible,
B
2 SO A
SO A
the taking of snuff; and such as
are liable to phthisical complaints
hemorrhages, or internal ulcers,
should be particularly cautious; as
the indulgence of this practice
might, to them, be productive of
fatal consequences.
SOAL, or Sole, Pleuronectes
solea, L. a fish that abounds on the
British coasts, and is of various
sizes ; those taken on the western
shores weighing from six to seven
pounds each; while such as are
caught on the eastern coast, sel-
dom exceed one, or at the utmost,
two pounds in weight. The up-
per part of its body is of a deep
brown colour, and the belly is per-
fectly white.
Soles are highly esteemed on ac-
count of their delicate flavour; the
facility Avith which they are di-
gested ; and the rich nutriment
they afford : these good qualities,
however, are supposed to decrease
in proportion to their larger size.
Hence, the most diminutive are
justly preferred ; but they ought
to be dressed as soon as possible,
because their delicacy is impaired
by keeping.
SOAP, a composition of fixed
alkaline salt, in a state of combi-
nation with animal or vegetable
oil: it is sometimes dry and hard,
at others soft and liquid; being
manufactured in various ways, with
and without heat; but, as these
depend on the same principle, we
shall state only the common me-
thods.
Where large quantities of soap
are to be formed, heat becomes in-
dispensable. For this purpose, a ley
is made of soda and quick-lime, in
the proportion of four parts of the
former to one of the latter; and
which is sufficiently strong to bear
an egg. Equal parts of such ley,
and of some tallow, or oil, are next
poured into a copper, placed over
a gentle fire, and stirred continu-
ally, till they begin to unite; ay hen
the rest of the ley is added, and the
agitation continued, till the ingre-
dients be completely incorporated.
The mixture is next cast into pro-
per vessels, at the bottom of Avhich
a little pulverized chalk is spread,
to prevent it from adhering: and,
in a few days, the soap acquires a
sufficient degree of consistence, to
be taken out, and formed into ob-
long squares.
Such is the process by which
the various kinds of soap are ma-
nufactured ; the only difference
being in the oils employed in the
composition. Thus, the common
hard soap is prepared from the
caustic ley above-mentioned, Avith
the addition of talloAV. The Ve-
nice, Jlicant, or Spanish Soap, with
oltve-oil; Green Soap with that of
rape, hemp, or linseed ; Black
Soap Avith train-oil; and, lastly,
the ordinary Soft Soap is formed
by using pot-ash as a substitute
for soda, together with talloAv, or
train-oil; to Avhich is added a large
quantity of common salt......The
perfumed compounds, known un-
der the names of Palm, Violet, Al-
mond, or other Soaps, are prepar-
ed in a similar manner ; the oils
of such vegetable substances being
employed, instead of those of the
usual kind. .
The vegetable oils, as well as the
fat of animals, generally consumed
in the manufacture of soap, raising
this article to a high price, ex-
periments have successfully been
made, Avith a view to substitute
fsh-oil. The only objection to its
general use, is a disagreeable smell,
of Avhich it cannot be easily di-
vested.....With a similar design,
SOA
SOA 3
Chaptal has proposed to employ
wool. He directs (ll Annates de
Chimie," vol. 21) the ley to be
prepared in the usual manner, and
made boiling hot; when shreds or
rags of any kind of woollen cloth
are to be gradually throAvn in, and
they will be speedily dissolved.....
Fresh portions are then to be spar-
ingly added ; the mixture must
be constantly agitated: when no
more of the woolly substance can
be dissolved, the soap will be rea-
dy ; and when cool, is fit for use.
....This compound has been tried
in washing, and found to answer
the same purposes as common
soap : we therefore conceive, it
might be advantageously substi-
tuted for that expensive article, in
numerous families ; provided, the
rags could be obtained in suffici-
ent quantities, and at a reasonable
price.
As various frauds are practised
by the manufacturers, and espe-
cially by the retailers of soap, by
adding ingredients that increase its
weight, but diminishes its \'alue,
we deem it our duty, to give a
few hints for detecting such im-
positions. The liquor, generally
employed for such nefarious pur-
pose, is a strong brine made of
common salt and water, which
may be added to soap formed of
tallow (the ingredient principally
used in the manufactories of Bri-
tain), without rendering it softer,
or less consistent. In order to
prove this adulteration, it will be
sufficient to expose a piece of the
suspected soap to the air, for se-
veral days, when the water Avill
evaporate, and the quantity thus
fradulently added, may be accu-
rately ascertained, by the dimi-
nished Aveightof the soap. SeA'e-
ral other methods have been con-
trived for corrupting this article,
but these being neither so lucra-
tive as that before stated, nor ge-
nerally known, we are not dispos-
ed to propagate such knowledge.
Hence Ave shall proceed to review
the principal patents that have
been granted to speculators in
this article ; and next explain the
uses to which soap may be ap-
plied.
In November, 1790, Mr. Sa-
muel Pugh obtained a patent, for
a method of preparing oils for ma-
nufacturing hard soap, either with,
or without the aid of any tallow,
or other grease, at a cheaper than
the usual rate. His process Iioav-
ever, is too complex to be under-
stood, excepting by manufactur-
ers : the inquisitiAre reader will,
therefore, consult the 2d vol. of
the Repertory of Arts, Sec. where
a diffuse specification is inserted.
In July, 1800, a patent Avas
granted to Mr. John Crook, for
a method of making soap,by means
of the volatile, mineral, and vege-
table alkalies, Sec. His invention
consists in extracting the volatile
alkali from urine, either by distil-
lation, or in its raw state ; and
rendering it caustic by means of
unslacked lime, in the proportion
of one pint to eight of raw urine.
These are poured into a cask for 6
or 8 hours, Avhen the clear liquor
is dravvn off, and incorporated Avith
the common materials for making
soap. The patentee likewise em-
ploys such alkaline ley, and also
the raAV urine, for the purpose of
strengthening the ordinary soap,
so as to impart 16 it greater clear-
ness and solidity. He farther ob-
serves, that such urinous lixivium
may be profitably applied to the
cleansing of raw goods from the
unctuous matter with Avhich they
4 SOA
SOA
are impregnated ; by boiling the
liquor, and causing the steam that
arises from the volatile alkali in a
state of vapour, to pass into close
vessels, in which such goods are
suspended.
Soap is one of the most valua-
ble articles in domestic economy:
its uses in various manufactures
require no description. The ash-
es, refuse, or waste, remaining
after this compound is made, fur-
nish an excellent manure. (See
Ashes.) The suds, or water, in
which soap has been dissolved, are
of great service to gardeners ; as
they effectually destroy insects
in hothouses. (See also vol. 3. p.
331 and vol. 4. p. 110.) Farther,
it appears from a patent granted,
in June, 1780, to Mr. Samuel Un-
■wtn, and which is now expired ;
that soap-suds, after being used in
scowering, washing, &c. may be
rendered sufficiently strong to
serve the same purpose, repeat-
edly, and even for the re-produc-
tion of soap. He directs any
quantity of the suds (when ren-
dered useless by the foul or grea-
sy matters they may hold in solu-
tion) to be boiled over a brisk fire ;
in consequence of which, a scum
of grease, oil, he. will rise to the
surface. This must be saturated
or dissolved, by the gradual addi-
tion of pot-ash, or similar alkaline
salt; the whole being stirred, till
the scum disappear. The soap-
suds, thus corrected, are now to
boil for two hours, Avhen the fire
must be discontinued, in order
that all feculent or earthy parti-
cles may subside. The liquor
will then be found sufficiently pu-
rified, and may again be employed
for scowering, &c. every time re-
peating the process before describ-
ed. In order to make soap of such
rectified suds, the patentee directs
any quantity to be dravvn off into
shallow vessels, in which it must
be evaporated over the fire, till it
acquire a due consistence ; and, by
adding the usual proportion of sea-
salt, the mixture Avill become hard,
and possess all the properties of
saponaceous matter.
Soap is also of considerable uti-
lity in medicine : fc* this purpose,
hoAvever, it is prepared without
the aid of heat; the ley being fil-
tred and concentrated by evapo-
ration, to such a degree, that a
phial capable of holding an ounce
of water, -will contain one ounce
and 216 grains, or nearly li oz. of
such lixivium. One part of the
latter is then mixed with two parts
of the oil of sweet-almonds, or of
olives, in a stone vessel ; the in-
gredients are occasionally stirred ;
and, in the course of a week, a
firm white soap will be obtained.
....This compound is reputed for
its efficacy in dispelling calculi, or,
stones, in the human body ; and,
when dissolved in ale, it has Avith
advantage been administered in
the jaundice. Boerhaave always
prescribed it with resinous pills ;
as it contributes to decompose
them in the stomach. But, of
late years, soap has fallen into
disrepute, and is noAV seldom
employed in medicine; though
Ave are informed by M. Bei.lot,
that soap-Avater has been given,
with the happiest effects, to per-
sons bitten by mad animals.
There are numerous vegetables,
that may afford proper substitutes
for soap, in its various applications
to domestic uses ; but, as many" of
these have already been pointed
out; and others will occur in the
SOA
SOD
5
subsequent pages; we refer the
reader to our General Index of Re-
ference.
SOAP-EARTH, or Steatites, L.
a species of fossil, which abounds
in Devonshire, Cornwall, and the
islands in the vicinity of the Lizard
Point. [It also abounds on the ri-
ver Schuylkill, near Philadelphia.]
It is generally of a white, or gr,ey
colour, intermixed with greenish
or yellowish shades ; is compos-
ed of very fine particles ; of a firm,
equal, and regular texture : and is
very heavy. Its surface is smooth
and glossy ; it feels soft and grea-
sy ; and neither melts in the
mouth, nor adheres to the tongue,
or stains the fingers.
This mineral may be formed in-
to a paste with water, which is ea-
sily worked on the potter's wheel;
and if, thus manufactured, it be
exposed to an intense heat, it be-
comes so hard as to emit fire, Avhen
stricken against steel.
The soap-earth possesses simi-
lar properties with Fuller's-earth,
and is employed for the purpose
of cleansing Avoollen cloths from
grease : it does not, however,
work so easily as clays ; and, when
digested with vitriolic acid,it forms
a salt someAA'hat resembling that
obtained by evaporating Epsom-
Avater.
SOAP-WORT, the Common,
or Bruiseavort, Safionaria offici-
nalis, L. a native perennial, grow-
ing in meadows and hedges ; flow-
ering in July arid August.....The
leaves possess a disagreeable bitter
taste : if bruised and agitated with
Avater, they produce a saponaceous
froth, a\ hich may serve for remov-
ing greasy spots from linen, as well
as woollen cloths; but it discharges
no colours....The roots are some-
what pungent, have a sweetish
taste, and in smell resemble those
of liquorice: a strong tincture r.Kiy
be prepared, by digesting them in
rectified spirits....In medicine, this
plant is.now exploded ; but, in do-
mestic economy, the sap express-
ed from the root, stalk, and leaAres,
may be employed as a substitute
for soap, in cleansing raAv or coaise
cloth, and likewise for fine linen,
in the washing of Avhich, it will
save at least one-half of that ex-
pensive article, otherwise requir-
ed....Lastly, the admirers of win-
ged insects may catch the most
beautiful butterflies on the flow-
ers of the common soap-wort,
which are visited by them during
twilight.
SODA, Fossil, or Mineral
Alkali, a peculiar salt, which is
found native in various parts of the
world ; but, as the quantity thus
obtained, is inadequate to its ex-
tensive consumption, various me-
thods have been devised, for pro-
curing it from sea-salt ; and also
by the burning of the salt-wort,
together with other saline plants,
which grow in the vicinity of the
sea-coast...See Barilla, and Fos-
sil Alkali.
FeAv articles are of greater im-
portance to the arts, manufactures,
and domestic economy, than Koda.
It is indispensably neces.arv for
making hard soap ; and also forms
an excellent substitute for this ar-
ticle : as four ounces of the for-
mer, and six of the latter, are fully
equal to 16 ounces, or one pound
of soap, for cleansing I4lbs. of
cloth, by hand ; while it softens
the hardest water : thus, a saving-
will arise in the expcace of from
one-third to one-half, accordii^'y
as that operation is performed hv
the hand, or by machines....The
superior effects of soda are fullv
6 SOD
SOF
evinced in the cleansing of fleecy
hosiery, flannels, or worsted stock-
ings ; which, when managed with
warm water, soap, and pot-ash,
acquire an unpleasant odour, and
are apt to shrink, in consequence
of the rubbing, particularly if they
be immersed in cold water: Avhere-
as, by using the fossil alkali, these
inconveniencies are said to be com-
pletely avoided, and neither the
quality of the goods aviU be im-
paired ; nor the hands of women,
when the soda is judiciously em-
ployed, be injured in the same man-
ner, as generally happens by the
common ley.
Farther, as frequent bathing or
washing of the body greatly con-
duces to health, it has been re-
commended to dissolve a small
portion of soda in the Avater thus
employed; or, at least to pass a
towel wetted with a solution of
soda and soap, over the surface ;
for such practice opens the pores,
and removes the disagreeable
odour arising from profuse per-
spiration :....a similar application
will be productive of equal advan-
tage to horses that are employed
for racing, postchaises, or other
purposes, Avhere great exertions
are required.
If a weak solution of soda be
poured into foul bottles or casks, in
which wine has been kept for a
considerable time, it Avill com-
pletely dissolve the tartarous crust
that is formed on their inner sur-
face :....boot-tops, saddles, or bri-
dles, may with such liquid be ef-
fectually cleansed, while the origi-
nal colour of the leather is pre-
served.
This alkali may, likewise, be
employed for sweetening kitchen-
utensils, and particularly for re-
moving grease or acids from cop-
per vessels; because these con*
cretions, when suffered to remain,
form a strong poison, and may be
productive of deleterious effects.
In a similar manner, it may be
used for tin and iron vessels, to
prevent them from becoming rus-
ty. Lastly, as the utensils of the
dairy are apt to acquire an acid,
disagreeable smell, during the
summer, and particularly after a
thunder-storm, though every at-
tention be bestowed on them, such
fetor may be completely removed
by a small portion of soda, which
will render the milk-vessels per-
fectly sweet; while it neutralizes
aad dispels the acid ferment im-
bibed by the wood, and which
might otherwise taint the milk.
The crystals of soda are not less
useful in a medicinal point of view.
Thus, a solution of this salt, is an
excellent gargle for cleansing the
throat, mouth, and gums, both in
a sound and in a diseased or ulce-
rated state ; while it whitens the
teeth ; and dissolves all incrusta-
tions that may be formed on their
surface, without injuring their ena-
mel. And, if a small quantity of
this liquid be occasionally swal-
lowed, after washing the fauces, it
is said effectually to remove a fetid
breath. Soda is, in many instances,
preferable to magnesia, for cor-
recting acidity in the stomach ;
nay, it is even asserted, that it
prevents the gout, gravel, stone,
and similar disorders : lastly if the
fossil alkali be mixed with cream
of tartar, in the proportion of 14
parts of the former to 12 of the
latter, it furnishes one of the mild-
est laxatives ; namely, the Ro-
chelle Salt....See also Glauber's
Salt.
SOFT-'GRASS, the Meadow,
or Holcus lanatus, L. a native ps-
SOI
SOI 7
tennial, growing in meadoAVS and
pastures, particularly in moist,
light situations: it flowers in the
months of June and July. This
grass, though vegetating late in
the season, is very productive ; but
is not much relished by cattle : it
makes a soft, spongy hay, that is
\'ery hurtful to horses ; which, by
eating it, become affected vuth a
profuse discharge of urine, and
general weakness. In case any hay,
obtained from this vegetable, be
accidentally given to those valua-
ble animals an immediate change of
food will prevent its farther ill effects
As the stalks of the meadow
soft-grass attain a height of from
two to three feet, and the root is
eminently calculated for consoli-
dating loose sandy soils, it merits
to be cultivated in such situations.
[See Grass.]
SOIL, signifies the ground or
mould, in Avhich vegetables grow ;
and Avhich serves as a reservoir for
receiving and dispensing their nu-
triment.
Having already, under the ar-
ticles Arable Land; Land;
Marsh ; Moos ; &c. stated the
most approved methods of reno-
vating or restoring exhausted soils,
and of converting them from a
state of nature ; Ave shall now com-
municate a few hints, by which
their quality may be ascertained.
To effect this purpose, Berg-
man, Fordyce, Kir wan, and
other eminent chemists, have
analyzed the constituent parts of
different soils, namely ; carbon,
lime, clay, and siliceous sand; and,
according to the respective por-
tions of these ingredients, they con-
ceive that the relative fertility of
soils might be determined. But,
as such analysis is very inaccurate
and uncertain, Dr. Daravin pro-
poses to dry a few pounds of dif-
ferent soils, in the same tempera-
ture : when their moisture is eva-
porated, they must be weighed,
and exposed to a red heat. As
carbon is a principal ingredient in
calcareous earths, he conjectures,
that the soil which loses the great-
est portion of its weight, is the
most fertile ; because the carbonic
matter, being the principal nutri-
ment of plants, will be dissipated
in the flame.
Another mode of examining the
fertility of soils is, by calculating
their specific gravity, when dried
at equal distances from the fire, in
bladders furnished with small aper-
tures ; and, after immersing them
in water, by accurately observing
the difference between their re-
spective weights, both in that fluid
and in the air. But the most certain
criterion, by which to judge of the
value of land, is afforded by at-
tending to the growth and colour
of the vegetables spontaneously
produced ; and Avhich in some
measure indicate the nature of the
soil beneath their roots. Thus, the
Fox-glove, and Sand-wort, abound
in sandy situations; the Brook-
lime, and some species of Cresses,
in moist ground , the Corn Saw-
wort, or Way-thistle, indicates a
good, as the Dock shews an infe-
rior, soil. Many plants might be
added to this list ; but, we shall
conclude with remarking, that if
an accurate Geographical Catalogue
of such vegetables, as grow in par-
ticular situations, were published
in every country, it would be of
great service, in ascertaining the
degree of fertility, as well as the
nature of different soils.
[SOILING, the act of cutting
8 SOL
SOL
grass for stall-feeding cattle ; or,
the practice of feeding cattle with
cut grass.
The superior economy of this
practice, compared with that of
pasturing, was fully pointed out
under the article Cattle. When
treating of clover, an expected
statement of the number of hogs
soiled with cloA'er, was promised.
The particulars, however, did not
arrive in time for insertion in the
proper place, but Avere since com-
municated, and are as follow :
Twenty-five shoats were fed for
three months, with green clover,
cut from less than one acre ; they
were then fed on Indian corn, and
when killed, weighed three thou-
sand pounds.
Soilijig has been uniformly re-
commended throughout this Avork,
where the practice can be follow-
ed ; but where it cannot be adopt-
ed, the English mode of pasturing,
as detailed by Lord Dundonald
should be followed, viz.; to keep
the fat, half fed cattle, and the
lean or young stock, in different
inclosures. The fat cattle should
only top the grass, the half fed
should succeed those, and lastly,
the lean or store cattle should fol-
low on the same pasture, and eat
the herbage close down : repeat-
ing this practice as often as the
fresh growth of grass will permit.
SOLI DAGO, Cxria, Throat-
wort, Rattle-snake-Golden-rod.....
This is a beautiful species of Soli-
dago, and a native of the United
States : flowering in August and
September. Many diverging slen-
der stems arise from a root, and
manv corymbs or clusters of gol-
den yellow compound flowers,
terminate the stems, forming a
panicle. The leaves are lancio-
late, and sharply serrated, ending
in a slender or acute point. Ths
stems are smooth, covered with a
purple bark, softened by a glacous
nibule, or mist, and of a very pun-
gent taste, somewhat similar to
the Radix Senega (Seneka snake-
root). Tb.e Indians use this plant
as. a cure for the bite of the rattle-
snake, applied externally and in-
ternally. They also prescribe it
in strong decoction, as a gargle,
and diet-drink for the sore-throat.
Wm. Bartram.]
SOLOMON's-SEAL, the
Sweet-smelling, or Convallaria
Polygojiatum, L. a native perenni-
al, which grows in mountainous
woods, and the fissures of rocks,
principally in the county of York :
it floAvers in the months of May
and June. This vegetable is eaten
by sheep and goats, but is refused
by horses, hogs, and cows. Its
roots consist of a pulpy, tuberous,
white, sweet, and mucilaginous
substance : in times of scarcity,
they have been converted into a
wholesome bread ; and are always
used for that purpose, by the lower
classes in Sweden and Russia: a
good starch may likewise be ex-
tracted from them ; and the ex-
pressed juice being somewhat
acrid, serves as a cosmetic, or a
lotion for pimples, &c. The young
shoots of this, as well as of the fol-
lowing species may, in the spring,
be eaten like asparagus.
SOLOMON's-SEAL, the Com-
mon, or Convallaria multiflora, L.
is also perennial; grows in woods
and thickets : and floAvers in May
or June. This plant is eaten by
coavs, goats, and sheep; it posses-
ses the properties of the preced-
ing, but in an inferior degree ; and
to which it bears so close a resem-
blance, that it can be distinguish-
ed only by its smaller, white flow-
SOO
fcrs, tipped Avith green ; whereas,
those of "trie former are larger,
though less in number, and white,
with a green line running down
each segment.
Sooju. See Soy.
SOOT, a volatile powder, of a
deep black colour, and an extreme-
ly bitter taste : it arises from burn-
ing Avood, coal, or other fuel ; or,
more strickly speaking, from the
smoke condensed, and deposited at
the sides of-chimnies.
Considerable quantities of soot
are employed in the manufacture
of sal ammoniac; and also by
dyers, for imparting a fawn colour
to wool.....See article Dyeing).....
But the principal advantage deriv-
ed from it, is, when used as a
manure for cold, moist, and clayey
meadoAVS, and pastures ; as it is
of a Avarm ameliorating nature ;
affords nourishment to grass, [on-
ions] ; destroys noxious insects ;
protects the crop from chillingrains;
and preA'ents the growth of moss.
[Soot, according to Dun don a ld,
is used in many parts of Britain,
Avith very beneficial effects, for the
destruction of the wire-AVorm, and
other insects, which prey upon the
young tender leaves and roots of
plants.]
The quantity varies in different
counties, from fifteen to twenty-
five, and even 40 bushels per acre ;
but it ought to be strewed on the
land during the winter, and in
calm weather, so that the subse-
quent vernal rains may wash it in-
to the soil: fir, if its distribution
be delayed till the end of February,
or the beginning of March, the
great heat then evolved, will affect
the tender shoots of the grass, and
occasion a temporary check to its
vegetation. Some circumspection,
however, is required, that the soot
vol. v.
SOR 9
be genuine; as the chimney-sweep-
ers frequently" mix with it finely-
sifted coal-ashes ; in order to in-
crease the bulk; but this fraud may
be easily detected, by the grittiness
and uncommon weight of the soot.
SorvB. See Service-tree.
Sore-throat. See Quinsy.
SORREL, the Common, or
Sorrel-Dock, Rumex Acetos'us,
L. a natiAre perennial, growing in
meadoAvs and pastures, where it
flowers in the month of June.....
This vegetable is eaten by horses,
coavs, goats, sheep, and swine.....
It is cultivated in France and Bri-
tain, for culinary purposes ; as, in
the former country, its leaves are
a frequent ingredient in soups, and
also eaten in salads ; in the latter,
they are esteemed for their cooling
properties, because they tend to
allay thirst; to promote the urin-
ary discharge ; and Avhen boiled
in Avhey, they afford a palatable
drink to pei-sons labouring under
inflammatory fevers.....In Ireland,
the sorrel-leaves are used by the
lower classes, both as a kind of
sauce to fish, and also with milk :
they possess, however, a very aus-
tere, acid taste, Avhen raw, inso-
much as to divest the teeth of their
enamel; hence they should not be
eaten by those whose stomach a-
bounds in acidity.
The seeds of this vegetable were
formerly used in medicine ; but
are at present, according to Hedin
employed by the SAvedes, among
their bread-corn, and reduced to
flour ; nay, the inhabitants of Ca-
relia convert them into bread, with-
out any addition. Its roots have
an austere, bitterish taste, and are
chiefly valuable to tanners; and also
for the red tinge which they yield,
after having been dried and boiled.
On adding alum to this decoction,
C
10 S O R
painters prepare a fine red colour,
but which is useless in dyeing.....
Boerhaave obtained from the
juice of the Sorrel-dock, an essen-
tial salt, resembling that of lemons.
[Sorrel is a very troublesome
plant in meadoAvs. Lord Dundo-
nald, upon chemical principles
advises, 1. The use of lime on
soils in which the plant etbounds.....
The next growth after sorrel will be
chckweed, which is a certain indi-
cation of its being in a state fit to
produce grain or other crops : 2.
The application of the alkaline
salts, when the crop of sorrel is in
the greatest abundance.]
SORREL,the SuEEp's,orDocK,
Rumex Acetosella, L. is also a na-
tive perennial, which grows in
sandy meadows, pastures, and
gravel walks : it flowers in May
and June. The stalks of this plant,
which affords a wholesome food for
sheep, seldom exceed twelve in-
ches in height: it deserves, hoAV-
ever, to be mentioned, that cows
partaking of the Sheep's Dock,
yield a milk tinged with blood.
SORREL, the Common Wtood,
Sour Trefoil, or Cuckow-
Bread, Oxalis Acetocella, L. a-
nother native perennial, which a-
bounds in woods, shady hedges,
and on heaths : it floAvers in the
month of April. This vegetable
is eaten by goats, hogs, and sheep ;
but is not relished by coavs, and is
refused by horses. Its purple leaves
yiejd on expression,agratefullyacid
juice, Avhich has been beneficially
used in scorbutic eruptions : and,
if such juice be properly clarified,
evaporated, and deposited in a cool
place, it will produce a considera-
ble quantity of acid crystals, which
may be employed for removing
iron moulds from linen cloth; and
SOU
which are sold under the name of
Essential Salt of Lemons. An infu-
sion of the leaves makes a palata-
ble diet-drink in ardent fevers ;
and, on being boiled in milk, they
form an agreeable whey. They
have also been successfully applied
to scrophulous ulcers, when rolled
in a cabbage leaf, and digested in
warm ashes, till they were reduc-
ed to a pulp. But the most easy
and efficacious way of preserving
these leaves, is that of converting
them into a kind of conserve, Avith
the addition of double their Aveight
of sugar ; in which form, they are
an excellent substitute for lemons,
and may be given with advantage
in all putrid and other fevers,
where antiseptics are indicated.
SOUP, a strong decoction of
beef, veal, or other animal sub-
stances ; and which is generally
seasoned with aromatic vegeta-
bles, pepper, or similar heating
spices.
Soups form a principal article
at the tables of the luxurious ; be-
ing generally served as a first
course ; though sometimes they
constitute the whole dinner of
those who are less opulent, under
the mistaken notion, that such li-
quid is more wholesome and easy
of digestion, than solid meat.....
Such dishes ought, however, to be
given Avith great caution to con-
valescents ; as the large propor-
tion of spices, Avines, and other
stimulating articles that enter into
the composition of soups, cannot
fail to oppress the stomach, to ir-
ritate the system, and not unfre-
quently to occasion a relapse.
Pcrtable-soup is a kind of cahe
formed of concentrated broth;
which, being divested of all fat|
while the putrescent parts of the
SOW
SOW 11
meat have been evaporated by
boiling, is reduced to a gelatinous
consistence, resembling that of
glue. The composition may be
preserved, in a dry place, for three
or four years : it is recommended,
on account of its nutritive quali-
ties, by Sir John Pringle, and
may prove of essential service on
long sea-voyages; as it requires to
he eaten Avith a large proportion of
vegetables; andthus, in some mea-
sure, prevents the attacks of that
scourge of mariners, the sea-scurvy.
When portable soup is to be cook-
ed, it will be advisable to put half
or a whole ounce of this substance
into a vessel containing a pint of
boiling Avater, which must then
be placed over the fire, and conti-
nually agitated Avith a spoon, till it
he perfectly dissolved: thus, it
will form an excellent and nou-
rishing liquid : requiring no other
seasoning, but a little common salt.
Southern-wood, the Common.
See Mugavort, the Common.
Southern-wood, the Sea : See
Wormwood, the Sea.
SOW-BREAD, or Cyclamen Eu-
ropaum, L. an exotic plant, some-
times cultivated in the gardens of
the curious. There are five spe-
cies of this diminutive herb, each
of Avhich produces several varie-
ties ; all bearing beautiful fragrant
white, reddish, purple, or flesh-
coloured flowers.
All the species of the sow-bread
may be propagated by their seeds;
and the respective varieties, by di-
viding their roots ; they require a
light, dry soil ; and to be planted
in borders oT walks : in case of se-
vere frost,, the plants should be
sheltered by mats.
In a fresh state, the root of the
sow-bread has an extremely acrid
and burning taste; but, when
dried, it is almost totally divested
of such property. It is recom-
mended as an errhine; or to be
formed into cataplasms, for dis-
cussing scirrhous and scrophulous
tumors. Internally taken, it ope-
rates sloAvly, though with great
virulence, as a purgative ; and is
apt to inflame the fauces and in-
testines : but, when roasted in em-
bers, it may be eaten Avith safety.
In Germany, an ointment is pre-
pared from these roots, which
serves the useful purpose of re-
lieving costiveness, when rubbed
on the abdomen.
If, however, the root of the
soAV-bread should have been inad-
vertently swallowed, or eaten a-
mong. other vegetables, it will be
advisable either to take an imme-
diate emetic; or, if some time have
elapsed, to drink large portions of
oily and mucilaginous liquors, sue\\
as the solutions of mutton-suet bi
milk, of gum-arabic, salep-pow-
der, and similar demulcents.
SOW-THISTLE, or Sonchus,
L. a genus of plants forming 13
species, four of which arc indige-
nous : the principal are the follow-
ing :
1. The oleraceus, or Common
Sow-thistle, grows on cultivat-
ed ground, dunghills, and in
hedges ; its yellow flowers appear
from June till August. The leaves
of this troublesome weed ate the
favourite food of hares and rab-
bits : they are likewise dressed and
eaten among other culinary herbs.
The roots have occasionally been
converted into bread. Sheep,goats,
and swine, devour this A'egetable,
but it is not relished by horses.
2. The arvewsis, Corn or Tree
Soav-Thistle,is perennial,thrives
in clayey corn-fields, and on ditch-
banks, where it blows in August.
12 SO W
SOY
It is remarkable, that the floAvers
of this plant follow, in a regular
manner, the course of the sun.....
Cows and goats eat this species, of
Avhich horses are exceedingly fond.
....Bechstein remarks, that the
young shoots of the Corn Soav-
thistle, when cut out in the spring,
and mixed with bran, afford an ex-
cellent food for cattle and SAvine.
3. The palustris, or Marsh
Sow-Thistle, grows in watery
places, and on the banks of rivers,
where it attains the height of from
six to ten feet; flowering in July
and August. While young, this
plant furnishes nourishing food for
cattle : hence it deserves to be cul-
tivated in swampy meadoAvs.....
Its flowers, like those of all the
thistles, are visited by bees.
SOWING, is the act of com-
mitting the seed of vegetables to
the earth, in order to obtain a fu-
ture crop.
This operation is performed ei-
ther in the Buoad-cast method,
or by Drilling : but, having al-
ready stated the respect'iA-e ad-
vantages attending both, we refer
the reader to articles Broad-cast,
Drill.
The most important objects in
poAving are ; 1. To commit the
seed to the ground, at as early a
period of the season as the nature
of the grain, and the situation of
the soil, Avill admit; and 2. To
place every seed at a proper depth,
and distance from each other. Due
regard to the former circumstance
v. ill be attended Avith great profit,
particularly in the cultivation of
turnips; as an early harvest will
not only thus be obtained ; but the
roots Avill also be protected from
the depredations of the fly.
Some agriculturists strongly re-
co.nmend to " sow dry, and set
Avct;" but, Avhere the soil has beer*
newly turned by the spade, Dr.
Daravin justly remarks, that no
bad consequence can result from
sowing, in general, during rainy
Aveather: such method, however,
ought to be adopted with caution
on clay-soils (see Clay-land) that
are much softened by long-conti-
nued rain ; because, if the seed be
put into holes, and a dry seaso^
follow, the water will necessarily
evaporate, and an impenetrable
crust Avill be formed on the sur-
face, by the setting, or running to-
gether of the clay. But this acci-
dent may, in some measure, be
preA'ented, by sowing in the au-
tumnal months, during moist Avea-
ther....See also Seed.
SOY, or Sooju, a species of li-
quid condiment, which is import-
ed from India, and is used as a
sauce for fish. It is prepared from
the leguminous fruit of the Soja
(Dolichos soja, L.) a native of Ja-
pan.
The pods are first boiled, till
they become soft; when equal parts
of them, and of muggi (wheat or
barley that has been coarsely
ground"), are thoroughly mixed....
This preparation is then kept in a
close vessel, and a warm place, for
tAventy-four hours, in order to fer-
ment ; after which, the mass is put
into a pot, and covered with a
large portion of common salt, when
two measures and a half of Avater
are poured over the Avhole. The
compound is stirred, once at the
least, every day, for the space of
two or three months , and at the
end of that period, it is filtred ;
the expressed liquor being pre-
served in Avooden vessels. Fresh
water is next added to the same
mass j.Avhich, after stirring it oc-
casionally for several days, is at
SPA
SPA IS
length strained; and the liquor,
though of an inferior kind, thus
rendered fit for use.
Soy possesses a strongly saline
taste, but has only a slight aroma-
tic flavour: it is chiefly used at
the tables of the luxurious ; and is
one of those artificial stimulants of
the palate, which deserves no com-
mendation, especially for vitiated
or relaxed habits.
. [The Soy-bean bears the cli-
mate of Pennsylvania very well.
The bean ought therefore to be
cultivated.]
SPADE, a well knoAvn imple-
ment, which is principally employ-
ed in horticulture.
The bit, or blade of this tool, is
composed wholly of iron, being
about 8 or 9 inches broad, and a
foot in length : the upper part is
flat; and, in the centre, there
is a hole or socket, in which is in-
serted a handle or shaft, being 1^
inches in diameter, and about 3
feet long. It is employed for stir-
ring and dressing the ground ; the
labourer thrusting it in, to the
depth of ten or twelve inches, ac-
cordingly as the nature of the soil
may require.
The English spades, in general,
are Avell calculated for heavy gar-
den soils ; but, as there are many
situations, especially those abound-
ing in sand and gravel, which
might be more easily managed
with a tool of a different shape,
Ave procured the folloAving cut, that
represents the spade employed in
Tuscany, and the northern parts
of Italy.
It consists of an iron spear,
which is someAvhat concave, being
also longer, and thicker, than the
implement used in Britain: in-
TUSCAN SPADE.
stead of the Workman setting his
foot on the top of the blade, he
places it upon a piece of wood,
which crosses the shaft, three or
four inches above such blade;
though, we conceive, the distance
need hot exceed one or tAvo inches.
The manner in which this imple-
ment is used, varies in different
14 SPA
SPA
places. Thus, at Geneva, it is
thrust into the soil, perpendicular-
ly ; at Persia, the earth is divided
horizontally, or at least in a slant-
ing direction ; so that the mould
is thrown to a greater distance be-
fore the labourer. The peasants
of that country, indeed, have an
excellent mode of using the spade,
without undergoing too great fa-
tigue : it consists simply in sup-
porting and lifting up the handle
of the implement (after it has en-
tered the soil) on the knee; by
which means they are enabled to
penetrate to a greater depth, and
consequently to bring up a larger
quantity of earth to the surface.
SPAR, the Ponderous ; Ba-
rytes ; or heavy earth, a name giv-
en to a fossil naturally combined
with the sulphuric or carbonic
acids, and found in different parts
of England, particularly in the
counties of York, Derby, [ and
Lancashire.]
Its principal use in domestic
economy, as a poison to rats, hav-
ing been already stated, we shall
only remark, that the ponderous
spar may be procured in a very
pure state, for medicinal purposes,
by the process which Vauquelin
and Fourcroy have adopted ; and
a translation of which has been
given in Mr. Nicholson's Journal
of Natural Philosophy, 8cc. ATol. i.
4to, p. 535....It would, however,
be hazardous to mention the dis-
orders, and doses, in Avhich this
powerful remedy is employed.
[The Lapis Hepaticus, a variety
of this spar, has been lately found
in Albemarle county, Virginia.]
Sparagus. See Asparagus.
SPARROW, the Common, or
Domestic, Fringilla domestica, L.
a well-knoAvn bird, vvhieh abounds
in Britain, particularly in the vici-
nity of villages and towns.
Sparrows construct their nest
beneath the eaves, and in the holes
of walls, roofs, especially in those
of willow-trees, where they lay
five or six eggs of a pale-reddish
colour,spotted with brown. These
birds are very crafty, and voraci-
ous ; committing great depreda-
tions in corn-fields,Avherethey par-
take of every species of grain : on
the other hand, they are also use-
ful, by devouring numerous worms,
insects, and particularly the green
caterpillar. But,in situations where
sparrows are very troublesome
from their numbers, they may be
easily taken, by constructing a trap
of unpeeled oziers, about two feet
in diameter, nine inches deep ;
and resembling in its form a fish-
pot. The tunnel is somewhat dish-
ed, having an inverted cone in the
centre, which extends to within the
space of one inch from the bottom
of such basket; the opening, form-
ed by the points of the twigs, being
an inch in diameter. This trap
must be baited with Avheat, or
other grain ; and, when the birds
have entered through the internal
aperture of the cone, they cannot
escape.
For the protection of fields, gar-
dens, and especially of Avail-fruit,
from these predatory birds, Ave can
suggest the following expedient....
Slips or pieces of spangle-metal
(plate-foil) six inches long, and
three broad, should be suspended
on long poles by means of strings,
about half a yard in length, and
fastened to the top: by the agi-
tation of the Avind, they will occa-
sion a continual crackling noise,
which is so terrifying to sparrows,
that they will not venture to ap«
SPA
SPA 15
proach the vicinity of such scare-
crows : in fields, however, the lat-
ter ought to be placed at a distance
of about 12 or 15 yards square,
from each other.
Sparrow-hawk : See Hawk,
the Common.
SPASM, an irregular and in-
voluntary contraction of the mus-
cles, generally accompanied Avith
painful sensations : this complaint
has, of late years, made such rapid
and formidable progress, especi-
ally among the female sex, as to
demand serious attention.
Spasms are either general, where
many or most of the muscles are
attacked (as in tetanus, catalepsis,
Isfc.) ; as partial, when the con-
traction is confined to single mus-
cles, for instance, of the jaAV, of
the throat, and other parts, Avhich
have been stated under their re-
spective heads.
Among the chief, pre-disposing
causes, is an irritable, Aveak, ner-
vous system ; while the occasional
ones are, passions of the mind ; in-
jury produced by external violence,
by poisons, of every description ;
worms ; suppressed perspiration ;
cosmetics and lotions ; repelled cu-
taneous eruptions; and Avhatever,
may induce an increased action of
the nerves and muscles. Nothing,
indeed, has so evidently contri-
buted to the frequency of this af-
fection, as the defective modern
education, particularly of females ;
and according to Avhich, children
are considered as adults ; they are
allowed to read seductive books ;
to dress in an improper, or at least,
unbecoming manner; and even
infants are suffered to partake of
tea, wine, and spirituous liquors,
under the pretext of using them as
medicines.
The danger attending spasmodic
paroxysms, depends on the greater
or less violence of the attack :....if
they proceed from too profuse eva-
cuations, there is great danger to
be apprehended ; as the patient is
already exhausted. Where spasms
are occasioned by the taking of
mineral or animal poisons ; or, if
the patient labour under an acute
fever, the event is generally fatal.
Cure :....The first step will be to
remove the irritating cause ; and
next, to restore tone to the organs:
thus, if the spaSm originate from
an injury by a sharp instrument,
such as a needle, especially if a
piece of it remain in the wound, it
ought to be immediately extracted.
During the fit, clysters made of
a decoction of chamomile flowers,
with a dram of ipecacuhana, asa-
foedita, or other antispasmodics, to
be repeated every two or three
hours, will afford the greatest re-
lief: beside these, recourse may
be had to warm-baths, frictions,
and the application of volatile lini-
ments. If the teeth are not too
closely shut, half a tea-spoonful of
either the tinctures of castor, asa-
fcedita, or valerian, diluted Avith a
table-spoonful of water, may be in-
troduced through the mouth.....
Next, it will be necessary to regu-
late the treatment according to the
cause of the malady. If it arise
from a suppression of cutaneous
disorders, blistering plasters, and
other artificial issues, Avill be the
most proper means of restoring the
discharge of humours : if it pro-
ceed from tAvo tight shoes, or other
garments, the part should be rub-
bed with warm oil, till it become
soft ; and then a tight bandage be
applied round it: the leg should
afterwards be bathed in cold \va-
16 S P E
SPE
ter impregnated with scales of
iron, or rubbed with volatile lini-
ment :.....if induced by worms
(which see) suitable remedies must
be administered. But, where it
originates from mental causes, the
cure itself ought to consist of mo-
ral remedies; as physical means
would, in general, be found inade-
quate.
With a view to re-invigorate the
system, and to prevent future at-
tacks, decoctions of quassia, worm-
wood, chamomile, Peruvian bark,
valerian, and other antispasmodics,
may be taken with advantage, es-
pecially when conjoined Avith cold
bathing ; and, in cases of worms,
with the liberal use of red-port; a
glass of Avhich may, for that pur-
pose, be drunk every morning, on
an empty stomach.
SPATLING-POPPY, White
Bottle, or Bladder Campion,
Cucubalus Behen, L. a native pe-
rennial, which grows in corn-
fields, dry meadows, and pastures :
it floAvers in July and August.....
The leaves of this vegetable, when
boiled, possess the flavour of peas ;
and are by the Gothlanders advan-
tageously applied to erysipelatous
eruptions. The flowers are eager-
ly visited by bees, as Avell as by the
most beautiful butterflies, in twi-
light.
Spavin : See Bone-spavin.
Spaavn : See Rok.
Spear-mint : See Mint.
SPEARWORT, the great, or
Ranunculus Lingua, L. an indige-
nous perennial, growing in Avet
pastures, and at the sides of lakes:
it floAvers in the months of June
and July. The stem of this poi-
sonous plant is very thick, and at-
tains the height of two feet ; the
leaves have no stalks; and the
large bright-yellow, glossy floAvers,
appear on the extremities of the
shoots. The whole is extremely
acrid, and if any part of this herb
be eaten by cattle in a fresh state,
it is apt to produce fatal distem-
pers.
SPEARWORT, the LEssER,or
Ranuncules Flammula, L. is also a
native perennial, growing on bogs,
SAvampy meadoAvs, and the sides
of rivulets ; floAvering from June
to September. It is eaten by
horses, in which it occasions many
concealed disorders, but is refused
by cows, goats, sheep, and hogs....
This plant is very acrid ; if exter-
nally applied, it inflames and blis-
ters the skin :....its distilled water
is a most powerful emetic, operat-
ing as soon as it is swallowed ; and
Dr. Withering states, from his
own experience, that, in cases of
poison having been accidentally
swalloAved, or in which it becomes
necessary tojproduce an immedi-
ate vomiting, such distilled water
is preferable to any other prepa-
ration ; as it does not excite the
painful contractions, which are
sometimes consequent on the use
of Avhite vitriol, and thus defeat the
object for Avhich the latter is admi-
nistered.
SPECTACLES, a Avell known
and useful optical contrivance, in
order to aid the eyes of the aged,
or young invalids of defective vi-
sion, by means of two appropriate
lenses. Those used by short-
sighted persons, are generally con-
cave ; as the spectacles employed
by ihaJur-.'igJited, or convex.
The choice of spectacles being
an object of great importance, to all
who are anxious to preserve their
eyes, Ave shall select a few rules
from Mr. Adam's valuable Essay
on Vision ; and the Editor's Lec-
tures en Diet and Regimen. By
SPE
SPE 17
a careful attention to such direc-
tions, the failure of sight may be
retarded, and the eyes greatly re-
lieved.
Those, who stand in need of
spectacles, ought at first always to
chuse such as represent objects,
without enlarging or diminishing
them ; and Avhich, on being placed
near the eye, exhibit printed cha-
racters clearly and' distinctly, Avith-
out straining that organ. It will,
therefore, in every instance, be ad-
visable to consult the artist of
whom the glasses are purchased :
for, though every person must
eventually determine what lenses
afford him the most accurate vision,
the former will thus be enabled to
accomodate them to the eye of
the latter, Avith greater certainty
and advantaqe. Besides, the fa-
tigue of trying a variety of glasses,
im\ thus be obviated ; and the
purchaser will procure a pair, best
adapted to the structure of his
eyes. Short-sighted persons ought
always to make a very gradual al-
lowance in changing their specta-
cles, so as to select others which
magnify a little more than the pre-
ceding pair, though somewhat less
distinctly, without obscuring the
object. Thus, their sight will be
imperceptibly improved ; anil,
after making use of less concave
lenses, the defect of vision may, in
process of time, be entirely reme-
died. These transitions, however,
ought not to be sudden ; lest the
resources of art should be too early
exhausted. And, as it would be
difficult to meet either with a pair
of glasses in the shops, that ex-
actly fit both eyes, or with a per-
son Avhose organs of si^ht are
both of a size and construction per-
fectly equal, it rationally follows,
that such important choice should
vol. v.
be separately made, with respect
to each of these useful organs.
Spectacles are generally trans-
parent and colourless ; though
sometimes green lenses are prefer-
red by those, whose eyes are una-
ble to support a vivid light. Such
colour is believed to be the most
soothing to the human eye;
though it tends, at first, in some
degree to darken the object.....
Hence, this shade will prove bene-
ficial only to persons who possess
strong, but irritable eyes ; yet
even such individuals should not
indulge in it, if light-coloured ob-
jects continue to assume a reddish
tinge, after having tried the expe-
riment for a few days. In all cases,
however, spectacles ought to be
employed only in writing, reading
or similar occupations that render
this artificial aid necessary; and
during which, the eye is retained
at an uniform distance.
In December, 1793, a patent
was granted to Mr. John Richard-
son ; for his invention of a ma-
chine that may be applied to spec-
tacles or glasses, and pebbles of
every kind. As, however, no dis-
tinct idea can be formed of his con-
trivance, without a proper delinea-
tion, Ave refer the reader to the
!Oth volume of the Repertory of
Arts, Sec. Avhere it is described, and
illustrated with an engraved figure.
H^nce, Ave shall oily observe,that
the chief object of the patentee's
invention, appears to be that of
preventing the necessity of em-
ploying two pair of spectacles,
where these are occasionally re-
quired ; as two dis inct sights may
thus be obtained, for any purpose,
according to the desire of the
wearer.
SPEEDWELL, or Veronica, L.
a genus of plants comprehending
18 SPE
SPE
54 species, 17 of which are indige-
nous : the principal of these are
the following:
1. The Beccabunga: See Brook-
lime.
2. The Chamxdrys: See Ger-
mander, the Wild.
3. The officinalis, Common
Speedwell, Male Speedwell,
or Fluellin, is perennial, groAVs
on heaths, and in barren grounds ;
floAvers from May till August.....
The leaves of this vegetable are
slightly bitter and astringent: for-
merly, an infusion of them was
highly prized, as a domestic reme-
dy in coughs and asthmatic com-
plaints. In a decoction with iron-
filings, these leaves yield a black
dye for leather. The plant is eat-
en by coavs, sheep, goats and
horses : refused by hogs.
4. The scuttelata or Narrow-
leaved Speedavell, thrives on
poor SAvampy soils, and flowers
from June to August. It affords
grateful food to geese and ducks.
5. The Anagallis, or Narroav-
LEAVED PlMPERNELL - SpEED-
avell, grows in slow streams and
shallow ponds, Avhere it floAvers in
July and August. This species
may be eaten both as salad, and
among other culinary vegetables.
Spelter : See Zinc
[SPENCER, (Marine.) A very
useful contrivance by K. Spencer,
Esq. of London, for the preserva-
tion of lives in cases of shipwreckT
or other accidents, in rivers or at
sea.
It consists of A, a girdle, of a
diameter to fit the body, six inches
broad, composed of about 800
corks, strung upon a strong twine,
well lashed together with lay-cord,
covered Avith canvas, and painted
in oil, so as to make it water-
proof.
B, B, are tapes or cords, about
two feet long, in the middle of
which a feAV corks are strung, co-
vered with canvas, and painted as
above.
D, is a pin of hard Avood, three
inches long, and half an inch in -
diameter, fastened to the front of
the girdle by a tape or cord about
two inches long.
E. the same.
When the spencer is to be usei
slide it from the feet close up uqp
der the arms; bring the tapes or
cords B, B, one over each shoulder,
and fasten them by the loops to the
pin D; bring the tape or cord C,
between the legs, and fasten it to
the pin E.
A pei*son thus equipped, though
unacquainted AvithsAvimming, may
safely trust himself to the waves ;
for he Avill float head and shoulders
above water in any storm, and by
paddling with his hands, may easily
gain the shore, or keep afloat until
taken-.up by boats.]
SPE
SPE
19
MARINE SPENCER.
Sperage : See Asparagus.
SPERM ACET I, a flaky, white-
ish, somewhat unctuous substance,
and nearly destitute of smell; be-
ing obtained from the head of the
Physeter macro-cephalus, L. a spe-
cies of whale.
As the manner of preparing this
expensive article is studiously con-
cealed, we shall only observe, that
good spermaceti is perfectly white,
glossy, and semi-transparent; ra-
ther soft and oily to the touch,
though friable and dry ; its taste
resembles that of fresh butter, and
its smell is faint, like that of tal-
low. It is said to be often adul-
terated with wax; but such fraud
may be speedily detected by the
peculiar smell of the latter sub-
stance, and by the dullness of the
colour. A preparation of the oil
obtained from the tail of the whale,
is likflyise vended for genuine sper-
20 SPE
SPI
maceti; but, as it assumes a yel-
low shade on exposure to the air,
such imposition may be easily dis-
covered. It will, however, be ne-
cessary, in all cases, to preserve
spermaceti in vessels, closely se-
cluded from the atmosphere: as
this drug is apt to become rancid,
and to acquire a disagreeable co-
lour ; thought it may be restored to
its original purity, by steeping it in
a ley, composed of quick-lime and
alkaline salts.
The quantity imported, being
not only inadequate to the demand,
but also grossly adulterated, Mr.
Smith Gibbes (now Dr. Gibbes
of Bath) proposed, in the 2nd
Part of the Philosophical Trans-
actions of the Royal Society, for
1794, to convert animal muscles
into a fatty substance, resembling
spermaceti : His chemical process
consists in enclosing the carcass of
a horse, cow, &c. in a box perfo-
rated with holes and immersing it
in a cbar stream or river, for the
space of a month, or longer; when
it will be converted into a mass of
unctuous matter. A certain por-
tion of nitrous acid (aqua-fortis) is
next poured on this cheesy sub-
stance, in order to discharge the
offensive smell, and separate the fat
in a pure, though somewhat yellow-
ish state. Such colour may, how-
ever, be removed, and the whole
tolerably bleached, by submitting it
to the action of the oxygenated
muriatic acid. Dr. Gibbes far-
ther observes, that this remarkable
conversion may be effected in the
course of three days, by pouring
nitrous acid on a piece of lean meaU
Nay, the illustrious Lord Bacon
mentions the following curious
circumstance in his work, entitled
" S.lva S rvarum;" namely, that
the flesh of animals may be chaaged
into a fatty substance, by cutting
it in pieces, which are to be put in
a glass covered with parchment,
and thus allowed to stand six or
seA'en hours in boiling water. " It
may be an experiment of profit
(says Bacon) for making grease or
fat, for many purposes; but then
it must be made of such flesh as is
not edible, as horses, dogs, bears,
foxes, badgers, &c." It appears,
likewise, from Dr. Gibbes's Me-
moir, that the putrefactive process
is not necessary for effecting this
change ; as it would waste a con-
siderable portion of flesh, that
might serve to form a larger mass
of Avaxy substance.
Great quantities of spermaceti
are annually consumed in the ma-
nufacture of candles and tapers,
Avhich are preferable to those made
of wax ; as the former burn not
only brighter, and are of a finer
colour, but when genuine, do not
stain, or grease the finest silks,
linens, or cottons....This drug is
also used as a cosmetic, for soften-
ing and cleansing the skin. In
medicine, it is chiefly recommend-
ed in the form of an emulsion, with
distilled waters and the yolk of
eggs, for relieving various affec-
tions of the intestines ; coughs
arising from defluxions of acrid
humours, Sec....Spermaceti is also
dissolved in oils, and beneficially
applied to bruises, sprains, and si-
milar injuries ; as it contributes to
mitigate pain.
SPICE, a general denomination
of aromatic drugs, possessing hot
and pungent properties. Such aro
All-spice, Nutmeg, Peppeh,
the seeds of the Caraway and
Cardamom, Ginger,M ace, Salt,
£;c. of which we have given an
account, in the progress of this
work. Hence, it will be useful
SPI
SPI 21
here, to subjoin a few remarks on
the general properties of spice, and
conclude with enumerating several
substitutes for the imported drugs,
that deserve to be more generally
cultivated.
The chief culinary use of spices,
is that of serving as an ingredient
in sauces, or for seasoning different
articles of food, either with a view
to render them more palatable, or
to obviate some hurtful effects,
such as flatulency, acidity, Sec.....
Nevertheless,condiments are most-
ly of a hot and stimulant nature,
tending to irritate the«nerves, and
ultimately to relax the stomach :
hence they ought to be employed
with moderation, and only with
provisions that cannot be easily
digested Avithout them ; for the
daily use of pungent drugs at the
table, necessarily excites thirst;
and many persons thus contract the
ruinous habit of committing excess
in fermented, vinous, or spirituous
liquors.
Among the various plants,Avhich
merit the attention of gardeners,
with a view to serve as substitutes
for Indian spice, we shall mention
the following :
I. Monarda, or Indian Hore-
HOUND (Monarda Zeylonica, L.)
a native of Ceylon, but which
thrives in the open air of our cli-
mate. There are two species of
this plant....thefstulosa, and didy-
ma: the leaves and blossoms of
both possess a very delicate fra-
grance ; so that they may be used
for making tea, and for imparting
a fine flavour to made Avines, or
brandy. But the most useful part
of this vegetable, is its aromatic
s.eeds, which M.Zizman, a German
clergyman, has lately cultivated to
a great extent, and found them
equally serviceable in domestic
economy, as the most costly spices
obtained from the Indies.
Beside the utility of the Monar-
da, or Oswego-tea, as a substitute
for spice, its leaves may be advan-
tageously used instead of those of
the Tea-tree : the flowers also,
when infused in brandy, impart to
it an agreeable flavour, resembling
that of peaches.
II. Basil (Ocymum), a native
of Avarm climates, consisting of
eight species: these are propagated
by seeds, and Avill also thrive in the
open air of this country : if placed
in a green-house, even their seeds
attain to maturity. The following
three species are the principal: 1.
The common Basil (O. vulgare);
2. The Citron-flavoured Basil (O.
citri odoreJ; and, 3. The Pink-
scented Basil (O. caryophyllatum
maximum). The leaves of all
these plants should be employed in
a dried state ; as they are too pe-
netrating while fresh: those of the
last kind, in particular, may serve
as excellent substitutes for nutmeg
and mace, in tarts, pies, mulled
Avine, and other preparations.
III. Garden-Thyme (Thymus
vulgaris) is a spicy herb, the fra-
grant blossoms of which should be
collected, dried, and used like those
of the preceding.
IV. Savory : Avhich see.
V. Marjoram : See p. 42.
VI. Cicely: See vol. ii. p. 132.
VII. Sage, the Balsamine : See
p. 9. of this volume.
VIII. Tarragon: Avhich see.
IX. Spignei. : See next page.
Beside these, wre shall remind
the reader of a feAV other spicv
plants commonly met Avith, in
British gardens ; for instance, fen-
nel, coriander, mustard, carawav,
rue, mint, penny-royal, balm, mug-
wort, C.c.....When compared with
22 SPI
SPI
some of the foreign drugs, they
excel many of the latter, both in
flavour and virtues, so as to render
their importation superfluous: nay,
the untutored Indians may justly
smile at the folly of Europeans
who, instead of encouraging the
culture of native plants, or such as
readily grow in their climates,
send the money earned by the in-
dustry and hard labour of their
husbandmen, over the tempestuous
ocean.....frequently at the loss of
many valuable lives.
SPIDER, or Aranca, L. a genus
of insects comprehending 50 spe-
cies, of which the following are
the principal, namely :
1. The Common House-Spider,
is generally of a black-colour ; has
eight legs, each of which is fur-
nished with three joints, and ter-
minates in three crooked claws.
This insect has eight eyes ; and, in
the fore-part of the head, there is
a pair of pincers, or claws, with
which it kills flies, Gcc. for food.
It is also provided with five warts
or prominences, at the extremity
oi' the abdomen, through which its
viscous filaments are evolved.
Spiders abound in almost every
house, spinning their Avebs in cor-
ners of the cciiing, Avhere they are
r..A disturbed. The females are
very prolific, laying from 4, to 500
extremely minute eggs ; and, tho'
both sexes mutually devour each
other with great ferocity, except
in the breeding season, their cum-
L-rs are not perceptibly diminished.
These insects are remarkable for
their 'industry : their appearance,
however, excites a degree of dis-
gust in many Aveak-minded per-
sons, Avho are apt to persecute and
destroy them, without mercy. But,
independently of their ut;iity in
reducing the number cf flies that
appear during the summer, they
afford a very accurate natural ba-
rometer ; because the celerity, or
indolence, with which they work,
indicate the approaching variations
of the atmosphere, Thus, if the
Aveather be about to change, and
become Avet, or windy, the saga-
cious creatures make the terminat-
ing filaments that support their
Aveb, uncommonly short. But, if
such threads be extended to an un-
usual length, the weather will re-
main serene for 10 or 12 days, or
for a longer period, according to
the proportionate extension of the
former. On the contrary, when
the spiders are totally inactive, rain
will shortly folloAv ; but, if they
continue to spin during a shower,
it is a certain indication, that the
rain will speedily cease, and be
succeeded by calm, fair weather.
2. The Calycina, or Garden Spi-
der, varies from the preceding spe-
cies only in its having around,pale-
yelloAV belly, and two hollow points.
It inhabits the calyces, or cups of
flowers, after the floral leaves are
decayed; Avhere it preys upon bees,
and other flies, that resort thither
for honey.....This insect yields a
kind of silk, Avhich is by some
deemed little inferior to that pro-
duced by the worm ; but, as the
filaments of the former are, in the
opinion of Reaumur, not equal to
those of the latter,either in strength
cr lusture,they are never employed
in manufactures.
SPIDER, the Red, or Scarlet
Tree-mite, Acarus baccarum, L.
a small insect having a roundish
body, and a smooth, glossy skin.
The colour is a deep-red, and the
whole animal appears to be dis-
tended, and ready to burst. It
frequents currant and other fruit-
trees ; but it \z particularly destruc-
SPI
SPI 21
tive in hot-houses. Hence gar-
deners have resorted to different
methods of extirpating them, and
especially that of sprinkling them
with a strong ley of wood-ashes;
but, as the saline particles of this
liquor are very hurtful to tender
plants, it will be more advisable to
remove such vermine, by means of
a common painter's brush ;...their
depredations may likeAvise be pre-
vented, by keeping the hot-house
perfectly clean.
Independent of the method of
exterminating these vermin, al-
ready suggested, the following is
recommended by Mr. Forsyth.
It merely consists in irrigating the
infested plants with lime-water, in
the afternoon, particularly on the
loAver side of the leaves. In hot-
houses, however, he advises a bar-
row-engine to be filled with soft
water, and all the plants to be
sprinkled, by directing the stream
against the top-lights, and shelves,
till the water be an inch deep in
the paths. But, where the building
will not admit of the entrance of a
barrow-engine, the front or top-
lights must be slidden down, and
the water poured in from above.
When this affusion is commenced,
if in the inside, every light ought
to be shut; but if the fluid be in-
troduced from Avithout, one light
only should be opened at a time ;
and which must be shut, as soon
as the part opposite to it is suffi-
ciently watered. The other lights
are then to be successively remov-
ed ; and, when the irrigation is com-
pleted, the hcuse should be care-
fully closed till the next morning.
In consequence of this operation,
vapours will arise in every part of
the building ; cover all the plants;
and effectually destroy the red spi-
der, together with all other vermin.
Mr. F. farther observes, that the
Avatering must be repeated every
day, during hot weather ; and that
it will, in general, shorten the la-
bour, which Avould otherwise be
required in irrigating plants. Such
vegetables, however, as require
copious humidity, ought to be Ava-
tered previously to sprinkling the
house : thus, the plants will imbibe
all the moisture, and the paths Avill
become perfectly dry, during the
night. See also Insects, Pine-
Apple.
[The bites of spiders are some-
times very painful. A remedy for
the complaint was described under
the article Plantain.]
SP1DERWORT, the Marsh,
March-tofieldia, or Scotch
Asphodel, Anthericum calycula-
tum, L. (Tofieldia palustris of Drs.
Smith and Withering), a natiA'e
perennial, Avhich grows in bogs, on
mountains in Scotland, and flowers
from July to September......This
plant, though useless in domestic
economy, deserves some notice ;
because it may serve as a guide to
dig for peat, in situations destitute
of sea-coal.
SPIGNEL, or Spicknel, jEthu-
sa Meum, L. a native perennial,
growing in mountainous pastures,
principally in the northern coun-
ties, where it flowers in the month
of May.-...The roots and seeds of
this vegetable have a pleasant aro-
matic smell, and a hot, bitterish
taste. They have occasionally
been used as carminatives -, and
also been administered in tertian
agues. At present, they are sel-
dom employed, either in domestic
economy, or in medicine ; though
Dr. Withering observes, that
they Avill often answer as substi-
tutes for pepper, or other pungent
aromatics.
24 SPI
SPIKE-OIL, the name of an es-
sential oil distilled from the La-
vender-spike, considerable quan-
tities of Avhich, are used by var-
nish makers, painters in enamel,
Sec...See also Lavender.
SPINACH, or Spinage, the
Common, Spinacia oleracea, L. an
exotic plant, cultivated in Britain,
for culinary purposes. If intended
for winter-use, it is propagated by
the seed, in beds of light, rich
earth, towards the end of July, and
during moist Aveather. When the
young plants appear, they must be
carefully weeded, and thinned to
the distance of five inches: in
October, they will be fit for use ;
when the longer leaves only should
be gathered to ; those in the centre
being suffered to grow to a larger
size ; so that a bed, thus managed,
will afford a supply of this vege-
table during the winter, till the
spinach sown for spring-use, is fit
for the table; Avhich generally suc-
ceeds in April.
Bechstein remarks, that the
agriculturists of Germany strongly
recommend . the culture of the
common spinach, on land which
has been once ploughed after a
crop of barley ; where it will pro-
duce early and excellent spring-
food, either for sheep, hogs, or
cattle : it may, farther, be mown
two or three times during the sum-
mer, and afterwards be fed off by
sheep, or suffered to run to seed.
This A'egetable is greatly esteem-
ed at the table ; but, when dressed
Avith melted butter, it passes
speedily through the boAvels, Avith-
out being duly digested ; and con-
sequently affords little nutriment.
It is particularly improper for per-
sons of Aveak and relaxed habits; as
it debilitates the alimentary canal;
excites looseness ; and not unfre-
SPI
quently occasions the heart-burn",
or acidity in the stomach.
Spinage, the Wild. See peren-
nial Goose-foot.
SPINDLE-TREE,the Common,
Prick-timber, Gatteridge-
TREE,orLousE-BERRY,.£"yo?n/7nw«
Europaus, L. an indigenous shrub,
which, in favourable situations, at-
tains the height of 20 feet: it grows
in woods and hedges, and is very
common in Devonshire ; Avhere it
flowers in the months of May and
June.
The berries of this elegant shrub
operate violently, both as an emetic
and cartharlic :...if eaten by sheep,
they infallibly destroy them. Re-
duced to powder, and sprinkled on
the skin of men or animals, these
berries are said to exterminate ver-
min of every description.....When
the Spindle-tree is in blossom, its
wood is remarkably tough, and
broken vrith difficulty ; in such
state, it is employed by watch-ma-
kers, for cleaning time-pieces; by
musical instrument makers, tur-
ners, and for A'eneering.... We learn,
however, from Bohmer, that some
artisans, working in this wood, have
asserted, that they became subject
to nausea and vomiting.......The
shoots of the Spindle-tree, in the
spring, are so grateful to cows, that
they generally damage the banks
of fences, in order to obtain their
favourite food....Sheep and goats
also eat the leaves ; but they are
disliked by horses.
In dyeing, the bark of this shrub
imparted, according to Siefert, a
pleasing sea-green colour to wool-
len cloth, by adding to the decoc-
tion of such rind, one-sixth part of
a solution of verdigrease, saturated
with crystals of tartar. The tint
Avas so permanent, that no change
took place in its shade, after having
SPI
SPI 25
been exposed for a fortnight to the
rays of the sun...The seed capsules
of the Gatteridge-tree, when fer-
mented in alum-Avater, produce a
durable pale-yellow dye.
[Three species of Evonymus,
are natives of Pennsylvania, and
being highly ornamental, deserve
a place in the garden or grounds
of every country residence. These
species are E. Caroliniensis; E.
latifolius, and E. sempervirens, all
of which grow naturally in moist
shady places.]
Spine, Luxations of. See Dis-
tortion, and Ribs.
SPINNING, is the art of twist-
ing flax, hemp, silk, cotton, wool,
or similar matters, so as to reduce
them into yarn or thread.
Spinning is generally performed,
either by means of a wheel, or
sometimes Avith a distaff and spin-
dle : but, as the Avheels commonly
employed for this purpose, are
aukward and inconvenient, Mr.
Antis, of Fulneck, near Leeds, in
17J3, submitted to the inspection
of the Society for the Encourage-
ment of Arts, &c. a model of an im-
proved spinning-wheel; for which
they conferred on him a bounty of
20 guineas.
The usual method of stopping
the wheel, Avith a view to remove
the yarn from one staple on the
flyer to another, necessarily occa-
sions great loss of time ; but, in
Mr. A.'s contrivance, the bobbin
is so arranged, as to pass backward
and forward, in order to prevent
any interruption ; and at the same
time to obviate both the breaking
of the thread, and losing the
end : hence, the spinner is enabled
to perform more work, in a given
time, than is practicable by any
other spinning-wheel. Such object
vol. v.
is effected, by extending the axis
of the great wheel through the pil-
lar next the person spinning ; and
forming it into a pinion of one leaf,
which catches into a wheel, seven
inches in diameter, having on its
periphery 97 teeth; so that 97 re-
volutions of the great wheel require
only one of the smaller wheel. On
the latter, a wire-ring is fixed ;
which, being supported on six legs,
stands obliquely to the wheel itself;
touching it at one part, and pro-
jecting nearly three quarters of an
inch at the opposite edge. Xear
the side of this wheel, is an up-
right lever, about 15 inches in
length, moving on a centre, three
inches from its lower extremity,
and connected at the top Avith a
sliding bar. From such bar rises
an upright piece of brass, Avhich
works in the notch of a pully, and
drives the bobbin to and fro, during
the revolution of the wheel.
In order to regulate and assist
the alternate motion, a weight, is
suspended by a line from the slid-
ing-bar ; and, passing over a pul-
ley, it rises or falls, as the bobbin
advances or recedes ; tending con-
stantly to keep the pin in contact
with the wire. In consequence of
this construction, the flyer requires
only one staple; which, being fixed
near its extremity, the thread en-
tering through, is regularly laid on
the bobbin, by the rotary motion of
the latter.
Since Mr. Antis presented the
model of the machine here describ-
ed, he has made several alterations,
which greatly contribute to its per-
fection ; and for which the Society,
in 1795, reAvarded him with the
additional sum of 15 guineas. As
we conceive, that an account of
these improvements Avill be ir;'c-
E
26 SPI
resting to every industrious house-
wife, Ave shall concisely state them,
together Avith Mr. A.'s remarks.
1. At every revolution of the
wheel, in his former machine, the
pinion with one leaf occasioned a
very disagreeable catch, while the
bobbin moved only by jerks, and
did not receive the thread in an
uniform manner. With a vieAV to
remedy this inconvenience, Mr.
Antis has adopted the motion of an
endless screw, working a toothed
wheel, on which is fixed a heart-
shaped piece of brass.
2. As the spinner should al-
ways be enabled to hold the thread
at pleasure, and not let it in, till it
be sufficiently twisted, Mr. A. ob-
served that, the bobbin moving
on a square, its motion was so
impeded, that when it began to be
filled with thread, it became im-
moveable, notwithstanding the ac-
tion of the weight; and, when the
thread was aftenvards left at li-
berty, it started at once half an
inch and upwards.
3. As, in the wheels of the com-
mon construction, and also in those
of Mr. Antis's first improvement,
the friction of the bobbin could be
augmented only by stretching the
common cord, which Avas not
practicable, without making the
wheel revolve Avith increasing dif-
ficulty, particularly when the bob-
bin was nearly filled ; he was in-
duced to make use of a single
cord, the sole design of which is
to turn the flyer; and, in case it
should become slack, it may bs
contracted or shortened, without
requiring any screw.
Farther, to regulate the friction
of the bobbin, Mr. A. has fastened
a neck of steel or brass to one end,
which is kept steady by a vice, or
fey pincers, fixed to the sliding-bar.
SPI
Such vice is directed to be made
either of two elastic springs, fur-
nished with Avooden tops ; or whol-
ly of Avood bushed with leather,
and provided with a spring, un-
der the shoulder of the screw, to
answer the same purpose. By
tightening this screw to a greater
or less degree, the friction may
be most accurately regulated,with-
out impeding the velocity of the
whole ; as no additional machine-
ry obstructs the general motion.
Mr. Antis, therefore, concludes
that a Avheel, on this improved
plan, will be found to run more
freely than those with a double
cord ; a circumstance of the great-
est importance, to a person whose
daily livelihood is obtained by
spinning : nay, even a lady who
sometimes spins for her diversion,
was much pleased with his first
invention, and thought it might
save a person at least two hours
in a day. He observes, that his
contrivance may be added to old
spinning wheels of every construc-
tion ; and that it would not consi-
derably increase the price of a
new machine, made according to
his plan.
SPIRITS, a general name given
to ardent liquors, obtained by dis-
tillation.
Surprizing as it may appear to
many of our readers, who are un-
acquainted With vegetable nature*
we may positively affirm, that a
sufficient quantity of wild neglect-
ed fruit annually grows in this
country, to produce an adequate
supply of spirituous liquor, Avith-
out using any bread-corn, for such
Avasteful purpose. Of this de-
scription, in particular, are the
berries of the Dog-rose, Quick-
en-tree, and numerous other
native shrubs, that have been men-
SPL
tioned in the progress of the pre-
sent Avork ; and a recapitulation
of which, will appear at the con-
clusion, in the General Index of
Reference*
SPIRIT OF WINE, an ardent,
colourless liquor, destitute of any
peculiar flavours it may be ob-
tained by distilling the farinaceous
or saccharine roots, as well as the
pulpy fruit of vegetables, in gene-
ral, by means of a common still,
but more effectually in what is
termed a water - bath (balneum
maris) ,• after which, the spiritu-
ous fluid is purified by repeated
rectification ; and, when divested
of nearly all its aqueous particles,
it is called Alkohol.
This expensive liquor is chiefly
employed for dissolving gum-re-
■sins in the preparation of varnish-
es : for separating resins from the
vegetable matters containing them ;
and also for making essences, tinc-
tures, elixirs, and various other
compounds, for medicinal use. It
may likewise, be applied with ad-
vantage to different parts of the
body, especially in sprains and
bruises ; as it strengthens the ves-
sels ; but, if inadvertently swal-
lowed in a pure state, and in a
large quantity, it corrugates the
membranous parts of the stomach;
being attended with a temporary
suspension of their functions, and
sometimes even inducing apoplexy
or palsy, which generally ends in
death. Hence, spirit of wine ought
to be preserved Avith the greatest
caution, so that children or igno-
rant persons may not have an op-
portunity of tasting so deleterious
a liquor.
SPLEEN, is a spongy viscir,
situated in the left side near the
JoAver part of the stomach, under
SPL 21
the ribs. This organ is supposed
to be designed by Nature to pre-
pare the blood for the secretion of
bile in the liver. Its purpose,
though inacurately known, must
be important? to the animal eco-
nomy ; as indigestion, and a varie-
ty of other complaints, have re-
sulted from splenetic affections.....
It deserves to be remarked, that
the term Spleen is frequently used
to denote a disorder, which is more
strictly, by physicians, called hy-
pochondriasis.
The principal diseases of the
spleen are inflammations, obstruc-
tions, aud indurations. In the
first case, the causes and symp-
toms are similar to those describ-
ed under inflammatory fever : at
the same time, a tumor and pain
are felt in the left side ; the latter
increasing on pressure....Chronic
inflammation of the spleen, how-
ever, may also be consequent on
diseases of the liver, such as the
jaundice, piles, Sec. The treat-
ment will, therefore, chiefly con-
sist in the application of the same
remedies as are mentioned in the
page above quoted ; but, where
the patient is of a plethoric habit,
or was previously subject to the
piles, leeches applied to the anus
have proved of great service.....
Calomel and antimony, taken in-
ternally, under judicious manage-
ment, have likewise been attended
with good effects.
If the spleen be obstructed or
indurated, a pain and tumor avi!!
also be felt on the left side, bear-
ing doAvnward like a Aveight; the
patient finding it difficult to lie
down on that side: the boAvels
are generally costive: and respi-
ration is impeded....The cure of*
this affection requires the same
28 SPL
method as is recommended for
obstructions and scirrhosity of the
liver....See Scirrhus.
SPLEEN-WORT, or Hart's
Tongue, Asplenium scolopendri-
um, L. a native perennial, groAving
in the fissures of moist shady rocks,
old walls, and at the mouths of
Avelis : where it flowers in the
months of August and September.
.....The medicinal powers of this
vegetable are highly praised for
curing the bites of venomous ser-
pents ; in hypochondriasis; pal-
pitation of the heart, &c. ; of
which, however, we have had no
experience.
SPLENTS, in farriery, denote
hard excrescences of various shape
and size, appearing on the shank-
bone of a horse....Unless they arise
from blows, or other accidents, few
horses put out splents, after they
are seven or eight years old ; and,
■when occuring in young horses,
they frequently Avearoff, and spon-
taneously vanish.
Splents, on their first appear-
ance, should be well bathed with
vinegar, or old verjuice ; which
often checks their farther pro-
gress : in some animals, purga-
tives and diet-drinks will contri-
bute to remove Avatery swellings
about the limbs, which frequently
induce such malady.
According to Mr. Taplin, a
radical cure may, in general, be
effected by rubbing the excre-
scences, for a considerable time,
twice every day, with the utmost
force of the operator's hand ; Avell
moistening the part after each fric-
tion, with a little of the folloAving
liniment :....Take of camphorat-
ed spirit of wine, and spirit of tur-
pentine, each 4 oz.; to be uni-
formly incorporated. Or, oil of
SPO
origanum, and spirit of turpentine,
each half an ounce : and campho-
rated spirit of wine 2 oz. to be du-
ly mixed....A pledget of tow, wet-
ted Avith either of these prepara-
tions, ought to be fastened round
the splent, with a proper ban-
dage.
Should those powerful discu-
tients fail of success, recourse
must be had to the strongest mer-
curial ointment: a portion of the
size of a hazel-nut, ought to be
chafed into the part affected, every
night and morning, till two oz. of
it have been used ; applying the
roller or bondage, as before di-
rected.
But, if these various remedies
be insufficient to procure reliefy
the best and most speedy method,
will be that of extirpating the ex-
crescence by the knife....This ope-
ration may be performed by a
longitudinal incision through the
integuments (Avithout bruising,
hammering, ike.), then dissecting,
and extracting the substance :
thus, the cure may be completed
by taking up a cquple of stitches,
and treating the part like a super-
ficial wound.
SPONGE, or Spongia, L. a
genus of animal plants, compre-
hending 50 species, the principal
of Avhich is the officinalis, or Com-
mon Sponge. It is imported from
the Levant; being a soft, porous,
light, substance, Avhich easily im-
bibes Avater.
Sponge is of extensive utility in
domestic economy, medicine, and
surgery. If it be cut in small
pieces, fried or dipped in honey,
and given to vermin, it distends
their intestines, and effectually de-
stroys them [see Rats]. As it
strongly adheres to the orifices of
SPO
SPR 29
wounded vessels, it is advantage-
ously employed as a styptic ; often.
preventing the effusion of blood
more effectually than the puff-ball
or agaric...When burnt and pul-
verized, it has been successfully
administered internally, in scro-
phulous complaints, and cutaneous
diseases, in doses of one scruple
and upwards : it is also consider-
ed as a specif c, on account of its
efficacy in removing the glandu-
lar swelling of the neck, known
under the name of bronchocele.....
See Wen.
Spoon-wort. See Scurvy-
grass, the English.
SPOTS, are marks or stains ac-
cidentally occurring on linen, avooI-
len, cotton, silk, or other stuff's....
Under the head of Cloth, Ave
have already communicated seve-
ral methods of discharging spots
from woollen-cloth : hence Ave shall,
in this place, add another remedy
which may be easily prepared;
though Ave have had no experience
of its effects :......Dissolve two
ounces of pure pearl-ash in a quart
of spring water, and add to this
solution a lemon cut in small
slices. Let the whole be proper-
ly mixed, and kept in a warm
place for 24 hours ; Avhen the li-
quor should be strained, and the
clear fluid decanted for use. It
is asserted, that this compound,
when poured on the stained part,
instantaneously removes all spots,
whether they arise from grease,
pitch, or oil ; and, as soon as they
disappear, the cloth must be Avash-
ed in pure water....See also Balls
(Portable.)
Ink-spots on woollen-cloth may
be discharged by rubbing them
Avith a composition, made of the
white of anew-laid egg, and a few
drops of oil of vitriol, properly in-
corporated ; aftenvards Avashing
the stain with pure water, and
lastly, smoothening it with a piece
of white cloth, or flannel, in the
direction, of the nap :....to remoA'e
ink from silk stuffs, it will be ad-
visable to apply strong distilled
vinegai', and Avormweod-ashes, to
the blotted part, Avhich ought to be
well rubbed with these matters,and
then cleansed with soap-water.
Red-port on linen, we under-
stand, may be almost effectually
cleared, by pouring warm milk on
the stained parts, while they are in
a wet state :.....another, and per-
haps more successful, method, is
that of dropping the talloAV from a
candle on such Avine-marks before
they are dry ; and suffering them
to remain till the cloth is sent to
the laundry; because ink-spots
may, in this simple manner, be
removed from linen.
[To take ink-spots outoflin.v....
Moisten the place with undiluted
marine acid, (spirit of yalt;) in
about 2 or 3 minutes, wash the
linen Avell in cold Avater....This is
dangerous, if continued too long,
but it may be managed with care ;
if the acid be diluted with water, it
is apt to burn.
Another....'Rub the spot with a
piece of lemon, or squeeze lemon
juice upon it, and then wash it in
warm water.
Mr. Henry, in his Epitome of
Chemistry, prefers the oxalic acid,
(acid of sorrel) citric, (of lemon)
and tartareous acid, which may be
applied to the most delicate fabrics
without injury : and the same so-
lutions discharge, from paper,
written but not printed ink.]
SPRAIN, denotes an extension
of the muscles, ligaments, and ten-
dons, Avithout dislocation : it gene-
rally proceeds from external inju-
30 S P R
SPR
ry; and is attended with pain,
SAvelHng, and inflammation. In
treating this local affection, the
first object should be, to check the
swelling, and prevent the inflam-
matory symptoms. For this pur-
pose, cold, astringent fomentations
with Avater, !oe, vinegar, &c. or, in
a very recent case, camphorated
spirit of wine, must be applied as
speedily as possible: to relieve
pain, where it is considerable, a
few drops of laudanum may be
added to the lotion....The regimen
recommended under the article
inflammation, will here like-
wise be proper....During, and for
some time after, this treatment,
the sprained part should be kept in
a state of rest and relaxation.
SPRING, a fountain, or source,
whence Avater spontaneously rises
from the bowels of the earth.
Various conjectures have been
formed by naturalists, concerning
the origin of springs; but, con-
sistently Avith our limits, we shall
only observe, that the most plau-
sible theory appears to be that of
Dr. Halley, who svipposes them
to originate from the rain and snow
waters; which,penetrating through
the soil, at length settle in the fis-
sures of the earth, and form foun-
tains or springs.
As Avater is indispensable to the
health and convenience of man-
kind, many expedients have been
devised, with a view to ascertain
the particular spots, whence a
supply might be obtained: we
shall, therefore, state a few indi-
cations, or land-marks, by which
that necessary article may be dis-
covered.
1. As all mountains are colder
in proportion to their height, the
evening mist descends on them,
particularly in damp situations,
much sooner than on the vallies,
and thus may indicate the exist-
ence of springs.
2. Another observation is sug-
gested by Dr. Darwin, in order
to determine the existence of sub-
terraneous springs, in rimy morn-
ings :.. ..moist earth conducting
heat better than dry soil, the rime
will be dissolved more speedily on
those spots which are moistened
by springs under ground, than on
the adjacent parts.
Lastly, the rise of these natural
fountains may be discovered dur-
ing the winter, in wet ditches, by
the gnnving of brook-lime, Avateiv
cresses, or similar aquatic plants :
for such vegetables do not thrive
in the ditches that become dry in
the summer. And Dr. Daravin
remarks, that when those ditches
Avhich contain springs, are nearly
dry, the direction of the current
may be ascertained by the point,
to Avhich the leaves of the aquatic
plants may turn, with as great a
degree of certainty as can be ef-
fected by a level.
SPRING-GRASS, the Sweet-
scented, or Vernal-grass, An-
thoxanthum odoratum, L. an indi-
genous perennial, growing in mea-
dows and pastures ; flowering in
the months of May and June.....
This is one of the earliest British
pasture-grasses, and occasions the
delicate flavour perceptible in new-
ly-made hay. It is eagerly eaten
by cows, horses, goats, and sheep ;
on account of its aromatic taste,
and juicy, nutritive nature.....Mr.
Swayne, however, observes, that
it abounds in wet lands, particu-
larly on peat-bogs ; and that it ap-
pears to be of little consequence ;
as it- is neither very productive to
the farmer, nor palatable to cattle,
.«Neverthelcss,othcr agriculturists
SPR
are of a different opinion; and Mr.
Sole (Letters and Papers of the
Bath and West of England Society,
vol. ix.) conceives that the vernal-
grass would be an useful addition
to meadows, by sowing it in the
proportion of one-eighth. This ju-
dicious advice, every practical hus-
bandman will be induced to adopt;
as it is a well-known fact, that this
fragrant herb not only remarkably
spreads, and increases in its bushy
stalks, when cultivated in favoura-
ble situations, but it also effectu-
ally checks the growth of moss, in
your meadows......It is farther re-
markable, that the root of this
moss possesses a strong odour, re-
sembling that of musk....The dried
blossoms are, on the Continent,
employed for imparting an agree-
able flavour to snuff and tobacco.
[See Grass.]
SPRUCE-BEER, a kind of diet-
drink, which is prepared in the fol-
lowing manner : Eight gallons of
water are first poured into a cask,
or other vessel; and a similar
quantity of boiling water is added ;
16 pounds of molasses are next
mixed, together with a few table-
spoonfuls of the essence of spruce
(vrhich is obtained from the cones
of the spruce-fur.) Half a pint of
sweet yeast must now be put in ;
and the Avhole, after being Avell
stirred, should be placed in a tem-
perate room, for a few days, till
the fermentation ceases. The li-
quor may then be bottled ; and, in
the course of a fortnight, it will be
fit for use.
[Another.....To a four ounce
pot of essence of spruce, add
three quarts of molasses, two
gallons of warm rain or soft-
water, and half a pint of good
yeast. Stir the Avhole atcII, till
SPU 31
the liquor bears a froth, then
put the mixture into a cask, and
fill it Avith eight gallons of water,
shaking it well; set it by for two
or three days, to ferment, with
the bung open ; when sufficient-
ly worked, bung the cask close,
and place it in a cool cellar, and
in 24 hours it will be fit for use....
If intended for bottling, let the
cask stand undisturbed three days
before it is drawn off: for a second
brewing, the sediment remaining
in the cask, may be used instead
of yeast. If well-water be used,
it should be a little warmed.
The above receipt, the Editor
can recommend from experience-
But he must beg, that attention be
paid to every part of the process ;
that the cask be clean, the corks
sound, and the bottles strong.....
The purity of the essence of
spruce also, must be attended to, as
that article is often greatly adulter-
ated.]
Spruce-beer has a peculiar fla-
vour, which renders it disagreea-
ble to the palate of many persons ;
it is, however, a most powerful
antiscorbutic, and affords a whole-
some beverage, particularly during
the summer ; as it does not affect
the weakest stomach.
Spruce-fir. See Fir.
Spunge. See Sponge.
Spur, a disease to Avhich corn
is subject....See Corn and Rye.
SPURGE, or Euphorbia, L. a
genus of plants, comprehending
110 species; 12 being natives of
Britain ; the principal of which are
the following:
I. The characias, or Red Spurge,
groAVS in Avoods and hedges,
where it flowers in the month of
June. The pulverized leaves of
this plant, if taken in doses of from
32 SPU
15 to 25 grains, operate as a brisk
purgative :....its juice, like that of
all the other species of the spurge,
is so extremly acrid, that it ulce-
rates every part of the body, Avith
Avhich it comes in contact. Hence,
it is never used internally :....but,
a single drop put into the cavity
of an aching tooth, is said to have
removed the pain, and at the same
time destroyed the nerve. This
corrosive liquid, however, may, ac-
cording to Dr. Withering, be
applied with safety to warts and
corns ; as it eradicates them in a
very short time.
2. The helioscopia, or Sun-
spurge. See Wartwort.
3. The Cyparissias, or Cyprus
Spurge, grows in dry woods (at
Enville, in Staffordshire), where its
yellow flowers bloAV in May and
June....Goats are exceedingly par-
tial to this herb ; and its seeds
afford grateful food to pigeons....
The beautiful caterpillar, which is
changed into the Spurge-butterfly,
derives its nourishment from the
leaves of this species.....[See Eu-
PHORBIUM.]
SPURGE-ELAX. SeeMEZEREON.
SPURGE-LAUREL, or Lau-
rel Mezereon, Daphine Laure-
ola, L. an indigenous shrub, found
in woods and hedges, principally
in the county of York, Avhere it
flowers in March and April. The
whole of this A'egetable, especially
the bark of the root, is very acrid :
it has been employed with success
in rheumaticfevers,operating pow-
erfully as a purgative. It is like-
wise an excellent vermifuge ; but,
as it possesses great acrimony,
it ought never to be administered
without medical advice, and in
small doses, which should not ex-
ceed ten grain:;. On account of its
elegant green and yellow flowers.
which appear in the early spring,
and sometimes in the winter, this
evergreen is cultivated in shrub-
berries ; but it deserves to be re-
marked that its black berries,
though eagerly eaten by phea-
sants, prove mortal food to man,
and all the mammillary animals.
Spurge-Olive. See Meze-
reon.
SPURREY, or Spergula, L. a
genus of plants comprising 5 spe-
cies ; three being natives of Bri-
tain. The principal of these is the
arvensis, or Corn Spurrey, which
grows in corn-fields, and sandy
situations; floAvers from July to
September. This vegetable is eat-
en by horses, sheep, goats, and
hogs ; but is, according to With-
ering, refused by cows. Bech-
stein, Funke, and other natural-
ists, however, informs us that the
corn-spurrey is not only devoured
with avidity by all cattle, but is also
conducive to their health, while it
remarkably tends to increase the
milk of cows, and to fatten sheep.
Hence this weed is industriously
cultivated in Flanders; because it
is so far superior to other pasture-
grasses, that it continues green till
a late period of autumn, and often
throughout the Avinter. Its seeds
are eagerly svvallowed by poultry,
and afford on expression a good
lamp-oil: nay, the flour obtained
from them, when mixed with that
of wheat or rye, produces Avhole-
some bread, for Avhich purpose, it
is often used in Norway and Goth-
land.
SQUILL, the Common, or Sea-
onion, Scilla maritima, L. an ex-
otic plant, growing on the sandy
shores of the Levant, especially on
those of Spain, and Portugal,
whence considerable quantities of
its roots are annually imported....
SQU
SQU 33
The best sea-onions ought to be
sound, fresh, and to contain a vis-
cous juice : they are nauseous, bit-
ter, and, if much handled, are so
acrid as to ulcerate the skin.
The squill is a powerful stimu-
lant, promoting the discharge of
urine ; and, if the patient be kept
warm, a profuse perspiration. It
is chiefly employed, in cases, where
the organs of respiration are clog-
ged, or oppressed with mucus :....
when combined with nitre in the
proportion of from 4 to 10 grains of
the dried root, with a double quan-
tity of saltpetre, it has been great-
ly extolled for its efficacy in drop-
sical swellings, and inflammations
of the kidnies. If the squill be
taken in a large dose, it operates as
an emetic ; and, in some persons,
as a purgative. It is often pre-
scribed in the form of pills; though,
when mixed with honey into an
oxymel, it affords an useful me-
dicine for obstinate coughs.....The
roots of the sea-onion pay, on
importation, the duty of 2s. 9d.
per lb.
Squinancy-berries. See Cur-
rant, the Black.
SQUINTING, or Strabismus,
an affection of the eyes, occasioned
by the optic axis not converging;
in consequence of which, the or-
gans of sight appear distorted.
Improper habits frequently in-
duce this defect, while the eye and
its muscles are perfect; for instance,
in children, who accustom them-
selves to view different things at
one time ; or, who are placed ob-
liquely toward* any object that
may attract their attention. Ano-
ther cause is mal-conformation of
the retina, or such parts as serve to
convey impressions to the point of
vision; so that persons thus situ-
ated, are obliged to turn the eye
vol. v.
from the object to be investigated,
in order that they may be enabled
to behold it more distinctly....Far-
ther, it often proceeds from weak-
ness, or defect of either eye, so
that both cannot be mutually em-
ployed. Besides, it may be conse-
quent on affections of the brain,
epilepsy, terror, and defluxidns of
rheumatic humours.
The method of cure to be adopted
in this unpleasant distortion, varies
according to the cause. Thus, in
children, and in cases of Aveakness
of the eyes, it may be remedied by
mechanical contrivances. Hence,
when there is no organic defect in
either eye, which is frequently the
case with persons who squint from
a depraved habit of moving their
eyes, the disease may often be
cured. Dr. Darwin remarks
(Philosophical Transactions, vol.
68), that in all the squinting people
he had occasion to attend, one eye
Avas less perfect than the other:
these patients are, in his opinion,
certainly curable, by covering the
best eye many hours in the day;
as, by a more frequent use of
the weak eye, it not only acquires
a habit of turning to the objects
which the patient Avishes to see,
but gains at the same time, a more
distinct vision : in both these res-
pects, the better eye is under some
disadvantage, which also facilitates
the cure. This ingenious phvsi-
cian relates, in the same paper, a
remarkable case of a boy, then five
years old (now a reputable Eng-
lish clergyman at Edinburgh), who
has the misfortune of viewing
every object with one eye only at
a time. Dr. 1). directed a paper
gnomon to be made, and affixed to
a cap ; and, Avhen this artificial
nose was placed over the patient's
real nose, so as to project an inch
F
34 SQU
ST
between his eyes, the child, rather
than turn his head so far to look
at oblique objects, immediately
began to exert the eye Avhich was
nearest to them. But, having the
misfortune to lose his father, soon
after this method was begun to be
followed, the child Avas neglected
for six years, during Avhich time
the habit Avas confirmed in such a
manner as seemed to leave little
room to hope for a cure. Dr. D.
however, being again called, at-
tempted a second time to remove
the. deformity, by a similar con-
trivance. A gnomon of thin brass
was made, to stand over his nose,
with a half-circle of the same metal
to go round his temples: these
Arere covered with black silk; and,
by means of a buckle behind his
head, and a cross-piece over the
crown of his head, this gnomon
was worn without any inconveni-
ence, and projected before his.nose
about tAvo inches and a half. By
the use of this machine, he sooh
found it less inconvenient to view
all oblique objects, Avith the eye
next to them, instead of the eye
opposite to them.
After this habit was weakened,
by a week's use of the gnomon,
two bits of Avood, about the size of
a goose-quill, were blackened all
but a quarter of an inch at their
summits ; these were frequently
presented to him to loohr at; one
being held on one side the extre-
mity of his black gnomon, and the
other on the opposite. In viewing
these, thty Avere gradually brought
forward beyond the gnomon, and
then one Avas concealed behind the
other; by such means, in another
week, he could bend both his eyes
on the same object for half a mi-
nute together; and, by continuing
the use of the same machine, he
was in a fair way of being cured.
Lastly, if squinting arise from
any adventitiouscircumstance, such
as terror, defluxions of humours,
Etc. the removal of those causes
will also cure the disorder; but,
where it originates from mal-con-
formation of the organs of vision,
or has been so long neglected as
to become confirmed, it is not in
the power of art to afford any re-
lief.
Squitch-grass, the blue. See
Creeping Bent-grass.
St. Anthony's Fire. See
Rose.
St. John's-wort. See John's
Wort.
ST. VITUS's DANCE, a spas-
modic disorder, mostly incident to
young persons of both sexes, from
the age of ten to fifteen : it is dis-
tinguished by continual inA'oluntary
motions of the hands and feet; so
that the patient appears in a man-
ner to dance, Avhile he is obliged to
drag one leg after the other.
Causes;.... Worms ; suppressed
eruptions ; checked perspiration,
he. but the peculiar affection of
the muscles thus contracted, has
hitherto eluded the researches of
the physiologist.
However distressing this com-
plaint be to the patient and his
friends, it may afford some consola-
tion, that it neither proves fatal nor
permanent; and that frequently,
after every mean has been em-
ployed, it spontaneously disap-
pears. A favourable change may,
in general, be expected about the
age of puberty.
Cure :....As it is often difficult to
ascertain the cause of this malady,
it will be proper to administer such
medicines as are calculated to carry
ST A
ST A 35
t>ff worms (see the article Worm);
and to allay the spasmodic motions.
With the latter intention, antispas-
modics and tonics, namely, asafoe-
tida, valerian-root, wormwood,
musk in conjunction with bark
and port wine, Sec. have often been
attended with good effects. Far-
ther, the remedies directed in the
epilepsy, may also, Avith advan-
tage, be so modified as to be salu-
tary in this complaint. Lastly,
we conceive that the tepid bath
may always with safety, if not with
uniform benefit, be resorted to ;
especially in an affection which ob-
viously arises from a preternatural
irritability of the nerves and mus-
cles. On the other hand, the cold
sea-bath will probably be of great
service, when the skin of a robust
patient is not in a dry, contracted
state ; and when there appears to
be a sufficient degree of re-action
in the system, to withstand the
sudden shock of the water.
STABLE, an edifice erected for
the reception and accommodation
of horses.
The principal object in building
stables, is the situation, which
ought to be, 1. On a gentle decli-
vity, in order that the urine, &c
may be carried off; 2. On a pure,
airy spot ; not exposed to noxious
exhalations ; and, 3. On dry, hard
ground. The walls must be mo-
derately thick, and furnished with
casements on the north and east
sides ; both with a view to admit
air, and receive the benefit of the
rising sun. The windows should,
at the same time, be provided with
shutters, [or louffers in preference]
for excluding the light, in case it
be deemed necessary for the ani-
mals to sleep during the day.
With respect to the paving of
utables, it will he advisable to co-
ver the part, on which the horses
are to lie down, with oak boards,
placed transversely upon a level;
and which should be perforated Avith
holes, for conducting the urine
into the common drain. The other
part should be paved with small
stones ; and the wall contiguous
to the rack, ought to be lined with
a wainscoat of sound oak.
[For some remarks oh the best
form of stables, the reader is refer-
red to the article Farm Yard.]
When a stable is designed for
seAreral horses, the stalls should be
made sufficiently wide to enable
them to lie down, or turn round
Avithout inconvenience ; while the
partitions ought to be raised so
high tOAvards the head, that the
animals can neither see, smell, nor
molest each other. Lastly, the
strictest cleanliness must be ob-
served in the management of the
stable, both in order to preserve the
health of horses, and to prevent
the generation of any contagious
effluvia. In case, however, in-
fectious distempers should prevail,
it will be necessary to resort to
the following process, in order to
destroy the contagion : Let half a
pound of oil of vitriol, diluted with
an equal quantity of water, be
gradually poured into a vessel,
containing 4 ounces of pulverized
manganese, mixed with a pound of
sea-salt. The dish ought to be pla-
ced on a heated brick ; and the
operator should carefully avoid the
fumes arising from the vitriolic
acid ; as they will powerfully af-
fect the organs of respiration. See
also Fumigation.
STAGGERS, or Apoplexy, a
diorder in the heads of horses,
which becomes evident from the
drowsiness ; bad appetite ; watery
and inflamed eyes ; and the stag-
36 S T A
ST A
gering or reeling gait of the ani-
mals. The head is continually re-
clining on the manger; a slight
fever prevails ; and the discharge
of urine is in a very small pro-
portion.
If the disease arise from Avounds,
or blows on the head, the horse
Avill, in addition to these symp-
toms, become frantic, particularly
after feeding ; and, if it fall down,
without being able to rise, there
will be little prospect of recovery.
Sometimes the staggers proceed
from colds, caught by too early
turning the animal out to grass,
after violent exertions: it will,
therefore, be requisite to bleed him
freely, and to support the head and
shoulders with straw : if he sur-
vive the fit, clysters prepared from
a strong decoction of senna and
salt, or a purging clyster must be
administered every morning and
evening. It has farther been re-
commended, to blow a dram of
the powder of Asarabacca, once
in the course of the day, into the
animal's nostrils, in order to pro-
mote a discharge: after which,
two or three aloetic purges (see
HORSE-MEDICINES, Vol. i'li.) OUght
to be given ; and, to prevent a re-
lapse, small doses, not exceeding
one ounce, and consisting of equal
parts of cinnabar, antimony, and
guaiacum, formed into balls, should
be daily administered, for the space
of a month.
When the staggers originate
from fulness of blood, high feed-
ing, or want of exercise, it is the
practice of farriers, frequently to
take small quantities of blood from
the horse, and to give an opening
diet, together Avith scalded bran or
barley. It appears to us, however,
that such bleedings, unless in cases
of urgent necessity, might be avoid-
ed ; by keeping the animal on hay
mixed Avith double its quantity of
cut straw, and making him Avork
moderately every day.
[In the first vol. of" Anderson's
Recreations," is a paper on this
disease, which it is now known was
written by Col. Tatham, at pre-
sent in London, and author of se-
veral late and ingenious Avorks.....
From the facts collected by Mr. T.
it is highly probable, that the di-
sease proceeds, at least in North
Carolina, " from the cobwebs which
bespread the ground every where
in autumn ; but Avhether the infec-
tious particles are taken in through
the nose or mouth, or both, seems
to be yet unsettled."
It appears that it is the cobwebs
moist with the deAv, that produce
the disease. By experiments, dry
cobwebs were found innocent.
These facts are highly worthy
of investigation. Dr. Anderson
observes that the staggers, as af-
fecting sheep, is the only disorder
of this sort frequent in Britain.]
Staggers, in Sheep, is a spe-
cies of apoplexy, arising from too
great fulness of blood. It princi-
pally attacks young lambs, which
fall down; and, if not timely re-
lieved, they speedily perish. The
mode of cure generally adopted by
shepherds, is to bleed the creatures
frequently in the eye-vein, and to
remove them to a coarse pasture,
vrith a View to prevent the danger
of a relapse.
Staining. See Marble ; and
Wood.
[STAIR CASE. All stone stairs
and landings, projecting from the
Avails, without any support at one
end, are extremely dangerous;
their safety, or support, depends
on the supposition that every stone
is sound, every joint and bearing
ST A
ST A 37
geometrically exact, and the walls
compleatly settled before the stairs
are built in. This supposition is
generally groundless, or at least
uncertain, as eyents shew. Not
long ago, says Dr. Garnet, one
of these elegant, but unsafe stairs,
tumbled down at the NeAV Opera-
House, in the Hay-Market, and
another at the Tontine, or Ex-
change, in Glasgow. And serious
apprehensions of a similar acci-
dent, were entertained at the house
of a nobleman at the west end of
the town. Stone stairs Avhen built
with good roomy landing-places,
and a thin Avail to support the off
ends of the steps, as recommend-
ed by Dr. Garnet, are certainly
the best on account of fire.....
Many instances having occurred
of the inhabitants of houses being
burnt from the stairs taking fire
below, by which they Avere de-
prived of the means of escaping.]
STAR OF BETHLEHEM, or
Ornithogalum, L. a genus of plants,
comprising 35 species, 7 of Avhich
are indigenous: the principal of
these is the luteum, or Yellow Star
of Bethlehem, groAving in woods,
and moist sandy places ; Avhere its
beautiful yellow flowers appear in
April.
All the species of this vegetable
are hardy perennials, and prosper
in any situation : they may be ea-
sily propagated by off-sets from the
bulbous roots. These may be pre-
served for a long time, either if a
raw or roasted state ; and Ruel-
lius remarks, that a wholesome
and nutritious bread may be pre-
pared from a mixture of the roots
and seeds of this plant.....It is eaten
by horses, goats, and sheep, though
not relished by hogs ; and is to-
tally refused by cows.....See also
Cheese.
STAR-GRASS, or Cailitrichr,
L. a genus of plants, consisting of
four species, two of which are in-
digenous, namely : 1. The vcrna,
Vernal Star-grass, Water-Star-
wort, Water-Fennel, or Star-head-
ed Water-Chickweed, grows in
ditches, ponds, and slow streams :
it flowers from April to August.
2. The autumnalis, or Autumnal
Star-grass, abounds in ditches and
still waters, where it flowers in
August.
Both these vegetables groAv so
thickly matted together, as to en-
able a person to walk over the in,
Avithout sinking : hence, they may
be advantageously planted, with a
view to consolidate swampy, or
marshy grounds, so as to prepare
them for tillage.
STAR-WORT, the Sea, or
Aster Tripolium, L. a native peren-
nial, growing in salt-marshes, both
on the sea-coast, and in those which
are more distant from the shore :
it flowers in the months of August
and September. This vegetable
is eaten by goats and horses ; but
is not relished by sheep, and totally
refused by hogs. From its thriving
in inland situations, the Sea-Star-
wort has been conjectured to indi-
cate the presence of subterraneous
salt-springs.
STARCH, or Amylum, is a pre-
paration from wheat, obtained by
steeping the flour of that grain in
cold water,then straining it through
a cloth, and suffering the farinace-
ous particles to subside. In many
places, however, it is manufactured
in the folloAving manner :
Pure wheat is put into tubs of
water, and exposed to the heat of
the sun, to induce a proper degree
of fermentation ; the Avater being
changed twice every day, for six
or eight days, according to the
38 S T A
ST A
Avarmth of the season. When pro-
perly softened and fermented, it is
poured into canvas bags, which are
worked or beaten on a board, placed
over an empty vessel, in order to
extract the mealy part. When such
vessel is filled with the liquid flour,
a reddish fluid appears on the sur-
face, which must be carefully
skimmed, and pure water added ;
Avhen the whole ought to be briskly
agitated, and allowed to subside.
As the sediment increases, the wa-
ter is gradually drained, and at
length the starch is formed into
cakes, which are cut in small
pieces, and dried for use.
Good starch, Avhen dry, is pul-
verulent, tasteless, Avithout odour,
insoluble both in cold water and
ardent spirit: on the addition of
boiling Avater, however, it forms
Paste, or Pastry, of which the
reader will find an account.....It is
one of the constituent parts in all
mealy or farinaceous seeds, fruits,
roots, &c. of plants ; though some
vegetables contain a much larger
proportion of it than others. Thus,
the Wake-Robin, and White Bryo-
ny, afford more starch than pota-
toes ; and the Salep-roots, espe-
cially those of the Meadow-Ou-
chis, for the greatest part, consist
of that valuable substance.
Starch being the basis of hair-
powder, and also of extensive uti-
lity for domestic purposes, various
experiments have been instituted,
with a view to ascertain such vege-
tables as might be advantageously
substituted for wheat.....As the
reader will find a recapitulation of
those useful plants which have
been mentioned throughout this
work, in the General Index of Re-
ference, we shall, at present, only
notice the method adopted by Mrs,
Gibbs, for preparing starch from
the roots of the Wake-Robin ; for
which the Society for the Encou-
ragement of Arts, 8cc. in 1797,
presented her with their gold me-
dal. She observes, in her com-
munication, that such roots are
found in the Isle of Portland, in
the common fields, whence they
may be dug out, cleansed, and
pounded in a stone mortar with
Avater. The whole is then strain-
ed, and the starch settles at the
bottom : a peck of these roots pro-
duced, upon an average, about four
pounds of starch, which was sold
at lid. per pound.....See also
Wake-robin.
[Starch abounds in a great va-
riety of vegetables. Mr. Par-
mentier has shewn that the roots
of 22 vegetables yield starch, and
that the seeds of nine plants and
trees contain it nearly pure. He
omits however, the Arum Tryfitiyl-
lum or Indian turnip, which pro-
bably does not grow in France.....
See Turnip (Indian).
Dry mealy Potatoes yield a
large proportion of starch, which
is preferable, when properly pre-
pared, to the starch of wheat flour.
The following is the method re-
commended by Baume.
Rasp clean mashed potatoes, col-
lect the pulp in a tub, and mix it
with a great quantity of clean
water. Place two wooden rails on
the brim of another very clean tub
tcwupport a sieve, which must not
be too fine. Throw the pulp and
water into the sieve; pour fresh
quantities of Avater on the pulp,
till the clear Avater runs through.
In six hours the water will have
deposited the flour suspended in
it; Avhen the water is to be poured
off, and a great quantity of very
ST A
S T A 39
clean water poured upon the flour
remaining at the bottom of the tub,
which is to be stirred up in the wa-
ter, and the whole is to stand quiet
till the day following. The flour will
then be found to have settled at
the bottom of the tub: the water
is again to be poured off; the
flour washed in a fresh quantity of
pure Avater, and the mixture pas-
sed through a silk sieve pretty
fine. The whole must once more
be suffered to stand quiet till the
flour is settled ; if the water above
it is clean, the flour has been suffi-
ciently washed ; but if the water has
any colour, it must be again washed.
When perfectly washed, take
out the flour, and place it upon
wicker frames covered with paper,
and dry it, properly defending it
from dust. When dried, pass it
through silk sieves, to divide any
clotted lumps that may remain ;
and keep it in glass vessels stop-
ped with paper only.]
STARLING, the Common, or
Sturnus vulgaris, L. an useful bird,
inhabiting various parts of Eng-
land. It is about eight inches in
length, and weighs from three to
four ounces: the plumage is black,
spottejl with blue, purple, or yel-
low, though sometimes with Avhite
dots ; and the beak is yelloAv.
Starlings breed in hollow trees,
the caves of houses, in ruins, and
even on lofty cliffs ; where they
construct their nests of straw, the
fibres of roots, and similar mate-
rials : the female lays from 4 to 7
pale-greenish, ash-coloured eggs:
the young afford a delicate repast;
but the flesh of the old birds is so
uncommonly bitter, from devour-
ing worms and insects, that it can-
not be eaten. As, however, these
creatures have a pleasing note, and
display great docility, they are fre-
quently taken by bird-lime or other
means, and taught to imitate hu-
man speech, in the same manner
as Parrots.
Ti>j breeding of starlings, in a
wild state, ought to be encouraged
by every rational farmer; because
they are of extensive service, by
devouring noxious vermin, and
eating no grain or seeds of plants,
or other fruit, unless compelled by
necessity.
STAVESACRE, or Delphinium
Staphisagria, L. an exotic plant,
growing in the southern parts of
Europe, and particularly in Italy,
whence its rough, blackish seeds
are imported. They possess a dis-
agreeable odour, and a nauseous,
bitterish taste. Their chief use,
at present, is, for destroying fleas
and similar vermin ; and if horses,
or other animals, be occasionally
washed with a decoction of the
seeds of the stavesacre (in the pro-
portion of one ounce to \\ pint of
water), all nits, 8cc. will be effec-
tually exterminated.
These seeds were formerly cele-
brated for their purgative qualities;
but, on account of their violent
operation, are now exploded from
the list of internal medicines. If,
however, a small portion of such
poison should have been acciden-
tally SAvallowed, the most proper
antidote will be, either an immediate
and brisk emetic; Or, if some time
have elapsed, large draughts of
oily, mucilaginous, milky, or other
demulcent liquors, should be swal-
lowed, with a view to prevent an
inflammation of the intestines.
STAYS, an article of female
dress, which is usually made of
canvas or dimity, supported by
whale-bone, and laced behind.
40 S T A
STE
Few articles are of greater im-
portance to the health and com-
fort of females than stays : hence,
insteadof being manufactured from
hard substances, they ought to be
made of such as would allow ..! free
motion of the limbs ; for instance,
felt, shamois-leather, he.; without
any stiff materials. So great, how-
ever, is the prevalence of custom,
that such absurd casements are still
retained by the most numerous
class of women, who lace them-
selves in whale-bone, to the great
detriment of their constitution. To
this cause we may justly attribute
many of the cancers, hard tumors,
and similar affections of the breast;
nausea; indigestion ; compression
of the ribs; distortion of the
spine ; and a long train of painful
disorders. To prevent such fre-
quent disasters, we recommend
the use of corsets made of the pli-
ant and elastic texture used for
stockings, or gloA'es; Avhich, if
properly lined, and Avorn Avith a
moderate compression, will not
only afford sufficient warmth, but
also contribute to the preservation
of an erect form. In short, we
find from history, that among the
most elegant nations of antiquity,
namely, the Greek and Roman wo-
men, never resorted to such cum-
bersome articles of dress.
In March, 1801, Mrs. Lloyd
Gisbon, of Sackville-street, Pic-
cadilly, obtained a patent for new-
invented stays, for Avomen and
others. They consist of a back
and front-piece, both of which are
supported by strips of whale-bone,
that are nearly parallel: the two
pieces are joined by means of hooks
ami eyes, or similar contrivances,
which meet at the side, and admit
of being accommodated to the size
of the wearer. Farther, these stays
are made of such a length, as not
to produce any inconvenience on
sitting down ; and are asserted to
be principally calculated for cor-
recting deformities, as Avell as for
supporting the abdomen, where
this aid should be required; as they
may be lined and stuffed, or padded,
at pleasure.
STEAM, denotes the visible,
moist vapour ascending from hot
or boiling liquors ; and also from
substances containing humidity,
Avhich is easily evaporated by a
degree of heat, that is insufficient
for their combustion.
Steam being one of the most
powerful agents in Nature, is an
object of great importance to ma-
nufactures, as Avell as to horticul-
ture. Hence several machines,
knoAvn under the names of steam-
engines, have been invented, with
a view to facilitate the operations
of extensive iron-AVorks, and also
to expel noxious exhalations from
mines. Among these contrivances,
that by Mr. James Watt, of Bir-
mingham, first deserves honoura-
ble mention for its ingenuity; next
in order of time, is Mr. Jonathan
Hornblower's machine, for rais-
ing water or other liquids by means
of fire and steam, for which a pa-
tent Avas granted in 1781 ; then
Mr. James Sadler's engine for
diminishing the consumption of
steam and fuel, as well as gaining
a considerable effect in time and
force; in consequence of Avhich,
he obtained a patent in June, 1791 ;
and lastly, the Rev. Mr. Edmund
Cartwright's improvements in
constructing, Avorking, and apply-
ing steam-engines ; for Avhich a
patent was granted to him in No-
vember, 1797......As, hoAvever, a
STE
description of these respective in-
ventions would be unintelligible,
Avithout the aid of numerous en-
gravings, the curious reader will
consult the 4th, 7th, and 10th vols.
of the Repertory of Arts, &c. where
full specifications are inserted, and
illustrated with plates:.
Farther, steam may be made
subservient to the purpose of pro-
moting vegetation; by means of
flues and other contrivances, con-
ducted beneath hot-houses :....vvith
this economical design, various suc-
cessful experiments have been
made under the inspection of the'
Earl of Derby, and also by Tho-
mas Wakefield, Esq. of North-
Avich. Our limits, however, being
circumscribed, Ave cannot specify
the machinery invented by Mi'.
W.; because such account Avould
necessarily be deficient Avithout an
engraving. We shall, therefore,
only remark, that during the last
five years, the steam has been used
in his vine-house, with the best
success; the plants vegetating with
uncommon luxuriance throughout
the summer; and producing " the
greatest abundance of large and
well-flavoured fruit." Another ad-
vantage attending this new method
of raising fruit, is, that it prevents
the depredations of the red spider :
because, if a sufficient A'olume of
steam be applied, that destruc-
tive insect never appears. For a
more minute account of the nume-
rous trials made with Mr. WakE-
ited's flues, the reader is referred
to the 18th vol. of the Transac-
tions of the Society for the Encou-
ragement of Arts, Sec.
VOL. V.
STE 41
Steam may, \vith equal advan-
tage, be employed in domestic eco-
nomy, and particularly in cooking.
Thus, steamed potatoes are always
more .wholesome and nutritious,
than such as arc boiled in water ;
and Dr. Daravin observes, that if
the heat of the steam- could be in-
creased after it has left the Avater,
the art of boiling all vegetables
might be considerably improved ;
and thus the mucilage, abounding
both in potatoes and flour pud-
dings, and also in the roots, seeds,
stems, leaves and flower-cups of
plants, may be rendered more nu-
tritive, and probably, more palata-
ble. See also the article Cook-
ing.
[STEAM-DISH. This very use-
ful contrivance is described in the
4th vol. of the Repertory of Arts.
In Philadelphia, it is a very com-
mon practice to surround meat,
Avith potatoes, in an earthen dish,
which is sent to the oven. The
potatoes are thus soddened, and the
meat is hard and dry, and acquires
a very unpleasant taste from the
variety of exhalations Avith which
it is surrounded. The steam-dish
obviates all these inconveniencies.
" It is made of tin, or earthen-
ware ; (for a family of six or eight)
tAvelve inches by nine, at the top,
and nine by seven, at the bottom,
four and a half inches deep, on the
slant rim, and three inches, in the
clear, under four resting knobs, (a
little below the top,) Avhich space
is to be occupied by the meat of
Avhich the pastry is made.
G
42 STE STE
Fig. l.Is the perforated cover, in the centre of the cover, for the
with its steam-pipe, made exactly rising of the steam, and play of the
to fit the dish, when resting on the valve L, thrown up by the steam
knobs. Avhilst the pasty is baking. M is a
I K L M Fig. 2. Is the lower nut, screwed on to a piece of wire
part of the steam pipe, Avith its fixed at the bottom of the valve,
valve and screw ; (one third less to prevent the steam from forcing
than the real size) it is soldered it too high in the steam-pipe.
upon the perforated cover, as Fig. 3. Represents the steam-
at Z, leaving a sufficient hole pipe, with its leafy ornament: it
STE
screws on to fig. 2. and is suffici-
ently hollowed about the screw
part, (as the dotted lines shew) to
suffer the valve N to play freely....
The loops O O are for the pur-
pose of lifting off the perforated
cover, to serve out the meat, when
brought to table.
Directions for making Potatoe-
flastry.
Take of beef, mutton, veal, or
other meat, two pounds ; season
it, and place it in the bottom of the
steam-dish, with a bit or two of
butter, (tAvo ounces is enough for
the Avhole pastry, including what
is rubbed into the mashed pota-
toes), and a sufficiency of water
to draw a good gravy ; a few slices
of carrot may be added, if the pas-
try is made of mutton.
Take also of mealy potatoes, one
gallon; boil, peal, and mash them ;
rub into them a little butter: when
washed, place the perforated cover
over the meat, and put the pota-
toes smooth and even upon it, slop-
ing them up, and pressing them
very closely round the edges of
the dish. The pasty may novy be
sent to the oven, which, if quick,
Avill bake it in an hour.
When the pastry is removed, the
air closes the valve, the steam then
rises through the perforated cover,
and incorporates with the potatoes.
When served up to table, the
potatoe crust may be cut off and
served round ; then.by lifting up
the perforated cover, you will find
an excellent dish of beef, he.
swimming in gravy, Avhich is to
be taken out and eaten Avith pota-
toe crust; and a more palatable
mixture or cheap dish, cannot be
served to a family.]
STE 43
STEEL, is iron refined in the
fire with certain ingredients that
render it white, and impart to it a
harder and finer grain than that of
the original metal.
Iron is converted into steel, ei-
ther by fusion, or by cementation.
The former method is employed
for making steel immediately from
the ore, or from the crude, cast
metal. In the latter, bars of iron
are placed in furnaces, with a stra-
tum of charcoal between each ; till
the pile is raised to a sufficient
height. The whole is then closely
covered, to prevent the access of
the air ; when a strong fire is kind-
led, and uniformly continued during
the whole process. The surface
of the metal, manufactured in
either way, generally exhibits nu-
merous vesicles, Avhence it is cal-
led blistered steel; but these may
be removed by repeated ignition
between red-hot coals, and by forg-
ing.
The finest metal of this descrip-
tion, is the Damascus-steel, which
is imported from Syria; but the
process pursued in the Turkish
manufactories, is not accurately
known in Europe. The German-
steel is made by breaking the blis-
tered bars into small pieces, which
are exposed to the strong fire of a
furnace : these are next welded,
and extended the length of about
18 inches, when they are doubled;
welded a second time ; and at
length drawn to the requisite size
and shape. The celebrates Bres-
cian-stecl is obtained bv roastinp-
the iron-ore in strata, Avith layers
of wood between each; and, Avhen
these are sufficiently smelted, the
metal is taken out of the furnace,
broken to pieces,-picked, and wash-
ed in troughs of pure water. It is
next conveyed to an oblong square
44 STE
cavitv, termed the fluxing-bed,
which is strewed with a mixture of
finely-sifted eshes and sand, that
are carefully compressed. Astra-
turn of charcoal is then laid on ;
the smelted metal is gradually add-
ed ; and, at the end of three or
four days, the conversion is com-
pleted.
[For an account of the mode of
making steel by cementation, see
the Transactions of the Manchester
Society, vol. 5 ; and for informa-
lion on the subject generally, see
Til loch's Philosophical Maga: me,
and Nicholson's Philosophical
Journal, in both of Avhich much in-
teresting matter may be found.]
The best steel manufacured in
Britain, is known under the name
of cw.t-stecl. It is prepared from
the common blistered metal ;
Avhich, being broken to pieces, is
put into proper crucibles, with a
flux ; and, after the fusion is effect-
ed, the metal is cast into ingots,
when it undergoes the operation of
tilting, and is at length tempered,
by repeated- igniLion and immer-
sion in water.
In 1801, a Mr. Eggs obtained a
patent for a new method of bend-
ing sti el. After giving the neces-
sary shape to the blade, spring, or
other article, it is extended over a
convex piece of iron, denominated
a fiat. The bent fcteel is next
stricken repeatedly with an iron
machine,resembling a cbissel, that
cuts ;-.ito the former, and completes
the bending; by Avhich practice
he conceives, that considerable la-
bour will be saved in the manufac-
turing of springs, trusses and sur-
geons' instruments.
Runty steel may be cleaned, by
first anointing it with sweet-oil,
v. hicb in the course of two or three
days will soften the rust; after-
STI
Avards wiping it dry with clean
rags, and polishing the tarnished
parts with pumice-stone or eme-
ry, by means of hard wood:
but the most effectual composi-
tion for giving a high degree of
lustre to steel, is a paste made of
levigated blood-stone and spirit of
wine.
STEEL-YARD, or Stilyard,
is one of the most ancient machines
for ascertaining the weight of bo-
dies, by its counterpoise. It is al-
luded to in the Pentateuch, and to
this day used by the Arabs, and all
the asiatic nations. The Greek
and Roman goldsmiths preferred
it to the balance, Avhich was the
instrument used by the people.
The steel yard consists of a lever
of unequal arms ; and, in its most
perfect form, is constructed on the
principles of the usual balance ; to
Avhich hoAvever it is greatly infe-
rior, in point of minute accuracy.
See Balance.
There is another species of pa-
tent steel-yard, consisting of an
elastic spring, which is confined in
a tube ; thus serving by its expan-
sion, as a substitute for the long
arm, and pointing out the weight
of substances, by marks made on
the moveable perpendicular bar in
its centre. It would be superflu-
ous to enter into a detailed descrip-
tion of these portable machines :
let it therefore suffice to observe,
that such contrivance is not suffi-
ciently accurate to determine the
difference of ounces or drams ;
though it may, ansAvor the purpose
of weighing larger quantities ; pro-
vided it be properly hjgadled, and
preserved from moisture, or run.
STIRRUP, a semi-circular ma-
chine, manufactured of steel, plat-
ed iron, he. serving to support the
foot of the horseman : as it en-
ST O
STO
45
ablcs him to mount, and to main-
tain a due equilibrium, while seat-
ed on the animal.
Without entering into an histo-
rical account of this contrivance,
the utility of it is obvious. Hence,
an ingenious artisan, Mr. Kelly,
of. the Strand, London, several
years since, obtained a patent,
which is now expired, for manu-
facturing stirrups, one side of
which opens by means of a spring,
if the rider should accidentally be
thrown off his seat, or otherwise
be entangled ; in order to prevent
dangerous injuries often arising in
consequence of being dragged by
the horse. We understand, how-
ever, from the patentee, that this
invention is not so effectual in pre-
venting danger, as his lately con-
trivedstirrup-leathers, with a spring
beneath the saddle : thus, if the
horseman happen to fall off, both
the stirrup and the leather will be
immediately disengaged. As the
price of the whole appartus is not
considerably raised by this useful
addition to a hunting-saddle, Ave
recommend it to the notice of our
readers.
Stock-bill : See Herb-Ro-
bert.
STOMACH is a membranous
viscus,serving to receive and digest
the various articles of food, con-
veyed through the mouth and gul-
let, for the nutrition of the body.
It is situated in the epigastric re-
gion (see Abdomen), toAvards the
left side, in the form of a horizon-
tal, long sack, furnished at each end
with an orifice, namely, the upper
or left, called the cardia, where
this organ is connected with the
gullet; and the inferior, or right
opening, termed the pylorus, by
which it is united to the intestines.
As the function of the stomach
is of the first importance in the
animal economy, it will be useful
to give a concise view of the princi-
pal affections to which it is liable.
If foreign substances have, by
accident, been swalloAved, such as
nails, stones, pieces of bones, coins,
knives, he. the proper remedies
will be those of a fat or oily nature,
namely, castor-oil, butter-milk,
spermaceti,mucilages, &c. clysters
of similar liquids ; in order to
sheath the internal membranes
againstinjury; and, in consequence
of which, indigestible bodies are
generally evacuated with the feces,
though sometimes not without
pain ; so that, in some instances,
they have proved fatal. The far-
ther treatment is stated, vol. iii. p.
220, and vol. iv. p. 72.
Of a more serious complexion,
however, is an inflammation or
the Stomach, or Gastritis: the
principal symptoms of this malady
are, violent fever of the malignant
kind ; anxiety ; intense heat and
pain in the epigastric region: nau-
sea and vomiting attended Avith
hiccough.
Causes ......Acrid substances, for
instance, glass,corrosive sublimate,
arsenic, he. too large quantities of
nitre; suppressed perspiration; re-
pulsion of the gout, particularly in
plethoric and bilious habits ; vio-
lent passions ; cold draughts when
the body is heated ; though it may
also arise from external injury sus-
tained in other parts, such as the
brain, &c.
This dangerous malady, gene-
rally terminates between the fourth
and eighth day. If the symptoms
continue Avithout intermission, and
become more violent, a mortifica-
tion may be apprehended : thus,
46 S T O
sudden cessation of pain; low
pulse, and great weakness, denote
that gangrene has taken place; but,
in less urgent cases, Avhere no re-
markable changes happen for seve-
ral days, a more favourable event
may be expected; though, when
the affection proceeds from injuries
in other parts, or the swallowing
of poisons, it generally terminates
in death.
Cure ......The chief remedy to be
resorted to here, is immediate and
copious bleeding, after which a
blister ought to be applied to the
pit of the stomach : great benefit
has also been derived from emol-
lient, and mildly opening clysters.
The patient's beverage should be
of a diluent, mucilaginous, or oily-
nature, and taken in small quan-
tities ; the latter will prove saluta-
ry, Avhere the irritating substance
has, for some time, remained in
the stomach. If the disorder ori-
ginated from corrosive poisons, the
most proper means of decomposing
them, and of counteracting their
effects, will be timely and copious
draughts of a solution of soap; or
sulphureous waters ; warm baths,
and the subsequent use of mucila-
ginous liquids....See vol. i. p. 121.
After the cure has been success-
fully effected, the convalescent
should be cautious in his diet,
avoiding all coarse and heating
food ; he, ought likevvise carefully
to keep his stomach and feet warm,
especially in changeable Aveather.
Ar other species of gastritis, is
the erysipelatous, which occurs
more frequently than is generally
understood; the signs by which the
existence of this affection may be
ascertained, are as folloAv: the
mouth and fauces appear inflam-
ed ; there b pain at the pit of the
stomach, attended with frequent
STO
vomiting, and a slight fever. The
disorder often changes its place,
and sometimes spreads through
the Avhole alimentary canal, where
it occasions vomiting or diarrhcea.
In most instances, it proceeds from
acrid substances introduced into
the stomach, and from internal
causes, the nature of which has hot
been hitherto discovered ; though
it also frequently appears as a
symptom of putrid fevers, and
during convalescence in general.
Cure .-...When this inflammatory
complaint arises from acrid sub-
stances, it will be necessary to take
copious draughts of warm, bland
liquids, with a view to excite vo-
miting, by Avhich it may be re-
moved ; or, if it proceed from
mineral poisons, recourse should
be had to the antidotes mentioned
under their respective heads.....
Bleeding, in this case, is neither
advisable nor safe, especially if the
patient be in a debilitated state :
on the contrary, small quantities
of vegetable acids, and the careful
use of the Peruvian bark, will be
productive of good effects.
With respect to the method of
treating Indigestion, Ave refer
the render to that article.
STONE, or Lithiasis, is a con-
cretion of calcareous matter, form-
ed in different organs of the bodv,
but particularly in the kidnies, uri-
nary passage, and biliary ducts ;
though other parts are not exempt
from its influence: thus, accumi-
lations of this kind have frequently
been discovered, upon dissection,
in the heart, brain, lungs, intes-
tines, S:c. of various size, shape,
av eight, and number. There are
instances, where more than 200
small stones have been gradually
\'oided by stool.
An inquiry into the nature of
STO
ST O 47
these morbid productions being fo-
reign to our purpose, we shall
briefly state, that they probably
originate from a deposition of cer-
tain particles of the blood, Avhich
cohere to any small body,they may
find in their passage, thus forming
the nucleus or basis. Hence Ave
shall confine our attention to the
practical treatment of this dreadful
malady, in the instances before
mentioned ; and commence Avith
the urinary stones, as being the
most frequent. These are situated
either in the kidnies, urinary ducts,
bladder, or urethra.
Symptoms of the stone in the
kidnies :....An obtuse pain about
the loins; nausea and vomiting;
small pieces of calcareous matter
are discharged Avith the urine; but,
if the concretion be settled in the
bladder, an uneasiness Avill be felt
at the end of the urinary passage,
especially in emitting the Avater,
which suddenly stops; or, it can
be passed only when lying on the
back : the urine is of various co-
lours, and often tinged Avith blood;
and, if the accumulation be of a
considerable size, a fixed pain pre-
vails about the neck of the blad-
der. More certain signs, however,
for ascertaining the presence of a
stone, are the following: 1. Avhen
tile discharge of urine is accom-
panied Avith small pieces of such
stony matter; and, 2. by sounding,
which is performed, either by the
introduction of the finger uito the
anus, or of the catheter into the
bladder.
Causes .-...This distressing afflic-
tion may be induced by a great va-
riety of circumstances, especially
by improper articles of diet (see
Gravel) : though, in some coun-
tries, it is endemial, Avhere a pe-
culiar disposition in the habits of
the people promotes its formation.
These painful concretions have,
likewise, been observed to be very
common in the countries provided
only with hard spring Avaters,Avhich
constitute the daily beverage of the
inhabitants: they may also arise
from the copious use of acids, and
certain wines, for instance, Mo-
selle and Rhenish, or Old Hock ;
not less than from cheese, and
other gross aliment. Farther, well-
attested instances have occurred,
in which this excruciating disorder
was occasioned by the shot swal-
lowed with game, and even by the
dust from mill-stones, mixed Avith
the flour.
During the passage of stones
from the kidnies into the bladder,
the patient is afflicted with pain,
vomiting, &c. Avhich form the
paroxysm* of the gravel and stone ;
being sometimes even attended
with inflammation (see Kidnies).
In the bladder,they are mostly pro-
ductive of pain ; strangury ; bloo-
dy urine ; inflammation ; though
in some instances they have re-
mained in a dormant state for a
considerable time ; and, unless re-
moved by proper means, death
closes the scene.
Cure:.....An endless Aariety of
remedies, under the name of li-
thontriptics, haA'e been recom-
mended, for dissolving the stone ;
but as an account of all these pre-
tended specifics Avould be equally
tedious and useless, Ave shall only
mention such as appear best adapt-
ed to the purpose. A preparation,
Avhich formerly stood in great re-
pute, is the caustic ley, which,
however, requires mucilaginous or
gelatinous drink as a vehicle :
thus, it was administered Avith
great secrecy by an empiric of the
name cf Chittick, to Avhorn the
48 S T O
ST O
patients sent a \essel containing
veal-broth, Avhich he returned with
the medicine mixed in the liquor,
and secured by a lock : for this ex-
position we are indebted to Mr.
Blackrie. It is evident,that great
caution is requisite in the dose of
so active a medicine. Considerable
benefit has been derived from the
use of Avater impregnated with
fixed air, as directed by Dr. Fal-
coner....An infusion -of the seeds
of Avild carrot (Daucus sylvestris.
L.) sAveetened with honey, is a
simple and much esteemed re-
medy....The late Dr. De Haen,
recommended the Bear - Avhortle-
berry (Arbutus Uva ursi, L.) as a
most efficacious remedy for the
stone : it may be taken in doses
of from one scruple to half a dram
in powder, twice or three times a
day ; or, in the form of an infusion
thus prepared : Take of bear-
whortleberry leaves three drams,
and boiling water one pint: after
simmering for one or two hours,
the liquor should be strained : and
from two to three table-spoonfuls
may be given twice or three times
a day....Lime-water has likewise
proved beneficial in this complaint,
both when taken internally, and in-
jected into the bladder....Another
simple remedy has been prescribed
Avith great success by Dr. Mac-
bride : thirty berries of raw cof-
fee ought to be boiled in a-quart
of pure water, till it acquire a
deep greenish colour ; of this li-
quor about half a pint is to be
taken, morning and evening, with
10 drops of sAveet spirit of nitre :
during such course, the bowels
should be occasionally opened, by
a dose of castor-oil. Similar at-
tention ought to be paid, when any
of the other remedies are admini-
stered ; and theiroperatlcn may al-
so be assisted by the use of mild
diuretics.
[Jelly made of black-berries, has
obtained much credit in the Unit-
ed States for relieving this pain-
ful complaint. A mixture of the
juices of common garden leeks,
and horse mint, taken every day,
has been also said in our papers,
to have effected a cure in Virgi-
nia, in a clergyman : but it is not
known Avhat plant Avas used under
the name of horse mint, as there
are several, bearing that appella-
tion. The intentions of the humane
publisher are therefore entirely
defeated ; and hence the impor-
tance of fixing the true botanical
name to a plant, when speaking of
its virtues.]
In their diet, patients should
avoid coarse and heavy prov isions,
such as salted, dried, or smoked
animal food, especially substances
of an oily nature, and all high-
seasoned dishes : farther, red-port,
Rhenish, and Moselle Avines, are
uncommonly pernicious ; as they
naturally promote the accumula-
tion of stones: the beverage ought,
therefore, to consist of cooling di-
luents, in which some mucilage of
gum arabic or tragacanth is dis-
solved....Symptoms of violent pain
may be relieved by emollient cly-
sters with'opium.
Should, however, all endeavours
of dissolving the stony concretion
prove abortive, recourse must be
had to an operation, as the only
eventual means of extirpating the
disease. If the stone should be
retained in the urinary passage,
speedy application must be made
to a professional man ; because
delay, or neglect, cannot fail to in-
crease the evil.
Gall - stones, or concretion?
formed in the biliary ducts, are c»
>*
. //am//tf /<>)' cU'arinijfiaridofJ'tori^
*'/M((h < "(If
7
STO
S T O 49
various size and colour. There
is a fullness audi pain about the
stomach ; loss of appetite; lan-
guor ; nausea ; colic ; vomiting ;
and restlessness : the eyes have a
yellowish appearance ; and jaun-
dice is a frequent attendant on the
disorder.
"With a view to expel such bili-
ary concretions, the patient may
first resort to a warm bath, and
then take a gentle emetic; though,
in plethoric habits, or if the pain
be violent, a small portion of blood
may be drawn from the arm, and
an opiate given ; in order to allay
the spasms. But, where the symp-
toms do not abate after the second
bathing and emetic, medical ad-
vice Avill be indispensable.....In
slight cases, a decoction of the
Soap-Avort, or of Dandelion and
Dog's-grass, in which a few drams
of vitriolated kali are dissolved,
has been found of effectual service.
Great benefit has, likewise, been
derived from the liberal use of ace-
tated kali, especially if administer-
ed at an early period. JBrugna-
telli, has for some time'employ-
ed with great success, the acidula-
ted carbonate of lime.
In all calculous affections, the
body should be regulated by the
mildest laxatives, tine good effects
of which may be still farther pro-
moted by moderate exercise on
horse-back ; though the same cau-
tion ought to be observed in this
respect, as well as in the use off
emetics ; for every violent effort,
or concussion of the viscera, tends
to aggravate the complaint.
STONES, in general, are de-
fined to be hard, splid bodies,
which are neither soluble in wa-
ter, nor malleable. They are
formed in the progress of time,
within the bowels of the earth, by
Vol. v.
the gradual accretion of earthy
particles^.; which, by different
combinaiions, acquire various de-
grees of hardness.
Stones have, by mineralogists,
been divided into numerousclasses,
according to their respective con-
sistence, colour, form, and other
properties: but, as we state the
most valuable kinds and species of
these fossils, in alphabetical order,
we shall in this place only remark,
that the practice of indiscriminate-
ly collecting Stones from land, is
productive of great disadvantage,
because it tends to diminish its
fertility. (See also vol. i. p. 107.)
There are, however, certain situa- Ai
tions abounding with stones, that *|
might be usefully employed in re- -
pairing roads:....the usual mode of
gathering them by hand, or sepa-
rating them from the soil by means
of an iron or wooden riddle, being
equally troublesomeandexpensive,
we have procured the [annexed
plate] of a machine for clearing
land from stones, and also for sift-
ing sand or gravel: it Avas invent-
ed by Peter "Francis Ponti, an
ingenious Italian mechanic, on
whom the Patriotic Society of Milan,
conferred a premium of 16 scudi,
and a silver medal.
a, a, a, a, are four wooden feet,
serving to stipport a beam, to the
ends of Avhich are fixed two pieces
of wood, d, and g, containing the
iron axis c.
A hoop of iron is fastened over
such axis, by means of a hook, /,
to prevent it fiom being raised up
by .the weight of the receiver or
basket, marked by the letters i, m,
h ; i, m, h'.
b, b, are two cross pieces, fixed
to the inner surface of the feet;
and which contribute to strengthen
the machine, and to keep it steady.
II .
50 STO
They are made to project in the
form of handles, for the greater
conA'enience of transporting the
implement to different places, two
men being thus enabled to cai'ry it
with ease.
•k, is a continuation of the iron
axis, e, so as to form the handle of
the basket; and, on turning it
round, the basket moves in a cir-
cular direction : the axis is fixed
to the bottom of the receiver by a
cross of iron,/; or, such axis may
be made to pass through the bas-
ket, and be so firmly attached to
its inner surface, as to support its
rotary motion.
The receiver described by the
letters i, m, h ; i, m, h ; consists of
a thick wooden bottom, to which
are fastened (by means of nails re-
presented by black dots) the iron
bars, of which all its sides are com-
posed. These bars extend in an
oblique direction to the bottom ;
so that the diameter of the outer
periphery, h, h, is double to that of
the bottom: they are equal in
length to the diameter h, h; at
which part they are fastened to a
strong iron hoop.
The original basket delineated
in our figure, is nearly two Paris
feet in diameter ; and all the other
parts are constructed accordingly :
the size of the machine may, hoAV-
ever, be enlarged, or diminished,
as occasion requires. But, as the
spaces betAveen such bars would
be disproportionally Avide, in case
the latter Avere throughout of an
equal size, or breadth, these are
made somewhat round towards the
letters i, i; becoming gradually
broader as they approach to h, h;
so that the spaces between the bars
do not increase in proportion to
the width of the basket.
Lastly, in case such bars be not
STO
sufficiently strong, they may be
supported by fixing another iron
hoop round them, at m m. And,
if this machine be designed to sift
sand or gravel, as well as to clear
land from stones, a sieve of iron
wire may be fastened around it;
and the interstices of which may be
enlarged or •diminished, accord-
ing to circumstances.
In employing this machine, it
must be placed at one end of the
field; two men, furnished Atiih
spades, should place themselves in
the front, and throw the earth
dug up into the basket, which may
be turned round by a boy, or any
other person. The soil and stones
strike against the Avooden bottom,
and fall upon the bars, being whirl-
ed round by the rotary motion of
the receiver. During such revolu-
tion, the sand, small stones, and
earth, fall through the interstices
of the bars on the ground, while
such as are larger will be thrown
to a certain distance from the bas-
ket into a trench, made for their
reception. When the labourers
are so far advanced that they can-
not, Avithout difficulty, supply the
basket, it will be necessary to
spread the sifted parts on the sur-
face, and to remove the machine
by means of the handles b, b, so
as to be exactly over the stones
already separated. Thus, the work
may be continued in a similar pro-
gression, till the land be properly
cleared.
The most favourable time for
this agricultural labour, will be
during very temperate weather ;
Avhen the ground is neither so
moist as to adhere betAveen the in-
terstices, and consequently to di-
minish the utility of the machine ;
nor so dry and dusty as to be trou-
blesome to the labourers. In such
STO
STO 51
seasons, stony land may be greatly
improved ; as the stones will be
buried in those spots to which the
roots of annual plants do not ex-
tend ; and in which neither trees
nor shrubs will prosper.
[For an account and plate of a
machine to raise heaA'y stones and
other weighty substances, see arti-
cle Weight.]
STONE-CROP, or Sedum, L.
a genus of perennial plants, com-
prising 31 species, 9 being indi-
genous ; of which the following
are the most remarkable :
1. The Telcphium, or Orpine
Stone-crop. See Orpine, the
Common.
2. The acre, Wall-Pepper,
Biting, or Pepper Stone-crop,
grows on the surface of walls,roofs,
rocks, and in dry pastures ; flow-
ers in June or July. This vegeta-
ble is eaten by goats, but refused
by horses, cows, and sheep. It
continues to vegetate, Avhile sus-
pended in a chamber : being very
acrid, if applied externally, it ex-
cites blisters; but, Avhen taken
internally, occasions vomiting....
According to Dr. Withering, it
is an excellent remedy in scorbu-
tic cases, and in quartan agues :
a table spoonful of its expressed
juice operates powerfully as a pur-
gative. At present, however, it
is seldom employed; though, on
account of its active properties, the
wall-pepper promises to be an use-
ful medicine, Avhen administered
with judgment.
3. The reflexum, or Yellow
Stone-crop, thrives on walls,
roofs, and rocks, where its bright
yellow floAvers appear in July.
!. The rupestrc,or Rock Stone-
crop, groAVs principally on St.
Vincent's rock, near Bristol, and
on the Chedder hills, in Somerset-
shire. It differs from the preced-
ing species only, in its smaller flow-
ers, which likewise blows in July.
Both vegetables last mentioned,
having an agreeable, pungent taste,
are cultivated in Holland and Ger-
many, Avhere they are esteemed as
ingredients in salads. They may
be easily propagated, by planting
either their roots, or the cuttings
of the shoots in a moist soil, where
they will readily take root, and
spread with great luxuriance.
STORAX, a fragrant gum-resin,
exuding from incisions made in the
Common Storax-tree, or Styrax
officinalis, L. a native of Italy and
the Levant, where it flowers in
July.
The best storax is obtained from
Asiatic Turkey, in small, irregular,
transparent masses, of a pale-red,
or yellowish colour, and generally
abounds with whitish tears, resem-
bling those of Benzoin. The
drug, however, which is common-
ly sold in the shops, consists of
large, light pieces, very impure,
from the saw-dust with which the
resinous juice is mixed. And,
though inferior to the preceding
sort, yet in a purified state, it pos-
sesses greater fragrance.
Storax is one of the most grate-
ful of the odoriferous gum resins,
but is at present disused in medi-
cine ; and employed chiefly in fu-
migations, or as a perfume.
There is another species, known
under the name of Liquid Storax,
which exudes from incisions made
in the Liquid-ambar Styracifl.ua, L.
[Sweet Gum, or Maple-leaved li-
quid-amber tree,] a native of Vir-
ginia. It is farther obtained, by
boiling the bark or branches of that
tree ; in consequence of which the
purer particles rise to the surface.
The genuine liquid storax is of the
52 STO
consistence of honey, possessing a
fragrant smell, somewhat resem-
bling that of the preceding, solid
species. But the drug of this
name kept in the shops, is an ar-
tificial compound of the concrete
storax, common resin, wine, and
oil, properly incorporated. Whe-
ther genuine or spurious, it is only
used externally as a balsamic.
STOVE, in domestic economy,
a contrivance, or apparatus, in
which fires are made, with the
view of conveying heat throughout
houses,churches,or other buildings.
A Mr. Sharp procured a patent,
seA-eral years since, for certain
improvements, which are calculat-
ed to obviate the inconveniences
[of Franklin's stoves.] Thus, by
adding a funnel to the top, these
fire-places can be adapted to any
chimnies; and, if the funnel be
lengthened, it may be accommo-
dated to libraries, ball-rooms, or
other buildings, which have not
the advantage of a chimney. Mr.
S.'s stove-grates are provided with
a IioIIoav base ; in consequence of
which, he is enabled to applythem,
Avithout any additional brick-work,
more effectually to the purpose of
- heating rooms, than is practicable
with those on Franklin's con-
struction : at the same time, by his
alterations in the air-box, a larger
portion of air is introduced. Our
limits permit us only to add, that
Mr. Sharp's stove-grates may be
accommodated to every building,
whether public or private : and Ave
refer the reader to his " Account
of the Air-Stcvr-Grates," he. Svo.
In June, 1796, a patent was
granted to Mr. William Wkit-
tington, for his invention of a
portable Baking Stove. The pa-
tentee asserts, that the contrivance
js calculated for baking all kinds
STO
of bread, particularly that prepar-
ed of oats, Avith a cheapness and
facility not hitherto experienced.
It may be manufactured from any
metal, or even from clay, of any
size or shape ; and either with or
without an oven : the door for sup-
plying fuel, together with the pipe
or flue for carrying off the smoke,
may be fixed in any part of the
stove. Besides, this machine may
be used in any situation, whether
on land or at sea ; being easily
portable, and requiring only one-
fifth part of the fuel consumed in
the common way ; as it may be
easily heated with coke, coals,
wood, charcoal, or any other sub-
stance. For a more diffuse account
of such contrivance, the reader will
consult the 12th vol. of the Reper-
tory of Arts, he. where it is illus-
trated with an engraving.
A patent Avas likewise granted to
Mr.EDAVARD Walker, for a port-
able Stove or Kitchen ; to facili-
tate the processes of cooking, or
dressing provisions. The Avhole
is manufactured of either cast or
wrought iron ; having a fire-place
in its centre, which is inclosed by
a door: beneath is an ash-hole; and
on each side, there is a closet, one
of which may be employed for
baking ; the other will contain two
spits, with racks, he. complete ;
the top may be used as a broiling-
plate, heated by the same fire;
while the smoke is carried off
through an iron funnel, having a
smoke-jack for the purpose of
turning the spits. A more com-
plete idea of this stove may be ob-
tained from the 15th vol. of the
Repertory, he. where the specifi-
cation is illustrated Avith an en-
graving......See also the articles
Fire-place, Furnace, Grates,
and Kitchen.
STO
ST R 53
-■ Stoves, in Horticulture, are
buildings erected for the purpose
of preserving tender plants, which
would otherwise perish, from the
moisture and coldness of our cli-
mate.
These erections are usually di-
vided into two classes, namely,
bark and dry-stoves, according to
the plan on which they are esta-
blished. In the former case, a pit
is dug to the depth of three or four
feet, that generally extends over
the Avhole length of the hot-house,
and is filled with fresh tanner's
bark, in Avhich the pots, containing
the plants, are plunged.......See
Hot-bed.
Dry-stoves are built of bricks,
in the form of flues, Avhich are
conveyed either beneath the pave-
ment, or attached to the back Avail
of the house ; one being construct-
ed above another, and returned six
oreighttimes throughoutthe whole
length of the building. In such
stoves, it is necessary to arrange
the pots on shelves, rising pro-
gressively. Their dimensions ought
to be adapted to the number of
plants to be preserved; the floor
being elevated to a greater or
smaller height above the surface
of the ground, according to the
natural humidity or dryness of the
soil. It will be necessary to make
paths about two feet wide in the
front, for the convenience of Avalk-
ing. The furnace may be placed
either in the middle, or at one end
of the building; but it should, in
every case, be adapted to the na-
ture of the fuel to be employed.....
The best for this purpose is turf;
because it burns more uniformly,
and slowly, than any other com-
bustible substance, and consequent-
ly requires less attendance.
Such is the manner in Avhich
thestkkinds of stoves are generally
constructed ; but Dr. Anderson
has lately contrived another ap-
paratus, upon a new plan, and ac-
commodated to his Patent Hot-
house (See hot-house.) : as, how-
ever, a mere description of his
peculiar stove would convey an
imperfect idea of the invention,
we are obliged to refer the curious
reader, as avcU as the lover of
horticulture, to the first volume of
the new series of Dr. A.'s Re-
creations in Agriculture, he. where
tho principle is fully developed, and
illustrated with several cuts.
STRAINS, in farriery, denote
such accidental injuries as some-
times happen to horses, by a vio-
lent or unnatural distention or
stretching of their muscles or ten-
dons ; in consequence of which,
the animals suffer great pain, and
are generally lamed.
The treatment of this affection
must be regulated according to the
situation of the injured parts. Thus,
if the ligaments, that connect.the
thigh, or other bones, be strained,
it will be advisable to turn the
horse into a good pasture ; as the
richness of the food will prevent
his health from becoming impair-
ed ; and the gentle exercise in the
field will preserve the joints from
stiffness and rigidity.
Where the shoulder has thus
been hurt, the horse will not put
the strained leg forward in the
same manner as that which is
sound ; and, in trotting, describes
a circle with the former, instead
of a straight line: the lame leg like-
wise projects beyond the other.
If such strain be accompanied with
inflammation, bleeding will be-
come necessary; after which the
54 ST R
STR
part affected must be well bathed
three times every day witb hot
vinegar, or verjuice in which soap
has been dissolved. But, in case
no swelling appear, the animal
ought to rest for two or three days,
and the muecles should be rubbed
Avith opodeldoc, or vrith a mix-
ture of camphorated spirit of wine ;
And oil of turpentine, in the pro-
portion of two parts of the former
to one of the latter.
Poultices, consisting of oatmeal,
rye-flour, or bran boiled in vinegar
or wine-lees, together with a suffi-
cient portion of hog's-lard, to ren-
der them soft, will be of great ser-
vice, if timely applied ; and, when
the inflammation subsides, the
strained parts may be bathed with
either of the liniments before spe-
cified, till the perfect use of the
limb be restored.
The pasterns, and knees, are
liable to strains, chiefly in conse-
quence of Woavs, or similar ill
usage : if they be much swelled, a
poultice may be applied, and the
parts treated in the same manner
as the shoulder ; or, they may be
bathed with a liquor compounded
of one pint of vinegar, four ounces
of camphorated spirit of wine, and
two drams of white vitriol, pre-
viously dissolved in a little water.
As these parts are generally sub-
ject to great weakness, after vio-
lent strains, the horse should be
sent to a level pasture, which will
greatly promote his recovery.
The last case deserving notice,
is that of strains in the hock.....
These must be bathed in cooling
and corroborant liquids ; but, if the
ligaments be injured, it will be
proper to foment them with wool-
len cloths, dipped in a hot mix-
ture of verjuice and spirit of wine,
to which a small quantity of crude
sal ammoniac may be added....*
Lastly, if any internal callosities
remain, it will be advisable to fire
the joint carefully with razes, or
lines set closely together ; after
which, a mercurial plaster should
be applied; but, in case such con-
cretions appear externally, they
may be removed by the repeated
use of the blistering plaster, the
composition of Avhichhas been spe-
cified under the article Bone-spa-
vin ; omitting, however, the sub-
limate, on account of its corrosive
nature.
STRANGLES, a disorder inci-
dent to colts and young horses : it
becomes evident from a collection
of impure humours, that are dis-
charged by the nostrils, or by sup-
puration from the glands, situated
beneath the bones of the lower jaw.
The symptoms, indicating this
disease, are, loss of appetite, dull-
ness, and inactivity ; a hollow, dry,
cough ; and, progressively, intense
thirst: as its virulence increases,
the animal becomes languid ; and,
in consequence of the painful tu-
mours formed in the jaw-bone, will
at length be unable to swallow. The
first object of attention, in case the
fever continue moderate, and the
evacuations be regularly perform-
ed, is to examine the swelling, and
promote suppuration ; which may
be effected by cutting off all the
hair contiguous to the tumified
part, and fomenting it for ten mi-
nutes with flannels, dipped in strong
and hot decoctions of marsh-mal-
low, chamomile, or similar erno-
lient vegetables. The following
poultice must then be applied,
namely: Take coarse bread crumbs;
barley meal; and elder-flowers, of
each two handfuls ; boil them in a
sufficient portion of milk; and,
while the mixture is hot, add three
STR
ST R
55
oz. of turpentine, and six oz. of
bog's-lard. The quantity thus
prepared will be sufficient for tAVO
or three poultices, which ought to
be used moderately warm, and be
firmly secured, every night and
morning, after repeating the fo-
mentation for five orsix days; or till
a suppuration be effected. When
the discharge ceases, the folloAving
ointment, spread on tow, should
be applied to the wound, and the
poultice laid o\rer it, to promote
the healing of the ulcerated part:
.....Take of resin, and Burgundy
pitch, six oz. each ; of hog's-lardj
4 oz.; of honey and common tur-
pentine, two oz. each; and one oz.
of yellow wax. These ingredients
must be melted together: on re-
moving the mixture, two drams of
finely pulverized verdigrease must
be gradually incorporated, and the
whole frequently stirred, till it be-
come cool.
Should the horse, during the
strangles, be seized with consider-
able fever and inflammation, or the
swelling be so situated as to threat-
en suffocation, it aviU be advisable
to bleed him moderately. The
food, throughout the course of the
disease, ought to consist of warm
mashes, given frequently in small
quantities ; to which half an ounce
of liquorice and aniseed, in pow-
der, may be advantageously added,
together with about two ounces of
honey. The diseased animal must
be kept warm ; and, if the weather
be favourable, he should take gen-
tle exercise, or undergo the usual
discipline of the stable, though in
a less compulsory degree.
This malady is seldom produc-
tive of dangerous consequences,
unless it be neglected. As it
mostly terminates with a discharge
from the nostrils, these partsshould
be often cleansed with sponges, dip-
ped in warm water; but, if such
evacuation continue to be copious
and fetid, after the swellings have
suppurated and healed, it may be
considered as s^mptomaticalof the
Glanders ; in Avhich case it will
be advisable to adopt the treat-
ment already stated under that
article.
Strangury. See Urine.
STRAW, denotes the stalk on
which corn grows, and from which
it is separated by threshing.
Straw is an article of extensive
utility in rural and domestic eco-
nomy......When chopped or' cut
small, by means of the machine
known under the name of Straav-
cutter (to which we refer), it af-
fords a Avholesome provender for
horses and oxen, especially if it be
mixed with green food. It is like-
wise usefully employed in thatch-
ing cottages, houses, and barns....
But, as such buildings are liable to
be uncovered by. violent storms,
farmers should, if possible, annu-
ally save a sufficient quantity of
wheat-straw, in order to be pro-
vided against accidents : thus, the
necessity of purchasing straw at a
high price, or of threshing their
wheat at an improper season, may-
be effectually obviated.
In May, 1798, Mr. Peter Boi-
leau, obtained a patent for a new
and improved method of manu-
facturing straw into hats, bonnets,
he. but such privilege having beeu
annulled by a Court of Justice,
we shall state the plan on Avhich
he proceeds.....The straw is fir^
separated at the joint, and deprived
of its external skin or covering; o:ic
end of each tube being cut in the
form of a per., so that it may be
inserted into the cavity of another;
after Avhich it is immersed in water.
56 S T R
to render it pliant, and susceptible
of the requisite shape on the block.
Next, a small circle is to be traced
on the surface of a wooden mould
(having the form of the croAvn cor-
responding Avith tl>*2 article to be
manufactured); from which, lines
are to be drawn perpendicularly,
diagonally, or in any other direc-
tion. At the top of each line must
be fixed a nail or pin, to Avhich a
double Avire should be fastened :
the straw is then plaited between
such wires, and the ends are joined
by introducing the sharp end of one
tube into another, till the crown be
completed.
For making the brim of the bon-
net or hat, a sheet of thick paste-
board must be formed into the re-
quisite shape ; lines or curves, si-
milar to those above described, are
next to be drawn, and the wires
fastened through small holes made
at the top. The straw is worked
in the same manner as that for the
crown ; to which the brim may be
attached, either by continuing the
Avork so as to form one piece, or
by sowing both together, and con-
cealing the juncture by a Avreath
of si raw, op any other mode, which
fancy may suggest.......See also
Paper.
STRAWBERRY, or Fragaria
[vescal a genus of plants, compre-
hending three species,two of which
are indigenous ; but the principal
is the vesca, or Common Straw-
berry, groAving in woods, hedges,
and hollow Avays ; Avhere its flow-
ers appear in the month of May or
June ; and are succeeded by small
red fruit. The plant is eaten by
sheep and goats, but is not relished
by cows; and is totally refused by
horses and swine.
The common Strawberry is the
parent-stock from which all the
STR
different varieties have been ob-
tained by culture: the most re-
markable of these, are :
1. The Wood-Strawberry, with
oblong serrated leaves, and small
Avhite, round fruit....2. The Green,
or Pine apple Strawberry, which
has received this name from its de-
licate flavour, resembling that of
the Pine-apple....3. The Scarlet,
or Virginian Strawberry, which
has also oval serrated leaves, and
bears a roundish berry, of a deep
scarlet colour......4. The Hautboy,
or Musk Strawberry, is a native of
America, but has long been raised
in British gardens : it is remarka-
ble for its rough spear-shaped
leaves, and, its large pale red fruit*
.....5. The Chili Strawberry has
oval, thick hairy leaves, large flow-
ers, and firm berrk-s....6. The Al-
pine StraAvberry, has small oval
leaves, diminutive flowers, and ob-
long pointed fruit, of a moderate
size....7. The Monthly, or Ever-
flowering Strawberry, originally a
French variety, produces very de-
licate fruit, generally pointed to-
wards the top, and bulky below;
being in season from May to No-
vember : the plant itself, however,
is verv small, has diminutive leaves,
and furnishes but few off-sets for
transplantation.
All the varieties of this vegeta-
ble are hardy, perennial plants,
which flower in May and June,
producing perfect fruit in June,
July, August, and even till Novem-
ber. They may be propagated by
planting off-sets, or suckers, in any
light, rich garden-soil, where they
annually yield abundant crops, if
properly weeded, and supplied
Avith moisture. Their fertility,
however, will be considerably in-
creased, by transplanting them
every second year into fresh beds,
SIR
STR
57
that have previously been dug, or
otherwise prepared for their recep-
tion.
[A pine-board laid between the
beds of Strawberries, prevents the
growth of weeds : tan, strewed on
the walks, has the same effect....
The Strawberry lives only four
years. In making a new bed, care
should be taken to avoid putting
out any black roots, as all such
have lost their vegetative power.]
As the Strawberry is one of the
most exhausting plants, and re-
quires ample nourishment, all
weeds growing in its vicinity should
be carefully removed. Hence it
will be found, that the earth, in
which an old stock has grown, un-
disturbed for several years, on dig-
ging up its roots, in a manner re-
sembles wood-ashes ; because it is
deprived of all the soluble parts.
Without entering into a minute
account of the culture of this use-
ful plant, we shall briefly remark,
1. That the most proper season for
transplanting strawberries, is in the
month of August ; when they will
have sufficient time to take root
before the winter: 2. That it is
not advisable either to clip or break
off the superfluous shoots, but to
wind them around the principal
stem, and secure the ends between
the stalks ; by which simple me-
thod, the plant will be supported
in an erect situation, and the fruit
be preserved from the ravages of
vermin, as well as from being soil-
ed on the ground: 3. To promote
the grovvth of the berries, the con-
tiguous earth around the stocks
ought to be covered in the spring
with tanners' Avaste ; or, where
this cannot be easily procured, Avith
oyster-shells : thus, all weeds will
be effectually suppressed, and an
uniform beneficial moisture may
VOL. V.
be ensured. Lastly, when the first
rudiments of the fruit appear, the
soil ought to be carefully stirred by
the hoe, and then manured with
the following composition, that
will remarkably contribute to its
fertility. Take three parts of old
rotten dung, one part of soot, and
a similar portion of dry soap-boil-
ers' ashes ; mix them thoroughly,
and spread this compost loosely by
the.hand, so that the newly-moved
ground may be superficially co-
vered.
There is another, and more ad-
vantageous, method of propagating
strawberries by the seed: it was
originally reccommended by Du
Hamel, and has been carried to
great perfection by Du "Chesne.
The seeds, consisting of small ob-
long, dark red-brown grains,should
be collected from the surface of the
most perfect, ripe berries, which
have almost become dry on the
stalk ; and be preserved till the
succeeding spring ; when they
ought to be uniformly mixed with
a little dry mould, and sown in a
loose, rich garden soil which is
properly worked, and levelled with
the rake. Next, it will be useful
to sift finely pulverized earth, or
rotten dung, over the be'ds, to the
thickness of half-a-crown piece
only, and to cover the whole with
branches or boughs of fir-trees....
In the course of three Aveeks, the
young plants will appear, Avhen the
covering ought to be removed, and
the branches set upright along the
borders of the beds ; in order to
shelter the tender sprouts from
the influence of the meridian sun.
Others sow the strawberry-seed in
August, and protect the young
germs with mats suspended over
the beds, by means of poles. The
plants, thus raised, ought to be
I
58 S TR
STR
carefully weeded and watered:
those reared in the spring, may be
transpi-'.ited in the autumn of the
same year ; but, when sown in the
latter season, they must remain in
the sced-bcd till the following sum-
mer. This mode of cultivating
strawberries possesses many ad-
vantages over the usual practice :
thus, it Avill be easy to obtain the
most delicate foreign sorts, of which
it Avould otherwise be difficult to
procure off-sets; nay, by sowing
the seed of degenerated sorts, to-
gether with those of superior fruit,
many new and excellent varieties
Avill result from such combination.
Du Ciiesne has made the fol-
lowing curious experiments, on the
propagation of strawberries from
their seeds: He directed the water
in which this fruit had been wash-
ed, before it Avas used at table, to
be thrown in a shaded corner of
his garden, where the soil had
been manured with rotten branches
and leaves: in this manner, he
obtained very beautiful plants for
an extensive piece of ground. On
covering the beds; over which such
seed had been scattered, with con-
nected pieces of the moss growing
on trees, and removing the latter,
Avhen the plants had acquired 2 or
3 leaves, he obtained excellent
crops. In March, 1764, straw-
berry-seeds were scattered on
patches of moss (Gateaux de
mousse), in pots placed under the
AvindoAvs of a hot-bed : these af-
forded the most vigorous plants.
For such purpose, he principally
employed the llypnum trinuetrvm,
or Triangular Feather-moss, which
grows on clamp meadows, fields,
and hedges : it should, however,
be remarked, that Du Chesne, in
all his experiments, found it neces-
sary to moisten the earth, or moss,
several times every day, till the
plants appeared above ground.
Lastly, M. Mallet has like-
wise (Bibliotheque Physico-Econo-
mique, for 1798) strongly support-
ed this method of propagating
strawberries from the seed ; and
he observes, that they should be co-
vered Avith straAV, or light branches
of trees, and regularly Avatered
two or three times in 24 hours, to
ensure a plentiful crop : the cover-
ing ought to be removed only after
the plants have acquired the fourth
leaf; and the irrigation should be
continued till the latter end of
June. He concludes Avith remark-
ing, that strawberries thus raised,
are extremely productive ; and, if
planted on beds five feet Avide, are
greatly superior to those produced
from off-sets, or suckers.
In situations, however, where
early strawberries are an object of
attention, Dr. Axbekson directs
them to be planted in pots which
may be arranged in flat pans made
of milled iron ; and these again
placed on a wooden frame, suffi-
ciently strong to support their
Aveight. From each corner of such
frame, a rope is be passed upwards,
OArer a pully fixed to the rafters of
a hot-house, constructed accord-
ing to his plan, Avhence the rope
may be drawn horizontally toother
pullies fixed in. a similar manner,
and be carried from these over a
cylinder turning upon an axis; so
that the whole of the frame, toge-
ther Avith the pots and pans, may
be elevated, or lowered, at plea-
sure. Thus, the pots may be raised,
till they are brought closely under
the glass of the ceiling ; Avhich,
being the Avarmest part of the build-
ing, will cause the plants to vege-
tate with the greatest luxuriance.
He farther observes, that the pots
STR
ST R 59
may be supplied Avith water, by
pouring it into the pans, without
lowering them.; and, as the berries
gradually ripen, they may be ga-
thered, and the frames again sus-
pended.
Strawberries are a wholesome,
delicious fruit; and may be eaten
alone, Avith sugar, or with milk, but
most agreeably with wine : they
have a pleasant sub-acid taste;
abound with juice ; and possess a
fragrant smell. Being of a cool-
ing .and laxative nature, they may
be considered as medicinal; and
Linnjeus observes that, by his
own experience, a copious use of
this fruit has proved a certain pre-
ventive of the Stone in the kid-
nies. Hoffman states, that con-
sumptive patients have been com-
pletely cured by a liberal allowance
of these berries. Farther, they
promote perspiration ; impart their
peculiar fragrance, together with a
violet colour, to the urine: and dis-
solve tartarous concretions on the
teeth. In domestic economy, a
palatable jam, wine, and. vinegar,
are prepared from this fruit.
An infusion of the strawberry-
leaves, while young and tender,
makes excellent tea ; but, for such
purpose, they ought to be dried in
the shade: being slightly bitterish
and styptic, they have been used
with advantage in laxity and debi-
lity of the intestines ; in immode-
rate secretions, or suppressions of
the natural evacuations, as likewise
in hemorrhages and other fluxes.
Lastly,they are of considerable ser-
vice as aperients, in suppressions
of urine; \isceral obstructions;
the jaundice, and many other com-
plaints.
STRAWBERRY - TREE, or
Arbutus, L. a genus of shrubs, con-
sisting of nine species, three of
which are indigenous : namely,
1. The Uucdo, or Common
Stuawberky-tree, which grows
,on barren lime-stone rocks, parti-
cularly in the western parts of Ire-
land, where it floAvers in Septem-
ber. This species is a principal
ornament of our shrubberies, on
accountof its beautiful foilage, and
its T.ne yellow flowers in autumn,
which produce berries in the suc-
ceeding year, so that blossoms and
fruit appear at the sa»ie time : the
latter, however, is not greatful to
the taste, even though mellowed
by frost. Nevertheless, it is eaten
by the lower classes of people, who
are accustomed to drink water, af-
ter partaking of such repast. The
Common Strawberry-tree may be
propagated by cuttings, by layers,
or by seed. These should be set
early in March, in pots of light
rich earth, and afterwards put in a
hot-bed : in the course of five or
six weeks they will strike firm root
in the mould, when they ought to
be gradually inured to the air.....
During frosty weather, it will be
advisable to shelter them, and oc-
casionally to expose them to the
open air, in mild weather. After
tAvo or three years, the young
plants may be removed to the place
of their destination ; for they will
have become so hardy as to resist
the severest winters, in any soil or
situation.
2. The Alpina, Mountain
Strawberrv-tree, or Black-
berried Alpine ARBUTUs,thrives
on dry mountains in Scotland, and
the Western Isles, where its flow-
ers appear in May, and are suc-
ceeded by round, black berri.-s....
This species is refused by goats;
its fruit possesses a flavour slightly
60 S T R
ST R
resembling that of black currants;
to which, however, it is greatly in-
ferior. Its branches and evergreen
leaves ha\e been advantageously
employed in tanning.
3. The Uva ursi, Bear-ser-
ries, B.ar Whgrtle-berries,
or. Bear-berry Strawberry-
tree, grows on dry heaths, and
Avoods, chiefly in the Highlands of
Scotland; and flowers in the month
of May or June. This plant is re-
fused by horses, cows, goats, and
sheep. Its leaves have an astrin-
gent bitterish taste, and are gene-
rally used in Sweden, and Russia,
for tanning leather ; and in com-
bination with iron or its prepara-
tions, for striking a black colour....
When dried and pulverized, they
have been advantageously given in
doses of from [five to ten grains,]
repeated two or three times every
day, in calculous and nephritic
complaints.
The berries of both the last-
mentioned species of the Straw-
berry-tree, have been recommend-
ed by LiNNiEUS, as useful substi-
tutes for grain, in the process of
making bread ; on account of their
bitter taste, however, they ought to
be bruised, macerated in different
cold waters, and then baked or
dried in an oven, before they arc
fit to be mixed Avith any other
flour. But, even in this improved
state, we conceive, they would re-
ward the trouble of the housewife,
only in times of great scarcity.
[This is a low evergreen shrub,
trailing on the ground, found in
dry, sandy soils, in Avoods, and on
mountains in many parts of this
continent. Hearne observed it
as far north as lat. 71, and speaks
of it, under the Indian name of Jac-
kashey/iuch. It groAvs abundantly
in New-York and NeAV-Jersey.
By the experiments of Dr. J. S.
Mitchell related in his Inaugural
Dissertation, Philadelphia, 1803, it
appears that the leaves of the plant
are more astringent than the stalks,
which is contrary to Prof. Mur-
ray's opinion. Beside the utility
of this plant in nephritic and cal-
culous cases as mentioned above,
the uva Ursi has been found highly
beneficial in the following com-
plaints.
1. Old gonorrhoeas, and gleets.
2. In cases accompanied with
the common symptoms of the
stone in the bladder.
3. The late ingenious Mr. Geo.
Lee of the Pennsylvania Hospital,
cured a stricture of the urethra,
after bougies and other remedies
had been used without effect, by
giving the patient 15 grains of
uva ursi three times a day. An in-
fusion of the plant in water, is the
common mode of exhibition ; two
ounces, three, four or five times a
day, may be taken.]
STRAW-CUTTER, or Chaff-
cutter, as it is commonly term-
ed, denotes a machine for the pur-
pose of cutting straw, with a view
to feed horses and cattle to greater
advantage.
In the year 1797, the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts,he. con-
ferred a reAvard of 30 guineas on
Mr. Robert Salmon, for his
improved machine for cutting
straw.
[Dr. Willich gives a plate and
description of Mr. Salmon's straw
cutter, which is certainly a pow-
erful machine, but too costly for
the United States. It has been
thought better to substitute the
plate of one which can be procured
at Wright's, Cherry-street, in Phi-
ladelphia, the poAver of which the
editor can speak of from experi-
STR
S TR 61
ence....See the Plate facing page
49.
A The box in which the straw
is placed.
B B The wheel in which the
knives are fixed.
C C The knives.
D D D D The frame of the ma-
chine.
E The handle that turns the
wheel.
F The endless screw that turns
the wheel G, and the roller H.....
This roller is of wood, bound with a
tin plate, punched Avith numerous
holes, Avhich draws the straw for-
ward at I.
Straw-cutters on the above plan
are sold at S1-0.
The following cut represents a
more simple and cheap straw-cut-
ter, invented by Mr.Moses Coats,
near Downing's-toAvn, Pennsylva-
nia, and is now in general use in
the counties of Chester, Lancaster
and York.
A A The front legs on Avhich
the box stands.
B A board passing through the
legs.
C C Two tongues or laths
which work on screw pins, and con-
duct the knife in its proper course
through the straw.
D The knife.
E A board longitudinal to the
knife ; the lathes C C pass between
them.
The knife is concave next the
straw, to throw the edge against itr
and it is furnished with a board
above the straw, and treadle to
press the straw tight, and a rake to
push it forward in the same
manner as the old Dutch straw
boxes.]
In February, 1801, Mr. Wil-
liam Lesiier, of Hardingstone,
Northampton, obtained a privilege
for his ingenious contrivance of
cutting straw, hay, tobacco, See.
by an engine, to Avhich we have
62 STY
SUB
alluded under the article Hay ; but,
not having been able to procure a
satisfactory account of his patent,
we shall only remark, that the best
proof of its merit, is the general
adoption, which we understand it
has experienced in Northampton
and its vicinity.]
Stucco. See Cement.
STURGEON, or Accipenscr
Sturio, L. a fish, Avhich is some-
times taken in the British rivers ;
being, however, generally import-
ed from Russia, or the Baltic sea,
as well as from North America;
it is principally caught in the rivers
Volga, Danube, and Vistula.
This fish grows to a prodigious
size, frequently 18 feet in length,
and weighing from 7 to SOOlbs. Its
flesh is very delicate, firm, and
white, resembling veal, on Avhich
account it is greatly esteemed when
roasted : it is, however, generally
sold in a pickled state. The sounds
of sturgeon afford the fish-glue
known under the name of Isin-
glass ; and, their roes, when pro-
perly dried and salted, are con-
verted into Caviar, to which ar-
ticle the reader is referred, for an
account of its properties.
STYPTIC, a term applied to
medicines, which serve to stbp he-
morrhages, or effusions of blood.
Various vegetables may be ad-
vantageously employed as external
styptics, such as the Agaric,
Puff-ball, he.; but there are
certain preparations of greater effi-
cacy, the principal of which is the
compound powder of alum. It
consists of one ounce and a half of
alum, and three drams of gum kino,
which are finely pulverized, and
incorporated.....One of the most
successful styptics, however, is
prepared by mixing one part of
the caustic volatile alkali, with
three parts of water : if this fluid
be applied to a fresh wound, it ef-
fectually checks the flowing of
blood, both from large and small
vessels.
Prof. Stark, of Jena, recom-
mends the following styptic pow-
der ; which, according to his ex-
perience, has proved uncommonly
efficacious in suppressing profuse
uterine hemorrhages, namely : Pe-
ruvian bark, two drams; cinnamon,
one dram ; blood-stone (lapsis
haematites), half a dram ; and loaf-
sugar, two drams : let these ingre-
dients be reduced to a fine poAV-
der; a tea-spoonful of which is to
be taken every hour, or oftener, in
chamomile or balm tea. We have
no doubt of its good effects.
SUBLIMATE, a chemical pre-
paration, consisting of Mercury
combined with the marine acid.
Being extremely corrosive, and the
manufacturing of this drug being
attended Avith great danger to
health, it is generally imported
from Venice and Holland.
Solutions of corrosive sublimate,
in the proportion of one dram to a
quart of water, are chiefly em-
ployed for consuming proud flesh,
and cleansing foul ulcers. A much
Aveaker solution is sometimes used
by the gay, as a cosmetic for re-
moving cutaneous eruptions. In a
dry slate, mixed with flour, honey,
he. the sublimate forms a power-
ful composition for destroying rats,
mice, or other vermin ; but, on
account of its deleterious proper-
tics, the greatest caution is requi-
site, particularly in places to Avhich
children have access: for, as they
are accustomed to tasteexery thing,
such mistake might be productive
of fatal consequences. In case,
however, any portion of this poison
should have been accidentally swal-
SUF
SUF 63
lowed, no time should be lost in
resorting to the remedies already
pointed out, in vol. i. p. 80.
SUCCORY, or Cichorium, L. a
genus of three plants, the follow-
ing of Avhich are the principal;
namely :
1. The Intybus, Wild Cicho-
ry, or Succory.....[See vol. ii. p.
116.]
2. The Endivia, or Endive, is
an exotic annual species, Avhich is
generally reared in our gardens, as
an ingredient in winter salads. It
is propagated by scattering the
seeds in spots of open ground, at
intervals, from the beginning of
June to the end of July ; in order
to obtain a supply for the table.
The young plants must be re-
moved into beds or borders, that
have previously been well prepared
by the spade : and, as the chief ex-
cellence of endive consists in the
whiteness of its inner leaves, it
Avill be adviseable, either to cover
them with flower-pots, or to tie
them loosely together, Avhen nearly
full grown, so as to exclude them
from the sun, for tAVO or three
weeks ; in consequence of which,
they will become perfectly blanch-
ed. In the Avinter, they are either
covered with straw, and mats ; or
preserved in fresh sand, in a dry
cellar. In its properties, this plant
is not essentially different froni the
preceding species.
SUFFOCATION, denotes a
suspension of the most important
vital function, namely, that of re-
spiringorbreathing; without which
animal life cannot be supported.
This dangerous casualty may
arise from various causes, such as
the want of air to a person im-
mersed under water ; or the ir-
ruption of that fluid into the chest;
in which case it is termed Drown-
ing (see that article). It is also oc-
casioned by tod great a determina-
tion of blood to the lungs, as in-
quinsies, suffocative catarrhs, &c.
Another cause of suffocation, is
the introduction of any substances
into the windpipe, or the swallow-
ing of such foreign matters as re-
main fixed in the gullet; and by
compression prevent the access of
air to the lungs ; in which cases, a
total cessation of breathing may
be apprehended. To obviate this
fatal accident, gentle percussion of
the shoulders and back will be
advisable: the steam of milk, or
water, should be inhaled, and the
throat be tickled with a feather
dipped in oil. Farther, the patient
ought to take copious draughts of
water-gruel, milk, oil of almonds,
or any other lubricating fluid ; and,
if the bodies adhering to the throat
be blunt, they'may be thrust down
by means of a long Avax taper,
which has been previously render-
ed pliable by Avarmth, and also
immersed in oil: or, if this cannot
be speedily procured, a piece of
sponge may be fastened to a wire,
which should be covered with
leather, then oiled, and employed
for a similar purpose.....See also
Gullet, and Metallic pointed
substances.
The vapour arising from boiling
wines or strong liquors, when in-
haled, tends to impede the circu-
lation of the blood, and sometimes
eA'en produce suffocation. Similar
consequences may ensue from in-
spiring the fumes of sulphur, anti-
mony, and a variety of other mi-
neral and vegetable substances,
particularly of Charcoal.
First symptoms of suffocation.....
Giddiness ; head-ach ; lethargy ;
fainting; convulsions ; and gene-
ral torpor.
64 SUF
SUF
External appearance of persons
suffocated by the deleterious fumes
arising from charcoal; various me-
tals, such as copper, lead, antimo-
ny, and mercury ; the vapours
from fermented liquors, moist
weed, flax, and turf; as Avell as
in consequence of respiring or
sleeping in unventilated apart-
ments, caverns, and mines :....The
head, face, and neck are savoIii ;
the eyes are propelled from their
sockets; {he tongue is protrud-
ed at one side of the mouth ; the
jaAvs are firmly closed ; the face is
of a livid, and the lips are of a
deep-blue colour; the abdomen is
inflated; the body is insensible
to pain, and appears to be in a
profound sleep.
Immediately on discovering a
person in such unfortunate situa-
tion, the windows and doors ought
to be opened; the body undressed,
removed to the open air, and sup-
ported in a leaning posture on a
chair. Next, the patient must be
covered Avith flannel or blankets,
the face be sprinkled Avith vinegar,
and the pit of the stomach with
cold water ; and, if it be conveni-
ent, the whole body, or at least the
legs, should be plunged into a
cold bath. After each application
of vinegar or Avater, the skin ought
to be rubbed Avith flannel or a soft'
brush ;' then leaving the person,
thus situated, for a few minutes in
an undisturbed state. Farther,
clysters consisting of vinegar and
Avater, Avill be useful ; and, on the
return of life, an inclination to vo-
mit must be promoted by a feather
dipped in oil, while gentle friction
is to be continued, at intervals.
The first symptoms indicating this
happy change, will be, foaming at-
the mouth, and shivering of the
whole body, especially after affu-
sions of cold water.
In some cases of suffocations,
hoAvever, it will be advisable to em-
ploy the united powers of electri-
city ; blood-letting ; bronchoiomy,
or the opening the wind-pipe by
an incision ; or the earth-bath ; or
the artificial introduction of air into
the lungs, by means of a pair of
bellows described vol. ii. pp. 392.
If these effects prove successful,
so that the patient is again able
to swallow, the most proper drink
will be vinegar and water, or in.
fusions of mint and balm.
SUG
[Nocturnal Suffocation. Dr.
Trussleu of Bath, in a letter to
Dr. Hawks, says, he was many
years in danger of suffocation
from a phthysicky cough, that is
apt to seize persons who lie with
their heads too low. To prevent
such an accident to himself, he had
his bedstead made to rise as high
or Ioav at the head, as he found ne-
cessary. The preceding cut is a
sketch of it. He had an inner frame
made to his bedstead, which can
be raised by two iron pins put
through holes in the back parts of
the bed, on which the inner frame
rests; thus he raises it to any
height he pleases.
a a a a a a Inner frame of the
bedstead,
b b Handles to raise it by.
ccc c Outer frame of the bed-
stead.
d Head rail to stretch the
lacing.
e e Iron pins to raise the inner
frame.
But the bed may be raised,
without any alteration in the bed-
stead, by a straw matrass, made in
the form of a Avedge. By sleep-
ing on this inclined plane, he has
not, for many months, been seized
with the cough. Neither has he
suffered from the cramp in his
legs, to Avhich he Avas formerly
subject. When this cramp comes
on, stretching out the limb, or
rising out of bed, affords immediate
relief. See Report of the London
Humane Society for 1802.]
Slffolk-grass. See Annual
Meadow-gr ass.
SUG AR, a SAveet concrete juice,
obtained from the Sugar-cane, or
Sacrharum officinarum, L. a spe-
cies of reed or cane, Avhich grows
in the East and West Indies. Ac-
cording to modern chemists, how-
vol. v.
SUG 65
ever, it is a true essential salt, ca-
pable of chrystallization; and Avhich
is contained, in a greater or less
proportion, in all vegetables of a
sweet taste, but most abundantly
in the plant above mentioned.
It grows to the height of from
3^ to 7, and sometimes to 12 feet,
in strong deep lands. When ripe,
it assumes a fine straw-colour;
and is usually cut at the age of
12 or 15 months, according to the
season, or the nature of the soil.
The canes are divided into pieces
about a yard in length ; tied up in
bundles ; and conveyed to a mill ;
where they are expressed between
three upright Avooden rollers co-
vered Avith iron. The saccharine
juice is conducted into a receiver;
and, being apt speedily to ferment,
it becomes necessary to separate
the sugar as soon as possible. This
object is effected by clarifying it
in a boiler, over a fire, with a small
portion of pulverized quick-lime ;
after which it is evaporated in a
cauldron, till it acquires a due de-
gree of consistence ; when it is
poured into coolers. As the in-
spissated fluid becomes cool, the
sugar spontaneously shoots into ir-
regular crystals, separated from the
mother-water. Next, the granu-
lated matter is conveyed to the
curing-house, where the treacle is
completely drained ; in which dry
state, the former is called raw, or
muscovado sugar : thus it is sent to
Europe, Avhere it is subsequently
refined.
The most perfect purification,
or refining of sugar, is performed
in the following manner : The raw
powder is again boiled in proper
kettles, with lime-water, and bul-
locks blood (that has been previ-
ously strained, and deprived of its
excrenentitious parts); when it i.
K
66 SUG
SUG
boiled down to a proper consist-
ence. It is then laded into vessels
to cool, being continually stirred,
to prevent it from shooting into
large crystals: Avhen perfectly cold,
it is poured into unglazed clay
moulds, of a conical form, and suf-
fered to coagulate. Farther, with
a view to carry off any particles
of syrup that may still remain in
the refined mass, the lower points
of the moulds are open, and cover-
ed to the thickness of several in-
ches with clay previously softened
in Avater, and which is occasionally
moistened. In this manner, the
sugar at length acquires the re-
quisite degree of whiteness and
fineness ; in which state it is de-
nominated loaf ox lump sugar ; and
after being dried in heated rooms,
it is ready for use.
In August, 1784, a patent Avas
granted to Robert Murray, Esq.
for his discovery of a method of
refining sugar, and making it from
the cane-juice. As, hoAvever, his
processes are too minute, to admit
of being detailed in this Avork, the
reader will consult the 4th volume
of the Repertory of Arts, he.
A patent was also granted in
June, 1801, to Thomas Wake-
field, Esq. for a new method of
refining sugar. It consists simply
in placing the raw, or muscovado
sugar, in any porous vessel; Avhen
it is to be subjected to a weight,
acting by rollers, by a screw, or
by a wedge, " with the help of a
steam engine," the action of a
mill, or any other means of ap-
plying force. Thus, part of the
colouring matter, as well as other
impurities, Avill be thrust out ;
and, from the moisture expressed,
sugar, molasses, or rum may be
^obtained, by the usual processes.
The pressure may be repeated,
according to circumstances, and
the relative purity of the sugar ;
after which it may be refined by
the methods usually practised.
Sugar having become an article
of almost indispensable use to eve-
ry person in civilized life, various
attempts have been mad.-, with a
view to procure it from other ve-
getables ; and particularly from
the folloAving, namely:
1. The White Beet ; the sac-
charine properties of Avhich Avere
discovered upwards of 50 years
since, by M. Margraaff ; and
his process having been improved
by M. Achard of Berlin, Ave shall
state the method of preparing su-
gar adopted by the latter. The
fresh beet-roots are first washed,
and submitted to the action of a
mill, which reduces them to a
pulp : next, their juice is extract-
ed by means of a press, and boil-
ed over a gentle fire, till it is con-
verted into a thin syrup. It must
now be carefully separated from
the mucilage, adhering to the bot-
tom of the cauldron, or kettle ;
then strained, and boiled, a second
time, till it acquires a proper con-
sistence for crystallization ; a
point Avhich can only be ascertain-
ed by experience. The syrup is
afterwards poured into tin vessels,
from two to three inches deep,
that the grain may crystallize:
these vessels are directed to be
placed on frames, in a room heat-
ed by a stove to a considerable,
but uniform temperature ; and, in
the course of two or three Aveeks,
the sugar will be separated in the
form of small crystalline grains.
The whole is then poured into
linen bags ; in which, on com-
pression, the sugar remains, while
the strained liquor, is received into
vessels ; and, after undergoing si-
SUG
milar processes, it will yield an
additional quantity of saccharine
matt-r.....By this management,
20lbs. of roots produce, upon an
average, one pound of sugar ; and,
to such perfection has it been car-
ried, that M. Achard is enabled
to sell the sugar at 3d. per pound.
-...As we cannot enter into farther
detail respecting the culture, pre-
paration, &c. of the Beet-root, we
must refer those readers, Avho
wish for more minute informa-
tion, to Mr. A.'s « Circumstantial
Account;" of which a translation
appeared in Mr. Nicholson's
Journal for September, 1799. [See
vol. 1. p. 259.]
2. The Sugar-MAPLE, of which
we have given an account in vol.
4. p. 38. There are various other
plants which afford sugar, particu-
larly parsnep-roots, skirrets, car-
rots, and Indian-corn : the latest
experiments that have been made
with these vegetables, are those of
M. Hermbstaedt, Avhose me-
moir is also translated in Mr. Ni-
cholson's Journal, vol. iii. for
October, 1799.
With a view to diminish the use
of sugar, or at least to afford a sub-
stitute for that article, M. M.
Margraaff and Lowitz recom-
mended two different processes for
purifying honey, so as to anwer
the common purposes of a sweet-
ener ; but their expedients being
too expensive, Father Giovane
Batista da St. Marine, an in-
genious Venetian Monk, has pro-
posed the following method : To
three parts (by weight) of honey,
eight of water must be added ;
together with one part of charcoal,
broken to pieces, but not reduced
to powder. This mixture should
boil for one hour, when it ought
SUG 67
to be filtered ; and,after being thus
purified,it is to be evaporated over
a slow fire, till it acquire the con-
sistence of a thick syrup, which
will be as palatable as sugar. This
process is cheap, and easy ; but
we question the advantage of con-
verting honey into a saccharine
substance; as the former may,
in this country at least, be pur-
chased at a lower price'.
Sugar-candy, is the essential
part of the saccharine matter form-
ed into large crystals, by slowly
evaporating the clarified syrup.
The whole process is managed in
strongly-heated chambers, by the
aid of vessels containing nume-
rous threads that intersect each
other ; and which are fastened to
the sides, in various directions.
The sugar, thus treated, shoots
into crystals around the threads ;
and, according to its relative puri-
ty, the latter acquire a brown, yel-
low, or white colour. Sugar-can-
dy is chiefly used in a pounded
state, for sweetening coffee, and by
persons labouring under hoarse-
ness and coughs ; the violence of
which it contributes to relieA-e, by
lubricating the membranes, and
promoting expectoration. Brown
Sugar-candy pays, on importation,
the sum of 3/. 6d. per cwt.; and
the white sort is subject to the
charge of 4/. 10s. 9d. per cwt.
[The following directions on
the mode of manufacturing maple-
M'gar, Avere published in a pam-
phlet, by a patriotic society in
Philadelphia, in 1790. It is ob-
served in the preface, that four
men may turn out in common
seasons, Avhich last from four to six
weeks, 40 hundred Aveight of good
sugar 1 The followingcalculation of
utenrih. Sec. is made for four men :
68 SUG
For an excellent account of the
sugar maple-tree, the reader is re-
ferred to Dr. Rush's paper in the
3d volume of Transactions of the
American Philosophical Society.
Detail and Description of the neces-
sary Utensils and Materials.
Kettles.....Sixteen, of about fif-
teen gallons each.
Iron Ladles....Two, the boAvls
to contain three or four quarts,
each, for shifting the syrup: the
handles to have sockets, which may
be extended with wood to any con-
venient length.
Trammels or Pot-Racks.....Six-
teen, one for each kettle, the
flat part, eighteen inches long ;
and the round or lower piece, the
same ; so as to lengthen to about
three feet, occasionally.
Screw Augurs....Four, of an half,
three epiarters, and one inch, for
boring the trees. Chopping notch-
es into the tree from year to year,
should be forborne; an augur hole
answers the purpose of drawing
off the sap, equally well, and is
no injury to the tree.
Buckets....Eight or ten, of three
gallons each, at least, for collect-
ing the sap.
Boards.....Eight or ten, round
pieces, to lay on the surface of the
sap, at the top of the buckets, to
prevent its splashing over.
Coolers....Three or four tubs, of
about fifteen gallons each (kettles
will answer the purpose) to receive
the syrup from the boilers, Avhen,
upon trial from the proof stick, it
draws into a thread between the
thumb and finger, as hereafter
described.
Yok(.«.....Four, to go across the
aboukiers of the persons employed
SUG
in collecting the sap, having a
bucket suspended at each end.
Troughs...K\^ht hundred should
be made of white pine, white ash,
water ash, aspen, linden or bass-
wood, poplar, common-maple or
sugar-maple ......avoid fir this use,
the butter-nut, [juglans alba (ob-
longa,)] chesnut and oak ;....these
would either discolour the. sap, or
give it an improper taste....A per-
son acquainted with this business,
can cut down the timber proper
for the purpose, and hollow out
about twenty of these troughs in
a day ; they generally hold from
two to three gallons: the largest
should be placed to receive the sap
of those trees that are most thriv-
ing, and Avhich yield the greatest
quantity.....It may also be noted,
that Avhite-ash and white-pine will
make the troughs Avhen green; the
other kinds of timber, above-men-
tioned, should be seasoned, or they
will be liable to leak.
Store Troughs.....Where large
cisterns, fit for the purpose, can-
not be had, which will generally
be the case in a new country,
troughs may be made of the Avhite-
pine, by felling a large tree of
that kind, and fixing it in a level
position ; the upper side to be dug
out in the shape of a manger for
feeding cattle :....the larger it can
be made for receiving the green
sap, the better. White-ash and
linden or bass-wood, will also an-
SAver the purpose ; should any of
them split and leak, they may be
caulked tight......These troughs
should be at a convenient distance
from the boilers, in a cool place,
and under cover, to prevent snow,
rain, he. mixing with the sap....A
linen strainer should beTso fixed that
the sap, Avhen collected in buckets,
SUG
SUG 69
may pass through such strainer
into these troughs,atone end; and,
at the other end, room should be
left to dip out for feeding the boil-
ers.
Sheds, Walls, fcfc....The exposed
manner in which sugar has been
usually made, in the back country,
is attended with many inconveni-
ences, especially in windy weather,
when the ashes, leaves, &c. may
be blown into the boilers, and
thereby discolour the syrup, or in-
jure its flavour ; neither can the
keeping up a proper degree of
heat be always effected in an ex-
posed situation. To remedy these
inconveniences it is recommended
that aback wall, for the fire-place,
be erected, eighteen or twenty in-
ches high, and to extend a suffi-
cient length for all the boilers em-
ployed. This wall may be made
of stones laid in clay or loam,
where lime-mortar is not readily
to be had. For saving the ashes,
and the greater convenience in
making and continuing a regular
fire, under the boilers, a hearth
of flat stone, about three feet
Avide, should be made to extend
an equal length with the back wall.
And further to obviate the bad ef-
fects, Avhich loo open an exposure
is subject to, (it being observed
where a number of boilers are
placed in a range, those at, and
near, the outer ends, do not suc-
ceed so well as the more central
ones) it is strongly recommended
that sheds be erected, to extend
over and cover the whole length
of the hearth ; and so formed that
the smoke may pass off', and be at
the same time a shelter from high
winds, rain, snow, he. For grain-
ing the syrup, after it is brought
to a proper state in the boilers, it
will be right to have a separate
shed or building, in which two of
the sixteen kettles should be fixed;
for this service, charcoal is much
better than wood, as the heat or
flame should be confined to the
bottoms of the kettles; and be uni-
form and regular, to guard against
burning or scorching. A wall, as
above described, should be made
at the back of the fire-place, as
well as at each end; and the
hearth or bottom laid with flat
stones, on which charcoal is to be
placed.
Andirons.....Pieces of cast-iron,
something like andirons, and to
serve the same purpose, will be
very useful : they should, in the
long part, be two feet and an half,
and two inches square ; the turn
at the inner end, four inches down-
wards, and a small turn upwards,
at the outer end, of about two in-
ches, to prevent the wood from
rolling. Of these, there should be
a number to suit the extent of the
fire-place, to be placed at the dis-
tance of five or six feet from each
other.
Sugar-Mould.:.....These should
be made of seasoned boards, or of
such wood as will not impart a
taste to the sugar, and somewhat
resembling a mill-hopper, about
twenty-seven inches long, and ten
or twelve inches wide, at the top,
and tapered to the width of one
inch, at the lower end.
Frames, to place the moulds in,
above described, should be formed
so as to admit the moulds to rest
in them, about half their depth.
Gutters, spouts, or narrow
troughs, should be fixed within
the frames, under the moulds, in
a descending position ; the lower
ends to enter coAered casks or ves-
sels, so that when the plugs or stop-
pers are drawn from the bottom
70 SUG
of the moulds, Avhich may be done,
in about twenty-four hours after
they are set, the molasses that will
run therefrom, may fall into these
gutters, anil pass readily into the
covered vessels, Avhich, if open,
would be exposed to dust and
dirt.
Prickers....So termed by the su-
gar-bakers, about twelve inches
long and a half an inch diameter,
at one end, and the other, brought
to a point; for Avant of iron, they
may be made of hard wood :....a
few hours after the moulds are
unstopped, the prickers should be
run up the bottom of them, three
or four inches, to make way for
the whole quantity of molasses to
pass off.
Process or mode of manufacturing
the Sap of Maple, which by fur-
ther Experience and close Obser-
vation may, probably, hereafter,
admit of considerable Imfirove-
vient.
Seasons for Tapping. ...By trials,
made in the month of February,
it Avill readily be discovered, Avhen
this valuable tree oughttobebored,
for the purpose of extracting the
sap, as in that month, either ear-
Uer or later, according to the sea-
son, it generally begins to yield a
sufficient quantity for commencing
the business.
Tapping or Boring....Four hun-
dred trees, each bored with tAvo
holes, as nearly as may be on the
south side; and also with two holes
on the north side of the tree, in
the early part of the season, with
screw augurs from two to four
ouarters of an ineh, according to
tiie size of the tree ; and toward
the middle of the season, a like
number of trees to be bored in the
SUG
same manner, is recommended, as
a belter mode for the management
of four hands, than if the Avhole
number of eight hundred trees
were tapped at the first running
of the sap. The sap of the se-
cond parcel tapped, Avill be found
richer, and more productive, than
if a part had been extracted earli-
er. The augur should enter the
tree, at first, not more than three
quarters of an inch : the holes
may, at several times, be deepen-
ed to the extent of two inches and
an hair, as the manner of the sap's
running may render necessary....
The hole should be made slanting
or descending, so that the sap
may run freely in frosty weather,
and not, by a slow motion, be lia-
ble to freeze in the mouth of the
orifice. In these holes, spouts
should be fixed, to project from
the tree, from eight to twelve in-
ches, and not to enter the tree
more than about half an inch ; as
the farther they enter, the more
the running of the sap is obstruct-
ed : they should be prepared, in
readiness for the season, of elder
or sumach.
Preserving the Sap...\n the early
part of the season, the sap will
keep two or three days Avithout in-
jury ; but as the spring advances,
it will be necessary to boil the sap
the day after it is collected, or it
may ferment and sour.
Lime....To every half barrel, or
fifteen gallon kettle, a table spoonful
of slacked lime, should be put in,
while the sap is Avarming, and be-
fore it boils; this promotes the
rising of the scum and forming of
the grain.
Boiling....A smart fire should be
kept up, while the sap is boiling.
As the scum rises, be careful to
skim it of. When the liquor is
SUG
SUG 71
reduced one half in quantity, lade
the second kettle from the end,
into the end one; and when the
contents of three or four kettles
can be contained in one, let the
whole be laded into that, at the
end; filling up the empty kettles,
without delay, with fresh sap. As
the liquor in the end kettle, re-
moved from those which have been
mentioned, becomes a syrup, it
should be strained through a good
blanket or woollen cloth; and care
must be taken not to suffer it to boil
so long, as to be too thick to be
strained in this manner. It should,
when thus cleansed from its im-
purities, stand in buckets or other
suitable vessels twelve hours or
more, that the particles of lime
and other remainingsediment may
settle to the bottom ; after Avhich,
it should be so gently poured off'
into a kettle or boiler, as not to
carry with it any of these settlings.
However, they need not be wholly
lost; they will mostly contain a
considerable quantity of sugar or
syrup: by pouring fresh sap on
them, stirring them well together,
and suffering them to stand a
while to settle ; a great part of
the valuable sweets contained in
such sediment may be saved. It
may be further noted, that when
the sap is weak, which is gene-
rally the case towards the lrtter
part of the season, it requires
more boiling and a higher proof
than that collected earlier and of
greater strength.
N. 15. The method above de-
scribed was [actually] pursued in
the last year, and appeared to an-
swer well; it is nevertheless be-
lieved, by a judicious sugar-boiler,
that it Avould be best to avoid let-
ting the syrup stand tvvclve hours
after being strained through a
blanket: when the process is be-
gun, the sooner it is completed, in
his opinion, the better: the design
of its so standing for twelve hours,
being chiefly intended to give suf-
ficient time for the particles' of
lime and other sediment to collect
at the bottom of the kettle. It is
proposed that lime should be mix-
ed with a quantity of fresh sap in
the evening, and be Avell stirred;
the large particles of lime in this
case, will be likely to subside be-
fore morning, and the clear sap so
impregnated may be mixed, the
next morning, in proper propor-
tions, in the several kettles; ob-
serving, hoAvever, that in this
mode, more lime AviU be necessa-
ry, as less of its strength will be
extracted by Cold than by hot-
water.
Graining.....The syrup having
stood twelve hours or upAvards, is
then to be gently poured into a
kettle or boiler, as ubove-mention-
ed ; which would be best placed
over a fire made of charcoal as be-
fore hinted; unless the kettle is so
fixed in a furnace or in such a si-
tuation, that the flame can be con-
fined to the bottom; for if it be
suffered to pass on the sides, it
endangers the syrup's being burn-
ed. This operation should also be
performed with a smart fire, to be
uniformly and equally kept up, in
which, as well as in boiling the
green sap, the use of butter, hog's-
lard, and other fat, is not only very
useful and advantageous, but abso-
lutely necessary. When, in the
course of boiling, the sap rises to-
wards the top, a piece of fat equal
in size to a small nutmeg, thrown
in, will keep it down. Particular
care should be taken to prevent,
by these means, the rising of the
syrup when graining, which may
72 SUG
SUG
require a larger proportion of but-
ter, Sec. It is found that the eva-
poration is much more expeditious,
and it is believed that the quantity
of sugar made is larger, when a
careful guard is kept up to pre-
vent the sap, and particularly the
syrup, when graining, from rising;
by the timely introduction of a
piece of fat as above described....
To form a judgment when the sy-
rup is sufficiently boiled, take out
with quickness the stirring-stick,
which is constantly kept in the
boiler for the purpose of taking
the proof, rub some of the syrup
off the lower end of it with the
thumb, and if on applying the fin-
ger thereto it draws into a thread,
it may be deemed in a proper
state to be laded into a tub or cool-
er. Then it should be forthAvith
stirred, and that incessantly, Avith
a stirring-stick about three inches
broad, until the grain can be felt
between the finger and thumb, when
it is in a fit state to be poured into
the moulds. The managing a su-
gar-Avorks in the West-Indies, and
in the refining houses in North-
America, has been found to re-
quire much judgment and experi-
ence to conduct the business to the
best advantage ; indeed, it seems
hardly possible, to communicate
to persons who have little know-
ledge of the matter, and in terms
clearly to be understood, full infor-
mation as to the different appear-
ances of the syrup in the time of
boiling, and to point out the mo-
ment Avhen some material move-
ments or changes ought to be
made; nevertheless,from the fore-
going hints and directions, which
are grounded on observation and
experience, it is hoped much may
be derived, and that from year to
jear, greater advances and im-
provements may be made in this
valuable business.
Claying or Whitening the Sugar....
To promote the molasses passing
more freely from the sugar, when
draining in the moulds, and to im-
prove its colour in two or three
days after the moulds are unstop-
ped at the lower end, mix white
clay Avith water so as to reduce it
to a thin mortar ; with this cover
the. top of the moulds one inch and
a half thick, when this covering
appears dry, remove it, and supply
the place with a fresh covering of
about two inches thick.
Although it is apprehended the
use of clay as above set forth, par-
ticularly in the latter part of the
season will be found beneficial, it
may however be prudent to conti-
nue or decline the practice, ac-
cording to the effect or use it ap-
pears to be of on a careful trial:
the quantity of clay must be pro-
portioned to the manner in which
the sugar has been boiled; if high
boiled it Avill require much more
clay than if boiled low. It is also
thought the use of clay lessens the
quantity of sugar, perhaps one
fifth part, and may be more or less,
according to the knowledge of the
person Avho undertakes the busi-
ness. It may be further remark-
ed, that if the quantity of sugar
be lessened in weight by claying,
one fifth part, it is not to be con-
cluded that the whole of this fifth
part will be eventually lost; there
AviU be more syrup than there
otherwise would have been, inde-
pendent of the Avater from the
clay that passes through the su-
gar.
Molasses and Vinegar.....When
the trees of the second tapping be-
come poor in quantity and quality,
which may be about the tenth, of
SUG
SUI 73
April, or perhaps sooner; then the
number of fresh tapped trees will
yield a sap, of which may be made
good molasses, and also excellent
vinegar.
In all sugar plantations it will be
advantageous to cut out the differ-
ent sorts of timber Avhich groAv in-
termixed with the sugar-maple,
and even those of that species
which are not thriving, promising
trees. The timber so cut out will
serve for fuel for the boilers, and
leave greater openings for the rays
of the sun to enter, which will
have a tendency to improve and
enrich the remaining trees. The
ground so cleared of all except the
maple-tree, it has been observed,
is particularly favourable for pas-
ture and the growth of grass.....
" Whether this tree is injured or
impoverished by repeated tap-
pings," is an enquiry to be expect-
ed, and has been frequently made
of late, by persons who have anx-
iously wished for the success of
this business. It has been before
observed, that it will bear much
hardship and abuse, and it may be
added, that there are instances,
particularly among the old settle-
ments on the North River, of trees
which have been tapped for fifty
years or upwards, and continue to
yield their sap in the season, equal
to any brought into use of later
time ; indeed, it is asserted with
confidence, by persons Avho have
had some years experience, that
these trees by use, become more
valuable, yielding a sap of a richer
quality. How far a careful culti-
vation of them, the stirring and
manuring the soil in which they
stand, may improve their value,
remains to be ascertained in fu-
ture, though it may be expected,
that this, lilie almost all other
VOL. V.
trees.and plants, may from a na-
tural state be greatly and essen-
tially improved by the hand of art.
Experiments, therefore, will not
be unworthy the attention of those
citizens, situated in the more inte-
rior parts of the States, if it shall,
thereby be found that these trees
can be readily propagated, either
from the seed or young plants, and
be bro't to thrive so as to be equal
in their product, if not superior to
those which have been streAved
over the country without the aid of
man. To what an extent of cul-
tivation may not this lead ! There
will be no risk or disadvantage at-
tending the experiment; and it
certainly deservesencouragement.]
SUICIDE, is a term expressing
either the crime of self-murder ;
or it is applied to the person com-
mitting such unnatural deed.
It is remarkable, that this viola-
tion of divine and human law, has
prevailed chiefly among the most
civilized nations ; and that it oc-
curs more frequently among the
wealthy, than the indigent classes
of society. A combination of cir-
cumstances generally co-operates,
to induce an unsettled mind to
commit such unjustifiable crime,
thus, it has been urged, that the
copious use of tea, animal food,
spirituous liquors, and the sulphu-
reous exhalations of pit-coal, in a:
variable climate, instigate to sui-
cide ; because they uniformly tend
to depress and enervate the hu-
man constitution. It would ex-
ceed our limits, to refute the ab-
surdity of such notions; and,
though the perpetration of this
rash act may sometimes originate
from insanity, yet we may confi-
dently maintain, that it is most
frequently the result of a defec-
tive '.-lucation furnishing no fixed
L
74 SUL
moral principles, and consequent-
ly laying the foundation of vicious
habits ; such as gaming, and dis-
sipation followed by disappointed
ambition, or the desire of avoiding
public disgrace ; than the conse-
quence of ennui, or a weary life.
Those of our readers who Avish
to investigate this interesting
theme, will derive information
and amusement from the perusal
of Mr. Moore's Full Inquiry
into the Subject of Suicide (2 vols.
4to. 1/. 1 Is. 6d. boards, Riving-
ton, 1790), in which its effects
are fully considered, and illustrat-
ed by numerous historical exam-
ples.
SULPHUR, or Brimstone, a
hard inflammable mineral, of a
yellow colour: it is insoluble in
water; destitute of smell, except
by friction, or when heated; and
possesses a peculiar, faint taste...
This simple substance is found, in
a native state, in various parts of
the world, particularly in the vi-
cinity of volcanoes, being often
combined Avith other minerals : it
is generally cast into rolls, for sale,
being known under the name of
rcll-brimstone.
Sulphur, when gently heated,
rices in vapours, Avhich are easily
kindled ; and, if it be suffered to
cool gradually, it shoots into cry-
stals resembling thin needles,
termed flowers of sulphur : when
combined with any alkaline salt,
such as pot-ash, and melted in a
moderate heat, and in a close ves-
sel, a compound is produced,
which is named liver of sulphur.
This preparation is of a liver-
brown hue ; and, while dry, emits
no peculiar odour ; but, in a moist
state, it evolves a very offensive
smell resembling that of putrid
eggs : it deliquates in the air, and
SUL
and is completely dissolved in wa-
ter ; the solution acquiring a yel-
low, golden shade. On melting
it in a continued heat, till it grows
tough, and assumes a red-brown
colour, then pouring the liquid
mass into water, it will remain as
soft as Avax, and yield to any im-
pression from engraven stones,
metals, or coins. After becom-
ing cold, however, it recovers its
former hardness and colour.
This mineral is usually import-
ed in large irregular masses, Avhich
are melted into rolls, with the ad-
dition of coaise resin, flour, he. ;
whence it assumes a pale yellow
tint.
Sulphur is of great utility in the
arts : when converted into an acid
by combustion in the open air, it
affords that extensively useful li-
quid, vulgarly termed oil of Vi-
triol ; considerable quantities of
which are consumed in the various
processes of bleaching, dissolving
metals, especially iron, and in
other useful arts: it is also of great
service in cementing iron railing to
stones, by simply melting, and
pouring it into the interstices. See
also Gun-poavder....Brimstone is
farther advantageously employed
for whitening silk, Avool, or other
articles, by exposing them to its
fumes, during combustion.
In medicine, sulphur is almost a
specific in cutaneous diseases,whe-
ther administered internally with
honey or molasses, or applied ex-
ternally in the form of ointment.
In the piles, it is of evident bene-
fit, av hen taken in small doses ;
nay, it is occasionally prescribed in
chronic catarrhs and coughs ; as it
operates gently, by promoting in-
sensi .le perspiration through every
pore of the skin.....See likewise
Antidotes.
SUM
SUN 75
SULPHUR-WORT, the Com-
mon, Hog's Fennel, or Hare-
strong Peucedanum officinale, L.
a native perennial, groAving in salt-
marshes ; producing flowers in the
months of June and July....Both
the roots and stalks of this saline
plant are from three to four feet
long; have a fetid odour, and an
acrid, bitterish taste. If an inci-
sion be made in the former, during
the spring, a considerable portion
of yellow juice will exude, and con-
crete into a gummy resin, retain-
ing the sulphureous smell of the
root. The expressed juice of this
plant Avas formerly employed in
lethargy ; but its medicinal proper-
ties have never been ascertained
with precision.
As the sulphur-wort is an use-
less weed in meadows, it should be
diligently extirpated; though Bech-
st fin observes, that the dried roots
have been successfully efnployedin
fumigations, to prevent the spread*-
ing of epidemic distempers among
cattle.
SUMACH-TREE, or Rhus, L.
a genus of exotic trees, compre-
hending 33 species, of which the
following are the most remarkable,
namely :
I. The Coriaria, or Elm-leaved
Sumach, a native of Italy, Spain,
Syria, Turkey, and Palestine,whcre
it grows to the height of eight or
ten feet. The branches of this
species, when dried and reduced to
powder, are substituted for oak-
bark in tanning, particularly Tur-
key, or Morocco-leather : its
leaves are occasionally employed
on the Continent in medicine, be-
ing reputed to be uncommonly
astringent and styptic. Troms-
dore obtained from the reddish,
compressed hairy berries of this
tree, an essential acid salt, similar
to that of lemons, by a strong de-
coction, and subsequent evapora-
tion ; when small white crystals
Avere formed, on exposing it to a
cold place. Both the root and ber-
ries produce a reddish, and the rind
a yellow colour. In Germany, the
clustered fruit of the elm-leaved
Sumach is suspended in vuiegar,
to increase its acidity.
2. The Co/iallinum, Narrow-
leaved, or Beach-Sumach.
3. The ty/ihinum, Virginian Su-
mach, or Vinegar Plant. [See ar-
ticle Rhus.]
4. The Cotinus, or Yellow Su-
mach, a native of Asia, and the
southern parts of Europe, is also
cultivated in Germany. Its leaves
and branches are likeAvise useful in
tanning: the wood and bark yield
an orange dye; and the latter,
with the addition of Brazil-wocc;,
imparts a chesnut-colour. Gul-
denstadt remarks, that theleaves
of this species are preferably em-
ployed by curriers ; as they do not
tinge the skin, excepting with a
faint yellow cast; so that the Mo-
rocco-leather may subsequently be
dyed of the most pleasing shades.
Pallas informs us, that the dyers
of AstiakS.an prepare the genuine
Turkey-red on cotton, by a decoc-
tion of the leaves of the Yellow
Sumach and galls; with a due pro-
portion of alum; having previously
soaked the yarn in fish-oil, Avhich
we suppose to be that obtained
from the sturgeon.
SUNDEW, the Round-leaved,
Red-rot, or Youthwort, Dr.,-
sera rotundifolia, L. an indigenous
perennial, growing in mossy bogs,
and flowering in the months of
July and August. The whole of
this singular plant is acrid, and its
juice is sufficiently caustic to erode/
corns, or warts ; and, if it be pro-
76 SUN
perly diluted with milk, it forms a
safe remedy for removing freckles,
ana similar blemishes of the skin.
Any part of this vegetable coagu-
lates milk, in a manner similar to
that of the Common Butter-
wort ; and it is likeAvise sup-
posed to occasion the rot in sheep.
On the other hand, the grovvth of
the Youthwort, in particular situa-
tions affords an useful guide in
digging for turf.
SUNFLOWER, or -Hclianthus,
L. a genus of exotic plants, consist-
ing of 14 species, most of Avhich are
cultivated in britain: the principal,
how ever, are:
1. The annuus (corona soils), pr
Common Sun-flower: it is easily
propagated in any common soil,
either by sowing the seeds, or by
parting the roots in the month of
I/Iarcb. Within a few weeks, the
plants Avill appear; and, Avhen
about six inches high, they should
be removed into the borders of
gardens, or other places selected
for their growth, at the distance of
15 or 12 inches, in quincunx order.
They must be occasionally Avater-
ed ; and, if weeds be properly era-
dicated, they will vegetate Avith
such luxuriance, as to attain the
height of six or eight feet: in July
they bear flowers, which continue
to blow till October, Avhen they
produce ripe seeds ; Avhich, on ex-
pression, yield a large proportion
of a sweet palatable oil. The
young flower-cups of this plant
may be dressed and eaten like arti-
chokes ;...tbe stalks are of a consi-
derable size, often exceeding an
inch in diameter: hence, they may
with advantage be raised in situa-
ations where/we/is scarce ; indeed,
we are not acquainted Avith any
vegetable that is likely to afford
greate r advantages to an industrious
SUN
cultivator who possesses a few acres
of ground which, is not sufficiently
fertile for corn or pasture-grass.
It deserves, however, to be re-
marked, that it greatly tends to
impoverish the land ; as it requires
constant moisture, and would not
be productive Avithout artificial ir-
rigation.....See Kitchen-garden
and Paper.
[From a paper on the subjeot of
sunflower-oil, in the first vol. of
the Trans. Amer. Phil. Society, it
appears that one bushel of seed,
yields three quarts of oil; and that
this quantity of seed is produced
from one hundred plants, set about
three feet apart, in the same man-
ner that Indian corn is planted....
The oil is thin, clear, and of an
agreeable taste. It is recommend-
ed to set the seed in a hole, and,
when the plant is a yard high, to
throw in the mould round the stalk,
so that the surface of the ground
may be even around it.
The process for expressing the
oil is the same as that for making
linseed-oil. It is suggested, that
cold draAvn oil is less liable to
turn rancid than when heat is used:
but the quantity is less. If, how-
ever, care be taken, constantly to
stir the mash in an iron pot, over
a moderate fire, (or if pressed) not
to heat the plates too much, there
Avill be no danger of burning the
oil. There can be no doubt, that
the sunflower, on poor land, would
yield much more profit than many
other crops.]'
2. The tuberosus, or Tuberous
Sun-flower, a native of Brazil, like-
wise bears single stalks, which fre-
quently attain the height of 9 feet.
Having already described this spe-
cies, under the head of Arti-
choke, the Jerusalem, we shall
only observe, that it produces no
SUR
SUR 77
ripe seeds, and bears smaller Moav-
crs than the preceding ; but it is
more easily propagated : for, when
the roots are once planted, they in-
cessantly vegetate in the same soil,
without requiring rich manure, or
great attention; and, though left
throughout the winter in the
gi'ound, they withstand the' se-
verest frost.
The different species of the Sun-
flower have, hitherto, been culti-
vated only for ornament; but it
must be obvious, that they may be
rendered subservient to many eco-
nomical purposes,especially as sub-
stitutes for hemp, in manufactur-
ing pack-thread from their strong
fibrous stalks. Lastly, it deserves to
be noticed, that the flowers of these
plants regularly take the direction
corresponding to the sun's-course,
while they afford to bees a consider-
able supply of honey.
SUN-SCORCHED, is a term
employed by gardeners, to express
a distemper affecting fruit-trees,
in consequence of their sudden ex-
posure to the heat of the sun ; so
that the fruit becomes withered.
The trees, chiefly liable to such
injury, are those placed in situa-
tions, which seclude them from the
vernal sun ; so that they cannot
afterwards sustain its scorching
rays during the summer. It may,
however, be prevented, by plant-
ing fruit-trees in proper aspects ;
and, if such as are affected be
timely attended to, the disease may
be removed by frequent and copi-
ous irrigation.
SURFEIT, in physiology, is an
indisposition attended with nau-
sea, and the sensation of a load at
the stomach, which are generally
occasioned by indolence, and excess
in eating or drinking; though the
disease sometimes arises from an
error in the quality of the diet.
Buring this affection, the insensi-
ble perspiration is impeded, and
the skin is often covered with erup-
tions.
If a surfeit originate from the
use of muscles, corrupted meat,
or other unwholesome animal food,
it will be advisable speedily to re-
sort to an emetic ; and, after its
operation to drink frequent and
copiousdraughtsof vegetable acids,
diluted with water. But, in cases
Avhere excess in eating or drinking
is the immediate cause of the com-
plaint, the first passages ought to
be evacuated by proper purgatives,
and afterwards such medicines ad-
ministered as tend to restore the
obstructed perspiration, and at the
same time promote the secretion of
urine.
SURFEIT, in farriery, a disease
chiefly incident to horses : it may
be occasioned either by suffering
them to drink immoderate portions
of cold water, Avhile they are in a
profuse perspiration; or by neglect-
ing them, when Hide-uound.
The skin is affected with eruptions;
and (as farriers express them-
selves), the body is filled with in-
flammatory crudities.
Such are the general symptoms
indicating a surfei':, the mildness
or malignity of which, depends on
the age, habit, and constitution of
the horse. With a view to remove
the disease, a moderate quantity of
blood should first be drawn, in or-
der to accelerate its circulation : a
few Avarm mashes should next be
given, to open the body ; and after
them, two or three of the follow-
ing purgatives, according to cir-
cumstances : Let one ounce of
Barbadoes aloes; three drams of
73 SU S
pulverized jalap; two drams of
cream of tartar; and a similar por-
tion of Castile soap, calomel, and
ginger in powder; be mixed with
syrup of bucktiion:, sufficient to
form them into a ball...These medi-
cines ought to be. divided into tiiree
doses, administered at proper inter-
vals ; the diseased animal being
carefully sheltered from the cold ;
and, on the third day after the last
dose has been taken, Mr. Taplin
recommends the following altera-
tives :....To half a pound of levi-
gated anti e.ony, and an equal por-
tion of sulphur, let four ounces of
each, cream of tartar, and ^Ethiop's
mineral, be added ; the ingredients
be perfectly incorporated, and then
divided into 12 parts, each con-
sisting of two ounces: one dose
should be given every night with
the corn (the latter being previ-
ously sprinkled Avith Avater, so as to
retain the powder), for a month ;
and, in case no advantage be per-
ceptible, the dose must be increased
to 2i oz. during the first Aveek, and
to 3 ounces in the second week.
Throughout the whole course, two
ounces of nitre ought to be given
every morning, in a pailful of soft
water. Should any scabs or exco-
riations appear on the surface of
the body, they may be removed, by
washing them Avith equal parts of
soap-leys and lime-water.
Suspended Animation. See
Animation.
SUSPENSION by the Cord,
or Hanging, is either the act of
suicide, or that of being suffocated,
by means of a rope tied round the
neck; in consequence of which,
the vital principle is extinguished.
As many persons unfortunately
perish, av1\o are from variouscauses
inui.ced to resort to this fatal expe-
sus
dient, we shall briefly state the
symptoms, or external signs, by
which it may be ascertained, whe-
ther they died in consequence of
strangulation ; and also point out
those remedies Avhich have been
suggested for the recovery of life.
Symptoms of apparent death, by
suffocation with the cord ;.....The
external aspect somewhat resem-
bles that of drowned persons ; the
face is uncommonly swoln, and of
a deep red hue ; so that every fea-
ture is distorted : the eyes are in-
flated, and project from their sock-
ets , a bloody froth appears at the
mouth ; all the vessels of the neck
and face are distended; and swal-
lowing is totally impeded.
Treatment ;....l.The cord must
be instantly cut; the suspended
body being gently taken down,
every ligature ought to be re-
moved ; the head should be sup-
ported in an erect posture, and
turned towards the left side. 2. Air
must be blown upon the face,
which should also be sprinkled
with cold water. The gullet ought
to be stimulated by a feather moist-
ened with oil; and vinegar be ap-
plied to the nostrils, while the re-
gions of the heart and throat are
gently compressed. Farther, the
patient ought to be Avrapped in
warm flannel, or placed between
feather-beds ; and a bladder, filled
with tepid water, applied to the
pit of the stomach : the Avhole bo-
dy may also be fomented, or im-
mersed in the luke-warm bath.
Stimulants ;....l. Moderate fric-
tion Avith warm flannel, to be gra-
dually increased on the left side.
2. The shower-bath, combined Avith
friction. 3. Stimulating clysters,
consisting of salt-water and oil:
none of these remedies, however,
SWA
must be resorted to, where the
blood appears to be determined to-
wards the heart and head.
As soon as the first symptoms of
resuscitation become evident, the
blowing of air into the nostrils,
and aspersion of cold water on the
face, ought to be continued : next,
clysters, consisting of a strong so-
lution of emetic tartar, ought to be
administered; and the sugillations,
or injured parts, be fomented with
wine, in which chamomile flowers
have been infused. Lastly, when
the ability of swalloAving is re-
stored, the patient should take fre-
quent draughts of vinegar diluted
with cold water, and mild, cooling
laxatives.
SWALLOWING, or Deglu-
tition, is the act of taking any
food, whether solid or liquid, down
the throat. It succeeds Mastica-
tion, and is performed primarily
by the tongue, which propels the
aliment into the gullet; whence,
by the contraction of the muscular
parts, the contents are conveyed
into the stomach. See also Di-
gestion.
Deglutition may be impeded or
obstructed by various circum-
stances, such as swellings in the
throat, or the taking of acrid, pun-
gent,or pointed substances into the
mouth : but, as the most simple
and expeditious remedies for such
affections have already been point-
ed out, the reader will consult the
articles Gullet, Gargle, Qutn-
sey, Metallic Pointed Sub-
stances, he.
S\VALLOW-WORT,theCoM-
mon, or Asclepiasalba v. Vincetoxi-
cum,'L,. a hardy exotic plant, which
is a native of the south of France,
Spain, and Italy. In a fresh state,
the root of this vegetable posses-
SWA 79
ses a strong smell, resembling that
of valerian ; to which, however, it
is inferior in its sudorific and diu-
retic properties.
The stalk of the Common Swal-
low-wort is fibrous, and has on the
Continent been employed as a sub-
stitute {or flax : by mixing it with
silk, M. De Biborczfalva, a cre-
ditable economist in Hungary, has
lately produced a mixed cloth,
which was remarkably fine, and
cost him about 4s. the yard, Eng-
lish measure ; being from 50 to 60
inches wide.
There is another species of this
exotic, namely, the Syrian Swal-
low-wort, or Silk-plant (Ascl'piat
Syriaca, L.) a native of North
America, and especially of Virgi-
nia. • Its strong .stalks attain the
height of seven feet: the pale pur-
plish flowers appear in June or Ju-
ly ; emit an agreeable odour ; and
are succeeded by large, thick, and
rough capsules, the seeds of which
are furnished Avith a long, glossy
silk. In this respect, it forms one
of the most valuable productions ;
and as the experiments lately made
in' Silesia, fully evince that it may
with equal advantage be raised in
the more temperate climate of Bri-
tain, we strongly recommend its
culture, which is generally suc-
cessful in the most indifferent soils.
It may be propagated either by the
seeds or roots; vegetating most
luxuriantly in a loose, sandy, and
rather damp, ground. The seed
should be sown in the spring, and
the young plants be transplaced
into a well ploughed and manured
land, where they must be properly
Aveeded in the succeeding summer,
and hoed, after having attained the
height of 3 feet. Vv hen the prin-
cipal stem displays the flowers, id!
80 SWA
S WE
the collateral branches and leaves
should be carefully removed. The
fruit attains to maturity in August,
or September ; and as soon as the
external rind becomes soft, yellow,
and wrinkled, the seed capsule
is to be cut off during dry wea-
ther, and allowed to burst spon-
taneously. The dry stalks are next
to be separated by the knife, ap-
plied closely to the root; the de-
cayed plants must be re-placed by
the roots of others; then thinly co-
vered for the winter with long
dung; and in the succeeding
spring, the surrounding earth
should be loosened. Although
Bechstein, who has furnished us
with this account, does not men-
tion the distance at which the
plants ought to stand ; yet their
size appears to require considera-
ble space, so that they may be, at
the least, 12 inches apart, in every
direction. The silk, obtained from
the seed-capsules of the Syrian
Swallow-wort, is not only useful for
stuffing pilloAvs, spinning fine yarn,
both by itself and mixed Avith cot-
ton, animal wool, and cod-silk, or
the loose filaments of the cocoons ;
but it also affords- a valuable mate-
rial for manufacturing paper of a
superior quality. Its stalks may
be advantageously employed as
substitutes for hemp. In Canada,
a brown sugar is extracted, by eva-
porating the juice of its flowers ;
and, in Germany, the young tops
are eaten as asparagus : hence, the
assertion of some naturalists is
erroneous, that the milky juice of
this plant is of a poisonous quality.
[This plant abounds in the neigh-
bourhood of Philadelphia, and de-
serves to be cultivated for the many
valuable purposes to which it may
be applied. Dr. Guthrie (Man-
chester Memoirs, vol. 5,) says, that
in Germany the plant is cultivated
extensively, and that stuffs have
been made from it, which rival in
lustre the true animal silk. The
stems are said to dye a good olive;
and also to answer for candle
wicks.
SWAMP. Under the heads
drain and moss, the mode of re-
covering has been fully treated.
For an elaborate treatise on the
subject, the reader is referred to
Dr. Anderson's Rural Essays,]
SWARD-CUTTER, a machine
employed for cutting the sward or
surface of the earth, so as to break
every clod that might otherwise
resist the action of spiked rollers,
or any similar implement of agri-
culture.
In the Letters and Papers of the
Bath and West of England Society,
we meet with an account of a
Sward-cutter, invented by the Hon.
Robert Sandilands, and which
promises to be of great utility to
the husbandman.
The original design ofthe Sward-
cutter, Avas that of preparing old
grass land for the plough, by cut-
ting it across the ridges, either at
the comme ncement, or in the course
of the Avinter.
[This machine is much too com-
plicated for general use among far-
mers ; the account of it is there-
fore omitted.]
SWEARING, a term used to
denote either the uttering of im-
pious expressions, or the judicial,
and also official invocation of the
Deity, to attest the truth of an as-
sertion.
The security of oaths in import-
ant affairr, has in all ages been re-
quired by the laAVS of civilized na-
tions ; nor is. swearing, on such oc-
casions, prohibited by the Christian
doctrine. But, though particular
S WE
S W E 81
circumstances may sanction this
expedient, there is no possible ex-
cuse for invoking the Creator, to
attest the truth of every trifling
transaction, or to witness the im-
pertinence of idle, perhaps inde-
cent, conversation.
SWEAT, a perceptible mpist-
ure, issuing from the pores of the
skin, either in consequence of too
violent exercise, or from the ac-
tion of certain medicines, which
are hence denominated sudorifics ;
though it is sometimes occasioned
by great debility of the cutaneous
vessels, when it is called a cold
tweat.
SWEATING-SICKNESS, an
epidemic which raged in England
in 1481, and returned seven times
between that period and 1551 ; in
which year it proved so fatal, as to
carry off 120 inhabitants of West-
minster in one day. It commenced
with a most profuse fit of sweat-
ing, which attacked the patient,
and often terminated his existence
in one, two, or three hours ;
though its violence continued for
the space of 15 hours ; and, if he
survived 24, the danger was gene-
rally overcome.
The most correct account of this
national scourge, is that published
by Dr. Caius, Avho states the
symptoms to have been, a sensa-
tion of a hot vapour pervading a
particular limb, Avhence it extend-
ed over the Avhole body, being ac-
companied Avith intense thirst;
extreme internal heat; profuse
sweating ; anxiety ; drowsiness ;
sickness ; a violent pain in the
head, and delirium....Dr. C. con-
jectures the immediate cause of
this sickness, in 1551, to have pro-
ceeded from thick fetid fogs, that
arose from putrid matters; unclean
habitations, and the neglect of
VOL. V.
clearing drains ; all which remark-
ably contaminated the air.
It is remarkable, that the per-
sons most liable to the contagion,
were those in full health, of mid-
dle age, and of the higher classes ;
while children, the poor, and the
aged, were less subject to its in-.
fluence.
[SWEEP CHIMNEY. The
Society for the Encouragement of
Arts, in London, among the many
important subjects to Avhich they
have turned their attention, (to the
very great improvement of the arts,)
meritoriously offered a premium
for the best substitute for human
labour in sweeping chimnies. The
following account of one of the
plans offered to the Society, has
been published in an English ga-
zette : the detailed plan by the in-
ventor, will, no doubt, appear in
the next volume of the Transac-
tions of the Society. It is sincerely
to be wished, that Mr. Smart's
ideas may also be carried into ef-
fect in the United States.
" The machine invented by Mr.
Smart, of Camden-ToAvn, Eng-
land, for sweeping chimnie9, con-
sists of a number of wooden tubes,
of about thirty inches long, and
three quarters of an inch in diame,
ter, which run on a rope or cord-
and fastened into one another, to
any length. To the upper tube is
fastened a square brush, the block
of Avhich is about six inches long,
by three Avicle ; and from it, on all
sides, issues heath, broom, or any
other stiff but flexible substance,
large enough to fill the breadth of
the chimney. The tubes are about
thirty inches long, of course the
joints between each will bend to
the most crooked chimney, and in
coming doAvn must clear the cor-
ners, ledges, he. Avhich are some-
M
82 S WI
times found in chimnies. In the
course of the present year, Mr.
Smart has, in the presence of
many respectable Avitnesses, effec-
tually cleansed several lofty and
crooked chimnies. So completely
does this invention answer the plan
proposed by the several societies
who have undertaken to advocate
the cause of the poor climbing-
boys, that nothing is now wanting
to put an end to the common mode
of chimney-sweeping. By Mr.
Smart's method, a chimney fifty
feet high, may be swept in six or
eight minutes, and with much less
dirt than happens by the common
mode."]
Sweet-briar. See vol. iv. p.
414.
Sweet-fern. See Cicely, the
Sweet.
Sweet-flag. [See Acorns.]
Sweet-william. See vol. iv.
p. 276.
Sweet-willow. See Gale,
the Sweet.
SWIMMING, is the art of
floating, or supporting the human
body on the surface of Avater,
with a progressive undulating mo-
tion.
This art is in a manner natural
to man (see Amphicious Ani-
mals); and, from its evident uti-
lity, it has in all ages formed part
of the education both of barbarous
and civilized nations....As an out-
line of the principles on which it is
practised, may be a mean of saving
persons accidentally fallen into
deep water, we shall give a few
directions to that effect, selected
from the instructions of Dr. Frank-
lin, and confirmed by our own ex-
perience. First, the learner ought
to Avalk courageously into the wa-
ter, till the fluid reaches to his
breast; when he must gc.Vdy cL-
S WI
cline his belly towards the surface ;
the head and neck being erect;
the breast pressing forward ; the
thorax being inflated, and the back
bent. Next, the legs must be
withdrawn from the bottom, while
they are extended or stretchedout;
and the arms should be str'u .ien
forwards, corresponding with the
motion of the former.
Swimming on the back is not es-
sentially different from the method
just described, excepting that the
arms are not exerted, and the pro-
gressive motion is derived solely
from the striking of the legs.
With respect to diving, or plung-
ing under water, Dr. F. observes,
that the swimmer must close his
hands together; and, the chin be-
ing pressed upon his breast, he
ought to make an exertion to bend
forwards with energy : while he
continues in this position, he should
move with velocity under the wa-
ter ; and, when he wishes to return
to the surface, it will be sufficient
to bend his head backward, in con-
sequence of which he will instant-
ly rise.
From the natural timidity, or
antipathy to water, Avhich in some
individuals is constitutional, no-
vices in sAvimming have been ad-
vised to employ bladders or corks,
for the purpose of supporting the
body above the surface ; a prac-
tice Avhich has been severely cen-
sured. Dr. F. is, however, of opi-
nion, that such auxiliary means
are useful, Avhile the pupil is ac-
quiring the mode of drawing in,
and striking out the hands ; which
is absolutely necessary to a pro-
gressive motion. But, as no per-
son can become a perfect adept,
till he can sufficiently confide in
the capacity of the Avater to sup-
port him, he ought to walk into a
S WI
S WI 83
place, where it groAvs gradually
deeper, till it reach to the breast:
the face mustthen be turned towards
the shore, and an egg be thrown
into the water, to such a depth that
it can only be obtained by diving.
The novice is then to plunge
down, when he will find that the
element buoys him up against his
inclination : he will feel its power
of keeping him afloat, and conse-
quently learn to venture into it,
without apprehension.
Considered as an exercise Swim-
ming is equally amusing and use-
ful; because it combines the ad-
vantages of the cold bath and mus-
cular exertion. Hence we would
uniformly recommend to plunge
into the Avater with the head fore-
most ; Avhile the body is neither
cold nor overheated : no dangerous
rivers, or muddy streams, should
be selected; nor should this at-
tempt be made, till the water has
in some degree been warmed by
the genial rays of the sun....Other
precautions, necessary to be ob-
served, have already been stated
under the article Bath. See also
Bamboe-habit, and Cork.
[Swimming Jacket....From the
History of the Royal Academy of
Sciences at Paris,for the year 1765.
This swimming jacket Avas pro-
posed to the Academy, by the Ab-
bot de la Chapelle, under the name
of Scaphander, or ' Man in a boat,'
from the Greek Avords Sxa^, boat,
and atttp man. It is a sort of Avaist-
coat Avithout sleeves, which de-
scends, as far as the hips, and but-
tons before. It is composed of two
strong pieces of tent-cloth or tick-
ing, between which are fixed some
square pieces of cork, and the
Avhole is closed at bottom with a
border of double cloth, projecting
from the back to pass between the
swimmer's legs, and to be fasten-
ed before. By the help of this
jacket, and the art wherewith the
Abbot de la Chapelle has distri-
buted his pieces of cork in it, one
may float in the water standing,
and keep the head and arms above
water. In the experiment that
Avas made of it by the Ablx>t de la
Chapelle, he could converse Avith
those that Avere in a boat to see
him; he could lift to his mouth
victuals and drink, fire off a pistol;
flourish Avith a sword, stick, Sec.
assume all possible situations, and
make progressive motions by the
help of his hands and legs. The
notion of these sorts of jackets is
not new. The Academy gave aft
account of one, in 1757, present-
ed by M. de Gelacy, Colonel of
foot, and was not ignorant of the
attempts that had been made by M.
de Puy-segur for swimming, by
the help of a belt of cork, fastened
to a sort of cloth slipper, the sole
of which Avas loaded with lead.
This Avould be a good expedient
for soldiers, Avho were to swim
over a river Avith their arms in
their hands : but, as to the case
of shipwreck, Avhich the Abbot
de la Chapelle had principally
in vieAv, it appears, that his scap-
hander is preferable to all the in-
ventionsofthissorthithertoknoAvi,
as Avell because it is more secure
in point of use, as because, in a
sudden and unexpected case, its
application is more ready, and it
causes no embarrassment. See
Spenci.h and Cork.]
Swine. See Ho...
SWINGING, a species of pas-
sive exercise, which is performed
in certain contrivances, known un-
der the name of swinging machines,
or cars; by the undulating motion
of which, the body is tossed in an
84 S W O
S WO
ascending and descending direc-
tion.
Swinging greatly contributes to
health; and has occasionally prov-
ed very serviceable to persons of
consumptive habits: it is likewise
of considerable advantage to se-
dentary individuals; but it ought
not to be repeated, if it excite gid-
diness, head-ach, or other unplea-
sant effects.
SWOON, or Syncope, is a sud-
den fainting, in which the action of
the heart is diminished, or for a
time entirely suspended. It is
generally preceded by anxiety,
difficult respiration; the pulse be-
ing low and tremulous; the pa-
tient turning cold and pale, so
that he is nearly deprived of all
sensation......In some instances,
these symptoms are more urgent;
the limbs are flexible, but exhaust-
ed of their strength; and the
whole body is in a state of deadly,
cold torpor. It is remarkable, that
patients, during the fit, often hear
the Avhole conversation respecting
them, but feel the want of poAver
to exert themselves: the recovery
is, in most cases, announced by
deep and heavy sighs.
When swooning occurs in the
commencement of acute disorders,
it is generally an unfavourable
omen; though, in the advanced
stages, it is less alarming : in vio-
lent bleedings, it frequently affords
relief; but, when faintings occur,
Avithout any apparent cause, there
Avill be just apprehension of dan-
ger.
Causes ."....Long continued exer-
tions of the mind, such as deep
study ; violent passions ; loss of
strength from profuse evacua-
tions, particularly of blood ; hun-
ger ; pain ; Avant of rest; sur-
feits ; impure air ; Avorms; nar-
cotic poisons; and affections of the
interior organs.
Cure ......The patient should im-
mediately be exposed to the open
air, and be sprinkled Avith cold Ava-
ter on the neck and face. Strong,
pungent odours, or volatile spirits
held to the nostrils, ought to be
used with caution : and only where
the strength of the patient has
been considerably reduced, espe-
cially in hysterics and hypochon-
driasis ; in these cases, spirit of
hartshorn, tincture of valerian, cas-
tor, or asafoetida may be inhaled
with advantage....If the SAvooning
originate from anger, and be at-
tended with nausea, vomiting, bit-
ter taste, and pain at the pit of the
stomach, a gentle emetic may be
given, Avith copious draughts of
warm chamomile tea : similar
means may likewise be employ-
ed in consequence of a surfeit.....
Persons of a plethoric habit, when
fainting from violence of passion,
ought immediately to lose a fevy
ounces of blood from the arm;
and afterwards take a cooling ape-
rient, for instance, infusions of
senna,tamarinds with manna,salts,
he. If it arise from excess of pain,
benefit may be derived from opi-
um : and, when it is occasioned
by a fit of terror, or a sudden
fright, first blood-letting,then small
doses of laudanum and antimonial
wine, (from five to ten drops of
the former, and double that pro-
portion of the latter), -will tend to
compose the nerves, and to pro-
mote perspiration......Poisons and
worms require the treatment
mentioned under their respec-
tive heads.....When the fit of
SAvooning is the effect of too vio-
lent purgatives or emetics, a few
drops of the tincture of opium,
in conjunction with an aromatic
S YC
wine, will prove the most proper
remedy.
In cases of great debility, it will
be necessary to abstain from all
stimulating food or drink, and to
use the mildest astringents, in
combination with a bland and nou-
rishing diet. During the parox-
ysm, frictions of the extremities
with hot flannels, will greatly as-
sist the recovery of the patient.
Should, however, this state of
suspended Animation, be the ef-
fect of Lightning, Suffocation,
Suspension, he. the proper means
of resuscitation will be found in
these respective articles.
SYCAMORE-TREE, or Syca-
more Maple ; Acer Pseudo-pla-
tanus, L. a large and beautiful tree,
supposed to be a native of Ger-
many, but reared in Britain, prin-
cipally for the sake of its elegant
appearance in plantations....It is of
quick growth, though increasing in
isize till 200 years old, and attain-
ing the respectable age of four cen-
turies : it flourishes in exposed si-
tuations near the sea,Avhere a plan-
tation of these trees, at 50 feet
asunder, interspersed with three
sea sallow-thorns between every
two of the former, makes an ex-
cellent fence against the spray of
the ocean. The sycamore, thrives
in a loose black earth ; [it may be
propagated by cuttings,] and the
young trees ought to be trans-
planted at the age of 15 or 20.....
Its wood is soft and white, readily
Avorks in the lathe, and is employ-
ed by turners, for manufacturing
wooden bowls, dishes, trenchers,
he. When the sap rises in the
spring, or retreats in the autumn,
a considerable quantity of sAveet-
ish juice exudes from a hole made
in the trunk, about 12 inches from
the root, amounting daily to 7, 8,
SY M 85
or 10 quarts from cch tree. The
Highlanders convert this liquor
into an agreeable, and wholesome
wine : Avhen clarified, evaporated,
and subsequently inspissated, it
affords a fine, white sugar (in the
proportion of one pound from 16
quarts of the sap) ; which, how-
ever, is too purgative for common
use....There are two varieties of
this tree, one having broad leaves
and large keys, Avhile those of the
other are variegated: the latter
is propagated chiefly by inoculat-
ing and ingrafting ; as it seldom
produces perfect seeds.
SYMPATHY denotes an uni-
son or agreement of affections and
inclinations ; or a conformity of
natural qualities,or temperaments;
in consequence of which two per-
sons are mutually attached to each
other. It also signifies the parti-
cipation in pain or pleasure ex-
perienced by another individual;
though it is likewise defined to be
an imitative and involuntary fa-
culty ; for instance, yawning, and
laughing, which affect different
persons in a similar manner, and
at the same time.
Dr. Jackson considers Sympa-
thy, as relating to the operations
of the mind ; to the activity of the
imagination ; and to the impres-
sions made on the external senses.
Thus, he observes that the Ararious
passions and affections of the mind
produce different corresponding
sensations in the body, and gene-
rally determine the animal spirits
to those parts Avhich are most lia-
ble to be influenced ; for instance,
fear and anger to the heart: com-
passion, amazement or wonder,
sorrow, joy, he. to the head.
Another proof of sympathy is
the participation in the feelings of
others, whose propensity to mirth,
86 SYR
SYR
or gravity, or to sadness and me-
lancholy, is in a manner contagious
to whole companies.
The operations of the imagina-
tion, hoAvever, as connected Avith
sympathy, are chiefly confined to
the body ; and,in general, influence
only persons of weak minds: hence
arise many of those monstrous de-
formities occurring in the metro-
polis, but Avhich might have been
obviated by a proper exertion of
reason, before the fancy Avas too
much excited by the most se-
ductive faculty, namely, that of
vision.
The senses receive a sympathe-
tic impression from odious or dis-
gusting objects. Thus, disagree-
able sounds set the teeth on edge,
and produce an universal tremor
or shivering: the taking of nau-
seous draughts, or other drugs,
occasions a shaking of the head
and heck. Similar effects arise
from unpleasant odours ; and, if
a person suddenly AvithdraAV from
the sun into the shade, or from a
light place into a dark room, an
inclination to shudder "will be the
immediate consequence.....Those
readers, who are desirous of ob-
taining farther explanations of
these ideas, will derive instruction
from the perusal of Dr. Jackson's
Treatise on Medical Sympathy,
(8vo. 5s.)....Some ingenious con-
jectures on this subject also occur
in Dr. Adam Smith's Theory of
Moral Sentiments.
SYRUP, a solution of sugar,
frequently employed as a vehicle
for various medicines ; forming a
•sweet liquor, of a thick consist-
ence, which is made by combin-
ing saccharine matter v ith wa-
ter, vinegar, or the juices of ve-
getables.
Syrups AVere formerly consider-
ed as medicines of considerable
efficacy ; but, .at present, they are
used chiefly for sheathing, or con-
cealing the taste of nauseous sub-
stances ; yet, as there are certain
drugs, Avhich are peculiarly ser-
viceable in this form, we shall give
a feW directions for preparing
them : First, the vessels employ-
ed ought to be Avell tinned, and
kept perfectly clean, lest any im-
pure matters be introduced : the
sugar should be doubly refined
and dissolved in a Avater-bath, in
the proportion of 25 oz. to one
pint of water, or any other liquid :
the Avhole is then suffered to stand
for 24 hours, when the scum must
be removed, the syrup be strained,
and poured into a vessel, where
it remains till the following day.
If any saccharine crust then ap-
pear, it ought to be taken off the
surface, and the liquor will be fit
for use.
Syrup of Vinegar :.....Let 2|.
pints of vinegar be boiled Avith
31 lbs. of double-refined sugar, till
a syrup be formed. This solution
is very pleasant; is often employ-
ed in mucilaginous mixtures ; and,
from its cheapnesses far preferable
to the syrup of lemons.
Emetic Syrup consists of two
drams of finely pulverized glass of
antimony, and 12 oz. of Rbenish-
[or Lisbon, Teneriffe, or Fayal-
Avine :] these ingredients must be
digested in a gentle heat for three
days, when the liquor ought to be
strained through paper, mixed Avith
double-refined sugar, and made
into a syrup in the usual manner.
This preparation is strongly im-
pregnated Avith the emetic pro-
perties of the antimony, and is
peculiarly calculated for children,
on account of its agreeable taste.
Syrup of Lemon-juice :......Let
SYR
SYR 87
five parts of double-refined sugar,
and three parts of filtered lemon-
juice be incorporated, so as to
form a syrup. The juices of mul-
berries, raspberries, and black cur-
rants, may be converted into sy-
rup in a similar manner: they
are all cooling, pleasant liquids,
and may be advantageously em-
ployed for mitigating thirst in bi-
lious, or inflammatory disorders;
and also for gargling the fauces,
in cases of inflammation of the
mouth and tonsils.
T.
T AL
TACAMAHACA, a gummy-
resinous substance, obtained from
the Carolina Poplar. The best
sort is collected from the fruit of
the tree, in gourd-shells : it is
somewhat soft and unctuous, of a
pale-green, or yellowish colour,
and a fragrant odour, resembling
that of amber-grease, or lavender.
The drug commonly met with in
the shops, consists of variegated
semi-transparent grains, procured
from the sap exuding through in-
cisions made in the poplar; and
Avhich are greatly inferior to the
genuine species.
Tacamahaca is chiefly employ-
ed externally, for discussing tu-
mors, promoting their maturation,
and mitigating pains in the limbs;
though the finer sort may be ad-
vantageously used for the same
purposes, as other balsamics.
TALC, a species of fossil, found
in England, Bohemia, Spain, Sec.
comprehending three varieties,
namely :
1. The Talcite, or Scaly Talc, is
dug in small light scales, which
adhere to the fingers : it is white,
T AL
intermixed with green ; and, when
rubbed on the skin, imparts "a
bright gloss.
2. The Venetian, or Common
Talc, is also Avhite, interspersed
with green or red veins.
3. The Schistose Talc is of a
slaty nature, and a grey hue, spot-
ted with white, green, or blue ;
but, on exposure to the air, it be-
comes white and scaly.
This mineral is employed in pre-
paring compositions for earthen
vessels : on account of its smooth-
ness, brightness, and unctuous
quality, it has been celebrated as a
cosmetic ; and various unsuccess-
ful experiments have been made,
with a view to extract from it oils,
salts, and other supposed ingredi-
ents.... When combined with alka-
line salts, it is fusible in a strong
heat, and forms a transparent,
handsome, greenish-yellow glass :
if equal portions of talc and of
chalk be melted together with one-
fourth part of borax, ,the mixture
will produce a fine pellucid green-
ish glass, which is of considerable
lustre and hardness: gypsous earths
88 TAN
TAN
may also with advantage be substi-
tuted for the chalk, and the result
will be a beautiful, pellucid yellow
glass, of equal brightness and du-
rability.
TANNING, is the art of pre-
paring leather from raw skins and
hides, so as to render it more pli-
ant and durable.
The processes employed for this
purpose, arc various ; every tan-
ner adopting some peculiar me-
thod : Ave Jaave therefore selected
the following, which is practised
with little difference, in the metro-
polis and its vicinity ; where the
leather is divided into three sorts,
known under the names of backs,
or butt's, hides, and skins.
The strongest hides are selected
for the butts ; and, after being di-
vested of the horns, they are laid
in heaps for one or two days during
the summer, and for the space of
five or six, in the winter. Next,
they are suspended on poles in a
smoke-house, or room containing a
fire, made of wet tan, to induce a
slight degree of putrefaction, so
that the hair may be stripped off;
an object which is effected by
spreading such hides on a wooden
horse, and scraping them with a
curved knife. They are then im-
mersed in water, to be cleansed
from all dirt, and extended a se-
cond time on the horse, when all
extraneous matters must be care-
fully removed. The hides are now
steeped in a pit containing ooze, or
a strong liquor, prepared by infus-
ing ground oak-bark in Avater;
after which they are plunged into
another pit, containing water pow-
erfully impregnated with oil of vi-
triol, or Avith! an acid obtained from
rye or barley. They are next im-
mersed in another pit filled with
Avater; a stratum of bark being
streAved between each hide. In
the course of five or six Aveeks, the
skins are taken out; and the water
together with the decayed bark,be-
ing removed, the pit is a second
time filled with ooze; the hides are
again macerated, Avith similar stra-
ta between each, for three months.
The same operation is then re-
peated a third, and, after the lapse
of three months, a fourth time :
here the hides remain for three
months longer, at the expiration
of which they are completely tan-
ned ; being thus drawn out, they are
suspended on poles; when, after
being compressed by a steel pin,
they are beaten by wooden ham-
mers, or beetles, to render them
smooth; and then dried for sale.
The leather known under the
name of hides, is made from the
skins of cows, and those of lighter
oxen, in the following manner:
The horns are first taken off, the
hides Avashed and immersed in a
pit full of lime-water, where they
remain for a few days ; after which
the hair is stripped off, as above
described. They now undergo va-
rious processes, similar to those
already detailed, excepting that
the ooze is not at first of equal
strength ; and that the hides are
shifted every second or third day,
for the space of six months, into
a stronger liquor ; being at length
put into a very rich ooze, where
they are turned twice every week,
for tAvo or three months. Thus
prepared, they are carried to ano-
ther pit, with layers of bark ar-
ranged betAveen each hide ; the
process being again repeated for a
similar period, Avhen they are ta-
ken out, and treated in the same
manner as the butts. Both spe-
cies of leather here described, are
employed for the soles of pumps,
TAN
T A N 89
shoes, boots, he.; being finer or
stronger, as occasion may require.
The last division of leather is that
of skins, which includes all that is
manufactured from those of calves,
dogs, he. They are washed in
water: then plunged in lime-
Avater, and deprived of their hair
by the same operation as hides ;
after removing all uneven and su-
perfluous matters, the skins are
soaked in a pit of water impreg-
nated with.the dung of pigeons, for
a week or ten days, in order to ex-
tract all the particles of lime,
grease, Sec Next, they are treat-
ed in a similar manner with the
hides; and, in the course of five
or six months, they will be suffi-
ciently tanned.....The leather thus
prepared, is now conveyed to the
currier ; and, after undergoing the
process detailed, vol. ii. p. 299, it
is used for the upper parts of boots,
shoes, Sec.
Such are the old methods com-
monly practised in tanning : these,
however, being too tedious and ex-
pensive, various expedients have
lately been devised, Avith a view to
shorten the respective processes,
and to procure substitutes for oak-
bark. Thus Dr. Mac.-jride pro-
posed the use of vitriolic acid, in-
stead of that obtained from vege-
tables ; which, having been found
very serviceable for distending the
pores of the skins intended for
butts, has been generally adopted
by tanners ; as it improves the lea-
ther in point of durability ; and at
the same time tends to facilitate or
simplify the operations. He also
recommended lime-water to be
substituted for the common fluid,
to promote the extraction of the
astringent matter from the oak-
bark ; but, the former being very
powerful, and apt to injure the tcx-
VUI.. V.
ture of the leather, it is seldom
employed.
[Mr. Seguin has proved, that
in the Avater impregnated Avith the
soluble parts of tan, there are two
very distinct and different substan-
ces : the one which precipitates a
black matter from iron, is the gallic
acid or principle ; the other, which
precipitates animal gelatin or glue,
is called the tanning firincifde,owd.e-
'count of its efficacy in the prepa-
ration of leather. This discovery
enables us to ascertain the pre-
sence of the tanning principle in
any substance immediately ; for
every substance of Avhich the in-
fusion is capable of precipitating
animal gelatin, possesses it.
Theexperimentsof Mr. Biggin,
(London Philoso/i. Trans: 1799,)
shew, that similar barks, when
taken from trees at different sea-
sons, differ as to the quantities of
tannen they contain, and Mr.
Davy observed, that the proper-
ties of the astringent principle in
barks, vary considerably according
as their age and size are different ;
besides, these proportions are often
influenced by accidental circum-
stances, so that it is very difficult to
ascertain their distinct relations to
each oth-jr.
Mr. Davy, (Trans. Royal Soc.
Lon. 18(fc>.) is of opinion, 'that as
lime and pot-ash form compounds
Avith tannen, Avhich are not decom-
posable by gelatin, it follows that
their effect must be highly pernici-
ous, and that there is very little rea-
son to suppose, that any bodies will
be found, which, at the same time
that they increase the solubility cf
tannen in Avater, will nojt likewise
diminish its attraction for skin."
Dr. Macbride's recommendation
therefore of lime, does not appe. r
judicious, and the excellent hint of
N
90 T A N
Mr. Davy should be carefully at-
tended to by all who make expe-
riments upon tanning.
From some late experiments by
Dr. G.WTiLKiNsoN,it appears, that
the bark of the broad-leaved wil-
low, (salix latifolia) possesses the
astringent or tanning principle in
a very large proportion (see Tor-
men til) and that the nitric acid
acts more powerfully on vegeta-
bles containing tan, than either the
sulphuric or muriatic acids : the
former of which, according to Dr.
Willich, is used by the London
tanners. See, Experiments and
observations on the Cortex salicis
Latifolia, or broad-leafed willow
bark, by Dr. Wilkinson, New
Castle upon Tyne, 1803, 4s. 6rf.]
Oak-leaves, gall-nuts, dried and
pulverized heath, the barks of the
birch and willow-trees, the dried
and powdered leaves of the wild
laurel, and numerous other vege-
table productions, have been tried,
and proposed, as useful substitutes
for oak-bark: numerous experi-
ments were also made with plants,
by Gleditsch, Bautsch, Boh-
mer, ar d other writers ; but, as we
state the r.sults of these in the pro-
gress of our work, it remains only
to mention the following patents,
among the multitude granted at
different periods; naioely: 1.
The privilege obtained by Mr. Sa-
muel Ashton, in January, 1794,
for his new method of tanning.....
2. Mr. John Tucker's patent,
dated in May, 1795, for a mode of
tanning and making leather in a
much shorter period, and of a su-
perior quality, than can be effected
by the common method......3. Mr.
William Desmond's la January,
1796 ; for a process communicated
to him (by Mr. Seguin), of tan-
ning hides, Sec. by rendering them
TAP
more solid and incorruptible in
water.....4. Mr. Robert Cross's-,
in April, 1797, for a tan-pit on a
new construction, and a method of
tanning in one-half of the usual
time, Sec.....5.Mr. Francis Breav-
in's, in June, 1799, for an im-
proved process of tanning hides and
skins.....Asthe specification ofthese
patents, however intersting to the
tanner, are partly too diffuse, and
partly of such nature as not to ad-
mit of abridgment, the curious
reader will consult the 1st, 3d, 6th,
and 11th vols, of the Repertory of
Arts, he. where full specifications
are inserted, and occasionally il-
lustrated with plates.....See also
Currying, Hides, Leather,
Skins, Sec.
TANSY, the Common, or Ta-
nacetum vulgare, L. an indigenous
perennial, growing in elevated
meadows and pastures, on the
banks of riA'ers, and in swampy si-
tuations ; flowering in the month
of June.
This plant possesses a warm,
bitter taste ; it is deobstruent, not
ungrateful to the palate ; and may
be used as a substitute for hops....
The tender leaves are sometimes
employed to impart a colour and
flaAour to puddings : according to
Dr. Withering, its seeds are an
excellent vermifuge ; and, if any
animal substance be rubbed with
this herb, it will be effectually pre-
served from the attacks of the
flesh-fly...... Tansy-tea is recom-
mended as a preventive of the
gout.....From the expressed juice
of this vegetable, the Finlanders
obtain a green dye.....The plant is
eaten by cows and sheep, but re-
fused by horses, goats, and hogs.
[TAP-COCK. A very ingenious
contrivance to prevent the neces-
sity of a vent-peg, in a beer or
TAP
TAP 91
cyder barrel, was lately invented
by Mr. Robert Hake, Jun. of
Philadelphia. It has two perfo-
rations, one for the admission of
air, commencing at the point of
insertion in the cask, and termi-
nating at the top of the key ; an-
other for the emission of the fluid,
commencing at the same point,
and proceeding to the nozle in a
direction nearly similar to that of
the instrument in ordinary use.....
By this highly useful economical
invention, vast quantities of liquor
which are annually made sour or
vapid by the careless omission of
the vent-peg of barrels, will ba
preserved from acidity, and in their
original briskness.
The editor has a pleasure in
being able to say, that the inventor
is about taking measures to bring
this excellent Tap-cock into gene-
ral use ; and that a more full ac-
count, illustrated by engravings,
will be found in the 6th vol. of the
American Phil. Trans, now in the
press by Miss Aikin.]
TAPE-WORM, or Taenia, is
one of the most tormenting worms,
breeding in the bowels of the
lower animals, as Avell as of man-
kind, and consisting of several spe-
cies, namely ; the armed and un-
armed ; the long and short-limbed,
or broad tape-worm ; but that most
frequently occurring in Britain, is
the solium, Avhich moves about, and
has a regular round head, resem-
bling a Avart. It is from one, to
twenty yards and upwards in
length ; the body is composed of a
number of articulated rings, or
joints, by which it attaches itself
to the membranes of the intes-
tines.
The symptomsby which the pre-
sence of this creature may be as-
certained, are those, cf wcrms in
general, such as nausea ; vomk!ng;
giddiness ; indigestion ; colic ; an 1
flatulence : the patient feels a pres-
sure in certain parts of the abdo-
men : which, on shifting its place,
mostly produces a chilling sensa-
tion in the lower belly, or in the
back. A more certain, and in-
deed the only criterion is, the ex-
pulsion of one or more pieces of
the worm itself.
Cure:.....An extraordinary num-
ber of remedies have been sug-
gested, and tried, with various
success : nor can such diversity
of effects appear surprising, if the
difficulty of expelling the tape-
worm be considered ; as, in the
attempt, portions are frequently
broken off and discharged : Na-
ture having endowed this monster
with a power of regeneration, it
soon acquires its former size, and
excites the same turbulent motions,
We shall, therefore, state only
those remedits which appear to be
the most efficacious
1. The celebrated specific of
Mad. Noui-'eer, Avas purchased,
and published, by the King of
France.....[For a notice of which
See Fern.]
2. The method of carrying off
the tape-worm, recommended by
Herrenschwandt, is as follows :
The patient i:iust swallow o.ic
dram of the male fern two succes-
sive mon.ings, before breakfast ;
and, in the evening, two hours
after a light supper. On the third
morning, the following powder is
likewise to be taken before break-
fast, and followed by large potior.s
of weak tea: Take cf purified
gamboge, 12 grains ; sab of worm-
v.cod 20 grains, ami Stai: key's
soap (a composition cf distilled o'.l
and fixed vegetable alkali) 2 gi abis;
the wh-de to be duly ir.ec.-pora!..
92 T A V
TAR
ed : three hours after, 1 oz. of cas-
tor-oil is to be swallowed in a cup
of beef-tea, and repeated once or
twice at similar intervals. If the
worm be still retai.e:!, a clyster,
consisting of equal parts of milk
and Avater, Avith 3 oz. of castor-oil
h to be shallowed in a cup of beef-
tea, and repeated once or twice at
similar intervals. If the worm be
still retained, a clyster, consisting
i-i equal parts of milk and water,
with 3 oz. of castor-oil, must be in-
■ jec.ted in the evening, which is ge-
nerally productive of the desired
effect.
3. The last of these specifics (as
they are vainly styled), is that
which Mathieu, an apothecary of
Berlin, lately asserted to have dis-
covered ; and for which the pre-
sent king of Prussia honoured him
with a title, and pension for life.
On reviewing these boasted re-
roe diesj it becomes evident that
their principal efficacy is derived
from the male fern, combined
with various drastic purgatives ;
though it cannot be denied, that
the auxiliary ingredients have, in
f/>me worm cases, proved equally
successful. But all those drugs
having been knoAvn to the medical
world for centuries, it is to us a
matter of surprize, that a man,
Iil?e Mathieu, should have the
effrontery to offer this cluster of
vermifuges as things of his own in-
vent'or, and obtain from the royal
band, a giltlaurel, for Avhich others
have for past a^es, toiled in vain!
Nay. Ave are informed that, in a
p riicular case, his pretended spe-
cific has also failed.....Quackery
remains the same, Avhether cover-
ed with embroidered scarlet, or
v.
-
medy, or at least to check, this se-
rious evil ; an evil which, like a
slow cancer, consumes the vital
principle, and exhausts the best
sources of a country.
As the Tea-tree grows princi-
pally between the 30th and 40th
degrees of latitude, it might be ea-
sily raised in Europe: indeed, from
the success with which plantations
of this shrub haA'e lately been es-
tablished by a society of nuns in
Franconia, near Wurzburg, there
is great reason to believe, that it
would also prosper in the south-
ern counties of Britain, if proper
attention Avere paid, till it become
habituated to our climate. There
are, besides, many indigenous ve-
getables that may be advantage-
ously substituted ; such are Sage,
Balm, Peppermint, and similar
spicy plants ; the floAvers of the
Sweet Woodroof ; those of the
Burnet, or Pimpernel Rose ; the
leaves of Peach and Almond-
trees ; the young and tender leaves
of Bilberry, and Common Rasp-
berry ; and, lastly, the blossoms'
of the Black-thorn, or Sloe-tree;
most of which, when carefully ga-
thered, and dried in the shade
(especially if they be managed like
Indian tea-leaves), can with diffi-
culty be distinguished from the fo-
reign teas, and are at the same
time of superior flavour and salu-
brity.
[The late Rev. Dr. Mattheav
Wilson, of Lewis, in DelaAvare,
who Avas a learned divine, an ex-
cellent physician, as well as a firm
patriot, endeavoured to reconcile
the Americans to the loss of their
favourite infusions at thebeginning
of the revolutionary Avar, by point-
. ing out the evil effects which a
constant use of tea, produce in the
system ; and proposed a number
of substitutes, chiefly from among
our native vegetables. The fol-
lowing are in the list.
1. Sassafras root, sliced thin and
dried, with raspings of lignum vi-
tx. This, Avhen drank weak is
pleasant, and clears the com-
plexion.
2. Sweet marjoram, and a little
mint, relieves the head and nerves,
and strengthens the stomach.
3. Dry sage and green balm
leaves are astringent, stimulating
and strengthr.ir.g.
4. Rosemary and lavender, ex-
cellent for disorders in the head.
5. A few small twigs of white-
oak, Avell dried in the sun, with
TEA
T E A
97
two leaves of sweet myrtle : this
is so good a counterfeit of true
tea, that good judges might mis-
take them.
6. Fennel seed, and inner bark
of magnolia, (spiceAvood) is a poAV-
erful remedy against agues and
hysterics. For the paper contain-
ing a list of substitutes at length,
the reader is referred to Aikin's
Pennsylvania Magazine for 1775.
It is probable that at the pre-
sent day, but few of the above sub-
stitutes Avill be used for Chinese
tea, and yet considering the im-
mense sums in dollars, which are
annually sent out of the country
for this article, it is sincerely to be
wished that some substitute could
be generally adopted. For by an
official statement, it appears, that
the amount of teas Avhich paid du-
ties, after deducting the exporta-
tions from the importations, for
each year, of the years 1791 to
1800, Avere, 28,000,184lbs. The
average duty is 15 cents per pound.
There can be no doubt of the
climate of some part of the United
States, being as favourable for the
tea plant, as the climates of China
or Japan, and the Americans Avho
visit China, would render a service
to their country, by introducing
the plant.]
Teas are divided, in Britain, into
three kinds of green, and five of
Bohea. The former class in-
cludes, 1. Imperial, or Bloom Tea.,
having a large leaf, a faint smell,
and being of a light-green colour :
2. Hyson, which has small curled
leaves, of a green shade, inclining
to blue : and 3. Singlo Tea, thus
termed from the place where it is
cultivated. The Boheas compre-
hend : 1. Souchong, which, on in-
fusion, imparts a yellowish-green
colour. [The Padre Souchong,
V'jI.. V.
has a finer taste and smell than the
common sort.] 2. Camho, a fine
tea, emitting a fragrant violet
smell, and yielding a pale shade :
it receives its name from the pro-
vince Avhere it is reared. 3. Fekoe
Tea, is known by the small Avhite
flowers that are mixed with it. 4.
Congo, has a larger leaf than the
preceding variety, and yields a
deeper tint to water : and 5. Com-
mon Bohea, the leaves of which are
of an uniform, green colour. There
are, besides, other kinds of tea,
sold under the names of Gunpow-
der-Tea, he. which differ from
the preceding, only in the minute-
ness of their leaves, and being
dried Avith additional care.
Much has been said and written
on the medicinal properties of tea :
in its natural state, it is doubtless
a narcotic, or stupefying plant; on
which account, even the Chinese
refrain from its use, till it has been
divested of this property by the
processes above described. If,
hoAvever, good tea be drunk in mo-
derate quanties,with sufficient milk
and sugar, it invigorates the sys-
tem, and produces a temporary ex-
hileration ; but, when taken too
copiously, it is apt to occasion
weakness, tremor, palsies, and va-
rious other symptoms, similar to
those arising from narcotic plants ;
while it doubtless contributes to
aggravate the hysteric and hypo-
chondriacal complaints, which now
very generally prevail in both sex-
es. This drug has, farther, been
supposed to possess considerable
diuretic and sudorific virtues;
which, however depend more on
the qua?ititii of Avarm Avateremploy-
ed as a vehicle, than the qualitv of
the tea itself. Lastly, as infusions
of these leaves are the safest re-
freshment after undergoing great
O
98 TEA
TEE
bodily fatigue, or mental exertion,
they afford an agreeable beverage
to those who are exposed to cold
weather ; at the same time tend-
ing to support and promote that
perspiration which is otherwise
liable to be impeded.
TEASEL, or Dipsacus, L. a ge-
nus of plants exhibiting five spe-
cies : three are indigenous; but
the principal is the fullonum (more
properly sativus), Manured, or
Tuber's Teasel. It is raised from
seed, Avhich must be scattered on
ridges, 7 or 10 inches apart, in the
proportion of two pecks per acre.
The most properseason for its pro-
pagation, is the month of April:
the soil ought to be a strong, rich
clay, or, Avhat agriculturists term,
a good wheat land. The young
plants should be carefully Aveeded;
and, if they grow too closely to-
gether, it Avill be proper to thin
thcm,tothe distance of one foot. In
the spring of the second year, the
teasels must be earthed up ; and,
in the succeeding month of July,
the heads will begin to flower. In
August, as soon as the blossoms
decay, such heads must be cut
off, and exposed daily to the sun,
till they become completely dry ;
care being taken to shelter them
from rain.
The teasel is an article of consi-
derable importance to clothiers,
Avho employ the crooked awns of
the heads, for raising the knap on
Avoollen cloths. For this purpose,
they are fixed round the periphery
of a la?ge broad wheel; against
which the cloth is held, Avhile the
machine is turned. Lastly, the
blossoms of the teasel supply bees
with honey ; and the Avater, which
collects within the cavities of leaves
grown together, is said to be an
useful application to Aveak or in-
flamed eyes; and likewise to afford
a harmless cosmetic for removing
spots from the face.
TEETH, a set of bones, situated
in the upper and lower jaws, for
the purpose of mastication: in
adults, there are 32 in number, or
16 in each jaAV-bone.
The teeth are of various size,
being arranged in the following
order: four in the front, termed
cutting teeth, on each side of Avhich
is a sharp-pointed, canine, or eye-
tooth ; adjoining to these are five
grinders on each side, the last of
which is denominated the tooth of
Avisdom ; because it seldom ap-
pears before the 25th year. The
front and eye-teeth are furnished
Avith only one root each; the two
first grinders with two; and the
hindmost generally Avith three or
four ; which may in most persons
be ascertained by the number of
small tubercles on the croAvns.
The tooth is . divided into two
principal parts; namely, the crown,
which projects above the gums;
and the root, that is inclosed with-
in the sockets: the crown is a hard,
fine, glossy, vvhite enamel, serving
to defend the substance against ex-
ternal injury : the root is open at
the bottom, where it is connected
Avith vessels and nerves, by which
it received nourishment, life, and
sensation.
As an account of the manner in
which the teeth are formed, may
prove interesting to reflecting read-
ers, Ave shall proceed to state con-
cisely the process of dentition, or
teething; and conclude with a short
analysis of the diseases to Avhich
these useful bones are frequently
liable.
In an embryo of 3 or 4 months
formation, instead of the sockets,
small cells are observable: these
TEE
TEE 99
are separated by thin membranes,
each of which progressively ex-
hibits a vascular bag, containing a
soft knob, that is covered by the
rising tooth, forming a hard coat;
but the enamel appears to origi-
nate from crystallized matter.....
During the rirst year, the two
middle front teeth in the under
jaw, and shortly after, the two up-
per ones, become visible: they are
succeeded by the foremost front
teeth. In the commencement of
the second year, the first grinder,
on each side, groAvs successively
in the under and upper jaws : the
next in rotation, are the canine or
corner teeth, and finally, about the
third year, there rise from tAvo to
three grinders on each side. About
the seventh year, all these teeth
are, by an effort of Nature, gra-
dually replaced by a new set, to
Avhich are joined, in the tenth or
eleventh year, another grinder,
and, at a later period, the tooth of
wisdom.
During the progress of denti-
tion, children are subject to various
affections, such as convulsions, in-
flammation, fever, he. occasioned
by the pressure of the teeth, in burst-
ing through the gums. At this
period, a moderate looseness, or a
copious flow of saliva are, in ge-
neral, favourable signs. With a
view to promote the latter, it will
be advisable to let the child chew
or gnaw such substances, as have a
tendency to mollify the gums, and,
by their pressure, to facilitate the
protrusion ; for which purpose a
piece of liquorice or marshmallow
root, he. will be of service ; or,
the gums may be softened and re-
laxed, by rubbing them with sweet
oil, honey, or other emollients.....
Costiveness should be removed by
mild aperient clysters. If, how-
ever, all these endeavours prove in-
effectual, relief has often been de-
rived from an incision made in the
gum; though such operation should
be undertaken only by the surgeon.
In cases of extreme weakness, the
application of blisters behind the
ears, or to the back, will prove be-
neficial; and, as distressing symp-
toms frequently arise from crudi-
ties and obstructions in the first
passages, it will be necesssary to
attend to this circumstance: thus,
if the child be troubled Avith acidi-
ty and flatulence, the testaceous
powder, or calcined magnesia Avith
a few grains of rhubarb, mixed
Avith powder of sweet fennel-seeds,
will form a very useful remedy; or,
when Avorms torment the infant,
the means suggested under that
article, should be speedily adopt-
ed. On this occasion, we deem it
our duty, in the strongest terms
to caution parents against the use
of laudanum, and other composing
medicines, especially Avhen the
bowels are obstructed.
With respect to the diseases of
the teeth, Ave shall, in this place,
mention only such as occur more
frequently, and which are, by pro-
per attention, or by external ap-
plications, easily removed....From
a vieAV of the nature and formation
of the teeth, it must be evident,
that Avhatever may tend to remove
the enamel, for instance, acrid
dentrifices and tinctures, hard me-
tallic tooth-picks, sudden changes
from heat to cold (specially in
taking food), by exposing the
nerve, cannot fail to produce the
tooth-ach; and, in the course of
time, a decay of the bone itself.
There are even instances, where
such corruption, unless timely
checked, has extended its influ-
ence to the jaw-bone. Nothing,
100 TEE
TEE
however, contributes to injure
them more certainly than unclean-
liness ; by Which a kind of tartar
is generated, that settles on the
teeth, and separates them from
the gums : thus, the air and the
food coming into immediate con-
tact with the bony substance, will
prove a never-failing source of pain
and distress.
Cure :....As it would be a vain
attempt to point out any specific,
by which the tooth-ach can be re-
moved, we shall recommend only
such remedies as are adapted tothe
several causes, from which it may
originate....If the patient be of a
plethoric habit, or the gums be
considerably inflamed, recourse
should be had to bleeding, parti-
cularly by leeches and cupping-
glasses, applied contiguously to
the part affected: next, blisters
behind the ears, or on the nape of
the neck, will be found of service.
Dr. Cull en recommends vitriolic
aither to be dropped on the cheek,
and to hold the hand on the part,
till that volatile liquor be evaporat-
ed. Should, hoAvever, the pain
still continue, without intermis-
sion, a few drops of laudanum on
cotton, laid on the tooth, will
sometimes afford relief. Where
the bone is hollow, and decayed,
it will be advisable either to have
it drawn by an able dentist, or to
resort to such substances as destroy
the nerve : the latter object may
be effected by a careful application
of the strong mineral acids, juni-
per-oil, or by a red-hot wire ; but
this operation, which has frequent-
ly produced the desired effect,
oi.L.it never to be entrusted to an
unskilful person.....As the tooth-
ach, is frequently induced by
cold, and attended with symptoms
of Catarrh, it will in such cases
be requisite to follow the direc-
tions given in that article. This
complaint, likewise, often proceeds
from affections or debility of the
stomach ; a source which may be
ascertained by the symptoms of
indigestion, such as loss of appe-
tite, nausea, vomiting, and head-
ach, with this peculiar circum-
stance, that the pain generally re-
turns at regular periods. In such
case, relief can only be expected
from a proper use of emetics, and
mild aperients, succeded by a ju-
dicious course of the Peruvian
bark, and similar tonics.
Another source of these affec-
tions, is an irregular disposition,
or arrangement, especially of the
front teeth, and mostly in the se-
cond set. It may proceed cither
from some of the first set having
been suffered to remain in the jaw,
after the second has appeared;
from a Avant of space in the jaw-
bone ; or from mal-conformation.
In these cases, the only effectual
remedy is that of extracting such
of the teeth, as by their situation
obstruct their neighbours, and
sometimes occasion considerable
distress.
If the teeth should be loosened
by external violence, they may
again be fixed, by pressing them
firmly into the sockets, and pre-
serving them in that situation,
either by a silk, or other ligature
attached to the adjoining tooth:....
the patient, however, ought to
subsist entirely on spoon-meat, or
other soft and liquid food, till the
desired effect be attained. But,
Avhere this separation arises from
a sponginess or weakness in the
gums, mild astringents, for in-
stance, a solution of alum and su-
TEL
TEL 101
gar, tincture of bark, catechu, he.
Avill serve to consolidate the sur-
rounding parts.
For cleansing and preserving the
teeth, burnt bread, or bark, ap-
plied by the small finger, or on
a piece of calico, will be found a
safe and useful dentrifice.....Lord
Dundonald recommends, for this
purpose, a weak solution of Soda.
Lastly, in cases Avhere a substi-
tution of artificial teeth should be
deemed necessary, these useful
bones ought to be manufactured
from the tooth of the Hippopota-
mus, or river-horse; and on no
account whatever to be taken from
other persons. There are instances
on medical record, where the lat-
ter practice has communicated in-
fectious diseases, and eventually
proved fatal.
TELESCOPE, one of the most
useful optical instruments, con-
sisting of a long tube furnished
with several glasses, for the pur-
pose of viewing distant objects....
This term is mostly applied to the
larger kinds of telescopes; the
smaller ones being called perspec-
tive-glasses, spy-glasses, opera-
glasses ; and a particular species,
Avhich is much brighter than any
other, is known under the name
of night-glasses. v
Telescopes are of extensive uti-
lity, both in naval and military
pursuits, but especially for contem-
plating the celestial bodies: hence
the merit and honour of their ori-
ginal invention have been claim-
ed by many ingenious men. Ac-
cording to the most accurate ac-
counts, however the authentic con-
triver Avas Zacharias Jansen, a
Dutchman, who produced his first
instrument in the year 1590. Since
that period various improvements
and additions have been made by
Galileo, Kepler, Huygens,
Mersennus, Gregory, Short,
Ramsden, Dollond, Adams, and
numerous other philosophers and
artists. The most important are,
those accomplished by Dr. Her-
schel, whose grand instrument,
Avhen furnished Avith proper glass-
es, magnifies upwards of six thou-
sand times.
It would be incompatible with
our plan, to enter into the ratio-
nale, or an account of the princi-
ples on which telescopes are in
general constructed. We shall,
therefore, only remark, that a com-
plete description of the machinery
of Dr. II.'s noble instrument is in-
serted in the Philosophical Trans-
actions of the Royal Society, Part
ii. for 1795 ;.....and Ave shall pro-
ceed to state the principal patents
Avhich have been granted to differ-
ent individuals.
The first, within our knowledge
deserving notice, is that obtained
in April, 1791, by Mr. Robert
Blair, for his method of improv-
ing refracting telescopes, and
other dioptrical instruments ;
Avhich is fully detailed in the 7th
vol. of the Repertory of the Arts,
he.
In January, 1799, a privilege
was granted to Mr. Cater Rand,
for an improved military and na-
val telescope, serving to ascertain
distances, Sec. at sight, by means
of a new micronietrical adjust-
ment. His instruments are made
refracting, achroamatical, or re-
flecting ; and the micrometer is
furnished Avith four parallel Avires,
fitted to brass, silver, or other
metallic, converging and diverg-
ing, plates, together with other
machinery ; the Avhole of Avhich
is so arranged, that the interme-
diate distance between two un-
1052 T E M
TEN
known places may, together with
the height or size of such dis-
tance, be easily ascertained.....A
full specification oi this ingenious
contrivance is inserted in the 12th
vol. of the work above quoted,
where it is illustrated by an en-
graving.
The last patent Ave shall men-
tion's that procured by Mr. Dud-
ley Adams, in May, 1800: for
his invention of a mode of render-
ing telescopes, and other optical
glasses, more portable. This use-
ful object is effected by employing
certain springs, which are so con-
trived as to occupy the least pos-
sible space, while they render the
instrument to which they may be
applied, strong and steady, on be-
ing drawn out: and, in order that
the several glasses may acquire
their true positions or distances,
when such joints or tubes are
drawn out, he has invented certain
fiaunches, for fixing and retaining
them in every situation, in which
an observer might find it necessa-
ry to place them. For a minute
account, the curious reader is re-
ferred to the 15th vol. of the Re-
pertory of Arts, Sec. Avhere the pa-
tentee's improvements are exem-
plified by a plate.
TEMPERANCE,strictly speak-
ing, denotes the virtuous practice
of those, Avho restrain their sen-
sual appetites : it is, however, ge-
nerally used to express moderation,
in which sense it is indiscriminate-
ly applied to all the passions.
Temperance has been justly
termed the virtue Avhich bridles
the inordinate desires : it is, in-
deed, closely connected with pru-
dtnee and justice. It silences
calumny, and substitutes extenua-
tion for slander ; expels avarice
from the bosom ; and thus de-
monstrates that true happiness con-
sists not in contemplating useless
wealth, or indulging in ambitioua
pursuits, or in the gratification of
a vitiated palate ; but in a con-
tented mind. The votary of tem-
perance views Avith equal disgust,
the sallies of unjust resentment,
and those of riotous mirth : he
beholds the melancholy conse-
quences of intemperance; learns
to extinguish revenge, and every
desire Avhich humiliates a rational
agent; thus proving that such vir-
tue is the parent of many others,
while it is attended with peace,
prosperity, health, and satisfac-
tion.
Without expatiating on this to-
pic, let it suffice to observe, that it
if a duty incumbent on all parents,
to rear their children with a strict
regard to temperance ; as, by ad-
hering to this rule only, they are
entitled to enjoy either health or
longevity. Those of our readers,
who are desirous of farther infor-
mation on this interesting subject,
will meet with judicious hints in
Mr. Nelson's Essay en the Go-
vernment of Children, he. (8vo.
5s. Dodsley) ; and particularly in
Dr. Harwood's little tract, enti-
tled, " Of Temperance and Intem-
perance" he. (8vo. 2s. 6d. Becket,
1774) : in which their effects on
the body and mind, and their in-
fluence in prolonging or shortening
human life, are discussed in clear,
energetic language ; and confirm-
ed by examples.
Tempering. See Case-hard-
ening, and Steel.
TENDONS, or Sinews, in the
animal frame, are ligaments, by
vvhich the motion of the joints is
performed.
The principal affections of ten-
dinous parts, proceed from exter-
TEN
T E T 103
nal violence, by which they may
be wounded or lacerated. In these
cases, surgical assistance ought to
be immediately procured ; other-
wise, inflammation, fever, and even
death, may be the consequence.
If a tendon be partly divided, a
few drops of Peruvian balsam
poured into the Avound, Avill be
found an excellent remedy. But
the principal relief in Avounded or
ruptured sinews, will be derived
from keeping the limb in such a
posture as to relax the muscles,
and thus to facilitate the re-union
of the injured part; after which,
a proper bandage of fine soft flan-
nel should be tightly passed round
the limb, in order that the muscles
may be retained in a state of ease,
till a complete cure be accom-
plished.
A swelling sometimes appears
on the tendons, particularly those
of the wrist and ankle, where it is
called ganglion. Such tumors are
of an elastic nature, moveable, and
generally arise from external inju-
ry, rheumatism, Sec. : in many in-
stances, they spontaneously disap-
pear ; but in the contrary case,
friction, and gentle compression,
by means of a thin plate of lead,
secured by a proper bandage, will
generally be sufficient to remove
them. Should this treatment, how-
ever, not prove efficacious or an
inflammation of the part ensue, it
Avill be advisable net to neglect
surgical aid.
TENNIS, a play requiring mus-
cular exertions, and at which a ball
is driven, by means of a racket.
This game is of French origin,
and was introduced into Britain in
the 17th century : it is performed
in a long court, denominated a
tennis-court, across which a net is
suspended : through the latter, the
ball is stricken by a racket; and,
accordingly as it is driven into cer-
tain galleries, the game is lost or
won.
Tennis is played by sets, each of
which comprebends six games ;
but, if an advantage-set be pro-
posed, 7 successiA'e games must
be obtained, by or.e or other par-
ty....As, however, our limits will
not permit us to enter into parti-
culars, the inquisitive reader may
consult Mr. Hoyle's " Games Im-
proved," by Mi-.Beaufort (12mo.
3s.), in which the rules of termia
are fully explained.
Terra Japonica. See Cate-
chu.
TERRIER, or Canis terrarius,
a variety of the dog-kind, Avhich is
of different colours, being some-
times spotted, though generally of
a liver, or black hue : its body sel-
dom exceeds 18 inches in length,
and the head is embellished with
short, smooth, pendent r?n;.
Terriers are very useful to agri-
culturists, especially for extermi-
nating rats, pole-cats, and similar
depredators. Farther, these ani-
mals are remarkable for their vigi-
lance, and are therefore frequently
employed as house-dogs ; but their
principal services consist in hunt-
ing badgers, foxes, rabbits, and
other quadrupeds which burrow
under ground ; because they enter
the holes of such wild creatures,
and either kill or draAv them out
of their hiding-places.......\n ac-
count of the disease to Avhich ter-
ries are liable, the reader will find
in the article Dog.
[TETRAO, a genus of bird-,
comprehending several species, 3
of which are natives of the United
States.
1. The Grous: l.e Gelinoite-
huflee de I'Amerique, of Brisson.
104 T E T
THE
Pinnated Grous, of Latham and
Pennant.
These birds abound in the Ioav-
er part of the state of New-Jersey,
and on the bushy plains of Long-
Island, state of NeAv-York. The
male crows for half an hour about
day-light, and at that time erects
his wing-like feathers, which com-
monly hang on each side of the
neck. They breed in July : their
chief food consists of huckleber-
ries, and acorns of the dwarf oak.
In the winter season, they resort
to the pines. The female is small-
er than the male, less bright in
colour, and is without the wing-
feathers on the neck.
2. Tetrao Tympanistes, L. The
ruffed heath cock, or pheasant of
Pennsylvania. A common bird
throughout all North America.
The male has a ruff on each side
of the neck, Avhich he raises at
pleasure. The head is crested,
the general plumage is brown, in-
clined to the rusty on the back,
prettily varied with black. The
black on the ruff is disposed in
broad black bars. The under part
of the bird, is light Avith large
bjpwn bars. The tail is large and
expansible like a fan, in some of an
ash, in others of an orange colour.
The feet are feathered, toes pecti-
nated.
The female is without ruff and
crest; the plumage in general is
like the male.
These birds are remarkable for
a practice of clapping their Avings,
against their sides, in the mornings
and evenings of spring and au-
tumn. They swell their breasts
like the pouting pigeon, and with
their Avings, make a noise not un-
like a drum in sound, and short-
ning each sounding note till they
run one into another undistinguish-
ably, like two empty bottles strik-
ing together. They are particu-
larly fond, of the buds and leaves
of laurel, (Kalmia latifolia,) which
when eaten late in the winter, com-
municate a poisonous quality to
the flesh :....See Kalmia.]
Tetters. See Ringworm.
THEATRE, signifies the place
in Avhich spectacles, or dramatic
representations, are exhibited.
The drama was originally in-
vented in Greece ; Avhence the
rules of it have been gradually dis-
persed over the civilized nations
of Europe. It Avould, however, be
inconsistent with our limits, to
trace its progress from rudeness
to refinement, or vice versa: we
shall, therefore, content ourselves
Avith remarking, that dramatic per-
formances afford to many persons
an agreeable relaxation, after the
toils of their industrious pursuits.
And, though play-houses have
often met with violent opposition,
as tending to corrupt the morals
of the people ; yet, if they be ma-
naged with a due regard to deco-
rum, and moral truth, inculcating
only virtuous precepts, they doubt-
less deserve encouragement. In-
deed, the tendency of plays de-
pends principally on the opinions,
manners, and taste of the public :
for, as the chief object of those
who devote themselves to the
stage, is the acquisition of wealth
and fame, or notoriety, it follows
that if such taste be gross or cor-
rupted, the representations AviU
also partake of the general depra-
vity, in order to please a mixed
audience : on the other hand, if
the national sentiments be elevat-
ed and refined, the performances
Avill likewise be divested of rude
and licentious expressions ; so
that the theatre will then be fa-
THE
vourable to the cause of virtue and
morality.
As the language of the drama
ought to be alike free from affec-
tation and ambiguity, we think it
highly censurable in performers,
either to extemporize, where a fa-
vourable opportunity offers for
passing off a vulgar joke ; or to
substitute words, the meaning of
which admits of an explanation
unfaA-ourable to moral purity. It
Avould be superfluous to point out
the danger of such licentiousness,
especially to the young female
breast, Avhich is thus impercepti-
bly contaminated in the presence
of parents and guardians. Nor can
we approve of another singularcus-
tom, now prevalent in our thea-
tres ; namely, that of accompany-
ing the most serious drama, or a*
tragedy, Avith what is vulgarly
called an entertainment, or a. farce :
thus, every grain of taste in the
audience, is completely effaced ;
and it appears to us nearly in the
same light, as if a person, after
hearing an impressive discourse,
retires to an adjoining tavern, in
order to drown the calls of con-
science, by profuse libations to
Bacchus.
THERMOMETER, or Ther-
moscope, an instrument for mea-
suring, with accuracy the degrees
of heat or cold in the air, water,
he.....It is probable, that the ex-
pansion and contraction of bodies,
in consequence of heat and cold,
afforded the first idea for the con-
trivance of this useful scale.
The thermometer was invented
early in the 17th century ; and, on
account of its extensive service in
the arts, manufactures, and domes-
tic life, the original merit of con-
structing this valuable instrument
is variously attributed to Cornk-
vol. v.
THE 105
lies Drebbel, Paul Sarpi, Ga-
lileo, and Sanctorio; though,
we believe, the person first men-
tioned, deserves the credit of hav-
ing invented the earliest thermo-
scope, in the year 1638, at Alk-
maar, in North Holland. It Avas,
however, an imperfect attempt;
being regulated solely by the ex-
pansion of the air ; and serving at
the same time as a barometer ;
for his tube contained a mixture
of Avater and aqua-fortis. Hence
it was, in its primary state, called
an air-thermometer; and, after
substituting various other liquids,
which Avere adopted by the Flo-
rentine Academy, by Sir Isaac
Neavton, and other philosophers,
but, which, on account of their un-
certain properties, have long been
disused, Dr. Halley proposed, in
the year 1680, to employ quick-
silver for this important purpose.
Daniel Gabriel Fahrenheit,
a native of Dantzig, Avas the first
Avho successfully availed himself of
that suggestion, in 1709 ; when he
produced his newly graduated tube,
containing the mercurial fluid......
He ascertained the artificial freez-
ing point in the same year, during
the severe winter; by observing,
that a mixture of snow and sal-
ammoniac, uniformly caused spi-
rit of wine to descend to the point
marked, and no farther.....Hence,
he Avas induced to denote such part
of bis cylindrical tube Avith O or
zero ; from this point to that of the
usual temperatrre of the human
body in a healthy state, he divided
the intermediate space into 96 de-
grees; and thence to that of boili.ig
water into 126°, so that the latter
mark, in his s ale, rises exactly to
212°. Thus, Fahrenheit claims
not only the merit of having intro-
duced the most scientific and con-
P
106 THE
THE
venient division of the thermome-
trical scale, but also that of adopt-
ing the mercurial fluid, which is
doubtless the most proper, and
perhaps the only one furnished by
Nature, for measuring the various
degrees of heat and cold, in the
most accurate and sensible man-
ner.....M. De Luc has proved, by
conclusiA'e arguments, the superi-
ority of thermometers supplied
Avith mercury, over those contain-
ing alkohol; and that the rising of
the mercury, at all seasons, very
nearly corresponds with the in-
crease of heat. On the other hand,
De Serviere remarked, that the
column of mercury, in a perpen-
dicular thermometer, tends to im-
pede the accurate motion of this
metallic fluid, on account of its
own specific gravity: hence, he
has judiciously proposed to reme-
dy such defect, by keeping the
instrument in a horizontal position.
M. De Reaumur, in 1730, pro-
posed a new division of the ther-
mometrical scale, by introducing
1000 parts of diluted spirits of
wine into his tube with the usual
globe, then commencing to count
Mmi 6 upAvards, to the boiling
point, which he marked Avith 80°.
Such contrivance, however, hav-
ing been found inconvenient for
calculating the different degrees of
heat and cold, with sufficient ac-
curacy, Reaumur's globes, with
their tubes, were subsequently also
furnished Avith mercury ; and are
at present chiefly employed by the
French, and in some parts of Ger-
many.....To enable the reader to
form a distinct idea of the differ-
ence subsisting between the two
instruments, here described, Ave
shall subjoin a comparative table of
their scales.
[Above the o (zero)
of Reaum us , or. Below the o (zero)
32° of Fahren- of Reaumur.
heit.
Reaum. Fahrt n. Reaum. Fabren.
0 32 T5 o 32 TTJ
1 34 2 1 29 8
2 36 5 2 27 5
3 38 6 3 25 2
4 41 4 23
5 43 3 5 20 S
6 45 5 6 18 5
7 47 7 7 16 2
8 50 8 14
9 52 5 9 11 8
10 54 8 10 9 5
11 56 8 11 7 2
12 59 12 5
13 61 2 13 2 8
14 63 5 14 5
15 65 8 15 o 1 8
16 68 16 4
17 70 3 17 6 2
18 72 5 18 8 5
19 74 7 19 10 8
20- 77 20 13
21 79 2
22 81 5
23 83 8 In the above
24 86 mode, the scale
25 88 2 may be continu-
26 90 5 ed above or be-
27 92 7 low the freezing
28 95 point.
29 1 97 2
The manner of computation
in Reaumur's, as well as in Fah-
renheit's thermometer, is by de-
cimals, every degree being divided
into 10 parts ; but for their respec-
tive gradation, 32 degrees of Fah-
renheit's thermometer must be
considered as corresponding with
o in Reaumur's ; and each degree
of Reaumur's, either above or be-
Ioav o, be counted as equal to tAvo
degrees and a quarter of Fahren-
heit's.
THE
THE 107
So, four degrees below o of
Reaumur's correspond with 23
degrees in Fahrenheit's; as four
degrees above o in Reaumur's
likewise correspond with 41 de-
grees of Fahrenheit's; and so,
fractionally, in the same propor-
tions, either above or below.
Hence, to reduce Reaumur to
Fahrenheit, the rule is, multiply
the degrees of R. by nine, divide
the product by four, add 32 to the
quotient, and the sum will give the
degree on F.'s scale....And to re-
duce F. to R.....From the degrees
of F. subtract 32, multiply the re-
mainder by four, and divide the
product by nine, the quotient will
be the degree of Reaumur.
The thermometer may be ap-
plied to the important purpose of
discovering the nearness of a ship
to a shoal, coast, bank, rocks under
water, and islands of ice, at night,
in fogs, and Avhen the weather is
too boisterous to sound. Mr. Jo-
nathan Williams has published
an interesting paper on the sub-
ject, in 3d vol. of the Trans. Amer.
Phil. Society, from which the fol-
lowing is extracted.
" In the months of August and
September, 1785, I was a fellow-
passenger with the late Doctor
Franklin from Europe to Ame-
rica, and made, under his direction,
the experiments mentioned in his
description of the course of the
gulph stream, an accountof vvhich
was annexed to his maritime ob-
servations, and published in the
Amer. Phil. Transactions, vol. ii.
page 328, 1 then determined to re-
peat these experiments in my fu-
ture voyages. Accordingly on a
passage from Boston to Virginia,
in October 17t59, I kept a journal
of the heat of the air and Avater at
sunrise, noon and sunset; I then
noticed that the sea Avater, out of
soundings, was about 10 degrees
warmer than that on the coast, and
it very naturally occurred to me
that the thermometer might be-
come an useful nautical instrument
to indicate an approach to the shore.
I thought it prudent, however, to
keep this idea to myself till after
I had made a course of fair and
repeated experiments, which I ac-
cordingly did during four passages,
first, the one from Boston to Vir-
ginia abovementioned, second from
Virginia to England, third, from
England to Hallifax, and fourth,
from Hallifax to New-York. By
consulting these journals and ob-
servations, made at the dates wrii-
ten, together with the tracks of the
ship's way, marked in a chart given
in the 3d vol. Amer. Phil. Trans.
p. 84. it will not only appear that
Dr. Franklin's account of the
warmth of the gulfih stream has
been amply confnmed, but also
that banks, coasts, islands of ice,
and rocks under Avater, may be
discovered Avhen not visible, and
Avhen the Aveather is too boisterous
to sound, with no other trouble
than dipping the thermometer into
the sea Avater. It is Avell known
to sailors, that the water on the
banks of Newfoundland is cold, but
as they only try this, with the hand,
their remarks are contradictory
owing to the varied temperature of
the hand, and I never heard of any
further application of Avhat they
thought a matter of curiosity. Dr.
Franklin's observations had the
knoAvledge of currents for their
object, and this extension of his
discovery did not occur; but as I
am indebted to his instructive con-
versation and example, for my in-
ducement to pursue philosophical
researches, Avhen in my power to
108 THE
do so, he may be considered as the
original author of Avhat is iioav pre-
sented for examination.
" It may not be amiss to state
such facts as it is presumed the
experiments have a tendency to
establish.
1. The water over ba?iks is much
colder than the water of the main
ocean, and is more cold in propor-
tion as it is less deep.
" 2. The Avater over small banks
is Ess cold than that over large
ones.
" 3. The Avater over banks that
are near the coast is warmer than
that over banks far distant, but it
is colder than the adjacent sea.
" 4. The water over banks of
the coast, i. e. those immediately
connected with the land above Ava-
ler, is warmer than that over those
which admit deep water between
them and the coast; but still it is
colder than the adjacent sea.
" 5. The Avater within capes and
rivers does not follow the above
rules; it being less agitated, and
more exposed to the heat of the
sun, and to receive the heat from
the circumjacent land, must be
colder or warmer than that in
soundings Avithout, according to
the seasons, and temperature of
the atmosphere.
" 6. The passage, therefore,
from deep to shoal water may be
discovered by a regular use of the
thermometer, before a navigator
can see the land ; but as the tem-
perature is relative, no particular
degree can be ascertained as a rule,
and the judgment can only be
guided by the difference. Thus,
in August I found the Avater off
Cape-Cod to be 58° of Fahrenheit,
and at sea it Avas 69°; in October
the water off Cape-Cod avss 48°,
and at sea it was 59°. This dif-
THE
ference Avas equally a guide in both
cases, though the heat was differ-
ent at different seasons.
" I do not presume to say what
is the cause of this difference of
heat betAveen the sea and bank
water, but if a navigator Avere to
observe it when near an island of
ice, he would very naturally say
that the ice conducted the heat from
the circumjacent Avater, and left it
colder than at a distance. And as
it is Avell known that stones and
sand are great conductors of heat,
it seems probable that banks also
conduct the heat from the adjacent
water, though not so rapidly as the
ice. The heat of the water may
indeed be supposed to seek its equi-
librium, but as long as the islands
of ice and banks continue to con-
duct, there must be some differ-
ence, and this it is, which, by atten-
tion, may be made a faithful sen-
tinel to give an alarm when danger
is near.
" I have thought it my duty to
present my journals as they were
written at sea, to avoid the suspi-
cion of having added any thing from
the suggestions of the imagination.
While this will be received as a cir-
cumstance favourable to the truth
of them, I hope it will also operate
as an apology for their many im-
perfections.
'; My journal from Boston to
Virginia, shows that the Avater on
the coast of Massachusetts, Avas at
48° ; at sea between that coast and
the stream, 59°; in the gulph
stream at its edge, 67° ; between
that, and the coast of Virginia far-
ther southward, 64° ; and in sound-
ings on that coast, 56°. At that
season (in October, just after the
warm Aveather) the Avater greAV
warmer as Ave approached the land.
" My journal from Virginia to
THE
England shows, that in December,
the Avateron the coast of Virginia
Avas at 47° ; betAveen the coast and
the stream, 60°; and in the stream,
70°. This current being in our
favour, Ave did not avoid it, and the
water continued with little variation,
till we came near the banks of
Newfoundland, when the thermo-
meter fell from 66 to 54 ; passing
these, it rose again to 68°, and
then continued a very gradual de-
scent as we Avent to the northward,
'till we struck soundings, when it
was at 48°.
" It may be here observed, that
the decrease in the heat of the wa-
ter was so gradual as to give but
one degree in a day's run, Avhile
in going to, or coming from the
coast of America, the thermome-
ter will alter eight or 10 degrees
in a few hours run. It is well
known, by sounding, that the Eng-
lish coast extends Avith a very gra-
dual descent to a great distance.
It is also known that the American
coast does not extend very far,
and the water is suddenly deep....
Let these facts be compared with
the changes in the thermometer,
on the two coasts' and they will
agree Avith what has been said
about the usefulness of that instru-
ment.
" It may be observed in Doctor
F« anklin's journal on board of the
Reprisal, that in November 1776,
when near the banks of Newfound-
land, his thermometer fell 10 de-
grees, though considerably to the
southward of them, and after pass-
ing them it rose nearly to its for-
mer state: the Doctor did not make
any observation on this circum-
stance ; but it agrees with my jour-
nal, in nearly the same place, made
wine years afterwards.
THE 109
" My journal from England to
Hallifax, shows the changes in the
heat of the water as we sailed over
banks and deep water alternately,
with an accuracy that I confess,
exceeded my expectation, the land
appearing as the thermometer in-
dicated our approach to it.
« My journal from Hallifax to
New-York not only shows the va-
riety of depths we passed over, but
indicates theinner edgeof the gulph
stream. As by the thermometer
and soundings it appeared to me
that the ship Avas a-head of the
reckoning, I made allowances for
the eddy current of that stream in
our favour, and comparing these
with the chart, I noted in the jour-
nal, the longitude I thought we
were in, under that calculated by
the ship's officers: whatencouraged
this opinion, was the disagreement
between the soundings by the lead,
and those marked on the chart, in
the places Avhere, by the common
reckoning, the ship was supposed
to be : Avhile upon the other sup-
position they both agreed. When
Ave made the land this latter reck-
oning turned out accurate, and I
Avon a small bett of the Captain
v.ho candidly acknoAvledged the
usefulness of the thermometer, and
declared that he Avould in future
always have one on board.
" Finding the coast of America
to grow suddenly deep as it ap-
proaches the gulph stream, and
finding continued soundings from
Cape-Sable to New-York, I am in-
duced to believe thr.f it has its
shape according to the course of
that current, and that it is connect-
ed in a sweep from the banks of
Newfoundland to Florida, the vari-
ous banks being only eminences of
the coast. If my apprehension of
110 THE
THE
the accuracy of thermometrical
observation is well founded, it
Avould be an easy thing to make a
general survey of the coast under
water, more particularly than has
hitherto been done by sounding.
" On the chart annexed ihe
tracks of my several passages are
marked with the daily heat of the
water in degrees according to Fah-
renheit, by which the A'ariations
on the approach to land may be
seen at one view. The edge of
the gulph stream is also traced ac-
cording to the experiments as far
as the banks of Newfoundland: how
far it runs to the eastward I do not
pretend to say ; but having found
a current in the natural direction
of its sweep among the western
islands, I am inclined to think it
extends so far, before it turns off
to the southward. It may be ob-
served, however, that as this stream,
like all other currents, must be af-
fected by storms on either side ; it
may, as these prevail, run some-
what nearer or someAvhat farther
distant from the coast.
Mr. Williams found by "some
experiments on fish, that their ani-
mal heat was 16 colder than the
water at the surface ; from which
it may be supposed that the water
at bottom is in proportion colder
than that above. It may be natu-
rally suggested, that trying the
heat of the water at the surface,
(the only way in one's power when
sailing rapidly through it,) is too
inaccurate to be depended on, since
the surface must be heated by the
atmosphere. To this it may not
be amiss to answer......1. That by
repeated experiments at the depth
of 30, 40, and 60 fathom I have
found the waterbelow, out of sound-
ings, to be no more than six de-
grees colder than that above ; and
at four or five fathoms depth, when
the sea was agitated, there Avas no
difference worthy notice. 2. When
the sea is not agitated, and the
surface, by being exposed to a hot
sun, is warmer, the weather being
calm, it is easy to have water from
a considerable depth ; this I have
found to make a difference of one
or two degrees only, and it is easy
to make the allowance. 3. The
difference of heat which marks an
approach to land is sufficiently
sensible at the surface for the pur-
pose of giving notice of danger, I
have generally found it to be six
degrees in three hours' run, and
long before we Avere near enough
to be in danger. Upon the
whole, as it is fact, and not argu-
ment, Avhich should inspire belief,
I Avish every doubting navigator to
endeavour to confute me, by mak-
ing other experiments, and there-
by, if he can, detect the fallacy of
mine."
Mr. Williams has given a
chart of his different tracks alluded
to in the above, Avhich cannot fail
to be highly interesting to navi-
gators.
Mr. Joseph Donath, of Phila-
delphia, by similar experiments in
the winter of 1791, during a voyage
to Hamburg, Avas led to the same
conclusions, and communicated to
the editor the folloAving striking
fact, to prove the very great im-
portance of regular observations.
On the eighth of May 1794, Avhen
on the banks of Newfoundland, the
mercury in the thermometer, when
immersed in the Avater, fell from
nine to three, in the course of six
hours, viz. from four, P. M. to 10
o'clock ; at 12 at night it fell to 2.
The captain, alarmed at the cir-
THE
eumstance, immediately awoke
Mr. D. who, suspecting the dimi-
nution of temperature in the wa-
ter, to proceed from the approach
to islands of ice, advised the cap-
tain to stand off. He accordingly
did so, and when day-light appear-
ed, saw several islands of ice, dis-
tant about four or five miles. At
ten o'clock, in 35 fathoms water,
the mercury rose to six.
In July 1803, the British packet,
Lady Hob art, during a darknight,
ran foul of an island of ice, on the
banks of Newfoundland, which oc-
casioned the vessel to founder:
had regular observations of the
temperature of the ocean-water
been taken, this awful accident
might have been prevented.
The above interesting obser-
vations of Messrs. Williams
and Donath, are confirmed by
Mr. Strickland, (Amer. Phil.
Trans, vol. 5.) and Mr. Poyntell
of Philad. during a late voyage
from London to the United States;
and should induce masters of ves-
sels to keep a regularset of observa-
tions, especially when near land,
in unknoAvn parts, or on the banks
of Newfoundland.]
It Avould be needless to describe
the various thermometers invented
during the la6t century ; because
the two instruments before men-
tioned have received almost univer-
sal sanction ; feAv others being at
present employed, either by artists
or men of science. Hence Ave shall
merely observe, thatDi-: L'Isle, at
Petersburgh, contrived a new ther-
mometer, in 1733, Avhich is di-
vided into 50°.....Prof. Christin,
of Lyons, proposed a scale of 100
equal parts betAveen the freezing
and boiling points : this division
was adopted by Prof. Celsius, in
Upsala, whose improved scale, con-
THE 111
sisting of 100 exact degrees, is
generally used in Sweden.
There are many other'thermo-
meters, among which, those of
Ducrest of Geneva; by Stroh-
meyer and Brander, in Germa-
ny ; by Grubert in France (who,
together with the three preceding,
contrived the Universal Thermo-
meter, which contains the compa-
rative scales of 28 different instru-
ments) ; by De Luc ; Renaldi-,
ni; Cavendish; Konigsdori er;
Mudge ; the Bernoullis'; Fox-
tana ; Achard ; Lichtenberg;
Landriani ; Saussure ; Cas-
telli ; and Luz.
The first idea for constructing a
metallic thermometer, or properly,
pyrometer, was furnished by Gra-
ham, and improved upon by Mor-
timer, Ingram, Count Loser,
Fitzgerald, Felter, and at
length brought to perfection by
Wedgewood. This ingenious ma-
nufacturer (of the finest earthen-
ware frombassaltic masses, or terra-
cotta) has rendered an essential ser-
vice to society, by his method of
ascertaining high degrees of heat:
for this purpose he employs small
cubes of dry clay ; because that
species of earth has the remarkable
property of contracting in its bulk,
Avhen submitted to the fire, and
not again expanding, on suddenlv
exposing it to the cold air. In or-
der to ascertain the precise degree
of heat in an oven, he puts one of
his clay-cubes into it; and, after
having acquired the temperature of
the place, he immediately plunges
it into cold Avater. Now, the size of
the cube (that Avas exactly adjusted
to half an inch square) is measured
between tAvo brass rules, the sides
of Avhich are somewhat obliquelv
disposed, so as to form an irregular
groove, into which the cube may
112 T H I
THI
be slidden. In proportion as the
bulk of the latter has been contract-
ed by hdat, it passes down deeper
between the scales, on which the
various degrees of temperature have
been previously marked. Thus,
Avhen the division of the scale com-
mences from the point of red heat
visible in day-light, and the whole
range be divided into 240 equal
parts, it will be found that Swedish
copper melts at 28; gold at 32 j
iron at from 130 to 150 degrees:
above this point, the cubes could
not be heated. But, if one of these
clay squares be put into an oven
where other materials, such as
bread, earthen-ware, &c. are to be
baked, they may be usefully em-
ployed, for regulating the neces-
sary degree of heat.
THIRST, is an uneasy sensa-
tion, Avhich arises from a deficiency
of saliva, for moistening the mouth,
and lubricating the throat.
Thirst is generally occasioned by
the use of strong, salted, or highly-
seasoned food : a moderate degree
contributes to the preservation of
health ; as it requires a certain pro-
portion of drink, to promote di-
gestion ; but, if it become exces-
sive, it is in most cases a symptom
of fevers, dropsies, Sec.
The most effectual way of alle-
viating thirst, Avill be the use of di-
luted vegetable acids; or the chew-
ing of a crust of bread Avith a little
Avater, which liquid may be gradu-
ally swallowed. Where this un-
pleasant sensation, however, is
consequent on any disease, the re-
moval of the latter together Avith
the aid of diluent liquors adapted
to its nature, and taken in small
quantities, will also prevent the re-
turn of thirst. In other cases,
Avhere the use of acids or profuse
draughts of diluents, might be pro-
ductive of injury to the constitu-
tion, this complaint may sometimes
be obviated, by chewing the root
of the pellitory, or some similar
substance, which excites and in-
creases the flow of saliva. Lastly,
as thirst is often the concomitant
of excessive Hunger, and may
sometimes occur at sea, the adop-
tion of the expedients pointed out
in that article, will generally afford
relief.
THISTLE, or Carduus, L. a ge-
nus of plants, comprising 38 spe-
cies ; 10 of which are indigenous ;
the following are the principal:
1. The marianus. See Milk-
thistle.
2. The lanceolatus, or SpEar-
thistle, groAvs on rubbish, and
road-sides, where it flowers in the
months of July and August—Ac-
cording to Dr. Withering, this
species vegetates on ground newly
turned up, where no other Aveed
Avill thrive: under the shelter it
affords, new plants will speedily
appear, and the Avhole become fer-
tile. Its flowers, like those of the
artichoke, possess the property of
curdling milk. It is not relished
by hdrses, cows, or goats ; and is
totally refused by sheep and swine.
3. The acaulis, or Dvvari-
thistle, thrives in mountainous
and rocky, dry pastures; floAvering
in the month of July.....This spe-
cies is perennial, and should be
carefully extirpated; as it is ex-
ceedingly destructive to the herb-
age growing beneath its shade. It
is Avholly rejected by coavs.
4. The Benedictus, or Blessed
Thistle, is an annual exotic, cul-
tivated in gardens: it flowers in
the months of June and July, and
produces ripe seeds in autumn.....
Its leaves possess a penetrating
bitter tasle, and have an ungrate-
THI
THO 113
ful flavour which, by keeping them
for some time, is mostly dissipated.
/v decoction of this nauseous plant
is sometimes used to excite vomit-
ing; and likewise a strong infusion,
to promote the operation of other
emetics. Good effects have occa-
sionally been derived from the
Blessed Thistle, in loss of appetite:
or where the stomach was impair-
ed by irregular"ies. A strong in-
fusion, either in cold or warm Ava-
ter, drank freely, occasions a copi-
ous perspiration, and promotes the
secretions.
All the species of this neglected
vegetable, may be usefully employ-
ed for various purposes : thus, the
seed-crowns of the thistle afford
both a valuable material for manu-
facturing Paper, and a kind of
strong cloth ; the ashes obtained by
burning the whole plant, are of
great service in glass-houses; and
the young, tender, mealy stalks
may be dressed, and eaten as sub-
stitutes for asparagus.
THISTLE, the Cotton, Com-
mon, Argentine, or Woolly
OnopordUm, Onopordon Acan-
thium, L. a native biennial, grow-
ing to the height of 6 feet, on rub-
bish, and road-sides, where it flow-
ers in July. This vegetable is re-
fused by cows, horses, and sheep:
.....its expressed juice, was among
the ancients reputed to be a spe-
cific in cancerous cases.....the re-
ceptacles or bases of the flower-
cups, together with the stems, may
be boiled and eaten like artichokes.
...The woolly substance em eloping
the seed, is equally useful in the
manufacture of cloth and Paper,
(see vol. iv. p. 225)......The seeds
of this remarkable plant also pro-
mise great advantages to the indus-
trious husbandman: Ave ham from
Durande, a French Avriter, in the
VOL. V.
Bibliotheque Physico-economique
vol. ii. p. 122, that he collected a
number of the seed-crowns, weigh-
ing 221bs. from Avhich he obtain-
ed 121bs. weight of seed ; and, on
expression, Sibs.of excellent lamp-
oil, greatly superior to that of lin-
seed, and equal to olive-oil.
Thistle, the Sow. See Sow-
Thistle.
THOF. N-APPLE, theCoMMox,
or Datura S rumonium, L. origi-
nally a n«-.iveof America, but now
indigenous in some parts of Bri-
tain, vvbere it grows among rub-
b'.s'.i, and on Dunghills; flowering
in the month of July.
The seeds of this vegetable have
always been classed among the
violent narcotic poisons : though,
according to Baron Storck, and
other German physicians, the in-
spissated juice of its leaves has,
on the Continent, been success-
fully employed in maniacal cases :
the dose is from one to ten grains,
or upwards, to be taken in 24
hours.....It may likewise be ad-
ministered internally, both in con-
vulsive and epileptic affections.
Dr. Withering observes, that
an ointment prepared from the
leaves, affords relief in external
inflammations, and especially in
the piles. [It is also highly bene-
ficial in burns, and to allay the
swelling of a cow's udder.]...Either
the seeds or leaves, if swallowed
by accident, occasion delirium, tre-
mor, swelling, itching, insupport-
able thirst, palsy, and death : they
likewise tend to inflame the skin.
The most effectual antidotes Avill
be, speedy emetics, followed by
copious draughts of olive-oil and
vinegar, aided by soap-clysters.....
The thorn-apple is, nevertheless,
eaten by cows, goats, and sheep ;
but refused by horses.
Q
114 THR
THR
THRASHING, oi-Threshing,
in rural economy, is the operation,
by Avhich grain is separated from
the straw.
Thrashing is performed by dif-
ferent methods, in various parts of
the globe: thus, in the eastern
climates, corn is trodden out by
oxen, cows, horses, mules, and
even by asses: while in Europe,
•%he flail is generally employed....
This implement is certainly prefer-
able to the feet of animals ; as it
is not only more expeditious, but
the labour is executed in a much
cleaner mode than can be effected
by the latter. But, notwithstand-
ing these advantages, thrashing
with the flail, is liable to many ob-
jections ; being too laborious, even
for persons of considerable strength:
and, as they are often paid in pro-
portion to the quantity of corn
thrashed, such Avork is seldom ac-
complished in a perfect manner ;
so that numerous grains generally
remain in the straw. To remedy
these inconveniencies, machines of
various construction, have been in-
vented ; and, as some of these con-
trivances promise to be of great
advantage to agriculturists, we
shall give an account of the most
valuable.
In Mr. Boys' General View of
the Agriculture of the County of
Kent (8vo. 4s. Nichol), we meet
with an account of a thrashing-
machine erected in a barn on his
farm......as our limits will not per-
mit us to describe its mechanism,
we shall only remark, that it re-
quires four horses, eight men, and
four boys, to remove the corn from
a distant part of the barn ; to feed
the mill; attend the winnowing-
fan ; and stack the straw. Thus,
if the corn yield abundantly, the
machine will thrash out three quar-
ters of wheat, four of barley, or
five of oats, within one hour, in a
cleaner manner than can be effect-
ed by the usual mode ; so that
nearly one-half of the expence will
be saved.
[Various other plans have been
proposed for threshing machines.
in England, but they either have
been so very expensive, that few
could use them, or so complicated
that they soon were put out of order:
and the public is still undecided as
to the superiority of any one. In
the United States there have also
been a few contrivances for thresh-
ing ; the latest of which was in-
vented by Mr. Christopher
Hoxie of Hudson, New York, and
with some improvements, promi-
ses to be more perfect than any
yet known.] x
THRIFT, or Statice, L. a genus
of plants comprising 22 species, 3
of which are indigenous : the fol-
loAving are the principal:
1. The Limonium. See Laven-
der-thrift.
2. The Armeria, Common
Thrift ; Sea-gilliflower ; or
Sea-cwshion, which is perennial;
grows in meadoAvs, and on rocks
near the sea-coast; Avhere it flow-
ers in the months of May and June.
When in full blossom, it presents a
beautiful sight in pasture-grounds;
on which account, it is likewise of-
ten planted in gardens, as an edg-
ing for borders.
The Sea-gilliflower forming
whole swards, or tufts of grassy,
solid, and smooth leaves, its cul-
ture is much recommended in
loose sands, Avhich are thus speedi-
ly consolidated : the naked stalk,
in general, attains only the height
of 6 inches. The plant is eaten
by horses and goats, but refused
by sheep.
THR
THR 115
THRIPS, a genus of insects com-
prising 11 species, that are vari-
ously named, according to the trees
which they infest. These vermin
are extremely minute ; having a
small slender body, and a rostrum,
or beak, which is scarcely percep-
tible to the naked eye : they are
very pernicious to fruit-trees, at-
tacking both the leaves and fruit;
but may be extirpated by resorting
to the method already pointed out,
vol. ii. p. 162.
THROAT, or the ca\Tity behind
the tongue and the curtain of the
palate : the soft parts of which it is
composed,are the common integu-
ments and the muciparous glands.
The principal use of these parts be-
ing destined to support and facili-
tate swallowing, breathing, speech,
and hearing, it is obvious that all
local affections, by which the ex-
ercise of these functions may be
impeded, require serious attention.
But, as most of the diseases to
Avhich they are liable, have already
been discussed, we refer to their
respective heads : thus, for inflam-
mations in the throat, the reader
will consult the articles Quinsy ;
Swallowing, and Tonsils.
Throat-wort. See Giant
Bell-flower.
THROSTLE, or Thrush, Tar-
dus musicus, L. a well-known Bri-
tish bird, which, in its melodious
notes, is excelled only by the night-
ingale. Its head, back, and lesser
coverts of the wings, are of a deep
olive-brown ; and the inner surface
of the latter is yellow. The cheeks
and throat are mottled with brown
and white ; the belly and breast
are of a pale-yellow colour, with
large black spots.
Throstles build their nests in
some low bush or thicket: exter-
nally, they are composed of earth,
moss, and straw, but the inside is
curiously plastered v, ithclay. Here
the female deposits five or six pale-
bluish green eggs, marked Avith
dusky spots. The throstle is by
some believed to be the finest sing-
ing bird in Britain, on account of
the sweetness, variety, and conti-
nuance of its melody. From the
top of high trees, it exercises its
harmonious voice, and for the
greater part of the year, amuses
us Avith its song.
THRUSH, a disorder incident
to infants, and of which the fol-
lowing are the principal symp-
toms : Small whitish or grey pus-
tules appear on the fauces, ex-
tending over the surface of the
tongue, and adjacent parts ; the
former is swoln, and the whole
assumes a purplish colour : some-
times the pimples are scattered,
and distinct, but generally conflu-
ent, adhering closely to the mem-
branes : if rubbed off, they speedi-
ly grow again, and remain for an
indefinite period.
This disease is not confined to
the mouth and throat, bat in some
instances extends to the gullet,
stomach, and alimentary canal;
quantities of aphthous pustules haA'-
ing been vomited up, and also void-
ed by stool: in these cases, how-
ever, the patient is commonly at-
tacked Avith fever and anxiety, hic-
cough, and hoarseness.
The principal cause of this ma-
lady is a weak digestion, by Avhich
the milk becomes coagulated, and
unfit for aliment; though it is fre-
quently induced by cold and mois-
ture. The thrush likewise occurs
in the course of other disorders, or,
in consequence of certain active
medicines; but,underthese circum-
stances, it cannot be considered
as a primary affection, and most-
116 THR
TH U
ly disappears, when the patient is
in a convalescent state....The fol-
lowing conditions prognosticate a
favourable event: namely, when
there is neither fever nor loose-
ness ; the deglutition is easy; the
appetite returned; and Avhen the
pustules are of a white colour.
Cure :....lf the thrush be of a
mild nature, it will in general be
sufficient to administer the follow-
ing powder to the nurse: Take of
calcined magnesia, 1 oz.; orange-
peel, SAveet-fennel, and white su-
gar, finely pulverized, of each 2
crams; mix the Avhole, of which a
tea-spoonful may be taken in Ava-
ter, twice or three times a-day :....
in obstinate cases, it will be advis-
able to give the child about a third
or fourth part of the quantity pre-
scribed for the nurse. During this
treatment, the following composi-
tion should be applied, with a view
to cleanse the mouth : 1 dram of
pulverized borax, with 1 oz. of ho-
ney of roses. Where costiveness
prevails, it will be preferable to
regulate the bowels by mild emol-
lient clysters, repeatedly injected,
until the desired effect be produc-
ed ; for, if the pustules should spread
over a considerable part of the ali-
mentary canal, laxatives taken by
the month, are apt to increase the
irritation, and to occasion copious
stools, tinged vvitb blood.
Where the nipple of the nurse
is affected with the thrush, the fol-
lowing solution may be applied
with advantage ; namely, 2 scru-
ples of borax dissolved in 1 oz. of
elder-flower water, or tea, adding
half an ounce of honey of roses :
the nipples should be anointed with
sweet oil, before the infant is
placed to the breast; in order to
prevent immediate contact.
As, in some cases, the thrush is
situated considerably deeper than
the throat, and even within the
stomach, great benefit may then
be derived from a decoction of car-
rots in water; or 1 ounce of lin-
seed with 1 pint of water, boiled to
the consistence of a thick muci-
lage, and mixed with 2 oz. of ho-
ney : a table-spoonful of the latter
preparation may be given occa-
sionally.
In order to prevent this trouble-
some complaint, infants ought to
enjoy a pure air ; while the ut-
most attention should be bestowed
on the cleanliness of both child
and nurse, by daily bathing and
washing Avith tepid Avater ; which
practices remarkably promote in-
sensible perspiration. Farther, the
mouth of infants should be fre-
quently washed, especially after
drawing the maternal milk, and
during the progress of dentition :
nor should their bowels be neg-
lected ; and, when obstructed, they
must be attentively relieved by the
use of manna, tamarinds, and other
mild aperients.
Thrush,in Horses. SeeFRUSH.
THUNDER, a loud noise occa-
sioned by the explosion of a flash
of lightning, that is re-echoed from
the inequalities on the surface of
the earth, and frequently forms
a continued rolling or rumbling
sound.
Various theories have been pro-
posed by naturalists, to account for
this grand and awful phenomenon;
but, like that of lightning, it is
now generally understood to arise
from electricity.
Thunder is frequently produc-
tive of beneficial effects on animal
and vegetable nature ; as its vio-
lent concussions contribute to dis-
perse the noxious vapours collected
in the atmosphere, during sultry
THU
mad dry summers : it may also be
regarded as a prognostic of the
weather. Bradley remarks, that
frequent thunder, without light-
ning, is generally followed by tem-
pestuous winds; but, in the con-
trary case, it predicts copious and
sudden showers.
With a view to prevent fatal ac-
cidents, during violent thunder-
storms, the erection of Conduc-
tors has been strongly recom-
mended.
It has been remarked, by accu-
rate observers, that the noise of
thunder is not experienced oftener
than 16 to 18 times in the year, at
any fixed place. This phenome-
non occurs most frequently in the
months of May and July ; name-
ly, in the proportion of three to
one, Avhen compared Avith the
months of April and September;
but only in that of two to one,
when contrasted with June and
August. During the months of
April and September, the number
of thunder-storms is equal; and
likewise in June and August....
They arise generally with a south-
wind; less frequently Avith a south-
west ; still more rarely with east
and west; and scarcely ever Avith
north, north-Avest, or north-east
winds. It is also remarkable, that
thunder-storms are the most vio-
lent, Avhen proceeding from regions
Avhere they seldom occur; that
they happen in the afternoon, or in
the evening, more usually than in
the morning; and are in moun-
tainous districts more common
than in a plain country.
When swallows pursue each
other in flights, Avith a loud noise,
early in the morning, it may be
considered as an almost certain in-
dication of an approaching thun-
der-storm : many persons, also,
THY 117
feel a peculiar heaviness and lan-
gour, previously to tempestuous
weather; and, though such sensa-
tions subside only when the clouds
break forth in torrents of fire or
rain, yet we are inclined to ascribe
these symptoms to some diseased
action in the animal frame, or to a
preternatural susceptibility of ner-
vous impressions. In short, if due
attention were paid to the changes
taking place among animals and
plants, previously to the formation
of thunder and lightning, we could,
perhaps with the greatest preci-
sion, foretel their approach.
Lastly, to prevent unfortunate
accidents during thunder-storms,
we Avould seriously advise every
person to keep at some distance
from trees, and rather to expose
himself to a shower. While i:i a
room, it will be proper to avoid
the fire-place, fire-irons, gilded
mouldings, and all articles contain-
ing metallic ingredients....See also
Lightning.
THYME, or Thymus, L. a ge-
nus of spicy plants, comprising 17
species, of which the following are
the principal, namely ;
1. The serpyllum, Common,
Wild, or Mother-of-thyme, an
indigenous perennial, growing on
heaths and mountainous places,
where it flowers in July and Au-
gust. This plant possesses a grate-
ful aromatic odour, and a warm,
pungent taste: its dried haves,
when infused in boiling water,
serve as an agreeable substitute
for tea : the essential oil obtained
from this herb is so acrid, that far-
riers employ it as a caustic. A
little cotton wool moistened with
it, and put into the hollow of an
aching tooth, frequently mitigates
the most excruciating pain. Bees
eagerly visit the aromatic leaves of
118 T I D
wild thyme, Avhich is likewise eat-
en by sheep and goats, but refused
by hogs. There is another variety
of this species, cultivated in gar-
dens, and called the Lemon-thyme,
which has broader leaves, and a
more pleasant flavour.
2. The Acinos, Wild Basil, or
Basil Thyme, grows on dry hills,
in chalky and gravelly situations;
floAvering from June to August....
This odoriferous plant is much fre-
quented by bees, which collect ho-
ney from its flowers.
3. The vulgaris, or Garden-
Thyme, is originally a native of
the southern parts of Europe, but
is now generally cultivated in Bri-
tish gardens. It may be propa-
gated either by the seed, by off-
sets from the roots, or by slips,
planted in light, rich and Avell-
prepared soils: its aromatic leaves
are employed in broths, and for
other culinary purposes. In its
medicinal properties, this is one
of the most powerful aromatic
plants; and its essential oil is of-
ten sold in the shops, as a substi-
tute for that of Marjoram.
Tick. See Sheep.
TIDE, denotes the rising and
falling of sea-Avater ; a phenome-
non Avhich is observable on all the
shores of the ocean : it is also
termed the fiux and reflux, or
the alternate ebb and flow.
The wrater of the sea Aoavs for
about 6 hours from south to north ;
during which period it gradually
sAvells, so that it enters the mouths
of rivers, and counteracts the na-
tural current from their sources.
It then remains stationary for about
a quarter of an hour ; after Avhich
it ebbs for six hours ; a similar
pause of 15 minutes takes place,
Allien it flows and ebbs alternately.
Thus, the tide rises and falls once
TID
in the space of 12 hours and 48
minutes, which period constitutes
a lunar day ; as the moon passes
the meridian of the earth about
48 minutes later, each succeeding
day. The motion of the tides is
farther influenced by the moon :
hence, if that luminary be in the
first and third quarters, or when
it is new and full, they are high
and swift, being then called spring-
tides : on the contrary, when the
moon is in the second and last
quarters, they neither rise so high,
nor flow with such rapidity ; and
are therefore termed neap-tides.
Various theorieshave been form-
ed, to account for the phenomena
of tides; the ancients attributing
them to the sun ; while some mo-
dem enquiries ascribe them to the
liquefaction of the ice and snow,
in the polar regions ; but they are
now generally understood to de-
pend on the principle of gravita-
tion.
In the 1st vol. of the Repertory
of Arts, &c. we meet Arith an ac-
count of a Tide-wheel, that may
be adapted to any kind of mill;
and which was invented by Mr.
Robert Leslie. Asa mere de-
scription of its constituent parts
Avould convey but an inadequate
idea of its mechanism, the curious
reader will resort to the work above
cited ; where the whole contri-
vance is illustrated with an en-
graving. We shall, therefore,
only remark, that such wheel, if
intended for mills, is by the in-
ventor stated to be preferable to
all others turned by the tide ; for
its velocity is not only greater and
more uniform, but a similar quan-
tity of water also constantly acts
on the wheel, Avhich is so construct-
ed, as to turn the same way, both
with the ebb and floAV,and in a more
TIL
TIL 119
simple manner than any hitherto
contrived. Thus, it moves hori-
zontally, while the generality of
tide-wheels revolve vertically ; and
the perpendicular shaft may be
carried to such a height, as to ad-
mit the spur-wheel, or any other
piece of mechanism, to be wholly
above the surface of the water.....
Lastly, it is asserted to be less ex-
pensive than other wheels of a si-
milar construction, and may be
advantageously employed for rais-
ing water; its v elocity being fully
sufficient, without any cog-wheels,
or wallowers.
TILE, a kind of thin brick,
principally employed for covering
the roofs of houses ; though it is
sometimes used for paving cellars,
kitchens, areas, 8cc.
Tiles are divided into various
sorts, according to the purposes to
which they are applied. Thus,
Plain tiles are chiefly used for co-
vering houses : and they ought to
be lOJ inches in length, 6£ in
breadth, and fths of an inch in
thickness. Ridge-tilts are of a
semi-cylindrical form, and, by the
statute,must be 13 inches in length,
and also 61 inches in breadth: they
are chiefly laid on the ridges of
houses. Corner-tiles are first made
flat, in the manner of plain tiles,
excepting that they are quadran-
gular ; the two sides forming right
lines ; and their ends, arches of
circles: previously to burning,
they are bent on a mould, like
ridge-tiles; and ought to be 10-|
inches in length, and of a conveni-
ent size, being generally placed on
the corners of roofs.
TILLAGE, in agriculture and
gardening, denotes the different
methods of moving the ground, by
means of a plough, spade, or other
implement, to a certain depth, so
as to bring the soil to the surface,
and to turn the upper part down-
Avards ; in consequence of which,
the earth is less liable to be ex-
hausted by the growth of weeds or
useless plants.
The proper time for this opera-
tion, varies according to the nature
of the soil: thus, in horticulture,
hot and dry ground should be till-
ed, either immediately before or
after rain ; but, if the Aveather be
very dry, it ought not to be stirred,
unless it be speedily irrigated : in
the contrary case, when the earth
is strong, moist, and cold, it will
be useful to employ the spade, he.
during the hottest weather.
In agriculture, the cold, 'rioist,
clayey, or stiff soils, generally re-
quire to be tilled three times, name-
ly, in the spring, in summer, and
at seed-time, for wheat; and four
times, for barley.
The great advantages arising
from .tillage, consist, 1. In the
pulveriz?tion of the soil, so that its
nature may eventually be changed,
and the toughest clay be rendered
as light or friable as common earth;
and, 2. In eradicating noxious
weeds, by exposing their roots and
stalks to the joint action of the air,
moisture, and heat, by which they
are converted into manure. On
these principles, indeed, the neAV,
or hci'se-hoeing husbandry, chiefly
depends ; and, though perhaps
some agriculturists may have ex-
tolled rather too highly, the bene-
fits derived from frequent stirring
of the ground, yet it cannot be deni-
ed, that such practice greatly con-
tributes to the improvement of the
soil, especially when combined
Avith the judicious application of
manures.
Having already, at some length,
described the various modes of
120 TIL
TIM
cultivating the soil, the reader will
revert to the articles Drilling,
Harrow, Hoe, Plough, Spade,
Sec.
[TILIA, a genus of native
trees, comprehending tAvo species.
See Lime-tree.
1. Tilia Americana. American
black Lime, or Linden-Tree....This
often becomes a tree of a large
size, covered with a dark brown
bark, and dividing into many
branches. The leaves are large,
heart-shaped, pointed, and sawed
on their edges, of a deep green on
their upper sides, but paler and a
a little hairy underneath; and
standing on long footstalks. The
flovvers are produced upon the
small branches, and are remarka-
ble for having an oblong bractea or
floral leaf upon each footstalk;
they are of an herbaceous colour,
having narrow petals furnished
with nectaries at the base. The
capsules are round, a little hairy
and about the size of a small pea,
having each one roundish seed.
2. Tilia Caroliniana. Carolinian
abli(/ue-leaved Lime-Tree.....This
is of a smaller growth than the
former, rising commonly to the
height of about forty feet, Avith a
trunk of eighteen ii.ches or more
in diameter: covered with a light-
ish and somewhat furrowed bark,
and sending off many branches....
The leaves are smaller and smooth-
er than those of the other kind,
somewhat heart-shaped, ending in
long points, unequal at the base,
or larger on one side of the mid-
rib than the other, and slightly
sawed on their edges. The bunch-
es of flowers stand upon lon^ slen-
der footstalks, furnished Avith floral
leaves. The flowers are small,
and have narrow, pointed petals,
furnished vith nectaries or scales
at the base ; they diffuse a fragrant
odour, and are continually haunted
by bees during their continuance.
An infusion of the flowers of Lime-
tree has been used with success
in an Epilepsy. The timber is
too soft for any strong purposes,
therefore, chiefly used by turners,
carvers, he. also, by architects in
framing models of buildings, &c.
Maishcll'sArbustrumAmericanum."]
TIMBER, a term denoting
every species of wood, that is felled
and seasoned, with the view of
being employed in building houses,
vessels, and other structures.
Of the different kinds of timber-
trees, such as Oak, Ash, Beech,
&c. we have already treated in
the progress of this work, and
stated the mo3t appropriate me-
thods of rearing them: hence, we
shall at present confine our atten-
tion to the proper times for fell-
ing, seasoning, and preserving tim-
ber.
The age at Avhich timber-trees
ought to l>e cut doAvn, varies ac-
cording their nature, and the pur-
poses for vvhich they are designed.
Mr. Marshall observes, that
poplars may stand from 30 to 50
years ; ash and elm-trees, from 50
to 100 years ; but oaks should on
no account he felled, till they have
attained the age of from 100 to
200 years. The durability of tim-
ber, however, depends on the soil
and sub-soil, on which the trees
have been produced : thus, in loose
or absorbent lands, the oak and
elm decay at an earlier period than
those grown in cool and more re-
tentive ground ; but, in dry loams
with a rocky sub-soil, the oak ra-
pidly decays, after it has attained
the age of two centuries. Far-
ther, the Cypress, Cedar, and
Mahogany, are supposed to be in-
TJM
TIM 121
destructible by time, or the depre-
dations of insects, in whatever ex-
posure they may have been raised;
and the Alder endures the action
of water, for many years longer
than any other species of timber :
hence it is deservedly employed
for piles in constructing dams ; in
order to secure the banks of rivers.
The season for felling oak, or
fir-timber, commences toward the
end of April ; though the winter
is often preferred for that purpose,
and likewise for cutting down ash
and elm-trees ; as it furnishes la-
bour to persons who would other-
wise be unemployed. All branches
or limbs, that may injure the trees
in their fall, ought previously to be
lopped, and the trunk cut down
close to the ground, unless it be
grubbed or rooted up; which lat-
ter method is preferable, as well
as more profitable ; because tim-
ber, produced from old stocks, is
of inferior value.
After the trees are felled, it will
be advisable to season them, pre-
viously to working the timber : it
has, therefore, been recommended
to pile them, one upon another,
with small blocks of wood between
each, in an open but not too ex-
posed situation; so that the sun
and air may penetrate every part;
the surface, or uppermost trees,
being plastered with cow-dung, to
prevent them from cracking. Ano-
ther method is. that of burying the
timber in the earth ; but the most
effectual mode of seasoning it, by
heat, is performed at Venice, where
the trees are exposed to a strong
fire, at Avhich they are continually
turned round by means of an en-
gine, till they become charred, or
covered with a black crust: by this
expedient, the internal part of the
woo I is so hardened, as to resist
vol.. v.
equally the effects of earth and
water, for a long series of years,
without receiving any injury.
When boards or planks have
been properly dried, additional care
becomes necessary to preserve
them against the depredations of
worms, the effects of air, moisture,
he. For this purpose, Mr. Evelyn
directs common sulphur to be put
into a glass retort, with such a por-
tion of aqua-fortis, as will cover it,
" to the depth of three fingers:"
the whole must be distilled to dry-
ness, and rectified two or three
times. The remaining sulphur is
then to be exposed to the open air
on a marble, or in a shallow glass-
vessel, where it will liquefy into a
kind of oil, with Avhich the timber
must be anointed : this mixture, he
asserts, will not only infallibly pre-
vent the attacks of worms, but
also preserve every kind of wood
from decay or putrefaction, either
in air or water. Timber may also
be defended from the influence of
air, or moisture, by coating it two
or three times with linseed oil ;
and some builders have advised the
wood-work to be painted : the lat-
ter practice, however, ought to be
adopted with great caution ; be-
cause, though it may in some
cases be proper, it should always
be deferred, till the planks and si-
milar articles have become perfect-
ly dry.
Lastly, no green timber must be
employed for any purpose ; as it is
apt to crack and spiinter, .when
the work is completed; and will
thus disfigure the most expensive
buildings. Where such deformity
occurs, it has been recommended
to anoint the wood repeatedly with
a solution of beef-suet: some car-
penters, indeed, close the crevices
with a composition of grease and
R
122 TIM
TIM
fine saAV-dust; but the former me-
thod, in the opinion of M. Cho-
mel, deserves the preference ; as
he has seen riven or split timber so
perfectly closed by such expedient,
that the defect was scarcely per-
ceptible : this operation, however,
ought to be performed while the
wood is green. See also Board,
and Dry-rot.
Timber used for buildings, es-
pecially for ships, bridges, canals,
granaries, and stables, may be ef-
fectually preserved from decay, and
particularly the rot, by repeatedly
impregnating the wood with strong
brine, or a solution of common salt.
This simple process is attended
with such decided advantage, that
wood, thus prepared, will remain
perfectly sound for ages. An in-
stance of this fact lately occurred
in the theatre at Copenhagen,
where the lower part of the planks
and joists formerly required to be
replaced in a few years, till Mr.
Volmeister, an architect of that
city, discovered and employed the
process above stated. Since that
period (which includes the term
exceeding 12 years) the wood, on
removing one of the boards, was
found in such a state of preserva-
tion, that he could not observe the
least appearance of decay.
The increase of plantations, in
soils properly adapted for the pur-
pose, being an object of national
importance, we have subjoined a
Table; the design of which is, to
shew the number of plants that
may be set on an acre of land, both
according to the Scotch and Eng-
lish admeasurement, at the distance
of from 1 foot to 30 feet from each
other. Thus, the scale from 1 foot
to 3 feet gives the number of cab-
bages, which may be planted on an
acre, for the feeding of cattle ;
while the distance from 3 to 6 feet,
determines the amount of young
forrest or timber-trees, that may
be arranged on a similar extent of
ground ; the space of from 6 to 20
feet, sheAvs those remaining after
the first, second, or third cuttings ;
and the interval from 20 to 30
feet, poinls out the fruit-trees,
which may be planted on one acre.
Another object, Avhich may tend
to render the following Table
more interesting to the planter, is
that of ascertaining the difference
between the Scotch and English
acres. Hence, the first numbers
in the second and fifth columns re-
present the square feet contained
in those respective measures : so
that the English acre is to that
computed in Scotland, as 43,560 is
to 54,760 feet.
TIM
TIM 123
V Plants on Plants on
o c in an English Acre. u c a Scotch Acre.
Short 100 of Long 100 of Short 100 of Long 100 of
Q 5 score. 6 Ecore. P 5 score. 6 score.
F. I. F. I.
1 43,560 36,300 1 54,760 45,633
1 6 19,360 16,133 1 6 24,382 20,318
2 10,890 9,075 2 13,690 11,408
2 6 6,969 5,808 2 6 8,761 7,301
3 4,840 4,033 3 6,084 5,070
3 6 3,556 2,963 3 6 4,470 3,725
4 2,722 2,268 4 3,422 2,852
4 6 2,151 1,792 4 6 2,709 2,257
5 1,742 1,452 5 2,190 1,825
5 6 1,440 1,200 5 6 1,810 1,508
6 1,210 1,008 6 1,521 1,251
6 6 1,031 852 6 6 1,296 1,081
7 889 740 7 1,117 931
7 6 774 620 7 6 973 811
8 680 567 8 855 713
8 6 602 502 8 6 758 631
9 537 448 9 675 562
9 6 482 402 9 6 606 505
10 4S5 363 10 547 . 456
11 360 300 11 452 375
12 S02 252 12 380 317
13 257 214 13 324 270
14 222 185 14 279 232
15 193 161 15 243 202
16 170 141 16 214 178
17 150 125 17 189 158
18 134 112 18 169 141
19 120 100 19 151 126
20 108 20 137 114
21 98 21 124 103
22 90 22 113
23 82 23 103
24 75 24 95
25 69 25 87
26 64 26 81
27 59 27 75
28 55 28 70
29 51 29 65
30 48 30 60
124 TIM
TIM
[The following concise state-
ment is taken from that very use-
ful compilation, " Gleanings of
Husbandry," American edition.]
" 1. State and condition of several
kinds after being exposed to the
weather ten years.
a. Cedar, perfectly sound.
b. Larch, heart sound, but the sap
quite decayed.
c. Spruce-fir, sound.
(/. Silver-Fir, in decay.
c. Scotch-fir, much decayed.
/. Pineaster, quite rotten.
g. Chcsnut, perfectly sound.
/■. White Poplar, sound.
i. Beech, sound.
k. Walnut, in decay.
b Birch, quite rotten.
2. Green fir-timber may be sea-
soned and rendered fit for imme-
diate use, by soaking the planks
or round trees, barked, a few days
in lime water; or paying them over
Avith lime along with water.....
Limewater is made by slacking the
lime in water, and the hotter it is
used after the lime is slacked, the
better. Mr. Bordley says that
Dr. WHARFiELD,of Elkton, Mary-
land, Sawed poplar logs full of sap
into boards, and immediately sea-
soned them by fire. Some of
these boards were put up in two
weeks after the tree was felled ;
and Mr. B. admired the closeness
of the joints.
3. Dry-Rot in timber may be
prevented by charring the ends of
the joints, and fixing them in an-
chorsmiths or foundery ashes laid
under the flooring. Leaving one
of the boards of the floor loose, and
removing it at night, is said to pre-
vent it.
The Dry-Rot is oAving to a yel-
low fungi, and to a Avhite mould
spread by a plant, resembling a
vine or sea-weed. (Calvaria Hypox-
ylon.)
4. Composition for preserving
weather boarding ; which is impe-
netrable to water, and is not in-
jured by the action of the weather,
or heat of the sun, which hardens
it.
Three parts air-slacked lime,
two of wood ashes, and one of fine
sand, or sea-coal ashes ; sift these
through a fine sieve, and add as
much linseed oil as will bring it to
a consistence for working with a
painter's brush ; great care must
be taken to mix it perfectly.....it is
thought grinding Avould be an im-
provement).....two coats are neces-
sary ; the first rather thin, the se-
cond as thick as can conveniently
be worked.
5. Painting wood before the sap
is dry, hastens its decay."
The time for felling timber, is
in the autumrt, after having taken
off the bark early in the spring ;
and after having suffered the new
foilage to put forth and die. This
fact, says Dr. Dar-win, was long
since observed by S. Pepys, in a
paper published in the Philosophi-
cal Transactions vol. 17. p. 455.
By the pullulation of the nevv buds
the saccharine matter in the sap-
wood, or alburnum is expended,
and it then becomes nearly as
hard and durable as the heart
wood, being both less liable to de-
cay, or to be penetrated by insects.
This remark is confirmed by the
experience of Mr. Edward Duf-
field of Philadelphia county, as
stated in vol. 2. p. 484. (with this
difference, that he cut the trees in
TIM
the spring,) and by the judicious
and numerous experiments of the
celebrated BuFFON.an extract from
Avhose memoir, read before the
Royal Academy of Sciences, in 1731,
may be found in a paper in the
Trans, of the Massachusetts Agri-
cultural Society, by B. Vaughan,
Esq. of HalloAVAvell, District of
Maine. After having come to the
conclusion above stated, Mr.
Vaughan continues.
" Other trials, however, Avere
made, of which the nature and re-
sult were as follow:.....1st. A
piece of wood, somewhat defective,
taken from the top of a tree which
had been disbarked and left ex-
posed to the air after it was felled,
Avas upon trial found to weigh more
and to support more than a like
piece, which was sound, and taken
from the heart of one of the trees
felled in its bark.....2d. The sap-
wood of trees which had been dis-
barked while standing, was in like
manner tried against sap-wood
from other trees which had been
cut in their bark, and was found
somewhat heavier, and considera-
bly stronger.....3d. The sap-wood
of disbarked trees, if it did not
equal the wood at the heart of trie
other trees in weight, yet exceeded
it much in strength.....4th. But the
outer parts of the sap-wood from
disbarked trees, contrary to the ge-
neral rule, (which is a circumstance
highly worthy of remark,) were
considerably stronger than the
inner parts of the same sap-wood.
" The author explains the addi-
tion of solidity and strength in
those different cases, by supposing
that the growth of the trunk (in
the ordinary course of nature,)
arises from layers of new wdod,
which are applied to it externally.
TIM 125
by means of the several juices
flowing between the bark and the
sap-wood. Consequently, Avhen
the bark is removed, though the
trunk may live, it cannot increase
in bulk ; and the materials, destin-
ed for this increase, sinking into
the cavities of the A'essels of the
sap-wood and inner-wood, harden
the trunk throughout.
" An interruption then of the
sap, within certain bounds, ap-
pears, according to the author, to
harden the Avood in proportion as
it is complete ; and if the author's
theory above stated, be correct, it
has an application here too obvious
for it to be repeated.....When the
bark is removed, the sap-wood in
particular may be presumed to
become hard, from its abounding
in pores ; and as the pores are
largest, according to him, in the
outer parts of this sap-Avood, it is
hence perhaps that in the outer
pores the greatest change is ef-
fected.
" Under these circumstances,
(saysM. Buffon) the sap-Avood is
no longer to be called an imperfect
wood ; and it thus acquires an im-
provement in one or two years, by
being disbarked, which it would
not have obtained, by the usual
course of nature, in less than 12 or
15 years, (this being the time re-
quisite for changing sap-Avood in-
to inner wood in the best soils.).....
By joining then the sap-wood to
the other wood, the bulk of a tree
is in effect prodigiously increased,
and a tree of forty years will go as
far in work (according to M. Buf-
fon) as a tree of sixty years old
in common circumstances.
" The author's general conclu-
sion is, that, whenever the exten-
sive operation in question in this
126 T I M
TIM
paper, is performed, it should be
during the great flow of the sap ;
that is, when the vessels are most
open, and the sap most in motion ;
and Avhen both these circumstan-
ces are likely to remain so for some
time.....I3y choosing this period
also for the operation, he adds, that
it becomes easy to perform it; for
in the proper time of the sap, a
man climbing upon a great tree
maydisbark it, from top to bottom,
in less than two hours.
" All which has here been said,
however, relates to oaks ; for upon
oaks these experiments were in
general made. But the practice
may be extended probably to va-
rious other species of trees : M.
Buffon thinks to all.
" Before M. Buffon closed the
above memoir, he received infor-
mation from Mr. Hickman, a fel-
low of the Royal Society in London,
stating, that the practice, which
his memoir recommended, was in
use in the county of Nottingham,
in England. The bark (it is said)
Avas better for tanning, and the sap-
wood essentially hardened. But
though the sap-Avood lasted three
times as long as the ordinary sap-
wood, according to this account,
yet its durability was not pretend-
ed to be equal to that of the wood
Avithin it.....The trees in Notting-
hamshire hoAvever vvere represent-
ed as standing six months only,
after losing their bark.
" M. Du Hamel presented a
memoir on the same general sub-
ject with that of M. Buffon, in
the same year, 1748 ; Avhich Avas
noticed in p. 54-58 of the Histori-
cal Articles of the Royal Academy
of Sciences (prefixed in those days
to the memoirs) for the year 1738 ;
but the memoir itself was not
then printed.
" He concludes his memoir by
recommending that of M. Buffon
above noticed, Avhich according to
him proves, that nearly the same
results have occurred in experi-
ments on these subjects made in
the eastern and western quarters
of France.
" We may take the present op-
portunity of suggesting the pro-
priety of an inquiry, whether fruit-
trees which have been long strip-
ped of their bark on account of
disease, acquire any additional
hardness to their wood, as the re-
sult of their new bark being thin ;
and if so, Avhether the hardening
of their Avood was not one among
the particulars necessary to ren-
der them productive ; and lastly,
Avhether such trees have grown as
fast in their stems and branches,
as the generality of other trees cor-
responding in size and situation ?
At the same time it may be Avorthy
of examination, whether a ligature
placed round a branch, after the
manner recommended by M.
Buffon, has in the end any effect
upon the solidity of the wood
Avithin, at least till the groAVth of
the branch is checked ?
" The query here proposed,
respecting the operation of the
sun, may be extended to that of
the air, the rain, the frost, and
even the light.....Internal proces-
ses in the tree, such as fermenta-
tion of the sap, may also have in-
fluence on this occasion.
" If we adopt the theory of
Messrs. Buffon andDu Hamel,
it seems easy to conceive whence
the timber of certain trees may
become benefited by a removal of
their branches, (while the tree
is standing.) If the roots and
stem continue uninjured, much
superfluous sap may now remain
TIM
TIM
127
in motion; of Avhich a large
portion may be deposited in the
pores both of the sap-wood and of
the formed wood, so as to improve
each of them.....Of the existence
of this sap in many felled trees, in
a manner capable of producing
buds and shoots, without the aid
either of the leaves or even of new
supplies from the roots, we have
evident proof from the buds and
shoots and even blossoms Avhich
arise in the spring from certain
stems newly cut down Avhen with-
out a leaf.
" How far it may be advisable
to disbark and to disbranch one
and the same tree, is matter for
future experiment, and may lead
to some decisive facts.
" It ought not, hoAvever, here to
escape notice, that trees hardened
by the loss of their branches, are
affirmed to be freed from the at-
tack of " worms and other acci-
dental corruption.".....If this be
true, we have a neAV consideration
addressed to our attention, which
will equally Avell apply to the case
of disbarking timber-trees.
" If these methods have in
truth the good effects thus attri-
buted to them, they may in some
degree render needless the dis-
pute as to the season of the year
proper for felling certain timber
trees.....Some uncertainties, which
have existed on this subject, may
be seen in M. Du Hamel's ac-
count of the contradictory practice
prevailing respecting it in his time,
in different countries. It may be
curious to observe, that in our day,
Mr. Snodgrass, the surveyor of
the shipping in the East India
Company's service, (than whom no
man perhaps has seen and heard
more on the subject, as far as
concerns England and the East
Indies,) i; in favour of English
timber vvhich is winter-fallen.*
Indeed the question may admit of
different decisions in different
countries ; especially as relating
to trees of different species and of
different ages.
" Against all these advantages,
we must not admit it as any ob-
jection, that hard timber is also
hard to work : for upon this prin-
ciple none but soft woods ought to
be employed in Avork: In other
words, to reduce the first cost of
the work, we must sacrifice all the
* See his letter to Mr. Duntdas, with
an appendix, printed in 1797, p. 49;.....
in which are many valuable facts for ship-
builders. Out of 989 vessels built or re-
paired under his inspection in 37 years
only one had foundered; while in the
British navy above 60 vessels are supposed
to have foundered in 9 years (from 1775
to 1784 ) M. Du Hamel ridicules the
idea of attending to the felling of timber
in particular periods of the moon. (See
b. 3. Ch. 5.)
[In confirmation of Mr. Svodgrass's
opinion stated above, the Editor may
add, that the season in which Live Oak
is cut in Georgia, influences its duration
in a striking manner, as the follow ing fact
will shew. Captain Frankford of
Philadelphia, brought live oak from St.
Simons, in 1795; and with a view to sa-
tisfy himself as to the influence of th*
season of cutting the wood, he procured
some square pieces of a tree which had
been felled in July, and also some which
had been cut during the winter. Both
parcels were permitted to remain in his
cellar: The first mentioneddecayedrapid-
ly, and were cut up for fire-wood, in
1800; the last still retain that firmness
for vvhich live oak-wood is so remarkable.
As great part of the wood for the United
States frigates was cut during the warm
weather, and it is known that some of
them, and especially the United States,
rotted in three years after she was built,
it is probable the decay may be accounted
forfrom the above circumstance]
128 TIM
TIM
attention due to use and to dura-
bility.
" But it is time to make a re-
mark applicable to the United
States. It is this :
" Discussions concerning the
improvement of timbtr are pecu-
liarly important in a vast conti-
nent possessed of wildernesses of
Avoods, for the timber of which
more extensive markets would
offer, Avere it in better repute for
strength and durability. An in-
crease of exportable timber would
lead to an increase of freights and
of seamen : At the same time that
an improvement in the qualities of
timber, Avould add to the calls for
ship-building, and be highly ser-
viceable to domestic carpentry.....
These considerations will derive
neAV weight from recollecting that
the American woods contain a
profusion of large trees ; the chief
of which are not only destitute of
the solidity belonging to trees
found in pastures ; but, by being
drawn up in consequence of hav-
ing grown in company, acquire
long trunks with few branches, so
as to admit of being disbarked with
ease up to the true height.
" To what heights in the stem,
in different species of trees, and at
different ages, and under different
circumstances, this disbarking may
be carried, is to be decided by ac-
tual trials.....It seems reasonable,
however, to presume, that so much
of the upper part of the tree ought
to retain its bark, as shall be ne-
cessary for procuring to the part
vvhich is disbarked, its due supply
of sap.
" A fact of a miscellaneous
nature shall now be introduced, for
it may be found to have application
to the present subject.
" On the meadow-land (other-
wise called interval-land) overflow-
ed by the dam of the upper mill
at Cobessee, below Hallowell,
many trees have been standing for
a long course of years, which
though Avithout vegetation, in con-
sequence of the action of the water
upon their roots ; yet still remain
erect, and (to appearance) toler-
ably firm. They soon ceased to liA'e
as trees, but yet long existed as
timber, though exposed to all the
injuries of the Aveather. They also
seem to be more free from moss
and other " accidental causes of
corruption," than could from for-
mer theories, have been supposed
probable; though some, which
were sawed after a long period had
elapsed, Avere found too much worm-
eaten to be used as plank for ship-
ping.
u To prevent misapprehension,
however as to our general subject,
in persons living in parts of the U.
States, where the practice of gird-
ling trees in Che American form,
is adopted, it may be proper to
make the following distinction.....
The object of the operations in
view in this paper is, to retain a
lingering life in trees for a certain
period. The farmers, on the other
hand, who girdle their trees, seek
to procure an instant death to the
leaf, and an early death to the tree;
that they may immediately raise
crops, and soon plough the soil
Avithout obstruction. They make
a cut (or girdle as it is Galled)
round the stem of the tree, passing
through the bark into the Avood
itself, in order to interrupt the
communications within the tree,
by which the life of the tree is
supported.....Objects and proceed-
ings therefore so opposite, admit
of little comparison in any point of
view.
TIM
T I M 129
« A second reflexion shall here
be introduced ; which is, that we
should not suppose that the learn-
ed French Academicians from
whom we have extracted the chief
materials for this paper, have mis-
taken brittle wood for strong Avood:
They considered strength and
toughness in all their experiments.
This, however did not prevent their
discovering, that the wood of the
disbarked stems was hard, as well
as heavy ; the strength being in
proportion to the weight.....It may
at the same time be allowed, be-
cause it is true, that the best tim-
ber, in process of time, when kept
dry, will acquire a brittle hardness,
so that even soft pine-wood shall
change its qualities in this respect.
But since all this.timber began
with being more or less tough,
according to its nature, we have
no unfavourable conclusions to
draw from it ; particularly as
worms seem to avoid this brittle
wood, which is accordingly found
untouched by them in various
buildings in Europe erected many
centuries ago.
" A third caution, also, is ne-
cessary, which has a more gene-
ral application.....The experiments
related in this paper have not been
repeated by the compiler of it.....
Yet a repetition of them is neces-
sary ; and at the same time they
ought to be extended, and the re-
sult of the whole communicated to
the public. By this means we
shall possess, in time, approved
rules for operating upon different
kinds of trees in different climates,
and different situations ; and none
will be better circumstanced
for the purpose of benefiting by
these rules, than the inhabitants of
the United States, Avhose timber
'rees arc so many and so various,
VOL. V.
and are spread through so many
latitudes, longitudes, elevations,
aspects and soils.....We add, that
from the same causes, few have
better opportunities than the inha-
bitants of the United States for
making such experiments."
On raising Forest Trees from Seed.
It is Avith pleasure that the fol-
lowing communication addressed
to the Massachusetts Society for
the encouragement of Agriculture,
is published. It is believed, to be
the first attempt in the United
States, to supply the enormous
and wanton waste of our forest
trees ; and the society, with great
propriety, bestowed a gold medal
to Col. Dodge, for his praiseworthy
exertions.
" Conceiving that I was posses-
sed of land well adapted to the
groAvth of forest trees, I made
choice of a niece of land, and pret-
ty near the summit, from Avhich
there was a gradual descent in
every direction. It had formerly
been covered with a very heavy
growth of white and yellow oak,
and the different kinds of Avalnut,
and hickory, groAving native in this
part of the country, lor many
years past it had been improved
as a pasture, having several trees
of the ancient growth scattered
over, and still standing upon it.....
The piece of ground on Avhich I
proposed to make the experiment
contained about two acres ; and
Avas, for the first time, ploughed
up two years before ; and in each
of the preceding years planted
Avith Indian corn. The native soil
is a pretty deep rich mould, inclin-
ed to moisture, and very rarely
pinched Avith drought. Detached
rocks of different siz-s arc scat-
S
130 TIM
TIM
tered over it. The two acres
were inclosed Avith a good fence
for the purpose of forming a forest-
tree nursery. It was then plough-
ed once, and harrowed sufficiently
to render the mould light and fine,
and furrowed both Avays, viz. at
right angles, about four and an
half feet distant. On a small
part of the ground a little barn
manure was put in the angles of
the furrows; but on the greater
part no manure of any kind was
laid.
" The ground having been thus *
prepared, on the 10th of October,
1797, it Avas planted in the cross
furrows, in the form of hills ; a
part with white and yellow oak
acorns; a part Avith that kind of
walnuts called the shag-bark ; a
part with chesnuts, and a part with
oil-nuts, or white walnuts. Four
acorns and four nuts Avere put in a
hill through the whole nursery,
and covered about three, or three
and an half inches deep.
tS The labour, in preparing the
ground, was two and an half day's
work of one man and a boy with
two pair of oxen ; and the man and
the boy one day in planting and
covering the seed.
" Desirous of varying the expe-
riment, I had another piece of
ground, containing one quarter of
an acre, of a soil and situation near-
ly similar, prepared in the same
manner. On the first day of No-
vember I sowed it, by broad cast,
witli the same kind of acorns and
nuts, and with the seeds of white
ash, and then harrowed the ground
with an iron-tooth harroAV.
" Just before the frost set in I
examined the hills in the nursery,
and found the acorns generally
sprouted, and some of the sprouts
more than two inches in length.
The nuts appeared in the same
state in vvhich they were planted.
In the spring following, I could
find only- four of the acorns Avhich
had sent up shoots out of the
ground, and the nuts did not swell
sufficiently to burst their shells.
But those soAved by broad cast
came up pretty well, and I had
them transplanted into a part of
the nursery. From these circum-
stances I concluded that the acorns
and nuts planted in the nursery,
Avere put into the ground too early
in autumn, and were covered much
too deep.
" Disappointed in the first at-
tempt, I was still determined to
make another trial on the ground
inclosed for a nursery. In the
latter part of October, 1798, I
ploughed, harrowed and furrowed
it, just as I had done the preceding
autumn ; and on the first day of
November I planted, in the cross
furrows, as before, white and yel-
low oak acorns, shag-bark walnuts,
chesnuts and oil-nuts, and covered
them, excepting four rows, much
lighter than the preceding year.
The acorns and nuts came up
very well, excepting the four toavs
which Avere covered about three
inches deep. In these rows very
few appeared in the spring. By
this and similar experiments made
since, I have found, that both acorns
and nuts vegetate best when only
covered over so lightly as that no
part of them can be seen above the
surface. On the same day I
planted a small quantity of the
seeds of the elm collected at the
time of the seed's falling, which
came up remarkably well.
" To extend the experiment, I
prepared a separate piece of
ground, by ploughing and harrow-
ing it, as I had done in the nursery,
T IM
TIM 131
On the 2d of November, I sowed,
by broad cast, about five hundred
of the shag-bark nuts, and left them
on the surface of the ground un-
covered. As soon as the frost Avas
out in the spring sufficiently to
admit the plough, which Avas about
the last of March, or the first of
April, I ploughed them in very
lightly. The nuts soon sprouted,
and about the middle of May ap-
peared above the surface. Most
of them vegetated and came tip
far better than any of the other
nuts or acorns.
" Care has been taken to keep
all the forest trees pretty clear of
weeds. The nursery has been
ploughed and hoed three or four
times in the course of each sum-
mer, but no hills haA'e been raised
about the trees. The labour in
tending the ground has been about
the same as tending so much
Indian corn, and the ploughings
and hocings, about the same time
in the summer.
" The groAvth of the shag-bark
walnuts has been remarkably slow.
The acorns grew considerably the
tAvo first years, and the last sum-
mer they appear to have increased
somewhat in size, but most of them
very little or none at all in height;
some of the largest, however, have
produced luxuriant tops. The
chesnuts, oil-nuts and elms, have
grown Avell. Of all the kinds, the
white-ash has much exceeded in
rapidity of growth.
" In the last autumn I had
growing upwards of four thousand
and two hundred trees, from all
the kinds of acorns, nuts and seeds
which I had planted. But my
nursery, Avhich was on sloping
ground, was greatly injured by an
unusually heavy rain, just before
the frost set in. The fall of rain
Avas so great as to occasion seve-
ral strong currents of water, which
produced deep gullies through the
longest direction of the ground.
By this unfortunate circumstance,
more than six hundred trees were
torn up and destroyed.
" There are now growing (Oct.
13, 1801,) from the aconis, nuts
and seed Avhich I have planted,
Avhich are three and four years old
this autumn from the time of
planting, two thousand seven hun-
dred and ninety-two white and yel-
low oaks....four hundred andtwelvc
shag-bark Avalnuts.......forty-eight
oil-nuts....one hundred and ten
chesnuts....two hundred and thirty-
nine elms....and forty-one Avhite-
ash.....The Avhole number, three
thousand six hundred and forty-
tAVO.
On raising young Forest Trees from
young shoots on Wood-lots.
A communication addressed to
the Massachusetts Society for pro-
moting .''Igriculture, by Moses
Bulled, Esq. of Medfield....The
premium of 30 dollars or silver
medal, Avas adjudged to the author
for his exertions.
" 1 have, for more than 20 years,
turned my attention 1o raising
forest trees, and have had the satis-
faction of seeing my endeavours
crowned with success. The
method, by which I have succeed-
ed, is as follows : When the wood
is arrived at maturity on a piece
of land, I cut it all down, not
leaving a single tree ; then I pass
over the land with a strong scythe,
making it compleatly clean by cut-
ting all the shrubs and bushes,
vvhich were kept under by the
large trees and cattle ; and which,
if suffered to remain, would ob-
132 TIM
struct the growth of the young
shoots. After doing this, I gene-
rally have a fine thrifty parcel of
young plants and sprouts, Avhich
grow rapidly. When the grovvth
is about four or five years old, I
go over it again, and cut the
poorest sorts of wood, where there
are enough of better; and also,
once in tAvo, three or four years,
prune as many as my other avoca-
tions will allow. Many of the first
trees raised were large enough for
hogshead hoops, and many much
too large. I have had more than
4000 poles, of the hogshead kind,
cut Avithin a few years on 10 acres
of my young trees, without tinn-
ing them loo much, (I am very
carefull that all the best poles are
not taken; which is commonly the
case, where an indifferent person
is suffered to go into a wood-lot for
the purpose of cutting hoop-poles,
to the great detriment of the
owner.) The method I have taken
for raising forest trees, I conceive
to be the best and cheapest, that
can be adopted in this part of the
country. I have, by way of experi-
ment, planted acorns, chesnuts,
walnuts, and set slips of the Eng-
lish green av'iHoav ; but have never
had great success. On lands long
cleared, and the growth entirely
killed, I supposed ploughing and
planting acorns, he. as recom-
mended by Dr. Dean, to be the
best. It is absolutely necessary to
keep cattle and sheep away from
the land Avhere it is proposed to
raise forest trees.
" When I first began to raise
trees for wood, I used to leave
some cf the young thriftiest stands
to grow scattering on the land.
But a few years convinced me of
my error, for the trees, so left,
soon sent out their branches hori-
TIM
zontally, preventing the growth of
smaller trees, situated near them,
and not growing high themselves,
afforded little timber and much
brush.
" I every year clear a parcel of
land, where I cut my fire wood,
so that I have young trees from
one to twenty years growth.
" Experience has showen me,
that the sprouts of chesnut grdw
much more rapidly, than those of
other wood, obstructing their
growth. In this case, I found it
advantageous to cut them down,
especially such as are crooked and
full of branches. Fresh sprouts
will soon spring up from the root,
which Avill commonly overtake
those of the surrounding growth,
making much better and straighter
timber Avith feAver limbs.
"As avooc! is among the necessa-
ries of life,Avood-landis a necessary
appendage to every farm. Forest-
trees have the power of reproduc-
ingthemselves aswell as from their
seeds ; and, but for shamefully bad
management, they Avould be found
growing in sufficient numbers in
almost every part of this country.
A farmer's wood-lot should be
nearly as much the object of his
care as his orchard.
" In applying the axe to a Avood-
lot, Avhich the owner would wish
to perpetuate by a series of repro-
ductions, the best method is to cut
down every tree, as far as the axe-
man goes. This will give the
young and tender progeny the ne-
cessary advantages of a free cir-
culation of the air, and of the un-
obstructed rays of the sun ; where-
as if some of the large trees be
left, the shoots, which spring up
from the stumps of the otheis,
will languish beneath their shade.
The part of a wood-lot, that is fel-
TIM
TIM 133
led by the axe, should be kept as
carefully fenced as a corn-field ; or
otherwise the browsing of cattle,
especially in the spring of the
year, will poison and destroy the
rising tendrils. Care should also be
used to pluck off a part of the ten-
drils or shoots around the stumps;
leaving only, by the sides of each
stump, two or three of the most
large and thrifty.
" By such a prudent manage-
ment, a wood-lot might be render-
ed a perpetual fund of timber and
fuel."
Dr. Daravin observes, " If
crooked young trees be repeatedly
scratched internally in respect to
the curvature, that they will gra-
dually become straight, by thus
encouraging the growth Avithin the
curvature, more than on its convex
side."
The following judicious observa-
tions which shew the importance of
preserving forest-trees in the U.
States, are from a useful publi-
cation entitled, The Weekly Maga-
zine, vol. ii. Philadelphia, 1798.
" There is, perhaps, none of the
natural qualities or productions of
this country, of which we may
more highly boast, than our Avoods
and forests : Avhether we consider
them as affording the largest,
strongest, or most durable timber,
wood, and substances for economi-
cal purposes ; their beauty in the
formation of groves and avenues
for our recreation and delight, or
fuel which they furnish, and vvhich
is indispensable in those districts,
that are destitute of, or at too great
a distance from coal.
" In order to prevent further de-
vastation, as well as to repair the
injuries already committed, this
very important business ought, in
my opinion, to be well considered,
and as soon as possible encouraged
and established.
" The great importance and in-
dispensable utility of public forests,
and extensive free districtsof wood-
land, must be so obvious, as almost
to render it unnecessary to specify
their advantages: however, since
my fellow citizens, in general, may
not have sufficiently contemplated
this interesting subject in all its
various views, I shall attempt to
exhibit some of the most striking
and interesting.
" Large districts of woodland, or
native forests comprehending the
various situations and qualities of
soil, are the best nursery for the
various tribes and families of the
vegetables of the country, Avhich
by means of agriculture, pastur-
age, and fire, are in danger of be-
ing extirpated ; and thus great in-
jury, and perhaps, irreparable loss
be rendered to the community,
since some of them may possess
very useful and salutary qualities,
yet undiscovered.
" In order that Ave may avail our-
selves in the most speedy and com-
plete manner, of this very import-
ant benefit, I would propose, that
every state, county, and township
should set apart a certain ex-
tent of territory for a public and
free forest, to be protected by laws
enacted for that purpose; and also,
that every freeholder or proprietor,
be obliged by law to keep a cer-
tain number of acres of woodland,
perhaps ten acres to every hun-
dred. But freeholds or farm- Mil-
der fifty acres, need not be subject
to this law; they may have what
quantity of wood their owners may
choose. Besides, every proprietor
of lands lying contiguous to pub-
lic roads orhighv. ays, shoubi be
obliged to plant and cultivate trees
134 T I M
T IM
or shrubs of a certain specified
description on that part of his
field, immediately adjoining the
public road or highway ; for which
he should be allowed by law a
small bounty as a compensation
for his labour and expence. And
the law of the state might enact
certain penalties to be inflicted on
person's Avho should wantonly in-
jure such trees and shrubs ; be-
cause they are for shade and shel-
ter to travellers, and a public be-
nefit.
" The use of wood is great and
indispensable for building, fencing,
coopering, and other economical
purposes, and especially for fuel
in the northern rli strict of the Unit-
ed States, particularly in regard to
the poor, who even at this early
day, procure it with difficulty, and
at a great expence : but a town-
ship forest, or free district of wood-
land, to which every citizen would
have equal and free recourse, un-
der necessary and prudent regula-
tions, would fully obviate their ne-
cessities.
" These forests should be mark-
ed out into districts, and each thin-
ned in rotation, by taking away
the full-grown, and decaying trees,
and keeping up within fence or in-
closure, the stumps, for the pro-
tection of the springs or sprouts.
Moreover, the township Avould be
aide to sell timber and wood, which,
if applied towards discharging the
public expences, would be a great
relief to its poor.
" The subject before us, natur-
ally, unfolds another connected with
it; I mean the propriety of re-es-
tablishing public and private fo-
rests, of the most useful and beau-
tiful trees and shrubs, natives of
t;:.- c< untry as well as exotics,
that Avould thrive in the climate of
the United States.
" We of Philadelphia and its
vicinity are well acquainted with
the value and usefulness of the
wood of the White Cedar [Cupres-
sus thyoides]. Yet the inhabi-
tants of West Jersey, who reap
so great a profit from it, seem to
manifest little concern for the pro-
tection and preservation of those
valuable districts, that produce this
useful wood; otherwise they would
take more effectuable steps than
they have hitherto clone for pre-
venting the ravages and destruc-
tion of fire ; for replanting and
protecting the swamps after the
fire hath done its mischief, Sec.
Perhaps it would be a politic and
prudent ordinance, to vest in the
state a large district of territory,
comprehending the largest pro-
portion possible of cedar swamps,
for a public forest: this Avould be
a means of at least preventing a
total destruction of this invaluable
wood.
" I shall proceed now to enume-
rate the trees, shrubs, &c. which
seem to be the most valuable and
worthy of the expence and care of
cultivation and protection, viz.
" Chesnut, Black and Wbite
Walnut, Plane-tree, Mulberry, Su-
gar-maple, Scarlet and Silver-
leaved Maple, Yellow Poplar, or
Tulip-tree, the varieties of Hicco-
ry, Wild-Cherry, Locust (Robina
pseudo-acacia) Honey Locust, the
species and varieties of Oak, all the
Fines, Red-Cedar, Bald-Cypress,
Larch-tree,Hemlock-Spruce,NcAv-
foundland-Spruce, Balm of Gilead,
Linden-tree, Beech, Elm, Sassa-
fras, Ash Avhite and Black, Per-
simmon for the sake of its fruit,
which is, perhaps, not inferior to
TIM
the Date, all the species of Mag-
nolia, Rhus typhinum, with other
species, Snowy Mespilus, Avith
some other species ; Haw-thorns,
Myrica cerifera (Myrtle-wax tree)
j£sculus pavia, varieties; Holly,
Anona triloba (Papaw), with many
others from the southern states,
remarkable for their beauty and
fragrance.
" Of exotics, Quercus ruber
(English oak), Fraxinus excelsior,
several species of Willow, Jug-
lans regia (Corylus avelania), Fil-
bert (Olea Europea), Olive, Vine
Raisins and Corinths,Fig, Almond,
and perhaps, upon trial and repeat-
ed experiment, many more valu-
able vegetables Avould succeed in
the southern districts of the Unit-
ed States, i. e. from Chesapeak
Bay in Virginia, to St. Mary's Ri-
ver in Georgia.
" The East Indies, in all parts,
produce a species of tree called by
the natives, and by the Europeans
there, Teak. I do m>t recollect
the scientific name or characters ;
but, the timber of the Teak-tAee
sutpasses all others for ship-build-
ing. I have been informed, by
respectable authority, that a ship
built of Teak will last twice the
length of time of one constructed
of the best seasoned oak: it con-
tains an oil vvhich prevents the iron-
bolts from rusting for a great
number of years, and the timber
resists the worm in a surprising
degree.
" I have seen two English India-
men, built of this timber at Bom-
bay, Avhich, after twice the num-
ber of voyages of the English-
built ships, were still in good con-
dition. The English-built India-
men rarely go more than four
voyages ; one of those Tenk-built
TIM 155
Lbips Avas on her seventh, three
years ago, and is still in service.
" I remember to have seen an
India galley, called the Success
Galley, belonging to the Nabob of
Arcot, vvhich was built of Teak.
This vesrel out-sailed all Suffre-
in's fleet at the important period
when the battle of Porto Novo Avas
fought on the coast of Coromandel.
Her commander, at that time, Avas
a relation of Mr. Fenwick, our
Consul in France, and he told me
that the Success Galley Avas, then,
seventy years old.
" I mention these facts only to
shew the advantage that Avould be
derived from the acquisition of the
Teak. The tree abounds on the
Malabar, and Coromandel coasts,
on the islands of Sumatra and Java,
and other islands ; and seeds or
plants may be obtained Avithout
the least difficulty.
" Would it not be worthy the
regard of our commercial men to
pay some attention to this valua-
ble object? There can be no
doubt of the tree's flourishing in
our southern states. The present
is the period, of all others, when
such an object should excite in-
dustry and attention."
The folloAving extract contains
observations highly Avorthy of con-
sideration.
ll The vast importance of American
Wood and Timber, and Wood-
lands.
" It is well known, that the re-
sources of the United States in
wood and timber, Avithin a day's
hauling of navigable streams are
greatly reduced, and in a course
of rapid consumption. Our iron-
works, smith's shops, brewerie.,
136 TIM
distilleries, lime-kilns, coopers,
house and ship carpenters, and
joiners, cabinet-makers, wharf-
builders, bridge-builders, carriage-
makers, tanners, brick-makers,
potters, and private families,
consume yearly an immense and
encreasing quantity of wood and
timber in their trades and dwell-
ings. The exports for one year,
ending on the 30th September,
1800, were as folloAvs :
19,37 5,625 Staves and heading,
76,027,800 Shingles,
2,121,189 Hoops and Poles,
68,825,280 Feet of Boards,
Planks, 8cc.
164,349,894
1 195 Tons of Timber.
Dollars.
Other Avooden lumber, 73,344
Oak bark, and dye woods, 15,774
Manufactures of wood, 117,651
Besides these astonishing quan-
tities and amounts, there were
sent out of the United States the
folloAving casks made of wood, re-
duced to barrels :
60,000 barrels for Pot-ash and
Pearl-ash,
16,594 do. for Apples,
2,800 do. for Cider and Malt liquors,
75,045 do. for Beef,
55,460 do. for Pork,
81,199 do. for Biscuit,
653,052 do. for flour,
50,388 do. for Pickled Fish,
80,000 do. for Flaxseed,
10,000 do. for Indigo,
160,000 do. for Indian and Rye meal,
14,550 do. for Linseed oil, and other oils
9S3O0 do. for Tar, Pitch,
Rosin, Turpen-
tine, Spirits of
TIM
Turpentine and
Varnish,
1,400 do. for WaxandTal-Ioav,
1,500 do. for Molasses,
280,000 do. for Rice,
300,000 do. for Tobacco,
16,000 do. for American Spirits,
403000 do. for Butter, Lard,
Biscuit, &c
1,994,088 Total.
The consumption of wood for
8000 tons of pot and pearl-ashes,
and in barrels and casks for flour
meal, liquors, meat, fish, oil, ap-
ples, &c. for transportation coast-
Avise, and for home use is very
great. Our public and private
ships require a large quantity of
wood to build and repair them.
Our buildings for residence, stor-
ing goods, covering produce and
cattle, mills, Avorkshops, 8tc re-
quire a prodigious mass of wooden
materials. New-England, and the
sandy countries, and the new set-
tlements, build very little of brick
or stone, nearly all of boards and
logs. The manufactures of tar,
pitch, turpentine and rosin, des-
troy or injure yearly a great num-
ber of trees. In addition to all
these, the very great consumption
and demands of Great-Britain, for
timber and wooden articles and
materials, and for tar, pitch and
turpentine, is likely to be trans-
ferred from the Baltic countries to
the United States of America, be-
cause the Baltic countries AviU he
more and more averse to sell them.
In their secret feelings, the differ-
ences are great and serious, and
Avill probably lead to some altera-
tion in commerce and economy of
wood, on the part of the Northern
T I M
T I M 137
powers, whose stock is moreover
greatly exhausted. Besides all
these circumstances, it is certain
that the demand for wood to re-
build, repair, and improve the
West India islands, will be very
great.
The high prices of coffee, su-
gar, rum, molasses, cotton, and
other West-India productions en-
sure the universal cultivation of
those islands, Avhich Avill at least
double the demand for American
wooden materials to build, and to
pack produce. It has become the
interest of the people of this coun-
try, to consider its property in
wood and woodlands with attention
and forethought ; and our mer-
chants and government will not be
unmindful of the importance of our
private and public ship-building,
our carrying trade, and our naval
armaments, whether standing or
occasional."
It may no doubt seem strange
to an unthinking person, that the
people of the United States should
be so strongly urged to an imme-
diate attention to forest trees. But
the cause of wonder will be abat-
ed when he reflects upon the in-
calculable consumption of wood,
and is informed, what other coun-
tries have done, and are now do-
ing on the same subject. About
four centuries since, the great
scarcity of wood caused a very se-
rious alarm in France, for the peo-
ple of that country bad long been
in the practice now pursued in the
United States, viz. to cut down
the trees as wanted, without think-
ing how they were to be replaced,
or what would supply the wants of
posterity. Government therefore
ordered that every man Avho cut
down a tree should plant another,
and this rule is observed even to
vol.. v.
this day. In England and Scotland,
also, many thousand trees have
been planting on waste plantations,
every year for several years past,
and there can be no doubt, but
that in another century, both those
countries Avill be well stocked with
timber.
The following extract has been
communicated to the public, in
" A Colic Li'M of Papers upon Naval
Architecture," now publishing in
England, and deserves particular
attention.
" Means of fireservivg Timber in
Vessels and Bridges.
" A man who had been former-
ly concerned in ship-building, but
for thirty years past has been a
bridge-builder, had early in life
observed, on examining worm-eat-
en ships, that the worm never eat
within the seams where the caulk-
ing chisel enters, and the oil, ^.c.
He had also observed, that the
whaling vessels would be eaten to
a honey comb, except a little above
and below water, where the whale
is brought into contact with the
vessel, and is beating till it is cut
up.
" A plank lying under water at
a mill of his, had been obliged to
be renewed annually,because eaten
up by the worm within the course
of the year; at length a plank was
accidentally put down, vvhich for
some purpose had been thorough-'
ly impregnated villi oil; it re-
mained seven years without being
affected....hence he took the idea
of impregnating the timber of his
bridges thoroughly with oil, by
heating the timber as deep as
possible, and doing it in that
state with the liver oil of the cod-
fish ; he had practiced this for 3J
T
138 T I M
TIM
years, and there was no instance
of the worm attacking his tim-
bers, Avhilst those in neighbouring
places were immediately destroyed
.....He had used the liver oil, be-
cause very thick ; experiment, he
said, must sheAV Avhether other
oils Avould do equally well. He ob-
served that there Avould be no dif-
culty in heating the planks of a
ship after they were put on as well
as before....but I do not recollect
his mentioning ever to have tried
it in the case of a ship."
Having heard that the bridges
at Boston had been preserved by
oiling the timbers, the Editor vvas
induced to inquire into the fact,
and he learned, " That the piles
of Charles' river bridge, [built
in 1786] were originally of oak,
burnt [charred] and oiled, and
are still sound. The piles of West
Boston bridge [built after the for-
mer,] were pine, without charring
or oiling, and Avorms soon made
honey comb of them ; they are all
now replaced Avith oak oiled, and
will probably continue as long as
the other."]
TIME, in general, denotes either
the succession of natural pheno-
mena, occurring in the universe ;
or, according to Mr. Locke, it is a
mode of duration Avhich is marked
by certain periods or measures,but
principally by the motion and re-
volution of the sun : some philoso-
phers, however, have lately defin-
ed time to be the duration of a
thing, the existence of which is
neither without beginning nor end.
Consistently with our plan, we
cannot enter into any sptculative
disquisitions respecting the nature
of time : Ave shall, therefore, only
remark, that it has been divided
into astronomical and civil: the for-
mer being regulated entirely by
the motion of the celestial bodies ;
while the latter division compre-
hends the astronomical time adapt-
ed to the purposes of civil life ;
and is distinguished by years,
months, days, hours, minutes, and
seconds.
FeAv reflections are of greater
importance than those on the tran-
sitory nature of time ; which is
perhaps the only thing in the world,
that is absolutely irrecoverable:
hence, Ave are often surprized at
the conduct of those Avho, under
the mistaken notion of killing time,
contrive and pursue every species
of dissipation, in order to suppress
the occasional warning of their de-
graded understandings, to stifle the
remaining sense of their duties,and
in a manner to forget themselves
as rational agents, who are appoint-
ed to fulfil certain purposes, by
which they might distinguish them-
selves from the brute creation....
Nevertheless, a moderate partici-
pation in the amusements of the
clay, or the enjoyment of select
company, is highly commendable ;
but, when such indulgence exceeds
the limits of prudence, it not only
deserves severe censure, but is ul-
timately attended with bitter re-
morse.
TIME-PIECE, a termincluding
clocks, watches, and other contri-
vances, for measuring the pro-
gress, or ascertaining the duration
of time.
The ancients were not acquaint-
ed with other time-pieces than the
common sun-dial, and water-clocks,
or vessels filled Avith any liquid,
which was allowed to descend in
drops, so that the portion thus dis-
engaged, in an imperfect manner
indicated the length of time, which
TIM
T I M 139
had elapsed: for these contrivan-
ces, hour-glasses were aftervvards
substituted.
The present mechanical time-
pieces Avith the pendulum, Avere
probably invented in Italy, towards
the end of the 13th, or beginning
of the 14th century; but the
smaller machines, called watches,
were not known in Europe till the
middle of the 17th century, when
the steel spring was employed as
a substitute for weights, and the
spiral or regulating spring, in-
stead of the pendulum. The me-
rit of this invention is claimed by
the city of Numberg, whence Oli-
ver Cromwell was furnished
with an oval watch, that is still
shewn among the curiosities de-
posited in the British museum.....
In England, these useful chrono-
meters were first made by Dr.
Hooxe ; and in Holland, by Huy-
geks ; but the name of their ori-
ginal inventor is consigned to ob-
livion. Since that period, numer-
ous improvements have been made
by Tompion, Sully, Le Roi,
Berthoud, Gray, Graham, and
other artists, whose names we de-
cline to register.
From the extensive utility of
time-pieces, in measuring witb ex-
actness the periodical revolutions
of planetary bodies, it was farther
conjectured, that such machines
might be advantageously employ-
ed for the purpose of ascertaining
the longitude at sea. Various ex-
periments have, by order of the
British government, been institut-
ed Avith this design ; but the most
correct instrument, Avas that con-
structed by the late Mr. Haim:i-
son, and denominated a ?'//;;r-
kceficr; for which the Commis-
sioners of the Board of Longitude,
in 1764, awarded him the sum of
10,000/. bein0- one half of the pre-
mium which was promised by
an act of parliament, passed in
1714, to the artist Avhose me-
chanical contrivance might be cal-
culated to find the longitude at
sea. Mr. Harrison's admirable
work did not vary more than 43"
of time in a voyage from Eng*
land to Jamaica: it Avas afterwards
improved : and a time-piece, con-
structed on his principles, Avas sent
out with Crptain Cook, in 1772 ;
which, during the space of three
years, did not differ more than 14-J
seconds per diem ; the remaining
sum of 10,000/. Avas consequently
paid to the inventor. Our limits
not permitting us to enter into the
rationale of its mechanism, the
reader is referred to the Principles
of Mr. Hjrrison's Time-Keeper,
he. (4to. 1767, 5*. Nourse), in
which its construction, as well as
its application, are fully stated, and
illustrated with plates.
Another time-keeper for ascer-
taining the longitude, was invent-
ed, a few years since, by Mr. Ar-
nold, and which during a trial of
13 months differed only 6. 69" dur-
ing any two clays. Its greatest va-
riation Avould not have exceeded
one minute of longitude, Avhich
might thus be computed with the
same accuracy as the latitude can
be determined. We understand,
however, th: t this contrivance has
not been introduced into the Navv.
TIMOTHY-GkASS,or/W«im,
L. a genus of plantr,. comprehend-
ing eight species, four being indi-
genous ; of which the following
are the principal, namely :
1. The nodosum, or Knotty
Timothy-Grass, grows chiefly on
the dry, hilly, pastures in the vi-
cinity of Bath, and flowers in the
month of Ju :e....This species, in
the opinion oi Mr. Soi.k, is Avell
calculated for dairy pastures ; as
140 T I N
T IN
it affords a large quantity of rich
milk, and is eagerly eaten by cows.
It is also relished by sheep and
other cattle ; though disliked by
horses, where they find the mea-
dow or fescue-grasses.
2. The prate,is?, or Common
Timothy-grass, thri\res generally
in moist pastures, and flowers in
Jxily. The culture of this grass
has been strongly recommended by
Mr. Roc que, in the 4th vol. of
the Museum Rusticum et Commer-
ce ulc. According to him, it is eaten
by horses and cows, preferably to
any other pasture-grass ; though
Dr. Poultiiey observes, that it is
disliked by sheep, and is not re-
lished by horses or cows : Mr.
Sole, and the Rev. Mr. Swayne,
likeAvise remark, that the Com-
mon Timothy-grass is very coarse,
of little value for cattle, and does
not deserve to be cultivated in
England. Notwithstanding such
diversity of opinion, we appeal to
the authority of Linnaeus, who
expressly states the Common Ti-
mothy-grass should be sown on
lands, Avhich have been newly
drained ; as it is very luxuriant,
attains the height of 3 or 4 feet,
;md prospers in wet and marshy
situations. Farther, Ave learn from
Bechsteim, that its stalk grows to
the height of 6 feet; that horses,
and swine, are exceedingly partial
to this grass ; consequently, that
it merits the attention of farmers
who wish to improve moist mea-
dows over-grown with moss....[See
Grass.]
TIN, or S: annum, one of the
imperfect metals, which ir, obtained
principally from the county of
Cornwall, Avhere it is sometimes
dug up in a native or pure state ;
though more frequently mixed
with a large proportion of arsenic,
sulphur, and iron. The crude ore
is first broken to pieces, and wash-
ed ; then roasted in an intense
heat, which dissipates the arsenic;
and afterwards fused in a furnace,
till it be reduced to a metallic
state.
Tin is the lightest and most fu-
sible of all metals : it is of a grey-
ish-white colour ; has a strong,
disagreeable taste ; and, when rub-
bed, emits a peculiar odour : it is
also remarkably malleable ; and,
Avhen beaten into A'ery thin plates,
or tinfoil, is employed in covering
Looking-glasses. Farther, tin
readily unites Avith copper, form-
ing the compositions known under
the names of Bronze, and Bell-
metal : by immersing thin plates
of iron into melted tin,they become
coated, and are then termed Block-
tin, or Latten ; which is manufac-
tured into tea-canisters, and vari-
ous culinary utensils.
[" a. Native Tin : pure native
tin is so very rare, that its real ex-
istence has been doubted.
" (a) 2. Native Oxyde, Spathose
tin ore ; tin combined with oxygen
and iron ; is found in various mo-
difications.
" b. Brown Tin-stone and Spar ;
consists of calx of tin, calx of iron,
and acid of tungsten.
" c. Wood-tin, Stream Tin, or
Cornish Tin Ore ; found only in
Cornwall, in small globular or re-
niform pieces, sometimes of a fi-
brous or radiated texture; con-
taining tin, with oxygen and iron.
" d. Tin Pyrites, Sulpherised
Tin, or Sulphuret of Tin ; con-
tains tin, sulphur, copper and iron,
besides it'smatrix; it is distinguish-
ed by it's sulphureous smell Avhen
heated."....Lettsom's Traveller's
Companion.
" All the acids attack reguline
TIN
TIN 141
tin, requiring for their saturation
more of the imperfect than of the
perfect oxide. The sulphuric acid
oxidates it without dissolving it,
but the sulphureous acid forms with
it a sulphite, or sulphurated
SULPHITE of TIN.
" Water is sufficient to precipi-
tate this oxidated metal. Mr. Mon-
nkt has obtained crystals, the sul-
phite of tin, which resemble fine
needles, interlacing each other.
" In pure nitric acid it is direct-
ly precipitated in a Avhite oxide.
The acid must therefore be consi-
derably diluted and no heat em-
ployed ; thus the nitrate of tin
may be obtained.
" This nitrate burns with a Avhite
and thick flame like that of phos-
phorus ; and detonates Avhen well
heated in a crucible. On distil-
lation it boils up, and fills the re-
ceiver with a Avhite vapour, smel-
ling like nitric acid.
" By adding a solution of gold
to the solution of tin in the nitric
acid, a beautiful purple precipi-
tate falls.
" Tin is dissolved by the muriatic
acid, cold or heated, a fetid gas
being disengaged. The solution
is yellowish, and the muriate of
tin crystalizes in needle like
forms, and attracts humidity.
" The oxide in this salt is im-
perfect, and eagerly takes up oxy-
gen if presented to it. This it
does if brought in contact with oxy-
muriatic acid in an elastic state,
also in the following process.
'• When amalgamated Avith one-
fifth of mercury, and distilled with
an equal quantity of the Avhole, of
corrosive sublimate, an insipid li-
quor first comes over, and then
Avhite vapours, which condense in-
to a transparent liquor, that emits
a considerable cp.antity of vapours,
by mere exposure to the air. This
is the smoking liquor of Libavius ;
appearing to be an oxygenated
muriate of tin.
" Itisdissolvedby the oxy-muriatic
acid Avith vehemence, and Avhen
the acid is highly concentrated, a
magma is obtained, resembling
pitch, Avhich hardens in time.
" It is dissolved in the common
aqua fortis, prepared Avith salt-
petre of the first boiling, for the
composition for scarlet dye, from
cochinclle. This solution often dis-
appoints, from the variable pro-
portions of the muriate of soda,
and nitrate of pot-ash ; Avhen it
contains too little muriate, a pre-
cipitate falls ; and when the acid
is in excess, it affords an obscure
colour. The most accurate pro-
portions for a good solvent of tin,
are two parts of nitric, and one of
muriatic acid. ■
" It may be combined Avith other
metals in various proportions. The
malleability of gold is impaired
even by an exposure to its fumes.
Silver also suffers a diminution of
its malleability by being fused with
it. Yv'hcn alloyed with copper, it
forms bronze, or bell-metai ;
with a very small proportion of iron
it becomes harder, and more so-
norous.
" Of similar mixtures the metal-
lic specula for reflecting tel-
lescoi'ks are cast, such as 2 parts
of copper, 1 of tin, and 1-16th of
arsenic.
" Three parts of tin, Avith five
of bismuth, and two of lead, forms
an alloy, which has been termed
the soft sqbder, it liquefies in
boiling water.....Lichtenburg.
kt Two parts of tin with one of
bismuth afford, according to Wal-
lerius, the compound called tu-
tenag, an appellation which is
142 T I N
T IK
given in the East Indies to zinc...
Gren.
" One part of tin and one of
zinc being melted together, and
mixed Avith two of mercury, then
agitated in a box rubbed with chalk,
forms an amalgama-vImc-Ii wonder-
fully augments the poAver of elec-
trical machines. ...Kienm ay er.
"Its amalgamating with quicksil-
ver, occasions its being employed
in the formation of mirrors. 1
part of tin, 1 of lead, 1 of bis-
muth, and 2 of mercury, form an
amalgam employed for covering
curvilinear glass mirrors.
" When combined with lead and
antimony, it forms a mixture called
pewter, very generally employed
in fabricating vessels for various
domestic purposes.
" It is also employed in the
composition for printer's types.
" Tin is also employed in ena-
melling. A mixture of lead and
tin, 100 parts of lead to 15, 20,
30, or even 40 of tin, is to be first
calcined, 100 parts of the above
calx fused in a potter's furnace
Avith 100 of sand, containing nearly
a third of talc, and 25 or 50 of
muriate of soda, form the compo-
sition for earthen ware.
" For enamelling on metal, the
sand is previously calcined with a
fourth part of muriate of soda, and
even of minium. Fluxes for the
colours are generally similar com-
positions, except that lead tarnish-
es Avith some colours. For deli-
cate colours therefore similar com-
positions to the following may be
used : Three parts of sand, one of
chalk, and three of borax ; or
three of glass, one of borax, a
fourth of nitre, and one of white
oxide of antimony.
'' Painting on enamel may be per-
formed either on the raw or on
the baked enamel. The colours
are produced by the matallic ox-
ides. The oxide of gold forms
purple; iron, by peculiar ma-
nagement, red ; lead, antimony,
and silver.....yellow ; copper.....
green; cobalt....blue; manganese
....violet.
" From the affinity of copper
with tin, it admits of being tinned,
or of having its surface covered
with tin. For this purpose the
copper is first scraped, or cleaned
by an acid, then heated, some re-
sinous substance being applied to
prevent oxidation, and the tin is
rubbed over its surface.
" If care be taken to prevent
oxidation, and a proper degree of
heat be employed, the tin may be
made to enter into combination
Avith iron, and iron may thus have
its surface tinned."....Parkinson's
Chcmicul Pocket Book.']
TINCTURE, in general, de-
notes a solution of the more vola-
tile and active parts of various
bodies, from the three kingdoms
of Nature, by means of a proper
solvent: see Menstruum. This
term is, however, more particular-
ly applied to those spirituous prepa-
rations, which contain the resinous
parts of vegetables, as well as their
flavour and colour.
The usual solvents, employed
for extracting the medicinal virtues
of plants, are water, and rectified
spirit of Avine ; the latter of which
is frequently used for obtaining the
active principles from resins and
the essential oils, that yield them
imperfectly to the former. With
a view to make a tincture or clix-
?'■-, the vegetable or other matter
i-5 usually bruised, put into a mat-
rass, and the spirit is poured on
it, to the depth of about two in-
ches. The glass is then closed,
TIN
and placed in a sand-heat for five
or six days, or till the spirit be-
come perfectly impregnated, and
acquire a deep colour. The quan-
tity of a tincture, to be adminis-
tered for one dose, varies accord-
ingto its constituent parts; though
it seldom exceeds a tea-spoonful,
which is taken at such times as the
nature of the complaint may re-
quire.
TINNING, is the process of
coating copper vessels, chiefly used
for culinary purposes : it is gene-
rally performed in the following
manner:
If the copper be new, its surface
is first scoured with salt and dilut-
ed sulphuric acid : next, pulveriz-
ed resin is strewed over the inte-
rior part of the vessel; into which,
after heating it to a considerable
degree, rnei'.ed tin is carefully
poured, and a roll of hard-twisted
flax is passed briskly over the sides
and bottom, to reader the coating
uniform. The tinning old vessels,
a second time, the surface is first
scraped, or scoured with iiou-
scales, then pulverized sal-ammo-
niac is strewed over it, and the
melted tin is rubbed on the sur-
face with a solid piece of sal-am-
moniac. The process for covering
iron vessels Avith tin, corresponds
with that last described ; but they
ought to be previously cleaned
with the murLtic acid, instead of
being scraped or scoured.
As many families living at a dis-
tance from towns, either have no
opportunity of sending their cop-
per utensils to be re-tinned; or
carelessly overlook such necessary
repair, we think it useful to ob-
serve, that the whole process may
be easily performed by servants,
Avho possess common skill and dex-
terity. For this purpose, the ves-
T O A 143
sel ought to be previously scoured,
and dried ; then exposed to a mo-
derate heat, with such a portion of
pure grain-tin as may be sufficient
to cover the inner surface : vvhen
this metal is melted, a small quan-
tity of sal-ammoniac should be
strewed over it; and immediately
after, a whisk or roll of coarse and
hard twisted flax most be employ-
ed, for spreading the composition
uniformly over the sides and bot-
tom of the vessel. To improve th^
coating, about a third part of zinc
may be added to the tin ; though
the latter Avould produce the de-
sired effect, if it could be obtained
in a pure state.
[A new and excellent mode of
tinning copper vessels is given in
vol. ii. p. 208 :.....it may here be
well to observe, that whiting should
be used to scour tinned vessel',
instead of sand, which is common-
ly employed in the United States;
and which rubs off this important
coat.]
TOAD, or Rana buf, L. is the
most deformed and hideous of the
lower animals. Its body is broad,
the back is flat, and covered with
a dusky skin marked with pimples;
its large belly appears inflated: on
account of the short legs, its mo-
tions are slow, and its retreat is
filthy.
Although the external appear-
ance of this ugly creature inspires
disgust, and even horror, yet it is
asserted that the eyes of toads are
remarkably briiliant. Insects of
all kinds, and particularly flesh-
nva;!';ots, and winged ants, afford
food exceedingly grateful to toads.
Nevertheless, these dreaded ani-
mals possess no noxious qualities:
on the contrary, it has lately been
asserted, that they furnish the
means of curing Cancers, by sue-
144 T O B
T OB
tion. Mr. Pennant, hoAvever,
questions their efficacy, and re-
marks, " that they seem only to
have rendered a horrible complaint
more loathsome."
Toad-elax. See Flax the
Toad.
TOBACCO-PLANT, the Com-
mon, or NtCjtiana Tabacum, L. is
a native of America, where consi-
derable quantities are annually
raised for exporation ; and also
in Spain, Portugal, Turkey, and
Malta.
There arc eight species of this
narcotic plant, but the principal
varieties are known under the
names of Oronokoe, and Sweet-
scented Tobacco: both attain the
height of from six to nine feet;
being distinguished only by their
deep green leaves ; the former of
which are longer and narrower
than those of the latter. If their
culture were not restricted by the
legislature (half a pole of ground
only being allowed for such pur-
pose, in fthysic-gardens; but, if
that space be exceeded, the culti-
vator is liable to a penalty of 10/.
for every rod), they might be pro-
pagated from seed, which ought
to be sown towards the middle of
April, in beds of warm, rich, light
soil. In the course of a month,
or six weeks, they must be trans-
planted into similar situations, at
the distance of about two feet from
each other. Here they should be
carefully Aveeded, and occasionally
av ate red, during dry weather.....
When the plants are about two
feet high, they shoot forth branch-
es ; and, as these draw the nutri-
ment from the leaves, it becomes
necessary to top, or nip off the
extremity of the stalks, in order
to prevent them from attaining to
a greater height; and also to re-
move the young sprouts, which
continually shoot forth between
the leaves and the stem. No far-
ther attention will be required, till
the leaves begin to ripen; a change
which is known, by their becoming
rough and mottled with yellow
spots, and by the stalk being co-
vered with a species of down. The
tobacco plants are now cut off
closely to the roots, and exposed
on the dry ground to the rays of
the sun, till the leaves become
wilted, or so pliant as to bend in
any direction without breaking.....
They are then laid in heaps under
shelter, for three or four days, in
order to sweat, or ferment; being
turned every day ; next the to-
bacco leaves are suspended on
strings, at a small distance from
each other, for the space of a
month ; at the end of which they
may be taken'down, laid in heaps,
and sweated a second time for a
wee!;, being then pressed with
heavy logs of wood. The last
operation is that of picking the
leaves ; when they are packed in
hogsheads for exportation.
Uses ."....Various properties have
been attributed to this stupefying
drug, since it was first introduced
into Europe, about the middle of
the i6th century. Its smoke,
when properly blown against noxi-
ous insects, effectually destroys
them ; but the chief consumption
of this plant, is in the manufactures
of Snuff and Tobacco, or the
cut leaves for Smoking. It is
likewise (though we think, Avith-
out foundation), believed to pre-
vent the return of hunger ; and is
therefore chewed in considerable
quantities by mariners, as well as
the labouring classes of people ;
a disgusting practice-which cannot
be too severely censured. For,
TOB
TOB 145
though in some cases, this method
of using tobacco, may afford relief
in the rheumatic tooth-ach, yet, as
the constant mastication of it in-
duces an uncommon discharge of
saliva, its narcotic qualities ope-
rate more powerfully, and thus
eventually impair the digestive or-
gans.
As a medicine, the use of tobacco
requires great precaution ; and it
should never be resorted to Avith-
out professional advice : it is chief-
ly employed in clysters, and as an
ingredient in ointments, for destroy-
ing cutaneous insects, cleansing
inveterate ulcers, 8cc Lastly, in-
deed Mr. Fowj.er has success-
fully prescribed it, in the various
forms of tincture, infusion, and
pills, as a diuretic, in cases of
dropsy and dysury : if one ounce
of the infusion of tobacco be mixed
with a pint of water-gruel, and in-
jected as a clyster (being occasion-
ally repeated), Dr. F. states, that
it will afford great relief in obsti-
nate constipations of the bowels....
The smoke has, for ages, been ad-
ministered in the form of injection,
as a sovereign remedy for the dry-
belly-ach, prevalent in the West
Indies.
Beside the varieties of this herb
already described, there is another,
termed English Tobacco, or
Nicotiana minor v. rustica, L. it
is originally a native of America ;
but, having been raised in some
British gardens for curiosity, its
leaves are frequently substituted
for the genuine drug-. They pos-
sess similar narcotic properties Avith
the Hen-bane ; and may be dis-
tinguished from foreign tobacco,
by the pedicles Avhich abound on
them, and also by their smallness
and oval shape.
It is remarkable, that the daily
vol. v.
smoking of tobacco, is a practice
which has only within the last cen-
tury become general throughout
Europe, especially in Holland and
Germany; Avhere it constitutes one
of the greatest luxuries Avith which
the industrious, poor peasants, as
well as the more indolent and
wealthy classes, regale themselves
and their friends. In Britain, how-
ever, the lower and middle ranks,
only, appear to be attached to such
fumigations ; which, though occa-
sionally useful in damp and mephi-
tic situations, are always hurtful
to persons of dry and rigid fibres,
Aveak digestion, or delicate habits ;
but particularly to the young, ple-
thoric, asthmatic, and those whose
ancestors have been consumptive ;
or who are themselves threatened
with pulmonary diseases. In proof
of this assertion, Ave shall only re-
mark, that a few drops of the oil
distilled from the leaves of this
powerful plant, t^ken internally,
have operated as fatal poison : and,
a considerable portion of such oil
being disengaged Avithin the tube
of tobacco-pipes, during combus-
tion, the noxious effects of inhal-
ing and absorbing it by the mouth,
may be easily inferred. See also
Smoking.
Lastly, the ashes of tobacco may
be applied to many economical pur-
poses : they not only extirpate
those small and noxious vermin,
earth-slugs, but at the same time
fertilize the soil, Avhen strewed on
it early in the spring. Farther, by
scattering them occasionally over
the food of horses and geese, the
health of these animals is said to
be greatly benefited: they also
afford a good tooth-powder; a
strong ley ; pot-ash ; and an use-
ful ingredient in the manufacture
of glass. We understand that
U
146 TOB
considerable quantities of tobacco-
ashes might be easily procured
from the King's Avarehouses es-
tablished for this merchandize, in
London, and other sea-ports ;
where large parcels of spoiled
leaves are frequently committed to
the flames.
[The history of this plant, and
an ample detail of the mode of its
cultivation, pursued in Virginia,
may be found in Col. Tatham's
work on Tobacco, lately published
in London.
The use of tobacco is wholly ar-
tificial, and no one who used it in
any form, ever advised another to
follow the example. The reader
who is anxious to see its injurious
effects on both body and mind, de-
tailed in an ample manner, is re-
ferred to an excellent paper by
Dr. Rush, in his " Essays, Lite-
rary, Moral, and Philosophical, Phi-
ladelphia, 1798." At present, it
is our business to point out the
good to be derived from the use
of this nauseous vegetable ; and for
this purpose, we shall make the
following extract from an inaugu-
ral dissertation.by Dr. Brails-
ford of South-Carolina, Philadel-
phia, 1799.
"The medical powers of tobacco
were generally known among phy-
sicians, at an early period, who
ascribed many virtues to it in cer-
tain obstinate diseases. With re-
spect to its operation as a general
evacuant, I may, from my experi-
ments, and the corroborating as-
sertions of various authors, pro-
nounce this medicine a valuable
acquisition to the materia medica;
and that its evident operation on
the system, is that of a sudorific,
an emetic, a cathartic, and a diure-
tic. Hence the propriety of its
use, in a variety of diseases.
TOB
" In cases of ascites and other
dropsical affections, it appears to
be an invaluable remedy.
" As a diuretic, I would venture
to assert, that it is excelled by few,
if any of our indigenous plants.....
The digitalis purpurea, or purple
fox-glove, which grows luxuriantly
in South-Carolina, has been much
celebrated for its diuretic quality,
by medical characters ; but I have
seen instances where the tobacco
has eradicated several violent cases
of ascites^ Avhere this had proved
but of little effect. " Diuretics,"
says a much celebrated character*,
" have so long been employed
with benefit in the treatment of
drepsies, that it becomes matter of
consequence, to increase the num-
ber of the medicines of this class,
and to learn how to exhibit, with
more advantage, those which are
already known." In how great es-
timation then should we hold that
plant, Avhich is evidently endowed
with a power of evacuating the ac-
cumulated water by a natural dis-
charge, for the relief of ascites and
other dropsical affections, in lieu
of resorting to a surgical operation,
which is painful and disagreeable
to the afflicted patient; that Nico-
tiana possesses that quality, no one
will pretend to deny.
" Every practitioner of medicine,
who has attentively perused the
publication of the ingenious Dr.
Fowler, on the effects of tobacco,
with respect to its diuretic quality,
must candidly acknowledge its sa-
lutary effects, in cases of dropsy
and dysury. The uniform result
attendant on his experiments, to-
" * See professor Barton's essay to-
wards a materia medica of the United
S .ates, page 34.
TOB
TOB 147
gether with the many proofs of its
virtues which have come under my
cognizance, clearly evince the inde-
finite worth of this plant, and the
necessity of administering it in
those cases of dropsy, which seem
to triumph over medicines of less
efficacy, although held in the great-
est repute.
u„The result of this enquiry, has
afforded him very favourable ideas
upon the subject, and from the
number of facts enumerated by
him, we may infer, that tobacco,
under proper regulations, may be
administered internally, not only
as a safe, but as an efficacious, and
valuable remedy ; especially, as a
ftoxverful diuretic in cases of drop-
sies and dysuries.
" To illustrate the manner of its
exhibition, and also its salutary
effects in many cases, I will take
the liberty of inserting a few ex-
tracts from Dr. F. as related by
him, and Avhich were the results of
his own observations.
" It appears from many experi-
ments," says the doctor, " that the
average dose for an adult,sufficient
to produce the desired effect, will
be about eighty drops of the infu-
sion ; or to speak with some lati-
tude, from sixty drops to one hun-
dred, and to be repeated twice a
day.
" The properest times for ad-
ministering the medicine, are two
hours before dinner, and at bed-
time ; it being observed to disa-
gree the most with the stomach,
in a morning fasting. And such is
the difference between morning
and night, that almost every pa-
tient will require to take one fourth,
and some even cue third less, in
the forenoon, than in the evening ;
in order to enable them to bear the
doses, with equal convenience.....
The infusion should always be ad-
ministered in some vehicle ; which
may either be water, or any other
simple drink.
" The common dose just men-
tioned, relates only to adults of an
ordinary constitution ; for it de-
serves particular notice, that be-
tween constitutions, Avhich are
very nervous and irritable, and
those which are very robust, or
torpid, or long accustomed to the
use of tobacco, the doses will ad-
mit of very great, and surprising
variations.
" As an illustration of this point,
I shall here annex a comparative
view of the doses of the infusion,
administered in 94 cases of adults ;
taking the medium-dose of each
case, and reducing the whole into
four classes, according to the num-
ber of drops.
First class. Medium doses.
21 Cases (3 men, and 18 women),
from 35 to 60 drops.
Second Class.
57 Cases, (29 men, and 28 wo-
men), from 60 to 100 drops.
Third Class.
13 Cases, (9 men, and 4 women),
from 100 to 1 50.
Fourth Class.
3 Cases, (3 men), from 150 t*
300 drops.
94
Seeing the diversity of doses i»
so great, I would lay it down as a
rule, by way of caution, to begin
with 60 drops, or three fourths of
the medium-dose, in a case of a
delicate constitution ; and to inj
crease the number of drops, by five,
eight or ten at a time, till b\ their
obvious effects on the system, the
proper dose shall be ascertained.
': But if the patient should be a
male, and the constitution robust,
148 TOB
TOB
torpid, or accustomed to the use
of tobacco, Ave may safely venture
to begin Avith HO, 90 or 100 drops ;
and thus, with more expedition, re-
gulate the further doses according
to the effects.
" In Nephritis....ln cases of ne-
phritis calculosa, or gravel, the in-
fusion of tobacco has been given
with very good effect; and Dr.
F. affirms, that he has seen many
cases Avhere it proved of infinite
utility, and in some instances per-
fected radical cures. Physicians,
many years back, wrere not ignor-
ant of its virtues in such affections;
for they have asserted that it has
proved " profitable for those Avho
are troubled with a stone in the
kidney, both to ease pain and by
provoking urine,to expel gravel and
the stone engendered therein."
Theatrum Botanicum, p. 711.
" Ascarides... A species of worms,
thus termed from their incessant
troublesome motion, which exites
an itching. They are small and
white, with sharp pointed heads,
and generally exist in the rectum.
" They oftentimes occasion such
uneasines in some people as to in-
duce fainting, and frequently prove
so troublesome throughout the
night, as to deprive them of sleep.
They are so completely enveloped
in mucus, that it is with difficulty
they can be eradicated, and fre-
quently they resist the most pow-
erful anthelmintics ; but practical
authors observe, " that the fumes
of burning tobacco injected clyster-
wise into the rectum, is of singular
efficacy."
" Farriers are aware of its im-
mense virtues in such affections,
for they generally pronounce it to
be infallible in expelling those
small worms, commonly called
bots, which so frequently prove
mortal to many horses.
iiInAsthma....ln asthmatic cases,
this medicine has frequently af-
forded relief, by its expectorant
quality. Dr. F. observes, that he
has tried the infusion in many
cases of asthma, where it proved
expectorant, and procured relief.
For agreeably to the discharge of
mucus, we find the remission of
coughing more or less considera-
ble : but should an inflammatory
type prevail, Avhich generally oc-
curs in the recent stage of this dis-
ease, its use should be protracted,
until proper depletive remedies
have had the effect of reducing the
system to that state, Avhich Avould
render its exhibition the more effi-
cacious.
" In Odontalgia or Tooth-ach.....
In such affections, the smoking of
a segar, has imparted considerable
relief. A piece of lint, impreg-
nated with the expressed juice of
tobacco, has often, in some instan-
ces, acted as a charm, in mitigat-
ing the violence of the tooth-ach.
The oil of tobacco, dropped on a
piece of cotton, of sufficient mag-
nitude to occupy the concavity of
the affected tooth, has proved almost
instantaneous in its relief. It must
here be remarked that this remedy
should not be adopted by persons
unaccustomed to the use of tobac-
co, as the oil is extremely nause-
ous, and aviU oftentimes induce vo-
miting. In these various forms,
tobacco acts by its stimulating
quality, destroying the sensibility
of the nerve, and thereby encoun-
tering pain. Opium oftentimes
acts in like manner, but neither
perfect permanent cures ; for the
pains frequently recur, and the
only radical remedy, to Avhich we
TOB
must ultimately resort, is the ex-
traction of the affected tooth.
" In Colic....The decoction of
tobacco, exhibited in the form of
an injection, has afforded almost in-
stantaneous relief, after other me-
dicines had proved ineffectual.
" Dr. F, remarks, that by a pro-
per administration, the violent ef-
fects of tobacco may be avoided.
An ounce of the infusion he ob-
serves, will be found a medium
dose, in the form of an injection,
for an adult of an ordinary consti-
tution ; and the general rule by
which he was guided, is as follows;
supposing a common injection to
have been administered without
effect, I would order one of an
ounce of the infusion, agreeable to
the preceding observation, in half
a pint of milk, or common gruel,
to be immediately injected. If
this procured no relief, or excited
no giddiness, or nausea, continu-
ing for the space of 30, 40, or 60
minutes; these last effects in ob-
stinate constipations, most fre-
quently preceding its laxative op-
eration, then I would gradually in-
crease the strength of the future
injections, till one or other of these
effects should take place.
" By this mode of proceeding,
the poAvers of the medicine, whe-
ther successful or not, will be fully
tried in the space of a few hours ;
a matter of serious consequence,
Avhere suspense is distressing, and
delay dangerous.
tk In the Iliac passion...." It is
highly proper," says Dr. Syden-
ham, " to give a strong purging
clvster, an hour or two after bleed-
ing." Wallis's Sydenham, p. 443.
In such cases, I have seen the to-
bacco infusion made use of with
considerable advantage. The doc-
tor himself remaiks the salutary
TOB 149
effects of tobacco in this disease.
" The smoke of tobacco," he ob-
serves, " forced up through a blad-
der into the bowels by an inverted
pipe, has been attended with very
beneficial consequences."
" It is asserted in the Encyclope-
dia, that a strong decoction of to-
bacco throAvn up the rectum, has
proved of good effect in what is
usually called the stone-colic, and
also in the iliac passion.
In Hernia. (Ruptures.)....It ge-
nerally occurs that costiveness is
one of the most alarming symp-
toms attendant on this disease, for
the relief of Avhich, stimulating pur-
gatives arc generally administer-
ed ; but it not unfrequently hap-
pens that they do much injury ; for
when they have not the desired ef-
fect, they produce a considerable
nausea at the stomach, and some-
times vomiting, which promotes
the pain and tension of the tu-
mour.
" In such affections," says Mr.
Bell, " I would recommend to-
bacco smoke thrown up in the form
of injections, as preferable to every
other remedy." Bell's Surgerv,
vol. I. p. 162.'
'* In Tympanites Intestinalis....
This is termed a flatulent dropsy,
the abdomen frequently becomes
considerably distended, and in such
cases the chief intention is to dis-
charge the flatulencies : various
remedies have been indicated for
this purpose, and there have been
instances where the infusion of to-
bacco has proved efficacious after
the failure of many of them.
" A case of two years continu-
ance," says Dr. F. " after the trial
of various remedies, has been sur-
prisingly relieved by clysters of
tobacco prepared in a very stronp-
manner. Their operation vv..s
150 TOB
TOB
moderately purgative, accompani-
ed with nausea, vertigo, a copious
perspiration, and much discharge
of wind."
"In obstinate Ulcers...The dried
leaves of tobacco, steeped in Water
and applied to the parts affected,
have sometimes been attended with
beneficial effects.
"Mr. William Bartram in-
formed me, that he knew of seve-
ral long standing ulcers, after hav-
ing resisted the usual remedies,
that were entirely cured by the
use of tobacco in the manner a-
bove specified. Dr. Earle, of
Maryland, communicated to me
the case of a child, who had been
for several weeks afflicted with an
eruption on its head, which evad-
ed the-skill of several eminent
physicians, that was ultimately
cured by an old woman, who daily
dressed it with an ointment of to-
bacco, previously Avashing the part
with a decoction of the same.
" In the iic/*...This fulsome dis-
order has frequently been cured
by the application of tobacco to
the affected parts. Mr. Jacobs, a
gentleman from Paris, informed
me, that the French physicians,
make great use of the tobacco
wash in obstinate cases of cutane-
ous eruptions. The Avash is pre-
pared in the following manner:
" To one pound of the dried
tobacco leaves, add four quarts of
Avater ; let these boil slowly over
a gentle fire, for the space of half
an hour, then pour off the liquor,
and add to it one ounce of soda or
mineral alkali. The parts affected
are to be well rubbed with a suffi-
cient portion of this mixture, and
to be continued from one to three
weeks, according to the virulency
of the case. Though it must be
remarked, that in consequence of
the irritability of many constitu-
tions, great caution is requisite,
with respect to its use ; as it has,
in some instances, occasioned vo-
miting, and sometimes convul-
sions. The same, he avers, sel-
dom fails of curing the itch : the
eruptive parts are to be washed
three or four times a day, until
every appearance subsides; in
this way radical cures have been
effected, even after the disease had
resisted the most powerful medi-
cines.
" A strong decoction of the
stalks with sharp-pointed dock and
alum is said to be of good service,
used externally, in cuticular dis-
tempers : this is also said to be
infallible in curing the mange in
dogs. See the new Encyclopedia,
by George Selby Howard.
In Phtheiriasis....Th\s is a lousy
distemper, to which most children
are generally subject, adults also
at times, are afflicted with it.....
Moist and warm situations pro-
mote the increase of these detesta-
ble vermin ; but a cold and dry
one very soon exterminate them.
Four species are peculiar to the
human body, viz. 1st. The pediculi,
so called from their being more
troublesome with their feet, than
from their bite. They generally
infest the head, particularly if sore.
" A gentleman informed me,
that when young, he vvas neglect-
ed by his attendants, and for a time
was much afflicted vvith the first
and third species of these vermin,
which occasioned obstinate erup-
tions, in his head, and on various
parts of his body. Many medi-
cines Avere tried for his relief, but
without any benefit whatever.....
Recourse vvas then had to a strong
decoction of tobacco, which was
applied three or four times a day,
TOB
to the parts affected, and in a fort-
night or three weeks he was radi-
cally cured.
" 2d. Morpiones or Crab-lice....
They are thus called from the
analogy which they bear to a crab-
fish. 3d. Body-lice. These are
generated in the apparel of the
filthy. 4th. A species Avhich breed
und«;r the cuticle, and are called
by some authors cyriorus. They
are of a round form, extremely
minute, and are generally found in
the hands andfeet. By creeping
under the scarfskin they induce an
intolerable itching, and when the
skin bursts where they lodge, clus-
ters of them are found deposited
in a small concavity.
" A good diet and attention to
cleanliness contribute much to the
destruction of these vermin. Mer-
curial ointment, and a solution of
corrosive sublimate are held in the
greatest estimation; but I have
heard of instances, where these
have failed, and an infusion of to-
bacco perfected a radical cure.
" A decoction of tobacco proves
very destructive to flies, Avhen
sprinkled about a room.
" Dr. Shannon asserts that,
there is a large fly in some parts of
Africa, that producesoften a dread-
fed disease, by depositing its ova
in the mouth or nose.
" It happens frequently to ne-
groes, and there are several exam-
ples of it among the common sol-
diers. While they are sleeping in
the open air, the fly deposits its
ova most commonly in the nose,
but sometimes in the mouth. The
pain, sAvelling, and inflammation
about the face, after the maggots
are formed and ready to bre^k
forth, are very great, and the poor
sufferers are almost distracted.....
The number of living maggots
T OB 15
that come away, is often consider-
able ; and they are of a large size,
being nearly half an inch lcng.
The usual remedy in such cases
is, inhaling the steam of a strong
decoction of tobacco through the
mouth and nose, according to the
seat of the disease; it procures re-
lief: perhaps washing the mouth
and syringing the nose, might be
equally or more effectual.....See
Shannon on medicine, p. 382.
" Tobacco as a vermifuge is
deserving of being held in high
repute.
" Several of the most powerful
medicines, whose virtues as a ver-
mifuge, are in the greatest estima-
tion, appear to be but feeble in their
operation, Avhen compared Avith the
great influence of tobacco in tie
expulsion of worms.
" The celebrated Spigelia Mary-
landica of Linmeus, it must be ac-
knowledged, is very generally des-
tructive to worms ; but, agreea-
ble to the first and seventh expe-
riments, under the head of anthel-
mintics, we find that tobacco ap-
pears to be more instantarieous in
its operation, though perhaps ulti-
mately, not more effectual. Yet,
from its more immediate effect on
those animals, I should rather pre-
sume, that it merits the particular
attention of physicians, as a valua-
ble medicine, and that, on this
consideration, it would, unques-
tionably be expedient to give it re-
peated trials in those cases, Avhich
may resist the more feeble opera-
tion of other anthelmintics.
" Dr. Shannon on medicine, p.
380, after enumerating several dis-
eases peculiar to the Africans, ob-
scrA'es, that the Guinea-wcrm is
another evil attendant on the ne-
groes in Africa, and is generally
cured by anthelmintics.
152 T O B
TOM
" It may be just, therefore, to
infer, that the tobacco infusion may-
be administered Avith very good
effect.
" As a Cathartic....In cases of
constipations of the abdominal vis-
cera, the infusion of tobacco has
sometimes been administered, and
often with immediate relief l:y oc-
casioning a speedy expulsion of
the obstructing indurated frrces....
The smoke, says Dr. Cull en,
thrown up the rectum, will oper-
ate in like manner, and has proved
beneficial, after the failure of many
violent cathartics ; it enters much
further into the intestines than in-
jections commonly do, and is there-
by applied to a larger surface, by
which means it may be rendered
much more powerful than the in-
fusion.
'' A gentleman of my particular
acquaintance informed me, that
he Avas not in the habit of smok-
ing much, but Avhenever he was
troubled with any degree of cos-
tiveness, it was only resorting to a
segar to obviate this inconvenience,
which never failed of acting as a
lenient purgative, and imparted
immediate relief. This method he
preferred to the taking of physic ;
as it Avas mild in its effects, and
left his body agreeably composed.
" It is to be regretted, says Dr.
Foaa ler, that injections of tobacco
are not in more general use; for I
am thoroughly persuaded, that in
casesof the colic, they would prove
more successful than any other
kind with Avhich we are acquaint-
ed.
" From the many facts and ob-
servations which I have hitherto
adduced, relative to the medicinal
influence of tobacco,it is, doubtless,
reasonable to infer, that it may
prove efficacious in many dis-
eases."
[In the Tetanus or lock-jaw, in-
jections of tobacco decoction, have
been used with success ; they not
only produce evacuations from
the bowels, which are generally
obstinately constipated, but tend to
occasion a relaxation of the violent
spasms so peculiar in this disease :
on this account, they might be ad-
vantageously given in the disease
produced by the bite of mad dog, to
produce a suspension of the dis-
ease, and give an opportunity for
the use of powerful tonic and sti-
mulating remedies, which should
be given regularly, and persisted
in until a good effect be produced.]
Toes. See Chilblain, and
Corns.
TOLU, or Balsam of Tolu,
an esteemed drug which is obtain-
ed from the Toluifera balsamum,
L. a native of South-America,
Avhence it is imported in small
gourd-shells.
This balsam is of a transparent,
reddish-brown or yelloAV colour
of a thick, tanacious consistence ;
and acquires such a degree of brit-
tleness by age, that it may be ea-
sily reduced to powder. It pos-
sesses a very fragrant odour,
slightly resembling that of lemons;
and has a warm, sweetish taste....
The virtues of this drug corre-
spond with those of the Peruvian
Balsam ; but it is much milder
than the latter, and therefore more
frequently employed in affections
of the lungs and chest, especially
when combined Avith a decoction
of Avhite poppies, and the s,vrup
either of marsh-mallows or pale
roses.
TOM-TIT, a well-known dimi-
nutive bird, abounding in woods
TON
and orchards, where it constructs
its nest with grass, he. in which
the female deposits from three to
five very small eggs.
Tom-tits have erroneously been
supposed to injure the young buds
and blossoms of trees, on which
account, large numbers are annual-
ly caught. They are however,
believed to be of great service to
fruit-trees ; and though a few buds
or blossoms may be occasionally
destroyed by them, yet such da-
mage is amply compensated; as in-
numerable insects are devoured by
these birds; and which, insinuating
themselves into the buds, would
commit irreparable injury. Hence,
the increase of tom-tits ought to
be encouraged ; as instances have
occurred, where numbers of those
harmless creatures had been taken
in one year, after which the blos-
soms of trees were, in the succeed-
ing spring, completely destroyed.
TON, or Tun, a measure of ca-
pacity, varying in its dimensions,
according to the nature of liquid
or solid articles: thus, a tun of
wine contains four hogsheads; a
ton of timber comprises a square of
40 solid feet: and a ton of coals
amounts to 20 cwt.
TONGUE, in the animal eco-
nomy, is an organized muscle situ-
ated in the cavity of the mouth,
moveable in every direction, and
destined for the purposes of speech,
mastication, deglutition, and suc-
tion. On the upper part, it is
furnished with many small ner-
vous warts, regulating the sense
of taste : the whole is covered by
the muciparous membrane lining
the inside of the mouth; and which,
by a duplicature at the lower part,
forms the ligament called thofre-
num.......If this ligament be too
short (which may be ascertained
vol. v.
TON 153
by the incapacity of the infant to
protrude its tongue to the gums,
and between the lips; or of suck-
ing either the breast, or a finger
introduced into its mouth) an in-
cision should be made, by a per-
son properly qualified ; and the in-
fant, immediately after, be placed
to the breast; in order to prevent
its swallowing the b!ood. -"A simi-
lar operation will be requisite, as
the only mean of preservation,
Avhere a fleshy tumour occurs under
the tip of the tongu...
Another affection is the Ramda,
or swelling beneath, and at the
side of. the tongue ; wbich gene-
rally arises from an obstructed sali-
vary gland : in some instances, it
contains a gritty substance, but
more frequently a fetid fluid, in
consequence of which, the mouth
becomes inffamed. Where it pro-
ceeds from tainted milk, the nurse
ought to be instantly changed, ar.:l
the mouth be wj/hed with a de-
coction of sage sweetened with
honey ; but, if the tumor be hard,
it will be i Uisable to extirpate it
by the knife: after the operation,
the mouth should be frequently
rinsed with miik and wattr.....to
promote the healing of the wound
gentle astringents, such as (fluted
tincture of bark or myrrh, wid be
useful, when given with due pre-
caution.
Ulcers of the tongue are some-
times produced by the sharp edges
ofi.be teeth: in this ca^e, the latter
must be filed1 off', and astringent
gargles frequently employed.
A more serious malady is Ghssi-
tis,ov Inflammation of the T^.gue ;
the following are its symptoms....
A partial or general tumor; the
sides and Ioavct surface are red,
and uncommonly painful to the
touch. Progressively, the patient's
X
154 TON
TON
speech, SAvalloAving, and respira-
tion, become affected ; and, Avhen
the complaint is of a violent na-
ture, the tongue is so tumefied
that it fills up the cavity of the
mouth: farther, if the inflamma-
tion should extend to the gullet,
and thus impede respiration, a
symptomatic sore-throat is often
induced. An acute head acb, and
sometimes delirium occur, which
may even prove fatal. More fre-
quently, hoAvever, it terminates
either by a resolution, or by a fa-
vourable suppuration; though, in
some instances, it is eventually
followed by mortification, scirrhus,
or cancer.
Causes......Suppressed perspira-
tion ; acrid substances taken into
the mouth; or, a deposition of
morbid matter from other parts,
for instance, in rheumatisms, scro-
phula, he.
Cure....While the patient is able
to SAvalloAV,cooling aperients should
be given ; and, if the symptoms
evince crudities in the stomach and
intestines, either emetics or purga-
tives, according to the seat of such
accumulated matter, will, in the
first stage, prove highly efficacious.
Blisters, and other vesicatories,
applied to the feet and arms; or,
in urgent cases, even to the neck,
together with bathing the legs in
tepid water, cannot fail to be use-
ful, by diminishing the inflamma-
tion. Warm, emollient fomenta-
tion's around the neck, may also be
resorted to ; and if %the mouth be
charged with phlegm or mucus,
the fauces ought to be rinsed with
a decoction of chamomile or elder
flowers, to which a small quantity
of sal-ammoniac may be added: for
the same purpose, a decoction of
figs in milk, will occasionally prove
of service....Should venesection be
indicated, it will be preferable to
draAV the blood by means of cup-
ping-glasses; or, by applying leecb-
es to the adjacent parts...-lf a col-
lection of pus, or an abscess be
formed, the discharge must be pro-
moted by an incision, as soon as
the matter is sufficiently maturated.
But, Avhere the inflammation ter-
minates in a Scirrhus, or Can-
cer, the reader will find the pro-
per treatment stated under those
respectiA-e heads.
Lameness of the tongue, may
originate from various causes: thus,
if it proceed from worms, or sup-
pressed piles, in the former case,
vermifuges, and in the latter, such
remedies should be resorted to, as
tend to restore that salutary evacu-
ation, by the mildest aperients:
when this affection arises from
violent passions, catarrh, or is
symptomatic of palsy, it Avill be
useful to employ electricity, setons,
and blistering cataplasms to the
skin (see Sinapism), which have
frequently been attended Avith suc-
cess.
The palate, or sense of taste,
may be depraved by organic affec-
tions, or atony of the parts; by
incrustations, for instance, in the
thrush; in consequence of warts
on the tongue, from a vitiated sa-
liva; or the destruction of nerves
proceeding to this organ; and
lastly, from catarrhs, by Avhich the
head is generally affected.
If such complaint be occasioned
by impurities the tongue should
be frequently scraped and washed
with a mixture of spring Avater,
vinegar, and honey. A corruption
of the saliva being mostly connect-
ed with other disorders, it will also
be remoA^ed by the remedies em-
ployed for the cure of the latter:
we shall therefore only add, tha
TOO
TOR 155
when it arises from tainted hu-
mours (evinced by frequent, foul
eructations), the repeated use of
thin slices of lemons, or oranges,
with a little sugar ; or, rinsing the
mouth with a mixture of vinegar
and lime-water, Avill often remedy
such inconvenience.
Where the sensibility of the
nerves is diminished, the chewing
of horse-radish, sweet flag, and si-
milar stimulants, has frequently
proved beneficial...See also Dumb-
ness.
TONSILS, or vulgarly called
Almonds, are two round glands
situated collaterally at the basis of
the tongue ; each of them being
provided with a large oval passage
opening towards the fauces, whence
a mucus is secreted for lubricating
the mouth and gullet; such dis-
charge being farther promoted by
the action of the muscles, compress-
ing these glands.
The principal affection incident
to the tonsils, consists in an enlarge-
ment, unattended with pain ; but
which sometimes increases to such
an alarming degree, as to threaten
suffocation : in this case, relief can
be obtained only by an operation.
When the complaint, however, is
consequent on inflammations of the
adjacent parts, for instance, in the
Quinsy, Scarlet-fever, Sec. the
remedies directed under those ar-
ticles, may then afford relief.
TOOL, a general term denot-
ing any small implement, which is
used both for manufacturing other
complex instruments or machines,
and also those employed in the me-
chanical arts.
Tools are divided into edged-
tools, spring-look, pointed-tools, he.
But, consistently with the advanced
state of the present work, we shall
only give an account of a patent,
-'-anted in January 1793, to Mr.
Arnold Wilde,for makingplane-
irons, sickles, scythes, drawing-
knives, and all other kinds of
edged-tools, from a preparation of
cast-steel and iron, incorporated by
means of fire....He directs a piece
of wrought-iron to be previously
heated in the fire, and hammered ;
after Avhich it should be formed of
the requisite size : it is then to be
fixed in a mould of proper dimen-
sions, and in such a direction that,
Avhen the cast-steel is poured into
the latter, the iron may settle in
the middle, or on either side.....
Next, the steel must be melted in
a crucible exposed to a strong fire;
and, Avhen it is nearly in a fluid
state, the iron should be prepared
in a welding heat. After clearing
it from scales, or other extraneous
matters, the iron is again to be
fixed in the mould, and the fluid
steel poured into the vacancy left
for that purpose; when the vv hole
will be united into one solid mass.
.....The various tools, above-men-
tioned, may then be made of such
compound metal in the usual man-
ner ; or by any method that should
be deemed most convenient to the
workman, or manufacturer.
Tooth ; and Tooth-ach. See
Teeth.
TORMENTIL, the Common,
or Sept-foil, Tormentilla crecta
v. officinalis, L. is an indigenous
perennial, groAving in moors, bar-
ren pastures, and shady places;
flowering from June to Septem-
ber....It is eaten by cows, goats,
sheep and swine; but refused by
horses.
The Tormentil is propagated by
planting the croAvns of its bulbous
roots, at the depth of one inch,
and at the distance of five or six
square inches...These roots are of
great utility, both in domestic and
in medical economy : on account
156 T O U
of their stro-v^ astringency, they
are advantageously substituted for
o?k-bark in tanning, and dyeing
leather of a red colour, with the
audition of the Avater-elder berries,
and alum......Leyser observes, in
his Original Botany (7th century
of his Collection of Plants, in Ger-
man), that the inspissated red
juice of this root may be employed
as an excellent substitute for the
foreign drug, called Dragon's
blood, in dyeing, staining, he.....
Lastly, the tormentil-root has been
found remarkably efficacious in the
dysentery often prevailing among
cattle ; and, being one of the most
astringent vegetables of our cli-
mate, it may, with equal advan-
tage, be used for similar purposes
by mankind.
[Dr. Wilkinson found that
Tormentil-root abounds with the
tanning principle....See p. 155.]
TORTOISE, or Tcstudo, L. a
genous of amphibious animals,com-
prehending 33 species, of which
the following are the principal:
1. The midas. See Common
Tubtle.
2. The imbricata, v. caretta, or
hawk's-bill tortoise, is a native of
South America; Avhere it attains
the length of three feet: its shell
is divided into the upper part,
which covers the back ; and the
lower, for the protection of the
belly : it is composed of thirteen
leaves, or scales that form the
beautiful transparent substance,
known under the name of tortoise-
shell.
3. The orbicularis, or common
river-turtle, inhabits the milder cli-
mates of Europe, particularly the
swampy parts cf Hungary and
Sclavonia; its size seldom exceed-
ing eight or nine inches in diame-
ter. It is covered with a smooth
dark shell; lives in morasses; and
TOU
spends the winter under groundr
in a torpid state....The flesh of this
species is much esteemed on the
Continent, where it is eaten by the
consumptive and debilitated, on
account of its restorative properties.
Turtles live on worms, insects,
small fishes, and marine plants;
they are reputed for their longe-
vity, subsisting for twelve months
on simple water, and evincing mus-
cular action, after the head has
been severed for a fortnight. Their
progress through life is remarkably
sIoav.
Touch-me-not. See Balsa-
mine.
Touch-stone. See Gold.
TOUCHWOOD, or Spunk,
Boletus igniarius, L. a species of
fungus, or sponge, which grows on
the trunks, particularly those of
cherry and plum-trees ; where it
frequently extends to a size of from
two to eight inches.
The substance of this vegetable
is very hard and tough, of a tawny-
brown colour, and is sometimes
employed, both in England and in
Germany, as a substitute for in-
der: Avith this design, it is boiled
in a strong ley, or urine, after
which it is dried, and boiled a se-
cond time in a solution of salt-
petre. It is also occasionally used
as a Styptic ; being collected in
August and September ; the hard
external crust is separated, and the
medullary part is beaten with a
hammer, till it becomes soft.
TOURNIQUET, in surgery,
an instrument composed of rollers,
screAvs, straps, he. for the purpose
of compressing a limb, or other
part of the body ; in order to pre-
vent too great an effusion of blood
from Avoundn.
The tourniquet is one of the best
contrivances in the art of healing:
by compressing the blood vessels,
T OU
it may be so regulated, as com-
pletely to check the farther efflux
of that vital fluid, from wounded
parts ; and thus frequently to save
a valuable life.
Without entering into a descrip-
tion of the various improvements
that have lately been introduced
into this essential part of operative
surgery, we cannot omit to re-
commend to our readers, Avho are
situated at a distance from pro-
fessional aid, to provide themselves
Avith this simple and useful instru-
ment, which may be had in the
greatest perfection, of Mr. Bishop,
Philadelphia, whom Ave have men-
tioned on a similar occasion. To
persons travelling, or inhabiting
warm climates, a tourniquet may
prove of the greatest advantage;
and Ave conceive it to be one of the
most necessary articles in a medi-
cine-chest, as Avell as in a case of
instruments.
Where it becomes an object of
importance, to suppress the bleed-
ing from arteries of the lower ex-
tremities, Avithout intercepting the
circulation through the whole limb,
the following ingenious method of
applying a tourniquet has been re-
commended, as perfectly safe, by a
skilful young surgeon in the me-
tropolis. After providing a hard
roll of linen bandage, about 4 or 5
inches in width, and 3 in thick-
ness, as likeAvise a smooth board,
9 inches in length, 3 in Avidth,
and 4 of an inch in thickness, Avith
the sides and ends squared at right
angles ; the roller is to be' placed
mid-way in the ham on the under
sides of the knee-joint; the leg be-
ing extended in a straight line.
Next, the piece of board must be
laid over the roller, Avhich is to act
as a pad of compression on the
popliteal artery that extends from
T O U 157
the ham over the hollow of the
knee; the length of the board run-
ning cross-ways, and projecting on
the knee-joint on each side. Now,
the girth of the tourniquet is to go
round the knee above (not upon)
the knee-pan, and over the pro-
jecting ends of the board. The
screw should rest at the upper part
of the limb and the knee-pan, hav-
ing also a pad interposed between
it and the skin. By this mode of
compressing the popliteal artery,
an important advantage is gained ;
because it allows the arterial circu-
lation to proceed uninterrupted
through the lateral branching ves-
sels ; the large superficial veins are
not disturbed ; and the limb re-
mains in the same state as if the
artery alone had been tied....In all
cases of profusehemorrhages, when
there is a chance of saving the
limb, such method of applying the
common tourniquet, will be pre-
ferable to the usual manner, by
which the circulation of the blood
is entirely stopped. Farther, in
gun-shot Avounds, compound frac-
tures, and secondary bleedings af-
ter amputation below the knee, the
practice here suggested will gene-
rally be attended with the desired
effect.
Having thus enlarged upon a
subject, which materially relates to
the safety of every individual, Ave
shall only add (as supplementary to
the article Styptic), that in acci-
dental injuries, or wounds attended
with profuse bleeding from large
blood-vessels, we are not acquaint-
ed with a more simple and effectu-
al remedy than the Powd'r of Gum
Arabic. This mild application to
the orifice of the vein, or artery.
speedily forms an incrustation
around the part affected ; espe-
cially if it be immediately strewed
158 T R A
TR A
over the spot from which the
blood issues; and if the contigu-
ous muscles be at the same time
gently compressed, till a proper
bandage, roller, or tourniquet, can
be procured.
TOWER - MUSTARD, the
Smooth, or Tower-wort, Turri-
tis glabra, L. is an indigenous
plant groAving in gravelly mea-
dows, pastures, and pits, where
the stalks attain the height of tAvo
feet, and the greenish-white, large
flowers appear in May and June....
The taste of this A'egetable resem-
bles that of cresses; and, affording
wholesome food for cattle, we con-
ceive it deserves the attention of
cultivators, in the northern parts
of the island, Avhich abound Avith
dry, stony lands and pastures....
Farther, the flowers of the tower-
wort supply the industrious bee
with wax and honey.
TRAGACANTH,agumobtain-
ed from the Astragalus Tragacan-
tha, L. a thorny bush, growing in
the Levant, in Candia, on Mounts
Olympus, Ida, and iEtna.
Tragacanth is incomparably
stronger than gum-arabic: one
dram of the former, dissolved in
a pint of water, renders it of the
consistence of syrup, Avhile an
ounce of the latter is required to
produce a thick mucilage : hence
it is preferred to other gums in
forming lozenges.
Compound powder of Tragacanth,
consists of this drug, of gum-arabic,
and starch, each 1-i oz. and 3 oz.
of double refined sugar ; Avhich in-
gredients are conjointly pulverized.
.....This preparation is one of the
mildest emollient remedies in hec-
tic cases, troublesome coughs,
strangury, and similar disorders,
occasioned by a thin, vitiated state
of the fluids; the dose being from
a half to two or three drams, which
may, according to circumstances,
be repeated every hour, or atlonger
intervals.
Train-oil. See Oil.
TRANSFUSION of Blood,
an operation by which that fluid
may be conducted from one animal
body into another.
This singular and daring attempt
Avas first undertaken by Libavius,
at Halle, early in the 17th century:
he recommended experiments tobe
made on calves, sheep, dogs, and
other animals. After these had
been successfully performed, a
whimsical notion of prolonging hu-
man life, by the practice of trans-
fusion, was publicly maintained,
with almost general approbation by
Lower, in England; Hoffman,
in Germany ; Denis, in France,
and other bold physicians. But,
when several persons unfortunately
fell victims to such experiments,
the flattering prospect completely
vanished, till the late John Hun-
ter resumed the subject, and treat-
ed it in a manner peculiar to his
pentrating genius.
In performing, the process of
transfusion, the vein, which is
usually chosen for blood-letting,
was opened, and a quill, or other
tube introduced in a perpendicular
direction : the corresponding vein
vvas then pierced in a healthy per-
son, or more frequently in robust
animals; and a similar tube was
accommodated to the orifice in a
slanting way ; both tubes were then
passed one into another, and thus
the blood was gradually transfused;
the vein being tied up, as is usual
after venesection.
This operation is certainly inge-
nious ; but, as it requires equal
judgment and dexterity, we doubt
whether it -will ever become an
T R A T R A 159
useful branch of the healing art, in be transplanted ; allowing them to
the present state of society: nay, grow rude, that is, without being
it appears to us, that it cannot be nailed in, or cutting either the side
performed with safety, since the or fore-right shoots, during the
introduction of the late inoculations, whole summer. In the course of
excepting in very desperate cases, the winter, the ground ought to be
such as hydrophobia, or other in- opened around their roots, and the
ternal poisons, in which the whole strong ones cut-in ; after vvhich
mass of the blood i» in a dissolved they must be covered with soil.
or tainted state. Besides, this es- Thus, fine young fibres will strike
sential fluid is, in every person, of forth; and, in the succeeding au-
a peculiar nature adapted to his tumn, or during the winter (the
oAvn constitution; and consequent- sooner the better), they may be
ly cannot, with resonable hopes of transplanted as standards ; care
success, be transfused into ano- being taken to place them, like all
ther: hence the visionary idea of other trees which are to be re-
renovating the animal spirits by moved into different soils, in a si-
artificial means, and of prolonging milar aspect, or towards the same
human life beyond the period ap- point of the compass; but, if cut-
pointed by Nature, must necessa- tings are designed to be planted
rily be defeated.....See also Life, against a wall, Mr. F. advises only
Longevity, he. the roots to be divided; as by such
[Sir Edmund King's experi- method a considerable saving will
mcnts, made in the reign of not only result, in time and money,
Charles II, on transfusion, de- but the trees also will bear fruit, in
serve to be mentioned. the first year after their: remoAraI.
The blood of a healthy spaniel He remarks, that he hasoften trans-
was conveyed into the veins of an planted old plum-trees that had
old mangy dog ,av1io Avas perfectly been headed down, and consequent-
cured in less than a fortnight. The ly made very fine roots ; which he
blood of a young dog was trans- divided, and " thereby obtained
fused into one almost blind with four or five trees from one, cutting
age, and which before could hardly them so as to form them into fine
move ; the latter did, in two hours, heads.".. ..See also Fruit-trees,
leap and frisk, and yet the young Orchard, and Planting.
dog, Avhich received, in return, the [TRAVELING. The many
blood of the old dog felt no sort inconvenienciesandthe embarrass-
of injury. See Phil. Trans, abridged, ments which young travellers ge-
vol. iii. p. 224.] nerally suffer from their inexpe-
TRANSPLANTATION, de- rience, and Avant of knoAvledge of
notes the act of removing either mankind, render the folloAving di-
Cuttings, layers, roots, or entire rections of great consequence to
young plants from one soil into them. They are extracted from
another. a scarce book, by Count Bf.rch-
For this purpose, Mr. Forsyth told, entitled '• An essay to direct
directs the side-shoots of trees to and extend the inquiries of Patrio-
be cut-in, at different lengths, from tic Travellers, he. London 1789.
one to three feet, according to their ....Two volumes large duodeci-
sizc, in the ycnr before they are to mo.
160 T R A
TR A
On the most necessary qualifications
for a young person intending to
Travel.
" Since it is almost impossible
to perform any thing well without
preparation, it is indispensably ne-
cessary for a young gentleman,
who is desirous to travel, either for
his own improvement, the welfare
of mankind in general, or for the
happiness of his country in parti-
cular, to lay in a certain stocx of
fundamental knowledge, before he
undertakes the difficult task of
travelling to real advantage.
Innumerable are the objects
worthy of a traveller's attention
and inquiry, and some of them are
of much more importance than
others ; in proportion to the advan-
tages that accrue to the public
from the application of the know-
ledge acquired of them ; let me
therefore advise every gentleman,
Avho feels an irresistable and lau-
dable inclination to collect useful
information, and valuable observa-
tions, to get such insight at home
into those arts and sciences, whose
extent and improvement must ne-
cessarily prove beneficial to man-
kind in general, and to his native
country in particular.
Reading and reflection will point
out many objects worthy of a tra-
veller's investigation ; but expe-
rience, the first of guides, may
nevertheless furnish them with
that advice which perhaps will be
acceptable to my readers, the hints
of intelligent friends ought to sup-
ply what neither books, nor medi-
tation can teach; therefore it
should be the first principle of
those Avhose inclination it is to
travel usefully, to communicate
their plan to public spirited, bene-
volent, and well-informed men,
and to apply to them for such in-
formation on those heads, which
should form the principal objects
of their inquiry, and particularly
respecting the welfare of mankind,
and the most dangerous diseases
of that political body of which they
themselves are members.
Philan'.hrophic men will not he-
sitate to give a well meaning and
inquisitive person all the informa-
tion in their power; and though
much may be leamod by conver-
sation with men of experience and
understanding, yet written instruc-
tions are ever to be preferred, be-
cause a writer has inhVitely more
opportunity than a narrator, to re-
flect on the true interest of his fel-
low-creatures, and the memory at
the same time will be much re-
lieved.
The indispensable branches of
knowledge and abilities, for travel-
lers, are the following.
National Lav;.....A gentleman,
desirous to discover wise laws
abroad, which, if proposed to the
lawgivers of his country, and in-
troduced by him, might render
his countrymen more virtuous,
more industrious, richer, and hap-
pier, ought first to be well inform-
ed of the smallest defects of the
National, Civil, and Criminal Le-
gislature, and thoroughly instruct-
ed in the Municipal Laws, and
Regulations of the Police.
Natural History.....The study of
the general, and particular natural
history of his native country, will
enable him to render essential ser-
vices to his fellow-creatures ; but
he must devote himself to those
branches, which are the best cal-
culated to promote those ends ; it
must also leave a very serious in-
fluence upon his mind, as he Avill
often be excited to contemplate
TR A
and adore the stupendous power of
the Divine Author of those inimi-
table works which he surveys.
Mineralogy, Metallurgy, and
Chemistry.....The usefulness of mi-
neralogy, metallurgy, and chemis-
try, is universally known, and needs
no illustration ; as also their gene-
ral tendency to the advantage of
manufactures, and consequently
commerce, is readily acknowledg-
ed.
Mathematics.....The study of
mathematics being very extensive,
ought to be ■pursued with equal
circumspection and industry ; and
those branches which are most ap-
plicable to common life, ought
most principally to engage the at-
tention.
Mathematics must also have the
effect of accustoming the pupil to
proceed systematically in all his
undertakings, from which he will
derive no inconsiderable advantage
in his own private economy.
Mechanics.....The study of me-
chanics is of the greatest impor-
tance, and will enable him to un-
derstand with ease, the construc-
tion and application of many cu-
rious, though sometimes very com-
plex machines, as looms, mills, and
other useful contrivances, which he
will have an opportunity to survey
in the course of his travels, as well
as to introduce in his own country.
Hydrostatics and Hydraulics.....
The use of hydrostatical and hy-
draulical knowledge is so very ex-
tensive and advantageous, tbat he
would be found much Avanting, Avere
he to overlook those interesting
branches of practical Mathematics,
without the knowledge of which,
he Avould inspect in vain many
stupendous engines, put in motion
by water, which are generally pro-
ductive of infinite utility in saving
vol. v
TRA 161
immense labour, and promoting
with ease, many conveniencies of
life to the benefit of his fellow-
creatures.
Perspective.....A more than or-
dinary knowledge in perspective is
requisite in him, who wishes tp
give a correct plan of machines,
looms, 8cc. and a traveller^ Avhose
knowledge of machines enables
,him to form a true idea of any in-
genious contrivance, will be great-
ly facilitated in the accurate exe-
cution of the representation of
those objects which relate to the
above-mentioned "sciences.
Geography.....Geography is a
study of so important and useful a
nature, that its necessity is known
to every class of men ; to travel-
lers it is the first and grand re-
quisite, without which he is as ill
provided, as he would be in at-
tempting a journey without food
or refreshment.
The use of the globes needs no
recommendation to prove their
matchless utility, and ought to be
considered as inseparable compa-
nions to Geography.
Navigation and Ship Building....
A knowledge of nautical affairs,
renders sea voyages both instruc-
tive and agreeable ; for while it
improves the understanding, it
may at the same time prove the
preservation of the life of the tra-
veller himself, as well as those of
the ship's company, from the
dangers, distresses, and mishaps of
the sea, by rendering a man ca-
pable of executing that which ir-
regularity, intoxication, or other
circumstances may disable those
from performing, on whom the
duty and obligation rests of pro-
viding for the safety both of them-
selves and others.
Agriculture....Agriculture being
Y
162 TRA
TRA
the most useful as well as most
necessary of all arts, ought to be
one of the first objects to engage
his serious application : an agri-
cultural nation must of course be-
come powerful, wealthy, and hap-
py ; and each individual ought to
contribute to its advancement as
much as lies in his power: this
will therefore be a very great in-
citement to exert himself in the
pursuit of rural and domestic eco-
nomy.
Besides the innumerable advan-
tages, an attentive and intelligent
observer of agricultural countries
may procure to his OAvn native soil,
this study will render him still
more sensible of the Avants of
others, and benevolent towards
that most useful, and least esteem-
ed class of men, who not only feed,
but also defend their country.
The state of the labouring poor
in his own country, is also such an
important object of the traveller's
attention and inquiry, that he ought
to know it as well as he does the
situation of his own family, other-
wise he Avill not be capable of com-
paring it with the state of the pea-
santry of other countries, and con-
sequently remain uninformed of
what is necessary to be known in
many respects. With a proper
attention to the different methods
of cultivating land in his OAvn coun-
try, he will soon accustom himself
to observe abroad, how the different
soils are cultivated to the best ad-
vantage, and a little spot forced as
it were to afford subsistence to a
most numerous family.
Languages.....It is absolutely
impossible to travel to advantage
without possessing the language of
the country intended to be visited
for information; the Latin and
French are certainly insufficient,
because there are many, with
whom an inquisitive traveller ought
to converse, who are total stran-
gers to both languages ; and as it
is to be supposed, that there are
many publications in the language
of the country (not to mention the
written National Law, the Muni-
cipal Laws, and Regulations of the
Police) which must demand his
attention ; it is obvious, that an as-
siduous study of languages is una-
voidably indispensable.
It ought also to be observed,
that the study of the language in
the country where it is spoken,
Avould deprive him of too great a
portion of his time, which could
be employed to more useful pur-
poses.
I appeal to the experience and
candor of gentlemen, Avho have
travelled with the knoAvledge of
of languages, who must confess,
that the capability of speaking the
language of the country has a
poAverful influence upon the minds
of the natives. They commonly
entertain a good idea of a foreign-
er, who submits to the toil of ac-
quiring their vernacular idiom,
and he meets with the same easy
freedom, and is treated Avith the
same friendly familiarity, as if he
were a native.
It is also very convenient to un-
derstand, and to be understood by
those who are immediately neces-
sary to the progress of the travel-
ler, as well as those who are the
superintendants of his conduct and
effects ; and of the inferior class of
the people, who compose the
greater part of a nation, and who
have no knoAvledge of the afore-
mentioned languages.
The many impositions, and in-
conveniencies to which he is ex-
posed, by being ignorant of the
TRA
language of the country, ought also
to excite him to acquire different
languages, which will not be dif-
ficult to a man of moderate pa-
tience, under the instruction of an
intelligent linguist.
It will not be amiss to mention
an infallible method of learning
almost any language in six months,
as prescribed by the famous Sir
William Jones, in his grammar
of the Persian Language, who says,
the scholar should translate from
the language he wishes to learn,
into his own, with the utmost ex-
actness ; then lay aside the origi-
nal, and after a proper interval,
turn the same translation back into
the original, by the assistance of
the grammar and the dictionary.
The second translation must after-
wards be compared with the origi-
nal, and the faults corrected ac-
cording to that model.
Arithmetic.....Is an art, which,
though not in the highest esteem
as a branch of polite education,
has its uses, and is not much less
valuable than others ; a competent
knowledge of figures, qualifies the
the gentleman, merchant, planter,
Sec. to form a quick calculation in
matters of comparison, produce,
proportion, &c. and if the art of
computing by numbers is not al-
lowed to be ornamental, it must
ever be reckoned amongst the
most useful branches of general
information.
Drawing.....The art of DraAving
is one of the most necessary, as
well as one of the politest accom-
plishments a traveller can possess.
The drawing of landscapes,
dresses, sketching, and embellish-
ing his own minutes, form an
agreeable part of his amusements ;
but the scientific draw ing, respect-
ing complicate machines, engines,
TRA 163
&c. with accuracy, in different
views) is by far more useful, and
accordingly has been mentioned
under perspective.
A Legible and Quick Hand...,.
It is of the utmost importance,
that a traveller be accustomed to a
legible hand, the want of which
will certainly expose him to many
inconveniences, and finally occa-
sion infinite delay and disappoint-
ment. Able copyists are not al-
ways to be had ; and experience
daily teaches us, that it is impossi-
ble to rely upon the honour of
strangers, with either prudence or
safety. As it is to be expected
that an inquisitive traveller, will
hear, see, read, and be informed of
many remarkable things, none of
Which he would leave by choice to
the chance of forgetting, a quick
hand not only relieves the memory,
but insures us the possession of
the whole treasure, of which we
could only have been able to re-
tain perhaps a trifling part.
Voluminous papers of conse-
quence may be occasionally lent to
him, for a short time, which may
not conveniently admit of being
intrusted to a copyist, or any one
else ; and, therefore, he may not be
able to reap the advantage he might
wish, or his friend intended that
he should.
It would also be extremely use-
ful to be instructed in short-hand
writing; and to knoAv a secret al-
phabet, in order to conceal such
important matters, as may be im-
proper for the inspection of prying
or designing persons.
Swimming.....Though the law of
self-preservation inculcates to every
one to secure himself against dan-
ger, it will not' be superfluous to
recommend the art of swimming
to a person, who probably, in the
164 TRA
TRA
course of his travels, may be ex-
posed to the danger of being
drovvned ; besides the duty of this
care of ourselves, humanity directs
us to render ourselves as capable
as possible to save the lives of our
fellow creatures as often as an op-
portunity offers. What action is
nobler than the preservation of a
life ?.....There is even something
divine in it 1
Some people imagine erroneous-
ly, that swimming cannot be
learnt by adults; yet daily expe-
rience convinces us that they are
mistaken ; for, provided the place
of instruction does not increase the
natural timidity of the pupil; if
the master be expert, he will soon
make a progress in this necessary
art.
There are many machines con-
structing for buoying up the body,
which might be used in the begin-
ning, in order to accustom him to
an easy position upon the Avater,
and to inspire confidence. The
most common, or best known,
which occur to me at 4his mo-
ment, are the Cuirass of Bach-
strom, and the Scaphandre of M.
L'Abbe de la Chapelle. [See
p. 83 of this volume.]
Superficial Knowledge of Medi-
cine.....Since there is no travelling
Avithout health ; since innumera-
ble are the disorders to Avhich hu-
man nature is liable, and able
physicians and surgeons not every
where to be had, it is very advi-
sable to lay in a stock of medical
knowledge, sufficient to be ac-
quainted with the chief causes of
diseases, and to prepare simple re-
medies for those Avhich most com-
monly occur.
With .regard to chirurgical
knowledge, it will in many instan-
ces be extremely useful to be
capable of bleeding,* and dressing
a wound, to which travellers are
often exposed.
He should also knoAV the most
approved methods of recovering
droAvned and frozen persons, and
such as. have been suffocated by
noxious vapours ; because he will
certainly find emergencies, Avhich
may call upon him for the exertions
of this interesting knowledge, and
enable him to preserve a life....the
noblest action of which he can be
capable. Travellers in hot cli-
mates are often affected by the
sudden impression of the sun, cal-
led by the French Coup de Soleil;
.....a never-failing remedy for the
dangerous accidents of this kind
Avould be of great utility.
Music.....A competent skill in
this art will, on many occasions, he
far more useful to a traveller than
he can imagine ; it will agreeably
supply a wrant of Society, intro-
duce him to many polite compa^
nies, and procure him valuable
acquaintances. Few people dis-
like music, and if he should be-
stow his leisure hours on that in-
nocent amusement, so as to please
himself by entertaining others, his
pains will be amply repaid. Music
will also divert him from the
gaming-table, and perhaps irregu-
lar companies, to which he will be
otherwise liable.
A portable instrument, as for in-
stance, a German flute, is prefe-
rable to larger ones.
Knowledge of Mankind.......A
great many excellent Avorks have
been published on this subject in
almost all the languages of Eu-
rope, by Avriters of experience and
* This direction is of great conse-
quence.....Edit.
TRA
TRA 165
ability, by which I stand wholly
excused from commenting further
on that extensive and difficult sub-
ject, and need only add, that in or-
der to make a rapid progress in
the knowledge of Mankind, every
one should inspect his own heart;
before he attempts to inquire into
the character of others, he should
observe his own inclinations and
inconsistencies, watch himself on
all occasions, know his failings,
analize the operations of Iris soul,
and then proceed to observe others
with the utmost attention, even in
trifles. The utility of the know-
ledge of Mankind is obvious, it is
not difficult to guide men as we
please, if Ave are able to look into
their heart and head.
Knowledge of the State of our own
Country.....As certain as it is that
a Physician Avill try in vain to cure
a Patient, Avhose bodily constitu-
tion and disease is entirely un-
known to him, so Avill a Patriot's
inclination for finding out reme-
dies for the diseases of the Political
Body of his nation be useless, un-
less he knows where and how the
real cause of the complaint is con-
cealed ; therefore to penetrate to
the different roots of those evils
which may affect his native coun-
try, and to acquire a perfect idea
of the situation of his own fellow-
subjects, it will be necessary to
peruse attentively the hints given
him by experienced and intelligent
men, and to complete an econo-
mical and commercial tour
through all the districts of his own
country, in the company of a well-
informed and inquisitive friend,
avoiding all precipitation either in
his inquiries, or progress of his
journey.
The most common as avcU as
the most dangerous principles of
evil among nations, proceed from
the oppression of the peasantry,
and from an erroneous system of
Agriculture ; which ought to ex-
cite him to inquire as minutely as
possible into the state of the labour-
ing poor ;andintothedifferentparts
of rural and domestic economy,
and with the same anxiety as if
sent for that purpose by Govern-
ment.
It will be-advisable to write down
his observations upon the same
plan as he proposed to himself,
for his- investigations in foreign
countries, and by thus collecting
the most extensive and useful in-
formation lie can obtain respecting
his own country, he will accustom
himself to inquire systematically
when abroad, and will be capable
to compare with accuracy,the state
of his OAvn country Avith that of any
other.
The collection of questions in
the course of this work, will per-
haps be of use, and facilitate his
inquiries in his economical and
commercial tour; Avhich last I
think needs no further observa-
tions, since I hav-e also stated se-
parate queries applicable to each
manufacture, and sea port in ge-
neral.
Previous Knowledge of the Coun-
try which the Traveller intends to
visit.....Since it is confirmed by
truth, that a traveller's curiosity
is in proportion to his instruction,
it will be necessary for him to
read the best histories of the an-
cient and present state of the
country he proposes to visit; to
make extracts of them, which he
might compare afterwards with his
own observations ; to take particu-
lar notice of the origin of the
nation, its most remarkable pe-
riods, the causes of its flourishing,
166 f R A
languid, or declining state ; of its
present constitution, resources,
wealth, power, &o. he.
Under the history of the present
state are comprised geographical
descriptions, modern travels and
journies, which will point out
what hitherto remained unobserv-
ed.
It will also be requisite to pro-
cure, some time previous to his
setting out, the most correct, gene-
ral, and special maps of the coun-
try, to have them properly fitted
up on linen, in order to render
them convenient for the pocket;
this map must be referred to as
often as he wishes to read some ac-
count of that country.
By the frequency of inspection,
the contents of the map will be
deeply impressed on the mind ;
and by this method he will be able
to select such a tour as Avill be
probably one of the most instruc-
tive : the common road is too well
known to afford any thing very
new or curious, and consequently
fewer discoveries are to be made
upon it than upon an unbeaten
one.
A traveller should also, before
he sets out for any place, have an
accurate description of the curio-
sities of the roads that leads to it,
and thus himself verify what has
been mentioned by others.
The more time he will bestow
before hand for the acquisition of
knowledge of the country he is
inclined to visit, the more leisure
hours he will have for occular in-
spection and investigation of ob-
jects worthy of his attention.
All those gentlemen Avho flatter
themselves to have travelled use-
fully, will agree, that a traveller
ought to know what to look for,
TRA
in order to discover the object of
his pursuit before he comes on the
spot; othenvise it is too late ; the
principal vrork is to see how far
the ideas we had formed of an
object were founded on reason
during anticipation.
In spite of the greatest care
and attention, a great many ob-
jects will escape even a well-pre-
pared mind; therefore people
cannot familiarize themselves suf-
ficiently at home with those ob-
jects they intend to inquire after
abroad, and ought to accustom
themselves to reflect often upon
them before they commence their
journey.
They should also have written
instructions from such of their
friends as have travelled, how to
visit foreign countries to advan-
tage, safely, agreeably, and cheap;
compare those hints together, and
follow that advice which seems the
most reasonable.
It must naturally be expected,
that the method of consulting the
experience of intelligent persons
Avill save the traveller much time,
expence, and trouble, and greatly
contribute towards his satisfaction.
The proverbial sayings of the
nations, contain in a few words
their manner of reasoning, and de-
serve to be known before he pene-
trates the country, that he may be
previously informed of the way of
thinking of the natives.
On the Objects most worthy of a
Traveller's Discovery, and inves-
tigation in Foreign Countries.
The objects deserving a travel-
ler's attention being multifarious,
it will be necessary to divide them
into classes according to their im-
portance.
TRA
In the first C&ws belong....Such
objects as affect immediately the
welfare of mankind, and conse-
quently promote the universal
good, and may be investigated by
every one endowed with a com-
mon share of understanding. In-
formation, which has the public
utility in view, is generally to be
had without expence, and a well-
directed spirit of inquiry, would
prove the key to their access ;
therefore I am of opinion, that no
traveller of any description what-
ever should neglect inquiring
carefully into such subjects as
contribute to the felicity of the
human race.
The second Class contains....Ob-
jects, whereof an extensive know-
ledge would be capable of increas-
ing the prosperity of a traveller's
native country, and Avhich are
partly blended with the welfare of
humanity at large.
The third Class comprehends.....
Those aims, the objects of which
invite, and have respective attrac-
tion from personal advantages and
improvements, and apply to that
sphere of life, in which the travel-
ler himself is destined to act.
In the fourth Class are included...
Such branches of ornamental
knowledge as might be cultivated
without neglecting, or slighting
either one of the preceding classes,
and are commonly pursued by
every traveller, who wishes to con-
vince the world of the improve-
ment he has attained by visiting
foreign countries. I shall then at-
tempt to state the
WORTHIEST OBJECTS OF INQUIRY.
I. Preservation of Human Life.
Since the life of man is beyond
all calculable value, let me con-
T R A 167
jure every philanthropist to exert
himself in collecting those regu-
lations, charitable institutions, and
studied contrivances, and every
other material which can be adopt-
ed, and is calculated for preserving
it.
But by taking information con-
cerning wise laws on these heads,
a traveller may be able to commu-
nicate his valuable discoveries to
the lawgivers of his country, and
contribute in a great degree to
render his countrymen less crimi-
nal, and to save the lives of many.
In what can the human mind be
so happily engaged ■?
It will be easy to a public spi-
rited man, who by his knoAvledge
of mankind has acquired the art
of persuading, to convince other
nations of the necessity of adopt-
ing the laudable system of pre-
ventive justice.
Next to the judicious provisions
I have above spoken of, there are
many wise municipal laws, and
orders of the police of various
countries, which tend immediately
to the preservation of its subjects.
Excellent regulations for pre-
venting the plague are enjoined
to the Superintendants of Laza-
retto's of Leghorn, Marseilles,
Malta, Ancona, &c.
New and salutary prescriptions
for obviating epidemical, and en-
demical sicknesses, and for sup-
pressing their progress, are to be
met Avith chiefly in Tuscany, and
in the Emperor's dominions.
Establishments for providing
against scarcities of corn, and
preventing the poor from perishing
by Famine, are to be found in
many parts of the continent, par-
ticularly in Tuscany, and Prussia.
Ordinances for preventing ap-
parently dead bodies from being
168 TRA
TRA
buried alive, are wisely directed
and enforced in Austria, different
parts of Italy, Sec.
A protecting machine for pre-
venting the common evil of over-
laying and smothering children,
has been invented in Tuscany, and
its use countenanced, directed and
enforced by the government of
Florence, and has been since
adopted in Germany, Sweden,
Spain, and lately in Great-Britain,
where, by an accurate calculation,
it has been discovered, that since
the year 1686 upwards oi forty -
two thousand children have been
overlaid.
Discoveries are' daily made of,
before unknown, causes of mortal
diseases, poisonous food, such as
the fish called Ciquato, at the Ha-
vannah, the plant Aethusa Cina-
pium. Lin. Cicuta Tirosa. Lin. he.
Innumerable objects of this kind
may be quoted, to prove how far
mankind has advanced in useful
discoveries, and to excite philan-
thropists to continue to increase
them.
After the preservation of human
life, nothing can offer itself as more
worthy of engaging our next consi-
deration, than
II. The Means of providing for
the most neglected Class of Inha-
bitants.
The traveller's utmost care and
attention is now demanded in a
minute inquiry into all the chari-
table institutions and establish-
ments founded for the relief of
sufferinghumanity,as hospitals for
the sick, for lying-in poor women,
foundlings, and orphan-houses,
mad-houses, prisons, and, in gene-
ral, all such places as contain ob-
jects of our compassion.
Charitable institutions of innu-
merable kinds are to be found in
all parts of Europe ; but most ge-
nerally in England, Italy,and Spain.
The government of Madrid has
even sent to Germany for plans of
different establishments, as for in-
stance, La Ronda de pan y Huevos, a
society of gentlemen remarkable for
the extensiveness and benevolence
of their design. Next to the in-
firmities to which we are liable,
must consider the
III. Employment of the Poor.
The means of employing the
stout, but indolent poor, the not
entirely disabled poor of both sex-
es, small children, poor house-
keepers, and unfortunate people
of the middle class of citizens,
who wish to earn their bread pri-
vately in an honest manner, de-
serve to be considered as objects
of particular notice.
So does the manner of provid-
ing for the poor, infirm, superan-
nated, and entirely disabled; the
nature and stability of the neces-
sary funds, and the system of ma-
nagement of them. The manner
of supplying the poor with food,
agreeable to their respective ages,
and at a very cheap rate, must
not be forgot.
In order to have a perfect know-
ledge of the state of the poor,
without Avhich it is impossible to
judge with any certainty of the de-
gree of Avealth and povver of a na-
tion, it will be necessary to peruse
all the poor laAvs, to enquire how
far they arc enforced, and to have
occular proofs, as often as circum-
stances will permit. After having
treated of the employment of the
poor, nothing can more justly de-
mand our notice than
IV. Improvements in Agriculture.
It must be the greatest comfort
TRA
TRA 169
to a feeling mind to increase the
methods of subsistence of our fel-
low creatures, by an improved ag-
riculture, by introducing useful
plants, roots, grains, Sec. that hi-
therto have not yet been cultivat-
ed in the country.
A traveller may easily procure
himself that pleasure ; he ought
to get a list of the most celebrat-
ed husbandmen of the country,
visit them, and inform himself of
the most minute, as Avell as the
most lucrative productions of rural
economy ; compare that account
with the list of the productions of
his country, of which he must car-
ry with him a duplicate on his set-
ting out from home ; and if he
finds any seeds, roots, or plants,
unknown in his country, neither
trouble nor expence must be spar-
ed to obtain a very extensive and
clear description of the culture,
manner of preparing, use, utility,
&c. of these productions.
If he could have ocular informa-
tion, it would be still better, and
all he has seen or heard concern-
ing that object, must be commit-
ted to paper on the spot, also by
duplicate; Avhich trifling trouble
would be highly compensated, if
by some accident or other one co-
py should be lost.
In many instances it AA'ould be
advisable to make our fortunate
discoveries known to our friends,
who are in the agricultural line,
because good things cannot be
known too soon ; and travellers
are sometimes exposed to lose
their papers and valuable informa-
tions, which are not always to be
regained.
V. Discoveries of Machines.
Instruments and tools, calcu-
lated for lessening the fatigues
of the poor husbandman, are
vol. v.
so much more desirable, as there
are many people annually ener-
vated and lost, by violent efforts
of labour ; which, it is expected,
Avill be a great excitement for the
traveller's utmost exertions, to
bring to light inventions of this
nature.
All contrivances for clearing
land from weeds, ploughing, sow-
ing, reaping, threshing, grinding
corn, draining, and flooding lands,
approved methods of raising grass
and vegetables, planting timber
and fruit-trees, selling and trans-
porting timber, sawing-mills of all
kinds, ingenious constructions of
carts, and in general, all real im-
provements in rural and domestic
economy,deserve the greatest care
and attention.
VI. Discoveries made by, and offer-
ed to Patriotic Societies-.
Owing to the rapid progress of
a general spirit of improvement in
Europe, the number of patriotic,
economical, and other useful soci-
eties are continually augmenting ;
even Spain is not backward in that
respect; for towards the end of
April 1788, forty-six societies of
this nature existed in that coun-
try.
The greatest part of useful dis-
coveries are certainlyoffered,sought
for, and procured, by those kinds
of societies in Europe; and hu-
manity is undoubtedly infinitely in-
debted to them.
Therefore, a traveller should jyet
a list of all the societies of this de-
scription, that are to be found in
each country ; and permission will
easily be obtained from the res-
pective societies, to survey the re-
positories of their machines ; to
know for what objects premiums
have been given, and promised ;
in , Avhat they commonly consist,
Z
170 TRA
TRA
he. Perhaps it will not be diffi-
cult to get models, prints, or draw-
ings of the machines in question,
and the necessary explanations of
them.
It would also be advisable to
establish an intercourse by letters
with the secretary, or some active
member of each society, in order
to be informed from time to time
of any new and beneficial disco-
veries.
After having investigated the
progress of agriculture, it will be
necessary to proceed to the survey
of
VII. Manufacture and Commerce.
There are many voluminous
machines, engines, looms, and
other ingenious contrivances to be
found in manufactures, of which
the traveller should endeavour, as
much as possible, to procure mo-
dels, prints, drawings, and a very
circumstantial description of the
construction, expence of making,
and utility, as well as the use, he.
of such machines ; as also a know-
ledge of the residence, and name
of the inventor or maker, Avhether
they are permitted to be exported
or not; how long such machines
may last, he. would also be desir-
able.
The special subsequent queries,
applicable to each manufactory,
will be sufficient to explain the rest.
I willonly adjoin, that a traveller,
who surveys a manufactory, should
also endeavour to procurea list of all
the articles made there, with their
respective prices.
Next to a well understood sys-
tem of husbandry, commerce is
the surest way of employing peo-
ple in a profitable manner, and of
enriching and populating a coun-
try.
Therefore a traveller, who has
the welfare of his country at heart,
must be very anxious to get infor-
mation, how the inland branches
of it are conducted, how the com-
mercial intercourse between the
country he visits, and his nation,
may be increased ; new branches
of commerce discovered, rendered
flourishing, and decayed ones re-
vived.
Under this head is comprehend-
ed also navigation, fishery, and
ship-building, each of which is ca-
pable of affording sufficient em-
ployment to the industrious class
of men, and considerably increase
the wealth of a nation.
A matter of no small importance
is the proper regulation of
VIII. Taxes.
It is very desirable to know in
different countries, how the poor-
er class of people is relieved from
the burthen of partial, and une-
qual taxes, and which system of
taxation is the most conducive to
the prosperity of a nation. The
objects of taxation and finance be-
ing so closely connected, that Avhen
we mention the one, it is scarcely
possible to forget the other.
IX. Finance.
The various means employed by
government, to raise great sums
of money, Avithout enervating the
subject; the method of preserving
the credit of the state at home, as
well as abroad ; and the system of
Avell understood economy, are ob-
jects of the greatest moment to a
patriotic traveller.
I shall now introduce some ob-
servations on laws and administra-
tion of justice.
X. Laws and Aministration of
Justice.
The importance and utility of
those laws intended to prevent
crimes, have been already treated
TRA
of; but there are many others, both
civil and criminal, worthy of being
inquired into ; because they contri-
bute much towards the happiness
or misery of those for Avhom they
are made.
There are in every country,
some remarkably judicious laws,
though not always put in force,
which deserve to be taken notice
of by men inclined for informa-
tion.
Italy affords an ample scope, and
Tuscany more so, of legislative
prudence.
Before we conclude this section,
it will not be amiss to touch upon
one of the first objects of the at-
tention of the legislative power,
that of
XI. Education.
Education has such a powerful
influence upon all our actions, that
it may be lookedupon as the spring
of the happiness or misery of man
in particular, and society at large ;
it will invite the attention of a tra-
veller, to inquire into the different
methods of forming the bodies of
children with powers of vigour,
and activity, and improving their
hearts and understanding.
Besides a great many useful ob-
servations that may be made, by
studying national education; and
to apply it to the benefit of our
own native country, it will be
found an easier matter to judge
with some degree of certainty of
the national character; because
men in general adopt that charac-
ter and manners, which education
and habit have forcibly impressed
on them.
On Information, and the Means of
obtaining it.
I. Travellers ought to lay down as
TRA 171
a rule to themselves, never to re-
ceive information upon subjects of
less utility, as long as more pro-
fitable ones are challenging their
attention ; nevertheless it vrill be
advisable, rather to take the trouble
of inspecting ten seemingly useless
objects, than to neglect examining
one, that might be instructive and
profitable.
2. He who looks for information,
should never reiy upon the reports
of others, except there is a posi-
tive impossibility to do otherwise ;
we are often misled by our own
eyes, and still oftener, if Ave neg-
lect surveying things ourselves.
3. He that travels should make
asmanyobservationsashc can upon
every object that will present itself
to him; and thus accustom himself
to take notice of every thing, and
nothing of consequence will escape
his attention.
4. They Avho visit foreign
countries for the sake of informa-
tion, Avill act with prudence, tocon-
ceal the motive of their journey to
such persons as may seem very
anxious to know it; it will be easy
to find a plausible pretext to amuse
them with, without a necessity
for the violation of truth; great
care, must be taken not to put on a
mysterious air, or to incur the par-
ticular attention of inquisitive per-
sons.
5. Before the traveller inquires
into the perfect state of important
objects, he should endeavour to
get information respecting their
beginning, their most memorable
periods, and epochs, the causes
of their increase or decrease, till
the present moment, and to review
the most authentic documents, and
afterwards to form queries in such
a manner, that one may lead to the
other, in order to curtail the inquiry.
172 T R A
TRA
6. He should endeavour as much
as possible to obtain a complete
list of celebrated men for services
rendered to the public, and know
for what services the country
is the most ready to be grate-
7. Eminent booksellers will
be capable of giving a traveller
directions and hints concerning
authors of useful literary produc-
tions, and through them he may
also gain access to those sons of
genius ; for this reason foreigners
should not neglect to visit the first
booksellers' shops in every toAvn,
as soon as may be convenient. Fa-
mous authors of useless publica-
tions do not deserve the traveller's
attention ; time should not be tri-
fled Avith, since there are plenty
of more important investigations
ever waiting to be made.
8. Men Avith the best of hearts,
and improved understandings, will
be the best company he can seek
after; and he may be assured of
being well received by them, if he
discovers, that he wishes to con-
tribute, by a collection of useful
knowledge, to the welfare of hu-
manity, and the happiness of his
country ; and it may be expected
that they Avill communicate to him
many observations tending to the
felicity of mankind. Instructions
procured by conversations with
virtuous and well informed men,
are very pleasing, because a man
may learn with ease in a short
time, what has cost them an un-
wearied application of many years.
The maxims and remarks of such
men, should be carefully treasur-
ed up, and the greatest part of a
traveller's time spent in their com-
pany, as far as it can be done Avith-
out inconveniencing them. A tra-
veller who is so happy as to be ad-
mitted into an intimacy with men
of merit, should endeavour at his
departure from the place of their
residence, to establish an epistola-
ry intercourse and friendly connec-
tion with them, inform them of
any important discoveries made in
his tour, and beg them to acquaint
him of any thing useful to man-
kind that may have been produc-
ed by them, or communicated to
them by others.
9. An inquisitive traveller
should also procure the address of
all able artists, and a minute ac-
count of their ingenious inventions
tending to promote the happiness
of their fellow-creatures ; it will
be advisable to visit this useful
class of men as soon as possible,
and to communicate to them such
discoveries, as have been made in
the traveller's country, relative to
the public good, and of which he
should have a very minute descrip-
tion on his setting out.
This act of exchange of mutu-
al kindness will banish reserve,
and open the mind to humane sen-
sations, and excite them to shew
the traveller whatever advantage
their inventions may have produc-
ed. Before the traveller leaves
the place of their residence, he
should establish a correspondence
with these artists, in order to have
an account from time to time of all
neAv inventions and useful contri-
vances. A person who visits foreign
countries in this manner, must
Avithout doubt collect inestimable
materials for the improvement of
useful arts, and advancement of
really profitable science.
10. It Avould not be amiss to
have also a list of such persons as
are reputed as eccentric geniuses,
and extraordinary men ; ;m ac-
quaintance Avith those kind of peo-
ple, Avould procure the traveller
all sorts of useful discoveries,which
TRA
TRA 173
perhaps are little esteemed in the
country, because generated in the
brains of a man, who is thought
to be uncommon and singular.
11. It is usual, in many places,
to publish all sorts of political and
commercial accounts, by which a
proper judgment of the country
may be formed; therefore it will
be r. cessary to apply for such in-
formation, and chiefly at the offi-
ce- cf'hose booksellers, who are
the Wav p-inters of the country,
ai.d i he.- editors of such works as
concern the regulations of finance
and comiv. ;rce.
I?.. A traveller Avhose intention
is to study the genius, manners,
and customs of a nation, AviU find
them much more original in such
provinces, as are at the greatest
distance from the capital. The
most ancient people, and most ori-
ginal language of the country, are
to be found among the mountai-
neers ; the good or bad effects of the
government are also more obser-
vable in distant provinces, than in
those which are nearer the metro-
polis.
L>. In order to knoAV the cha-
racter and genius of the inferior
class of people, he ought to con-
ceal his rank in his conversation
Avith them, otherwise they will not
discover themselves, or converse
either free, or openly ; they will
endeavour to appear more than
commonly civil, and the traveller
will not be capable of forming a
just opinion of them.
14. To ridicule the manncrsand
customs of the foreign country the
traveller is in, would argue a great
imprudence and want of knowledge
of mankind; he should, on the
contrary, find out a reasonable ex-
cuse for the Aveaknesses of the
nation; yet, without making him-
self guilty of servility, or flattery,
and by conforming with circum-
spection to the style of the natives,
he av ill gain the confidence of eve-
ry description of its inhabitants,
which will open the passage to
that information which he wants-
15. His being present at civil
and criminal procedures, and par-
ticularly while interesting subjects
are pleading, will greatly contri-
bute to his knowledge of the laws,
and administration of justice of
the country, and enable him to
make important observations on
the practice of its courts.
16. Travellers should avail them-
selves of the advantage of having
a list of all the manufactures that
are to be found in the country, but
chiefly of those that are establish-
ed in every place they pass thro',
and in its neighbourhood, Avith as
extensive a description as the in-
structing person can give.
17. A traveller Avill see a manu-
facture to much more advantage,
and be enabled to ask more in-
structive questions about the busi-
ness carried on in it, if he will be
at the trouble, before hand, to read
the whole description of its Avork-
manship in the dictionary of arts ;
by these means he will be prepar-
ed for its inspection, and know
chiefly what to look for, and where-
in the greatest difficulty consists.
18. When travellers examine
establishments of this kind, they
should not neglect inquiring into
the time of their institution, and
the degree of increase or decrease,
in order to judge of the state of
industry in the country.
19. By inspecting the manufac-
tures of a country, the inquisitive
traveller should also study the
taste and fancy of the natives, in
order to inform his countrymen in
174 T R A
TRA
the manufactural line, how to sup-
ply that foreign country with such
commodities, as are best adapted
to its consumption and uses ; and
thus keep up an extensive trade,
by which its cultivators may be
rendered comfortable, rich, and
happy.
20. In passing through villages,
he should carefully inquire how
much population and consumption
have increased, or decreased, dur-
ing the last five, ten, or twenty
years, and to what causes it is to be
attributed.
21. Annals of different places
contain often very useful and re-
markable anecdotes ; therefore it
is highly Avorlh a traveller's atten-
tion, to peruse their index, and
to extract what may be most use-
ful in common life.
22. When a traveller inspects
a library, he should not neglect
asking, whether it contains manu-
scripts that have never yet been
ushered into the world, Avhat their
titles are, and whether it is to be
supposed, that they might be of
any particular utility to mankind,
if published.
23. When a gentleman travels
in countries, which formerly have
been remarkable for their splen-
dour and riches, he ought to in-
form himself very accurately re-
specting those places where most
antiquities have been dug up, of
what kind they are, how they are
commonly disposed of; Avhether
ancient gold and silver coins are
not bought by goldsmiths for the
purpose of melting, which Avould
be the easiest manner of procuring
such coins, Sec. By those kind of
inquiries, many precious pieces
may be rescued from the fire, and
the Republic of Letters enriched
by their preservation. Since
Spain remains so little investigat-
ed, I hope to oblige the curious,
by informing them, that in the
neighbourhood of Barcelona, Tar-
ragona, Morviedro, Valencia,
Murcia, Granada, Ecija, Seville,
Medina-Sidonia, Corduba, &c.
many valuable antiquities of differ-
ent sorts might be collected, and
often bought up very cheap.
On committing Observations t$
Paper.
1. An inquisitive traveller should
never be Avithout paper, pen, and
ink, in his pocket, because anno-
tations made with lead pencils are
easily obliterated, and thus he is
often deprived of the benefit of his
remarks.
2. Travellers ought to commit
to paper whatever they find re-
markable, hear or read, and their
sensations on examining different
objects; it is advisable to doit upon
the spot, if the time, the place, and
the circumstances will admit of it;
even such observations that pro-
mise but a remote advantage,
should be written down as soon as
com'enient.
3. The daily remarks ought to
be copied from the pocket-book
into the journal before the travel-
ler goes to rest: by using this me-
thod, nothing essential will be for-
gotten, and the Avhole remain fresh
on the memory.
4. The journal ought to be writ-
ten in such a manner as to admit
notes to be annexed. Truth must
religiously be adhered to, and ele-
gance of expression banished from
it, if it be in the least unfavourable
to veracity.
5. It is very useful to keep ano-
ther book besides the journal,
wherein a certain number of sheet*
TRA
TRA 175
are dedicated to each head. This
book ought to contain matters of
fact only, and nothing dubious
should find a place in it. Travel-
lers should generally be inclined
to doubt, and never take any thing
for granted, unless its truth be evi-
dent. Printed lists, accounts pub-
lished by government, may not-
withstanding, ,be false ; neverthe-
less they deserve a place in the
above mentioned book, because
their authenticity seems to be con-
firmed by public authority. This
book being an extract of the most
interesting facts the journal con-
tains, becomes the more valuable,
in case the journal should be lost,
because there is a dependance on
the contents of it.
Since the journal may compre-
hend a great many interestingmat-
ters, it may not be advisable for a
traveller to carry it about his per-
son for fear of losing it, unless in
the side pocket, and thus suffi-
ciently secured against the at-
tempts of common thie\'es. Trav-
ellers, who are afraid of accidents,
generally keep a double journal,
and preserve it in two separate
places. It is also imprudent, and
often very dangerous for a travel-
ler to lend his journal; in case he
has promised to a friend to com-
municate to him some valuable in-
formation, which he should not
frequently do, it will be better to
take the trouble of giving a copy
of that subject, than to put the
journ'al in another man's hand.
6. A secret, undecypherable
character, already mentioned under
the article, Quick and Legible
Hand, will ever prove of infinite
service.
7. A traveller's memory will be
greatly relieved by putting down
the queries he wishes to have an-
swered ; and the numbering of
them will prevent confusion, It is
necessary to be remarkably cau-
tious with regard to these queries;
they should be taken the utmost
care of; for should they, by some
accident, be lost, and found in some
countries, where the government is
conscious of its weakness, the in-
nocent proprietor might perhaps be
looked upon as a spy, and treated
as such if discovered.
8. If information is given to the
traveller upon any subject of con-
sequence, it is proper to mention
the name and employment of the
persons who communicated it, with
the place, and date, in the journal,
because the veracity of the intelli-
gence depends much on the quality
of him who furnished it.
On the Means of providing for the
Safety of the Traveller's Person
and Property.
1. A traveller exposes himself to
many inconveniencies, if he cannot
depend upon the fidelity, sobriety,
secrecy, intrepidity, and aversion
to illicit and dangerous amuse-
ments of his servant ; for this rea-
son, his character cannot be' too
well known, before an agreement
takes place.
A servant selected to accompa-
ny a gentleman on his travels,
should be conversant Avith the
French language ; Avrite a legible
and quick hand, in order to be
able to copy Avhalever is laid before
him ; know a little of surgery,
and to bleed well, in case his mas-
ter should meet with an accident in
a spot where no chirurgical assist-
ance is to be expected.
Gentlemen should endeavour to
attach such useful servants to their
persons, by showing them the
176
TRA
TRA
same care as a father has for his
child, and promise him a settle-
ment for life on their return.
2. Familiarity Avith fellow trav-
ellers beyond a certain degree, is
very imprudent, and may some-
times produce dreadful consequen-
ces ; never ask another man's
name, the motive of his travelling,
the time he intends to continue in
a place ; and if you observe, that
people wish to know your concerns,
answer them with circumspection,
in such a manner, as may make
them give up their curiosity Avith-
out being offended.
3. The company of drinkers,
players, and women, should be
carefully avoided, because by asso-
ciating with them, reputation,
health, money, and Avhat is still
more precious, time, is lost, and
melancholy experience is bought
very dear.
4. There are in all countries to
be found some very dissolute coun-
trymen of every traveller, whose
company is by all means to be
avoided ; their chief effort will be
to borrow money, to live, and riot
at the expence of the unexperien-
ced ; to be introduced into respect-
able families, to whom foreigners
of prudence are recommended ;
and to dishonour, and possibly
plunder them also. It will be ad-
visable to inquire Avhether those of
our countrvmcn, whose conduct
may be suspected, frequent their
ambassador's house, and how they
are received there : and even if
they are Avell received by the mi-
nister, travellers should not be too
fond of their company, unless they
are men of merit, and of an in-
quisitive turn.
5. As soon as foreigners arrive
in a capital, they should wait on
their ambassador, in order to claim
his protection in case of an acci-
dent ; and to be presented at court,
and to the first nobility, if niey
feel a pleasure in such, companies.
In some places they will not be
admitted into the first com/mnies,
unless they are knoAvn to the am-
bassador, which leaves an impres-
sion of respectability.
6. It would be a ridiculous va-
nity for a traveller to carrv dia-
mond rings, or very expensive
watches, precious snuff-boxet, and
Valuable trinkets; they would often
expose his life, and serve as a
standard to inn-keepers, nnd others
of that kind, to raise their chn'ges
by. In some countries, it is even
dangerous to shew gold coins, sil-
ver spoons, and such articles;
therefore too much caution cannot
be used against exhibiting such
dangerous property.
7. The best Avay of conveying
papers of consequence, is to put
them in a girt of buck-skin, fur-
nished with four pockets, each one
inch distant from the other; for
its easier pliancy, the girt ought
to be ten inches broad, and fasten-
ed under the waistcoat round the
body with six small buckles, and
each pocket buttoned with three
very small, flat, metal buttons : it
Avill be of great use in riding hard,
and can, if properly made, contain
many papers, which Avould easily
be lost out of the pocket. To
leave papers of importance behind
in the trunk, is by far not so safe,
because a fire may happen or the
trunk may be lost by some ac-
cident.
8. Double-barrelled pocket pis-
tols are very Avell calculated for
the defence of the traveller, par-
ticularly those which have both bar-
rels above, and do not require
turning: it is necessary to asccr-
TRA
TRA 177
tain their strength before they are
used; and agate stones are pre-
ferable to the common flint.....
Many people prefer putting a piece
of cork upon the balls, and pre-
tend that it prevents them from
moving. The best position for
pistols in a coach is the horizontal
one, and the little bolt which ob-
viates their going off, is a real
improvement.
- 9. Since it is impossible to'know
what goods are forbidden in differ-
ent countries, information on that
head should be had before foreigners
enter into another territory, in or-
der to avoid many inconveniencies,
which might arise from trifles :
in some countries the Avhole lug-
gage is confiscated, if prohibited
goods are found with them, and the
owners condemned to imprison-
ment, or to pay a heavy fine. I in-
stance Spain.
In case of a traveller having for-
bidden articles, he should dispose
of them in the least profitable man-
ner, rather than expose his honour
and his purse; and in case they lay
in small compass, should be disco-
vered to the postillion, Avho com-
monly are in league Avith the cus-
tom-house officers, in order to di-
vide the produce of this treache-
rous contract. The Italian vettu-
rinos are famous for this insidious
practice.
10. Great precaution is required
in the passing of rivers, and over
bridges, particularly at night....
Coachmen are liable to drink hard,
and by that means frequently miss
the passage, and are the ense of
the destruction of the traveller, as
well as of their ov: i.
1 1. Traveller:, should not per-
mit strangers to place themselves
behind their vehicle, undo:- any
pretext whatsoever, bec.uvj tb.ve
vol.. v.
are innumerable instances of coach-
es having been disabled from pro-
ceeding, and unsuspecting travel-
lers robbed and killed by this
scheme.
12. In suspicious places, the
trunk should be placed before the
coach ; which place should he ge-
nerally made use of as often as
circumstances will admit.
13. Extensive woods should ne-
ver be passed at night without the
necessary precautions; and in dan-
gerous places it is safer to walk,
in order to be ready for defence,
if sudden violence is offered, than
to remain sitting in the coach,
Avhere little resistance can be made.
14. If foreigners are robbed at
night in the streets of large towns,
it will be dangerous to pursue the
flying thief, because he is seldom
or never alone ; and the pursuer
is almost sure to be wounded or
killed by his lawless accomplices.
N. B. The remarks on inns con-
tain also many important hints,
relative to the safety of the travel-
ler's person.
On the Mcam of preserving a Tra-
veller's Health, particularly in hot
Countries,
1. A traveller ought to be per-
fectly Avell acquainted with wh.it
agrees, or disagrees with his con-
stitution, and observe those rules
which custom has established in
favour of his health, at least as far
as circumstances will admit of....
He will act prudently, to pay a
strict altention with regard to eat-
ing, drinking,dress, exercise, and
res:; and conform to the customs,
and mode of lite of the.most sober
class of the inhabitants of the coun-
try he is in. Experience has
taught people of all countries,
A a
178 TRA
TRA
Avhich manner of living is the most
Avholesome in the climate they in-
habit.
Though the Siesta (the after-
noon's sleep) agrees perfectly well
with most foreigners in Spain and
Italy ; nevertheless it is liable to
bring on apoplexies in cold cli-
mates, Avhere meat and soporifer-
ous malt liquors are used in great
quantity. Travellers in warm
countries, Avho may be invited to
an afternoon's sleep, ought to ob-
serve, that the duration of it should
be proportioned to the quick or
difficult digestion of the person :
one quarter of an hour, or half an
hour is sufficient; people should
always be awaked before the end
of an hour. To sleep in an hori-
zontal position would be prejudi-
cial ; the fittest place for that kind
of rest is an arm chair, or a can-
nopee. The head ought to be laid
high, and the body bent backwards,
and a little turned towards the left
side. Every thing that is likely to
prevent the circulation of the
blood, must be removed, otherwise
violent head-aches will be felt.
3. Water is very unAvhoIesome
in some places, and ought to be
considered so, if soap will not dis-
solve in it. If a person should hap-
pen to be very thirsty, and no
other drink to be had, that Avater
should be soaked through a piece
of very fine linen, and a little vine-
gar, juice of lemon, or a toast put
into it. It Avould be still better to
boil it, if the circumstances will
admit, and drink it when cool....
Wells that are situated in marshy
grounds, or near privies, or those
which are observed to have a whit-
ish scum on the surface of the Ava-
ter, are generally reckoned to be
unwholesome.
4. Violent exercise after dinner
is prejudicial,and more so in warm
countries than in cold ones ; there-
fore people Avho travel on horse-
back, or in a vehicle, whose motion
is rather violent, will act prudently,
if they eat and drink sparingly.....
The shaking of the carriage heats
the blood, consequently strong li-
quors should be taken with the
greatest moderation, particularly
in southern climates.
5. Cleanliness requires people to
bathe oftener when they are trav-
elling, than when they are at home;
yet they must be very careful ne-
ver to bathe Avhen their blood is
agitated, or the stomach full, or
the day is very hot. The cool
morning and evening hours arc
the only times to take this saluti-
ferous recreation. EAren the most
expert SAvimmer should never bathe
in the sea or in a river, without
taking along Avith him another
person, who knoAVs how to SAvim.
He should be careful to choose a
bathing place where the bottom is
clear sand, and has no sea vceeds
upon it; for they frequently con-
tain a species of pointed ' shells,
which are apt to inflict dangerous
wounds if trodden upon. One of
the most necessary precautions in
bathing, is to plunge into the wa-
ter head foremost, otherwise the
blood rushing into the head expo-
ses the person to an apoplectic
attack*.
6. Travellers in carriages are
very liable to have their legs swel-
led ; in order to prevent being thus
incommoded, it will be advisable
to wear shoes rather than boots,
* After fatigue, the tepid bath should
never be omitted, the middle of the day
(or before dining) is the preferable time
for the purpose....Editor.
TRA
T R A
179
to untie the garters, to alight now
and then, and to walk as often as
opportunity permits it, which will
favour circulation.1 If the windows
of the carriage are kept shut theair
is soon affected, and may prove
prejudicial to respiration.
7. Feather beds and counter-
panes of cotton are very liable to
collect noxious exhalations ; for
this reason those Avho travel, ought
to make use of the hart skins, de-
scribed under the remarks on
inns.
8. The vapours of charcoal are
also exceedingly prejudicial ; peo-
ple should be remarkably careful
never to permit a pan of charcoal
to be brought into their apartment,
unless it is quite burnt to ashes ;
it would be dangerous to sleep with
it in the bed-room; as a great ma-
ny lives have been lost in that
manner.
9. In marshy grounds the air is
remarkably unhealthy, and there
are countries, for instance, the
Pontin Marshes in the Pope's do-
minions, where it is often attended
with fatal consequences to sleep
even in day time. Foreigners
should inform themselvesminutely
concerning the salubrityorumvhole-
someness of the air of those places
Avhere they sleep, and take the ne-
cessary precautions to guard against
the destructive effects of the latter.
10. Sweet or boiled wines, such
as are to be found in the Papal do-
minions on the coast of the Adri-
atic, delay the digestive faculty for
a long time, and as they tend ex-
cessively to inflame the blood, they
must be used in the most sparing
maimer.
11. Fresh fruit, and even the
ripest grapes, relax the stomach in
hot climates, and an immoderate
meal on them would infallibly pro-
duce the most dangerous conse-
quences, if bread vvas omitted to
be eaten Avith them.
12. Travellers in warm climates
should abstain from meat as much
as possible, particularly at night,
otherwise they might be exposed
to putrid fevers, which are seldom
easily removed.
[The personal experience of Dr.
Jackson in Jamaica, and of Mr.
Jackson in India, sufficiently con-
firms this important hint. See
Jackson on Fevers, and Jackson's
Tour from India to Hamburg.]
13. Sleeping Avith the windows
open in hot climates is so umvhole-
some, that many have hardly time
enough to repent of their impru-
dence. Those Avho travel on foot
should never sleep under the sha-
dow of a tree, or near a hemp
field.
14. Thirst is more effectually
quenched by eating fresh fruit, and
a morsel of bread, than by drinking
water: if no fruit is to be bad, it
is better to mix a little vinegar, or
the juice of a lemon with it, than
to drink it by itself.
15. After a long journey on foot,
it is unwholesome to take a plen-
tiful meal, or to sit near a great
fire.
16. Such as are under the neces-
sity of remaining in places in a
marshy situation, should reside in
apartments in the upper stories,
and in dry houses; they ought to
take proper exercise,Avithout labour,
in the sun,or in the evening damps:
a just quantity of vinous liquors,
and victuals of good nourishment,
are necessary in such circumstan-
ces.
17. A person Avho is not accus-
tomed to walk a great deal, should
gradually increase tbe length of
the station. If the wind is ver/
180 TRA
high, it is better to have it side-
ways, than in the face.
18. Since transpiration is easily
impeded, and its effects attended
with bad consequences, it is pru-
dent for travellers on foot to wear
a flannel waistcoat next the skin.
19. Fresh killed meat, greens,
and fresh fish, are preferable to
any other food, and simple nourish-
ment the best.
20. Damp beds are very often
found in inns little visited, and in
the rooms where fire is seldom
made : they ought to be carefully
avoided, for they not only bring on
illness, but sometimes prove the
death of the person Avho has the
misfortune to sleep in one. Those
who travel should examine the
beds, to see whether they are quite
dry, and have the bed-clothes in
their presence put before the fire.
If the mattresses are suspected, it
Avill be preferable to lie down on
dry and clean straAV. If a friend
offers you a bed, endeavour to have
it warmed, Avith the necessary pre-
cautions, because there are in cer-
tain houses certain beds kept only
for particular visitors, and therefore
they might be damp, if not used
for a long Avhile.
21. People whose clothes have
been Avet through, should look for
very dry beds, have the sheets well
aired, put on clean shirts, smoking
them first with sugar, or some-
thing of that nature, and before
they go to bed, rub their skins
with dry flannel, which promotes
perspiration. Those parts of the
body that have been Avet ought to
be washed Avith luke-warm water,
in which a little soap has bjen dis-
solved. Those whom circumstances
may not permit to put on dry
clothes, should keep their bodies in
constant motion, till the clothes
TRA
are become dry again upon them :
this inconvenience ought to be
avoided as much as possible, be-
cause it brings on rheumatic pains,
agues, colics, Sec. to people who
are not used to it.
22. Persons who have perspired
copiously from the heat of the sun,
should shelter themselves as much
as opportunity will permit, during
the falling of the dew ; if they can-
not avoid it, they should by no
means sit down. Continual exer-
cise favours transpiration, and di-
minishes the bad consequences
vvhich the cool air exposes people
to.
23. Since a body, which is void
of food, is more apt to attract
contagious sicknesses, a traveller
should never visit an hospital in
the morning before he has break-
fasted ; it will not be amiss to eat
a bit of bread dipped in vinegar,
and to wash the nostrils and mouth
with camphor-vinegar, before visit-
ing the sick. During the time he
is in an hospital, he should never
swallow his spittle, and rather use
something to draw it up, such as
spunge, and blotting-paper. It is
also very wholesome to drink a
glass of wine, with a little sugar
and the juice of half a lemon, on
these occasions.
24. Travellers should not neg-
lect to carry Avith them
A bottle of vinegar, de quatrc
voleurs
[A vial of laudanum.
One ditto sp. sal. ammoniac.
One box of purging pills.
A lancet.]
On the Means of being supplied
with Money.
1. It is very imprudent and use-
less f ;r a traveller to carry a large
TRA
TRA 181
sum of ready money about him ;
he ought to be supplied with let-
ters of credit from one town to
the other.
2. Letters of credit on substan-
tial houses, are in many respects
preferable to bills of exchange; the
latter may happen to be either too
small or too considerable, and many
times expose the traveller to a te-
dious laAv process, as Avell as the
disagreeable necessity of delaying
his journey ; besides a letter of cre-
dit is generally esteemed to entitle
the traveller to advice and protec-
tion from the merchant or banker.
3. It is advisable to have more
than one letter of credit, in order
to prevent disappointments and in-
conveniences, which must neces-
sarily arise from Avant of money,
if payment was to be refused.
4. If a traveller takes a letter of
credit from a banker, who requires
immediate security for the credit
which he gives, it will be more
advantageous to deposit such notes
as bear interest, than to deliver
him ready money, for Avhich the
banker will perhaps not alloAV any
interest; or at least not so much as
may be expected: but the guar-
rantee of a friend known to, and
accepted of, by the banker is most
convenient, and in general use.
5. In all the countries ol Europe
counterfeited bank-notes and bill-.
of this kind are to be found ; there-
fore travellers cannot be too care-
ful in this respect, and ought never
to receive paper money, unless
from people of well known credit,
particularly in the Pope's domi-
nions.
6. In many parts of Europe, gold
has sometimes an extra value,
which travellers are obliged to al-
low to the bankers, and which
other persons \ri!l not agree to in
payments; therefore it is neces-
sary to be well informed in that
respect, in order to avoid losses.
On Letters of Recommendation.
1. A traveller, whoAvishes to have
the benefit of his ambassador's
protection, should either be known
to him before, or be introduced by
letter, or be presented to him by a
respectable person.
2. Besides the Letters of Re-
commendation to the ambassador,
travellers should be furnished with
letters for bankers and merchants,
which in some respects are more
valuable than letters of introduction
to the first noblemen ; because they
Avill be able and inclined to inform
the inquisitive traveller in more
interesting matters than the latter:
nevertheless, letters for great per-
sonages tire always very acceptable,
and may be of service on many oc-
casions.
3. Travellers should even accept
of Letters of Recommendation to
the inferior class of people : a fo-
reigner can never have too many
friends ; and it is a great thing to
find a stranger, be he Avho he will,
Avho has your interest and welfare
at heart. Men of the inferior class
may be very usefully employed for
the traveller's instruction, provided
he has sufficient knowledge of the
world, and is capable of judging of
the qualifications of every indivi-
dual. Man deserves to be studied
attentively in all stations of life ;
and the visiting of a cottage is of-
ten more instructive than frequent-
ing a palace.
4. Letters of Recommendation
to the higher class of Custom-
House officers, may enable a tra-
veller to get very essential instruc-
tions of them respecting commerce,
182 TRA
TRA
manufactories, and many other ob-
jects : some of them will even con-
descend so far as to communicate
authentic accounts and valuable
documents, which no other person
could furnish.
On Inns.
1. A traveller should always
lodge in the best inn, because,
upon the whole, a good lodging
will not cost him much more, than
if he had chosen an indifferent one;
and he will at least be better serv-
ed, with an additional security to
his property, which is not always
the case in inferior inns, where
people of all conditions, even to
the lowest, resort, and the inn-
keeper has not so great an incite-
ment to support his credit. In
many houses of less reputation of
this kind, the expense win1 even be
greater, than in those of the first
rank, as the proprietors seize evrery
opportunity to impose upon the
richer order of strangers.
2. Travellers who go post, should
never permit the postillion to drive
them to such houses as he pleases;
almost all of them have secret mo-
tives to prefer some to others ;
therefore it would be prudent tOv
inquire of the post-masters, or
inn-keepers of the first reputation,
for a list of the best houses of ac-
commodation, Avhich are to be met
with in the places through Avhich
you pass, Whose veracity is at least
more to be depended upon, than
the drivers.
3. It is of the greatest impor-
tance to travellers always to have
a room to be in alone, and never
allow any person (well-known peo-
ple excepted) to sleep in the same
apartment, unless absolute neces-
sity compels them. ■ Foreigners
cannot be distrustful enough to-
wards strangers ; many of them
travel at the expence of the pub-
lic, and insinuate themselves under
various pretexts, grow familiar very
soon, and are frequently the authors
of the ruin of many young, unwary
travellers, whose experience is not
sufficiently ripened to open their
eyes to their dangers. Many of
those impostors will render essen-
tial services to foreigners, in order
to captivate their benevolence ; and
those, of all others, are the most
artful, and consequently the most
dangerous.
4. Servants in the inns should
never be hired, unless their hones-
ty be well known to the landlord,
Avho should ahvays be questioned,
if he is answerable for their fidelity.
5. As soon as travellers enter
into an inn, they should immedi-
ately agree for the price of the
room, dinner, supper, firing, &c.
and never neglect this useful pre-
caution, otherwise they will often
be obliged to pay for their negli-
gence in that respect an extrava-
gant price, especially in Holland
and Italy.
6. The best method of avoiding
mistakes and double charges, is to
pay daily the bill of the landlord,
and to take a receipt for it [in a
book:] this precaution will always
render people more - attentive and
serviceable.
7. Many inn-keepers are remark-
ably inquisitive, and take particu-
lar delight in visiting and exam-
ining the traveller's trunk, during
the time he is out, and particularly
if you forget to agree : they make
those researches in order to ena-
able them to judge more properly
of the circumstances, and conse-
quence of their company ; there-
fore it will always be prudent t»
TRA
TRA 183
lock the trunk or boxes, and to
conceal from them what could
give them a too favourable idea of
the traveller's importance.
8. In lonesome country inns,
where safety ought always to be
suspected, it will be better to per-
mit the servant to sleep in the
same room, and to have a wax
candle burning the whole night:
it will also be necessary before the
traveller goesto bed, to visit behind
it, and to look into the chests, un-
der and behind them, and in all
such places where concealment is
easy. Pocket door bolts in the
form of a cross, are applicable to
almost all sorts of doors, and may
on many occasions save the life of
the traveller, where desperate at-
tempts may be made by needy as-
sassins ; for this reason, it is recom-
mendable to be always provided
with a pair of those bolts. The
safety of the doors should also be
carefully examined ; and in case
of bolts not being at hand, it will
be useful to hinder entrance into
the room by putting a table, and
chairs upon it, against the door.
Such precautions are however less
necessary in England, but on the
Continent they are much more so.
9. It will not be amiss in such
lonesome places, where accidents
may oblige a traveller to remain
the Avhole night, to show his fire-
arms to the landlord in a familiar
discourse, without acquainting him
of his well-grounded suspicion of
insecurity ; and to tell him with a
courageous look, that you are not
afraid of a far superior number of
enemies. Such stratagems have
frequently had the most desirable
effect, and may yet be practised
with every promise of success.
10. Since it is very unwholesome
to eat or to sleep in a room, the
windows of which have been shut
long before, it will be necessary
to open them as soon as you enter
into it; and it will not be superflu-
ous to purify the air of the apart-
ment, by throwing a little strong
vinegar upon a red hot shovel,
[and to make a fire in the chimney .J
11. Travellers never being sure
whether the lodgers^ who sleprin the
beds before them, were not affect-
ed with the itch, A'enereal, or any
other disease, they should make
use of a preventive of infection : a
light coverlet of silk, two pair of
sheets, and two dressed harts [or
deer] skins put together, six feet
six inches in length, three feet six
inches in breadth, should be al-
ways carried along with them in
the box. The hart's skin which
is put upon the mattresses, will
hinder the disagreeable contact,
aud prevent the noxious exhala-
tions. The hart's skin is to be
covered with the traveller's own
sheets ; and if the coverlet be not
sufficient to keep him warm, his
coat put upon it, will increase the
heat sufficiently. It will be neces-
sary-at rising in the morning to
expose the hart's skin to the fresh
air for five minutes before it is
packed up again ; and this precau-
tion will alone.be sufficient to guard
against the unwholesome effects of
bedding, much more dangerous in
hot countries than may be imagined.
If the traveller be not provided
with these materials, it will not be
prudent to undress entirely ; the
necklace, garters, girt, and anv'
thing else, Avhich hinders the cir-.
culation of the blood, must be un-
tied, in order to prevent apoplectic
affections.
22. A purse, or any temptation,
should never be left on the table,
because it stimulates distress some-
184 T R A
TRA
times to actions, which at other
times would raise a blush, and pre-
vents the commission of many
crimes by the difficulty of perpe-
trating them, and of course many
an ignominious fate.
13. In many countries the land-
lords are not answerable for the
property of their company ; there-
fore, if they are obliged to stay any
time in one place, and intend to
remain at the inn, they should ask
the landlord, the very moment they
make their agreement with him,
whether their package is safe, and
whether he is responsible for the
consequences : in case he is not so,
the most prudent way will be to
deposit his valuables at a banker's,
or the next person's in reputation,
and to secure himself by receipt,
which should always be demanded.
14. Foreigners, Avho remain for
some time in a place, will save
money, and be better accommo-
dated, by taking private lodgings
per week, or per month.
On Luggage.
1.Travellers who undertake a long
tour, should only carry such bag-
gage as is indispensably necessary.
Among the many inconvenien-
cies of a too cumbrous baggage,
the following deserve to be consi-
dered, viz.
First. The heavy expence of the
carriage of it, Avhich in some coun-
tries amounts to much more, than
the passage of his person and ser-
vant.
Secondly. Unavoidable loss of
time, and the difficulties of the
Custom-Houses, particularly if the
packages should unfortunately con-
tain any contraband goods, which
might happen very easily, because
travellers cannot be always accu-
rately informed of those articles,
which may have been recently pro-
hibited. That valuable time, which
must be bestowed upon packing
and unpacking ; which, though the
province of the servant, must often
command the attention of the mas-
ter, who may be anxious, lest his
property should be shaken and de-
stroyed by the violent motion of
the carriage, if not carefully pack-
ed up ; or lest any thing valuable
should be left behind.
Thirdly. The disappointments; if
sometimes the coach is damaged
by the too great weight of the
packages, or if the luggage on
some occasions cannot be loaded
upon the same coach, and conse-
quently be hindered from following
its owner.
Fourthly. The greater*expence
in the inns, where travellers are
frequently charged according to
the quantity of baggage and con-
veniences they carry Avith them.
2. A person who travels for im-
provement, is not supposed to be
inclined to shine in foreign coun-
tries with the ostentatious magni-
ficence of equipage; and there-
fore the traveller, if he means to
proceed with either economy or
convenience, should be very cau-
tious of incumbering himself Avith
a superfluous Avardrobe.
3. The best way of carrying
papers that are not bound like
books, is to roll them very tight,
to cover them with strong paper,
in order to prevent them from
rubbing against any thing, and to
write the title of the contents upon
the rolls, to know them again on
all occasions.
4. Since it sometimes happens,
that the custom-house officers
(through mere wantonness) will
throw papers carelessly out of the
TRA
minks of passengers, it will be
prudent to keep all the writings
together in a* large well defended
port-feuiile ; a preference is to be
given to those of Russia leather,
because water cannot penetrate to,
and destroy the contents: that
leather is also best adapted to
coverings of trunks, as its smell
is obnoxious to vermin, and not
liable to harbour AA'orms, Sec. in-
cidental to hot climates.
5. Short and high trunks are
preferable to long and low ones,
because they can be put upon
any carriage whatever. The so-
lidity of a trunk is also one of
its -necessary qualities, it being,
sometimes, most unmercifully
handled by the Custom-House of-
ficers.
6. Travellers should never per-
mit revenue officers to visit two
trunks at the same time, as the
owner's eyes and attention may
be fixed on one, at the great hazard
of his being pillaged by the other.
Even, in these cases, experience
often proves, that complaints do
not produce redress.
7. It is sometimes very dange-
rous to accept of commissions, and
sealed parcels, because they may
contain forbidden roods.
8. A traveller Should also for-
bid his servant to take contraband
goods with him, because in case
of an unfortunate detection, the
servant would perhaps be arrested,
or the master be obliged to give a
considerable security, and to defend
the cause of his servant in the pro-
per court.
9. The trouble of having his
trunk searched, can in some coun-
tries be obviated, by having it
sealed by the Custom-House of-
ficers ; therefore a traveller , who
dislikes those visits, should inquire
VOL. V.
TRA 185
whether this custom is allowed,
and the trouble and pains dispensed
with.
10. Bound books with stiff covers
arc liable to rub against, and greatly
injure the baggage; therefore it
will be prudent to have them lightly
bound in leather, without its being
stiffened by paste-board, and after-
wards cut off smooth and even with
the leaves. In case a person car-
ries books with stiff covers, it will
be advisable to place them at the
bottom of the trunk as firm as can
be, as a foundation, and over them
with strong paper.
11. Among the requisites for
travelling, the following will not be
useless :
A case of instruments for draw-
ing, measures,drawing paper, India
ink.
A good watch, or exact time-
keeper.
A mariner's compass.
A barometer.
A thermometer.
General and special maps of the
country which the traveller visits,
pasted upon linen, and rendered
portable by folding.
A good telescope.
A dark lantern, Avax candles, and
a tinder-box.
Bolts suited to all sorts of doors.
On Sea Voyages.
1. Before a passenger agrees
with a master of a vessel for the
expence of a passage, he ought to
inform himself respecting the age
of the vessel, the cai :m, the num-
ber the ship's creAV, the quality of
the passengers, and the destination
of the voyage, he. Each of these
circumstances has its advantages
and disadvantages, and deserves
particular notice.
P. B
186 TRA
TRA
2. It is also a matter of impor-
tance to know Avhether that flag
Avhich the vessel carries, is re-
spected by the piratical powers of
Barbary, or not, if the course of
the vessel should lie near to any
such ports.
3. Some masters are excessively
polite during their residence on
shore, and remarkably otherwise
when the passengers are on board ;
therefore it is necessary to inquire,
be lore an agreement takes place,
whether the master behaves well,
and treats his passengers Avith
politeness and attention.
4. If time can be spared, the
traveller may sometimes travel re-
markably cheap, therefore he
should make an early inquiry con-
cerning the price of the passage,
if circumstances will permit. The
masters are generally desirous of
having passengers, and a man has
a much greater opportunity of
economizing by sea, when a num-
ber of vessels are bound to the
same port ; there is then a rival-
ship between them for passengers,
and the consideration is, of course,
proportionablv moderate.
5. People, who endeavour to
make the master believe, that their
rank in life is not unimportant,
must often pay clear for their ridi-
culsus vanity, without meeting
with better treatment; therefore,
people of rank, who have a proper
idea of the A'alue of money, should,
and will be on their guard in that
respect.
6. There are different things to
be observed Avith regard to each
sea voyage, Avith which most tra-
vellers are unacquainted, and for
this reason it Avill be advisable to
consult the bankers, and those who
are expert in sea affairs, relative to
what onght to be observed con-
cerning the agreement for their
passage, as Avell as other import-
ant objects in voyages; for instance,
if they intend to embark merchan-
dize, or goods requiring certain
precautions.
7. In long voyages it is neces-
sary to do all that lies in our power
to entertain a good harmony with
the captain, officers, and fellow pas-
sengers ; we ought also to give the
same orders to our servants ; and
avoiding playing at cards, hard
drinking, disputes, and giving of-
fence. Small presents, given to
the sailors, may on some occasions
produce very desirable effect.
8. It would not be a bad scheme
to have a letter of recommenda-
tion to be delivered on the arrival
to the Consul of the country, of
which the captain is a native ; this
would in some cases render him
more attentive, if he was previous-
ly informed of this letter.
9. Those who wish to inform
themselves of the method of work-
ing a ship, and of navigation in
general, should be very attentive
to every command the captain
gives to the creAV, and inquire into
the reason of it. Perhaps it may
not be difficult to obtain a copy of
the ship's journal, which is an in-
teresting matter for a passenger.
10. If passengers embark mer-
chandize, they should not be too
sincere in discovering their inten-
tions concerning the disposal of
them, because people may some-
times take advantage of the impru-
dence of such discoveries.
11. The example of the illus-
trious Captain Coox, who, during
a voyage of three years and eigh-
teen days, under every latitude,
lost from his whole company of
118 men, only one man, is the
greatest proof that the longest
TRA
voyages may be performed without
prejudice to the health, if proper
regulations are strictly attended
to. It is at all times dangerous
for the seaman, to indulge himself
Avith too large a meal of animal
food, and that even if it is fresh
killed : sour crout is the best food
that can be used, and at the same
time an excellent antiscorbutic :
portable soup is an exquisite nou-
risher of the body, and particular-
ly if boiled up with vegetables:
oatmeal, rice, and potatoes, are
valuable articles : a proper quanti-
ty of cyder, perry, and vinegar,
should by no means be forgotten,
and the last should be added in a
small quantity to almost every
dish ; the juice of oranges, lemons,
and limes, form a very necessary
part of a ship's stores.
12. The muscles of the body
must be put in exercise every day ;
the passengers should assist the
sailors in working the ship ; bathe
themselves at least once a week ;
attend particularly to neatness ; be
as often as possible on deck ; ex-
pose their beds daily to the circu-
lation of the air; smoke in damp
weather ; eat often and little at a
time ; sleep moderately ; endea-
vour to be perpetually diverting
themselves, and to keep up their
spirits.
13. Those who are very liable
to sea sickness, should keep to-
Avards the middle of the ship,
where the motion is not so violent.
14. Persons who are subject to
a costiveness in the body, should
take such medicines Avith them
as relax the bowels, without too
much stimulation. They should
also abstain from heavy food,
and drink heating liquors sparing-
ly-
1§. Merchantmen, from 100 to
TRA 187
200 tons, have seldom any person
on board who understands either
surgery or physic ; it will therefore
be a most necessary caution, to
provide such a small chest of me-
dicines, as may be immediately
relative to such accidents and ma-
ladies, as particularly attend on
sea voyages.
16. A private lancet is also ne-
cessary for a traveller, because a
lancet, Avhich has been used in the
bleeding of a scorbutic person,
will infallibly infect any other man,
who may be bled in a short time
afterwards.
17. Persons of venereal habits
should absolutely avoid any long
sea voyages: and all those Avho
intend to travel by sea, should
peruse and consult the excellent
work of Dr. Lind, on Diseases of
Hot Climates, on the Scurvy, and
on the Health of Seamen.
Miscellanies.
1. As the sudden death of the
traveller may possibly occasion in-
finite distress and disputes in his
family, he would consult his own
tranquillity, if he committed to
paper his peremptory will, before
his departure from his native coun-
try.
2. A traveller who visits foreign
countries for information, ought to
be remarkably cautious, with re-
gard to the choice of a companion
for a long journey ; if the person
proposed has not exactly the same
turn of mind, the same interest to
pursue ; and if he is not a good
natured, active, and inquisitive
man, he will be an intolerable
burden, a real obstruction to useful
travels, and convert the sweets of
company into bitterness.
3. It is totally improper to hold
188 T R A
T R A
any discourse in foreign countries
on religion, politics, or our own
particular affairs, and especially
with strangers.
4. Our curiosity becomes a
virtue when its aim is purely in-
struction, and from a wish to be
useful to our countrymen.
5. Those who are naturally des-
titute of judgment and prudence,
become still greater ibois by their
travelling than they were before ;
it being impossible for him, Avho
is a fool in his own country, to be-
come wise by running up and
down, which made Socrates say,
he must change his r.oul, and not
the climate, to become wise.
6. When you corre into any
company observe their hun-ours,
and suit your own carriage there-
to ; by which insinuation, you will
make their converse more free and
open. Let your discourse be more
in queries and doubtings, than per-
emptory assertions or disputings.
Sir I. Newton.
7. The art of pleasing in com-
pany, is not to explain things too
circumstantially, but to express
only one part, and leave your hear-
ers to make out the rest.
8. There is no man but delights
to be questioned in his own pro-
fession ; when being moved by
others, he may seem to publish
his knowledge Avithout ostentation.
9. A Avise man counts his mi-
nutes. He Iv ts no time slip ; for
lime is life, which he makes long
by the good husbandry of a right
use and application of it.
' ■">. A philosophic traveller looks
rpon his country as a sick friend,
for whose relief he asks advice of
;M the world.
11. If a person limits himself
to the knowledge of other people's
discoveries, it Avill be an infallible
cause, that he can make none
himself. He Avho follows another,
proceeds without an aim ; for how
should we find that which we are
not in search of.
12. The duty of a man is to be
useful to men, to a great number,
if he can, if not then to a less; if
that is impossible, then merely to
bis relations ; if that be equally so,
at least to himself.
In rendering himself useful to
himself, he labours at the same
time for others ; for a vicious man
not only injures himself, but also
those to whom he might have been
useful, had he proved virtuous : in
the same manner, if we labour for
ourselves, we labour also for others,
because we form a useful member
of society.
13. To a nation so particularly
illustrious as the English, for the
extent of their possessions, the
stupendous scale of their com-
merce, as well as the free power
of exercising those riches, in ren-
dering active that sensibility which
they intrinsically possess ; it may
not be amiss to address a few
words in favour of those unfortu-
nate men, who not only have the
melancholy assurance of their pre-
sent misery, by the suffering of
it, bwt the additional accumulation
of human woe, the idea of being
forgotten, whilst labouring under
it. By this unfortunate part of
society, I allude to the captives
under the piratical states of the
coasts of Barbary ; men, w ho far
from rendering themselves unfor-
tunate by their vices, become so
perhaps in the very act of extend-
ing, or protecting the commerce of
that country, to which they belong,
and to whose continued protection
they must be consequently entit-
led.
TRA
TRE 189
To reflect upon the misery of
those objects, who perpetually pre-
sent themselves to our eyes, and
make a Ha ing and forcible call on
our sensibility, is a worthy, is a
philosophical virtue: but to turn
a mindful eye on more imagery
sorrow, which we know to be ex-
isting, though we cannot perceive
it with our eyes, or receive its com-
plaining tones in our ears ; to im-
press the imagination with the bust
of languishing and distant sorrow,
so as to work our sensibility into
action, is the highest prerogative
of reason and intellect. Vet with
that extent of power, and command
of fortune, joined to that education,
which many English travellers
possess, such sentiments would
neither be romantic, or such un-
dertakings impossible. We should
remember, as Cicero says, that
there are two sorts of men, each of
whom derive a totally different
splendor from their expences ; the
one are mere prodigals, but the
other justly deserve the title of
generous ; the first dissipate their
property in entertainments, hounds,
horses, and gaming: Avhat will
prove the remains of a similar
profusion ? A fleeting remem-
brance, perhaps total oblivion : but
men, who are truly generous, con-
secrate their fortune to more noble
purposes ; to the ransom of unfortu-
nate captives, by pirates, is?c. isfc.
14. This sentiment of Seneca
is particularly noble, as contradis-
tinguished from that idea of learn-
ing, merely for a personal accom-
plishment. I would oiffy learn,
savs he, in order to be able to
leach : the most interesting disco-
very would cease to have any
charms forme, if 1 was only to be
the repository of it. No, I would
not accept of Wisdom herself,
were it on the condition of keeping
her secluded within myself. Pos-
session is only rendered agreeable
by participation.
TRAVELLER'S JOY, Hones-
ty, Virgin's Bower, or Great
Wild-Climber, Clematis Vitalba,
L. a hardy, indigenous shrub, grow-
ing in hedges and shady places,
in calcareous soils, where it flow-
ers in June and July.....It is easily
propagated by layers or cuttings.
The fibrous stalks of this vege-
table may be converted into paper:
.....the whole plant is very acrid to
the touch ; on Avhich account it is
frequently employed as a caustic,
and for cleansing old ulcers.....
Both leaves and branches may,
with advantage, be used in dying ;
and Damuournky obtained from
the latter alone, a yellow decoction.
.....Dechstein observes, that the
hard, compact, yellow, and odori-
ferous wood of this shrub, fur-
nishes an excellent material for ve-
neering.
Treacle, the Common. Sec
Molasses ; and Beer.
TREACLE, the Venice, or
Mithridatk, Theriaca Andro-
machi, a celebrated medley of
drugs, composed of 60 ingredients;
prepared ; pulverized ; and, with
honey, formed into an electuary :
it was reputed among the ancients
to be a specific against poisons, and
was formerly employed in inter-
mittent, malignant, and other fe-
vers. At present, however, it is
superceded by the opiat electuary,
which consists of purified opium,
6 drams ; caraway-seeds, long-
pepper, and ginger, of each 2 oz.;
and three times their weight of the
syrup of white poppy, boiled to the
consistence of honey. The solid
substances are to be pulverised,
and the opium first separately in-
190 T R E
T RE
corporated with the syrup, over a
moderate fire ; when the other in-
gredients should be gradually add-
ed. This composition is very pow-
erful: the doses vary according to
the age, sex, strength, and other
circumstances •; so that they ought
to be regularly prescribed.
Treacle-Mustard. See Mi-
thridate-Mustard.
Treacle-Hedge-Mustard, or
Treacle Wormseed. See Mus-
tard, the Hedge.
TREE, the largest of vegetable
productions, rising to a considera-
ble height, with a single stem.
Trees are divided into two prin-
cipal classes, namely, fruit, and
timber trees : the former includes
all such as are raised chiefly, or en-
tirely, for their edible fruit; an ac-
count of vvhich, together with their
mode of cultivation, the reader
will find in alphabetical order, and
also in the articles Fruit-trees,
Orchard, &c.».The second divi-
sion comprehends those trees, the
wood of which is employed in ship-
building, machinery, or for other
useful purposes, such as the Oak,
Larch, he.; the culture of which
has been discussed under those
respective heads.....See also Tim-
ber.
The growth of trees is a subject
of considerable importance ; but
few accurate experiments haA-e been
made, in order to ascertain their
annual increase in height and bulk.
....In the Philosophical Transations
of the Royal Society, for 1788,
Mr. Barker states, as the result
of his observations, that oak, and
ash-trees, grow nearly in equal
proportions, increasing about 1, or
1-i inch every year. He remarks,
that when the annual grovvth a-
mounts to one inch in height, a
coat one-sixth of an inch in thick-
ness will accrue to the tree ; and
as " the timber added to the body
every year, is its length multipli-
ed into the thickness of the coat,
and into the girth," more timber
is produced in proportion to the
increasing thickness of the stem.
The health and vegetation of
trees may be greatly promoted, by *
scraping them ; by cutting aAvay
the cankered parts ; and by Avash-
ing their stems, annually, in the
month of February or March.....
Hence, Mr. Forsyth, in his inge-
nious " Treatise on the Culture and
Management of Fruit-trees," he.
recommends fresh cow-dung to be
mixed with urine and soap-suds;
and the composition to be applied
to the stems and branches of fruit,
forest, or timber trees, in the same
manner as the ceilings of rooms
are white-washed. This operation,
he observes, will not only destroy
the eggs of insects, that are hatched
during the spring and summer, but
also prevent the growth of moss ;
and, if it be repeated in autumn,
after the fall of the leaves, it will
kill the eggs of those numerous
insects, which are hatched during
that season and the winter ; thus
contributing to nourish the tree,
and to preserve its bark in a fine
and healthy state. A similar prac-
tice of washing and rubbing trees
Avas devised many years since, by
Mr. Evelyn, and Dr. Hales,
who direct it to be performed first
with simple water and a scrubbing
brush, and afterwards with a coarse
flannel: the trees, thus managed,
throve uncommonly ; and Mr.
Mar sham relates, that a beech-
tree, between spring and autumn,
increased 2 five-tenths inches in
thickness, which Avas one-tenth of
an inch more than an unwashed
tree. Mr. Forsyth's mixture,
TRE
T R E 191
however, is far preferable to com-
mon water ; and, if the use of the
latter fluid be attended with such
beneficial effects, it may be ration-
ally concluded, that the former will
be productive of still greater advan-
tages.
In common with other objects
of the vegetable creation, trfes are
liable to a variety of diseases;
Avhich, if not timely attended to,
eventually destroy them. Having
already treated of such affections,
underthc heads of Canker,Moss,
he.; we shall in this place intro-
duce a concise account of Mr.
Forsyth's improved method of
curing injuries and defects in fruit,
or the forest trees ; for which His
Majesty- has graciously rewarded
him; on condition that it should
be published. Mr. F. directs all
the decayed, hollow, loose, rotten,
injured, diseased and dead parts,
to be cut away, till the knife ex-
tend to the sound or solid wood,
so as to leave the surface perfectly
smooth. The composition (pre-
pared in the manner described
vol. i. p. 96, and rendered of the
consistence of thick paint, by add-
ing a sufficient quantity of soap-
suds and urine) should then be
laid on with a painter's brush, to
the thickness of about 1-Sth of an
inch, and the edges finished off'as
thin as possible. Next, five parts
of dry pulverized wood-ashes should
be mixed with one part of bone-
ashes, previously reduced to pow-
der, and then put into a tin-box,
the top of which is perforated w ith
holes: the powder must be sprink-
led over the surface of the compo-
sition, being suffered to remain
half an hour for absorbing the
moisture ; when an additional por-
tion of the powder should be gent-
ly applied with the hand, rill the
whole plaster acquire a smooth
surface. As the edges of such ex-
cisions grow up, care ought to be
taken, that the new wood may not
come in contact with the decayed;
for which purpose, it will be advi-
sable to cut out the latter, in pro-
portion as the former advances;
a hollow space being left betAveen
both, in order that the newly-
grown wood may have sufficient
room to extend, and fill up the
cavity, so that it in a manner
forms a new tree. By this process,
old and decayed pear-trees have,
in the second summer after its ap-
plication, produced fruit of the best
quality and finest liavour; nay, in
the course of four or five years,
they yielded such abundant crops,
as young healthy trees could not
have borne in 16 or 20 years. By
such treatment, likewise, large,
aged elm-trees,all the parts of which
were broken, having only a small
portion of bark left on the trunk,
shot forth stems from their tops,
to the height of above thirty feet,
within six or seven years after the
composition had been applied.....
Thus it appears, that both forest
and fruit-trees may be renovated,
and preserved in aflourishing state;
while the latter may be rendered
more fruitful than at any former
period. We regret that our limits
confine us to the present short ac-
count, and refer the reader to Mr.
Forsyth's 'Precise above cited;
which is illustrated with 13 elegant
engravings.
[Under the articles Fruit, Or-
chard, some observations on the
subject of. fruit-trees by the inge-
nious Mr. Bi'cknal were given,
and the occasion of the present
head is taken to introduce some
additional and highly important
remarks by the same valuable prac-
192 T R E
T RE
tical writer ; from the Transactions
of the Society of Arts, vol. 20, for
1802, on the varieties of en-
grafted Fruit-trees.
" Some friends have requested
that I would introduce another pa-
per on the nature of the valuable
varieties of engrafted fruits, as
they are of opinion that the Essay
in the 17th volume of the Trans-
actions of the Society is not suffi-
ciently extended for a subject so
important to the fruit-growers, and
those interested in the productions
of fruits. ' As a proof of my wil-
lingness to make the orchardist as
perfect as I can, I beg you to pre-
sent my compliments to the Soci-
ety, Avith the following elucida-
tions.
" This is a subject in rural eco-
nomy which ought to be much
better understood than it is, in or-
iLr to enable the planters to judge
of the sorts proper to be planted,
either as an article of pleasure,
profit, or recreation ; as much of
!*ie credit of the plantation must
arise from - judiciously choosing
trees of the best, new, or middle-
aged sorts, and not of the old
worn-out varieties, which latter
cannot, in the planting of orchards
in common situations, ever form
valuable trees, and must end in the
disappointment of the planter.
" Engrafted fruits, I have before
said, and I now repeat, are not
permanent. Every one of the least
reflexion must see that there is an
essential difference between the
power and energy of a seedling
plant, and toe tree which is to be
raised from cuttings or elonga-
tions. The seedling is endued
wnb the energies of nature, while
the graft, or scion, is nothing
more than a regular elongation,
carried peshnps through the seve-
ral r< pentings of the same variety;
Avhereas the seed, from having
been placed in the earth, germin-
ates and becomes a new plant,
wherever nature permits like to
produce like in vegetation ; as in
the oak, beech, and other mast-
bearing trees. These latter trees,
from each passing through the
state of seedlings, are perfectly
continued, and endued with the
functions of forming perfect seeds
for raising other plants by evolu-
tion, to the continuance of the like
species.
" This is not the case with en-
grafted fruits. They are doomed
by nature to continue for a time,
and then gradually decline, till at
last the variety is totally lost, and
soon forgotten, unless recorded by
tradition, or in old publications.
" Reason, with which Provi-
dence has most bountifully blessed
some of our species, has enabled
us, when we find a superior varie-
ty, to engraft it on a wilding stock,
or to raiae plants from layers and
cuttings, or even to raise up the
roots, and thus to multiply our
sources of comfort and pleasure.
This, hoAvever, does not imply that
the multiplication of the same va-
riety, for it is no more, should last
for ever, unless the species will
naturally arise from seed.
" Nature, in her teaching,
speaks in very intelligible lan-
guage, which language is convey-
ed by experience and observation.
Thus Ave see that among promis-
cuous seeds of fruits of the same
sort, one or more may arise, Avhose
fruits shall be found to possess a va-
lue far superior to the rest in many
distinguishable properties. From
experience, also, we have obtain-
ed the power, by engrafting, of
increasing the number of this
TRE
T R E 193
newly-acquired tree, can change
its country, give it to a friend,
send it beyond the seas, or fill a
kingdom with that fruit, if the na-
tives are disposed so to do. Thus we
seem to have a kind of creative
power in our own hands.
" From the attention lately paid
to the culture of engrafted fruits,
I hope we are now enabled to con-
tinue a supposed happily acquired
tree, when we can find it, for a
much longer duration than if
such variety had been left in the
state of unassisted nature ; per-
haps I may say for a duration as
long again, or something more.
After these sanguine expectations,
I may reasonably be asked, to what
does all this amount ? for here
there is no direct permanency.....
and why ? The why is very obvi-
ous....because the kernels within
the fruit, Avhich are the seed of
the plants for forming the next
generation of trees, will not pro-
duce their like. I allow they may
do so accidentally ; but nothing
more can be depended on.
" For example, suppose we take
ten kernels or pips of any apple
raised on an engrafted stock : sow
them, and they will produce ten
different varieties, no two of which
will be alike ; nor will either of
them closely resemble the fruit
from whence the seeds were col-
lected. The leaves also of those
trees raised from the same primi-
genious or parent stock, will not
actually be a copy of the leaves of
any one of the varieties or family,
to which each is connected by a
vegetable consanguinity. I inten-
tionally used the word actually, be-
cause a resemblance may be found,
though not much of that is to be
expected.
" I beg that what has been last men-
VOL. v.
tioned may not be taken as a dis-
couragement to attempts for rais-
ing new varieties. I was obliged
to speak very strongly, in order
to place the culture upon its true
foundation. I think it need not
be observed, that there is no ac-
quiring a neAV variety, but through
the means of a seedling plant ;
and therefore whoever wishes to
succeed must attempt it that way,
or wait till others in their planta-
tions may more fortunately pro-
duce it.
" In chusing the seeds, that ap-
ple is most likely to produce the
clearest and finest plants, Avhose
kernels are firm, large, and Avell
ripened. The size of the fruit is
not to be regarded ; for large ap-
ples do not always ripen their
fruit well, or rather for cyder the
small fruits are generally prefer-
red for making the strongest,
highest-flavoured liquor. And
from what I have been able to col-
lect in the cyder-countries, it is
there the opinion, that an apple
something above the improved
crab promises the best success.....
This advantage also attends the
practice : if there are no valuable
apples raised from that attempt,
these wildings will make excel-
lent stocks to engraft upon.
" Gentlemen Avho actually cm-
ploy themselves in attempting to
acquire new varieties, should re-
member that they ought to select
all the sets, from the bed of apple-
quick, Avhose appearance is in the
least degree promising, and plant
them together, at such a distance
as to allow each to produce its
fruit, Avhich will happen in about
twelve, fifteen, or eighteen years.
My friend Mr. Knight, who un-
doubtedly is the first in actual ex-
ertions for procuring these happilv
194 T R E
acquired new varieties, has had
two plants bear fruit at six years
old, and one at five. The cyder-
countries have offered several pre-
miums for procuring new varieties,
and some with good effect. Pre-
miums have been given both to
Mr. Knight and Mr. Alban.
" When the new variety is to
be raised from a valuable admired
apple, I should recommend the
placing these seeds in a garden-
pot, filled with mould from an old
melon-bed ; carrying the pot into
a retired situation near the Avater,
and giving attention to run the
plants to as large a size as is con-
venient within eighteen months.
With this view, the pot should be
placed in the green-house the first
winter; and when the plants are
afterwards to be set out in the
spots, they should not be placed
under the drip of trees, or much
exposed to the winds.
" Two instances have been men-
tioned, the improved crab, and
most admired apple; but pru-
dence says, try all sorts, and
something probably will arise ;
and the process is attended with
little trouble or expense to a per-
son who constantly resides in the
country : yet, after all this scien-
tific care, the apple may want fla-
vour, and be in other respects no-
thing better than a common wild-
ing.
"It is an undoubted fact, and
worthy of observation, that all the
different trees of the same variety
have a wonderful tendency to si-
milarity of appearance among
themselves ; and that the parent
stock, and all engrafted from it,
have a far greater resemblance to
each other, than can be found in
any part of the animal creation ;
TRE
and this habit does not vary to any
extent of age.
" As an encouragement in at-
tempting to increase the number
of new valuable fruits, we can
prove that the golden pippin is na-
tive English. The red-streak, a
seedling of Herefordshire, if not
raised, yet was first brought in*
to notice by Lord Scudamore,
and was for a long time called Scu-
damore's Crab. The Stire Apple
was accidentally raised in the for-
est of Dean, in Glocestershire, and
took the name of Forest Stire.
The cyder made from this apple
vvas the strongest the country ever
produced, according to any living
record. The Haglo-crab, the best
cyder fruit now remaining, was
discovered in the parish of Ecloe,
on the banks of the Severn ; and
about sixty or seventy years ago,
many scions were taken from this
tree by Mr. Bellamy, and en-
grafted on seedling stocks about
Ross. These are noAv grovvn old ;
and to ascertain the age of the va-
riety, I went with Charles Ed-
win, Esq. to Ecloes, in hopes of
seeing the primigenious of this
family. The proprietor of the
estate acquainted Mr. Eda^in that
it had ceased to bear, years ago,
and was cut down. Those at Ross
are but poor bearers now, and I
should suppose the variety must
be 140 years old, though Mar-
shal, who wrote in the year 1786,
mentions these trees Avere prolific,
and he supposes the sort to be
about eighty years old ; but from
present experience, it must be
much more. The Tinton Squash-
pear is of Gloucestershire; the
Barland and Old-field Avere near
Ledbury, Herefordshire. The two
last pears clearly bear the names
TRE
of the two fields Avhere they Avere
raised. The Barland fell about six
years ago, visibly from Aveight and
longevity, which was supposed to
have been about 200 years. There
have been many other names of
estimation handed down to us,
though the realities are now total-
ly worn out, and have ceased to
exist. Can any better proof be
desired, that engrafted fruits are
not permanent, than the regret we
feel for the loss of these old valu-
able fruits.
" To make my paper as short
as convenient, I have dwelt only
on the apple and pear : yet all the
engrafted fruits are under the same
predicament of the seed not pro-
ducing its like, and the offspring
in time falling into a nothingness
of grovvth and bearing, though that
space of time must certainly de-
pend on the natural longevity and
hardiness of the sort, soil, position,
care, See. All these are more ful-
ly expressed in the papers publish-
ed in the different volumes of the
transactions of this Society, and
the two volumes of the Orchard-
ist, wherein the whole system
is extended, to form a rational
culture for the management of
standard fruits.
" It should be remembered, that
as I am iioav alluding to the state
of actual permanency, fifty years
are to be accounted as nothing;
and as often as we come to that
point, we are compelled to resort
to our first assertion, " That en-
grafted fruits are not permanent,
they being continued from elonga-
tions, and not raised as a repeti-
tion of seeds." This is the only
rational Avay as yet introduced of
accounting for the loss of the va-
luable old varieties of fruits. Should
TRE 195
a better system be introduced, I
shall readily adopt it; but this
sufficiently answers the purposes
of the planter.
" Some years ago, from due in-
vestigation and thorough convic-
tion, I propagated this principle ;
and it Avas published in the 17th
vol. of the Society'sTranactions, in
the following words: " All the
grafts taken from this first tree,
or parent stock, or any of the de-
scendants, will for some genera-
tions thrive ; but when this first
stock shall, by mere dint of old-
age, fall into actual decay, a nihi-
lity of vegetation.....the descend-
ants, however young, or in what-
ever situation they may be, will
gradually decline ; and, from that
time, it would be imprudent, in
point pf profit, to attempt propa-
gating that variety from any of
them. This is the dogma which
must be received. I do not expect
a direct assent, neither do I wish
it; for it should be taken with
much reserve ; but it is undoubt-
edly true." These considerations
should stimulate us in searching
after new varieties, equal, or per-
haps superior, to those of which
Ave regret the loss.
" Observe, that from the time
the kernel germinates for apple-
quick, should the plant be disposed
to form a valuable variety, there
will appear a regular progressive
change, or improvement, in the
organization of the leaves, until that
variety has stood, and grown suf-
ficient to blossom and come into
full bearing; that is, from the
state of infancy to maturity ; and
it is this and other circumstances,
by which the inquisitive eye is ena-
bled to form the selection among
those appealing likely to become
196 TRE
valuable fruits. But from that
time the new variety, or selected
plant, compared with all the en-
graftments which may be taken
from it, or any of them, these
shall shew a most undeviating
sameness among themselves.
" It is readily allowed, that the
different varieties of fruits are ea-
sily distinguished from each other
by many particulars ; not only res-
pecting their general fertility, and
the form; size, shape, and flavour of
the fruit; but also the manner of
the growth of the tree, the thick-
ness and proportion of the tAvigs,
their shooting from their parent
stem, the form, colour, and con-
sistence of the leaf, and many
other circumstances, by which the
variety can be identified ; and were
it possible to engraft each variety
upon the same stock, they would
still retain their discriminating
qualities, with the most undeviat-
ing certainty.
" The proper conclusion to be
drawn from the statement in the
last paragraph, is this....that were
any one to put the thought in prac-
tice on a full-grown hardy or crab
stock, it would produce an excel-
lent proof that engrafted fruits are
not permanent. For if twenty
different varieties were placed to-
gether, so that each might receive
its nurture from the same stem,
they would gradually die off in
actual succession, according to the
age or state of health of the res-
pective variety, at the time the
scions were placed in the stock ;
and a discriminating eye, used to
this business, would nearly be able
to foretell the order in which each
scion would actually decline.....
Should it also happen that two or
three suckers from the wilding
stock had been permitted to grow
TRE
among the twenty grafts, such
suckers or wilding shoots will con-
tinue, and make a tree after all
the rest are gone. A further con-
sequence Avould result from the ex-
periment : among such a number
of varieties, each of the free grow-
ers would starve the delicate,
and drive them out of existence
only so much the sooner. It must
be observed, that this supposed
stem is the foster-parent • to the
twenty scions, and real parent to
the suckers; and those the least
conversant with engrafted fruits
knoAV the advantage acquired from
this circumstance. And here it is
Avorth while remarking, that a
Gascoyne, or wild-cherry, Avill
grow to twice the size that ever
an engrafted cherry did.
" By an experiment we have
had in hand for five years, it will
appear that the roots and stem of
a large tree, after the first set of
scions are exhausted or worn out,
may carry another set for many
years; and we suspect a third set,
provided the engrafting is properly
done, and the engrafter chuses a
new variety. Now the Ripston
pippin, of Yorkshire, is the fa-
vourite, as being a free groAver
and good bearer, with fine fruit.
This, however, may be certainly
depended on, that when a new ap-
ple is raised from seed, if a scion
were placed in a retired situation,
and constantly cut down, as a
stool in a copse-wood, and the ap-
ple never suffered to fulfil the in-
tentions of nature in bearing fruit,
the practitioners of the following
ages may secure scions from that
stool, to continue the variety much
longer. Hence, though I have
Avritten as much as is in my power
against permanency, yet I have
taken some pains to assure the
TRE
planters, that forecast, selection,
pruning, cleanliness, and care, will
make the orchards turn to more
profit for the rising generations,
than what they have done for the
last hundred years.
" To place the nature of varie-
ties in its true light, for the infor-
mation of the public, I must
maintain, that the different varie-
ties of the apple will, after a cer-
tain time, decline, and actually die
away, and each variety, or all of
the same stem or family, will lose
their existence in vegetation ; and
yet it is a known fact, and mention-
ed in the 17th vol. of the Transac-
tions, that after the debility of age
has actually taken possession of
any variety, it will yet thrive by
being placed against a southern
wall, and treated as a Avail-fruit.
Who, however, can afford to raise
cyder at that expence, except as
matter of curiosity, to prove, that
when the vital principle in vegeta-
tion is nearly exhausted, a supe-
rior care and warmth Avill still keep
the variety in existence some time
longer ?
" It should be understood that
the cxtemal air of Britain is rather
too cold for the delicate fruits,
Avhich is the reason Avhy, in the
Orchardist, I lay such a stress on
procuring warmth for the trees, by
draining, shelter, and manure. It
Avould be iioav lost time to attempt
to recover the old varieties as an
article of profit.
'; If I have not expressed my-
self, in this Essay on the Nature of
Varieties, with so much clearness
and conviction as might have been
expected, it should be considered,
that it is an abstrire subject, very
little understood, and requiring at
first some degree of faith, observa-
tion, and perseverance. The pre-
TRE 197
judices of mankind revolt against
it. They are not disposed to allow
the distinction of nature ; and they
imagine, that, in the act of engraft-
ing or multiplying, they give new
life ; whereas it is only continuing
the existence of the same tree,
stick, or bud. Observe what I said
before: the seed of the apple, when
placed in the earth, germinates,
and unfolds itself into a new plant,
which successively passes through
the stages of infancy, maturity,
and decay, like its predecessors. I
might say, all created nature is
similar in this respect; though,
from the circumstance that A'arie-
ties are much longer-I'iA'ed than
man, the plants have appeared to
be possessed of eternal poAvers of
duration : nothing sublunary hoAv-
ever, Avhich possesses either ani-
mal or vegetable life, is exempt
from age and death.
" Within the last twenty years
I have travelled many hundred
miles, and conversed with the
most intelligent men in each coun-
ty ; and I iioav want to convince
mankind, for no other reason than
because it is their interest so to
believe, that there is in creation
an order of beings (engrafted fruits)
so formed, that we have the power
of multiplying a single variety,
to Avhatever number of trees we
please ; that the first set arises
from a small seed ; that the next
and descendant sets are propagatr
ed by engraftings, or from cut-
tings, layers, Sec. ; and although
these trees may amountto millions,
yet, on the death of the primige-
nious or parent stock, merely from
old-age, or nihility of grovvth, each
individual shall decline, in Avha'-
ever country they may be, or how-
ever endued Avith youth and health.
I say they shall gradually begin to
198 TRE
TRE
decline ; and in the course of time
or of centuries, to those who would
prefer that expression, the whole
variety Avill scarcely have a single
tree remaining to show Avhat the
fruit was. Let those Avho are not
disposed to assent to the state-
ment, ask themselves what is be-
come of the old lost varieties ? did
they die, or did Avicked men mali-
ciously cut them up ?
" I, who am firmly convinced
pf the truth of Avhat I have ad-
vanced on this subject, have no
doubt but that the same would
happen by engrafting on the oak
or beech, if the mast raised from
the engrafted tree did not produce
the like ; for there the question
turns.
" Is it not known that the wood-
man, in setting out his sapling
oaks, always selects new seedling
plants, and never continues one
upon an old stool; and that if he
should so blunder, that tree, from
the stool, will neither have free-
dom of growth, nor the size or
firmness of timber, equal to the
new-raised plant.
" I wish I could persuade my
friends, that, Avith the same atten-
tion with Avhich the woodman acts,
the planter is to raise his orchard
from the young fruits which thrive
in the neighbourhood, or are in
health and full bearing in the
country whence they are to be
brought.
" The fruit-grower should look
to selection, cleanliness, and care.
To me it is a circumstance per-
fectly indifferent, whether be is
to use Mr. Forsyth's composi-
tion, Mr. Bulingham's boiled lin-
seed oil, or my medication. 1 only
maintain that the wounded parts
of trees want something to dc.troy
the insects and vermin, and heal
the wood, from which the tree*
are kept in health.
■" Let those who are blessed
with fruit-plantations attend to their
preservation, and not leave them
to the state of unassisted nature."]
TREE-MALLOW, the Sea, or
Velvet-leaf, Lavatera arborea,
L. an indigenous biennial, growing
on the sea-shores, where it flowers
from July to October....This being
the only native species of eleven
plants, belonging to the same ge-
nus, we shall briefly remark, that
all the Tree-mallows deserve to be
more generally cultivated, both in
gardens and fields ; not only for
their elegant flowers, which abound
with honey, but chiefly for the va-
luable material obtained from their
fibrous stalks :....We learn from
Bechstein, that such stalks may,
with equal advantage, be convert-
ed into paper, and pack-thread or
bass, serving as a substitute for
hemp.
TREFOIL, or Trifolium, L. a
genus of fifty-five species, 16 of
which are indigenous : of these we
shall mention the following:
1. The pratense, or Common
Clover;
2. The medium, v. alpestre, or
Red, Perennial Clover ;
3. The procumbens, v. agrarium,
Hop-clover, or Hop-trefoil; and
4. The rcflau, or White Clover.
Which sec.
5. The M'lilotus officinalis, or
Melilot-trefoil. SeeMELiLOT the
Common.
6. The arvense, or Hare's-foot
Trefoil, grows in sandy pastures,
corn-fields, and chalky situations ;
where it flowers in July and Au-
gust. This species is strongly aro-
matic ; and, when dried, retains its
odour for a considerable time :...it
affords a r;reteful food to cattle;
TRE
T R U 199
and is,by Bechstei?:, recommend-
ed as a valuable substitute for oak-
bark, in tanning leather.
7. The fragiferum, or Straw-
berry Trefoil, thrives in moist
meadows, chiefly in the vicinity of
London, where it flcwers in Au-
gust....This perennial vegetable is
industriously cultivated by the
Greenlanders, who propagate it by
seed, and also transplant the stalks,
which thus attain the height of
seven feet. Its whitish and reddish
flower-heads are nearly globular,
and slightly compressed on the up-
per surface. The whole plant af-
fords as nutritive food to cattle as
the Common or MeadoAv-cloA'er.
TREFOIL, the Common Biud's-
Foor, or Lotus corniculatus, L. an
indigenous perennial, growing in
meadows, pastures, heaths, and
road-sides, where it floAvers from
June to August.....This plant is
eaten by cows, goats, and horses ;
btit, according to Linnjeus, is not
relished by swine or sheep ; tho'
it is propagated in Hertfordshire
as pasturage for the latter animals.
....Dr. Anderson strongly recom-
mends it to be cultivated for cat-
tle ; and Mr. Woodward remarks,
that it may be raised to great ad-
vantage : as it attains a consider-
able height in moist meadows, and
makes good hay.......Its flowers,
when dried, acquire a greenish
cast: in which respect, they re-
semble those of the plants produc-
ing Injjigo: it is, therefore, pro-
bable, that they may be advanta-
geously employed for obtaining a
substitute for that expensive dye-
ing material.
According to Bradley, an in-
fusion of the seeds, floAvers, and
leaves of the Common Bird's-foot,
in wine, operates as a diuretic; and
at the same time tends to allay the
irritation of the urinary canal.
TROY-WEIGHT, is thatmode
of weighing certain commodities;
in which the pound contains twelve
ounces, each of them being divided
into twenty penny-weights and the
latter into twenty-four grains each:
on the contrary* a pound of avoir-
dupois consists of sixteen ounces •
so that each oz. has eight drams,
or drachms ; each dram three
scruples; and each scruple, twenty
grains.......See also Avoirdupois
and Weight.
[The proportion of a pound,
avoirdupois to a pound troy, is as
17 to 14.]
True-love. See Her3-Paris.
TRUFFLE, or Trubs, Lyco-
perdon tuber, L. (Tuber cibarium
of Dr. Withering,) is a species
of puff-ball, which groAvs under
ground, without any roots or the
access of light; and attains a size of
from a pea to the largest potatoe.
In Britain, however, it is of a glo-
bular form, resembling that of a
large plumb: and, when young, its
surface is whitish ; being inter-
spersed with elevated dots, the
centre of which contains a brown
powder, similar to that of the com-
mon Puff-ball : as it becomes
old, the colour turns black....This
species of fungus may be searched
for in hilly forests, Avhich have a
sandy or dry clayey bottom, at the
depth of four or five inches in the
earth ; though it seldom exceeds
four or five oz. in weight, while
those produced on the Continent,
frequently weigh from eight to six-
teen ounces....It is one of the most
wholesome and nutritive of the es->
culent fungi, and is generally dis-
covered by mtans of dogs, which
are taught to scent it; so that, on
200 T U M
TUM
smelling the truffle, they bark, and
scratch it up.....In Italy, it is like-
wise rooted up by pigs, which are
either furnished with a ring around
their snout; or, it is taken from
them by an attendant.
Truffles are highly esteemed at
the tables of the luxurious, where
they are served up, either roasted
in a fresh state, like potatoes ; or,
they are dried, sliced, and dressed
as ingredients in soups and ragouts.
The most delicious are internally
white, and possess the odour of
o-arlic.
Tube-root. See Meadow-
Saffron.
T UMBREL, a machine employ-
ed chiefly in the county of Lin-
coln ; for the purpose of giving
food to sheep, during the winter.
In the 4th vol. of the « Reper-
tory of Arts," he. we meet with
a descriptiction of a contrivance
which is equally simple and useful:
we have, therefore, been induced
to give the annexed Cut, represent-
ing its structure.
It consists of a circular cage or
crib, which may be made of wil-
low, osiers, or similar pliant brush-
Avood. The Avhole is ten feet in
circumference, being closely wat-
tled to the height of one foot, above
which it is left open for the space
of about 18 inches; when it is
again wattled to the height of 8 or
9 inches; an opening, 18 inches
broad, being left at the top, for the
purpose of putting in turnips, or
other provender. The staves, form-
ing the skeleton of the machine
above represented, are 10 inches
apart, so that 12 sheep may feed at
one time in each tumbrel.
Considerable advantages are de-
rived from this method of feeding
sheep; as it greatly reduces the
expense of provender, which is
thus prevented from being soiled
TUM
TUP 201
with dung, or trodden under foot.
In such a state of separation, the
stronger animals cannot drive away
the weaker sheep ;eachbeing secur-
ed by the head, while they are eat-
ing. Farther, the construction of the
tumbrel being attended with no
difficulties, it may be readily pro-
cured, and be daily conveyed to
any part of a farm : if proper care
be taken, this utensil may be pre-
served in constant use, for eight or
ten years.
TUMOR, or Swelling, in
animal economy, denotes an en-
largement or preternatural tume-
faction of any part of the body ;
and is either of an indolent nature,
such as Cancer, Schirrus and
Scrophula ; or inflammatory, as
occurs in the female breast, in chil-
blains, and various other local af-
fections....With respect to the lat-
ter, Ave refer to the article In-
flammation ; and, as most of
the former are distinguished, either
by the cause from which they arise,
or by other circumstances, whence t
they have received particular de-
nominations, we shall in this place
only give a few directions, relative.
to the treatment of indolent tumors
in general.
When swellings of this nature
gradually appear on any part of the
human body, and are not attended
with either pain or inflammation,
the mode of discussing ihem en-
tirely depends on their situation.
Thus, Avhen the glands are swoln,
cold astringent fomentations, or
saponaceous and mercurial plasters,
conjoined Avith cold-bathing, espe-
cially in sea water, will generally
be attended with good effects. If
the tumor be situated on muscular
or fleshv parts, warm fomenta-
tions have of en been found of ser-
vice ; on bony or tendinous parts,
VOL. V.
gentle friction, and afterwards mo-
derate compression, are in most
cases sufficient to remove the ob-
struction.
[TUPELO TREE,Aj/s*z,L.a
genus of trees, comprehending 3
species, all of which are natives of
the United States.
1. N. Aquatica, Virginian wa-
ter Tupelo Tree, grows in swamps
in Carolina and Florida. The ber-
ries are nearly the size of a small
olive, and are preserved in like
manner by the French inhabitants
on the Missisippi, where it abounds,
and is called Olive Tree. The
timber is white and soft when un-
seasoned, but light and compact
when dry, Avhich renders it very
proper for making domestic table
utensils.
2. N. Ogeche. The Ogeche
Lime Tree. This tree was brought
from Georgia by Mr. Bartram,
to the neighbourhood of Philadel-
phia. It is a tree of great singu-
larity and beauty, growing natur-
ally in the water. The fruit is
nearly oval, of a deep red colour,
of the size of a Damasane plum,
and of an agreeable acid taste,
from Avhich it is called the lime
tree.
3. Nyssa Sylvatica, Upland Tu-
pelo Tree, or Sour Gum. This
species grows naturally in Penn-
sylvania, and New-Jersey. The
timber of this tree is close grained
and curled, and does not split ea-
sily ; and therefore much used
for hubs of wheels forwaggons and
carriages. It also is much used
by economists for back-logs of
fires, from its incombustible na-
ture.
The Sweet Gum, is a very dif-
ferent tree : it is the liquidamber,
i'uracifiua of Linnxus, the leaves
of vvhich resemble the maple, and
D D
20% T U R
TUR
the wood dry, light and inflam-
mable.]
TURBITH, 'or Turpeth, an
officinal drug, being the bark from
the fleshy roots of the Convolvu-
lus Turpethum, L. an exotic species
of the Bind-weed, growing in Cey-
lon.
Turbith is imported in oblong
pieces, which are of a brown, or
ash-colour externally, and whitish
within. The best is brittle ; con-
tains a large portion of resinous
matter ; and is at first of a sweetish
taste ; but, when chewed, it be-
comes pungent and nauseous.....
This drug is occasionally employ-
ed as a purgative ; but is by no
means safe, or uniform, in its ope-
ration.
TURBITH - MINERAL, or
Yelloav - vitriolated Quick-
silver^ medicinal precipitate ob-
tained by cautiously mixing eight
parts of vitriolic acid with four of
purified mercury; and distilling
the whole to dryness, in a retort
placed in a sand furnace. The
while calx, on being reduced to
powder, and thrown into warm dis-
tilled water, assumes a yellow co-
lour ; and becomes tasteless after
repeated ablutions.
Turbilh-mineral is a powerful
emetic, and has been given Avith
frequent success, in doses of from
11 to 6 or 8 grains, to robust per-
sons, Avho Avere afflicted with le-
prous diseases, and glandular ob-
structions, that had resisted the
pDAver of other medicines. It has
also been recommended, in doses
amounting from six grains to a
scruple every day, in cases of hy-
drophobia ; and some instances
have occurred, in which it not only
prevented madness in dogs that
had been bitten, but also effected a
cure, after the disease had actually
taken place. Lastly, the water, in
which this mineral is Avashed, has
been used externally for lotions, in
the itch and other cutaneous affec-
tions ; but such practice ought ne-
ver to be adopted without proper
advice ; as it may be attended with
danger.
TURF, a brown or blackish fos-
sil, consisting of a rich earth com-
bined Avith the fibrous roots of ve-
getables, mineral oils, &c
Turf differs from peat, only in
its harder consistence ; the latter
being obtained from peat-bogs, and
the former is dug out of more solid
ground, such as dry commons, on
which cottagers exercise the right
of turbary, by prescription : both
species are chiefly used as fuel, in
those countries where coal and
wood are scarce. After the turf
or peat are consumed, their ashes
are employed either as a Manure,
or they may be advantageously
streAved on land infected Avith
Chafers. (See Chafer.) Far-
ther, it appears from the experi-
ment of M. Sage, that turf may be
charred, or reduced to a state of
cinder, in the same manner as
Charcoal ; and thus seiwe as an
excellent substitute for the latter;
because it not only burns with a
more intense heat, but is also of a
longer duration.
TURKEY, or Meleagris gallo-
pavo L. a bird originally from
North America; but Avhich has
long been domesticated in Britain ;
it has a caruncle both on the head
and throat; the breast of the male
being tufted. When irritated, the
feathers of this part are remaka-
bly erected ; the prominence on
TUR
T U R 203
the forehead is relaxed ; and the
bare spots of the face and neck be-
come uncommonly red.
Turkies subsist on grain and in-
sects : early in the spring the fe-
male frequently wanders to a con-
siderable distance from the farm-
yard, for the purpose of construct-
ing her nest; where she deposits
from 14 to 17 white eggs, marked
with redish or yellow freckles ;
but seldomproduces more than one
brood in a season. Great numbers
of these birds are reared in the
North 6f England ; and, towards
autumn, hundreds at a time are
driven to the London market, by
means of a scarlet shred of cloth,
fastened to the end of a stick ;
which, from their antipathy to
this colour, serves as a whip.
Turkies, being extremely deli-
cate fowls, are much oppressed by
cold; hence the Swedes plunge
their chicks into cold water, soon
after, or at least on the same day,
when they are hatched ; then force
them to swallow one whole pep-
per-corn each ; and restore them
to the parent bird. Thus, they are
enabled to resist the impressions of
the severest winters and their
growth is not retarded.
Young turkies are liable to a
peculiar disorder, which frequently
and speedily proves fatal : on in-
specting the rump feathers, two or
three of their quills will be found
to contain blood ; but, on drawing
them out, the chick soon recovers;
and afterwards requires no other
care than common poultry.
Turkies are highly esteemed, on
account of their delicate flavour ;
for their flesh is not so rank as
that of cither geese or ducks, and
is likewise more nutritious.
TURMERIC, or Curcuma, L.
a genus of exotic plants, compre-
hending two species, namely;
1. The rotunda, having a round
fleshy root, similar to that of gin-
ger ; and 2. The longa, with long-
yellow roots, which spread to a
considerable extent. Both are na-
tives of India, whence their roots
are annually imported by the East-
India Company, paying 2/. per
cent, according to their value ; and
a farther duty of, 2-ld per lb. for
home consumption.
Turmeric has a weak, though
agreeable smell; and a bitterish,
pungent taste : it is naturally of a
deep saffron-colour, which it com-
municates to Avatery infusions....
This drug is by the Indians, prin-
cipally employed for seasoning
rice, and other culinary prepara-
tions....It is reputed to be aperient,
and of considerable efficacy in the
jaundice ; but is chiefly consumed
in dyeing the finest yellow colours,
which are also the least permanent;
and giving a brighter, though pe-
rishable, shade to scarlet cloth.....
See also Yellow.
TURNEP, TURNIP, or Knol-
les, Brassica Rapa, L. an indi-
genous biennial plant, growing in
corn-fields, and chiefly in their
borders ; where it flowers in the
month of April.
There are many varieties of the
turnip, which are cultivated, both
for feeding cattle, and for culinary
purposes ; but we shall enumerate
only the principal, namely :
1. The Oval, Common White-
stock, or Norfolk Turnip.
2. The Large Green-topped Tur-
nip attains a considerable size, and
is very sweet and soft; but, grow-
ing above the ground, it is liable
to be injured by severe frosts.
3. The Purple-stock resembles
204 tUR
TUR
the first variety, excepting that its
size is somewhat smaller; the rind
is of a dark-red or purple colour ;
and its pulp is also more close and
firm, than that of the CommonNor-
folk turnip. It withstands the se-
verity of winter, without receiving
material injury, and is more suc-
culent in the spring ; but, not be-
ing relished by cattle so well as
either of the two preceding varie-
ties, it is not generally cultivated.
4. The Ruta-Baga, or Swedish
turnip, is one of the most valuable
roots of the kind. Its inside is
either white or yellow ; which co-
lour, however, does not affect its
quality : it is more hardy than
either of the preceding varieties,
and suffers no injury from the
most intense cold....As this turnip,
when ^flowed to seed near the
Oval, or Norfolk white, produces
numerous varieties ; it has been
conjectured, that a new sort may,
by a judicious intermixture, be ob-
tained, which AviU probably acquire
from the one, a sufficient degree
of hardiness, to resist the winter;
and, from the other, an increase
of size, as well as a quicker
growth.
5. The Hastings is a new varie-
ty, imported several years since,
from Tibet, in Asia, by Governor
Hastings.....This plant has not
been hitherto cultivated to any ex-
tent ; but it appears, as far as we
can ascertain, to be one of the
most wholesome and profitable
roots of this species.
Turnips, in general, succeed
* better in light soils, consisting of
a mixture of sand and loam, than
in very rich or heavy lands: the
crops of the latter will be rank,
and run to flower at too early a
period of the spring; though their
weight may not be perceptibly di-
minished.
These roots are raised from seed,
which ought to be changed annu-
ally, or every second year, with-
out exception ; as it is apt to de-
generate, and the quality of the
roots will consequently be impair-
ed. The season for sowing, varies
according to the time of feeding:
thus, if the turnips be intended
for feeding cattjle from December
to February, the seed must be
committed to the ground from the
middle of May to the end of June;
but, in case they be designed to
supply food till May, it should not
be sown before the latter end of
July, or early in August.
The quantity of seed depends
upon the method of culture; for,
if it be broad-cast, 2 lbs. per acre
will be necessary : but a more ad-
vantageous mode is that of Dril-
ling, in rows three feet asunder,
which requires only one pound of
seed. Although Ave have given an
account, vol. ii. pp. 172-180, of the
most valuable Drill-machines, yet
as two implements of this descrip-
tion have lately been contrived, for
the express purpose of drilling
turnips, Ave have been induced,
for their remarkable simplicity,
and practical utility, to furnish our
readers with a complete account
and delineation of such improve-
ments.
In the year 1801, the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts, &c.
granted a premium of 10 guineas
and a silver medal, to the Rev.
T. C. Munnings, for his inven-
tion of a Turnip-drill, of which he
communicated a model, accompa-
nied with a narrative of experi-
ments, to determine w the compa-
rative advantage of the drill or
, //:,f^/.Jf,?;<,fayu//* //e
less active for an hour or two, as
his strength will be more employ-
ed in the digestion of them, than
when he has taken a stomach full
of oats. According to the experi-
ment of a German physician, who
gave to two clogs, which .had been
kept a day fasting, a large quanti-
ty of flesh food ; and then taking
one of them into the fields hunted
him with great activity for three or
four hours, and left the other by
the fire. An emetic was then
given to each of them, and the food
of the sleeping dog was found per-
fectly digested, whilst that of the
hunted one had undergone but lit-
tle alteration.
" lience it may be found advis-
able to mix bran of wheat with
the peas and beans, a food of less
nutriment, but of easier digestion ;
or to let the horses eat before or
after them, the coarse tussocks of
sour grass, which remain in moist
pastures in the winter; or lastly,
to mix finely cut straw with them.
" 3. Another way of distinguish-
ing light corn from heavy, is by
winnowing ; as the surface of the
light grains being greater in pro-
portion to their solid contents, they
Avill be carried further by the cur-
rent of air, which is produced by
the fan ; though the heavy grains
Avould roll further on the floor after
rolling down a grate to separate
the dust; because their vis inter-
ti« Avould carry them further, after
they are put in motion ; and their
surfaces Avould be resisted by the
air no more than those of the
lighter grains.
" 4. Finally, there is reason to
believe that a progressive improve-
ment of many seeds exists during
the warmer days of winter in our
granaries, Avhich probably consists
in the process of the conversion of
mucilage into starch; in the same
manner as the harsh juices of
crab-apples and of austere pears,
are continually changing into su-
gar during the Avinter ; both which
processes are probably in part che-
mical, like the slow but perpetual
change of sugar into vinous spirit,
Avhen the juices of sweeter apples
and pears, or grapes, are put into
bottles in the manufacture of cyder,
peny, and wine.
" This improvement of wheat,
and of bail ey, and of oats, is well
known to the baker, the maltster,
and the horse-dealer ; as better
bread is made from old Avheat, and
barley is converted into better malt
in the vernal months; and horses
are believed to thrive better, and
VEG
to possess more vigour, av hen they
are fed with old than Avith new
oats.
" VII. 1. The preservation of
seeds next demands our attention.
Those seeds Avhich are liable to lie
upon the ground, as peas and corn,
whenthrown downbystormy or wet
seasons, should be gathered rather
ealier; lest they should begin to
germinate, as they lie upon the
ground, and would hence become
a kind of malt after drying. Other
seeds should be gathered, before
they would spontaneously fall from
their pericaps, to prevent the loss
which must otherwise ensue in
the reaping, or mowing, and car-
rying tbem to the barn, which of-
ten amounts to as much as is ne-
cessary to sow the land, which pro-
duced it, as well as to supply the
depredations of birds, insects and
vermin.
" Moris. B. G. Sage accuses
the farmers of some parts of France
of collecfing their wheat with ma-
ny green weeds immediately after
reaping it, and pressing it close
together in their barns ; by Avhich
the stack undergoes a fermentation
with great heat like some hay-
stacks ; and that the corn is by
this fermentation killed, and -will
not grow when sown like hay-seeds
from a fermented hay-stack ; and
also that the gluten, or vegeto-ani-
mal matter of the corn is destroy-
ed; and it, on that account, makes
less agreeable and less Avholesome
bread ; and lastly, that the straw
is much injured by becoming
mouldy. Journal, de Physique,
September, 17.il.
" Mons. B. G. Sage adds, that
the follow ing process will discover
whether wheat has been thus in-
jured, which may be interesting
both to the baker, and wheat buy-
V E G 255
er, Avho wants it for seed-wheat.
Make a paste with flour and wa-
ter, then wash it with your hands
under water, which must be fre-
quently changed, till it no longer
becomes discoloured. The sub-
stance remaining on the hands is
the gluten ; if the corn be good,
this is elastic, and will contract
when drawn out; if the corn has
begun to heat, it is brittle; if the
corn has fermented, none of the
gluten will be obtained.
" In this country, where corn is
seldom cut too early, or pressed
together on the stack, the princi-
pal circumstance required is to
keep it dry ; as the straw is not
liable to ferment like new hay made
with young grass, vvhich contains
sugar at every joint of the stem.
To preserve a stack of wheat dry,
a good cover of thatch may seem
sufficient; but as this is liable to
injury by vermin, it would be an
additional security, if at the time
of making the stack the sheaves
were laid highest in the middle,
and lower on every side, so that if
any Avet should find its way into
the stack, it might drain onwards
along the straw of the sheaves,
which would thus act like thatch
throughout the whole stack.
" There are instances of great
durability of seeds, Avhich have
been preserved dry, and secured
from either so great heat or so
great cold, as might destroy their
life or organism. Thus there is
an account of the seeds of Indian-
wheat, which grew well in a hot-
house after having been kept 34
years, as was accurately ascertain-
ed. Bath Society, vol. v. p. 464.
And it has been lately asserted,
that many seeds of more than 100
years old,which were found in some
old herbarium at Vienna, have
256 VEG
VEG
been made to germinate by the
use of oxygenated muriatic acid
and water. Philos. Mag. But if the
organic life of a seed be destroyed
by frost, or fire, or mechanic in-
jury, putrefaction succeeds, and
decomposition; as when the or-
ganic life of an egg is destroyed
by violently agitating it, it is known
soon to putrefy.
" To preserve seeds in barns or
granaries our principal attention
should be first to make them dry;
and secondly, to keep them dry ;
because no seeds can vegetate with-
out moisture. The art of drying
most seeds must consist in duly
ventilating them, especially on dry
days ; which may be done by fre-
quently turning over the heaps of
them: and to preserve them dry
in this climate the door and win-
dows of granaries should open to
the south to receive the Avarmth of
the sun, with apertures round the
building for sufficient ventilation :
which must be prevented from ad-
mitting rain or snow by shelter-
ing boards on the outside.
" The heaps of corn should be
surrounded with boards to keep
them from contact Avith brick or
Stone Avails; which, when warm
moist south-west winds succeed
cold north-east winds, are liable to
precipitate the moisture from the
atmosphere by their coldness, and
to communicate it to all bodies in
contact with them. For a similar
purpose in stables some have put
up a tall Avooden trunk from the
chamber to the room below, three
or four feet square, and 10 or 12
feet high, with a sliding valve to
draw out the corn below, which is
poured in at the top ; in three or
four places a tin or wooden pipe
full of holes is made to pass hori-
zontally through the box to give
air to the com, the whole of which,
when any of it is drawn out below,
is moved in descending ; and new
surfaces of corn are applied to the
air-holes of the horizontal tubes.
" The most secure way of pre-
serving a great quantity of wheat,
according to Mr. Tull, is by gen-
tly drying it on a hair-cloth in a
malt-kiln, with no other fuel but
clean straw, and no greater heat
than that of the sunshine. In this
situation the wheat remained from
four to twelve hours, according to
the previous dampness of it. Mr.
Tull knew a farmer in Oxford-
shire who purchased wheat, when
it was cheap, and kept it by thus
drying it for many years, and made
a large fortune by selling it again
in dearer seasons. The life of the
seed was not destroyed by this pro-
cess ; as he asserts, that some of
it grew, which had been kept in
this manner seven years ; whereas
in drying potatoes on a malt-kiln
so great heat was employed as to
destroy their life, and violent pu-
trefaction ensued.
" 2. A due ventilation also, where
corn is kept in the common warmth
of the atmosphere of this climate,
is necessary, except in seasons of
frost, and also the admission of
light; as otherwise the vegetable
mucor, called mould, is liable to
grow upon the corn, and injure it; as
this mucor like some other funguses
will grow, Avhere there is little or
no change of air, and without light,
as in cellars, if there be sufficient
moisture and warmth.
" 3. Another method of preserv-
ing seeds may consist in secluding
them from heat, as in granaries
beneath the soil; Avhich are so deep
or so well covered with earth, as
not to be affected by the difference
of seasons. Thus there have been
VEG
instances of mustard-seed produc-
ing a crop on digging up earth,
Avhich had not been removed for
many years, and, as Avas believed,
even for ages. And in ice-houses
it is probable, that not only seeds
might be long preserved, but per-
haps fruits also ; if they were after-
wards very gradually thawed by
putting them into cold water, that
they might not be destroyed by
the too great stimulus of sudden
heat.
" 4. Where it has been neces-
sary suddenly to collect and to pre-
serve great heaps of corn, without
shelter, forthe provision of armies,
some have moderately moistened
the upper surface of the heap daily,
which has occasioned the upper
grains to grow, and thus to pro-
duce a sward or turf over those
below ; which, it is said, has thus
preserved the lower part of the
magazine. But in respect to gra-
naries for the purpose of laying up
very large quantities of grain to
prevent famines in scarce years, I
suppose the stacks of covetous far-
mers, who keep their corn in cheap
years, hoping to sell it at a better
price in scarce ones, is a more cer-
tain method, and a cheaper one to
the public, to keep up a sufficient
stock of corn, than by any other
experiment that can be devised.
" 5. Gardeners in general pre-
fer new seeds to old for their prin-
cipal crops, as they are believed to
come up sooner, and with greater
certainty, and to grow more luxu-
riantly. ' But peas and beans of
a year old,' Mr. Marshall observes,
' are by some preferred to new,
as not so likely to run to straw.
And cucumbers and melons are
best to be several years old, in or-
der to their shooting less vigorous-
ly, and thence becoming more
vol. v.
VEG 257
fruitful. But this principle is car-
ried too far by some gardeners,
who say these seeds cannot be too
old, and will allow 10 years to be
within bounds : three for cucum-
bers, and four for melons, hoAvever,
is age enough.
* As to the age of seeds, at
which they may be sown, it is un-
certain, and depends much upon
hoAV they are kept; those of cu-
cumbers and melons are good a
long time, because very carefully
presen-ed.
' Peas and beans will germinate
very Avell at seven years of age ;
but the seeds of lettuces and kid-
ney-beans, and some others, are
not to be depended upon after a
year or two ; and, generally speak-
ing, the smaller seeds are of the
least duration.' Marshall on
Gardening.
" 6. Where seeds of a perishable
nature are to be carried to, or
brought from, distant countries, I
suspect that covering them in su-
gar Avould be the most certain and
salutary method of preserving
them ; and even, that flesh meat,
cut into thin slices, and covered
Avith sugar, or syrup, or treacle,
would be better preserved than in
brine, and afford a much more sa-
lutary nourishment to our sailors.
" Since I wrote the above, I
have seen a paper in the Transac-
tions of the Society of Arts, vol.
xvi. from Mr. Sneyde, of Belmont
in Staffordshire, who having ob-
served some seeds, which came ac-
cidentally amongst raisins, to groAV
readily, directed many seeds to be
sent from the West-Indies,covered
with raisins, and others in sugar,
and others in the usual manner of
sending them,and found, that those
immersed in sugar or covered Avith
raisins, both looked well, and grew
Ll
258 VEG
VEG
readily; whereas many of the
others would not vegetate.
" Since the powder of fresh
burnt charcoal is known so power-
fully to absorb all putrid vapours,
it is probable the seeds mixed with
and covered with charcoal-dust,
which has been recently burnt, or
not long exposed to the air, might
be successfully employed for the
preservation of seeds either in long
voyages, or in domestic granaries.
" VIII. 1. To sow seeds advan-
tageously, it is probable, that those
of our native plants might be suf-
fered to drop on the surface of the
earth in autumn, or to fall from
their parent plant, covered only
by their deciduous leaves, in which
situation their fruit might contn-
bute to nourish them, as our
crabs and sloes ; or defend them
from insects, as the acrid husk of
the walnut; or from birds, as the
hard stones or shells of nuts and
cherries, since this is the process
of nature.
" But when the seeds brought
originally from other climates are
to be soAvn, an attention is requir-
ed to the circumstance of season
and of soil. Those which will
ripen their seeds in the same year,
are to be soAved in the early
spring, and covered lightly Avith
earth to preserve them from birds
and insects ; and should be buried
thus beneath the soil, soon after
it has been ploughed or dug, as
its interstices are then replete with
atmospheric air; which may be
necessary to stimulate into elevation
the plume of the embryon plant;
as the moisture of the earth is
necessary to stimulate the root
into its elongation downwards.....
Those needs nevertheless, which
will not perfect their vegetation
in the same year must be sown in
the early autumn; and though all
seeds vegetate better, when placed
but a little beneath the surface of
the soil, as one inch, because they
have then a better supply of atmos-
pheric air, which maybe necessary
for their first growth, before they
have acquired leaves above ground;
yet as many foreign seeds may
not be sufficiently hardy to bear our
inclement winters, it maybe neces-
sary, as some believe, to bury them
an inch and a half, or two inches,
deep in the soil, to prevent the
frosts from doing them injury, as
well as to preserve them from the
depredations of birds. And the
drill semination, or sowing all kinds
of seeds in rows, is the most con-
venient method for sowing them
at a determined depth, and also
for the purpose of keeping the
young plants clear from weeds by
the more easy application of the
hoe.
" To sow many seeds earlier
than is usually practised, is much
recommended. There is- a paper
by Lord Orford in Mr. Young's
Annals of Agriculture, vol. ix. p.
385, Avho seems to have found
considerable advantage by sowing
barleyr so early as the seventh of
February, three and an half bush-
els on an acre. But, as much
moisture, Avith or without subse-
quent frost, is more liable to de-
stroy the embryon in its very ear-
ly state in the seed, than after it
has shot out roots and a summit,
and thus acquired some habits of
life ; this early sowing must some-
times be practised with caution.
Seeds may, nevertheless, be sown
still earlier in hot-houses, or in
warm situations, as peas, beans,
wheat, and may be afterwards
transplanted in the vernal months
with safeiy aud advantage.
VEG
« The difficulty of determining
the best season for sowing seeds
in the spring, owing to the varia-
tion of the weather in the same
latitude, as well as laying down the
exact seasons for sowing in differ-
ent latitudes, occasioned Linn*us
to construct what he terms a calen-
dar of Flora ; which was afterwards
adapted to this climate by Stil-
lingeleet ; which consisted in
observing the first appearance of
the root scions, or flowers of the
uncultivated native vegetables;
with directions to sow the cerealia,
or harvest seeds, when such plants
or flowers became visible. By at-
tention to such observations on the
uncultivated native plants in many
climates, it is probable that inge-
nious tables might be produced,
which might direct the best time
of sowing the useful seeds in all
latitudes, and in all situations.
" Another table of the climates,
where plants grow naturally, and
of their native situations in respect
to moisture or dryness, hill or val-
ley, with the kind of soil where
they were originally found, might
also contribute to their successful
cultivation.
" 2. In the gardens near large
towns, where the land is more va-
luable and better manured, gard-
eners sometimes sow two or three
kinds of seeds on the same ground,
for the purpose of economy........
Thus Mr. Marshall observes,
that, on the same ground they
sow radishes, lettuces, and carrots;
the radishes are drawn young for
the table, the lettuces to plant out,
and a sufficient crop of carrots is
left ; for carrots, if you wish them
to be large, should not grow very
near to each other.
" In defence of this mode of
culture it is said, if one crop fails,
VEG 259
the others may do well, and there
is no loss of ground or time; and
if all succeed they do very well....
Radishes and spinach are com-
monly sown together by the com-
mon gardeners, and many manoeu-
vres of intern-cropping are made
by them, as the sowing or plant-
ing between rows of vegetables
that are wide asunder, or present-
ly to come off, or in the alleys of
things cultivated on beds.
" Thus if a piece of horse-radish
be new planted; it may be top-
cropped with radishes or spinach,
8cc. or if a piece of potatoes be
planted wide, a bean may be put in
between each set in every, or every
other, row; a thin crop of onions
upon new asparagus beds, is a com-
mon practice,drawing them young
from about the plants." Introduc-
tion to Gardening. Rivington.
" The farmer likeAvise, in the
cultivation of grasses for feeding
sheep, finds an advantage in sow-
ing a mixture of seeds on the same
ground, as rye-grass, trefoil and
clover, which are said to succeed
each other in respect to the pro-
duction or maturity of their herb-
age. And, for the purpose of pre-
venting smut, it may be useful, as
I have before observed, to sow in
the same ground, in separate rows,
two kinds of wheat, one of a for-
warder nature than the other;
whence if the farina of one kind
should be injured by wet weather,
that of the other may impregnate
the ears of both. The two kinds
of wheat recommended are beard-
ed and smooth-headed wheat,
which are called by farmers cone
wheat and Lammas wheat; of
both of which there are many va-
rieties, and it is asserted, that one
third of cone Avheat is frequently
sown with two thirds of Lammas
260 VEG
VEG
wheat, and that the crops are much
superior to either of them sepa-
rately.
" In respect to kinds of soil,
those should be chosen, vvhich
have been found by observation to
suit particular seeds, both in re-
gard to their nutritive properties,
and the moisture and warmth of
their situations. And for those
seeds, which produce tuberous
roots within the earth, previous to
their flowering, as potatoes, pars-
nips, radishes, a soil of less cohe-
sion should be found or prepar-
ed.
"3. Add to this that there are some
seeds, as those of carrots, that are
so difficult to be disseminated in
uniform quantities, that it has been
customary to mix them previously
with sand or garden mould, for the
purpose of giving them weight, or
bulk, or to detach them from each
other. And some even suffer them
to begin to put forth their roots in
such a mixture of moist sand or
garden mould for the purpose of
more regularly dispersing them.
" In dry seasons, the soaking
seeds in water, a day or two before
committing them to the ground,
will forward their growth, as well
as by artificially Avatering the
ground before or after soAving
them ; and the soaking them in a
solution of salt and Avater may have
another advantage of giving an
opportunity of rejecting the light
seeds, which float, and perhaps of
destroying some insects Avhich
may adhere to them ; the sprink-
ling some kinds of seed with lime
may also be of advantage for the
purpose of destroying insects, if
such adhere to them,and of attract-
ing moisture from the air, orloAv-
er parts of the earth, or for its
other useful properties ; but where
the seed, soil, and season are adapt-
ed to each other, none of these
condiments are required.
" It may, nevertheless, on other
accounts, be very advantageous to
steep many kinds of grain-in the
black liquor, which oozes from
manure heaps. Mr. Chappel, in
the papers of the Bath Society,
found great benefit by steeping
barley in the fluid above mentioned
for 24 hours, and skimming off the
light grains. On taking it out of
the water, he mixed wood-ashes
sifted with the grain to make it
spread regularly, and obtained a
much finer crop, than from the
same corn sown without prepara-
tion. To this we may add, that
to steep the seed in a solution of
dung in water, as in the draining
from a dunghill, is believed in Chi-
na both to forward the growth of
the plant, and to defend it from a
variety of insects, according to the
information given to Sir George
Staunton.
" There is an old proverb, ' soat
dry and set wet;' but where the
earth has been lately turned over
by the plough or spade, there can
be no bad consequence from sow-
ing during rain in general; but in
some clay grounds much softened
by rain, if seed be put into holes,
and a dry season succeeds, an im-
penetrable crust may supervene by
the exhalation of the water, and the
setting, as it is called, of the clay:
but even this could not frequently
occur, when seeds are sown in the
moist weather of the autumnal
months; but generally in both cases,
the growth of the seed would be for-
warded by the moisture.
" 4. Where the fruit, which sur-
rounds any kinds of seeds, can be
sown along with them, it may an-
swer some useful purpose. Thus
VEG
VEG 261
the fruit of crabs, quinces, and
some hard pears, Avill Re all the
winter uninjured, covered only with
their autumnal leaves, and will
contribute much to nourish their
germinating seeds in the spring...
So the holly-berry and the ivy-ber-
ry remain during the winter months
uninjured by the rain or frosts, and
undevoured by birds or insects, and
contribute to nourish their germi-
nating seeds, when they fall on the
ground in the spring. The acrid
husk of Avalnuts sown along Avith
them preserves the sweet kernel
from the attack of insects; the
same must be the use of the acrid
oil of the cashew-nut. The haw-
thorn possesses both ■ a nutritive
covering and a hard shell for the
above purposes ; and the seeds of
roses are armed with stiff pointed
bristles, as well as furnished with
a nutritious fruit, so long known as
an agreeable conserve in the shops
of medicine, conscrva cynosbati;
the former constitutes a defence
against insects, and the latter sup-
plies a reservoir of nutriment for
the germinating seeds.
" 5. To this should be added,
that in our short and cold summers
the viviparous buds of some vege-
tables are too luxuriant, and do
not produce oviparous buds soon
enough to ripen their seeds, as
melons and cucumbers, and many
other plants, in those seasons vvhich
are moister than common. It is
believed, that by washing the seeds
of melons and cucumbers from the
saccharine and mucilaginous mat-
ter of their fruit, and by keeping
the seed three or four years before
it is used, that the viviparous buds
become less vigorous, and the ovi-
parous ones more numerous, and
forwarder in their floAvering ; and
for the production of earlier as well
as of larger crops, all such luxu-
riant vegetables should be sown
early in the vernal season, or in
the autumnal months, if they are
not too tender to bear the winter
frosts."]
VEGETATION, is the natu-
ral process by which plants receive
their nourishment.
Naturalists have formed various
conjectures, to account for the
mysterious phenomena occurring
in vegetable nature ; and though
unable to discover the primary
source from Avhich plants are en-
livened, yet it is now agreed, and
proved, that all vegetables origin-
ate from seeds, each of which com-
prehends three parts, namely : 1.
The cotyledons, or two porous late-
ral bodies or lobes, that imbibe
moisture : 2. The radicle, or eye,
which appears between the lobes :
and, 3. The plumula, a small
round body attached to the radi-
cle, though wholly concealed Avith-
in the cotyledons.
If a seed be deposited in the
earth, in a favourable situation, it
imbibes moisture, and evolves car-
bonic acid gas ; but, if any oxygen
gas be present, it is gradually ab-
sorbed by the seed, and the farina-
ceous matter,contained in the coty-
ledons, acquires a saccharine taste.
Numerous vessels then appear in
the lobes which convey the nutri-
ment to the radicle, that progres-
sively increases in size, and at
length assumes the form of a root;
strikes downwards into the earth ;
and thence derives the nourish-
ment necessary for the support of
the future plant....Now the cotyle-
dons shoot above the ground, be-
come leaves, and form what bota-
nists have termed the seminaileaves.
Thus, the plumula is gradually en-
larged, and rises out of the earth,
262 VEG
VEG
spreading itself into branches, fccc;
after which the seminal leaves wi-
ther and decay, while the different
processes of vegetation are carried
on in the plant, without their as-
sistance.
[Plants, are very various, and of
course, the structure of each spe-
cies must have many peculiarities.
Trees have principally engaged
the attention of anatomists. We
shall therefore take a tree as an
instance of that structure of plants:
and Ave shall do it the more readi-
ly, as the greater number ofvege-
bles are provided Avith analagous
organs, dedicated to similar uses.
A tree is composed of a root,
a trunk, and branches Each con-
sists of three parts, the bark, the
wood, and the pith.
The bark is the outermost part
of the tree. It is usually of a
green colour. If we inspect a ho-
rizontal section, we shall perceive
that the bark itself is composed of
three distinct bodies. The outer-
most of these, is called epidermis,
the middlemost, is called paren-
chyma, and the innermost, or that
next the root, is called the cortical
layers.
The epidermis is a thin transpa-
rent membrane, Avhich covers all
the outside of the bark. It is pret-
ty tough, is reproduced when rub-
bed oft*. In old trees it cracks and
decays, and a new epidermis is form-
ed. Hence, old trees have a rough
surface.
T'heparenchyma lies immediate-
ly below the epidermis ; it is of a
deep green colour, very tender,
and succulent. Both in it, and
the epidermis there are number-
Ess interstices which have been
compared to so many small blad-
ders.
The cortical layers form the in-
nermost part of the bark, or that
next the wood. They consist of
several thin membranes, lying the
one above the other; and their
number appears to increase with
the age of the plant.
The wood consists of concentric
layers, the number of which in-
creases Avith the age of the part.
Next the bark, the wood is much
softer and whiter, and more juicy
than the rest, and is called albcr-
num or aubier. The perfect wood
is browner and harder, and the
layers increase in density, the
nearer they are to the centre.
The pith occupies the centre of
the wood. It is a spongy body,
containing numerous cells. In
young shoots it is very succulent,
but it becomes dry, as the plant ad-
vances, and finally disappears.
The leaves are attached to the
branches of plants by short foot-
stalks. The whole leaf is covered
with the epidermis of the plant;
containing many glands.
Plants are continually increasing
in size. New matter is continual-
ly making its appearance in them,
and this matter they must receive
by some channel or other. Plants
then require food as well as ani-
mals. Now, what is this food,
and whence do they derive it ?
These questions can only be exa-
mined by an attentive survey of
the substances which are contain-
ed in vegetables, and an examin-
ation of those substances which
are necessary for their vegetation.
This subject has already been treat-
ed of, under articles, Food of
Plants, and Manure......Some
additional remarks shall now be
given.
The analysis of vegetables af-
fords but three essential principles,
namely, carbon, hydrogen, and ox-
VEG
VEG 263
ygen, or charcoal, inflammable
air, and pure air ; and the propor-
tions between these principles form
all the shades, varieties, modifi-
cations, which the vegetable crea-
tion exhibits. Analysis further
shews, that vegetable fibre, when
cleared of all extraneous matter,
is scarcely any thing else than a
congeries of carbon. But how is
carbon conveyed into the body of
the plant ? It is well known, that
pure carbon, such as is used for
burning, mixed with pure, dry
earth, affords no nourishment to
vegetables ; and it is also known,
that when dead plants are so far
decomposed, that their texture is
softened or destroyed, living vege-
tables imbibe all their constituent
principles. This difference ap-
pears to arise from hence, that, in
the last case, the carbon remaining
dissolved in the oily, resinous, or
alkaline principle, the water, which
has the property of disjoining these
natural combinations, serves as a
vehicle to convey them into the
vegetable system. Air, heat, acids,
and even rest alone, are sufficient
to precipitate the carbon ; so that,
the agents proper to facilitate the
concretion of the fibre, and to pro-
mote nutrition, are every where
to be found. The principle of life,
which governs and animates every
organ, suitably divides this nutri-
tive matter. It modifies the ac-
tion of external agents, and pre-
sides over all the operations of this
living laboratory. Hence it is easy
to see, that hydrogen, carbon, or
oxygen, predominates in the plant,
according to the nature of the soil,
exposure and climate, and accord-
ing to the proportions in which
these nutritive principles are pre-
sented.
Since the only part of plants
vvhich is contiguous to the soil is
the root, and since the plant pe-
rishes when the root is pulled out
of the ground, it is evident, that
the food of plants must be imbib-
ed by the roots. It is highly pro-
bable that the great changes, at
best which the food undergoes af-
ter absorption, are produced, not
in the roots, but in other parts of
the plant. The sap, as Dr. Hales
has shewn us, ascends with such
impetuosity from the cut end of a
vine branch, that it supported a
column of mercury 32i inches
high. It is certain, that the sap
ascends through the wood, and not
through the bark of the tree ; for
a plant continues to grow, even
when stripped .of a great part of
its bark, which could not happen,
if the sap ascended through the
bark.
It is impossible to account for
the motion of the sap in plants by
capillary attraction, or by any me-
chanical or chemical principles
whatever; we know indeed, that
heat is an agent, but its influence
cannot be owing to its dilating
poAver; for unless the sap vessels
of plants Avere furnished with
valves, (and they have no valves)
dilatation would rather retard than
promote the ascent of the sap.
We must, therefore, ascribe it
to some other cause ; the vessels
themselves must certainly act.....
Many philosophers have seen the
necessity of this, and have accord-
ingly ascribed the ascent of the
sap to irritability. Saussure sup-
poses, that the sap enters the open
mouths of the vessels, at the ex-
tremity of the roots ; that these
mouths then contract, and by that
contraction propel the sap up-
wards ; that this contraction gra-
dually follows the sap, pushing it
264 VEG
VEG
up from the extremity of the root
to the summit of the plant.
This irritable principle is seen
in many plants, particularly in the
stamina of the barberries, which
are thrown into motion when
touched.
The sap ascends to the leaves,
where it undergoes certain altera-
tions, and is converted into the pe-
culiar juices, which like the blood
in animals, are afterwards employ-
ed in forming the various substan-
ces found in plants. Great part of
the sap when arrived at the leaves,
is thrown oft" by evaporation, by
means of particular organs. What
remains must be very different in
its proportions from the sap. It
is performed chiefly by the upper
surfaces of leaves.
Leaves have also the property
of absorbing carbonic acid gas
from the atmosphere, and have
been supposed to exhale much
pure air. Hence they have been
universally deemed highly use-
ful, when planted near a house, but
though useful as a source of shade,
yet the following observations will
shew that their benefit does not
depend upon their supposed addi-
tion of pure air derived from them,
to the atmosphere.
The air of the atmosphere, ac-
cording to the most celebrated
chemists, is composed of twenty-
two parts of oxigenous gas or air,
and seventy-eight parts of azotic
gas. There is a constant con-
sumption of the oxigenous portion
of this air, by the burning of com-
bustible bodies ; by the respiration
of animals ; by the fermentation
and putrefaction of vegetable and
animal substances; and by the
calcination of metals. The oxi-
genous gas, decomposed by respi-
ration and combustion only, in the
city of London, is supposed to,
amount to the enormous quantity,
of five millions cubic feet an hour.
(Nicholson's Philosophical Jour-
nal.)
i The atmospheric air of Great
Britain, France, of parts of Africa,
and of America, has been examin-
ed by philosophers, and has been
found to be exactly of the same de-
gree of purity.
The oxigenous gas contained in
it, is in the same^proportion, at all
times and in all places, in rainy or
in dry weather, in depth of winter,
and in the middle of summer, on ^
the land and on the ocean, in the *
crowded city and remote village.
In consequence of a most valua-
ble discovery, made by the illus-
trious Dr. Priestley, that grow-
ing vegetables under certain cir-
cumstances, exposed to the light
of the sun, yield oxigenous gas;
an opinion has been adopted, that
they are the sources of the oxige-
nous part of common air.
This sentiment has been adopt-
ed by the chemists of all nations,
but has lately been controverted
by Dr. James Woodhouse, pro-
fessor of chemistry in the Univer-
sity of Pennsylvania. (Nichol-
son's Philosophical Journal.)
The Doctor reasons in the fol-
lowing manner:
1st. He says, whenever oxige-
nous gas has been obtained from
vegetables, carbonic acid, (or fixed
air,) has been present. Upon re-
viewing the experiments of Dr.
Priestley, he finds that this cir-
cumstance has actually taken place.
The Dr. exposed plants to the in-
fluence of light, in atmospheric
air, in which spirit of wine, and
wax, and tallow candles, had
burned out; to air w hich had been
vitiated by the death or putrefac-
V E G
VEG 265
tion of mice and fishes ; and to
air which had been frequently
taken into his lungs, and found
that the purity of the air, vvas in
every instance restored. (Priest-
ley on air. vol. iii. p. 247 to 347.)
In all these cases, carbonic acid,
(which is composed of carbon and
oxigen) vvas formed ; the vegeta-
ble devoured its coal for food, by
which means its oxigen escaped,
in the form of pure air.
2dly. The seeds of Zea mayz
(Indian corn), of apium petroseli-
num or parsley, of lactuca saliva or
lettuce, of cucurbita citrullus or the
water melon, of phaseolus sativus
or beans, and of rafihanus sativus
or radishes, were planted in earth,
and made to vegetate in atmosphe-
ric air, confined over water in ves-
sels of white glass, and exposed to
the action of solar light. This
air, wnen examined at various
times, was found to be reduced in
purity, and when its oxigenous
portion Avas completely absorbed,
the plants died. Its oxigen united
to the coal of the cotyledons of
the seeds, or to that of some ani-
mal or vegetable matter contained
in the earth, in which they were
planted, or to that of some decayed
portion of the living leaves, and
formed carbonic acid, quicker than
the living plant could decompose
it. To these experiments, we
may add, that the celebrated and
accurate Scheele observed, that
beans growing in atmospheric air,
always rendered it impure.
odly. Young plants of datura
stramonium or Jameston weed, of
Phytolacca decandra or the poke,
of Zea mayz or Indian corn, &c.
growing in earth, were exposed to
solar light in from forty to eighty
ounce measures of atmospheric
air, vvhich vvas examined at various
vol. v.
times, from one hour to thirty days
after the plants had been placed in
it. Carbonic acid gas was gene-
rally formed, and whenever this
circumstance happened, the purity
of the air was diminished.
When a plant in perfect health,
growing in a soil, which contains
little vegetable or animal matter,
is confined in atmospheric air, it
will live a long time without pro-
ducing any change in it. Many
of the vegetables, which were the
subjects of these experiments, did
not affect the air in five days;
some diminished its purity in three
hours, and others altered it in a
most slow and gradual manner,
causing little change in it, in 20
days.
4thly. Many of the same kind
of vegetables Avere also confined
in foi ty ounce measures of oxige-
nous gas, Avhich had been Avell
washed in lime water, and the
purity of this air vvas very gene-
rally lessened, carbonic acid being
formed.
5thly. A small handful of the
healthy leaves of a variety of
plants, containing no decayed
parts, were exposed during four,
six, and eight hours to the influence
of the light of the sun, in atmos-
pheric air confined by water, and
its purity Avas found to be neither
increased nor diminished.
6thly. The leaves of various ve-
getables gathered promiscuously,
exposed in the same manner, ge-
nerally diminished the purity of
atmospheric air, several degrees.
7thly. A handful of the leaves
of several hundred different plants,
among Avhich may be mentioned,
those of the apple, pear, peach,
poplar, fringe, and persimmon
trees, were separately exposed
during several hours in glass ves-
M »i
266 VEG
VEG
sels to solar light, in forty ounce
measures of pump water, and from
five to nineteen dram measures
of oxigen air, were produced in
each vessel. Upon analysing the
water, it Avas found to contain car-
bonic acid, with which it had been
impregnated from a necessary,
which stood Avithin a yard of the
pump.
8thly. The leaves of 13 dif-
ferent plants, were separately ex-
posed in the usual manner, in forty
ounce measures of the water of the
river Schuylkill, and about ten
dram measures of air Avere pro-
cured, the principal part of which
was azotic gas, which Avas disen-
gaged from the water. No car-
bonic acid could be detected in the
water of this river.
There are three wooden bridges
erected over the Schuylkill, which
rest upon large wooden logs, upon
vvhich great quantities of a species
of conferva grow, and which is
covered by the water. Upon view-
ing this vegetable when the sun
shone upon it, for several hours,
at different times, for several years,
no air could be seen to form upon
it, or to rise through the water.
9thly. The leaves of the same
vegetables were exposed to light,
in the same manner, in the same
river water, impregnated with four
quarts of the water, saturated with
carbonic acid, from the carbonate
of lime and the sulphuric acid ;
and 77 dram measures of oxi-
genous air of a very high degree
of purity, were obtained.
lOthly. No oxigenous air could
be procured by exposing vegetable
leaves in boiled, distilled, rain, or
lime water ; a proof that they do
not decompose water.
1 Ithly. Atmospheric air was
impregnated with carbonic acid
gas, and an handful of the leav-es
of nine different vegetables, were
separately exposed in it, to light,
seven hours. The fixed air disap-
peared, and the atmospheric air
was greatly increased in purity.
12thly. The limbs of trees co-
vered with healthy leaves, and
some vigorous evergreens growing
in their natural soil, were confined
from one day to a month, in atmos-
pheric air over water, and exposed
to light, and its purity was never
found to be increased, but was ge-
nerally considerably diminished.
These experiments incontesti-
bly prove, that Avhenever oxigen
gas has been obtained from vege-
tables, by exposing them to the
influence of solar light, carbonic
acid has been present, and that it
is from the decomposition of this
gas, that the pure air is obtained.
As it is acknoAvledged, that the
leaves of plants separate the oxi-
gen from carbonic acid, it may be
said, that the oxigenous portion of
atmospheric air is supplied by the
decomposition of this gas, as it is
always found in the atmosphere.
The quantity of carbonic acid,
accidentally diffused, in atmosphe-
ric air, (for it is not one of its com-
ponent parts) is reckoned to be
about one part in an hundred. It
must however vary in different
places. We would expect to find
the most of it in cities, where it
is formed by combustion, respira-
tion, fermentation and putrefac-
tion. If one measure of the air
of any great city, be passed up
over lime Avater, in an eudiometer,
no carbonate of lime will be form-
ed, so that the quantity of carbonic
acid in this air, must be extreme-
ly small. As this gas is also
seized upon by alkalies, earths and
metals, and absorbed by water,
VEI
VEN 267
the proportion of it in the atmos-
phere may be less than one part
in ten thousand.
When we consider likewise,
that the oxigen is never separated
from the carbonic acid by leaves,
but when they are exposed in con-
tact w ith it to the light of the sun,
and that every pefforation made in
a living leaf, however minute by an
insect, causes the part to decay,
and absorb oxigen by day and by
night; and that in the autumn, in
some countries, all leaves fall on
the ground, ferment and putrify,
and thus diminish the purity of
common air, and that the petals
and fruit of vegetables, have the
same effect, we must pronounce,
that the oxigenous portion of at-
mospheric air cannot be supplied
by vegetation.]
Many valuable hints respecting
the phenomena of vegetation, are
contained in Dr. Ingenhouse's
" Experiments on Vegetables," Sec.
(8vo. 6s.), and also in Mr. Gough's
" Experiments and Observations on
the Vegetation of Seeds," inserted in
the 4th vol. of the "• Memoirs of the
Literary and Philosophical Society
of Manchester."
VEINS, in the animal body, are
membranous canals, destined for
the purpose of re-conveying the
blood from the arteries to the heart.
They run chiefly by the sides of
arteries, but more towards the sur-
face ; and are, like these, composed
of three membranes, namely, the
interior coat, resembling the arte-
rial ; the second, or cellular ; and
the third, consisting of longitudinal
fibres ; the whole being, however,
of a more delicate texture, so that
they are apt to rupture, in conse-
quence of too great expansion.
Farther, the veins are provided
with numerous thin, semi-lunar
valves, which prevent the return
of the blood ; a circumstance that
would otherwise frequently occur,
from a want of muscular power in
the venous system : hence, no pul-
sation can take place in these ves-
sels. The blood Avhich tlu-y re-
ceive from the arteries, flows but
slowly to the heart; and is con-
veyed thither by the contractility
of their membranes; the propul-
sion of the succeeding columns of
that fluid from the arteries ; the
contraction of the muscles; and
by the act of respiration.
In cases of venesection by the
lancet, the blood being generally
taken from the veins, we deem it a
duty, to caution our readers against
resorting to unskilful hands, where
such an operation becomes neces-
sary ; as, from the contiguity of
the arteries, as well as the nerves
and tendons, serious injuries may
be sustained, and which, in many
cases, have proved fatal ....If, dur-
ing blood-letting- the patient be-
come faint, it will be advisable to
admit fresh air into the room ; to
give mild cordials ; and to lay the
person in a horizontal posture ; by
these means, the circulation will
again be restored, and all farther
inconvenience be obviated.
For an account of the varicose
aneurism, an affection of the veins,
we refer the reader to the article
Aneurism.
Velvet-leaf. See Tree-mal-
low.
VENEERING, is a species of
inlaying or marquetry, in which
several thin leaves, or slips of fine
wood, are applied to a ground-
work of common wood : it is per-
formed in the following manner :
The wood intended for veneer-
ing, is first fixed in a vice, or saw-
ing-press, where it is divided into
268 V E N
V EN
leaves, not exceeding one line in
thickness. Such leaves are then
cut into small slips, of various
forms, according to the design
proposed ; and, when the ground-
work is duly prepared, they are
cemented by means of glue, and
submitted to the action of a press,
till the whole becomes perfectly
dry ; after which the articles are
scraped and polished.
Ventilation. See vol. i. p.
24. also the article Granary.
[The reader is referred to the
above parts of this work for obser-
vations on ventilation. And the
following judicious remarks on this
important subject, by Sir George
O. Paul, deserve particular at-
tention. They are extracted from
the Trans, of the Society of Arts,
London.~\
" Although particular conclu-
sions may be controverted, I may
venture to assume as the basis of
all observations on this subject,
" First, that a certain and fre-
quently renewed supply of vital
air is essential to the purposes of
animal life ; and the more regular
and uninterrupted that supply, the
more favourable will it be to health.
" Secondly, that where the
quantity of atmospheric air intro-
duced into an apartment is less
than nature has bestowed in free
circulation, her purpose is in a de-
cree counteracted; and although
the breathing impure air [i. e. air
despoiled of its natural proportion
of vital air) for a short time may
not produce an immediate sensible
effect, an injury may arise to the
constitution, proportionate to the
extent of that lime. And farther,
when (as in the ordinary inter-
courses of Society in London)
persons are in the habit of placing
themseh'es, during a considerable
portion of every twenty-four hours,
in-a situation to breathe in this de-
fective atmosphere, the accumu-
lated consequences may be serious
and important.
" Thirdly, that in rooms from
which currents of fresh air may
not be excluded, they may be so
injudiciously directed as to be use-
less and injurious. And,
" Fourthly, that if, in addition
to the consumption of vital air by
the lungs, the persons of those as-
sembled in any apartment should
be filthy, should their clothing
(particularly that made of Avoollen)
have been so long Avorn as to have
absorbed any considerable portion
of the perspiration of the body,
or should the apartment itself be
damp and foul, the vital properties
of the air will be contaminated;
and although instant death may
not ensue (which has been known
to be a consequence), the fevers
emphatically termed the gaol, hos-
pital, or ship fever, from its usually
originating in these places, will be
generated with a degree of malig-
nancy proportionate to its causes,
and, being so generated, will be-
come infectious with a like degree
of malignancy.
" It is about twenty years since
the deleterious consequences of in-
attention to ventilation were set
forth by Mr. Howard. So strong
and so general was the conviction of
the public mind, not only as to the
evil pointed out, but regarding the
remedies proposed by that indefa-
tigable philanthropist, that the le-
gislature thought fit to adopt the
whole of his principles, and to
make them the basis of several
positive laws, under the direction
of which the greater number of
prisons of the kingdom have
since been reconstructed, and the
VEN
V E N 269
remainder (with few exceptions)
altered in conformity to the prin-
ciple recommended by him, name-
ly, that of introducing currents of
fresh air into and through every
apartment.
" In these prisons, where atten-
tion is also paid to personal clean-
liness, I venture to say, the gaol
fever is unknown, unless brought
into them by prisoners committed
in a state of previous infection.
" By equal exertion on the like
principles, the healthiness of the
ships of war has been so improv-
ed, that they are no longer sources
of this desolating pestilence.
" Regarding hospitals, I fear it
cannot be proved that a relief so
complete has been effected. Mr.
Howard was not sparing in his
strictures on the management of
this important branch of our public
institutions ; but the improvement
he suggested went no farther than
simply the introduction of fresh
air. The reconciling this advan-
tage with that generally diffused
warmth, necessary in sick rooms,
seems to have escaped his con-
templation.
" Of the several hospitals con-
structed since his observations
were made public, most have been
planned with a view to facilitate
the passage" of outward air through
the wards. The directors of old
hospitals have adopted alterations
more or less tending to the same
purpose ; but all seem to have
rested at this point: yet, consider-
ing the importance of pure air to
patients, during the tedious cure
of compound fractures, and other
accidents or diseases,together with
the no less important object of se-
curing them from currents of cold
air, it cannot be denied that much
still remains to be effected.
" In the construction of the
larger work-houses, termed Hun-
dred-houses, similar principles of
ventilation have been attended to
with evident success, in preserv-
ing the health of the inhabitants;
but with respect to parish work-
houses on the lesser scale, school
rooms (both for boys and girls in
every rank of life), manufactories,
apartments for public lectures, and
ladies assembly-rooms, these, to-
gether with the circumscribed cot-
tages of the poor, remain in a
state most dangerous to health
from imperfect ventilation. To
these sources, and to no other, may
be traced the few putrid and con-
tagious diseases Avhich occasionally
show themselves amongst us ; and
which, to the credit of free venti-
lation, can no longer justly be call-
ed gaol or ship fever.
" At a period of demonstrated
success of the doctrine recom-
mended by Mr. Howard, and
adopted by his disciples, the valu-
able essays and experiments of
Count Rum ford appeared before
the public. Whilst opening to the
world a new and most useful sys-
tem of domestic philosophy, he
has advanced opinions unfavoura-
ble to those means by vvhich these
important effects have been pro-
duced.
" In theory this ingenious philo-
sopher and friend of mankind has
decidedly negatived the necessity,
and questioned the propriety, of
ventilation, by the admission of
currents of air. In the construc-
tion of those buildings most im-
mediately under his direction he
has certainly adopted a firactice of
a direct opposite tendency.
" Opinions of such authority
could not fail to be respected ; they
must at least raise a doubt in the
270 V E N
mind of the most confident advo-
cate of an opposite theory.
" As the Count's observations
and practices tend to invalidate a
material part of that system, in the
pursuit of which immense sums
had been confidently expended in
the kingdom, and respecting which
I bear more than a common share
of responsibility, I felt myself pe-
culiarly called upon to scrutinize
his objections, and to obviate such
as should appear to be denied by
experience ; but, at the same time,
certainly to abandon whatever
ground could not be fairly main-
tained by a result.
" As my conclusions on the
point disputed are formed on cir-
cumstantial observations made
within a prison and hospital imme-
diately under my own eye, and as
these particular institutions have
not unfrequently been resorted to
as examples for imitation, a de-
tailed reasoning regarding them
may serve for general application.
" The county gaol at Gloucester
is constructed on the principles of
admitting air to pass into and
through it, in strait lines, from one
extremity to the other. There is
no obstruction to a freedom of cur-
rent, other than as the streams of
air passing through the long pas-
sages, open at each end, move with
the greater velocity, they of neces-
sity carry with them the weaker
currents, passing into and through
the cells at right angles.
" From the time this prison was
opened in 1791, until the year
1800, about 1300 persons were
committed to it; and, on the ave-
rage, about 100 prisoners were
constantly confined in it. In these
nine years the number of deaths
has been thirteen ; and of these,
four sunk under the effects of
VEN
disease brought into prison with
them. During the last year, the
prison has been crowded in an un-
common and very improper de-
gree : two hundred and fourteen
have been confined ; and the ave-
rage number has been one hundred
and sixty-seven. One prisoner
only has died (a woman aged sixty)
in the month of October last. At
the opening of the spring assizes,
1801, (the time of the greatest
numbers) there was not one pri-
soner sick, or in the hospital ward.
" By this statement it appears,
that the proportion of deaths is so
much below the common average,
in the ordinary situations of life,
that the healthiness of this abode
may be said to be peculiar: and
it is in proof, that however cur-
rents of air may be found injurious
to particular constitutions, they are
not unfavourable to general health.
" Every prisoner in this gaol,
when not in the infirmary-ward,
sleeps in a room containing from
52 to 57 feet of superficial space,
built with brick, resting on an
arch, and arched over ; so that no
air can enter it but through the
openings provided for it. As air
is constantly passing immediately
under it, and round it on every
side, it is necessarily dry : it is
ventilated by opposite openings
near the crown of the arch. To
that opening, which is toward the
outward air, there is a shutter,
which the occupant may close at
will; but it is so imperfectly fitted,
that, when closed, a considerable
portion of air must enter by its
sides. The opposite opening to
the passage, the prisoner has no
means of closing in any degree.
" During the ten years these
rooms have been inhabited, there
have been three winters in which
VEN
V E N 271
the cold has been intense. As I
had considerable apprehensions of
the effects of this situation in
severe weather, I directed the sur-
geon of the gaol to be constant in
his attention ; and particularly in
the report of his observations dur-
ing the inclemency of these sea-
sons. I also made a point fre-
quently to visit the prison, and to
examine every prisoner as to the
effects apprehended ; and, as much
to my surprize as to my satisfac-
tion, notwithstanding the querulous
disposition of persons in their si-
tuation, 1 never heard a complaint
from old or young, from male or
female, suffering by cold in the
night apartments*. And farther
it is the decided opinion of the two
able physicians who have most li-
berally undertaken to superintend
the health of this prison, that no
ill consequences have arisen from
prisoners sleeping in the situation
above described.
" I must contend, therefore, it is
a fact established by experience,
that in a room containing not more
than from 415 to 439 cubical feet
of air, in which there is no fire,
the body of a person sleeping
under a proper allowance of wool-
len bed-clothes will so far Avarm the
atmosphere around him, or to
speak more conformable to modern
doctrine, so little of the heat ge-
nerated in the body will be carried
off by the surrounding air, that he
will not suffer by a current f pass-
• Fahrenheit's thermometer has
never been observed to be below 33° in
the severest nights, in the middle region
of a cell in vvhich a prisoner was sleep-
ing; whereas, in the ordinary apartments
of a dwelling-house, water is frequently
known to freeze by a bed-side.
t The term " current" is not to be
ing at a distance over him, provid-
ed the apartment be secured from
damp. On the points, therefore,
of warmth and ventilation combined
it must surely be allowed (regard-
ing rooms so constructed) there is
no farther desideratum.
" Prisoners, on their rising in
the morning, are removed into
small working-rooms or wards si-
tuated on the ground-floor. These
day apartments are,in like manner,
constructed with cross openings
near the cieling or crown of the
arch ; but there is also in each of
them an open fire-place. Res-
pecting these apartments, my ob-
servations tend to confirm Count
Rumfoed's objection to open fires,
and his preference to closed stoves.
Nay, farther, I am disposed to ad-
mit, that openings for free ventila-
tion are incompatible with strong
fires in open fire-places.
" It is certain that, in rooms so
provided, the danger arising from
impure air is completely guarded
against; yet this advantage is
gained at the risk of another evil,
which, though not so important,
should, if possible, be avoided.
" The air which in the same
room without an open fire-place.
would pass inwards by one open-
ing, and outwards by the other,
being attracted by the fire to sup-
ply the constant rarefaction in the
chimney, passes invvards from both
openings towards the fire place,
and the body of a person placed
near it, being in its current, is ex-
posed to the danger of partial chill.
To this circumstance, in these
understood in a stronger sense than merely
to signify that species of circulation of
air, which is directed in strait lines from
point to point, by the action of any effi-
cient cause.
272 VEN
VEN
apartments, I am inclined to attri-
bute the few complaints of a dy-
sentery or aguish tendency, which
have occasionally interrupted the
general health of this prison.
" In the hospital, the scene of
my observations, the morbid ef-
fects of foul air in the wards have,
until lately, been no otherwise re-
lieved than,
" First.....By introducing cur-
rents of fresh air by the windows,
with an improved mode of hang-
ing the upper sash, peculiar to this
hospital, by the effect of which
the current of air admitted is
turned upwards to the cieling, and
prevented from descending on the
patients, Avhose beds are placed
under the windows ;
" Secondly.....By piercing holes
in the cieling of the Avards, and
by means of plastered channels or
wood funnels, leading the foul air,
rising into them, to the roof.
" In wrarm weather, when the
doors of the wards are open, and
the fires low, these channels or
funnels operate with considerable
effect. Much foul air will by its
relative specific lightness (not be-
ing counteracted by a stronger
poAver) ascend them and escape ;
a farther portion will pass off by
the windows opening to the lee-
ward, and ventilation may be duly
effected.
" But, on the contrary, when
the doors are shut, and strong fires
are made, these will inevitably at-
tract the currents of air inwards
and towards them, from all the
openings ; and should patients be
situated in their course, the effect
cannot fail to be injurious.
" Besides, as the Avindows are
generally closed in the night, (the
most important time for ventila-
tion,) no other change of air takes
place, but what is effected by the
open fires, which, whilst supplied
immediately from the middle re-
gion, are constantly consuming the
best air of the room.
" Hence it appears that free
ventilation, or the transverse pas-
sage of outward air, may be incon-
sistent with the general warmth
required in the apartments of the
sick; and that channels for the
escape of the foul air, unassisted
by a power more constant and de-
cisive than the relative specific
lightness of that air, is a mean
inefficient to preserving a health-
ful respiration in the crowded
wards of an hospital.
" As a remedy to these apparent
defects in the ordinary mode of
ventilation, it has been imagined
that the draft, or determination of
the air, to the funnels in the ciel-
ing of the rooms requiring venti-
lation, is accelerated by the opera-
tion of fire ; and by causing an in-
creased degree of rarefaction, at
the termination of the funnel, to
discharge the air rising to the ciel-
ing in a degree depending on die
correct application of the appara-
tus and quantity of fuel consumed.
" In all rooms or apartments
requiring ventilation, it is presum-
ed that (according to the old sys-
tem) channels or funnels are pro-
vided for the discharge of air as-
cending into them. These chan-
nels or funnels, so provided, should
be rendered air-tight, and brought
to terminate immediately under
the fire intended to work them.
The ash-pit and fire-place should
be so closed, by doors, as to pre-
vent the fire from drawing the air
from the room, surrounding it.....
The whole draft or consumption
VEN
VEN
273
©ccasioned by the fire will then be
supplied from the further termina-
tion of the channel or funnel.
" This effect may be applied
according to circumstances, either
to the cieling of the room in which
the fire is made, to the room be-
low, or to that above it; and the
draught thus produced may, by a
proper apparatus, be increased or
diminished at will.
" In the hospital in which I have
made the first experiment of this
design, I have caused a stove to be
so formed as to answer the culina-
ry purposes of the ward in which
it is fixed, and at the same time to
ventilate the ward beneath it; and
no additional expense is created
in fuel by the operation.
" By a fire made in one of these
stoves, a ward beneath it, contain-
ing about 18,000 cubical feet, filled
with patients, (and Avhich, in spite
of all former means, Avas ever re-
markably offensive,) Avas in a few
minutes so relieved of contaminat-
ed air, as to be sensibly felt by all
the patients in it, without their
perceiving any increased current.
" The principle of the means of
ventilation adopted in this hospital
may be applied with perfect faci-
lity to ships.
" By carrying the funnel from
a cabin or ship stove, of any kind
or dimension, (observing only to
exclude the admission of surround-
ing air,) to the hold or under-decks,
they may be as completely venti-
lated as the wards of an infirmary.
In stormy Aveather, Avhen the
decks of a ship must of necessity
be closed, the fires would perform
a service which could no otherwise
he attained ; whilst, by the* nature
of the apparatus, the fire itself
would be secured from the effects
«-f lIv* wind.
vol.. V.
" If the stove or grate over a
lady's drawing-room were proper-
ly fitted to this purpose, on the
evening of her assembly, it might
be set in action, and the room be-
neath cleared of its impure air,
without recourse being had to the
opening of windows : the openings
in the cieling might be rendered
ornamental.
" By applying the same princi-
ple to German or other closed
stoves, the chief objection to their
use in crowded rooms would be
obviated ; and I should then agree
with Count Rumford, that in all
rooms, where the indulgence of the
habit of open fires was not in ques-
tion, such stoves (if constructed
of earthen materials) would afford
a more ' genial warmth,' and a due
circulation be at the same time
effected.
" So fitted and constructed, they
would be incontestably better than
open fires for the wards of hospi-
tals, poor-houses, manufactories,
theatres for lectures, school-rooms,
and prisons. Respecting the last-
mentioned structures, I must far-
ther observe, that if a sutler were
appointed in public kitchens under
due regulations, the present neces-
sity of open fires for prisoners to
cook individually for themselves,
would be superseded, much to their
advantage.
" On the other hand, I must
also observe, that if closed stoves,
acting on this principle, were
adopted, Count Rumfosd's objec-
tions to the introduction of fresh
air would be obviated, with regard
to any room in v-hichthty should
be in action, provided the opening
through 'which it entered was
made on a level with the cteiina:.
" Air entering at this level would,
in the absence of open fires, be
N N
274 VEN
acted upon by no other draft than
the mouth of the funnel in the ceil-
ing, and could not descend in cur-
rents to the lower region of the
room.
" In a room so filled Avith com-
pany as to vitiate the air within it,
the atmospheric air entering, be-
ing specifically heavier, would in-
deed descend, and be replaced by
the ascending impure air ; but, as
it would not descend by a stronger
impulse than its difference of spe-
cific weight, it must be slow in its
motion, and would produce no sen-
sible current."
To the above observations the
Author annexes a description and
plate of the stove in use for culi-
nary purposes, and at the same
time to ventilate the ward beneath
it, Avhich is highly worthy of being
introduced into all houses crouded
by living persons.
The following plan of ventilation
was adopted in the large rooms of
the house of industry in Dublin,
upon the recommendation of
Count Rumford.
There are two fire places, one
in the office of the master of the
work, the other in the hall of merit,
with flues extending horizontally,
at the height of five feet from the
floor, to a chimney in the centre.
These communicate a sufficient
and equable degree of heat through
the two great dining halls. Tavo
of Count RuMFonD'sloovers carry
off the vitiated air, and a fresh
supply of atmospheric air is ob-
tained by small apertures, which
are made at the bottom of the side
walls, and covered Avith perforated
boxes.
These loovers consist of three
six-sided vertical wooden tubes,
which passing through the roof
of the building, project three or
four feet aboVe it, and communi-
VEN
cate with the room below. By
two of the tubes, placed at the two
ends of the room, and terminating
in two long wooden boxes, which are
bored full of holes, and rest on the
floor of the room, fresh atmosphe-
ric air from without is forced into
the room, while the foul air is car-
ried off by means of the third tube
placed over the middle of the room,
with its lower opening even with
the ceiling. This tube is furnish-
ed Avith a register or damper. See
8 th Report of the Society for better-
ing the Condition of the Poor, Lon-
don 1799.
Ventilation, cleanliness, and the
use of soap and water and scrub-
bing brush, will do every thing,
(nay much more) than can be done
by any substitutes for these essen-
tial requisites in our preservation
from infection, and will continue to
be employed by mankind, when
the vile suffocating acid fumes of
Smith and Morveau will be for-
gotten.
The ventilation of ships is of
great consequence to the health of
those on board, to cargoes, and to
the preservation of the timber of
the' vessel Avhich are knoAvn to suf-
fer very materially and rapidly
from the action of confined air upon
them. Even the durable live oak
of Georgia is not proof against the
corrosive effects of this agent, as
the almost unexampled rapid de-
cay of the United States national
frigates built Avithin the last eight
years fully proves. It is known
that the timbers of those ships
were placed so close, as to prevent
the free passage of any considera-
ble current of air between them.
Varioo's ventilators for ships
have been proposed in England.
Dr. Hale's and Sutton's plans
were used with success, and lately
Mr. Abernethy of London, has
VEN
suggested some improvement on
them, which are certainly Avorthy
of attention by all concerned. An
account of Hale's ventilators may
be seen in the Philosophical Trans-
actions ; and that of Abernethy,
in a late volume of Philifs's
Monfldy Magazine, and in Dr.
Gleig's supplement to the Ency-
clopedia Britannica of Edinburgh.
In the Transactions of the Bath
and West of England Society, Mr.
South also describes a ventilator
for preserving grain on ship board.
The United States have not been
without attempts on this important
head. Mr. Benjamin Wynkoop's
contrivance consists of four bellows
connected in a frame, and having
their nozzcls opening into one tube
which descends from the deck to
any distance . in the hold of the
vessel; and as the frame is con-
nected with the side of the vessel,
the bellows are worked without
manual labour. Captains Lloyd
Jones, Irvine, and Moork of
Philadelphia, have all borne tes-
timony in favour of the utility of
the machine.
Mr. Richard Robotham of the
city of Hudson, New-York, has also
obtained a patent from the United
States for an air pump ventilator.
The following are the words of the
patentee.
Air-pump-ventilator, for the venti-
lating of ships, mines, prisons, hos-
pitals, isfc. invented by Richard
Robotham, of the city of Hudson,
(N.Y.)
" It is a single bellows, fitted
upon the top of a tube of wood, or
a trunk made of plank, which, in
a ship, stands in the lowest part
of the hold, by the kelson, and
runs up through the lower deck.
The bellows is fixed on the top of
V E R 275
this trunk, with a valve in the usual
place, at the inlet. The outlet of
the bellows is made of wood, with
a square angle, which turns up-
wards, and a valve in the upright
part, that shuts down, in such
manner that the bellows fills from
the bottom and discharges at the
top. If the bellows discharges
one barrel at a time, the insides
of the trunks must be six inches
square ; it will be then sufficient
for a vessel of three hundred tons ;
but if they are four or five times
this size, the machine may be
worked by the labour of one man :
or, about one square inch of en-
largement may be made in the
trunks to each gallon in the bel-
lows : then it will fill and discharge
about twenty times in a minute.
The bellows may be made in
various shapes and sizes at plea-
sure. This improvement consists
altogether in filling the bellows at,
or from the bottom, and discharg-
ing tlie contents at the top, above
the upper deck, or out of a port-
hole."]
Venus-comb. See Needle, the
Common Shepherd's.
VERDIGREASE,or Acetite
of Copper, is a kind of rust usu-
ally prepared from that metal, by
corroding it with vinegar.
The best verdigrease is mostly
manufactured at Mon'pelier, in
France, by forming alternate strata
of copper-plates, and the husks of
grapes, during their vinous fer-
mentation ; when they speedily
become acid, and corrode the cop-
per : alter the plates have stood in
such si'.cation for a sufficient time,
they ?re moistened with Avater,
and .'.xposed to the air ; the ver-
digrease being successively scrap-
ed off, as it collects on the surface.
in this state, the acetite is called
276
VER
VER
fresh or moist verdigrease, having
the form of paste ; which after tri-
turating it in proper troughs, is
put in bags, and dried in the sun.
Crystals of Verdigrease are pre-
pared by saturating vinegar with
the common acetite of copper, and
leaving the solution to clarify; after
which it is poured into a kettle,
where it is evaporated till a pellicle
appear on the surface : when cool,
the vessel is furnished with small
sticks, on which the crystals gra-
dually settle.
Verdigrease is chiefly consumed
for striking a black colour, when
combined with a decoction of log-
wood ; but, as it is apt to corrode
the texture of the cloth, the So-
ciety for the Encouragement of
Arts, he. in 1782, conferred their
silver medal and ten guineas on
Mr. Clegg, for his discovery of a
substitute for verdigrease, in dyeing
black. He directs equal parts, by
weight, of vitriol of copper and of
pot-ash, or other strong alkaline
salt, to be separately dissolved :
the solutions are then to be gradu-
ally mixed ; and, if the vitriol be
saturated, the water on the surface
will become transparent, on adding
a few drops of the alkaline solu-
tion ; in the contrary case, a blue
colour will be produced ; so that
more ashes should be added, till a
complete saturation be effected....
Mr. C. observes, that these propor-
tions of vitriol and alkaline salt,
will be equivalent to a similar
quantity of verdigrease ; and, on
being combined with decoctions of
logwood, they impart a fine black
dye, which is not injurious to the
texture of cloth, hats, or any other
article that may be tinged of such
colour.
Verdigrease is,in surgical cases,
sometimes applied externally ; it
operates as a mild detergent in
cleansing foul ulcers, or other open
wounds. On account of its viru-
lent properties, however, it ought
not to be used as a medicine, with-
out professional advice ; and, in
case any portion of this poisonous
substance be accidentally swallow-
ed, we refer to the remedies al-
ready pointed out, vol. i. p. 80.
VERDITER, a preparation of
copper, which is occasionally used
by painters as a blue, but more ge-
nerally, in combination with a yel-
low pigment, or a green colour. It
is obtained in the following man-
ner : Let pure copper be dissolved
in aqua-fortis ; pulverized quick-
lime be added to the solution ; and
the whole be well stirred. When
the precipitate has subsided,it must
be repeatedly washed in pure wa-
ter ; levigated while moist; and
from 5 to 10 parts of quick-lime
be incorporated with 100 parts of
such precipitate : after vvhich it is
fit for use. See also vol. ii. p.
183.
VERJUICE,-an acid liquor pre-
pared from grapes or apples, that
are unfit to be converted into wine
or cyder. It is also made from
crabs ; which, after being laid in a
heap tocsweat, are next stamped or
ground in a mill: the pulp is put
into bags, and submitted to the ac-
tion of a press, in order to obtain
all the juice ; which is then poured
into barrels, where it undergoes a
fermentation for 10 or 12 days;
after which it is fit for the pur-
pose.
Verjuice is principally used in
sauces, ragouts, 8cc. though it
sometimes forms an ingredient in
medicinal compositions, especially
in farriery ; and is also employed
by wax-chandlers, for purify ingthat
substance. When intended for
VE S
sale, it is subject to the same du-
ties as Cyder and Perky.
Vermifuge. See Worms.
Vermillion. See vol. i.p. 133,
and vol. ii.p. 181.
Vernal-grass. See Spring-
grass.
VERVAIN, the Common, or
Simplers Joy, vervena officina-
lis, L. an indigenous plant, growing
in waste places, on stone Avails,
and the sides of roads ; floAvering
in the months of August and Sep-
tember. This plant is eaten by
sheep, and its flowers are visited by
bees. The roots impart a very
agreeable taste to pickled cucum-
bers. Among the ancients, the
Simplers Joy was dedicated to Isis,
•the goddess of birth ; and, though
at present exploded in medicine,
Hoffman asserts, that the most
inveterate and violent head-ach
may be cured, by filling a bag with
the leaves of Vervain, in a dry
state, and applying it around the
throat of the patient.
[VESSEL, signifies, 1. Any
thing in which liquids are put.
2. The containing parts of an
animal body.
3. Any vehicle in which men
or goods are carried on the water.
4. Any capacity. 5. Any thing
containing.
In this place reference is had,
only to the third explanation.
flow lo raise from the bottom of
rivere, a vessel that has sunk :
from Montucla's edition of Ozan-
am's Recreations, translated by
Dr. Hut ton.
"Thisdifficult enterprise has been
several times accomplished, by
means of a very simple hydrostati-
cal principle, viz : that if a boat
L; loaded as much as possible and
V E S 277
then unloaded, it tends to raise it-
self Avith a force equal to that of
a volume of Avater which it displac-
ed when loaded, and hence we are
furnished with the means of em-
ploying very powerful forces to
raise a vessel that has sunk.
The number of boats employed
for this purpose, must be estimated
according to the size of the vessel,
and by considering that the vessel
weighs, in water, no more than the
excess of its weight over an equal
volume of that fluid ; unless the
vessel is firmly bedded in the mud;
for then she must be accounted of
her full weight.
The boats being arranged in
two rows, one on each side of the
sunk vessel, the ends of cables,
by means of divers, must be made
fast to different parts of the vessel,
so that there shall be four on each
side for each boat. The ends of
their cables which remain above
water, are to be faftened to the
head and stern of the boat for
vvhich they are intended. Thus,
if there are four boats on each side,
there must be thirty-two cables,
being four'for each boat.
When every thing is thus ar-
ranged, the boats are to be loaded
as much as they will bear, with-
out sinking, and the cables must be
stretched as much as possible...
The boats are then to be unloaded,
two and two, and if they raise the
vessel, it is a sign that there is a
sufficient number of them ; but
in raising the vessel, the cables
affixed to the boats which remain
loaded will become slack, and for
this reason they must be again
stretched as much as possible.
The rest of the boats are then
to be unloaded, by shifting their
lading into the former. The ves-
sel will thus be raised a little more
278 V E S
VES
and the cables of the loaded boats
will become slack ; these ca-
bles being again stretched, the
lading of the latter boats must be
shifted back into the others, which
will raise the vessel still a little
higher ; and if this operation be
repeated as long as necessary, she
may be brought to the surface of
the water, and conveyed into port
or into dock.
An account of the manoeuvres
employed to raise, in this manner,
the Tojo, a Spanish ship belong-
ing to the Indian fleet, sunk in the
harbour of Vigo, during the battle
on the lOlh of October, 1702, may
be seen in the Memoirs des Acade-
miciens Estrangers, vol. 2d. But
as this vessel had remained more
than "6 years in that state, it Avas
imbedded in a bank of tenacious
clay, so that it required incredible
labour to detach it; and when
brought to the surface of the Ava-
ter, it contained none of the valua-
ble articles expected. It had been
one of those unloaded by the Spa-
niards themselves,beforethey were
sunk, to prevent them from failing
into the hands of the English.
Additions by Dr. HuffON.
On the same principle is con-
structed the camel, a machine em-
ployed by the Dutch, for carrying
vessels heavily laden over the sand
banks in the Zuydcr Zee. In that
sea opposite to the mouth of the
river Y, about 6 miles from the
city of Amsterdam, there are two
sand-banks, between which is a
passage called the Pampus, suffi-
ciently deep for small a essels, but
not for those which are large and
heavily laden. On this account
ships which are outward bound,
take in before the city, only a small
part of their cargo, receiving the
rest when they have got through
the Pampus. And those that are
homeward bound, must in a great
measure unload before they enter
it. For this reason the goods are
put into lighters, and in these
transported to the warehouse of the
merchant, in the city ; and the
large vessels are then made fast
to boats, by means of ropes, and
in .that manner towed through the
passage to their stations.
Though measures were adopted
so early as the middle of the 16th
century, by forbidding ballast to
be thrown into the Pampus, to
prevent the farther accumulation
of sand in this passage, that incon-
venience increased so much, from
other causes, as to occasion still
greater obstruction to trade ; and
it at length became impossible for
ships of war and others heavily
laden to get through it. About
the year 1672, no other remedy
vvas known, than that of making
fast to the bottoms of ships, large
chests filled with water, which was
afterwards pumped out, so that the
ships were buoyed up, and ren-
dered sufficiently light to pass the
shallow. By this method vvhich
vvas attended with the utmost dif-
ficulty, the Dutch carried out their
numerous fleet to sea in the above
mentioned year. This plan how-
ever, gave rise soon after to the
invention of the camel by which
the labour was rendered easier.
The camel consists of two half
ships, constructed in such manner,
that they can be applied below
water, on each side of a hull of a
large vessel; on the deck of each
part of the camel, are a great
many horizontal windlasses, from
which ropes proceed through aper-
tures in the one half, and being
carried under the keel of the ves-
sel, enter similar apertures in the
VES
VET 279
other (half) from which they are
conveyed to the windlasses on its
deck. When they are to be used,
as much water as may be neces-
sary, is suffered to run into them :
all the ropes are cast loose, the
vessel is conducted between them,
and large beams are placed hori-
zontally through the port holes of
the vessel, with their ends resting
on the camel on each side. When
the ropes are made fast, so that
the ship is secured between the
two parts of the camel, the water
is pumped from them, by which
means they rise, and raise the ship
along with them. Each half of
the camel is generally 127 feet in
length : the breadth at one end is
22, and at the other 13. The hold
is divided into several compart-
ments, that the machine may be
kept in equilibrio, while the Ava-
ter is flowing into it. An East-
India ship that draAvs 15 feet of
water, can, by the help of the ca-
mel, be made to draw only 11 ;
and the heaviest ship of Avar, of 90
or IOC guns, can be so lightened as
to pass without obstruction all the
sand-banks of the Zuyder-Zee.
Leupold, in his Theatrum Ma-
chinarum, says that the camel vvas
invented by Cornelius Meyer,
a Dutch engineer. But the Dutch
writers almost unanimously ascribe
this invention to a citizen of Am-
sterdam, called Mecuves Mein-
dertsoon Barker. Some make
the year of the invention to have
been in 1688, and others 1690....
However this may be, we are as-
sured on the testimony of Barker
himself, written in 1692, and still
preserved, that in the month of
June, when the water Avas at its
usual height, he conveyed in the
course of 24 hours, by the help of
the camel, a ship of war called the
Maagdvan Enkhusen, which was
156 feet*in length from Enkhuy-
sen hooft, to a place where there
was sufficient depth ; and that this
could have been done much sooner
had not a perfect calm prevailed at
the time. In the year 1693, he rais-
ed a ship called the Unie, six feet,
by the help of this machine, and
conducted her to a place of safety.
As ships built in the Newa,
cannot be conveyed into harbour,
on accountof the sand-banks form-
ed by the current of that river,
camels are employed also by the
Russians, to carry ships over these
shoals ; and they have them of
various sizes. Bernoulli saw
one, each half of which was 217
feet in length, and 36 in breadth.
Camels are used likewise at Ve-
nice*."
The chevaux de frise, which
had been sunken in the river De-
laware, below the city, to oppose
the passage of the English ships,
durirtg the American war, were
raised upcJTT the above principles,
after the peace.]
VETCH, or Tare, Vicia, L. «
genus of plants comprehending 30
species, of which 8 or 9 are indi-
genous ; and the following are the
most remarkable, namely :
I. The sylvaiica, or Wood
Vetch, grows in woods and hed-
ges, especially in mountainous si-
tuations ; Avhere it flowers in July
and August, attaining the height
of from tAvo to four feet.
II. The Cracca, or Tufted
Vetch,is frequent in shady places,
* An engraving of the camel may be
seen in, L'Avt ite batir les Vaisseaux ;
Amsterdam 1709. 4co. vol. ii. page 93....
See also the Encyclopedia, Pans edition,
vol. iii- p. '7.
280 VET
VET
meadows, and fields ; floAvers in
the months of July and August....
Both this, and the preceding spe-
cies, are said to restore Aveak or
starved cattle to their former
strength, more speedily than any
other vegetable hitherto discover-
ed.
III. The sepium......See Bush
Vetch.
IV. The sativa,Common Vetch,
Fetch, or Tare, thrives in dry
meadows, pastures, and corn-fields,
where it flowers from April to
June. This species is one of the
most valuable of the Vetch kind,
and is divided into three varieties,
namely:
1. The Summer Vetch, is raised
from seed, which is usually soAvn
toward the end of March, or early
in April, in the proportion of 8 or
10 pecks per acre, broad-cast;
though, when drilled, half that
quantity is sufficient, and the crop
will be greatly superior. This va-
riety is chiefly propagated and'used
for weaning lambs and sheep, as
well as for soiling horses and cows;
its seeds afford an excellent food
for pigeons.....Bees obtain a copi-
ous supply of honey from the
young leaves of this plant, which
are marked with black, and the
spots of which contain a delicious
saccharine juice.
2. The Winter Vetch, is sown
in the month of September, in the
same proportion as the preceding
sort ; a small quantity of beans,
or (vvhich is preferable) of black
oats, being intermixed, to support
the plants; which are generally
covered with long dung, to pre-
serve them from the frost. This
variety is subservient to the same
purposes as the Summer Vetch :
when ploughed into chalk-lands in
the month of May, it serves as an
excellent manure for wheat intend-'
ed to be sown in the succeeding
autumn. In the county of Glou-
cester, the Winter Vetch is cul-
tivated as pasturage for horses,
and is eaten off so early, as to
admit of turnips being raised in
the same year.
3. The Pebble Vetch, is sown in
the spring, but is seldom cultivat-
ed ; because it is less hardy than
either of the preceding varieties,
and does not produce an equal
quantity of fodder.
[The following paper on the be-
nefit arising from the cultivation
of vetches as a summer fallow crop,
is by Mr. R. R. Livingston.]
" The introduction of a plant
unknown to our soil and climate,
and its relative value here, and in
countries in which it has long been
naturalized, is always important to
agriculture, either as it presents
the farmer a new object worthy
his attention, or as it keeps him
from entertaining false ideas of its
value, and Avasting his time and
money upon one that will not repay
his expense.
" Having observed that vetch-
es, or as they are sometimes call-
ed, tares, were cultivated in Bri-
tain and in many other parts of
Europe, either for seed or forage,
I procured from England nine
bushels, six of which are called
spring, and three of winter vetches.
» 1st Mav, 1794. Ploughed
and cross-ploughed one acre of
rye-stubble ; the land, a light
loam, inclining to sand, upon a
sandy bottom, soil much worn out;
the preceding crop vvas summer
rye. After harrowing fine, I sowed
three bushels of spring vetches.
When they were up, spread six
bushels of gypsum. About one-
fifth part-of the field was on a de-
VET
VET 281
cUvity and very poor; here the
crop was thin, yet low and short,
the rest of the land was finely co-
vered with a thick, close crop.
The vines matted in each other,
insomuch that the plants moulded
at the bottom. When in full
blossom they were cut, about the
20th August; they yielded two
large waggon-loads of hay, vvhich
I compute at 25 cwt. The pro-
vender appeared to me remark-
ably succulent, and extremely well
calculated for coavs and sheep.
Mine was applied to the use of
the latter, but not having been at
my farm since the winter set in,
I can give no account of its appli-
cation.
Second Experiment.
" Soil, a loose, slaty gravel, mix-
ed with clay, being a dry hillock,
containing one acre exclusive of
some part in Avood. In 1793, bore
buckA\heat ; ploughed tAvice last
April, and first of May sowed
three bushels of vetches ; strewed
over them when they made their
appearance, six bushels of gyp-
sum. These Avere designed for
seed, but the summer proving Avet
they continued growing all through
the season, the seed at the bottom
moulding and dropping out, while
they blossomed at the top so that
I could not tell Avhen to cut them.
They stood till October; when
stretched out the plants were four
and five feet long, but generally
moulded beloAv ; when threshed I
only got from them three pecks of
seed of a very indifferent quality.
" Upon comparing these expe-
riments with the usual increase in
England, it appeared to me that
the quantity of forage obtained
was not inferior to Avhat a similar
soil would have produced there,
and of course that our climate is
VOL. V.
not unfavourable to the culture,
provided we can render them more
productive of seed ; which I can
hardly doubt. My error was, I
believe, in sowing them too thick,
and manuring with gypsum, which
makes every plant on which it ope-
rates, run to haulm. The wetness
of the season also contributed to
this evil, which may, I hope, be
corrected by a little more experi-
ence and care.
" Upon this head, however, Ave
are authorised to say little, but
that this experiment has failed, so
far as relates to the production
of seed ; but that the general
health and vigour of the plant
gives us reason to hope that future
experiments maybe more success-
ful. If this should be the case, and
We can with facility raise our own
seed, (its common product in Eng-
land being 25 to 30 bushels to the
acre) this plant will be extremely
useful to those farmers who Avant
a competent proportion of mea-
dow, and indeed in another point
of view to every farmer1.
" If cut for forage it comes suf-
ficiently early to plough and sow
wheat, for which I should think it
the best of all preparations. The
ground is so well covered that eve-
ry weed is stifled : the air at the
roots is stagnant, and the plant be-
ing of that succulent kind vvhich
feeds much upon the atmosphere,
I think it cannot fail to add to the
fertility of the soil. Mine appear-
ed so mellow and free from weeds
when the vetches came off, that I
was tempted to sow the piece with
lucerne, which looked Aery fine
and promising as hen the winter
set in.
" Our Indian corn comes off
too late for wheat, it is therefore
usual with us to fallow it with a
Oo
282 VET
VET
summer crop of oats and a small
proportion of flax ; this I believe
to be bad husbandry, as the corn
is an exhausting crop, so is oats,
and in this way the ground is al-
ways growing worse, and as it is
seldom rich enough to bear wheat
after oats, we generally summer
fallow for wheat, which is render-
ed by that means a very expen-
sive crop. On the contrary, if we
followed our corn with vetches, we
should be able to put wheat in the
same ground ; and if clover is sown
over the wheat in the spring, and
permitted to continue only two
years, and then followed by com,
the labour of farming will be di-
minished, and the fertility of the
land increased by the double ope-
ration of these leguminous crops
on tile air, and in the quantity of
manure that will be furnished by
the additional stock they enable the
farmer to keep. As this subject,
so v ;i understood in Europe, has
hard!- been attended to here, I will
endeavour to state the profit and
loss of two farmers, each cultivat-
ing (besides their meadows) one
hundred acres of. arable land, one
in the usual mode of this country,
and the other by the intervention
of vetches and clover.
Common agriculture 100 acres.
Profit per acre.
20 acres of Indian corn, 35
bushels at 4.v. 7 0 0
20 — Oats on corn ground
of the preceding year,
20 bushels at 2s. 2 0 0
20 — Summer fallow, 0 0 0
20 — Wheat 10bush.at8s.4 0 0
20 — Wheat stubble in pas-
ture, 0 2 0
100 —Five years, yield
per acre, L. 13 2 0
Expenses per acre for five years.
Indiancorn,ploughing,8cc. 2 0 0
Oats, twice ploughed, 1 0 0
Harrowing, and seed, and
sowing, and harvesting, 0 14 0
Summer fallow, 1 10 0
Wheat-seed and harvest-
ing, I 0 0
Rent on five acres at 4s.
a year, 1 0 0
L.7 4 0
Balance of profit on one
acre in five years, or on
five acres in one year, 5 18 0
L. 13 2 0
Profit on farming by intervention of
Fallow Crops instead of Fallow.
20 acres Indian corn, 7 0 0
do. Vetches 25 cwt.
at 2s. 6rf. 3 2 6
do. Wheat 12 bushels, 4 16 0
do. Clover 25 cwt. at
2s. 6d. 3 2 6
do. Clover the same, 3 2 6
Five year's produce of
one acre or one year's of
five, -------
L.21 3 6
Expenses.
Indian corn, 2 0 0
Ploughing corn-ground for
vetches, 0 10 0
Seed three bushels, and
sowing, &c. 0 12 0
Cutting and making hay, 0 8 0
Vetch stubble ploughed
once for wheat, seed,
and harvesting, 1 10 0
12 lb. clover-seed and sow-
ing, 0 15 0
Mowing clover paid by
the second crop, 0 0 0
Rent 20s. or 4s. a year, 1 0 0
L.6 15 0
VET
VET 283
Brought forward, L. 6 15 0
To balance of profit per
acre in five years or on
five acres in one, 14 8 6
L. 21 3 6
" Thus while one farmer makes
I/. 3s. 5d. a year per acre, upon his
hundred acres, clear of expense,
the other makes '21. \7s. 5d.; the
one gets little better than one hun-
dred, while the other gets nearly
300 a year. In the above state-
ment I have given one farmer cre-
dit for two bushels of wheat more
than the other, since I am per-
suaded that the vetch crop will
improve the ground more than the
difference; as the dung given to
the corn will not be exhausted by
the intervention of an oat crop be-
fore the wheat is sown. To this
profit should also be added the
continued advance in the improve-
ment of the crop by the one mode
of husbandry, and the continued
decrease by the exhausting the
land in the other.
" The fallow farmer has no fod-
der which the rotation crop firm-
er does not possess, except the
straw of his oats, which we will
value at half a ton of hay per
acre ; he then has from his oats on
20 acres,
Tons 10 0 0
The fallow crop farmer
from 20 acres vetches, 25 0 0
From 40 acres clover, 50 0 0
Deduct oat straw,
75 0 0
10 0 0
Superiority to fallow crop
farmer, Tons 65 0 0
" He can thus vv inter at one ton
a head, 65 head of cattle more
than the fallowing farmer, and as
each of these will afford at least
six loads of dung, he will be able to
carry out yearly 390 loads of dung
more than the fallowing fanner ;
besides that he has one exhausting
crop less. It will be. easy to see
what difference this must make
in a few years in the produce of a
farm, and how much more it would
be than I have rated it at. We
often ask with astonishment, how
the British fanner can afford to
pay a guinea an acre rent ? The
difficulty is solved if we examine
the above statement; since the
difference between fallowing and
establishing a rotation of crops
amounts to more than the differ-
ence of our rents and theirs ; be-
sides that, their produce must be
reckoned at a higher price. I
know there are some stiif soils on
which it would be difficult to es-
tablish the rotation I mention; but
this should be no argument against
it where the soil will admit of it,
particularly as clover and vetches
may be introduced with a certain-
ty of success, even if the ground
should be naturally poor, by the
addition of only four bushels of
gypsum to the acre, vvhich will in-
deed add 161. a year to the accrue-
able expense ; but it will at tb.e
same time, in all probability, add
near a ton to the produce. I have
gone into this digression for the
benefit of farmers into whose
hands our publications may fall,
and who have not had an oppor-
tunity of examining the great im-
provements that have of late years
been made in Britain, by the in-
troduction of ciover and fallow
crops instead of fallow. I would
not be understood to confine my
observations to vetches, which
have not yet been sufiiriently tried
in this country ; potatoes, carrots,
284 V E T
or peas, sown thin, and cut green
for provender, may all answer the
purpose, but above all, clover. If
this last is the only crop to be
brought into the rotation, the sys-
tem must be changed to the fol-
lowing course: 1st, Corn; 2d,
Barley and Clover ; 3d, Clover ;
4th, Clover ; 5th, Wheat on one
ploughing ; by this means a crop
of clover will be substituted to a
fallow. The wheat on a clover lay
will require but one ploughing, and
Avill follow two improving crops.
The dung which will be applied
to the corn, will serve to bring
forward the crop of barley, or oats,
if that should be preferred to bar-
ley ; clover will do well with either.
" I have now.in the ground one
acre of winter vetches ; this look-
ed extremely well last December,
but as I have not seen them since,
I know not Avhether they will
stand our Avinters; the result there-
fore of this experiment must make
the subject of a future communi-
cation.".... Trans. New York Agri-
cultural Society.']
V. The lathyroides: Strangle
Vetch, or Tare, abounds in dry
pastn res,gravel-pits and corn-fields,
in chalky and sandy soils; Avhere
its small blueish-purple flowers ap-
pear in the month of May. Its
culture should be encouraged in
sloping grounds, and sandy hills
exposed to the sun ; as it affords
the most tender and agreeable food
to sheep.
Beside the different kinds above
enumerated, there is another, call-
ed the Chinese Vetch, which was a
few years since introduced into
England : its culture is at present
confined chiefly to the county of
Glamorgan, where it grows in
tufts, from 18 to 24 inches in
height. This species promises to
VET
•
be very profitable to agriculturists;
as it is said to yield four crops in
the year, and to afford food excel-
lent for cattle, both in a fresh state,
and when made into hay.
VETCH, the Bitter, or Wood
Peasling, Orobus sylvaticus, L.
an indigenous perennial, growing
in woods, hedges, and pastures,
especially in mountainous situa-
tions ; where it flowers from May
to July. This hardy plant is chief-
ly cultivated in gardens, for the
beauty of its numerous blossoms ;
either by sowing it in autumn, or
by dividing the roots: the latter
being very nutritious, are in Scot-
land applied to the same uses as
those of the Heath Pea.....The
leaves of the Bitter Vetch are
much more relished by cattle, and
especially by game.
VETCH, the Chickling, or
Vetch ling, Lathyrus, L. a genus
of plants consisting of 13 species,
7 being indigenous ; and the prin-
cipal of these are :
1. The ApJiaca, or Yellow
Vetchling, grows in sandy corn-
fields, and meadows, where its
greenish-yellow -flowers appear
from June to August. Dr. Wi-
thering remarks, that the legu-
minous fruit of this, as well as the
other species of Vetchling,are very
nutritious, and may be eaten either
in broth, or be converted into
bread ; though a larger proportion
of wheaten or rye-flower be re-
quired for such purpose.
2. The sylvestri-. See Pea, the
Narrow-leaved Everlasting.
3. The pratensis, Everlast-
ing Tare, Common Yellow,
or Meadoav Vetchling, which
abounds in pasture-lands, in woods,
thickets, and hedges : it grows to
the height of six feet; flowers in
July and August. This species
VET
V I N 285
is reputed to be an useful vegeta-
ble in the feeding of cattle ; though
Mr. Swayne remarks, that they
seldom eat it, if there be a varie-
ty of other grasses in the same
field; and, as it produces few seeds,
which are mostly devoured by in-
sects, it does not appear to merit
attention. Nevertheless, Bech-
stein observes, that the Yellow
Vetchling, both in afresh and dry
state, affords excellent food for
cattle in general, and therefore
deserves to be cultivated in mea-
dows.
4. The latifolius, Broad-leaved
Vetchling, or Everlasting
Pea, is frequent in woods and
hedges; flowering in the months of
July and August. It is often raised
in gardens chiefly for the beauty
of its variegated flowers ; but Dr.
Anderson believes it may be use-
ful to the farmer ; and, as it at-
tains the height of 10 or 12 feet,
having very strong stalks, he sup-
poses that it would afford a large
crop of hay.
There is an exotic species of the
Chickling, namely, the tubcrosus,
which the Germans term Earth-
nut, or Sow-bread; growing in
stony and mountainous fields :....
this plant is a valuable addition
to meadows ; not only on account
of its odoriferous flowers, which
blow from May to July, and arc
eagerly frequented by bees ; but
also for its black tuberous roots,
vvhich are in Holland eaten as fruit,
and boiled for culinary use ; hav-
ing the sweet and agreeable taste
of nuts. These roots contain a
larger proportion of mealy parti-
cles than potatoes : and Bergius
extracted from one pound of Earth-
nuts, three ounces of a beautiful
starch : whereas the same quanti-
ty of Ihe foi mcr yielded only one
ounce. Why, therefore, should
it not be used for bread ?
VETCH, the Corn, Wild, or
Hairy Tare, Tine-tare, or
Rough-podded Tare, Ervumhir-
sulum, L. an indigenous plant,
growing in sandy corn-fields, hed-
ges, and meadows, where it flow-
ers in the month of June. This
vegetable is eaten by horses, cows,
goats, and sheep ; but it ought to
be carefully eradicated ; as, during
wet seasons, whole crops of corn
have been overpowered, and their
growth completely stiffed by this
pernicious weed.
VINE, the Common, or Vitis
vinifera, L. a native of Japan, and
the warmer regions of Asia: it
has forceuturies been raised inRri-
tain ; though its culture is most
successful in the temperate cli-
mates, or between the 30th and
50th degree of northern lati-
tude.
There are numerous varieties
of this valuable shrub, which are
cultivated for the delicious grapes
they afford. Without entering in-
to an account of their respective
periods of maturation, Ave shall
simply state the names of the most
remarkable sorts : point out such
as are peculiarly serviceable; and
conclude with an account of their
culture.
1. The July grape, or Morillon
Noir Hatif....2. The Royal Musca-
dine....3. The Malmsey Musca-
dine....!. The Black Muscadine....
5. The While Muscat of Alexan-
dria....6. The Red Muscat of Alex-
andria...^. The White Muscat of
Lunel....8.The Black Muscadel....
9. The Red Muscadel.....10. The
Black Damascus....11. The Black
Tripoli... 12. The BlackSpanish,or
Alicant.... 1 3. The Black Lisbon....
14. The Black Frontiniac, or Mus-
•
286 V I N
VIN
cat Nuir...\5. The Red Frontiniac,
or Muscat Rcuge....\6. The White
Frontiniac, or Muscat Blanc...
17. The Grizzly Frontiniac.... 18.
The Red Hamburgh.....19. The
White Hamburgh...20. The White
Morillon....2i.*The Early White
Grape or Teneriffe....22. The Cio-
tat, or White Parsley-leaved Grape
.....23. The White Corinth.....24.
The Aleppo Grape....25. TheRed
Grape of Syracuse...26. The Caur,
or MoroccoGrape...27. The Black
Raisin....28. The White Raisin....
29. The Malvoise, or Blue To-
kay....30. The Genuine, or White
Tokay.....31. The Lombardy.....
32. The Smyrna...33. The Brick...
34. The Claret....35. The Syrian
Grape....36. The Auverna, or Ge-
nuine Burgundy....37. The Cat's
Grape....38. The Greek Grape....
39. The Black Corinth....40. The
Cornichon...4\. TheRed Chaselas.
...42. The Black Prince...43. The
Black Burgundy....And, 44. The
Wrhite Early Leipzig.....See also
vol. iv. p. 194.
To these may be added, the
White, or Common Muscadine,
having fine, round amber-coloured
berries, and a rich vinous flavour.
The White Sweet-water, vvhich
bearslarge white fruit, and abounds
with an agreeable juice......The
Small Black Cluster,produccs ova!
berries, which have a pleasant sac-
charine taste.....The Large Black
Clusterpresents more bulky grapes
than the preceding variety ; but
vvhich, on account of their rough,
harsh taste, are not edible in afresh
state, and therefore chiefly con-
verted into Port-wine...The Miller
Grape, or New Muscat of Jerusa-
lem, yields large round, red fruit;
which, in prosperous seasons, at-
tains nearly the size of goose-ber-
ries....The Black Hamburgh pro-
duces fine clusters of oval, black
berries, that possess a sweet, vi-
nous flavour....All these varieties
are recommended by horticultu-
rists, as being eminently adapted
to small gardens....It is a remark-
able historical fact, that, a few cen-
turies since, the extensive Vale of
Gloucester vvas industriously plant-
ed with this delightful shrub; from
the grapes of which, England was
then chiefly supplied with excel-
lent native wines.
The vine is generally propagat-
ed from seed, cuttings, or layers;
though it is sometimes raised by
engrafting, or inoculation..,,
In the first case, the seed should
be set toward the end of Februa-
ry, or early in March, in pots con-
taining light rich mould ; and be
plunged in hot-beds of a moderate
beat. During warm Aveather, they
ought to be gently watered in the
afternoon, Avhen the frames should
be carefully closed. About the
end of August, the young plants
are to be gradually exposed to the
air, so that they may become hard-
ened before the approach of win-
ter ; but in the latter season, they
must be sheltered by frames, co-
vered with mats. After having
attained the height of about six
inches, it will be proper to remove
them into larger pots, filled with
similar soil; to immerse them a-
gain in the hot-bed ; and to tie
them to slender sticks, or rods, in
order to prevent them from trail-
ing. Towards the end of the suc-
ceeding March, or in the begin-
ning of April, they may be plant-
ed against the wall, at vvhich they
are intended to remain. In this si-
tuation, Mr.Forsyth directs them
to be cut at the third eye, if they
be vigorous ; but, in the contrary
case, at the second: the lower bud,
•
VIN
VIN 287
however, must be rubbed off, as
soon as it appears.
If vines are designed to be rais-
ed from cuttings, these ought to
be selected from strong and full
grown shoots, which should be cut
perfectly smooth, immediately be-
neath the part where they were
produced, and have one or two
joints of the last year's wood. The
cuttings must be planted against
walls, at the distance of one foot
from each other, and at such depth,
that the second eye may be level
with the ground; but the knver
eye ought to be rubbed off, on its
first appearance ; because, if that
operation be delayed, the upper
eye will be injured in removing
the former. Runners and lateral
shoots should likewise be cut off,
excepting two which are to be
trained against the wall.
Vines may also be propagated
by layers. For this purpose, let the
most vigorous shoots be laid in
pots filled with fresh mould, and
placed about tAvo inches beneath
the surface of the ground ; the in-
cision being made in the old wood
beloAv a joint, so as to leave one or
two eyes on each. When the
shoots or layers have taken root,
they must be separated from the
parent stock; manured with rot-
ten dung or leaves ; and watered
twice a week during dry summers:
all lateral excrescences should also
be picked off, and the layers treat-
ed in the same manner as the cut-
tings. During the first year, vines
will not advance rapidly ; but, in
the second, the strongest may be
easily distinguished, and these may
be suffered to stand, while the
weaker ones must be transplanted
to other situations.
The quality and size of grapes
depend greatly on the strength of
the plant on which they grow.....
Mr. Forsyth, therefore, recom-
mends the vines to be cut down
to two or three eyes, in the first
year, if there be a superfiuity of
naked wood. In the following
year, a considerable increase of
fine wood will be obtained, when
all runners, &c. must be picked off;
and the main shoots be nailed to
the wall, progressively as they in-
crease in length. During fine
weather, it will be advisable to ex-
amine them every second or third
week, and speedily to remove eve-
ry lateral shoot. No farther at-
tention will be required, excepting
that all weeds must be careful-
ly eradicated ; for otherwise the
growth of the vines would be im-
peded. In the month of Februa-
ry, in the second year, the prun-
ing should be repeated ; and three
buds be left to each of the strong-
est main shoots ; but in those of a
weaker growth, two eyes only
must be permitted to remain. Mr.
F. observes, that his composition
ought to be applied as early as
possible, after each pruning; for
the -vine, being very porous, spee-
dily imbibes moisture, and thus
quickly decays : should it acciden-
tally have been cut at a late sea-
son; it will be necessary to sprinkle
the powder of the preparation be-
fore quoted over the Avound, till
the bleeding or flow of the sap be
completely checked.
Numerous insects prey upon the
vine; vvhich, unless timely de-
stroyed, will totally kill the plant:
as we have already stated the best
methods of exterminating them,
in the articles Hot-house, In-
sects, Red Spider, Pine Ap-
ple, he. we shall here only re-
mark, th?t their depredations may,
in a great measure, be prevented
288 VIN
VIN
by watering the vines, three times
in the w eek ; a simple expedient
by which the luxuriance of this
shrub, as well as tb.e swelling of
its fruit, Avill be greatly promoted.
When the clusters are very large,
and the grapes begin to ripen, it
will be useful to cover them with
nets ; or Avith buntine, a stuff that
serves for the flags of ships ; and
vvhich will not exclude the sun
and air from the fruit, while the lat-
ter is protected from the ravages of
birds. The leaves, however,should
only be plucked off in small por-
tions, as often as the grapes are ga-
thered ; by which method these
will continue in succession for a
much longer period than could be
effected, by hastily removing all the
foliage from their branches. Those
readers, who are desirous to obtain
farther information, relative to the
raising of grapes, will consult Mr.
Speechley's " Treatise on the Cul-
ture of the Vine," 4to.; and Mr.
Forsyth's Treatise on the Culture
and Management of Fruit-trees,"
he. in which the subject is amply
discbssed.
Vines are chiefly valued on ac-
count of their delicious Grapes ;
but they may be made subservient
to many other useful purposes:
thus, the young twigs, Avhen dried.
cut into small pieces, and moisten-
ed Avith Avater, aiford a wholesome
food for cattle, and particularly for
horses. Dr. Darwin conjectures,
that the leaves of thevariety, which
produces purple grapes, would im-
part a colour, and astringency of
taste, to British wines, similar to
those derived from the skin of the
same grape, in foreign vinous li-
quors...The wood of vines reduced
to charcoal, affords (according to
Jacobi, a reputable German wri-
ter) an excellent blue colour for
painting and drawing. He em*
ployed equal quantities of fixed
vegetable alkali, and vine-coal: af-
ter melting the former in a cruci-
ble, he gradually introduced the
latter; both were allowed to act on
each other, till the ebulition ceased;
when the compound' was poured
out, dissolved in rain-water, and
precipitated Avith spirit of vitriol:
in consequence of vvhich the ley,
and especially the sediment assum-
ed a deep blue cast. After edulco-
rating this powder, by repeated
washings in fresh water, and then
calcining it, he obtained a very
bright and pleasing blue pigment,
which acquired a dark blackish
hue, on dissolving it in oil of vi-
triol ; though its lustre and shade,
were instantly re-produced, on di-
luting the solution with pure wa-
ter....Lastly, we learn from Bin-
der, another German author, that
the purified stones or seeds of
grapes, when moderately roasted,
andgroundinacoffee-mill,serveasa
good substitute for chocolate; which,
on the proper addition of sugar,
cinnamon, and a little Vanilla,
is very grateful to the palate, and
cannot be readily distinguished
from the genuine sort prepared
of cacao.
[The article Vine is preserved
entire; as some useful hints may
be derived from it, though the
directions refer chiefly to the cul-
tivation of the vines in a hot-
house.....We shall now describe,
1. The species and varieties of
North America.
2. The most approved culture
of vines in the United States.
3. The art of making Avine.
Description of the species and varie-
ties of Vines in North America.
The following very interesting
VIN
VIN 289
paper on the vines of the United
States, Avas drawn up last spring,
by Mr. Wm. Bar tram, at the re-
quest of the Editor. The inser-
tion of it in the present Avork, is ne-
cessary to enable the reader to
speak with certainty as to the spe-
cies which may be cultivated, or
met with, and thus prevent that
confusion which the want of a true
classification of our vines has hi-
therto produced.
" The most obvious characters
which distinguish the grape-vines
of America from those of the old
continent, are, 1. The berries of
all the American species and vari-
eties that I have seen, approach
the figure of an oblate spheroid ;
that is, the poles are flattened,
and the transverse diameter is
longer than the polar: however, I
have observed that Alexander's
grape* and some of the bul or bul-
let grapes, approach nearer to an
oval or elipsis, Avhich is the figure
of all foreign or European grapes
that I haA'e seen; viz. a prolate
spheroid....2. Most of the Ameri-
can species and varieties have a
glaucousand yellowish pubescence
on the under surface of their leaves
....3. All that I have observed in
the northern and eastern districts
of the United States are polyga-
mous ; i. e. those vines which bear
fruit (female) have hermaphrodite
flowers (pentandria monogynia);
but the males have only five sta-
mina, without any female organ,
and are always barren. One should
suppose, from Walter so strong-
ly marking this character as to in-
duce him to place Vitis in the
class Dioecia, when Linnjbus and
the other European botanists had
placed it in Pentandria (he him-
self being an European), that all
the grape-vines of the old conti-
vot.. v.
nent are hermaphroditousandPen-
tandrian. I know not, from my
own observation, whether the bull-
grape of Carolina is hermaphrodi-
tous or dioecious, and therefore
rest satisfied with Walter's as-
sertion.
" With regard to the vine of A-
merica, I find a great difficulty in
discriminating the species from va-
rieties or hybrids, vvhich, per-
haps, may be partly accounted for
from some of our vines being dioe-
cious, and there being a much
greater number of male vines than
of fruit-bearing ones, whose farina
fecundans, mixing with the air. and
winds, is carried to a great dis-
tance to the female organs of her-
maphrodite flowers. I shall now
give my opinion of the distinct
species or established races from
which all the varieties or mules
have originated.
" 1st. The Common BliJe
Grape, or Bunch Grape, Vitis
sylvestris, or V. occidentals. This
is the most common grape. The
acini or berries are of the oblate
figure, of various sizes on differ-
ent plants, and of as various tastes.
....Some are sweet and pleasant
enough, having a musky flavour.
They are nearly as large as the
Burgundy grape ; are black Avhen
ripe, having a glaucous bloom,
like the damascene plum. The
leaves of this species are large;
their under surfaces covered with a
clay-coloured down or pubescence.
They are tri-lobed, each lobe sub-
divided ordentated. Some varie-
ties have very deep sinuosities, al-
most touching the mid-rib.
" 2d. Fox-grape, Vitis vulpina
of Bartram, V.foliis eordatis sub-
trilobis, dentatis ; subtus tomenlosis,
Linn.. Spec, plait. V. vulpina dicta
Virginiana alba ; Pluckn. aim. 3?'i..
P p
290 VIN
VIN
Vitis vulpina dicta acinis peramplis
fiur/iureis in racemo fiaucis, sapore
ftctido et ingrato fir&ditis, cute eras-
sa curnosa Clayt. n. 696. The last
part of the description is decisive;
every word true when applied to
our fox-grape of Pennsvlvania;
andDr.CLAYTON'sauthority should
be relied on, as he was a native of
Virginia, spent his life there, and
was an excellent botanist. The
leaves of the fox-grape are large
and lobated, not much dnlike those
of the common bunch grape, but
not so deeply sinuated and tooth-
ed ; their under surface thickly co-
vered with a yellow pubescence or
down ; the fruit bunches short,
having few acini or berries on
them, but these few are large, and
of an oblate figure. Some are
as large as a musket-ball, and are
of different sizes and colours ;
black, red, purple, green and white,
when ripe. All possess a strong
rancid smell and taste, have a thick
coriacious skin, and a tough jelly-
like pulp or tegument which en-
closes the seeds. Between this
nucleus and the skin is a svvret
lively juice, but a little acerb or
stinging to the mouth if pressed
hard in eating them. There is
another property of this ' grape
which alone is sufficient to prove
it to be the Vit. vulpina, that is,
the strong rancid smell of its ripe
fruit, very like the effluvia arising
from the body of the fox, which
gave rise to the specific name of
this vine, and not, as many have
imagined, from its being the fa-
vourite food of the animal; for the
fox (at least the American species)
seldom eats grapes or other fruit
if he can get animal food.
" The vines, though they make
vigorous and extensive shoots,
never mount high, but ramble over
shrubs and low trees to a great
distance from the original root.
This appears to be the V. tauri.
na of Walter, and the labrusca
of LlNNJEUS.
" 3d. Bull-grape, Vitis tauri-
na of Bartram, Vit. vulpina of
Linnjeus and Walter. This
excellent grape is called by the
inhabitants of Georgia, Carolina
and Florida, Bull-grape.* The
preceding species is called fox-
grape from Pennsylvania to Flori-
da. The bull-grape has a stiff, lig-
neous, smooth stem, of pale ash-
colour, and mounts to a great
height by climbing up trees. The
leaves are cordated and serrated,
thin, and both surfaces naked or
smooth. The racimes or fmit
bunches short, containing 15 or
20 grapes at a medium. The
berries or acini are large, near the
size of a rifle-ball; of a black co-
lour when ripe ; having a blueish
nebule over them, which being
rubbed off, they appear of a deep
blood-colour. In figure they ap-
proach to an ellipsis or prolate
spheroid : however, at a little dis-
tance they appear black and round.
This species is deservedly esteem-
ed the best native grape in Ame-
rica, and would make a rich and
delicious wine. The juice is sweet,
rich, and lively, and there is but
little of the tough jelly-like sub-
stance enclosing the seed. The
skin of the grape is rather thick,
yet there is a- sweet melting
pulp within, which mixes with
the saccharine juice when eaten.
* Mr. Bartram lately informed me,
that the word bull is an abbreviation of
bullet; tbe grapes being so called from
their approaching the size of a bullet.
The name " taurina" is, therefore, not
the most proper.
VIN
This undoubtedly is the first Ame-
rican grape which merits attention
and cultivation for wine. Itthrives
in every soil and situation from the
sea-coast to the mountains; it even
thrives and is fruitful when grow-
ing in the barren sandhills of Ca-
rolina and Florida.
" 4th. Winter-grape, Vitis se-
rotina. Cotyledon palmated. This
is a vine remarkable for its sweet
flowers. It mounts to the top of
high trees; the stems and twigs
more hard and ligneous than the
bunch grape, to which I think
it approaches the nearest. The
leaves are small, cordated, smooth,
thin and serrated. The fruit
bunches branched, but the berries
small and black, not so large as
currents: the fruit not ripe till
late in the autumn, and the juice
extremely sour and ill-tasted, so
that even birds will not eat them
till winter frosts have meliorated
them.
" I shall now mention the varie-
ties that appear to me to have
arisen from a commixture of the
several species or races.
" Alexander's or Tasker's grape
is a large grape, black or blue,
the size of the fruit of the Vit.
vinifera of the old continent. The
grapes approach to the elliptical
figure. They are, when fully ripe,
perfectly black, and as sweet as
any grape. Many persons think
them too luscious. Before they are
quite ripe, some think they possess
a little of the stingy taste of the
fox-grape, but my taste never
could discover it. It has been
supposed to be a hybrid between
Vit. sylvestris (common bunch
grape) and Vit. vinifera, because
it was found on the rocky hills
near the river Schuylkill, above
the upper ferry, in the neighbour-
V I N 294
hood of an old vineyard of Euro-
pean grapes ; but I believe it to be
an American.
" Bland's grape. This is an ex-
cellent grape. The bunches large,
branched, and well shaped, six or
eight inches in length. The ber-
ries large, about the size of the
common white grape of Europe,
and round or oblate ; when per-
fectly ripe, of a dark purple or
red wine colour; the juice sweet
and lively, having a little musky
flavour, with a small portion of an
agreeable astringency, somewhat
like our best bunch or wild grapes,
though much sweeter than any of
'them. If this grape is what I ti>ke
it to be, a genuine American, it is
a hybrid or variety. It was found
in Virginia, where it is called the
Virginia muskadell, and sent to
me by the late Col. Bland. This
excellent grape bids fairest, next
to the bull-grape, to afford a good
wine.
" There seems to be no end to the
varieties of Vit. sylvistris, or bunch
grape, in size and taste of the fruit,
as also in the leaves. There is a
middle-sized round grape, called
Raccoon-grape, which appears to
be much of the nature of the fox-
grape : they are black when ripe ;
have much of the sting} taste and
rancid smell of the fox-grape, and
the tough jelly pulp that envelopes
the seed ; the skin thick ; but they
are not more than half the size of
the fox-grape,
" Thus it appears to me that we
have in the United States, four
species of Vitis or grape vines, viz.
1. Vitis sylvestris, or Vit. Ame-
ricana, or occidentalis, common
bunch grape.
2. V. vulpina, fox-grape.
:,. V. taurina, bullet-grape.
4. V. serotina, winter-grape, by
292 VIN
VIN
some called Bermudian grape,
and innumerable varieties and hy-
brids.
By varieties I mean different
sorts of an individual species, and
by hybrids, spurious offspring by
intermixture of species. Of the
latter sort arc,
I. Alexander's, or Tasker's
grape.
2. Bland's grape.
3. Raccoon-grape."
The variety of vines which
cover every part of the American
continent, and the success which
has attended the attempts to cul-
tivate foreign and native grapes
upon the large scale, by Colonel
TASKERin Maryland ; by the Hon.
Mr. An til in Monmouth county,
New Jersey; by Dr. Howard,
near New Brunswick; and by
Mr. Alexander on the Schuyl-
kill, long before the American
revolution, is sufficient to prove
that our climate is perfectly con-
genial to the cultivation of the
vine. But the recent experiments
of Mr. Legaux at Springmill,
though made, according to his
own i ccount, in a situation, and
under circumstances not the most
favourable for success, leave no
room to doubt, that there is as
much chance of good crops of
grapes, as of any other fruit culti-
vated among us, and that even the
number of bad years in the United
States, are fewc* than in those
parts of the continent of Europe,
where the vine is accounted a
staple ; that violent rains, exces-
sively high winds, and hail storms,
which so often blast the grapes of
the European vigneron, rarely oc-
curs here, and finally that those
still more destructive insects,
(riibouri and F'eche, are unknown
in the United States. With a
knowledge of these advantages
why should we any longer import
grapes from Portugal or Spai^, or
wine from any country ? The
luxurious inhabitants of our sea-
ports, will probably long be averse
from encouraging the cultivation
of vines; but the inhabitants beyond
our mountains, are guilty of un-
pardonable extravagance, in pay-
ing 15*. for a quart of wretched
Sherry, Lisbon, or Teneriffe wine,
Avhen they might drink their own
wine at one-fourth the expence,
and this too, Avithout the loss of
a moment's attention to their/?roz«/
articles, wheat and mayz. For
their benefit principally, the Edi-
tor has taken much pains to con-
dense the most valuable informa-
tion within his power, on the sub-
ject of cultivating the vine, and
the making of wine ; and will
be happy in hearing the result
of any experiments which his rea-
ders may make, tending to ren-
der the processes more easy or
certain.
1. On the vine considered in re-
gard to climate, soil, exposure, sea-
sons, culture, he. Cours D'Agric.
torn. x.
" Soil, climate, exposure, culti-
vation, ought to be appropriated to
the inflexible nature of vines; and
the least violation of this natural
character, essentially alters the
product. The plants of Burgundy
transported to the south, no longer
produce Avines so agreeable and
delicate.
2. Soil.....If avc could judge of
the quality of the vine by the vi-
gour of its vegetation, it is in fat,
moist soil, well duhged, that it
ought to be cultivated. But wc
are taught by experience that the
goodness of wine is never propor-
tioned to the force of the vine.....
VIN
VIN 293
Clayey (or argillaceous) soils are
improper for vines ; but a calca-
reous soil (chalky, limestone) is in
general proper, being dry and
light, affords a proper support to
the plant; the water with which
it becomes impregnated, circulates
and freely penetrates through the
whole stratum; the numerous
ramifications of the roots imbibe
it at every pore, and the wines
produced are spirituous. Soils
light and pebbly are also favour-
able.
Volcanic earth, also produces
delicious wines. The best wines
are produced among the remains
of volcanoes. The wines of Tokay
and the best wines of Italy are the
productions of volcanic soil."
An anonymous writer in the
33d vol. of Young's Annals of
Agriculture, who appears to be
well instructed on the subject,
says,
" The lands best suited to the
cultivation of vines in America,
are situated in a latitude somewhat
lower than in Europe. There
is strong reason to believe that
wines similar to those made in the
neighbourhood of Bourdeaux, call-
ed Vin de Medoe, Vinde, Grave, red
and white, might be produced in
Pennsylvania, Maryland, and Vir-
ginia. Some parts of Pennsylva-
nia, some lands three or four miles
from the banks of the Susque-
hanah, and of the Potowmack ;
those which lie between the Sus-
quehanah and Baltimore; those
vvhich lie on the road from Balti-
more to Alexandria, appear in
their nature, in their declivity, in
their aspect, in their degree of
elevation, and in the sorts of oaks
and plants they produce, to resem-
ble the environs of Bourdeaux.....
Those lands consist of a mixture
of sand, gravel, quartz, * in pebbles
generally white, sometimes of
various colours, about the size of
an egg, more or less, mixed with
some flinty, and some calcareous
ones, and also of a small quantity
of black vegetable earth, which is
found on the surface, and appears
formed by the dead leaves of vege-
tables. Those lands, though not
much elevated, are free from all
sediment of water, and their de-
clivity is gentle.
" The land should be at the dis-
tance of about a mile from any
woods; the greater distance, the
better the vine will succeed. In
the forests of Virginia, the author
of this treatise has eaten, in the
middle of September, between
Baltimore and Alexandria, black
grapes of small size, very sweet
and ripe, similar to those from
which the Vin de Medoc or claret
is made t« They had been ga-
thered in the middle of the woods,
and there is reason to believe, that
with proper cultivation, this species
of wild grapes might be improved
so as to make excellent wine."....
" Stiff ground, says Mr. Antii ., j
may be mended by sand, ashes,
soot, the rubbish and mortar of old
buildings, dust of coal kilns, gra-
vel, fowls' and sheep's dung, or the
old dung of neat cattle. Worn out
ground may be renewed by fresh
mould, creek mud, and deep
ploughing."
* Quartz consists of flint and clay, and
a little lime.....Edit.
f Will any of the readers of this work,
in the vicinity of the above mentioned
grapes, ascertain by means of Mr. Bar-
tram's description, the kind of grapes
alluded to, and communicate with the
Editor ?
| Trans. Amer, Phil. Soc. vol. i.
294 VIN
VIN
" 3. Exposure.....The same cli-
mate, the same cultivation, and
the same soil, often furnish wines
of very different qualities. The
summit, the middle, and the bot-
tom of a hill give productions very
different. On the top, the tempe.-
rature is variable and cold, the
grapes less abundant, and mature
Avith difficulty, and the wine aris-
ing from them, is of an inferior
quality to that furnished by the
sides of the hill. The bottom of
the hill produces vines of great
vigour, but the grapes are never
so saccharine or agreeable as those
which grow towards the middle
region."
European writers constantly re-
commend an eastern or southern
exposure for the vine. Mr. Antil
of New Jersey, also ad vises a S. and
S. I". aspect ; but Mr. LEGAtxof
Springmiil, finds an eastern ex-
posure unfavourable, and the Edi-
tor saw at Mr. Notnagel's little
vineyard, near Bristol, that more
grapes were blasted in 1802, in
the parts looking to the east, than
in any other exposure. In Penn-
sylvania, a northern exposure is
preferable, because it keeps back
vegetation in the spring, and thus
saves the vines from late frosts.
" 4. Seasons.....The vine is fond
of warmth, and the grapes never
come to perfection but in dry soil,
exposed to the rays of an ardent
sun. Rains which fall Avhen the
grapes are increasing in size, are
favourable, they assist the organi-
zation of the vegetable ; and fur-
nish it with its principal nutrition.
Winds are always prejudicial to
the vine. The farmers, therefore,
carefully avoid situations exposed
to Avind ; they prefer calm situa-
tions, well sheltered, where the
plants may be exposed only to
the benign influence of the lu-
minary towards which they are
placed.
Fogs are destructive to the blos-
soms, and do essential hurt to the
grapes.
5. Culture.....The culture of the
vine has its rules as well as its
boundaries. The soil where it
grows must be often dug up ; but
it refuses the manure necessary for
other plantations. All those causes
which powerfully concur to give
activity to the vegetation of the
vine, alter the quality of the grapes.
The culture ought to be directed in
such a manner that the plant may
receive only poor nourishment.
Dunging is forbidden at Gaillac,
for fear of lessening the reputa-
tion of the while wine."
"The first step to be taken,says
Antil, is to provide a stockofvine
cuttings, not only enough to plant
the vineyard, but a small nursery
too. If these cannot be had all at
once, begin to lay up a year or
two beforehand, and plant them in
your nursery in even rows, at four
inches distance, and the rows three
feet asunder, that they may be
ho wed and kept clean ; and scat-
ter some short straw and chaff
along between the rows to keep
the ground moist and the weeds
down. The reason of planting the
cuttings so close in the nursery is,
to prevent their shooting their
roots tco far into the ground.
which would render them very
difficult to take up without dam-
aging the root, and more tedious
to plant out.
" Do not plant various sorts of
vines in your vineyard, if you
mean to make good Avine. The
most experienced vignerons say,
that grapes of one sort make the
best wine: that if they are mix-
VIN VIN 295
ed, they hurt the wine, by keep-
ing it constantly upon the fret, by
means of their different fermenta-
tions. If my vineyard contained
one acre of ground, I should
chuse to have but two sorts of
grapes in it, if I meant to make a
profit of it by selling the wine ; if
it contained two acres, I would
have four sorts in it; and if it con-
tained three or four acres, I should
not chuse more. But if it con-
•tained six, eight or ten acres, per-
haps I might incline to have a
greater variety; but then I should
prefer those kinds that make the
best wines and such as do not
come in at the same time, from
whence I should reap many ad-
vantages.
" The next thing to be consider-
ed is the quality of the vines to be
made choice of. This must be
limited, and adapted to the cli-
mate, where the Vineyard is plant-
ed. The most hardy and the earli-
est ripe, will best suit the most
northern states, I mean those of
New-Hampshire, Boston, Rhode-
Island and Connecticut. The
vines proper for these countries
are.
1. The black Auvernat,
2. The black Orleans,
3. The blue Cluster,
4. The Miller Grape,
The black Hamburgh,
The red Hamburgh,
The white Muscadine,
The Muscadella,
The Melie Blanc,
The white Morillon,
The white Auvernat,
The grey Auvernat,
" All these are ripe
September.
" All the foregoing sorts Avill do
very well for New-York, New-
Jersey, Pensvhania, and Dela-
a* w
Cf?
curly
Ware. I mean for the clear and
open parts of these countries ; to
which may be added the following
sorts, which I recommend by
way of trial, they being more ten-
der, but ripen in September ; they
should have the warmest birth in
the vineyard.
The Chasselas Blanc, called the
Royal Muscadine,
The Malvois or Malmsey,
The grey Frontiniac,
The red Frontiniac,
The black Lisbon,
The white Lisbon,
The Chasselas Noir.
All the foregoing sorts will do
very well for the states, of Mary-
land, Virginia and North-Carolina,
to which I shall add the following
sorts, and recommend them for
trial, but then they must have a
warm place.
The white Frontiniac,
Tb.e malmsey Muscat,
The claret Grape of Bordeaux,
The white Oporto,
The black Oporto,
The black Damask,
The Chicanti of Italy, which
makes a rich wine much admired
in Italy.
All the above-mentioned sorts
will do well in South-Carolina, and
in the country still farther south.
To which I shall add the following
sorts, as being still more tender
and later ripe.
The raisin Muscat,
The Alicantand Malaga Raisin
Grape,
The red Muscat of Alexandria,
The white Muscat of Alexan-
dria,
The gros Noir of Spain,
Thj St. Peter's Grape."
The anonymous writer in the
33d volume of Arthur Young's
annals before-mentioned, recom-
296 VIN
VIN
mends " to procure cuttings of the
vine, called in Medoc carmenct, and
in Les graves de Bordeaux, petite
vigne dure ; or otherwise cuttings
of grand carmenet, carbonet, or
grande vigne dure, three different
names given to the same species,
in the vineyards of different par-
ishes in the environs of Bordeaux.
The sprouts should be three feet
long, cut in November or Decem-
ber ; and bound together in bun-
dles of one foot diameter. The ex-
tremities of these bundles must
be closed, where the branch has
been cut from the vine, with clay
three or four inches thick, and the
whole must be wrapped up care-
fully in mats or coarse cloth, and
may be packed in the hold of a
ship, and arrive in February."
From the experience, however, of
the editor and his friends who
have found much difficulty in na-
turalizing foreign vines, he recom-
mends the cultivation of the native
grapes of the United States, par-
ticularly the vitis sylvestris, or
small blue or bunch grape; Bland's,
Tasker's or Alexander's, and the
bull-grape of Carolina and Georgia.
"In many parts of Virgina, North
and South-Carolina, and in Geor-
gia, the soil is chiefly a hot dry
sand, and what strength nature af-
forded, has been exhausted by to-
bacco, Indian corn, rice, he. How-
ever these, grounds, where they lie
near to rivers and creeps, may ea-
sily be recruited ; for these rivers
abound Avith rich mud, which is
the best kind cf manure for such
lands, and it would be no great ex-
pence to procure a sufficient quan-
tity of it to cover a piece of ground
large enough for a vineyard, espe-
cially if it be consicered, what a
number of hands the gentlemen
of these countries have, who might
be employed at such times, when
other business is not very urgent:
But then this mud must lie some
time upon the ground, before it be
mixed with the soil, at least a sum-
mer and a winter ; for at first it
will bake very hard, and be verv
crude; but the winds, dews, rain's
and frosts, with the help of the
sun, will soften, mellow, and
bring it into proper temper. Theu
it must be equally spread and well
mixed with the soil. Thus may
the land be recruited, and kept in
good heart, from time to time, and
from a barren useless piece of
ground, it may become profitable
both to the owner and his country.
The nature and quality of the
vines being considered and made
choice of, the next thing to be
known is, how to make choice of
cuttings to plant. Avoid all branches
that have not borne fruit, all suck-
ers, nephews, lateral and secondary
branches, and especially the long
running barren branches.These dif-
ferent sorts seldom produce fruitful
vines. Choose the cuttings from
the teeming part of the vine, from
among those branches that were
set apart for bearing fruit; and
among these, choose such as are
short jointed, and have been most
fruitful the last summer; let them
be cut down close to the old wood.
The upper part of the same
branch is less ripe, and more loose
and spungy and more apt to fail,
and very seldom makes so firm
and lasting a vine. These branch-
es must be trimmed and cleared
from the nephews and the lateral
or secondary branches; great care
must be taken not to wound the
buds or eyes, which a careless
hand is very apt to do. If the
bud be bruised wilh the back of
the knife, so that the cotton, that
VIN
lies under the thin bark, that cov-
ers the bud, and is wisely intend-
ed to preserve it from the injuries
of the weather, be rubbed off, the
bud will perish. Therefore as the
buds lie close to these lateral
branches, and are in so much dan-
ger of being wounded, it is best
and safest to cut the branches off,
a little-above the height of the bud,
that the little stump or stub left
behind may be above the top of
the bud, so shall the eye be left se-
cure.
" These branches being thus
trimmed, remain whole and at full
length till the next April*, which
in the northern states is the best
time for planting. They should
be separated from the mother
plant, sometime in September, or
as soon as the vintage is over, that
being the best time for the trim-
ming of vines; because the wounds
which the mothers receive are
healed up, and securely closed
from the severity of the winter sea-
son. If this work be left till Fe-
bruary or March, the parent suf-
fers by her fresh wounds in long
rains, sleets and frosts that follow ;
or if the weather be favourable,
she grows faint and exhausted by
excess of bleeding, and her eyes
are drowned in her own blood.
" The best way I have found for
preserving the cuttings through
the winter, is as follows. At or
near the north-west corner of your
vineyard or garden, the fence being
good and close, let a small trench
be dug five or six inches deep and
* Mr. Legaux recommends the au-
tumn to plant vines, but many in Penn-
sylvania, who liave successfully culti-
vated them, adhere to the spring, and
plant early in March. Editor.
vol.. v.
V I N 297
wide, and so long as may contain
all your branches. In this, plant
them thick and close with the but
ends down, and fill up the trench,
as you go, with the ground, that
came out of it, and press it down
well with your hand, all about the
bottom of your branches ; let the
dirt rise two or three inches above
the surface of the ground, to pre-
vent the water from settling about
the vines, which would rot them.
Between every sort, drive down
two stakes and fix a label to one
of them, to distinguish the vines
from each other, by their proper
names. Before you plant your
A-ines in this manner, drive down
two or more crotches, according to
the quantity of vines, at about
three feet from the trench, and
parallel Avith it, upon Avhich poles
are laid, to support the upper part
of the branches about twelve or
fifteen inches from the ground....
Thus they all lie sloping without
touching the ground, which pre-
serves them from growing mouldy
and from rotting. The vines then
are to be covered with straw, laid
lengthways upon them, up and
down a little beyond the trench,
so that,the water is carried off be-
yond the foot of the vines by this
straw roof; and yet the straw must
not be laid on too thick, lea^t it
continue moist too long, and occa-
sion mouldiness. Across the top,
a pole is laid, and across the bot-
tom, and fastened down to prevent
the straw from blowing away.....
Thus they remain 'till spring.
In the beginning of April when
you are ready for planting, the
weather being moderate and calm,
the frost out of the ground, and
nature teeming with fresh vegeta-
tion, then cut your branches for
planting. If one cutting from
Q Q_
298 v i N
VIN
every branch be sufficient for your
purpose, then cut the lover part
about twelve or fourteen inches
lorr. But as it is most likely,
that you will not be so lucky, as to
have enough of these, then do
what necessity requires, and make
two or three cuttings of every
branch, not kr.s than a foot long ;
and having a trench made ready,
place them in it clor.e together, the
but or lower end down, and cover
them up Avith earth to the upper
eye, 'till you are ready to plant,
carefully placing every sort by
themselves, with a label denoting
the kind. This direction is calcu-
lated for the three [or middle bread
states]. The more northern states
will be a month later, and the more
southern states will be at least a
month, some two months earlier;
they must conduct themselves ac-
cordingly. To these last states, I
would recommend the cuttings to
be longer, that they may be plant-
ed deeper, the better to preserve the
vines from excessive heats and
droughts.
" Your ground as I said before,
being well manured and brought
into good heart if old, or being na-
turally rich if new, and having
been, at least twice, deep ploughed
and well harrowed the summer
before, in the fall of the year it
must be deep ploughed the third
time, and always across the hill or
rising ground, and let it lie rough
just as it is pbngh.-d, all winter,
which will pnvailv prevent wash-
ing, and the iYoV.s will mellow it
flknd prepare it the better for vege-
tation.
'' In the spring of the year, as
soon as the ground is dry, let it
be well harrowed bcth ways, v. ith
a sharp iron tooth barrow av.d laid
down-smooth and cren ; and take
this caution along with you, which
I now give once for all, never to
meddle vrith the ground of your vine-
yard when it is wet, or even moist
at top, nay, I would have you avoid
as much as possible, walking in it
at such a tinr*. Your own expe-
rience will soon teach you the rea- *
son of this caution. For you will
find that, the lighter and moreopen
and loose the soil of a vineyard is
kept, the more the vines will flou-
rish, and the more fruitful they will
prove.
" When your ground is in pro-
per order, provide a small stake of
four feet long for every vine; and
begin to lay out your vineyard in
the most regular manner the nature
and shape of the ground will ad-
mit of. If you mean to plough
and harrow your vineyard, with a
small single horse plough, and a
small corn harrow, you must leave
a border of 10 or 12 feet on each
side of every square, to turn your
horse upon, lest he trample upon
and destroys the outside vines....
There will be no need of such
borders along the upper or lower
side of the squares, unless you
chuse it for regularity's sake ; be-
cause your vineyard should never
be ploughed up and down hill, but
transversely, unless you mean to
have it gullied, and the rich soil
washed away by hard rains.
" The following method of lay-
ing out a vineyard, I think is as
easy, as regular and as expeditious
as any, for a long square or a four
square piece of ground. Your
squires being laid ou^, and having
concluded bow far your vines sball
stand every way from one another,
in which every man is to please
himself; st.elch a line of a proper
length, and stitch small pieces of
red, blue, green, or any other co-
VIN
VIN 299
loured cloth at such distance from
each other as you mean to plant
your vine;. I will suppose eight
feet*, because upon the most ma-
ture deliberation, I think that the
best distance for vines to stand at
in t! is country, as I shall after-
wards show more fully.
" The line being ready, stretch
it along the head or upper part of
your square, so that a rag appears
at each corner. Then drive down
a stake at every rag: This done,
move your line down to the lower
side of the square, vvhich is oppo-
site to the first, and stretch your
line along that, having a rag at
each comer, and drive down a stake
at every rag: then turn your line
the other way, up and down, and
fasten it to ihe upper, and to the
lower outside stakes, so that a rag
be at each slake, and drive down a
stake at every rag, and so go on
from stalje to slake, till the whole
be completed. If you have been
careful not to disturb or move the
line, when you drove down the
stakes, and have driven them all
on the same side of the line, your
square will be uniform, and the
stakes near the ground, vrill range
exactly every way.
" If your vineyard be large
enough to divide into four, si.-c,
eight squares, or more, according
to the different sorts of grapes you
design to have in it, and you are
not pinched for room, you will find
it very convenient on many ac-
counts to have cross walks of 12
* The anonymous author in Yov.vg's
Annuls, before r.vntion-i, rcxmmci.ds
six feet: a less distance \i. certainly im-
prope r. Editor.
feet, between the squares, notoi !y
to turn upon av ben pl< ughing, but
for carting in nn nure, vvhich will
be. a great saving el" labour, besides
bring attended with many other
a«.i'.ai:i..a.es.
" Having staked jour ground,
u Ir. n it is diy, and having aa many
vine cutt'.r.gs as you can plant in
half a cay, soaking in rich dung
water, in a pail, the but-ends be-
ing dov, n, nig holes at every stake
larger or snialkr,according to your
own judgment: for it matters not,
so they are deep enough to con-
tain the plant. But b^re I mv.st
clear up a point, which has led
many people into, mistakes, and
rendered this work more tedious,
and that is the throwing into the
holes, in which the vines are plant-
ed, rich mould mixed with old
dung, thinking that this must be a
great advantage to the v'n.c. This
is a great mistake. For as soon
as the vine shoots its roots beyond
this rich mixture, into the common
soil, vvhich is many degrees poorer
and colder, the roots, as it were,
recoil and shrink back at a cold-
ness and poverty, they had not
Lccn used to, and the vegetation
is slopped, and the plant dwindles
into poverty and barrenness; and
if you examine the plant at bottom,
you \riil find that instead of extend-
ing, its roots to their usual length,
it has shot out a great number of
small fibres like threads, which ex-
tend no farther than the geoil
mould, and these being quite in-
sufficient to answer the demands
cf nature, the plant perishes, or
remains in an inactive and barren
s'.-ilc, whereas, had the vine been
planted in the common soil at first,
it would have met with no altera-
i'rjn, no sudden change to check
300 V I N
VIN
its growth*. This shews that the
soil should be well mixed ; and
let me tell you once for all, that
the vine delights in a warm, com-
fortable, fruitful soil: but proves
unfruitful and perishes in a soil
cold and barren. Yet a soil may
be too rich, or made too rank by
dung, and this extreme is also to
be avoided. But to return to plant-
ing our vines, the holes being dug
according to your mindf, plant
your vine, setting the foot forward
from the stake, and bend it a little,
without cracking the bark, and
bring it gently up against the stake,
so that one eye only remains above
the surface of the ground. Let
not the eye touch the stake, but
look from it. Then mixing the
ground well together, throw it in,
and press it gently about the vine,
till the hole is almost full, and
throw the rest in lightly, without
pressing, so that it may rise up to
the eye of the vine, which ought
to be about two inches above the
common surface. By this means,
the vine will be preserved from
drying winds and the hot sun, till
it begins to grow. Some place
four or five paving-stones about the
foot of the vine, not so close but
that the roots may shoot out be-
tween them, and condense the air
in hot dry seasons, and nourish the
* This directicn is of great conse-
quence. The ground must be uniformly
rich ami light, for at least three fe-et be-
low the surface; ov success need not be
CApccicd. Editor.
f Mr. Montmolliv recommends to
dip the lower end of the cutting in a mix-
ture of bee's-wax and hog's-Iurd, to pre-
vent the loss of bap wnicii sometimes
lakes place. Editor.
vine with moisture, and cool and
refresh.it when parched with ex-
cessive heats. In the northern
states, the vines should be planted
on the south side of the stakes, for
the sake of the sun : In the south-
ern states, they should be planted
on the north side to avoid too
great heat. The upper eye only
shoots out branches, from vvhich
the head of the vine is formed. If
any shoots should rise from below,
which sometimes is the case, the
sooner they are removed, the better;
these are called suckers, and very
much exhaust the vine. And thus
you proceed till all be finished.
" When your vines are all plant-
ed, if you have any cuttings re-
maining, plant them in a nursery
or along the north side of your
stakes, for you will have occasion
for them, as many of your vines
will miscarry, and the sooner their
places are supplied the better. If
some of your vines do not shoot
till July, do not give them up ; they
may grow notwithstanding. I have
had many that have not shot till
August, and yet have done well.
The filling up all the vacancies,
where the vines have miscarried,
is absolutely necessary to be done
so soon as possible, either the fall
after the vines were planted, with
plants, if you have any growing in
your nursery, which are best set
out as soon as the leaf is fallen; or
the next spring, with cuttings,
which is the best season for plant-
ing them ; for the latter having no
root suffer greatly in the winter
season, and if planted in the fall,
most of them perish. Some plant
two cuttings in a hole, lest one
should miscarry. To this the chief
objection is, that hereby the regu-
larity of* your vineyard is hurt,
VIN
VIN 301
many of the vines standing out of
rank and file. For a well regu-
lated vineyard resembles a fine
regiment under proper and exact
discipline. If some of your vines
prove weak the first summer, and
do not recover slrenglh the second
summer, though manured and cul-
tivated well, root them out, for
they very seldom are worth rais-
ing ; and plant healthy vines in
their stead, out of your nursery.
" In digging up the plants from
your nursery, be careful to take
them up without wounding or
bruising the roots, and having a
pail or small tub, half full of rich
dung water, put the plants with the
roots down, into that, so shall they
be preserved from the sun and dry-
ing winds, which would soon parch
and dry up these young tender
roots and kill the vine. When you
have dug up about a dozen or
twenty plants, proceed to planting,
, in the following manner: Your
holes being dug deep, and suffici-
ently wide, for the roots to be
spread in at full length, throw
in some loose earth, and spread it
over the bottom of the hole, and
fix in your plant near the stake,
so high that the little branches rbe
an inch or two above the surface
of the ground. The roots, you
will perceive, for the most part
grow in rows, one above another.
The upper roots of all, which are
called the day roots, must be cut
away; the under roots of all must
then be spread at full length, and
covered with earth, then the next
must be served in the same man-
ner, and so on till all be regularly
extended and covered.
" Your vines being all planted
as above directed ; and the vine
cuttings, with one eve only above
ground, and that almost covered
with light earth, to preserve them
from suffering with heat and
from drying winds till they be-
gin to grow; this upper bud only
will shoot out branches, and the
lower ones will throw out roots :
And this is much better than to
have two or three buds above
ground, and branches growing
from them all, which only serve
to weaken the vine, and to hinder
the forming of a good head, which
is the first and chief point to be
gained and well secured.'
"We now proceed to the manage-
ment of the vine in its infant state,
upon which will very much depend
the success of your vineyard.
" There are but two ways of
forming andmanagingof vines to ad-
vantage for vineyards, viz. By stakes
orespaliers."CHAPTALi, says'The
method of cultivating vines on
poles or props ought to be com-
manded by the climate. This
method belongs to cold countries
where the vine has need of the
whole heat of the sun. By rais-
ing them therefore on poles, placed
perpendicular to the ground, the
earth, being uncovered, receives
all the activity of the rays, and the
whole surface of the plant is ex-
posed to their action, and allows
the vines to be placed nearer to
one another, and the produce to
be thus multiplied on equal sur-
faces. But in warmer climates the
earth requires to be sheltered from
the excessive heat of the sun: the
vines are therefore suffered to
creep on the ground. But when
the increase of the grapes has at-
tained to its maximum, and nothing
is necessary but to bring them to
maturity, the cultivators collect in
bundles the different branches of
the vine, uncover the grapes, and
by these means facilitate the ma-
302 VIN
VIN
titration.' The northern and south-
ern states of the Union may profit
by these facts.
" I shall begin with the proper
culture of vines that are designed
for stakes.
" In this case the head of the vine
is formed near the surface of the
ground, and this method is now
generally practised throughout
Avine countries, and indeed it is
the only method proper for coun-
tries, where the frosts in winter
are so hard as to hurt vines.
" The first summer after the
Vine is planted, you have nothing
lo do, but to tie up the little bran-
ches to the stakes with a soft band,
as soon as they are grown about a
foot or fifteen inches long, which
will save them from being torn off
by hard winds; to keep the ground
clean and free from weeds and
grass. If you have any litter,
short straw and chaff, the shives
of broken hemp or flax, the chaff
of flax seed, the dust and chaff of
buckwheat, and the straw trod fine
with horses when it is dry, any or
all of these spread over your vine-
yard after it is hoed or ploughed
and harrowed, will keep down the
grass and weeds, keep the ground
moist and light, and will greatly
preserve the good soil from wash-
ing away. If this be done the first
three or four years, it will greatly
forward the vines; bring the
ground into good heart, and finally,
prepare it to produce good crops,
by keeping it loose, airy and light,
in which vines greatly delight."
The writer in Young's Annals,
above noted, recommends four
plougbings ; the first time in Fe-
bruary, when the furrow must be
levelled, and left in that state for
six weeks; (this however is in
general too soon) the second time,
the furrow must be reinstated.
The third time, the same operation
as the first must be repeated, tak-
ing care not to plough when the
vine is in blossoms or flowers.
The fourth, in August, as at the
second time. The grass must be
destroyed by hoes;" For this pur-
pose the light shim or scuffle des-
cribed in vol. 3. p. 295, would an-
swer well.
" In the month of September,
when the leaf begins to wither and
fall off, as I have already observed,
cut down all the branches, to one
good bud each, and always remem-
ber that the lowermost bud next
the old. wood, is called the dead
eye, and is never reckoned among
the good buds. When thus
trimmed, take away the dirt from
the foot of the vine, about four
inches down, and cut away all the
upper roots that appear above that
depth. These are called day roots,
and must be taken away every full,,
the first three years. The best
way is, not to cut them off close to
the body of the vine, but about a
straw's breadth from it, so shall
they not be so apt to grow again.
Let the foot of the vine he left
•-pen, after the day roots are cut
away, that it may dry and harden,
till the hard frosts come. Then
the holes are to be filled again, and
the head of the vine covered with
chaff and short straw mixed, or
Avith bog hay, or salt hay, or with
horse litter, that is free from dung
and grass seeds ; for these should
be carefully kept out of a vineyard,
which AviU save the labour of root-
ing out the grass that would spring
from them. Some cover the head
of the vine with the ground when
they fill up the holes ; but this is
Avrong, it greatly endangers the
vine, as I have found by experi-
VIN
VIN 303
ence, for I have lost many of them
by this management, before I dis-
covered the danger. The ground,
in warm rains, moulds and rots
the vine. For the same reason,
suffer no dung to be among the
straw, hay, or horse litter, with
which you coA'er your vines. The
heat of the dung, in Avarm rains or
muggy warm weather, will mould
and rot them ; the cooler and dry-
er they are kept, the better.
When you trim your vines, if you
find that any of them have mis-
carried, which is very common,
plant others in their room imme-
diately, of the same sort in your
nursery ; or provide cuttings of the
same kind, and preserve them till
spring, and plant them in the va-
cant places, that your vineyard
may be full and compleat as soon
as possible.
" The second summer let the
shoots grow, till they are ten or
twelve inches long, then choose
eight, that are short jointed and
much of a size, that grow on all
sides of the vine, and with your
finger strike off all the rest. If
any one branch among the Avhole
number, appears much more thrif-
ty than the rest, you may perhaps
be tempted to s.*ve it ; but let net
your eye spare it. It will only
prove a ihief and a robber. It will
draw to itself the chief nourishment
of the vine, and starve the rest of
the branches, and after all will bear
but little fruit. The short jointed
branches, prove the best bearers,
and these standing on all sides of
the head, preserve the vine in full
strength and vigor. For this rea-
son the rounder the head of the
vine is formed, the better. If the
branches be suffered to grow from
one side of the head, the other side
suffers greatly, and is apt to perish.
" This year there should be two
stakes to a vine, one on each side,
to fasten the branches to, by this
means they are spread at a distance
from each other, and grow the
stronger and better. Whereas,
when they are huddled all together,
and fastened up to one stake, they
suffer greatly for want of the sun-
and air to dry them after rains,
mists and heavy dews: and in
close muggy weather, they will
mildew and rot. Let your vine-
yard always be kept clean and
free from weeds and grass; and
the dryer the ground is, and the
hotter the weather, the more effec-
tually they are destroyed, by hoe-
ing, ploughing and harrowing.....
But remember never to meddle
with your ground when it is wet.
" This second summer your
main "branches should be suffered
to grow about five feet long, and
then the ends of them must be
nipped off, in order to keep them
within proper bounds. The lateral
or secondary branches should be
nipped off at the end, when they
are about a foot long, the nephews
also should be nipped off when they
are about six inches long. This
is much better, than the taking all
these smaller branches clean away,
which is the practice of some*....
For I have found, by experience,
that when these secondary branch-
es are clean taken away, the main
branches suffer ; they grow flat,
and appear distorted; which plainly
shows, that nature is deprived of
something, that is essentially ne-
cessary to her well being. It is
quite necessary to nip off the main
branches, when they are grown
about five feet long. They grow
the larger and stronger, the wood
ripens the better, the lower buds
are well filled, and better prepared
304 VIN
VIN
for the bearing of fruit. Some
time after the tops of the main
branches are nipped oft", they will
shoot out a second time, and then
they generally throAv out, from near
the end, two branches instead of
one ; these also must be nipped
off; at the same time the lateral
or secondary branches must be
looked to and nipped off, if any of
them are shooting out anew.
u In the fall of the year, as soon
as the leaf begins to wither and
fall off, cut the branches down
again to one good bud each, and
take away the earth round the
heads of the vines, as before di-
rected, and cut away the day roots,
and manage them in the same
manner as you did the fall before.
Now as some of your forward vines
will bear fruit the third year from
the planting, and as it is natural for
you to desire to know what sort of
fruit your vines will bear : I would
advise you to set aside two or three
at most, of each sort of your most
thriving vines for that purpose, and
instead of cutting down all their
branches to one bud each, like the
rest, leave two branches on each
of these vines, with two or three
good buds each, which will shew
some fruit to your satisfaction.....
But be persuaded to prevent the
rest from bearing fruit till the
fourth year, and the weaker vines
till the fifth year, for it greatly
weakens a vine to bear fruit when
so young.
" The third summer manage
your vines in the same manner as
the second, tying up all the branch-
es to the stakes, one above ano-
ther ; only of those vines that are
to bear, fruit, the fruit-bearing
branches should be tied up above
the rest, that the fruit may have
the benefit of the sun, the air and
winds, all which are necessary and
conspire to bring the fruit to ma-
turity ; and this should always be
the practice. This year a third
stake is to be provided, which in the
spring is drove down just on the
north side of the vine, upon a line
with the rest, for order sake. To
this stake , the branches that bear
fruit, will be best fastened, because
there will be the more room for
the branches of reserve, which are
to bear fruit the next year, to be
distinctly fastened to the side
stakes. These branches of reserve
are now of great importance to the
owner, as the next crop will de-
pend upon the right management
of them. They are, therefore, to
be carefully tied up at proper dis-
distances, to the side stakes, that
they may grow well, that the wood
may ripen, and that the buds may
be Avell filled. When they are
grown about five feet long, the ends
must be nipped off, the lateral
branches kept short, and the
nephews restrained ; Avhereas, if
they are all tied up to one stake,
the wood remains green and spun-
gy, and does not ripen, the buds
do not fill well; and Avhere the
band is, all the branches mildew
and rot. As to the few vines that
bear fruit this summer, let the
fruit-bearing branches be nipped
off five joints above the fruit, and
let the side branches and nephews
be kept short as above directed.
" In the fall of this third sum-
mer, preserve two of the best
short jointed branches of reserve.
one on each side of the head of the
vine, for bearing fruit the next
year: the rest cut down to one good
bud each. If some of your vines
be very strong and flourishing, you
may preserve four branches for
bearing fruit,but by no means more,
one on each quarter of the vine;
the brandies on the few vines, that
VIN
bore fruit this year, must be cut
■down to one good bud each ; for
the same branch must never be
suffered to bear fruit two succes-
sive years, unless you fall short of
branches of reserve, in that case,
let the old branch bear a second
time, but they seldom or never
bear so large clusters, nor so fair
fruit. On all the vines, that bore
fruit this year, not above two
branches on each, should be kept
for bearing fruit the next year;
they will last the longer, and bear
fruit the more plentifully hereaf-
ter. The rest of the management
is the same with that of the last
year ; only some time in the latter
end of November or somewhat
later, if the hard weather keeps
off, a small long trench on each
side of the vine, is to be dug with
a hoe, and the branches that are
kept for bearing fruit, are laid
down gently into them, without
forcing them so, as to crack them,
or split the bark, or strain the
wood too hard, and must be co-
vered over with the earth. If any
part appears above ground, it must
be well covered Avith straw, bog or
salt hay, and indeed if the whole
that are buried were also covered
in the same manner, Avith straw,
Sec. it would be best; for the
branches being of an elastic nature,
they are very apt, upon the thaw-
ing of the ground, to rise with
their backs above the ground, and
remain exposed to the Aveather, so
that your crop may be lost notAvith-
standing your trouble, which a
small covering of* straw or hay will
prevent. If any of them should
be so stiff and stubborn as not to
bend down, then bind straw round
them and the stake.
'; In the spring of the fourth
year, the branches that have been
vol.. v.
V I N 305
preserved for bearing fruit, must
be carefully trained up to the side
stakes, the higher the better; and
the branches that shoot out from
the head this spring, which are
called branches of reserve, and
are designed to bear fruit the next
succeeding year, must be tied up
to the stakes below the fruit bear-
ing branches, and one or two to
the middle stake, if there is room ;
for oftentimes the fruit bearing
branches, occupy the middle as
well as the side stakes, and espe-
cially in a plentiful year. The
management of the vine in its
bearing state, calls for a close and
particular attention."
The writer in Young's Annals,
says, 'In about four years, when
the sprouts, planted m a great
plantation will have taken root,
towards the end of the Avinter, they
must be bent, and bound about ten
inches above the ground. For
that purpose stakes must be pro-
cured one inch or more thick,
and tAvo feel three inches long.
They must be sharp at one end,
and driven into the ground with a
mallet, about half their length, at
the distance of two feet from one
another, and on the same line as
the vines. Care must be taken to
place one of them close to each
vine. To these stakes fixed as
above, is fastened a long pole or
reed, eighteen feel long, or more,
and one inch thick or more, and
tied horizontally at about ten inches
above the ground, leaving about
five inches of the stakes above
them. These poles must be
fastened to the stakes with oz>
icrs *.
* The common yellow or basket wil-
low of the Ua.tcd States, if Hunted ney
306 VIN
VIN
1 To these horizontal poles are
tied the branches of the young
vines, to keep them near the
ground, by which means, the fruit
is warmed by the reflection of the
sun from the ground, and arrives
at maturity. In order to fasten
each vine, the stake is cut three
or four inches from the ground ;
only two divergent branches', about
twelve or fifteen inches long are
left. They are bent in the form
of an arch, and fixed to the poles
with oziers. These branches are
called the arms ; the grapes hang
.from these branches, and some-
times touch the ground. In that
case the earth is removed two
inches from the grapes to prevent
them from rotting.'
" Some who have written best
upon this subject, recommend the
taking away all the lateral or se-
condary branches and the nephews
close to the body of the fruit bear-
ing branch, and to leave only the
main leaves of that branch, think-
ing, by this method, that all the
nourishment of the vine is thrown
into the fruit. They also order the
top of the branch to be taken off,
within three joints of the upper-
most cluster of grapes. Others
again are for following nature, and
suffer all the branches to extend
themselves as they will. These I
look upon to be, two extremes, and
think that a middle way, is every
way best, mosi rational and safest.
I know, that when these smaller
branches are taken clean away,
the main branches, instead of
growing round, full and plump,
vvhich is their natural state, be-
■water, and kept cli>sc!y trimmed, becomes
A'erj pliable, and answers very well f r
binding... .Editor.
come broad, flat and distorted, and
have an unnatural appearance.....
Besides these branches, when
kept within proper bounds, serve
to shade the fruit from the scorch-
ing rays of the sun, and to screen
them from violent winds, from
hail and beating rains, from damps
and fogs, cold nights, and dews,
which are all injurious to the fruit,
as well as the cold dry north-east
winds, and the cold driving north-
east storms.
" Before I proceed to the ma-
nagement of vines for the frame
or espalier; it will be necessary to
acquaint you with some things of
a general nature.
" When vines are trimmed in
the fall, which they ought to be as
soon as the leaf withers and falls
off, they seldom bleed. If vines
have been neglected and not trim-
med in the fall, let it be done in
February,if good weather happens,
or early in March. If it be done
later, they will bleed too much,
and endanger the crop. Searing
the wound, as soon as it is made,
will prevent the bleeding. In
trimming, keep about two inches
from the bud, or half way between
bud and bud. The rule is, to cut
sloping upward, on the opposite
side to the bud, that the slope
may carry off the tears from the
eye, but I neA'er found this any
kind of security to the eyes below.
If searing every wound be thought
too much trouble, the only remedy,
besides that, is, to wash the branches
that are wounded .and bleed, and
especially the buds, with a rag
dipped in warm Avater, without
touching the wound, which in eight
or ten days will stop of itself; the
liquor forming a stiff jelly upon
the wound, like coagulated blood,
and drying by degrees, heals up
VIN
VIN 307
the wound. The washing must
be deferred till they have done
bleeding. Unless this is done, the
eyes below will be in danger of
being blinded. For so glutinous is
the sap, that it binds up the bud
it reaches, so that the leaves can-
not open and unfold at the time of
vegetation. In cutting off large
limbs from old vines, it sometimes
happens that ants fall upon the
pith, eat their way in, and make
a hollow, where the water settles
and rots it. In this case the re-
medy is, to cut such branches
close down to where it is solid and
green, and it will bark over and
heal.
" It is common for large buds to
shoot out two or three branches
each. One only on each should
be suffered to grow; if you expect
fruit on them, be not in a hurry
to strike them off, till you know
which is most fruitful, and save
that. Vines that are close planted
in a vineyard, cannot- be expected
to. bear so much fruit, as single
vines, or as those that are planted
at a distance : and this is a suffi-
cient reason for restraining them,
and for limiting the number of
bearing branches, if you mean to
make good wine, to keep your
vines in full vigour, and to pre-
serve them for many years."
It is the practice of some vig-
nerons to lay down and bury 1 or 2
branches the 2d or 3d year, thus
enabling the vine to "shoot out
roots from every joint, and to be-
come very strong, and even to
thrive more than the parent vine.
This practice is called in France
Provigner, and is constantly follow-
ed by Mr. Montmollin who cul-
tivates vines with great success,
near Philadelphia. In the succeed-
ing year, the branch which had
been laid down, must be cut off
close to the main stem. In set-
ting out vines, room should always
be left for laying down, hence the
propriety of planting the cuttings
at eight or ten feet distance from
one another.
" When vines have been cover-
ed with earth during the winter
season, let them not be uncovered
in the spring, till the hard frosts
are over, and then let it be done
in a fair, warm, drying day, that
they may dry before night, for if
they should freeze before they are
dry, it would greatly hurt, if not
ruin the crop.
" The head of the vine, proper-
ly speaking, when it is formed near
the ground, is composed of the
butt-ends of the branches, that are
cut down to one good bud each,
which ought to be eight, at least,
in number. These branches, the
second year of the vine's grovvth,
shoot from the solid wood chiefly,
and then is the critical time to
prepare for forming a proper head
to a vine ; therefore, preserve eight
of the best short jointed branches,
that grow on all sides of the stock,
and much of a size, and these must
be carefully tied up singly to the
stakes, that the buds may fill well,
and that the wood may ripen, on
vvhich greatly depends the future
success of your vineyard, as this is
the foundation of the whole.If more
than eight branches have grown
from the head, the rest must be
struck off with the finger. If one
of the branches outgrows the rest,
and appears more flourishing, that
in particular must be struck off....
For if suffered to grow, it will rob
the rest of their due proportion of
nourishment, and ruin the vine....
Fight branches are sufficient for a
thrifty young vine, four of vvhich
308 VIN
L,V I N
are intended for bearing fruit, when
that time comes, and the other
four are designed for branches of
reserve. The third year, Avhich is
the first year of the vine's bearing,
the lowermost good bud on the
bearing branches, will produce one
or two clusters of grapes each.....
The fourth year, two or three of
the lowermost buds will bear fruit,
and after that five or six of the
lower buds will bear fruit, but sel-
dom more ; so shall you have five
or six branches, growing from each
bearing branch, producing fruit,
which 20 or 24 bearing branches
upqp one vine, and each of these
branches yielding two, three or
more clusters, according to the
fruitfulness of the year, and the
due cultivation of your vineyard.
" Nay, if your vines are well
chosen, as I have directed, and
properly cultivated, and your soil
kept clean and well improved, you
shall, in a fruitful year, see some
of the secondary branches and even
the tendrils bearing fruit. This
happened to some of my vines in
the year 1767. I had four suc-
cessive crops hanging on several
of my vines at one, and the same
time, one under another, which I
sheAved to several gentlemen, who
admired, and were surprized at
such a production : but I took away
all but the first crop, lest my vines
might be too much Aveakened by
over-bearing. I mention this to
shew Avhat nature will do in a fa-
vourable year, under proper ma-
nagement. And here I must re-
mark, that the greater the vintage,
the better the wine, but a meagre
thin crop produces thin weak wines,
which require dexterity and art to
make them fit for use ; but this I
shall instruct you in, when I come
to the making of wine.
" In transplanting vines or tree*
of any kind, I have by long ex-
perience found, that removing
them in the fall, after the leaf is*
fallen, is much surer and safer,
than doing it in the spring. For
if trees are well staked, so as to
stand firm against hard Avinds, the
ground will be so well packed
about the roots, that they will grow
in the spring, as if they had not
been removed, and are in no dan-
ger, if a dry season should hap-
pen, especially if some horse litter
or old hay be thrown round them
in the spring, so as not to touch
the stem. Whereas if they are
removed in the spring, and a
drought succeeds,belore the ground
be well settled about the roots,
many of them will miscarry,
" As vines are best planted upon
rising grounds to prevent too much
wet, and as it is necessary to keep
the soil loose and mellow, it there-
by becomes the more liable to
washing away by hard rains, vvhich
must be a great injury to a vine-
yard ; now if by any means so
great an inconvenience might be
avoided, it would be a great point
gained ; and, therefore, it very well
deserves our attention : For it is
no small cost and labour to renew
the soil, that is sometimes carried
off by sudden floods of rain. I
have tried several ways to prevent
this evil, so as neither to injure the
vines, nor hurt the crop. The fol-
lowing method, where a person
has the conveniency, I find to be
the most effectual. Lay broad flat
stones, not exceeding two inches
in thickness, close along the lower
side of the vines, after the ground
has been made loose and mellow*
These stones being broad, and
not Aery heavy, do not press hard
upon the roots of the vines, nor
VIN
V IN 309
yack the ground too close. They
reflect great heat up to the vine
and fruit, which helps to bring it
to full maturity; they preserve
the soil from washing aAvay, they
keep the ground moist in the driest
times, and hinder too much wet
from penetrating down to the roots
near the head of the vine, which
chiefly occasions the bursting of
the grapes, when they are near
ripe, after a shower of rain. To
prevent this evil, is one reason for
cutting away the day roots, which
extend themselves along near the
surface of the ground. But where
such flat stones are not easy to be
had, I would recommend short
straw mixed with chaff, the shives
of flax and hemp, the chaff of flax
seed, which is also an excellent
manure, old half rotten salt hay,
or bog hay, free from grass seeds,
spread thin between the rows ; if
it be spread thick, it keeps the
ground too long wet and cold in
spring, which retards or keeps
back the groAVth of the vines.....
These I have experienced to be
profitable, and very much to hinder
the soil from Avashing away. On
the side of steep grounds, of hills
and mountains, stones in propor-
tion to the descent, or logs of wood,
where stones are not to be had,
must be laid along the lower side
of the vines, to keep the soil from
washing away, which otherwise it
will do, to the great damage, if
not the ruin of your vineyard;
and therefore when you begin a
vineyard, remember that this is
one, and an essential part of the
cost.
" A vineyard AviU thrive the
better, and the crops wiil*be more
sure, if it be- well screened, by
sdmc good fence, buildings, moun-
tain, or thick copse of wood at a
small distance, from those points
that lie to the north of the east,
and to the north of the north-west;
the winds from those quarters, in
the spring of the year, being very
unfriendly to vines. But then a
vineyard should be quite open to
all the other points of the compass.
For vines delight much in an open,
clear, pure, warm air, free from
cold damps, fogs, mists, and from
condensed air, arising from bogs,
swamps, and wet clay grounds,
and from large tracts of neigh-
bouring woods. The north-west
winds, indeed are rather advanta-
geous to a vineyard : For although
in America, they are extremely
cold in winter, and occasion severe
frosts, yet as the vines are then
covered, they do them no harm.
Besides those winds are generally
drying and seldom bring wet; in
the spring and summer they are
always cool; and I find, by long ex-
perience, that they are quite neces-
sary, to brace up, harden and con-
firm the leaves and tender new shot
branches of all trees and vegeta-
bles, Avhich otherwise remain lan-
guid and weak.
" There are three seasons when
careful and experienced vignerons
deny access to their vineyards, first
when the ground is wet, because
then the weight of a man presses
down and packs the earth too close
and hard upon the rootsof the vines.
Secondly, when the vines are in
blossom, because if they are then
disturbed by handling, shaking, or
rubbing against them, the farina
or fine dust that is formed on the
blossom, which impregnates or
gives life to the fruit, is shaken
off and the fruit miscarries. Third-
ly, when the fruit grows ripe, be-
cause the temptation is too strong
to withstand, and people will pluck
310 VIN VIN
off the fairest, ripest grapes, which
vignerons do say is an injury to
the whole bunch ; be that as it may,
it certainly is a great injury to the
owner, for the fairest, ripest grapes
make the richest and finest fla-
voured Avines.
" I now pass on to the manage-
menUof vines upon espaliers : but
then*you are to remember that, the
training up of vines to these frames,
is only fit for the southern or war-
mer climates, where the Avinter
frosts are not so severe, as in our
more northern regions; for as they
are to stand exposed to alhveathers,
the germ or bud, from which the
grapes do spring, are apt to be
chilled and destroyed by the se-
verity of a sharp season, and espe-
cially by moist sticking snoAvs
freezing hard on the branches.
" The first year the young vines
are trimmed and managed in the
same manner you have been before
directed.
'* The second year, set apart two
of the best short jointed branches,
on each vine, that you may be se-
cure of one, in case the other should
fail; for all vignerons well knoAV,
that vines shoot forth more barren
and unfruitful branches, than fruit-
ful ones ; therefore ahvays set
apart short jointed branches for
bearers, and strike off all the rest
of the branches with your finger.
Again, chuse fruit-bearing branch-
es, that grow as near the head and
shoulders as possible ; train them
up as straight as you can, one on
each side of the stake : when they
are grown about 15 inches long,
bind them gently with a soft band
to the stake ; for they are then yet
very lender: and, as they grow
longer, bind them a second and a
third lime ; and, when they are
grown up to the top of the stake,
which must be five feet high, nip
off the ends. When you have ta-
ken away the tops of the vine she
will try to recover herself, and will
shoot out two branches at the top
instead of one ; but these you must
also nip off, and keep short, but
take away none of the lateral
branches qr nephews till you come
to trim them in the fall, only nip
them off to keep them within pro-
per bounds. In the fall when the
vine-leaves begin to wither and fall,
cut away one of these standards
from each vine, close to the stock,
leaving such as you best like, which
is now out of danger, and trim
away from her all the branches I
and nephews, and cut off her top
within three feet and a half of the
ground ; leave four buds at the top,
and cut off all the ends of the buds
below them ; all these wounds will
be healed before the hard Aveather
comes on, which should not be over
severe where espaliers are used;
the two upper buds will be the
arms of the vine, the two lower
buds -will be shoulders, and just
under these the vine is fastened to
the espaliers, and is called the head
of the vine. It requires the great-
est skill to manage and cultivate
vines thus educated, and trained up
to espaliers.
" The third summer the espa-
liers being regularly set up, six
feet high, in a line with the vines,
the posts being of some lasting
wood, as of red cedar, locust, mul-
berry,-or good thrifty chesnut, in
the middle space between vine and
A-ine ; and the rails being four in
height, and placed on the north
side of the vines, the lowermost
about thfee feet from the ground:
the vine must be fastened with a
soft yet strong band to a stake
firmly fixed down near the foot of
V IN
VIN 311
the vine, and fastened to the frame,
near the lower rail, the four buds
rising above it. When these buds
shoot forth their branches, they
must be regularly trained up to
the rails above by a careful hand;
because these branches, at first,
are very tender. When the
brahches are grown up to the top of
the frame, the ends must be nip-
ped off even with it, and kept down
even with the frame, that they may
keep within the limits assigned
them. The lateral branches and
nephews also must be kept within
proper bounds and not suffered to
grow too long. If any fruit should
appear this third year, wdiich may
happen, let it be taken away.
" In the fall of this third year,
the lateral branches and nephews
must be carefully cut away from
the main branches, so as not to
hurt, or rub against the lower buds,
with the back of the knife, which
is frequently done, by cutting off
the branches too near the germ or
bud. The four main branches,
that sprung from the four buds,
must now be cut down to tAvo good
buds each. In cutting off the main
branches, cut slanting upwards, and
let the slope be on the opposite
side of the bud, that if it should
wee]), the tears may drop free of
the bud. In cutting, approach not
too near the bud that is left, but
keep at two inches distance from
it, lest you endanger it, by letting
in the cold air and wet upon it,
before the wound can heal.
" If any fruit should appear on
any of the .branches, that grow
from the shoulder;, which is often
the case, let them be taken away
as soon as they appear; for these
being branches of reserve, they
are designed to bear fruit the suc-
ceeding year: the arms only arc to
bear fruit the present year : these
directions will serve for the fourth,
the fifth, and the succeeding years.
" In the fall of this third year,
I have above directed you to cut
the four main branches, that grew
from the four buds, down to two
good buds each, but this is design-
ed for the strong vines only ; those
that are weak, must be cut down
to one good bud, each branch ; and
if any fruit should appear on the
weak vines the fourth or even the
fifth year, strike them off as soon
as they appear ; and 6nce for all,
be persuaded not to overload young
vines with fruit.
" The fourth year Avhen vou
trim your vines in the fall, you
may cut the arms down to one
good bud each, instead of taking
them clean away ; these will bear
fruit the next, and then you can
save the two lower buds, that grew
on the branches that sprung from
the shoulder, for branches of re-
serve, by taking away ihe frail a.
soon as they appear, and these will
bear fruit the year after.
" The sixth year you may have
three good buds on each branch
for bearing fruit, and the seventh
year you may have four buds on
each branch, which will make eight
hearing branches, which are suf-
ficient for the strongest vines.
" Vines that are designed for
espaliers, must be planted further
asunder than those that are intend-
ed for stake.
"• One general rule is, in trim-
ming vines, that the young wood,
that grew this year, must be pre-
served for bearing fruit the next
year, and those branches, that did
not bear fruit, are better for the
purpose, than those that did bear
fruit ; and lor this reason, strike
off, with your finger, the young
312 VIN
VIN
clusters from those branches which
you reserve for bearing fruit the
succeeding year. When I men-
tion a branch, I mean a main
branch of young wood, not a side
or lateral branch, that grows upon
these young main branches.
" When the arms have borne
fruit, they are to be cut clean away in
the fall of the year, as soon as the
vintage is over, provided you have
branches of reserve, growing on
the shoulders, to supply their
places ; buj if you have been so
unlucky as to have failed in
these, you must cut the arms down
to two, three, or four buds each,
according to the strength of the
vine ; but then remember, not to
suffer any fruit to grow on the
branches, that spring, from the
lower bud on each old arm, these
being noAV absolutely necessary for
branches of reserve, in order to
recruit the arms the next year.
" As some of our southern states
have a hot sandy soil, and are sub-
ject to great heats and parching
droughts, and thereby find it very
difficult to raise and preserve vines,
so as to become fruitful; I shall
here offer some thoughts and di-
rections, which I imagine most
likely to succeed in these parching
hot countries.
"In the southern states I think it
necessary to shade the young vines
the first two or three years, during
the hot dry seasons, by driving
down firmly in the ground, branch-
es of trees thick set with leaves,
on the south side of the vines, and
to Avater these young vines twice
a week, during the hot dry seasons,
in the evening; thebranches should
not be tied up to slakes, but should
be suffered to run on the ground
to shade and keep it moist and
cool. These vines must be trim-
med in the same manner as those
which are designed for stakes, ai
soon as the leaf falls, or the vin-
tage is over. The third year, in-
stead of driving stakes down to
fasten up the branches to them,
let short crotches be drove down
about six feet asunder, and pretty
strong poles laid across upon them,
so that they may lie about 14 in-
ches from the ground, and so near
to each other, that the branches of
the vines may conveniently run
upon the poles without dipping
down and running upon the ground;
if the ends of the vines should run
beyond the sidesof this bed of poles,
they must be turned and confined
to their proper bed : because it will
be necessary to have a walk or
path of two feet wide between bed
and bed to regulate the vines, and
to gather in the vintage.
" This bed of poles'should be so
placed, as to extend three feet on
each side of the row of vines, so
that the rows of vines, standing
eight feet asunder, there will be a
path of two feet between row and
row for the necessary purposes be-
forementioned.Particularcaremust
be taken, not to take away too
many branches from these vines,
unless there should happen an un-
common wet season, nor to keep
them too short, because they are
designed to shade the ground as
much as possible ; but then in the
beginning of August, or about a.
month before the different sorts of
fruits begin to grow ripe, each in
their proper time, take away the
lateral branches and cut off the
tops of the main branches, but
this must be done, not all at once,
but by degrees, to let in the sun
and the air ; the wetter the season,
at this latter part of the summer,
the more branches must be taken
away, and the shorter the main
brandies must be cut, and if ne-
VIN
VIN 313
cessary most of the leaves must
also be plucked off: the fruit will
ripen the better.
" Here I would observe, that the
same management Avith regard to
the thinning the branches and the
leaves at this season of the year,
is necessary for vines that are fast-
ened to stakes or espaliers, in or-
der to meliorate and hasten on the
full ripeness of the fruit; and re-
member that the longer white
grapes hang on the vines, even
after they are ripe, if the season be
dry, the richer wine they make....
But itns otherwise with the black
grapes ; when they are full ripe,
they must be gathered and made
up into wine, if not, they rot and
dry away suddenly, and perish in
less than a week.
"A vineyard planted on a piece
of good strong new ground needs
no^dung the first seven years. The
best, manure for a vineyard is such
as is warm and free from grass
seeds, for grass is a great enemy
to vines: fowl's dung of every
kind, except water-fowl; soap-
ashes, or other ashes sprinkled
thinly between the rows of vines,
but not too near them ; for this
manure is very hot and sharp, and
is best spread on the ground in
the fall, that it may mix with the
soil, and be properly tempered be-
fore the heat of the next summer
comes on, otherwise it would burn
up the plants ; the rich soil that is
washed down and settles along
the sides of brooks and rivers, and
in many low places along roads
and highways ; sea sand, mixed
wilh common soil that might be
taken up along the highways ; in
short, sand of every kind mixed in
large proportions with good soil,
is very comforting to vines, for
those vines produce the sweetest
vol. v.
and richest grapes, and the strong-
est and best flavoured wines, that
grow in rich sandy soils: the
mortar of old buildings, that has
been made of lime and sand,
pounded fine ; the dust of char-
coal, the small coal and the earth
that the coal kilns are covered with
when burnt; the soot of chim-
neys ; the small cinders and black
dirt found about smith's shops: all
these are excellent manure for
loamy or clay grounds to Avarm, to
open and to dry them, and especi-
ally if a large quantity of sand be
mixed with it; creek mud, or the
mud along the sides of rivers
thrown on in the fall, or thrown
up and sweetened all winter, and
laid on in the spring, is a rich ma-
nure for sandy lands, or for clay
and loamy lands if mixed with a
good quantity of sand. All warm
rich untried earth is excellent, so
is street dirt of cities."
Grapes often drop off when
about ripening, without any evi-
dent cause. To prevent this, ci-
tizen Lambky of the department
of the Seine and Oise, directs the
following mode, which he says he
found successful, viz.
Cutting a circular incision in the
wood, and taking away a ring of
the bark about the length of two
millimetres.
The wood acquires a greater
size about' the incision, and the
operation accelerates not only the
maturity of the wood, but likewise
that of the fruit. The vines on
which the incision is made too
deep, and further than the bark,
will be spoiled both in wood and
fruit. Monthly Magazine, vol. viii.
p. 557.
"The best method I ever discov-
ered to get rid of birds, was to de-
stroy their food, that ripens about
S s
314 VIN
the time as the grapes. Their food
consists of wild cherries and poke-
berries chicly*. Wasps are great
enemies to grapes ; the best way I
have met widi to destroy them, is
to hang up phials here and there,
along the outward rows of vines,
filled half full of water well sweet-
ened with honey, molasses, or
coarse black sugar, the mouth of
the phial must be so wide as easi-
ly to receive a wasp into it, and
not much wider, the wasps soon
find out the.molasses by its sceni,
and getting into the phial, are
drowned in the sweetened water.
Another way I have discovered,
which comes very near to the for-
mer, if it does not exceed it, which
is to cover flat wide earthen pans,
all over the bottom with honey or
molasses without water, if there
be three or four of these pans
placed at a good distance, the
whole length of the vineyard, eve-
ry wasp to leeward, that'is within
smell of them, will come to the
feast, they will soon entangle them-
selves in the molasses, that if you
attend them, you may make it a
deadly feastto almost all that come;
when the wind comes from ano-
ther quarter, place your pans along
another part or side of your vine-
yard, that so the wind may blow
from the vineyard to the place from
whence you would draw the wasps,
* Mr. Leoaux drives av-ay birfis in
the following mod.'. I'erceiving that
they only committed depredations just
before the rising and setting of ;he sun,
lie has two boys to patnle the vii:evard,
each with a whip in one hand, and a rat-
tle in the other, making all the time, as
much noise as they could for l buit an
hour and a half. This process was con-
tinued for three weeks every year.
Editor,
V IN
and so go round till you have de-
stroyed them all.
"The same grub, which is a short
smooth earth worm, that cuts off
the English beans, he. is very
hurtful to young vines ; if the
earth were taken away round the
foot of the vine, about two inches
down, and some tar and hog's-
lard, mixed in equal quantities,
were daubed round that part of
the vine, I think, though I never
have made the experiment, it
would prevent the mischief.
" Vine fretters also are often in-
jurious to vines ; they a:* very
small animalcule, or insects, of
what species, I have never exa-
mined, but they appear in great
numbers, in mere clusters, upon
the young tender branches, upon
the juice of which they feed; the
only remedy I know, is to take
away the branch with them upon
it, and so destroy them bodily ;
but if the branch cannot be spared,
they must be mashed and rubbed
off by a careful tender hand; if
they are chiefly destroyed the first
two or three years, they are not so
numerous nor so troublesome af-
terward."
Rose bugs arc also very de-
structive to vines. They may be
drawn off from the grapes, by plant-
ing many rose bushes round the
vineyard.
" It is common with gardeners
and vignerons, who cannot bear to
see a good piece of ground lie idle,
to raise a crop of cabbages, cauli-
flowers or brocoii, between vines
Avhen young. This is very wrong
and very injurious to vineyards..-
The soil cannot be too fresh for a
vineyard.
" I have already mentioned the
planting of vines at a proper dis-
tance, and in this 1 have exceeded
VIN
VIN 315
the common distance practised in
most vine countries ; and that for
reasons which I shall now assign.
" The advantages of this manner
of planting I think are many;
with a single horse plough, having
a foot fixed in the fore part of the
beam, by way of gage, to prevent
the plough from going so deep as
to cut the roots of the vines; a
man, with the help of a careful boy
to ride and guide the horse, (the
horse always supposed to be tame
and under good government,) may
plough a full acre or more in a
day, which is as much as six men
will generally dig up vvi'.b hoes,
and isevery way much better done;
the furrows lying across the de-
scending ground, will very much
prevent washing away by hard
rains ; the ground lies light, hol-
low and loose, by which means it
readily receives all the benefit of
the atmosphere, the dews, &x.....
After this it requires no more cul-
ture for twelve or fourteen days
time, or more, according to the
weather. If a drought succeeds
the ploughing, it will need no
other stirring till rain comes, pro-
vided the ground turned up mal-
low and crumble, which it will do
if it vvas not wet when it was
ploughed. If the weeds should ap-
pear, it must then be harrowed
with a sharp iron tooth harrow ;
which the same man, boy and
horse can manage; the man if
careful and diligent, can with ease
harrow three acres a day, and if
this be repeated three, four or five
days, after every rain, or upon the
first appearance of weeds, they
may with great ease be kept down.
Again, when vines are planted at
a proper distance, a wheel or a
hand-barrow may pass freely
through them,which w ill greatly fa-
cilitate the manuring of the ground
and the gathering in of the vin-
tage ; or a horse with panniers on
each side, made flat on the side
next his body, or a long square
basket fixed on a hand-barrow and
slungacross two hardy boys' shoul-
ders, would give dispatch to either
work. Vines loo, planted at a dis-
tance, produce the best and richest
wines, and to crown all, it is the
opinion of men knowing and ex-
perienced in these things, that a
vineyard planted at eight or ten
feet distant each way, will pro-
duce as many and as fine grapes,
as one planted within half thai dis-
tance, though there be twice as
many vines.
" The German double pick, or
sarkling iron, is the best instru-
ment for digging a vineyard ; this
instrument digs the ground with
more ease than the hoe, and nei-
ther cuts nor wounds the roots.....
It is fixed on the handle like a hoe,
and bends downward as that does.
" Stakes are a necessary article,
and must be about an inch and a
quarter square, not less ; if both
ends Avere dipped in boiling tar,
it will greatly help to preserve the
stakes from rotting. The stakes
should be six feet long, so as to
stand five feet out of the ground,
and should be drove by a line and
stand strait.
" The materials proper to make
bands of, to bind the vines to the
stakes are, the sweet flag, other-
wise called the Calamus Aromati-
cus. These long flat leaves cut
in June and dried in the shade,
and then bundled up and kept in a
dry place for use do very well, but
then they must be made wet when
you bind with them. The long
flat leaves of reed, the rushes and
three square that grow in marshy
316 VIN
VIN
or meadow ground preserved and
used in the same manner do as
well." Bass of Russia matts is very
useful.
" Having now gone through the
necessary directions for planting
and managing vines for vineyards,
I proceed to the making of wine,
a subject though short and easy,
yet calls for great nicely and ex-
actness. The making, fermenting
and preserving of wine is a mys-
tery to the people of America, but
when the methods of managing
these things are brought to light
and explained, nothing appears
more simple and easy ; but before
I proceed to this work, it will be
necessary to give some directions
about gathering the grapes.
" Grapes must be fully ripe be-
fore they are gathered ; gather
them in a fair day, when they are
perfectly dry'; and take away all
the rotten and unripe grapes, for
they spoil the Avine : If your vin-
tage be large, and you gather more
grapes than you can mash and
press out in one day, let them be
gathered Avithout bruising, for
bruised grapes soon contract an
unsavory taste and hurt the wine;
however, if they are mashed the
same day they are gathered, the
bruising will, do no hurt."
Chaptai.ju advises to cut off the
tails of grapes very short with a
pair of scissars, and to choose none
but sound grapes, and .those clus-
ters which -pfcT-^st, sagged, re-
jecting those which nave been
sheltered, and near the ground, and
to prefer those which ripen at the
bottom of the vines. They are
then to be put into small baskets
to prevent the loss of juice, by the
superincumbent weight; and when
full they ought to be put in carts,
e>r on the backs of men or horses.
" I would advise the gathering
of them to be directed by some
grave discreet person ; for as this
work is done generally by servants
and children, it is made matter of
pastime and frolic ; and so many
grapes are torn off, and either
bruised or scattered on the ground,
to the no small damage of the
owner, both in the loss of fruit, and
in hurting the wine : and these
things should be impressed on the
minds of the gatherers before they
begin, that every thing may be
done regularly and in order, by
which means more work will
be done, and to much better pur-
pose.
" If while frosts happen before
some of your grapes are fully ripe,
let them still hang on the vines,
and they will grow ripe, rich and
high flaA-oured ; but they must be
gathered before the weather be so
hard as to freeze the grapes, for
that will spoil them: the light
frosts that only kill the leaves do
not hurt the fruit, unless it be such
as are late ripe, these should
be carefully covered from all frosts,
they should grow against walls or
board fences fronting the south or
south-east, and at nightbe covered
with mats or frames thatched with
sjtraw, which should be so contriv-
ed as to be set up to cover the
friiit or let down at pleasure.
" As the wine made from black
grapes has a different manage-
ment from that made of white
grapes, I shall begin with the
white ; these then must be ga-
thered as I mentioned before in a
fair day, when the grapes are per-
fectly dry ; and both the rotten and
unripe grapes being carefully
plucked off from every bunch, the
clusters are then thrown into the
mash vat, and two or three men,
V IN
VIN 317
according to the quantity, having
washed their feet and legs very
clean in bran and water, get into
the vat and trample and mash the
grapes thoroughly, so that none
escape."
Chaptall says, as a general
rule, that the grapes must be
equally pressed, to insure an uni-
form fermentation : and the vat
filled in 24 hours, to avoid the in-
convenience and imperfections ari-
sing from a successive series of
fermentations, and when unexpect-
ed rain suspends the collection of
the grapes, the juice of those al-
ready collected and placed in the
vat, must ferment separately.
" The first and second pressing
being mixed together is put into
hogsheads, and filled Avithin four
inches of the bung, that it may
have room to work and ferment,
the casks placed in some warm
room or dry cellar. Then having
a small spile fixed in the middle of
the head of the cask, the third or
fourth day, draw a little of the
wine in a glass, and if it be pretty
fine, draw it off immediately into
a clean dry well scented cask, the
larger the better, so you have wine
enough to fill it, which you must
do within two inches of the bung,
and stop it close, leaving only the
vent-hole open for a second fer-
mentation ; after a few days it will
Avork a second time, but not so
much as at the first; if your wine
be strong and good, Avhich you
may know by the age of your vine-
yard, and by the goodness of the
seasons, it will be best to leave the
bung-hole open for this second
working, the wine will be the bet-
ter: for strong wines require a
greater fermentation than weak
wines, and the stopping of the
bung-hole, checks the working,and
prevents weak wines from spend-
ing themselves too much, on the
contrary, if strong wines have not
a thorough working, they are apt
to grow thick and ropy : by this
you may form a proper judgment
what degree of fermentation is
proper for the wine that is under
working, and govern yourself ac-
cordingly. Three or four days
after the second fermentation be-
gins, carefully watch your wines
every day, again try them in a glass,
and if they be pretty fine, prepare a
cask sweet and good, burn a good
large brimstone match in it, and
as soon as the match is burnt out,
whilst the cask is full of smoke,
draw off the wine into it; noAv fill
up your cask to the brim, and bung
it up tight and stop the vent hole ;
the smoke of the brimstone Avill
hinder any further fermentation ;
and this is called stumming or
sulphuring; then make a mortar
of clay and horse dung mixed up
with strong flaxseed jelly, and cov-
ering the bung and vent hole close
with it, let it stand till it is fit for
use.
" When you first rack off, if you
have any old wine that is rich and
good, of the same kind or colour,
put four or six gallons of it, and
tAvo gallons of good brandy into
your cask (this quantity is suffi-
cient for an English hogshead)
and then rack off your Avine into
it for the first time, this will great-
ly strengthen and preserve it.
" When wine, is in fermentation,
all the gross parts are tjirown up
to the top of the cask, or vessel
that it ferments in, and there
meeting the air, they contract a
harshness. If then they are suffer-
ed to pass down through the body
of the wine, which they certaDd; will
do as soon as the fermentation is
318 VIN
over, they will communicate those
evil qualities to the Avine. For
this reason, draw off your wine
both times before the fermentation
be quite over." These general
rules are of great consequence.
" I now pass on to the making
of red wines from the black grapes.
Red wines have a different ma-
nagement from the Avhite ; the
whole of one or even two days
treading or mashing, (wnere the
vintage is great) is thrown into a
large vat, the must, stalks, skins
and all, and stands in some warm
dry place or cellar. The vat is
covered close with sheets or blan-
kets, or both, and thus it remains,
according to custom from four to
seven or even ten days, according
to the coldness or heat of the
weather. This is done to obtain
a strong fermentation, in order to
give a deeper colour to the wine ;
and this is the only end proposed
by it; the manager of this work,
visits the vat twice a day, and in a
glass views the colour of the wine
and tastes it ; if the tincture be
not deep enough to his mind, he
knows by the taste of the wine,
whether it will stand a longer fer-
mentation : if it will not, he con-
tents himself with the colour it
has, and draws and presses it off,
and fills it into casks, leaving about
two inches from the bung, for a
second fermentation. When the
second fermentation is over, Avhich
generally happens in four or five
days, he then draws itoff into clean
well scented casks, and adds to it
six gallons of good old wine and
two gallons of brandy to an Eng-
lish hogshead, which contains from
60 to G3 gallons. Where the
same kind of Avine is not to be had,
he makes use of Port wine. He
then fills the cask quite full and
VIN
bungs it up tight, leaving only the
vent hole open to let out the ge-
nerated air. Note: when I say,
where the same kind of wine is
not to be had, he makes use of
Portugal wines, this is mentioned
for our practice, not that the French
make use of such wines, for they
always have wines enough of their
own of the same kind.
" Besides the main pulp or core
of the grape, which is Avhite in
black grapes as well as others,
there sticks to the inside of the
skin, a considerable body of rich
pulp, of a deeper die in some than
in others. This pulp gives the
colour to the grape, this same
pulp also gives the colour to the
wine, for the same grape is capable
of making white wine as well as red
wine ; if the main core which is
first trod out, be only used, the
wine will be white ; but if the red
pulp be mixed with it, it makes
it of a rich purple colour ; as this
is a clear case the great point of
improvement is, to dissolve or ex-
tract this rich pulp, without injur-
ing the wine. That the present
method is the best and most effec-
tual to that purpose, T can by no
means think; the violent fermen-
tation through which the wine is
made to pass, in order to procure
the tincture, must exhaust the spi-
rits in a very great degree, and
leave the body in a weak and lan-
guid state, and subject it to harsh-
ness, to turn eager or vapid in a
short time ; I think I have reason
to conclude, that if the husks or
skins, after four days lying in the
murk^were taken out, and thrown
into the mash vat, and trod over
again, and especially if some of
the must, or rather wine, be now
and then thrown over the husks,
in order to wash away the pulp,
VIN
that a full tincture may be obtain-
ed, without torturing the wine, as
the present manner is, and with-
out running so great a risk of spoil-
ing it."
On the proper fermentation of
the juice of grapes depends the
quality of wine. For this reason
the following extracts are given
from Chaptall's excellent trea-
tise on the subject, and are parti-
cularly valuable inasmuch as they
refer to the practices pursued in
various parts of France, each of
which has a climate nearly similar
in the United States.
" The method of disposing
grapes to fermentation varies in
different countries. The stalks
are harsh and austere, and wines
produced from grapes not freed
from stalks, do not participate in
that quality ; but these are weak
and almost insipid wines, and are
apt to become oily. Fermenta-
tion also proceeds with more force
and regularity, in must mixed
with the stalks, than in that which
has been freed from them. Near
Bourdeaux the red grapes are freed
from the stalks, when it is pro-
posed to obtain good wine, and
when the grapes are not quite ripe,
and when frost has taken place be-
fore they are collected, but when
the grapes arc very ripe, it is per-
formed with less care. The stalks
facilitate fermentation, and effect
a more complete decomposition of
the must, and produce all the
alkohol it is perceptible of yield-
ing. But it is added, this is only
necessary when the wine is to be
distilled. When delicate wine is
to be prepared for drink, it is ne-
cessary to withdraw the stalks
from the fermentation, to pick the
grapes, and to clean them with
care. In the south, where the
VIN 319
wine is naturally generous, the
stalks would add a disagreeable
harshness to the liquor. They
may be freed by a fork with three
prongs, which the workman turns
and agitates in the vat, and by be-
ing drawn up to the surface, are
removed by the hand, or by a sieve
of ozier twigs, distant from one
another about half an inch, and
having above it a close ozier pad
or presser, about four inches
thick."
It is more than probable, that
the juice of the grapes of the U.
States, will bear to have the stalks
mixed with it, but it would always
be best to make two parcels, one
with the stalks, and another with-
out.
" The 54th degree of Fahren-
heit is generally considered the
temperature most favourable to
spirituous fermentation; below that
degree it is languid, above, it be-
comes too great. Fermentation
is slower, as the temperature has
been colder at the time of collect-
ing the grapes. In consequence,
it fias been recommended to place
the vats in covered places; to
remove them from clamp and
cold situations, to cover them, in
order to moderate the cold of the
atmosphere; to heat again the
mass by introducing boiling must,
and to make choice of a warm day
for collecting the grapes, of to ex-
pose them to the sun.
" Must shut up in close vessels
undergoes very slowly the pheno-
mena of fermentation, and pro-
duces more generous wine, as the
aroma and alkohol are retained,
which are in part lost in fermen-
tation in the open air. If the dis-
engagement of the gas vvhich es-
capes by fermentation, be checked
by keeping the fermenting mass
320 VIN
in close vessels, the movement
then slackens, and the fermenta-
tion terminates with difficulty and
after a very long time.
" The activity of fermentation
is proportioned to the mass ; but
it is not ahvays of advantage to
carry on the process in a large
mass. Extremes must be avoid-
ed ; and care must be taken not to
obtain it with too great precipita-
tion ; the volume must be varied
according to the nature of the
wine and the object proposed. A
small mass will preserve the
aroma, a large mass developes the
spirit. Ripe, sweet, and almost
dry grapes produce a thick must,
and fermentation is slow in com-
mencing, and a great mass of liquid
is required, otherwise the wine
remains thick, and too luscious,
and requires long keeping to per-
fect it.
" The temperature of the air, the
state of the atmosphere, and the
weather which prevails during the
vintage ; all these causes and their
effects must be always present in
the mind of the agriculturist, that
he may be able to deduce from
them rules proper for directing
his conduct in regard to this object.
"When the must is very aqueous,
(as in many seasons) boiling it is
of advantage. Drying the grapes
before fermentation is founded
upon the same principle. Saccha-
rine grapes require the addition of
tartar, which must be boiled in a
kettle with the must.
" The carbonic acid gas disen-
gaged -from the vintage, and its
hurtful effects to respiration, have
been known since fermentation
itself was known. This gas, re-
tained in the liquor by all means
that can be opposed to its evapora-
tion, contributes to preserve the
VIN
aroma, and a portion of alkohol
vvhich exhales along with it. This
carbonic acid holds in solution, a
pretty considerable portion of al-
kohol.
" As the object and effect of
spirituous fermentation,are merely
the production of alkohol, by de-
composing the saccharine princi-
ple, it thence follows that the for-
mation of the one is always in pro-
portion to the destruction of the
other, and that the alkohol will be
more abundant, as the saccharine
principle is greater ; for this rea-
son, the quantity of alkohol may
be augmented at pleasure by ad-
ding to the must the sugar which
seems to be wanting.
" It must never be forgotten that
the fermentation ought to be ma-
naged according to the nature of
the grapes and agreeably to the
wine that may be required. Weak
Avines must be fermented in casks,
strong wines ought to be suffered
to work in the vats.
" The period for taking the wine
from the vats, ought to vary ac-
cording to the climate, the season,
and the nature of the Avine pro-
posed to be obtained, and of other
circumstances, vvhich must always
be kept in view. In general the
following consequences may be es-
tablished :
" 1. The must ought to remain
in the vats the less time, according
as it is less saccharine. Light
wines, cannot bear the vat above
from six to twelve hours.
" 2. The must ought to remain
the less time in the vats, accord-
ing as it is proposed to retain the
acid gas, and to form brisk wines;
in that case, it is thought sufficient
to tread the grapes, and to put the
juice into the casks after^ it has
been left in the vat 24 hours, and
VIN
VIN 321
sometimes without having been in
the vat at all. In this case, the fer-
mentation, on the one hand is less
tumultuous; and on the other, the
gas can with less ease be volati-
lized ; which contributes to retain
that highly volatile substance, and
to make it one of the principles
of the liquor.
" 3. Must ought to be left in the
vats less time, according as it is
proposed to obtain wine less co-
ld\ired. This condition is of great
consequence in regard to brisk
wines, one of the most valuable
qualities of which is their want of
colour.
" 4. Must ought to remain in the
vats less time, according as the
temperature is warmer, and the
mass more voluminous Sec.; in
that case, the briskness of the fer-
mentation makes up for its short-
ness of duration.
" 5. The must ought to remain
in the vats less time, according as
it is proposed to obtain wine of a
more agreeable flavour.
" 6. The fermentation, on the
other hand, will be longer, accord-
ing as the saccharine principle is
more abundant, and the must
thicker.
" 7. It will be longer if the
wines are destined for distillation ;
in which case, every thing ought
to be sacrificed to the production
of alcohol.
" 8. The fermentation will be
longer, according as the tempera-
ture has been colder when the
grapes were collected, and accord-
ing as the wine is required to be
coloured.
" From these principles it may
be conceived why in one country
the fermentation in the vat termi-
nates in 24 hours, while in others
it continues for 12 or 15 days;
vol. v.
why one method cannot be gene-
rally applied, and why particular
processes may be attended with
errors, Sec.
" Gentil admits as an inva-
riable sign of the necessity of re-
moving the wine from the vat, the
disappearance, in regard to taste,
of the sweet and saccharine prin-
ciple. This disappearance, he
observes, is only apparent, but the
savour of the little that remains is
concealed ; the alcohol, the savour
of vvhich predominates, terminates
its decomposition in the casks.....
It is also evident that this sign,
which is not at all applicable to
white wines, cannot be employed
for wines destined to remain lus-
cious."
It is highly probable that the
important rule suggested by Gen-
til, would answer very well for
the wines made from the native
grapes of the middle United States.
But the great point is to draw it off,
before the feculent matter which
rises in fermentation, falls down
again.
" New casks destined for re-
ceiving wine, must be well im-
pregnated with salt and water, to
extract the injurious bitterness of
the wood. Old casks must be
well scoured and washed. The
wine should be drawn from the
vats into a reservoir and carried
to the casks. The liquor which
floats over the deposit of the vat,
(Surmout) is to be drawn off and
put into casks : it forms a lighter
kind of wine, more delicate and
less coloured. The head remain-
ing after the wine is drawn off,
will still yield wine, if pressed,
but it must be separated, and pres-
sed by itself and it will produce
good vinegar.''
ik Wine made from young vine-
T r
322 VIN
yards is always thin and weak, and
so are wines from old vineyards,
when the seasons have been cold,
stormy and Avet. Assistance is
given two Avays, either by the help
of some old strong wine, one fourth
part at least, and four gallons of
brandy to an English hogshead,
or if that is not in your poAver,
then half of the must is to be
boiled away to one half of its quan-
tity, that is, if one half of your
must contains forty gallons, that
must be boiled away to twenty,
this greatly enriches it, and makes
it of the consistence of liquid
honey. As scon as it is cool, mix
it with the rest of the must, and
let it ferment together, and then
manage it as before directed of
other wines; when your vineyard
comes to be ten or twelve years
old, it will yield much stronger
wines.
" The boiling of must is ma-
naged in the following manner,
which must be carefully attended
to ; the copper or kettle being well
cleaned, rub .the inside all over
with a woollen rag dipped in sweet
oil, vvhich preserves the wine from
contracting a nauseous, copper or
brass taste; then throw in the
must, and kindle a gentle fire under
the copper, with brush or small
split wood ; the copper standing so
high, that the wood need not touch
the bottom of it, when you put
large wood under to make it boil
fast; for if at any time your wood
touches the bottom, the wine will
be burned and spoiled. Gently raise
your fire by slow degrees, stirring
your must cfien from the bottom,
and take off the scum as it rises,
till all be clear; then raise your
lire by larger wood, and make it
boil faster and faster, as it settles
down or Loiis away, till one half
VIN
be consumed, being always care-
ful, that none of the wood touches
thebottom of the copper ; the must
thus boiled away is called defru-
tum, or the rob of grapes. If you
neglect to raise the sediment from
the bottom of the copper, it will
burn and spoil the wine, for it turns
bitter.
" All the vessels and instru-
ments made use of must be per-
fectly clean and sweet; and every
thing that has an offensive or dis-
agreeable smell, must be removed
from the place where wine is made,
and from the cellars where it is kept;
and the cellar ought to be dry and
warm. It must also be free from
mustiness, and in good weather,
the windows next the south and
west must be opened, to admit
the warm dry air.
" Hogsheads well bound with
iron are the only safe casks for
wine ; for, old wine pipes, or hogs-
heads with wooden hoops, con-
stantly want repairing every year,
but iron bound casks Avill hold
many years, Avithout any expense;
I mean for standing casks, out of
Avhich the wine is racked into other
casks for sale ; but then as soon as
they are empty, the lees must be
taken out and saved for distilling
into brandy ; and the same day the
cask must be filled with water, or
else they will be destroyed by a
small worm, which will pierce it
like a sieve.
" Every man that has a vineyard
should have a still and good worm,
that he may distill all the lees, the
husks and the scum into good
brandy, which he will want for the
preservation of his wines.
" I now pass on to the different
management of wine after fermen-
tation ; one method I have already
mentioned : some after the second
VIN
VIN 323
fermentation, leave the wine in the
same cask upon the lees, and add-
ing the old wine and brandy to it,
(for which they make room) they
stop up the bung hole, and leave
only the-vent hole open to let out
the generated air, till the month
of March, filling up the cask, from
time to time, as the wine subsides
or wastes, and then draw it off into
a clean, well scented and well
stummed cask, and stop all close
with mortar.
" Others again in the month of
March, before they rack it off
and stum it, roll the cask back-
ward and forward in the cellar to
the wine thereby to communi-
cate the strength of the lees to
the wine, and then let it stand
and settle till it is fine, and rack
it off into clean, well stummed
casks, and stop and plaister all up
close."
Clarification of Wines.
The Avine must be first drawn
off from its lees in dry, cold wea-
ther. The pump used in Cham-
pagne is preferable, according to
Chaptal, to every other mode of
drawing off wine.
" To a leather pipe, of from four
to six feet in length, and two in-
ches in diameter, are adapted, at
each end, wooden pipes, nine or
ten inches in length, which de-
crease in diameter tOAvards the
ends, and are fixed to the leather
pipe by means of a piece of pack-
thread. The bung of the cask in-
tended to be filled, is taken out,
and one of the extremities of the
pipe is put into it. A good cock
is fixed, in the cask to be emptied,
two or three inches from the bot-
tom, and in this is inserted the other
extremity of the pipe. By this
mechanism alone, the half of the
one cask is emptied into the other;
for this purpose, nothing is neces-
sary but to open the cock ; and
the remainder may be made to
pass, by employing a pair of bel-
lows two feet in length, compre-
hending the handles, and ten in-
ches in breadth. The bellows force
the air through a hole formed at
the anterior part of the small end ;
a small leather valve, placed below
the small hole, prevents the air
from rushing out Avhen the bellows
are opened, and to the extremity
of the bellows is adapted a per-
pendicular wooden pipe to Convey
the air downwards ; this tube is
fitted into the bung-hole, in such
a manner, that when the bellows
are worked, and the air forced out,
a pressure is exercised on the wine,
by which means it is obliged to
issue from the one cask, and to
ascend into the other. When a
hissing is heard at the cock, it is
speedily shut; this is a sign that
all the wine has passed."
To clarify the Avine thus dravvn
off, isinglass jelly mentioned un-
der article Cydek, may be used,
but in warm climates, Chaptal
observes, "the use of this substance
is dreaded, and * its place is sup-
plied by whites of eggs: ten or
twelve are sufficient for half a
muid, or 72 gallons English.....
They should be well beaten up,
and mixed with a pint of new
milk'"
" To revive claret injured by
floating lees, two pounds of cal-
cined flints, avcII pounded, ten
eggs, and a large handful of salt,
are beat up with two gallons of
wine, vvhich are then poured into
the cask ; two or three days after
the wine is drawn off.
" Wire cellars'must be dry some
depth below ground ; its apertures
324 VIN
VIN
ought to be directed towards the
north ; it must be at a distance
from the street, highways, work-
shops, sewers, necessaries, and
ought to be arched at top."*
" From experiments," Mr. An-
til says," I am clearly of opinion,
that the faeces or lees which are
left in wine or cyder is the true
cause of their frequent fermenta-
tion : it is from this idea of the
thing, that I have all along so
strongly insisted upon the removal
of the lees in the beginning, upon
the first as well as the second fer-
mentation.
" I shall now propose the ma-
nagement of some small quanti-
ties, in different manners, by way
of experiments, in order, if pos-
sible, to arrive at some tolerable
perfection in this new undertaking.
" 1st. Let a keg of four gallons
be filled three-fourths with musk,
that is, with the must and skins
of black grapes, for making of red
vyine, (the skins having been well
squeezed) before any fermenta-
tion ; let the bung-hole be stopped
close, and leave the vent-hole open,
to let out the generated air, and
after the second fermentation fill
up the keg with old wine, and let
the vent hole remain open, and let
it stand so till February, then draw
it off, and manage it as occasion
shall require ; if it be clear, sweet
and good, bottle it; if you find it
thin and weak, you must help it
as in other cases.
" 2d. Let a keg of four gallons
be filled with the wine that is
drawn off, after the first fermenta-
tion is over, the keg having first
* These directions apply to red Avines.
For Madeira, Lisbon, Xeres (Sherry)
and Tenerifl'e wines, the warmer the
place iu vvhich they are kept, the better.
Editor.
been well stummed, stop all close,
and let it stand till February, if it
then be fine, bottle it, if not, stum
a second keg well, and draw it off,
and stop all close, and let it stand
till the next winter, if it then be
fine, bottle it; if not, fine it down,
and then bottle it for use : if, at
the second racking,' you find it
thin and weak, add some brandy
and old wine to it.
" 3d. Let white grapes hang on
the vine a month after the vintage is
over, let others hang till they shri-
vel, make trial of these at differ-
ent times; let them be mashed
as much as possible Avithout break-
ing the grape-stones ; let them
stand in the murk two, three, or
four days, well covered with a
blanket three or four double, then
drain off the wine, and mash the
skins very well over a cullender
the second time ; then strain out
the stones, washing the skins very
well with the wine, till all the
pulp, that sticks to the inside of
the skins, be got off, fill your keg
with this wine three-fourths, and
fill up the rest with good old wine ;
stop up the bung, leaving the vent-
hole open till the second fermen-
tation is over, then stop the vent-
hole, and let it stand till February •
I think this wine will be good; but
then in all these cases the vent-
hole, must now and then be just
opened, to let out any generated
air, lest the keg be in danger of
bursting, as soon as the air puffs
out stop it again, that as little air
as possible, may get in."
" By varying these experiments,
you may at last come at the most
perfect way of making, fermenting,
and preserving of wine."
American farmers have long
been in the practice of making
wines from our native grapes....
VIN
Some samples of these wines, the
Editor has tasted, and found them
very good. But in every case,
except one, a large proportion of
brown sugar was added, which
gave the liquor a high colour, and
a sAveetish taste that detracted
from the natural briskness of the
liquor. This addition of the su-
gar is made to prevent the acetous
fermentation taking place, but
there can be no doubt, that the
pure juice of the common blue or
bunch grape (Vitis sylvestris) will
make good wine, without sugar, if
a small proportion of brandy be
added to it, as is constantly done
in all wine countries, even in
Madeira. This opinion is strength-
ened by a fact lately communicat-
ed by a medical friend long resi-
dent in Chester county, viz. that
the Chicken grape, or small blue
grape, as the Vitis sylvestris is call-
ed, when preserved and eaten
freely in pies in winter will slight-
ly inebriate. This fact is very im-
portant.
Mr. B. Waring of Columbia,
S. Carolina, lately sent a bottle of
wine to Philadelphia, made from
grapes of his own raising, with-
out sugar, Avhich resembled a fine
Sauterne wine, in colour and taste ;
and he informed the Editor, that
he added only one gallon of bran-
dy to every twelve of juice....See
Wine.]
Vine, the Wild. See Bryony,
the white.
VlNE-FRETTER. See PlANT-
LOUSE.
VINEGAR, an agreeable pun-
gent acid, which is obtained from
wine, cyder, beer, or other fer-
mented liquors.
[The principal requisites to form
good vinegar, according to Pah-
m e n t i kr, (Cours D'Agric. torn, x.)
V I N 325
are, 1. Contact with the air ; 2. A
temperature not exceeding 20° of
Reaumur (77 of Fahrenheit);
3. The addition of some extran-
eous vegetable matter to promote
the acetous fermention ; and 4.
The presence of alkohol. This last
requisite has not been generally
known in the United States ; its
importahce, however, was discover-
ed by Col. Anderson, now of
New-York, several years before
Parmentier wrote, and he has
since been in the practice of add-
ing some cyder spirit, to make
cyder vinegar, during the progress
of the acetous fermentation.
" The inhabitants of the cyder
and perry cantons," says Parmen-
tier, " make vinegar of these two
liquors, thus; in a cask of 800
pints, they mix six pounds of sour
(aigre) yeast, (made with leaven
and rye-flour,) with hot water,
and pour it in the cask ; after agi-
tating the Avhole with a stick, they
let it remain, and in six or eight
days, vinegar of good strength is
produced. It is very necessary to
draw off this vinegar as soon as
done, because it is more subject to
become vapid than wine-vinegar....
The bung must be kept close."
Mr. Joseph Cooper, of New-
Jersey, makes his vinegar of good
bodied cyder, fills the barrel one-
third full, and permits it to stand
with the bung-holes slightly cover-
ed for at least nine months. If
the fermentation does not proceed
with sufficient rapidity, he draws
off a few quarts of the liquor, and
after boiling and skimming it, re-
turns it again into the cask. Mr.
CoorER confirms the utility of the
practice of adding cyder or rye-
spirit to Aveak vinegar to increase
its strength.
Mr. William Sheaff, of Flii-
226 VIN
V IN
ladelphia, adds one quart of bruised
and ripe sumach-berries, after be-
ing boiled with half an ounce of
creme of tartar, to every barrel of
cyder destined for vinegar. He
fines it, by pouring in one quart of
fresh blood, beaten up with a hand-
ful of salt.
To prevent a mould forming on
vinegar, several methods have been
proposed. 1. To prepare vinegar
very strong and sour. 2. To con-
centrate the vinegar by freezing,
after vvhich a hole is made in the
crust of ice which covers it, through
which the part not congealed is let
out, and afterwards may be bottled.
By this process, more than one
half is lost. [Very weak vinegar
that will not keep is best treated in
this last manner.] 3. To fill the
bottles and keep them well corked.
4. To distill the vinegar in a glass
retort. The following is the easiest
method.
Boil vinegar in a well tinned
kettle for a quarter of an hour, and
bottle it, or fiil the bottles Avith vine-
gar, and put them into a kettle
full of water upon the fire. After
the water has boiled for an hour,
the bottles are taken out of the pot,
and corked. Vinegar thus boiled
will keep for several years without
growing turbid or mouldy......
Scheele's Chemical Esaays.']
Wine-vinegar :....Let any quan-
tity of vinous liquor be mixed with
its own lees or feces, or Avith the
acid and austere stalks of the ve-
getable from Avhich wine was pre-
pared. The whole must be fre-
quently stirred, and either exposed
to the sun, or deposited in a warm
place : after standing a few days,
it will ferment,become sour; and,
in a fortnight, it will be converted
into vinegar.....Such is the usual
manner cf producing this acid;
which is frequently rectified by dis-
tillation, when it is knoAvn under
the name of distilled vinegar.
Cyder-vinegar, may be made by
fermenting new cyder with the
must of apples, in a warm room, or
in the open air, where it should be
exposed to the sun ; and, in the
course of a week or nine days, it
will be fit for use.
Another method of preparing
vinegar, is that published by M.
Heber : it consists in exposing a
mixture of 72 parts of water, and
four of rectified malt-spirit, in a
temperature of from 70 to 80° of
Fahr en h en, for about 2 months;
at the expiration of which the ace-
tous process will be completed....
A cheaper, though more tedious
mode, is that of dissolving 2 lbs. of
molasses in nine quarts of boiling
water: this solution must be poured
into a vessel containing a large
quantity of cowslips; and, when
the mixture becomes cool, a gill of
yeast should be added. The whole
is then to be exposed to the rays of
the sun: at the end of three months,
it may be bottled for use, and will
be of peculiar service in pickling.
Tarragon-vinegar is manufac-
tured, by infusing one pound of the
leaves of that vegetable (which.
have been gathered a short time
before it flowers) in one gallon of
the best vinegar, for the space of
14 days; when it should be strained
through a flannel bag ; and a dram
of isinglass, dissolved in cyder,
must then be added ; the whole be
carefully mixed, and decanted into
bottles for a month. Thus, the
liquor will acquire a most exquisite
flavour.; it will become remarka-
bly fine, and almost colourless.....
[See Artemesia.]
There is a method of procuring
a very powerful essence of vinegar;
VIO
vvhich, however, can be practised
only during the intense frosts of
winter: it simply consists in ex-
posing this liquor in basons, or
other shallow vessels, Avhen the
watery parts are converted into ice;
but the spirituous, or acetous basis,
remains in a fluid state ; so that,
by repeated exposure, one pint of
strong vinegar will in very cold
seasons, be reduced to about a
table-spoonful of the essence. This
preparation possesses a fine flavour,
and a pungent, almost corrosive
taste: hence it forms an excellent
spice or sauce to fish in general,
but particularly to lobsters and oys-
ters.
VIOLET, or Viola, L. a genus
of plants, consisting of 44 species ;
of which the following are the prin-
cipal:
1. The canina. See Dog's Vio-
let.
2. The tricolor. See IIe&rt's-
1ASK.
3. The odorata, or Sweet Vio-
let, is perennial; grows in warm
lanes, hedges, and ditch-banks,
especially in clayey or marly soils:
flowers in the months of April and
May...Both the blossoms and seeds
of this plant are mildly laxative;
and, when taken in doses of from
40 to 80 grains, the powdered root
operates as a purgative, and like-
wise as an emetic...Large quanti-
ties of violets are cultivated at
Stratford-upon-Avon, for their pe-
tals, to impart the colour to syrup of
violets ; an officinal preparation of
which is kept in the shops, and
proves an agreeable and useful lax-
ative for children. Such syrup
may also be employed in many
chemical inquiries, for discovering
the presence of an acid, or an al-
kali ; the former changing the blue
roi our to a red, and the latter to a
V I T 227
green: though slip3 of Avhite pa-
per, stained with this juice, and
preserved from the access of air and
light, may serve as a substitute for
that purpose.
VIPER's BUGLOSS,the Com-
mon, or Echium vulgare, L. an
indigenous biennial, growing in
sandy corn-fields, walls, and rub-
bish, particularly on the clay thrown
out of coal-mines : it flowers from
June till August....This vegetable
is not relished by cows, and is re-
fused by horses and goats ; but its
strong hairy flowers are fondly vi-
sited by bees....From the flower-
stalks, Dambourney obtained a
dye of a tine olive-green shade.
Viugi:;'s-bower. See Tra-
veller's-joy.
VITRIOL, a compound salt,
formed by the combination of zinc,
copper, or iron, Avith the sulphuric,
or vitriolic acid ; and which is ei-
ther white, blue, or green, accord-
to the metal employed.
White Vitriol, or Vitriol of Zinc,
is found in the mines of Goslar, in
Saxony, in a native state, and con-
sists of White transparent pieces ;
but, the quantity thus obtained be-
ing insufficient for the demand,
this salt is generally prepared by
mixing 5 parts of sulphuric acid
with 20 of distilled water, and
gradually adding 3 parts of zinc;
when the ebullition ceases, the li-
quor is strained ; and, after being
evaporated, it is deposited in a cool
place, where it shoots into Avhite
crystals. It is sometimes employ-
ed by painters, for the purpose of
speedily drying cil-cclours: its
taste is nauseous,though SAveetish;
being frequently given as an eme-
tic, in doses of from 5 to 6 grains
to half a dram ; the operation of
which is very powerful; and such
drus* ought therefore to be regular-
328 V I T
VI V
ly prescribed. But its chief utility
is that of an astringent and desic-
cative, in external applications:
thus, when dissolved in the propor-
tion of 16 grains in 8 oz. of water,
Avith the addition of 16 drops of
weak vitriolic acid, it forms an
useful collyrium, or eye-water. A
solution of 2 drams of white vitriol,
and a similar quantity of alum,
in a pint of water, is likewise em-
ployed for cleansing foul ulcers,
and repelling cutaneous eruptions.
Green Vitriol consists of sulphu-
ric acid diluted with 10 or 12 times
its weight of water, in which iron-
filings are dissolved : when the ef-
fervescence ceases, the mixture is
for some time placed in a sand-
bath ; next, the liquor is strained
through paper; and, after being
evaporated, it shoots into rhomboi-
dal crystals, which are also termed
Salt of Steel.....Green vitriol is
given in doses of from half a grain
to 5 grains ; according to the age,
strength, or case of the patient;
being one of the safest forms in
which iron can be administered.
See vol. Hi. p. 390,
Blue Vitriol, is chiefly imported
from Italy. It is made by strati-
fying plates of copper with sul-
phur; and, on slow combustion,
the sulphuric acid corrodes the
copper: the metal is then boiled
in water, till the saline particles
are dissolved ; when, after repeat-
ed solution, and subsequent eva-
poration, the whole is reduced to
the chrystallizing point. Vitriol
of copper is chiefly employed ex-
ternally as a caustic, to remove
the flesh of fungous ulcers; for
which purpose it is very useful:
on account of its virulent proper-
ties, bowever, it ought never to
be administered internally, without
medical advice.
Vitriolic Acid, Sulphuric
Acid, or Oil of Vitriol, an use-
ful liquid, prepared by the com-
bustion of sulphur in close ves-
sels, with the addition of l-8th or
l-12th part of nitre, and a little
water, to condense the vapour:
after Avhich it is concentrated and
purified by evaporation. Beside
the purposes to which it may be
applied (and Avhich are stated in
the articles Bleaching and Sul-
phur), this acid, when properly
diluted, has successfully been ad-
ministered in hemorrhages, fevers
of the typhus kind, and the itch;
in doses of from 40 to 60 drops
in water ; but, when combined in
the proportion of one part, with
eight of lard, or other unctuous
matter, it forms an efficacious ap-
plication to the parts affected, in
chronic cutaneous eruptions, and
likewise as a rubefacient in rheu-
matisms and local palsies.
VIVES, in farriery, a disorder
affecting horses, and which differs
from the strangles only in this re-
spect, that the tumors in the for-
mer do not suppurate ; and may
therefore be dispersed by covering
the diseased animal with blankets;
by rubbing the tumefied part with
the ointment of marsh-mallow; by
moderate blood-letting, when a
plethoric habit requires it; and
giving one or two gentle purga-
tives. But, if these remedies fail
to remove the inflammation, it will
be necessary to promote a suppu-
ration, and to adopt the treatment
stated in the article Strangles.
Vives appearing in old horses,
indicate an internal decay, which
no medicines can remove; or are
symptomatic of the Glanders:
in the latter case, the animals
must be treated in the manner
pointed out vol. iii. p. 158.
ULC
ULC
329
ULCER, is an ichorous or pu-
rulent solution of soft parts. This
affection may arise from a variety
of causes, such as cancer, scro-
phula, scurvy, he. but, as a dis-
cussion of these would exceed our
limits, we shall only give an out-
line of the general treatment.
[Ulcers, and particularly those
which appear in the legs, have hi-
therto been too generally abandon-
ed to the care of quacks, " either,"
says Dr. Rush, " because the dis-
ease was considered as beneath
the notice of physicians, or be-
cause they were unable to cure it."
The same excellent physician very
justly ascribes the difficulty of
curing sore legs, to the indiscri-
minate mode of treating them, oc-
casioned by a Avant of theory which
shall explain their proximate cause.
He is of opinion, that sore legs are
a disease of the whole system:
this he infers from the causes
vvhich induce them, acting more
or less upon every part of the bo-
dy ; from their following or pre-
ceding diseases, which obviously
belong to the whole system, as
fevers and dysenteries ; from their
becoming in some cases the out-
lets of obstructed female dischar-
ges ; from the symptoms of sore
legs, vvhich are often febrile; and
lastly, from the remedies which
cure them, acting more or less
upon the whole system. These
propositions he supports, by de-
tails in an excellent paper on the
subject, in the 2d vol. of his works.
Dr. Rush with great propriety,
divides the remedies to cure the
complaint, into such as are pro-
per where the arterial system is
affected by too much tone: these are,
1. Blood-letting. The efficacy
cf this remedy in disposing ulcers
to heal, he exhibited in the Penn-
von. v.
sylvania hospital; and he acknow-
leges to have learned the use of
the remedy from the late Sir John
Pringle. The Editor can add
his testimony in favour of its effi-
cacy.
2. Gentle purges. 3. Nitre....
From 15 to 20 grains may be given
three times a day. 4. A tempe-
rate diet, and total abstinence from
fermented and spirituous liquors.
This remedy (for such tempe-
rance may be) is of the greatest
importance when ulcers affect the
labouring class, among whom this
very commonly prevails, and Avith
great obstinacy. It is utterly im-
possible to effect a cure so long as
they indulge in daily potations of
liquid fire, which keeps the system
in a constant fever and irritation.
They must be abandoned not gra-
dually, but at once, if a cure be
expected.
The local remedies in this state
of the system should be,
1. " Cold water."....Of the effi-
cacy of this remedy, when applied
in a particular way, the Editor has
heard the following Avell attested
case :
A man who had long been af-
flicted, Avas effectually cured by
holding his sore leg against a small
stream for ten or fifteen minutes,
every day for a few Aveeks.
2. " Soft poultices of bread and
milk.".....Dr. Underwood in his
Treatise on Ulcer;, directs them
to be made thus. Finely grated
bread ; moderately stale, is to !,tr
sprinkled into boiling miik, with
one hand, Avhilst it is k( pt, stir-
ring v\ ith the other. The difficulty
with which the spoon is moved,
will shew when a proper quantity
of bread is put in ; after which
it should remain on the fire not
more than two or three m'.nutes
U u
330 ULC
at most, and is to be turned out
boiling ; by which nreans the bot-
tom will retain its heat, after its
surface is become cool enough to
allow of its application. It should
be spread upon a piece of double
linen cloth, by the help of a round
edged knife, greased with hog's
lard or oil, to the size required.
These directions are given, be-
cause every physician who has
occasion to prescribe a poultice,
knows how seldom it is properly
made.
3. " Rest, and a horizontal pos-
ture of the leg." Too much cannot
be said in favour of this remedy
of sore legs.
Where the inflammation is con-
siderable, rest is indispensably ne-
cessary ; and many ulcers which
were trifling in the beginning have
become very tedious, owing to the
irritation from working, Avalking,
or riding.
In sore legs, attended by too
little general and local action, Dr.
Rush advises,
1. Bark in large doses, but with
a constant reference to the state of
the system, which may render its
disuse for a short time frequently
necessary.
2. Mcrcum. It acts as a uni-
versal stimulant, and should be
given to salivation.
3. E.vcrci. e. 4. A nutritious
and moderately stimulating diet.
Wort has done great service in
sore legs. The manner in which
he directs it to be prepared and
taken is as follows :
To three or four heaped table
spoonfuls of malt finely powdered
and sifted, add two table spoon-
fuls of brown sugar, and three or
four of Madeira, Sherry, or Lis-
bon wine, and a quart of boiling
water. After they have stood a
ULC
few hours, it may be drank r*
berally by the patient, stirring it
each time before he takes it, so
that the whole substance of the
malt may be conveyed into the
stomach. A little lime-juice may
be added, to make it more plea-
sant. The above quantity may
be taken once, twice, or three
times a day at the pleasure of the
patient, or according to the indi-
cation of his disorder.
5. Opium eases pain, and co-
operates Avith the other remedies
in invigorating the Avhole system.
The local applications should
consist of gentle esc orotic reme-
dies, which excite an action in the
torpid vessels of the affected part.
Arsenic, red preciptate, and blue
vitriol, have all been employed
with success for this purpose.....
Dr. Griffiths employs tartar
emetic with success. They should
all be used, if necessary, in suc-
cession to each other. After the
use of these remedies, astringents
and tonics should be applied, such
as an infusion of Peruvian, or
white oak bark, the water in which
the smiths extinguish their irons,
lime-Avater, bread dipped in a Aveak
solution of green vitriol, (so much
commended by Dr. Underwood),
and compresses wetted with bran-
dy, or spirits.
" Tight bandages are likewise
proper here." Dr. Underwood
prefers a roller of W. l.h flannel,
cut across, and sewed together
selvage ways (the hard selvage
thread being first cut oft) where-
by the roller is made to yield to
every motion, and varying shape
cf the limb, and admits of, and
assists the patient in walking.....
" The bandage should be four in-
ches wide, and ought to be carri-
ed from the extremity of the foot,
ULC
till it rises to the calf of the leg."
In summer a cotton roller will be
more proper.
" It is of the utmost conse-
quence in the treatment of sore
legs, to keep them clean, by fre-
quent dressings and washings."
The following remarks on the
treatment of ulcers, are commu-
nicated by Dr. James Hutchin-
son, house pupil of the Pennsyh
vania hospital, whose experience
has been very extensive in the
disease. ,
" The patients afflicted wilh this
complaint when first visited, were
generally found to have their ulcers
considerably inflamed, sloughing,
and discharging an offensive mat-
ter. The remedies most success-
ful, when they put on this appear-
ance, are low diet, confinement to
bed, and emollient poultices, of
bread and milk, or flax-seed ; af-
ter submitting to these remedies
for a few days, the surface of the
ulcer will become clean and red,
and the granulations will begin to
rise. In this stage the cure can
be greatly expedited, by approxi-
mating the edges of the ulcer with
stripes of sticking plaster, spread
on linen or leather, and then cov-
ering the whole with a plaster of
simple cerate ; a bandage is after-
wards to be applied, extending
from the toes to the knee, in such
a manner as to press equally on
all parts. These dressings are to be
renewed every 24 hours. When
the patient's business compels him
to take exercise, this method is ab-
solutely necessary for the cure of
an ulcer. If the granulations
should rise so high as to be above
tiie level of the surrounding skin,
they are to be kept under by touch-
ing them a\ith lunar cat.s'ic. It
-'ten happens that after the ulcer
ULC S31
becomes clean, it 'hews no dispo-
sition to fill up, and has an indo-
lent appearance, dressing it with
red precipitate ointment, will gene-
rally cause the granulations to rise
and thereby fill it up.
When the ulcer is completely
healed, a bandage ought to be worn
for several weeks after, together
with a piece of sheet lead over the
part where the ulcer existed, to
defend it from accidents."]
A new and ingenious method of
treating old ulcers of the legs, has
lately been recommended by Mr.
Baynton, of Bristol; and which
has since been succesfully adopted
by many respectable surgeons. It
consists in carefully drawing the
skin that surrounds the ulcer, to-
wards its centre; and which is
gradually effected at each dress-
ing, by the aid of slips of adhesive
plaster (for instance, that of dia-
chylon, or lytharge), spread on
smooth linen cloth. These slips
must be made 2 inches broad, and
of such a length that, after passing
round the limb, from 4 to 5 in-
ches may remain : the middle of
this piuce is to be applied to the
sound side of the limb, opposite
to the inferior p£trt of the ulcer,
about one inch below the lower
edge of the sore, and the ends
are drawn over the ulcer with as
much gradual extension as the pa-
tient can bear. Other strips are
then to be placed in a similar
manner, each above and in con-
tact with the other, until the whole
surface of the sore and limb be
completely covered, at least one
inch below, and two or three inches
above, the diseased part. Next, the
limb is to be defended by rollers of
soft calico,passed round as smooth-
ly as possible, above and below the
ulcer. In cases of violent inflamma-
332 V O M
tion, and considerable discharge,
Mr. B. recommends repeated af-
fusions of cold water : the patient
should take frequent exercise, and
apply this bandage early in the
morning; asthelimbisthenlesslia-
ble to swelling. In a short time, the
pain, vvhich at first is considerable,
will be found gradually to abate,
while the limb recovers its tone and
sensibility.
VOMITING, is the inverted
vermicular motion of the muscular
fibres of the stomach and intes-
tines ; being attended with con-
vulsions of the abdominal muscles
and midriff: when this action is so
mild as to be confined to the sto-
mach, it is then termed nausea....
As vomiting is a frequent symptom
in other diseases, especially in fe-
A'ers, we shall here consider it only
as a primary complaint.
Causes .'...Crudities accumulated
in the stomach ; such as bile ;
mucus ; hard, indigestible food ;
scirrhus, and other organic affec-
tions ; acrid and poisonous sub-
stancestakenpy the mouth; Avorms;
ruptures ; nephritic complaints, or
stone, as well as violent passions.
Cure :...If the stomach be foul;
or if hurtful substances have been
swallowed, emetics should be >ad-
ministered in the manner described,
vol. ii. p. 451 ; but, in cases where
poisons have been taken, the anti-
dotes recommended under their
respective heads, should first be re-
sorted to ; and the cure be com-
pleted by strengthening medicines.
In callosity, or scirrhosity of the
stomach, benefit has often been
derived from the internal use of
soap, mercurials, and other altera-
tives....Worms require the treat-
ment already suggested, for their
expulsion....If vomiting has been
induced by violent passions, espe-
UR I
cially by anger and vexation; it
will be advisable to take a tea-
spoonful of vitriolated kali in spring
water, and, on the following morn-
ing from 10 or 15 grains of powder
of rhubarb : the beverage should
consist of barley-water, and other
diluents, with cream of tartar, and
a few grains of nitre. Persons of
an irritable temper, and conse-
quently more liable to a return of
this complaint, ought at hast to
abstain from spirituous liquors, and
high-seasoned food.
Where the vomiting, or nausea,
continues after the stomach is
cleansed, about a scruple of salt of
wormwood should be taken in wa-
ter ; and immediately after, two
tea-spoonfuls of lemon-juice in the
same liquid ; Avhich remedy may
be repeated every two or three
hours ; drinking balm-tea in the
intervals. The Columbo-root has,
likewise, been of great service in
these cases.
Infants at the breast are often
troubled with vomiting: if the
milk be coagulated, and the stools
have a similar appearance, or a
green colour, and an acid odour,
the testaceous powder should be
given, as directed, p. 99 of this
vol. after which the infant ought
to drink pure whey ; but, during
the attack, luke-warm water must
be administered ; farther, a mix-
ture of sweet-oil and laudanum
may be rubbed in, or warm cu-
shions filled with aromatic plants,
be applied to the pit of the stomach.
If such vomiting be followed by
greatdebility, a few tea-spoonfuls of
mulled red-wine, with a little nut-
meg, may be allowed with benefit;
though this practice should never
be adopted on trivial occasions.
URINE, is that part of the blood
which is separated by the extremi-
U RI
ties of the arteries connected with
the k/idnies. It drops by the ure-
ter into the urinary bladder, where
it usually remains a few hours ;
and is prevented from returning
into the ureters, by their entrance
being oblique, and provided with
valves.
As this secretion is of import-
ance in the animal economy, we
shall give a concise view of the
principal diseases arising from that
source. It deserves 10 be previ-
ously stated, that the obstruction of
the urinary passage is always at-
tended with greater and more im-
mediate danger, than that of the
bo web..... vv' hen the inclination to
knake water is succeeded by a dis-
charge of a few drops only, it is
termed a strangury; if the diffi-
culty of voiding it be attended with
pain, a dysury ; and a total sup-
pression, is called ischury.
Causes ......lhe most frequent
are, an acrid state of the blood ;
spasms ; compression of the neigh-
bouring parts ; scirrhous, or cance-
rous tumors forming internally ;
suppressed perspiration ; repulsion
of rheumatism, gou:, and cutane-
ous eruptions ; slone in the bladder
or kidnies; inflammation of the
bladder, he. .
Cure :......In urinary affections
arising from acrimony, suppressed
perspiration, or spasms, it wiil be
advisable to take antispasmodics,
combined with mild :.udor;lics ;
for instance, emulsions with tinc-
ture of guaiacum ; camphor, he
at the same time, warm fomenta-
tions should be applieu to the lower
belly ; or, tepid bathing, fallowed
by emollient clysters, may be of
still greater advantage. If the dis-
order originate from a repulsion
of rheumatic, gouty, and other
morbid matter, attempts mu^i be
URI 333
made to reduce the affection to its
former seat, by means of diaphore-
tics ; blisters applied to different
parts, and the use of warm baths.
In cases of inflammation of the
bladder, or stone, we refer the
reader to vol. i. p. 295 ; and p. 47
of the present volume.
In every stage of these painful
maladies, the patient should take
lukewarm, mucilaginous liquids ;
such, as solutions of gum-arabic
in water; cr linseed-tea; and a
bland,, nutritious diet. If, how-
ever, th*e desired relief be not
speedily obtained, proper medical
aid ought to be procured, without
delay.
Sometimes the urine is involun-
tarily emitted, but without pain ;
a complaint which frequently, af-
fects children. It generally origi-
nates from indolence ; so that mo-
derate correction -will prove the
most certain remedy : it may, how-
ever, also arise from a weakness of
the sphincter of the bladder; in
which ca::e, tonics, such as bark,
valerian, he. together with blisters
applied to the loins, or to the sacral
bone, Avill be the most proper
means. But, where it proceeds
from worms, anthelmintics may be
employed with advantage.
Another affection of the urinary
system, is diabetes, or an immode-
rate and long-continued discharge
of urine, the quality of vvhich is, in
most cases, preternaturaily chang-
ed : thus, in some instances, it has
the smell, colour, and taste of ho-
ney ; while, in others, it is entirely
limpid.....It is a remarkable cir-
cumstance in this affection, that
the excretion of urine exceeds
the quantity of liquid taken by the
patient.
Causes :...Sp isms ; genera? debi-
lity, or local weakness in the Lid-
334 USQ
nies , strong diuretics, and Avhat-
ever may induce a laxity of the
body......This malady is seldom
cured, unless it be attended to in
its earlier stages.
Treatment ......The remedies hi-
therto prescribed for this affection,
are tonics, such as bark, Avith small
doses of rhubarb, or mixed with
the diluted vitriolic acid ; and the
daily use of mucilaginous drinks,
conjoined with lime-water, either
alone, or with milk. But the most
important point appear^ V» be, ab-
stinence from all vegetable food ; a
practice vvhich has been attended
with the best effect. [See Dia-
betes.]
Lastly, there occurs sometimes
an alarming affection of the blad-
der, when the urine is mingled with
blood....If this malady be suffered
to continue for a long period, it
may prove fatal; but, in general,
it is not attended with danger.
Causes ......Violent exertions and
local injury; inflammation of the
kidnies ; drastic and diuretic me-
dicines ; excess in sensual plea-
sures ; suppression of the piles, he.
Cures:... When the disorder arises
from debility, tonics, combined with
astringents, should be employed.
If acrid matters produced such
bloody discharge, it will be neces-
sary to resort to mucilaginous sub-
stances and antispasmodics; such
as chamomile, rue, opium, Sec. but,
when it is occasioned by suppress-
ed evacuations, these ought, if
possible, to be speedily restored....
Where the passage is ulcerated, it
will be useful to take the Peruvian
bark with sal ammoniac, or lime-
water and milk. In cases of Stone,
the reader will find the proper re-
medies stated under that article.
USQUEBAUGH,a strong, com-
pound, spirituous liquor, vvhich is
uvu
prepared in the following manner:
Take of cloves, cinnamon, and
nutmegs, each 2 oz. ; of caraway,
anise, and coriander-seeds, each 4
oz.; and half a pound of liquorice-
root, cut in slices. Let these in-
gredients be bruised, and distilled
with 11 gallons of proof-spirit, and
two gallons of water, till the fiiinu
begin to vise. When the liquor is
about to run, 2 oz. of British saf-
fron, tied in a linen bag, should be
fixed to the extremity of the worm,
so that the spirit may filtre through
and extract all the virtues of the
saffron. When, the distillation is
completed, the whole should be
sweetened with a sufficient quan-
tity of double-refined sugar, and
decanted for use.
Usquebaugh is chiefly employed
as a cordial, and may occasionally
be drunk with advantage, by per-
sons who have undergone great
bodily fatigue ; but, as the posses-
sion of such luscious beverage is apt
to introduce detestable habits, we
conceive, that diluted rum, or other
simple spirit, would afford a proper
substitute for this expensive com-
pound.
Usuky. See Interest.
UVULA, in animal economy,
denotes a soft glandular body, of a
conical figure, that is suspended
from the palate, or posterior part of
the roof of the mouth, perpendicu-
larly over the chink of the wind-
pipe, which lies at the root of the
tongue.
The uvula is by Nature design-
ed to modify the current of cold
air, previously to its entering the
lungs. As the aftections, to which
this part is exposed, do not essen-
tially differ from those of the Ton-
sils, we shall conclude with re-
marking, that a gargle, consisting
of a decoction of Peruvian bark,
U V y U V U 335
rage, rose-leaves, or other aslrin- gland is so relaxed or inflamed, as
gents, has generally proved eflica- to be attended with a difficulty of
*ious, in cases where this useful swallowing.
w.
WAG WAG
Wages. See Labour.
WAGGON, a species of wheel-
carriage, the form of which varies,
according to the different purposes
for vvhich it is designed.
Few implements of husbandry
are of greater importance, or ad-
mil, perhaps, of more essential im-
provements, than wheel-carriages.
Hence we cannot but express our
surprize at the infatuation of those
farmers, who employ large wag-
gons, on the erroneous principle,
that a greater quantity may thus be
carried at one time ; while they
overlook the injury which such un-
wieldy machines necessarily occa-
sions, both in their fields, and par-
ticularly on roads, by making deep
ruts, and otherwise tearing or
breaking up the soil. The princi-
pal objection to the use of these
heavy vehicles on farms, is their
weight; which requires an in-
creased number of horses or cattle,
that might le more profitably em-
ployed in tillage. The same obser-
vation is applicable to the common
road or stage-waggons : these usu-
ally weigh about 2£ tons, and are
drawn by 8, 10, or more horses,
acoording to the distance to which
they travel. Now, a single horse,
of a moderate size vviil, in a well-
constructed vehicle, and on tolera-
ble roads draw 30 cwt. with ease,
independently of the weight occa-
sioned by the cart: and it will per-
form this task for a series of days,
months, and even years. But, if
the common waggons were laden
according to such draught, they
ought to carry from 20 to 40 tons;
a weight exceeding their strength,
and incompatible with their mode
of construction. The superiority
of small carriages being too evident
to require any farther demonstra-
tion, we shall subjoin a table, ex-
hibiting the load vvhich waggons
and carts are, by act of parliament,
permitted to draw on ihe turnpike-
roads ; and wdiich includes both
the whole incumbent load, and the
vehicle itself.
336 WAG
WAG
Waggons, with wheels not exceeding
9 inches,
Ditto, with wheels not exceeding 6
inches,
Ditto, with wiieels not exceeding 3
inches,
Carts, with wheels not exceeding 9
inches,
Ditto, Avith Avheels not exceeding 6^
inches, '
Ditto, Avith wheels not exceeding 3 ]
inches,
Summer Weight. Winter Weight.
tons. civt. qrs. tons. cat. qrt.
6 0 0
4 5 0
3 10 0
3 0 0
2 12 0
1 10 0
5 10 0
3 15 0
3 0 0
2 15 0
.2 7 0
1 7 0
Our limits not admitting a far-
ther disquisition, we request those
readers, who wish to obtain addi-
tional information on this subject,
to consult Dr. Anderson's "Dis-
sertation on the Means of Con-
structing Waggons, and other Car-
riages employedfor the Purposes of
Agriculture ;" an ingenious essay,
which is inserted in the 4th vol. of
his " Recreations in Agriculture,"
he. See also the article Cart.
[The above table is preserved,
from an opinion that the English
regulations maybe advantageously
adopted in the United States,
where it is highly pleasing to see
a spirit prevailingin favour of those
great sourses of riches to a coun-
try, Turnpike Roads.
The great importance of enabling
ahorse oroxtodravv Avith the great-
est power, is self-evident; and bence
the reader is presented with the
following observations, by Mr.
Walker, extracted from his
" Lectures on Philosophy," 4to.
It is evident, that where the
neck rises from the chest of the
horse, the shoulder-blades form
the resting place of his collar, or
harness, into a slope or inclination ;
and as this slope forms an angle]
with a perpendicular to the hori-
zon, of about 14 or 15 degrees, it
is evident, the line of his draught
should form the same angle with
the horizon, because he will then
pull perpendicularly to the shape
of his shoulder, and all parts of
that shoulder will be equally pres-
sed by the collar. The following
figure may render this more intel-
ligible, and show that a horse
draws more conformably to Lis
mechanism in a sloping, than an
horizontal line.
WAG
WAG 337
The horse himself, considered
as a lever, has in this inclined
draught a manifest advantage over
bis obstacles, in comparison of an
horizontal draught, as may be seen
by the next figure.
When a horse is yoked to a
post, or has any great obstacle to
overcome, he converts himself into
a lever, making his hind feet the
fulcrum, and the centre of gravity
of his body to lean over it, at as
great a distance as possible, by
thursting out his hind feet; by
this means acting both by his
weight and muscular strength, and
lengthening the acting part of the
lever a b, he overcomes the diffi-
culty more by his weight than by
his muscular strength ; for the
muscles of the fore legs act upon
the bones to so great a mechanical
disadvantage, that though he ex-
erts them with all his might, they
serve in great difficulties, for little
more than props to the fore part
of his body. Hence we see the
great use of heavy horses for
draught.
But the great mechanical advan-
tage of the inclined draught, may
be more particularly seen, by call-
ing the line a b the acting part of
a lever, and the nearest approach
from the fulcrum b to the inclined
line of draught, (that is, b c) the re-
sisting part of the lever ; compare
this with the resisting part of a
lever, touching the horizontal line
of draught, (that is, b d) and it will
be found nearly double; conse-
quently, agreeably to the known
properties of the lever, a weight at
g would require douhle the exer-
tion in the horse to remove it, that
the same weight would require
was it placed at e. These advan-
tages, great as they are, are yet so
obvious,that one wonders how they
could be overlooked. Let any one
with the model of a horse from a
toy-shop, set his hind feet on the
edge of a table, and it will be found
that he will draw double the
weight along the table a, that he
can upon the table *.
vol. v.
Xx
338 WAG
WAG
The obvious conclusions from
this experiment is, that single horse
carts are preferable to teams ; that
four horses, with each a properly
constructed cart, -will draw much
more, and with more ease to
themselves, than when they are
yoked in a team to one cart; be-
cause, in that case, three of the
horses must draw horizontally, and
consequently in a manner incon-
sistent with their mechanism, and
the established laws of mechanics.
The horse's collar is also drawn
against his throat, by which his
breathing is interrupted ; and in
cart teams, (Avhere the horses are
not marshalled, as in wraggons,)
one horse is standing still, perhaps,
while another is wasting his
strength in pulling him forward....
One horse to relieve himself, leans
on one way out of the line of
draught, whilst another is leaning
a contrary way; in short their
strength is seldom united.
From a number of experiments
made by Mr. Walker, for the
purpose of determining the pro-
per draught, there appeared, to be
an evident disadvantage in drawing
from above the centre ; and on the
contrary, a considerable increase
of power in drawing from the
axles. Hence he concludes as the
splinter bar, or point of draught,
in most carriages, is placed about
one fourth the diameter of the fore
wheel above its centre, it is evident,
that a pressure equal to one fifth
of whatever weight lies upon it, is
actually added to the natural
weight, by this situation of the
point of draught. For 24oz. sur-
mounted the obstacle when the
pull was from the centre, and
30oz. were required to surmount it,
at half the length of a spoke above
the centre.
From Mr. Walker's experi-
ments to ascertain the best propor-
tions between the heights of the
fore and hind wheels ; it appeared,
that there was little superiority or
inferiority in all the variety of com-
binations of heights in fore and
hind wheels. Fore wheels, how-
ever, of four feet eight inches, and
hind wheels of five feet six inches,
seem to have Avhat little,advantage
there is. To the objection which
might be made against these di-
mensions, founded upon the incon-
veniences arising to the coach-
WAK
WAL 339
tfnaker in altering the routine of
his business, he replies it is cer-
tainly as easy to fix the splinter-
bar under the futchells, as upon
them -, and I see no great outrage
that would be done to appearance
and fashion, if the buttons on
which the traces are looped, were
under the splinter-bar instead of
being a-top. In these cases the
draught would have all its mecha-
nical advantages, and the horses
Would draw agreeably to their form
and anatomy ; the pole would have
the same command of the car-
riage down hill, and the same
command in turning as in the
present method.]
WAINSCOT, denotes the tim-
ber-work employed for lining the
walls of apartments : it is usually
made in the form of pannels, and
painted, in order to serve as a sub-
stitute for hangings.
According to the modern prac-
tice of building, rooms are wains-
coted only to the height of two or
three feet; the intermediate space,
to the ceiling, being usually cover-
ed with paper. The walls, how-
ever, ought to be thoroughly dry,
before the wainscot is fixed ; as the
moisture exuding from the bricks
is apt to loosen the pannels, and
thus disfigure the workmanship.
With a view to prevent such acci-
dents, charcoal and wool are usu-
ally placed between the timber and
the wall; but the most certain me-
thod of preserving the wainscot,
consists in priming the inner sides
of the joints with white lead, or
with admixture of Spanish-brown
and linseed oil.
WAKE-ROBIN. Cuckow-
riNT,or Lords and Ladies, Arum
maculatum, L. a native and hardy
perennial, growing in shady places,
ditch-banks, and rough grounds ;
flowering in May and June.
Both the bulbous root, and the
leaves of this vegetable, in afresh
state, are extremely acrid. Never-
theless, the former has sometimes
been used internally as a powerful
stimulant, and externally as a sub-
stitute for blisters. When dried
and pulverized, these roots Jose all
their acrimony, and afford an al-
most tasteless farinaceous poAvder.
According to Dr. Withering,
good bread may be prepared from
them, as well as an exceWenistarch.
.....The French manufacture from
the same root, when properly dried
and reduced to powder, a harmless
cosmetic ; whicb is sold under the
name of cypress-powder. Such
preparation may also, and, we con-
ceive, with greater advantage be
used in domestic economy, instead
of soap.
Wall. See Building.
Wall-barley. See Barlet;
WALL-CRESS, the Common,
or Codded Mouse-ear, Arabia
tlmliana, L. an indigenous plant,
growing on walls, roofs, and in
dry, sandy pastures : it flowers in
the month of May.....The Wall-
cress seldom exceeds the height
of 4 or 5 inches ; it produces small
white blossoms, vvhich are succeed-
ed by long slender pods, containing
minute round seeds....This plant is
said not to be relished by sheep,
and is wholly refused by hogs ; but
we are informed by Bechstein,
that sheep are so remarkably par-
tial to the Codded Mouse-ear, as
" to run after it."
Wall-pepper. See Pepper-
Stone-crop.
Wall-worth. See Dwarf-EL-
der.
WALNUT-TREE, or Juglans,
340 WAL
L. a genus of exotic trees compre-
hending 8 species ; the principal
of which is the regia, or Common
Walnut-tree. It is originally a
native of Persia, and attains, in this
country, the height of from 50 to
60 feet; having a beautiful erect
trunk, that branches out into a
large spreading crown, which is
furnished with pinnated leaves.....
There are numerous varieties,
generally raised for their palatable
fruit, which ripens from the begin-
ning of September till the end of
October ; but the most esteemed
are the Double Walnut, the Large
Walnut, the French Walnut, the
Thin-skinned, and the Late Wal-
nut.
The Common Walnut-tree is
propagated by drilling the ripe,
dry nuts, together with their ex-
ternal rind, at the distance of one
inch from each other, and in rows
nine inches asunder, in a light
garden soil, that has been well
ploughed or trenched. If the au-
tumn be dry, they may be sown
in that season ; in the contrary
case, the nuts must be preserved
in dry sand till the month of Fe-
bruary, or early in March, when
they may be set in the manner
above directed. In the succeeding
winter, it will be advisable to shel-
ter the nuts either with rotten
dung, decayed leaves, or with tan-
ner's waste, over which flat.stones
or slates may be placed, till they
begin to shoot, when such cover-
ing will become useless. Should
the ensuing summer prove dry, it
will be proper to water the young
plants ; and those in a prosperous
condition may be removed in au-
tumn, into beds arranged in rows
one foot asunder, and at the dis-
tance of four inches from each
WAL
other in the row: the weaker planta
must be suffered to remain in the
seed-bed for another year. Thus,
the Walnut-trees ought to be train-
ed with single stems, till attain-
ing the height of six or seven feet;
when they may be suffered to
form heads; as the branches
will then be above the reach of
cattle.
The trees should now be trans-
planted to a deep rich soil (though
they also flourish on chalky lands),
six feet asunder, and in rows at
similar distance, in the form of a
quincunx, till they bear fruit. Such
as promise to be the most produc-
tive, may then be selected, and left
for bearing, while the others are to
be planted out for timber : the for-
mer must be thinned as they in-
crease in size, by removing every
intermediate tree, till they stand
at the distance of from 24 to 48
feet from each other, according to
the richness of the soil, and the
progressive growth of the trees.
In trimming the stems of Wal-
nut-trees, Mr. Forsyth directs
the shoots and small branches to be
separated close to the bole, or trunk;
but, when the operation of lopping
is performed, or any diseased, da-
maged, or cross branches, are to
be pruned, he recommends the ex-
cision to be made at a fork, or eye ;
as part of the branch will other-
wise decay, and thus materially
injure the tree: in both cases,
however it will be requisite imme-
diately to apply the composition
already described.
The Walnut is equally valuable
as a timber, and as a fruit-tree. Its
wood was formerly often employed
both for building' and in the manu-
facture of household-furniture;
but being very brittle, it is at pre-
WAL
WAL 341
sent superseded by mahogany, and
other foreign timber. Neverthe-
less, it is highly prized by joiners
and cabinet-makers, for tables,
gun-stocks, and other light arti-
cles ; as it is beautifully veined,
and admits of a fine polish. Far-
ther, these trees are well calculat-
ed for planting them in the bor-
ders of orchards ; because their
large spreading heads shelter the
smaller, and more weakly fruit-
trees, from the effects of boiste-
rous winds:....an infusion of their
leaves in boiling water, mixed with
soap-suds, urine, and lime-water,
has, according to Mr. Forsyth,
been found very efficacious in de-
stroying worms, and slugs in the
ground, as likewise for exterminat-
ing insects on trees.
The fruit of the Walnut-tree is
used at two different periods of its
growth, namely, when green, for
pickling, and in a ripe state, at the
desert. For the former purpose,
the nuts are fit in July or August,
when they are about half, or three-
fourths grown; but those only
which are free from spots, should
be selected, and plucked off the
trees carefully by the hand.
Walnuts attain to maturity in
the months of September and Oc-
tober, when they are usually beaten
down by means of long poles ; for,
as this fruit grows principally at
the extremities of the branches,
indolent or timid persons find it
too troublesome to gather it by
hand. The former practice, how-
ever ought to be relinquished ; as
it is very detrimental to the ferti-
lity of the trees, and breaks or
otherwise mutilates the young
shoots: besides, the nuts cannot
be easily preserved, when beaten
down before they are sufficiently
ripe.
The best method of gathering
walnuts, is that of shaking the
trees only at a time when the fruit
has commenced spontaneously to
drop ; so that they may thus be
easily obtained. If the nuts are
to be kept for a considerable time,
in a fresh state, they should first
be well dried in an airy place,
then packed in boxes, casks, jars,
or other convenient vessels, in
alternate layers of fruit, and fine,
clean sand, that has been previous-
ly deprived of all moisture by the
sun, or in an oven. Thus, wal-
nuts may be preserved in a sound
state till the approach of summer ;
but, in case the kernels be shri-
velled, Mr. Forsyth recommends
such nuts to be immersed in milk
and water, for the space of six or
eight hours, previously to being
used; by vvhich expedient they
will become so fine and plump, as
to be easily divested of their inter-
nal skin.
[The Juglans nigra, or black
Walnut of North America, is a
grand forest tree, and highly va-
luable for cabinet work. The nuts
are large and nearly round, and
contain a large kernel, of pleasant
taste, abounding with oil, which is
expressed for the purpose of mix-
ing with paint for inside work, but
might be usefully substituted (if
not rendered rancid in the opera-
tion of expression) for imported
olive oil. The husk or shell of
the nut, dyes different shades of
brown.
The Juglans alba oblonga, or
white Walnut or Butternut, gene-
rally grows to a less size than the
black walnut. The nuts are oval;
and, freed of the hull, are rough,
and furrowed, containing a soft,
oily, sweet kernel. When ripe the
nuts are covered with a viscid se-
542 W A It WAR
Cretion. The young nuts pickled Fire-place, and Stove, we shall
make an excellent condiment for now lay before our readers the fol-
fish or beef steaks, quite equal to lowing Cut, which represents a
the Maderia nut, commonly called simple, and perhaps the least ex-.
English walnut. An extract of the pensive, mode of communicat-
bark made into pills, constitutes a ing warmth from the kitchen-fire,
mild and safe purge. The bark throughout houses, manufactories,
and shells of the nuts dye a good or other buildings, by means of
brown colour. See Hickory- steam.
tree.]
WARBLES, in farriery, are '—- —'
small, hard tumours arising on a
horse's back, and generally oc-
casioned by the heat, or friction, of
the saddle, in travelling.
As these injuries frequently oc-
cur in horses, after hard journies,
or a severe chase, we would advise
every person, to whose care these
noble animals are entrusted, mi-
nutely to examine the back every
time when the saddle is removed.
If anyhardness or inequality should
be perceived, from which a warble
may probably ensue, the affected
part must be bathed with the fol-
lowing liniment, that alone will be
sufficient to check the progress of
the swelling : Take of extract of
lead, half an ounce ; camphorated
spirit of wine, two ounces; soft
water, half a pint. Previously
to adding the water, the extract ""£>
and spirit should be well shaken,
so that they may be duly incor- A> ;s a COpper furnished with
porated. a still-head, and fixed over the
WARMTH, a term expressing gre.
a moderate degree of heat. B, a ieaden or copper tube, pro-
The warming houses, in a cli- ceeding from the vessel, and being
mate so variable as that of Britain, heated by the steam of the boiling
is an object of the first importance, water. jt }s carrjed through eight
hoth to health and domestic com- rooms (as delineated in the figure
fort: hence, the invention or dis- aDOva given) ; traverses that side
covery of the most economical me- 0f the wau where the chimney is
thod of effecting such purpose, has usuaiiy erected ; and is likewise
engaged the talents of many able provided with stop-cocks, C, C;
philosophers and artisans. Having by means of which the course of
already stated several of their use- the steam may be accelerated, ov
ful contrivances, in the articles retarded, at pleasure.
WAR
WAR S43
D, is the spot at which the
steam is discharged, after having
circulated through the rooms.
E, is a cistern, by which the
copper may be occasionslly sup-
plied with water.
This contrivance was proposed
many years since, by Col. Wil-
liam Cook : it deserves to be
more generally known, on account
of its obvious simplicity ; uniting
convenience with economy, in
warming a number of rooms by
one grate : a considerable saving
in fuel will thence result, while the
kitchen-fire may, at the same time,
be employed in roasting, or in any
other culinary process....See the
article Room.
[WARPING, signifies, 1. Tow-
ing of ships. 2. Preparing webs of
cloth for the loom. 3. That spe-
cies of irrigation which deposits a
quantity of sediment from the
flowing tide, and which form a
stratum of soil or manure when
the waters have receded from it.
It is in this last sense that we
shall notice it.
The origin of this great im-
provement in husbandry, is un-
questionably derived from the
Egyptians. Every one acquaint-
ed wilh the history, of the Nile,
knows, that the sediment left by
that river in its annual over-flow-
ings, acts as excellent manure,
and enables the inhabitants to
reap abundant crops. In England
the practice has been partially fol-
lowed, particularly in the coun-
ties of Lincoln and York ; and also
in Italy, according to Simonde.
The improvement consists in
letting in the tide at high water
to deposit the warp, and permit-
ting it to run off again as the tide
falls. But to render it efficacious,
the water must be at command,
to keep it out and let it in at plea-
sure ; so that there must not only
be a cut or canal made to join the
river, but a sluice at the mouth to
open and shut as wanted ; and that
the waters may be of a proper
depth on the land to be warped,and
also prevented from flowing over
contiguous lands, banks are raised
around the fields to be warped,
from three or four, to six or seven
feet high, according to circum-
stances. Thus a soil of any depth
is formed, which consists of mud
of a vast fertility, though contain-
ing not much besides sand.
Mr. Tat ham, from whose ex-
cellent work on " Irrigation " (see
vol. 3. of this work, p. 395) has
collected several accounts of the
utility of warping, from the agri-
cultural surveys of the counties
of England, from all which the
great advantage of the practice is
rendered evident, and encourages
its adoption in the United States.
It appears, that many estates,
which before the commencement
of warping, were worthless, had
been rendered as valuable as any
in the kingdom. The lands in the
vicinity of muddy creeks in New
Jersey, might be considerably
ameliorated by warping; the sub-
ject is therefore suggested to the
consideration of the proprietors.
Lord Hawke whose details of
the benefits derived from warping,
are highly important, gives the
following directions with respect
to the cultivation of the lands thus
improved : " The land " says he,
" must be in tillage for some con-
siderable time after warping, for
six years at least. The land,
when laid down, and continued
in grass is not warped ; for the
salts in the mud would infallibly
kill the grass-seeds. When it is
344 WAR
WAS
proposed to sow the land again
with corn (grain) then the land is
warped ; when they find the grass
decline, then they warp and plough
it out. As the land varies in quali-
ty, so does the time in Avhich it
will produce good grass ; the land
is never fallowed but in the year
when it is warped."
In Italy, (particularly in Tusca-
ny) warping is called comblec, and
is fully described by Simonde in
his late work on the Agriculture of
Tuscany.]
WARTS, are small, hard, indo-
lent excrescences, or tumors, that
have a rough surface, and appear
principally on the face and hands
of young persons ; though some-
times settling on other parts of the
body. But, if such deformities oc-
cur in individualsadvancedin years,
and are of a livid hue, with a
smooth surface, they frequently
become cancers, and ought to be
treated in a similar manner.
Warts do not, in general, require
immediate attention : for, unless
painful or troublesome, they will,
in most cases, gradually disappear.
Where, however, they increase in
size, and are attended with pain, it
will be proper to remove theni by
a ligature. Another method of ex-
tirpating them is by evulsion, or
plucking them out; but such prac-
tice is by no means to be recom-
mended ; as the warts speedily re-
turn. A preferable mode of era-
dicating them, is by the applica-
tion of escharotics, or mild caute-
ries ; for instance, crude sal-ammo-
niac, which must be moistened
with water, and rubbed on the tu-
mors, two or three times every
day ; or wetting them with the
liquid salt of tartar; spirit of
hartshorn, or tincture of Spanish
flies ; either of which has been
successfully employed for this pur-
pose....Another mode of extermi-
nating warts, as well as corns, has
been recommended, by the follow-
ing plaster: Dissolve 1 oz. of gum
galbanum in vinegar; evaporate
the solution to a proper consist-
ence ; and add half an ounce of
common tar, 2 drams of simple
dyachylon plaster, 20 grains of
verdigrease, and an equal portion
of sal-ammoniac : let the two last
ingredients be finely pulverized,
and the whole be duly incorporat-
ed. Previously to its application,
the warts ought to be well nibbed
with moistened soap, again dried,
and the plaster renewed every 12
hours. In obstinate cases, how-
ever, it will be necessary to resort
to internal remedies, and tochange
the milk-diet of children, by al-
lowing them a greater proportion
of animal food.
WART-WORT, Churn-staff,
Cat's-milk, or Sun-spurge ; Eu-
phorbia hclioscopia, L. an indige-
nous plant, growing in gardens,
corn-fields,and cultivated grounds;
flowering in July and August....
This vegetable, though eaten by
cattle and sheep, imparts to the
flesh of the latter animals a dis-
agreeable flavour, and is also de-
trimental to their health.....The
milky juice exuding from the stalk,
tinges paper of a fine azure-blue
colour.
WASHING, in general, signi-
fies the cleansing of bodies or sub-
stances with water, and other ab-
stergent ingredients.
Washing essentially contributes
to cleanliness, and consequently to
the preservation of health; hence,
all persons ought to be habituated
to this salutary practice, from their
earliest period of i he. Great cau-
tion, however, is requisite in wash-
WAS
WAS 345
ing infants: for which purpose, the
water ought at first to be tepid, or
of a moderate warmth ; then gra-
dually reduced to a cool tempera-
ture ; and at length, it may be
used as cold as the common at-
mosphere of the season. The head
and neck must, farther, be rubbed
during the whole process, with a
wet sponge; and, together with the
rest of the body, be immediately
wiped dry with clean cloths; which,
in the winter, should be previously
warmed. Thus, children will be
early inured to habits of cleanli-
ness ; and the attention of parents
to this important object will be
amply rewarded.
WASP, or Vespa, L. a genus
of insects comprising 139 species,
three of which.only are natives of
Britain.
1. The Crabro. See Hornet.
2. The Vulgaris, or Common
Wasp, is from half to three
quarters of an inch in length ; it
is divided into 3 classes ; namely,
the queens, or females, which are
furnished with stings, and are
much larger than any other wasp,
on account of the numerous eggs
they contain. The males are less
than the queens, and are not pro-
vided with stings : the number of
these two classes is nearly equal
in a nest, amounting in general to
200 or 300. The mules are princi-
pally employed in constructing the
nests, and in providing the other
wasps and the young insects with
food : like the females, they are
furnished with long stings.
The common Avasps build their
nests in the ground, Avhere the
females deposit their eggs singly:
these are hatched in the spring ;
and in the course of three Aveeks,
the young insect^ pass through the
different states of larvae or grubs,
VOL. v.
and of chrysalids ; when they be-
come perfect Avasps. The mules
come first into existence ; immedi-
ately enlarge the hole ; and form
the nest with fibres of wood, leaves,
&c. ; they feed the young males
and females (more judiciously than
some human parents) adapting the
quantity and nature of such pro-
vision to the weakness of their
stomachs. This food consists, first
of the juices extracted from fruits
and meat, but afterwards of the
bodies of insects. As soon as each
wasp acquires sufficient strength,
it flies into the fields, and gardens,
where the fruit is plundered, and
bees are killed, with the view of
obtaining their honey. Similar de-
predations are committed through-
out the summer; but, in the month
of October, Avhen their supply be-
gins to diminish, the males and
mules attack the newly-hatched
insects of their own species, and
destroy them, together with the
larvae, chrysalids, and eggs: they
then fall upon one another, till the
frost and rain exterminate nearly
the whole, excepting a few fe-
males; which, in the ensuing spring
lay new eggs, and thus become the
parents of a numerous progeny ;
as a nest of wasps, towards autumn,
consists of from 14 to 15,000 cells.
3. The coarctata, or Small
Wasp, is about half an inch long :
it is hatched like the preceding
species, with which its habits also
correspond. The nests of the Small
Wasps are constructed of woody
fibres, reduced to a fine substance
resembling paper: they are of an
oval form ; being suspended from
the branches of trees; and covered
with a kind of varnish, that renders
them impenetrable to water.
Wasps are not only destructive
to grapes, peaches, and the mere
Y y
346 WAS
WAT
delicate kinds of fruit, but also to
bees ; the hives of vvhich they at-
tack and plunder, frequently com-
pelling those industrious insects to
change their habitation. To pre-
vent such depredations, Mr. For-
syth recommends several phials,
or small bottles, to be prepared,
towards the time when the Avasps
appear. These vessels are to be
filled, half or three parts full, with
a mixture consisting of the lees of
beer or Avine, and the sweepings
of sugar, or the dregs cf molas-
ses : next, they must be suspend-
ed by yelloAV pack-thread, on nails
driven into different parts of gar-
den-Avalls, so as to reach nearly
the bottom. When the bottles are
filled with insects, the liquor must
be poured into another vessel, and
the wasps crushed on the ground.
Should the weather prov'e very hot,
so that these marauders become
very numerous, and will not enter
the glasses exposed for their recep-
tion, Mr. F. directs them to be
touched on the back with a little
oil, when they will instantly fall
down; their bodies acquiring a
black or green colour ; and the la-
teral pores through which they
breathe, being closed up by the
oil, they consequently perish.
As the proper remedies for pro-
curing relief in the painful sensa-
tion arising from the sting of these
insects, are similar to those em-
ployed for the Sting of Bees, we
refer the reader to vol. i. p. 244.
If, however, any wasps be acciden-
tally swallowed in beer, or other
liquor, a small portion of honey,
vinegar, and sweet-oil, may be
mixed together ; a tea-spoonful of
wdiich should be frequently taken ;
till the pain and inflammation
abate. The efficacy of this remedy
has been fully proved by experience.
Waste Lands. See Land.
Wtatch. See Time-piece.
WATER, a transparent fluid,
destitute of colour, taste, and
smell: it was formerly considered
as one of the four elements: when
perfectly pure, it does not sponta-
neously undergo any perceptible
change; remains liquid in the
common temperature of the at-
mosphere ; becomes solid, at 32
degrees of Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer ; and is converted into
vapour, at 212°.; but resumes its
fluidity, on being reduced to any
intermediate degree.
Water is capable of dissolving
most of the natural bodies, and
particularly salts ; while it consti-
tutes a material part both of the
animal and vegetable kingdoms.
Till the latter end of the 18th
century, water was generally be-
lieved to be a simple element, which
might, by repeated distillation, be
converted into earth: it is now,
however demonstrated to be a com-
pound.
Water may be divided into two
general classes, namely, saline, and
fresh. The former is derived from
the different seas which surround
the globe: it contains a large por-
tion of common salt, magnesia,
&c. See Sea-avater.
Fresh water may, farther, be di-
vided into atmospheric, vvhich in-
cludes hail, rain, and snow-water,
and also dew ; stagnant, such as
that of lakes, ponds, and marshes ;
and running, which comprehends
spring, well, and river-water. To
these may be added Minkkal
Waters, being impregnated with
various earthy and metallic ingre-
dients, from which they derive pe-
culiar properties.
Water is one of the most useful
elements in the arts and manufac-
WAT
WAT 347
tures, as well as in rural and do-
mestic economy : hence, various
machines have been invented, for
the purpose of raising and diffus-
ing this salutary fluid....the follow-
ing contrivances deserve particular
notice.
The machine, of which the an-
nexed figure will convey an accu-
rate idea, was executed at Oulton,
in Cheshire, by Mr. Wkitehurst,
for the service of a brewhouse, and
other offices, belonging to Philip
Egerton, Esq. Its design is, to
raise water by the momentum, or
force which this fluid acquires when
confined : it having effectually an-
swered the purpose, we have been
induced to give a description of its
constituent parts, from the 65th
vol. of the "Philosophical Transac-
tions of the Royal Society," for 1774.
A, represents the original reser-
voir, or spring ; the upper surface
of which corresponds with the ho-
rizontal line B, C, and also with
the bottom of the reservoir K.
D, the main pipe, which is 1 \
inch in diameter, and nearly 20u
yards in length.
E, is a branch -pipe of similar di-
mensions, for the use of thekitchen-
oflices......Mr. Whitehurst ob-
serves, that these offices are situ-
ated 18 or 20 feet, at the least, be-
neatb the surface of the reservoir
A, ami that the cock F, is about
16 feet 1) low it.
G, represents a valve-box ; and
g, exhibits the valve.
II, is an air-vessel.
o, o, represent the ends of the
main-pipe, which are inserted in
the air-vessel, and are bent down-
wards, to prevent the air from be-
ing driven out, when the water is
forced into it.
W, denotes the surface of the
water.
Mr. Whiiehur st remarks that,
as water discharged from an aper-
ture beneath a pressure of 16 feet
perpendicular height, moves at the
rale of 32'feet in one second'of
time, its velocity from the ccck F,
will be in a sinii'ar ratio. And,
though the aperture of such cock
be not nearly equal to the diame-
ter of the pipe D, yet the pressure
of the fluid contained in the pipe
348 W A T
WAT
will be very considerable : so that
if a column of water, 200 yards
high, be thus set in motion, and
then suddenly stopped by the cock
F, its great force will open the
valve g; and condense the air in
the box H, as often as the water
is drawn from the cock. This con-
densation was sufficient to force
the water into the reservoir K,
and even to burst the vessel H,
within a few months after its first
construction ; though it was made
of sheet-lead, in the proportion of
9 or 10 lbs. to one square foot; and
Avas apparently very firm. Hence
it may be rationally concluded, that
the impetus of the water is far su-
perior to the simple pressure of the
column I, K; and is therefore
equal to a greater resistance (if it
were required) than a pressure of
four or five feet perpendicular
height.
This ingenious contrivance is
now applied to a variety of ma-
chinery, by the patriotic Mat-
thew Boulton, Esq. of Soho,
near Birmingham ; who obtained
a patent in December, 1797, for an
improved apparatus, and methods
of raising water and other fluids....
Mr. B. has substituted valves for
cocks, and manufactures the pipes
of such materials, as are calculated
to prevent accidents from bursting.
.....For a more specific account of
these improvements, the reader
will consult the 9th volume of the
" Repertory of Arts," he. where
they are illustrated with two en-
gravings.
The following machine, Avhich is
constructed on the principle of
Hiero's Fountain, forms the sub-
ject of a plate in Dr. Darwin's
admirable work, entitled " Phyto-
logia ;" it is designed to raise wa-
ter to a great perpendicular height,
for the irrigation of land, in such
situations as have the advantage of
a small fall.
a, b, is the stream of water.
b, c, c, represents the water-fall,
supposed to be 10 feet.
d, e, are two leaden or iron-
vessels, containing a certain quan-
tity of water, which may be com-
puted to be about 4 gallons each.
/, g, h, i, k, I, are leaden vessels,
each holding about two quarts.
o, p, two cocks, each of which
passes through two pipes, opening
the one and closing the other.
q, r, is a water-balance, that
moves on its center s; and by
which the two cocks o, and p, are
alternately turned.
t, u, and to, x, are two air-pipes
of lead, both internally one inch
and a quarter in diameter.
Vi 2; y, z; y, z; are water- "
pipes, each being one inch in dia-
meter.
The pipe b, c, c, is always full
from the stream a, b: the small
cisterns g, i, I, and the large one d,
are supposed to have been previ-
ously filled with water. The fluid
may then be admitted by turning
the cock o, through the pipe c, c,
into the large cistern e. This wa-
ter, Dr. Darwin remarks, will
press the air, confined in the cis-
tern e, up the air-pipe w. x, and
will force the fluid out of the cis-
terns g, i, I, into those marked h,
k, and C.....At the same time, by
opening B, the water and condens-
ed air, which previously existed in
the large cistern d, and in the small-
er ones marked/, h, k, will be dis-
charged at B.... After a short time,
the water-balance, q, r, s, will turn
the cocks, and exclude the water,
WAT
WAT 349
while it opens the opposite ones : In the year 1783, an excellent
the cisterns,/, h, k, are emptied in engine was erected at Windsor, by
their turns by the condensed air the command of His Majesty,
from the cistern, d, as the water for the purpose of raising water
progressively enters the latter from from a deep well, to supply the
the pipe, b, c. wants of the Castle. It consists
350 W A T
WAT
simply of a grooved wheel, 3 feet
in diameter, which is fixed on an
axis that revolves horizontally over
the well : an endless rope, suffi-
ciently long to reach into the wa-
ter, is passed over the wheel. Far-
ther, a winch is attached to one
end of the axis, by means of Avhich
it maybe turned ; and, on its op-
posite extremity, there is another
wheel, weighted with lead, that
acts as a fly, and serves to increase
the velocity. When the wheel is
turned, every part of the rope is
drawn through the water, and
ascends to the top, carrying with
it a considerable quantity of that
fluid : thus, by the pressure of the
rope on the wheel, during its revo-
lution, the water is discharged into
a cistern placed for its reception....
This expedient vvas suggested by
a sagacious mariner; and so re-
markable is the facility with which
the whole may be worked, that,
though the well is nearly 200 feet
in depth, the machine may be
turned by one hand, and sufficient
Avater be raised to fill a pipe ; the
diameter of vvhich is equal to that
of the rope.
In those situations, where it is
an object of some importance to
raise water to the height of a few
feet, by-the power of the wind, for
the purpose of draining morasses,
or of watering lands on a higher
level ; we conceive the horizontal
wind-mill, with a centrifugal pump,
to be a most useful machine : we
have therefore annexed a represen-
tation of it, similar to that given
by Dr. Darwin, in the work above
quoted.
The machine here delineated,
consists of a windmill-sail, which
is placed in an horizontal direction,
similar to that of a smoke-jack,
and is surrounded by an octagon
tower. The diverging rays of such
tower, a, b, a, b, if on a small
scale, may be made with deals two
inches in thickness ; but, on a large
plan, they should be construct-
ed of brick work. These upright
pillars are connected by means of
oblique boards, represented at A,
B, which are placed horizontally
from pillar to pillar, with respect
to their length ; and at an angle of
45 degrees, with regard to their
breadth; so as to form a complete
octogan, including the horizontal
windmill-sail near the top :....as
the wind strikes against any of
such boards, from whatever quar-
ter, it is bent upwards, and then
acts upon the horizontal wind-sail.
Farther, these boards may either
be fixed in their respective situa-
tions, or be made to turn upon an
axis a little beneath their centres
of gravity, so as to close them-
selves on that side of the octagon
tower, which is most distant from
the wind.
Below the shaft of the wind-sail,
a centrifugal pump is fixed, with
two arms, as represented at C, D.
It consists, simply, of an erect,
bored trunk, or of a leaden cylin-
der, furnished with two opposite
arms, having a valve at the bottom;
which is so constructed as to pre-
vent the return of the water ; and
another valve at the extremity of
each arm, for excluding the access
of air above the current of the Ava-
ter, while the latter flows out.
c, c, c, c, a circular trough for
the reception of the streams from
C and D, to convey them to those
situations where the water may be
required.
In December, 1733, a patent
was granted to Mr. Joseph Bra-
ma h, for his invention of a water-
cock upon a new construction.....
WAT
W A T 351
352 WAT
WAT
His privilege is now expired;but,
as the principle on vvhich he pro-
ceeds could be explained only by
the aid of an engraving, Ave refer
ibe reader to the 1st vol. of the
" Repertory of Arts," he.
Another patent was obtained, in
January, 1791, by Mr. Joseph
Brooks, for his invention of a
buoyant machine, calculated to
raise water from a lower to a high-
er level, without the aid either of
fire or of wind, and without taking
any water from the uppermost le-
vel :....the curious reader will find
a particular description of this
contrivance, in the 7th vol. of the
work' above quoted.
In the year 1801, the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, he.
adjudged their silver medal to Mr.
H. Sarjeant, of Whitehaven,
Cumberland, for a Machine for
raising Water, of which we have
given an engraving.
This engine was erected at Irton-
Hall, which is situated on an ascent
of 60 or 61 feet perpendicular
height: at the foot of this eleva-
tion, about 140 yards distant from
the offices, there runs a small
stream of water ; and, in order to
procure a constant supply of that
necessary.fluid, the object was to
raise such stream to the house, for
culinary and domestic uses. With
this view, a dam was formed at a
short distance above the current,
so as to cause a fall of about four
feet: the water was" then con-
ducted through a wooden trough,
into vvhich a piece of leaden pipe,
two inches in diameter, was in-
serted, and part of vvhich is de-
lineated at A.
The stream of this pipe is di-
rected in such a manner as to run
into the bucket B, when the latter
is elevaled ; but, as soon as it be-
gins to descend, the stream passes
over it, and flows progressively to
supply the wooden trough or well,
at the foot of which stands the
forcing-pumpC, beingthree inches
in diameter.
D, is an iron cylinder, attached
to the pump-rod, which passes
through it: such cylinder is filled
with lead, and weighs about 240lbs.
This power works the pump, and
forces the water to ascend to the
house, through a pip0, one inch
in diameter, and which is 420 feet
in length.
At E, is fixed a cord, which,
when the bucket approaches to
within four or five inches of its
lowest projection, extends, and
opens a valve in the bottom of the
vessel, through which the water is
discharged.
The machine, here described,
had at the time of Mr. Sarjeant's
communication to the Society above
mentioned, been six months in
use, and fully answered the pur-
pose for which it was designed....
The artizans employed were a
plumber, blacksmith, and car-
penter : the whole expense, ex-
clusive of the pump and pipes, did
not exceed 51.
The latest contrivance* within
our knowledge, for facilitating the
motion of machinery, is the un-
dershot water-wheel, invented by
the late Mr. Besant, of Bromp-
ton; on whose widow, the So-
ciety for the Encouragement of Arts,
he. in 1801, conferred a reward
of ten guineas: and, as it pro-
misee to be of great service in many
situations, we have given a repre-
sentation of it in the annexed
plate.
Description of the late 'Mr. Be-
sant's Undershot Water-wheel.
Fig. 1, a.....A, represents the
C
WAT
body of the water-wheel, which is
fallow, in the form of a drum, and
is so constructed, as to resist the
admission of water.
B, is the axis on which the wheel
turns.
C, The float-boards, placed on
the periphery of the wheel, each of
vvhich h firmly fixed to its rim,
and to the body of the drum, in an
oblique direction.
D, is the reservoir, that contains
the water.
E, the pen-stock, for regulating
the quantity of water, which runs
to the wheel.
F, represents the current, that
has passed such wheel.
Pig. 1,6, is a front view of the
water-wecl, exhibiting the oblique
direction, in which the float-boards
C, are placed on the face of the
vvheii.
In the common water-wheels,
more than half the quantity of that
fluid passes from the gate through
the wheel, without affording it any
assistance : the action of the floats
is resisted by the incumbent atmos-
phere, at the moment when these
leave the surface of the tail-
water ; and, as a similar propor-
tion of Avater with that which
passed betAveen the floats at the
head, necessarily flows between
them at the tail, the motion of the
wheel is greatly impeded. On the
contrary, by Mr. Besant's con-
trivance, no water can pass, ex-
cepting that which acts with all its
force on the extremity of the wheel:
and, as the floats emerge from the
water, in an oblique direction, the
weight of the atmosphere is thus
prevented from taking any effect.
Although his new wheel is consi-
derably heavier than those con-
structed on the old plan, yet it re-
volves more easily on its axis ; the
VOL. V.
W A T 353
water having a tendency to float it.
Lastly, repeated experiments have
proved Mr. Besant's wheel to be
so decidedly superior, that, when
working in deep tail-water, it will
carry weights in the proportion of
three to one ; on which account it
will be particularly serviceable to
tide-mills.
As a constant beverage with
meals, water is certainly prefera-
ble to any other liquid. Its rela-
tive salubrity, depends on the
peculiar properties which it pos-
sesses ; on the various animal,
vegetable, or mineral particles,
with which it may be impregnat-
ed, and the places whence it is
procured. Thus, the water from
Springs, being conveyed and
filtered through different lavers of
stone, sand, Sec. before it arrives at
the surface of the earth, is much
purer than most other waters. The
transparency of that obtained from
wells, varies according to the strata
of earth through which it rises ;
but the most wholesome fluid is
derived from sandy soils where it
has undergone a perfect filtration.
The water of lakes and ponds, in
general, has similar properties
with that of rivers, but, being less
agitated, it acquires a greater de-
gree of impurity, and is conse-
quently unfit for culinary purposes;
though, on account of its softness,
it may be advantageously employ-
ed in washing linen....Rain-water
collected in the vicinity of towns,
of marshes or of mines, especially
during the summer, is likewise im-
pure : it ought, therefore, to be
used solely for cleaning houses, or
linen, and watering gardens. The
fluid, obtained by dissolving snow,
is somewhat purer ; and hail-water
has still fewer extraneous particles,
in consequence of its congealing in
354 W A T
WAT
the air ; so that it cannot, during
its descent, combine with noxious
ingredients.
As>he health of mankind mate-
rially depends on the wholesome-
ness of the water which is intro-
duced into the human body, by food
and drink, different expedients
have been devised, for preserving
it in a state of purity, especially on
long voyages. Hence, it has been
recommended to add a small quan-
tity of lime to every cask of water.
Dr. Butler (in his Essay quoted
in article Sea Water), advises
A. oz. of fine, clear pearl-ash to be
dissolved in 100 gallons of fresh
water, and the cask to be closed
in the usual manner. The pro-
portion of the pearl-ash may be
increased or diminished, according
to circumstances. As an instance
of its efficacy, Dr. B. relates, that
be put one oz. of such alkali into
a cask containing 25 gallons of
Thames-water, and suffered it to
stand for upwards of a year and a
half, opening it once in 4 months ;
when he found it perfectly sweet.
He adds, that he afterwards used
some of this preserved fluid for
boiling Pease and Burgoo; that
it made the former as soft, and an-
swered the different culinary pur-
poses as Avell as water newly
drawn from rivers.
In the first volume of the " Rap-
port General des Travaux de la So-
cle te' Philomatique de Paris," Ave
meet Avith a Memoir by ±,l. Vau-
quELiN, on several means of pre-
strving water, on long voyages.....
With this view, the inside of the
casks vvas washed with lime-water,
which changed into a calcareous
carbonate, and thus effectually pre-
vented putrefaction. The same de-
sirable object may be attained, by
adding a small portion of vitriolic
acid and of alkali, to every cask;
which will preserve the water in a
pure and salubrious state, for at
least 12 months. Charcoal has
also proved to be eminently adapt-
ed to such purpose : the most ad-
vantageous mode of employing
this substance, is that of charring
the inner surface of the staves,
previously to constructing the
casks.
The latest method of preserving
fresh water in a sweet state, at a
great distance from land, is that
communicated to the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, Sec.
in 1800, by Samuel Bentham,
Esq. and for which he was pre-
sented with their gold medal. It
consists simply in stowing water
in wooden cases or tanks, lined
with metallic plates, known under
the name of tinned copper-sheets:
the joinings of such cases being
carefully soldered, so that the wa-
ter cannot find the least access to
the Avood. These tanks may be
manufactured of any shape adapt-
ed to the hold of the ship, and thus
contain any quantity of water ; so
that considerable stowage-room may
be saved on board of vessels, vvhich
is at present occupied by the casks.
In justice to Mr. Bentham we
add, that two tanks of water thus
preserved, were submitted to the
examination of the Society ; and
though they had been three years
and a half at sea, the fluid was per-
fectly sweet, Avholescme, and fit
for any culinary purpose.
On the other hand, if water has
become putrid, it may be divested
of its pernicious properties, by
the process recommended, vol. i.
p. 40 ; by boiling, or by distilla-
tion ; and by filtering it through
the machines delineated and de-
scribed in the article Filtration;
WAT
W A T 355
or through Mr. Collier's patent
vessels for purifying oil and other
liquids ; a specification of which
is given in the 10th vol. of the
" Repertory of Arts," &c. and il-
lustrated with a plate.
In October, 1790, a patent was
granted to Mrs. Johanna Hem-
pel, for her invention of a com-
position ; which, on being formed
into vessels, is said to possess the
advantage of filtering water or
other liquids, in a cheaper, more
easy, and expeditious manner, than
could be effected by any other pre-
paration. The proportions of the
materials, employed for this pur-
pose, vary according to the size of
the basons, or jars to be manu-
factured. Thus for vessels intend-
ed to contain a quantity of Avater
not exceeding one gallon,/owr parts
of tobacco-pipe clay must be incor-
porated with nine parts of coarse
sea, river, drift, or pit sand, and
worked on a potter's-wheel into
any form, as fancy or convenience
may direct. But, as the compo-
sition thus prepared, is apt to
crack in the fire, if it be wrought
into basons, he. of a larger capa-
city, the patentee recommends
such vessels to be manufactured
of equal parts of the clay and
sand above mentioned. She fur-
ther states other proportions of
clay, loam, he. which may be em-
ployed according to the size of the
bason or other vessel ; and for a
specification of which, the reader
will consult the 2d vol. of the " Re-
pertory of Arts," he.
To conclude this important sub-
ject, we shall state a few other
simple methods of restoring putrid
water to its original purity.
Dr. Lind directs a small cask,
open at both ends, to be placed
within a larger vessel, the head of
vvhich has been taken out : clean
sand and gravel are then to be put
into both vessels, so that the level
of the sand in the inner cask be
higher than the bed in the inter-
mediate space between the two
barrels; sufficient room being left
for pouring in the water. A cock
should now be placed in the ex-
ternal cask, above the gravel or
sand ; and somewhat lower than
the surface of the materials in the
interior vessel. The water is pour-
ed in, at the top of the cask last
mentioned ; it sinks through the
mass of sand; and, after passing
through the bed in the intervening
space, it ascends, so that it may be
drawn off perfectly sweet and clear:
when the surface of the gravel be-
comes loaded Avith impurities, it
should be removed, and fresh sand
be substituted.
According to the experiments of
M. Lowitz, 1^-oz. of pulverized
charcoal, and 24 drops of the sul-
phuric or vitriolic acid, are suffi-
cient to purify 3i pints of putrid
or corrupted water, Avithout com-
municating to it any perceptible
acidity : he directs the oil of vi-
triol to be first mixed with the
Avater ; after vvhich the charcoal
must be added ; but, if the sul-
phuric acid be omitted, it will be
requisite to employ a triple por-
tion, or 4^-oz. of charcoal. When
spring-water has acquired an un-
pleasant, hepatic flavour, it may
be greatly improved by filterincrit
through a bag half filled with pow-
dered charcoal. This substance
may again be dried, and pulverise J,
when it will answer the same pur-
pose a second time ; and, if it lose
its purifying effect, by repeated
use, such property may be recov-
ered, by making it red-hot in a close
vessel. Prof. Hufeland recom-
356 W A T
mends carbon to be reduced to fine
powder ; a spoonful of which must
be mixed with a pint of stagnant,
corrupted, or bad water: the whole
should be well stirred, then suf-
fered to stand for a feAV minutes,
and afterwards passed slowly
through filtering paper. He re-
marks, that the same powder will
serve repeatedly ; and after drying
it, he advises travellers to keep it
closely corked in a bottle ; because
the influence of the air would ren-
der it useless. Lastly, if either of
the expedients already described,
cannotbe conveniently adopted, the
putrid tendency of Avater may be
corrected, by mixing vinegar, or
acid of lemons, with the corrupted
fluid ; and, in case any quantity of
the latter should have been acci-
dentally swallowed, its injurious ef-
fects may be obviated, by imme-
diately taking small, but repeated,
draughts of vinegar.
\Water as a Manure.... The fer-
tilizing property of water is well
known. But it has lately been
discovered, that when rendered
putrid by the immersion of certain
vegetable matters, its fertilizing
properties are greatly increased....
Flax in particular, has been found
by Mr. Billingsby, a well known
English farmer and improver, to
have this effect in a remarkable
manner. Mr. Tat ham mentions,
that he " saw in 1790, a pool con-
structed in the centre of a garden
in Richmond, into which the wa-
ter Avas conveyed by pipes ; these
pipes communicated to a pump
erected in a house at the end of the
garden, wherein all vegetables
gathered for the table were prepa-
red by the gardener, who Avas a
Frenchman. A cistern with holes
in the bottom, Avas placed beneath
the spout of the pump, so that
WAT
when the vegetables were put into
it lo be washed by pumping the
water, the foul water and filth was «
immediately conducted into the ■
putrescent reservoir in the center,
whence the garden was watered."
This plan should be adoped where-
ever it is practicable.
In all mills worked by water, s
some inconvenience is found to
arise from the irregularity of
speed, occasioned by the variation
of the head of water at the pen-
trough. The specific weight being
necessarily proportioned to the
perpendicular altitude of the water,
its velocity is increased by a great-
er, and diminished by a less head.
No accurate judgment as lo the
quantity really admitted, can be '
formed from the position of the
shuttle. The space only is regu-
lated by this ; but the quantity of
water passing through that space
depends on its specific gravity, in
proportion to which its course is
accelerated. Hence an irregular
movement of machinery, and much
inconvenience, where precision is
requisite, as in the manufactory of
silk and cotton. To remedy this,
Mr. Quaile contrived to regulate
the quantity of water delivered,!))-a
float, and taking the whole of the
water from the surface, instead of
delivering it from the bottom of
the pentrough. For this useful in-
vention, the Society for the Encou-
ragement of Arts in London, pre-
sented Mr. Quaile with a silver
medal in 1793.
By this contrivance also, room
may be saved in the extent of the
dam, as the water may be suffered
to rise to a great height, without
the inconvenience attending the
increased velocity of its discharge.
In cases also of temporary defi-
ciency, the water which remains,
W A T
WAT 357
will by this means, be worked to
the greatest advantage. For a de-
scription and plate of this contri-
vance, the reader is referred to the
Transactions of the Society of Arts,
for 179.3.
Under the article Irrigation,
an account of the simple and ef-
fectual contrivance of Mr. David
Witmer, Avho lives nine miles
east of Lancaster, on the turnpike,
was promised under an expectation
that a draught could be procured
in time for a plate. This however
did not arrive in time; a short de--
scription will perhaps not be un-
acceptable to our country readers,
and be sufficiently intelligible to
persons acquainted with mill or
pump work.
Mr. Witmer first laid horizon-
tally in the bottom of the spring,
a log of wood, bored through in the
manner that pumps are bored :
this log has three holes in the up-
per side, which communicate with
the longitudinal perforation : into
the middle hole he has inserted
the conveying pipe which is also a
bored log ; and into the two holes
on each side, or towards the end of
the log are inserted two forcing
pumps ; in the log or pipe that
lies horizontally, there are four
valves, two of which open to admit
the water when the pistons of the
pumps are elevated alternately,
whilst the other two are shut:
these again open when the pistons
are depressed to permit a passage
up the pipe which stands betwixt
them.
The pistons are eleA'ated or de-
pressed by means of a very sini-
p\e piece of machinery, consisting
of a small overshot water-wheel,
six feet in diameter, with floor-
boards one foot in length. This
wheel is turned by a small stream
of water ; and, upon its axis there
is a crank which communicates an
alternate elevation and depression
to the piston rods.
The water is forced thirty five
feet up until it comes to a pipe be-
fore the house : this pipe has two
perpendicular perforations vvhich
connect at the top, and also con-
nect with two separate hollow
logs below. A fosset is fixed in
this pipe, through which the wa-
ter runs in a perpetual stream, un-
less when stopped; it then rises
in the pipe, and falls down the se-
cond bore, and is conveyed by per-
forated logs under ground, to the
house adjoining the dwelling
house, and the overplus water is
conveyed to the garden.
Thus at an expense not exceed-
ing 100 dollars, Mr. Witmer's
house is fiirnished with a constant
supply of water, and his grounds
adjoining, sufficiently irrigated:
after the water has been thus ele-
vated 35 feet, by applying a small
pipe, such as is used with fire en-
gines, a stream may be conveyed
25 feet higher, to any part of the
building.]
WATER-BOILER. For this
useful contrivance we are indebted
to the ingenious Timothy Kirk,
of York-town, Pennsylvania. The
following cut will give a good idea
ofit.
A, a frame consisting of six posts,
connected by railing at the top
and bottom.
B B, a cistern with a partition in
the middle.
C C, two tubes passing through
the middle of each cistern, ex-
tending from the bottom a few
inches above the top.
358 W A T
WAT
D D, small cross tubes connected of oak plank well jointed, and se-
Avith the tube C C as a mean of cured by wedges in the frame
supplying the fuel. marked a. A cistern of three feet
E E, two cocks to draw off the square, must have a square open-
contents, ing in the plank which forms the
V, the tube disconnected with the bottom, of 26 inches, covered with
cistern. a sheet of copper or iron, secured
G, a grate placed at the bottom with nails to the plank, to vvhich
of the tube parallel to the bot- the tube is fixed by means of riv-
tom of the water in the cistern, etts ; the whole to be set in brick-
on which the fuel rests while work, with a round hole directly
consuming. under the bottom of the tube, in
The cistern is formed of pine or order to contain the ashes through
35
WAT
W A T 359
which, (by means of a flue left for
the purpose) the air is communi-
cated to the fire in the tube ; for
as soon as fuel is supplied by
means of the tubes, they must be
closed with caps to prevent the
entrance of the air, otherwise than
by the bottom through the flue and
grate : on this, much of the impor-
tance of the contrivance depends.
Mr. Kirk has constructed one cis-
tern on the above plan, containing
six barrels of water, which he
boiled with 56 pounds of wood,
and he thinks that the addition of
56 pounds more, would keep the
same quantity of water boiling
during 24 hours. Mr. Kirk con-
structed one of a round shape, with
iron hoops containing two barrels
of Avater, which has been tried by
a person engaged in the manufac-
tory of salt, and found with thirty
pounds of wood to be capable of
evaporating ten gallons of water
in less than an hour, and hence
he concluded, if a large cistern was
formed, (say thirty feet long, by
three wide)to contain twelve tubes,
much more might be evaporated
in proportion to the fuel consu-
med.
Such a boiler should be con-
structed upon every farm, for the
purpose of boiling corn for hogs
and horses, and dranks or mashes
for cows, and stall fed cattle.
Upon submitting the above to
Mr. Benjamin Dearborn of
Boston, when in Philadelphia, he
made the following remarks :
" I. The principle on which
the boiler is constructed is good,
as has been proved many years
ago.
" 2. The form of the boiler and
the tubes, and the manner of con-
necting them are ingenious, and
are new to me : but if the wooden
vessel be square, the frame which
confines it should be so construct-
ed as to wedge the joints together
each Avay ; yet I think a vessel of
a conical form, hooped as the in-
ventor describes, must be prefer-
able to any other shape.
" 3. If the tubes instead of be-
ing conical, were cylindrical with
a moveable cover, the fuel might
be inserted at the top, without the
necessity of cross tubes at the bot-
tom. I have seen stoves on this
construction." Portable furnaces
are also made in this way. ]
WATER-ALOE, or Fresh-
water Soldier, Zostera Abides,
L. an indigenous perennial, grow-
ing in fen-ditches and slow-
streams ; flowering in the months
of June and July. This plant af-
fords nourishment to a great va_
riety of insects, some of which
pursue it even to the bottom of
the water. It is eaten by hogs,
but refused by goats. From its
ashes, an excellent alkaline salt
may be obtained, by filtrating and
evaporating the ley. Bon m e r ob-
serves, that such salt is not only
well adapted to the curing of beef
and other meat, but also forms a
valuable ingredient in the manu-
facture of glass ; nay, that it is
occasionally used in England as u
substitute for pot-ash, in the pro-
cess of making soup.
Water-avens. SeeAvExr.
WATER-CALTROPS, or Tra.
pa natans, L. a valuable exotic,
originally from Asia, though like-
wise growing wild in the ponds
and ditches of Germany: its fibroin
roots strike deeply into the soil;
and, when the stalk attains the sur-
face of the water, its extremity
presents a pyramidal bud, which,
on the access of air, unfolds and
spreads the convoluted leare-......
360 WAT
WAT
The plant flowers in June or July ;
and produces its excellent fruit in
August or September.
Although the water-caltrops be,
on the Continent, considered as a
troublesome weed in lakes and fish-
ponds, yet Ave are persuaded that
it may, with great advantage, be
introduced into many marshy situ-
ations, especially those destitute of
fish ; to vvhich animals it is certain-
ly pernicious. The kernel con-
tained in the nut of this aquatic
vegetable, may be eaten, either raw
or boiled : when dried and reduced
to flour, it affords one of the most
nutritive ingredients in broths,
puddings,andother culinary dishes.
Pliny informs us (book xxii. chap.
12,) that the ancient Thracians
converted this fruit into bread; and
fed their horses with the leaves....
Formerly, the black roots of this
luxuriant plant were reputed to be
poisonous ; but it has lately been
ascertained, that the Japanese boil
and eat them, generally, in their
daily soups.
Water-can. See Yellow Wa-
ter-LiLY.
WATER-CLOSET, an useful
contrivance, the purpose of vvhich
requires no explanation.
In December, 1789, a patent was
granted to Mr. Thomas Rown-
tree, for an improvement in the
construction of water-closets ; by
arranging the several parts, in such
manner that the whole apparatus
may be moved at once, without be-
ing taken to pieces. His machine
may, likewise, be adapted to the
apartments of the sick, so as not to
occupy a larger space,, or to be
more cumbersome, than a common
night-chair ; while the fetor is ef-
fectually suppressed by means of
certain tubes. A more diffuse ac-
count of Mr. RowNTREt-'s prin-
ciple, occurs in the 11 th vol. of the
" Repertory of Arts," he.
Another patent was obtained by
Mr. Thomas Binns, for his in-
vention of a machine applicable to
privies and water-closets ; from the
peculiar construction of which, the
bason is not only cleansed by the
introduction of water, but a suf-
ficient quantity of that fluid is left
in the vessel, without the assist-
ance of any person. This machi-
nery, however, having been found
too bulky, Mr. Binns, procured a
second patent in November, 1800,
for his contrivance of an improved
apparatus, answering the several
purposes of a water-closet, bidet,
and easy chair; which are com-
prized in one-third part of the room
occupied by the common portable
water-closets. From its lightness,
and small size, the new machine
is well calculated for travelling, for
camps, and for ships.....In the 7th
and 15th vols, of the work above
quoted, the inquisitive reader Avill
meet with full specifications of both
patents, av hich are farther illustrat-
ed with engravings.
Water-colours. See Colour-
making, vol. ii. p. 17 8.
WATER-GLADIOLE,or Car-
dinal Flower, Lobelia Dort*
manna, L. is an indigenous peren-
nial, growing in mountainous lakes,
especially in Cumberland, West-
moreland, Wales, and Scotland;
where its beautiful pale, blue flow-
ers appear in the months of July
and August....The whole of this
plant, which grows beneath the
surface of the water, abounds Avith
a milky juice. It may be easily
propagated by seeds, by offsets, or
by cutting: and, vegetating with
great luxuriance, it deserves to be
raised in moistor marshy situations.
WATER-PEPPER,Lakeweed,
WAT
W A T 361
or Biting Snakeweed, Polygo-
num hydropiper, L. an indigenous
plant, growing on the sides of ri-
vulets, lakes, and ditches ; flower-
ing from July to September......
The whole of this vegetable pos-
sesses a very acrid taste: its fresh
leaves have, nevertheless, with ad-
vantage, been applied externally,
for cleansing old fistulous ulcers,
and consuming fungous flesh. An
infusion of these leaves is said to
promote the urinary discharge in
phlegmatic habits; and has fre-
quently been of service in scor-
butic complaints. When mixed
with soft soap, the ashes of the
lake-weed are used, as a nostrum,
for dissolving the stone in the blad-
der.... According to Dr. Wither-
ing, the acrimony of this herb
rises on distillation ; and two or
three half pints of the Avater, drank
daily, have been found very effec-
tual in some nephritic cases. It
imparts a yellow colour to avooI.
The Water-Pepper is refused by
every species of cattle....See also
Blister.
WATER-PROOF, a term ap-
plied to those stuffs, which have
undergone certain chemical or me-
chanical processes, and thus be-
come impermeable to moisture.
Having already stated, under the
heads of Boor and Leather, the
most proper means of rendering
those articles water-proof, we shall
at present confine our attention to
the expedients that have been de-
vised for making linen and wool-
len cloth, paper, he. capable of re-
sisting humidity.
In July, 1797, a patent was
granted to Mr. Henry Johnson,
for his invention of a vegetable li-
quid, the design of Avhich is to
bleach and cleanse woollen,orother
stuffs ; to prepare them for the re-
vol. v.
ception of a certain compound, cal-
culated to render them not only
water-proof, but also more durable
and elastic, when manufactured
into articles of dress, which he
terms Hydrolaines.....In order to
obtain first the vegetable liquid, the
patentee directs horse-chesnuts, or
the rinds and kernels of oranges,
that are usually throAvn away, or
the offals and gall of fish, to be
boiled for four or five hours ; after
which they are suffered to cool and
settle, for a few days: in cases
where these substances cannot be
easily procured, 8 quarts of water
may be added to every pound of
British barilla, and the mixture al-
lowed to dissolve for two or th rec
days. Next, one pint of pearl-
ashes, or of purified kelp, or wood-
ashes, must be added to either of
these preparations ; and, after tb.e
whole has been duly mixed, for 24
hours, a certain portion of Ryegate-
lime is slacked in the compound,
for the purpose of imparting the
caloric ; of precipitating the carbon
of the ashes ; and moderating the
causticity of the liquor. Now 40
quarts of water are to be boiled
with one quart of fish, linseed, or
other oil ; adding to this decoction
half an ounce of the salt of sorrel,
or of sugar, or of the rectified salt
of tartar; the object of which is
to combine the oil with the waicv.
Lastly, after this composition has
stood for 12 hours, it is to be strain-
ed, and one quart of such oily wa-
ter to be mixed with every twelve
quarts of the liquid, prepared in the
manner above described : when the
mixture is completely settled, it
forms, what the patentee calls, a
blanching lixivium.
The linen, woolen, cotton, or
silk stuffs, hats, or leather, are to
be immersed in such lixivium, and
3 A
362 W A T
WAX
extended on a frame. Caoutchouc
is then to be dissolved in spirit of
turpentine (the smell of which may
be dissipated by the addition of
equal parts of oil of Avormwood
and spirit of wine), so as to form
a varnish : this liquor must now be
applied to the wrong side of the
stuffs that are to be prepared, by
means of a solid piece of India
rubber; and minute shreds of cloth,
avooI, silk, or Avorsted, should be
sifted over the varnish: in the
course of two or three days, it will
be perfectly dry; and the shreds,
by their adhesion to the dissolved
caoutchouc, will form a lining im-
permeable to water.
In 1801, another patent was
granted to Messrs. Ackermann,
Suardy, and Co. for their inven-
tion of a process, by which every
species of cloth may be rendered
water-proof.......As the patentees
have not thought proper to pub-
lish the particulars of their process
(though such concealment is con-
trary to the nature of Letters Pa-
tent), we shall briefly remark from
our own observation, that their
method appears to be a simple im-
pregnation of cloth with wax pre-
viously dissolved, and incorporated
with water, by the addition of pure
vegetable alkali, or pot-ash. This
being the cheapest and most expe-
ditious mode of reducing wax to a
fluid state, we are farther inclined
to believe that our conjecture is
Avell founded ; because all the
Avoollen cloth prepared in the ma-
nufactory of Messrs. Acxermanx,
Suardy, and Co. feels somewhat
harder than such as has net been
waxed ; for the same reason, it will
stand a shower of rain only so long
as it has not been subject to fric-
tion ; and wc understand from those
who have worn fiatent water-proof
coats, that in the sleeves particu-
larly, they are very apt to admit
moisture through the different
folds. Nevertheless, their process
is entitled to attention ; and it de-
serves to be adopted principally in
those cases, where the manufac-
ture is not liable to be impaired by
friction ; such as coverings for
tents ; for horses exposed to the
rain when at rest; and especially
for paper in which gunpowder, or
steel and other goods, are to be
packed.
The following simple process is
stated to be that employed by the
Chinese, for rendering cloth water-
prorf: Let an ounce of white wax
be dissolved in one quart of spirit
of turpentine ; the cloth be im-
mersed in the solution, and then
suspended in the air, till it be per-
fectly dry. By this method, the
most open muslin, as well as the
strongest cloths, may be rendered
impenetrable to the heaviest show-
ers ; nor will such composition fill
up the interstices of the finest
lawn ; or in the least degree affect
the most brilliant colours.
Watering-of-land. See Ir-
rigation.
W AX, a solid concrete, abound-
ing in the vegetable kingdom,
whence it is collected by bees.....
In the article Bee's-wax, we have
stated the manner in which this
substance is obtained, and likewise
the uses to vvhich it is applied : at
present, therefore, we shall direct
our attention to the blanching or
whitening of Avax, and to the pro-
cess by Avhich it may be artificially
extracted from vegetables.
With a vieAV to bleach wax, it is
cut in smail pieces, melted, and
poured into cold water, Avhere it
granulates. In this state, it is ex-
posed to the sun and air ; melted,
WE A
W E A 363
and granulated repeatedly; then
submitted to the influence of the
sun, air, and dew, in the interval
between each liquefaction. When
the wax is perfectly blanched, it is
dissolved for the last time, and cast
into flat moulds, in which it is again
exposed to the air, for one or two
days, in order to render it more
transparent. [See Bleaching.]
Wax may be extracted from the
leaves and petals of numerous ve-
getables (see the General Index of
Reference); by collecting, bruising,
and dissolving them, first in water,
and then in alkohol, or spirit of
wine, till every other ingredient
that is soluble in these fluids, be
completely separated. The resi-
duum is now mixed with six times
its weight of a solution of pure
ammonia: Avhen it has been tho-
roughly macerated, the liquor must
be decanted ; filtered ; and, while
it is briskly stirred, a sufficient por-
tion of sulphuric acid must be gra-
dually added, to super-saturate the
alkali. Thus, the wax will be pre-
cipitated in the form of a yellow
powder ; which, on being carefully
Avashed with simple water, and
melted over a slow fire, possesses
all the properties of bees-wax.
Way-bennet. See Wall-BAR-
ley.
Way-bread.See Greater Plan-
tain.
Wayfaring-tree. See Mealy
GUELDER-ROSI..
WEANING, is the act of gra-
dually removing an infant from the
breast, and habituating it to take
common food.
Weaning requires to be conduct-
ed Avith some precaution : it vrill
therefore, be advisable to inure
children to take proper aliment out
of a boat or tea-cup, at the age of 3
or 4 months ; so that they may not
too suddenly, and sensibly, feel
the loss of the brea::t. To facili-
tate this change, the human milk
should be occasionally with-held
from them, while the mother or
nurse may partake of such aliment
as tends to diminish the secretion
of that salutary fluid.
Children committed to the care
of wet-nurses, ought, in prudence,
not to be allowed to suck, after the
age of six or eight months; as
their infantine faculties then begin
to unfold; and they are apt to ac-
quire an undue degree of affection
for their foster-mothers. On the
other hand, they should not be
precipitately removed from the
breast; because this tender part is
thus liable to become inflamed, and
ulcerated; so that scirrhous tumors,
and even cancers, may arise from
such conduct.
Lastly, the diet of children, when
weaned, ought to be light, and
adapted to the strength of their
stomach, and constitution : hence,
all coarse food must be strictly
avoided, during the first and se-
cond year of life ; for such mista-
ken indulgence often lays the foun-
dation of diseases originating from
a bad digestion ; of scrophula, or
other glandular affections; and
even of eventual consumption, at
the age of puberty.
WEASEL, the Common, or
Mustella vulgaris, L. a diminutive
animal of prey, frequenting barns,
granaries, and out-houses : its body
seldom exceeds 6 or 7 inches in
length, and the legs are remark-
ably short.
Weasels propagate hi the sum-
mer, when they retire to low
grounds, near mills ; and either
conceal themselves among brush-
wood, or in old willows; the fe-
male producing from 6 to 8 young
364 W E A
WE A
ones, that are blind at first, but
soon acquire their sight, and are
enabled to join their parents in
nocturnal depredations....Like the
Polecat, and Ferret, weasels
emit a very offensive odour; and,
though of a diminutive size, they
are formidable enemies to many
larger animals. Among rabbits,
poultry, and young birds, weasels
commit extensive depredations, and
they likewise devour incalulable
numbers of eggs. But to counter-
balance, in some measure, these
depredations, they also destroy
many noxious anjmals, such as
rats, mice, and moles.
The folloAving method of en-
trapping weasels has often been
practised with success : It consists
of a wooden box, or hutch, resem-
bling the kennel usually provided
for a house-dog ; but it is divided
in the middle by an open wire-par-
tition, extending from one end to
the other ; and being again sepa-
rated into two cages, one of vvhich
may be baited with a tame rabbit,
and the other with a live fowl;
while the remainder of the hutch
may be formed into a falling box,
for secu; ing the depredator. This
trap nay be placed in coppices,
and hedge-rows.....See also Mar-
tin.
WEASEL-SNOUT, Yellow
Archangel, or Yellow Dfad-
nf.ttle, Galeobdolon luteum, L. is
an indigenous perennial, growing
in woods, shady places, and moist
hedges; blowing in the month of
May. The flowers of this plant
aflbrd to bees an abundant supply
of honey.
WEATHER, a term denoting
the state of the atmosphere, with
respect to Hkat, Cold, Hail,
Rain, Snow, &c.
Having already discussed, in the
course of this work, the pheno-
mena of the meteors above men-
tioned, we shall at present com-
municate a few simple rules, vvhich
may serve to prognosticate the
weather, or to ascertain its future
variations, with tolerable accuracy.
For this purpose, Mr. Kirwa'm
f" Transactions of the Royal Irish
Academy," vol. v.) has laid down
the following plan, from observa-
tions that had been made in Eng-
land, during a period of 112 years;
namely, from 1677 to 1789.
1. When no storm has either
preceded or followed the vernal
equinox, the succeeding summer
is in general dry, or at least so,
five times out of six.
2. If a storm happen from an
easterly point, on the 19th, 20th,
or 21 st day of May, the ensuing
summer will, four times in five,
be also dry....The same event ge-
nerally takes place, if a storm
arise on the 25th, 26th, or 27th
days of March, in any point of
the compass.
3. Should there be a storm,
either at south-west, or at west-
south-west, on the 19 th, 20th, 21st,
or 22d of March, the following
summer is wet, five times out of
six.
In England, if the winters and
springs be dry, they are mostly
cold ; but, if moist, they are gene-
rally warm ; on the contrary, dry
summers, and autumns, are usually
hot; as moist summers are cold.
Thus, if the humidity or dryness
of a particular season be deter-
mined, a tolerably correct idea
may be formed respecting its tem-
perature......To these indications
may be added the following max-
ims ; which, being the result of
observations made by accurate in-
quirers, may so far be depended
WE A
upon, as they will afford a crite-
rion of the mildness, or severity,
and of the dryness or moisture, of
future seasons.
I. A moist autumn, succeeded
by a mild winter, is generally fol-
lowed by a dry and cold spring;
in consequence of which, vegeta-
tion is great ly retarded.
2. Should the summer be un-
commonly wet, the succeeding
winter will be severe; because the
heat or warmth of the earth will
be carried off by such unusual
evaporation. Farther, wet sum-
mers are mostly attended with an
increased quantity of fruit on the
white-thorn, and dog-rose; nay,
the uncommon fruitfulness of these
shrubs is considered as the presage
of an intensely c6ld winter.
3. A severe winter is always in-
dicated by the appearance of cranes
and other birds of passage, at an
, early period in autumn; because
they never migrate southwards,
till the cold season has commenced
in the northern regions.
4. If frequent showers fall in
the month of September, it sel-
dom rains in May ; and the re-
verse,
5. On the other hand, when
the wind often blows from the
south-west, during either summer
or autumn ; when the air is un-
usually cold for those seasons, both
to our sensations, and by the ther-
mometer; at the same time, the
mercury being low in the barome-
ter : under these conditions, a
profuse fall of rain may be ex-
pected.
6. Great storms, rains, or other
violent commotions of the clouds,
produce a kind of crisis in the at-
mosphere; so that they are at-
tended with a regular succes-
WEA 365
sion, either of fine or of bad wea-
ther, for some months.
Lastly, an unproductive year
mostly succeeds a# rainy winter ;
as rough and cold autumn prog-
nosticates a severe winter.....See
also the article Climate.
WEATHER - GLASS, or
Storm-glass. An ingenious con-
trivance of this nature has lately
been announced by Wiegleb, in
Germany ; and the inven'.ion of it
is likewise claimed by Mr. Fran-
cis Anone, of Fligh Holborn:
it consists of a glass tube, con-
taining a liquor that holds in so-
lution a compound substance, the
transparency, or turbid appearance
of which, indicates the changes
in the atmosphere. Thus, if the
weather promise to be fine, the
solid matter of the composition will
sjttle at the bottom of the tube,
while the liquid is pellucid ; but,
previously to a change for rain, the
compound will gradually rise ; the
fluid will continue transparent; and
small stars will be observed moving
or floating about the glass.
Twenty-four hours before a
storm, or very high wind, the sub-
stance will be partly on the surface
of the liquid, apparently in the
form of a leaf; the fluid in such
case, will be very turbid, and in a
state resembling fermentation.
During the winter, small stars
being in motion, the composition
is remarkably white, and somewhat
higher than usual, particularly
when white frosts, or snow prevail.
On the contrary, in the summer,
if the weather be hot and serene,
the substance subsides closely to
the bottom of the glass tube.
Lastly, it may be ascertained
from what point of the compass
the wind blows, by observing that
366 WEA
WEE
the solid particles adhere more
closely to the bottom, on the side
opposite to that, from which the
tempest happeps to arise....This
instrument has been satisfactorily
employed both at sea and on shore:
being small, "portable, and toler-
ably exact, it may often serve as a
substitute for the more bulky and
expensive contrivances in common
use....See also Barometer.
W7EAVING is the art of work-
ing a Aveb of linen, silk, wool, or
any other material, by means of
looms.
Having, in the article Cloth,
given an outline of the manner in
which weaving is performed, we
shall at present notice two im-
provements that have lately been
introduced in this important branch
of our staple-manufacture.
The first is, Mr. Robert Mil-
ler's method of weaving all kinds
of linen, woollen, or other stuffs,
by means of looms worked by wa-
ter, steam-engines, or horses; for
which he obtained a patent in
June, 1796.....Our limits not ad-
mitting of diffuse acccunts, which
would also require the aid of en-
gravings, we refer the reader to
the 8th vol. of the " Repertory of
Arts," he. where the specification
is illustrated with two plates.
In the year 1800, the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. con-
ferred a bounty of 15 guineas on
Mr. Thomas Clulow, for his in-
vention of a loom, designed to
weave figured ribbons. The great
advantage attending the use of this
machine is, not only a considerable
saving of time, but ribbons may
thus be woven with greater neat-
ness, and beauty, than by the com-
mon looms ; the work being ne-
cessarily stopped in the latter,
while the figure is formed by the
hand ; whereas, by Mr. C.'s con-
trivance, the tire-cords, or those
which trace such outline, without
retarding the progress of the Avork,
are acted upon by straps affixed to
the centre treddle. A farther ac-
count of this useful improvement,
will be found in the 18th vol. of
the Society's " Transactions," &c.
See also article Loom.
WEED, a term applied to all
rank, coarse vegetables, that grow
spontaneously, to the detriment of
other plants.
Weeds are usually divided into
two classes, namely, annual, and
perennial. With a view to eradi-
cate the former, it will be advis-
able to plough them up, shortly
before their seeds are formed, or
at least previously to their attain-
ing to a state of maturity.....The
small seeds of weeds, that are se-
parated in winnowing grain, ought
to be carefully burnt; because,
when thrown upon dung-hills, and
afterwards spread on land among
manure, they vegetate with in-
creased luxuriance.
Perennial weeds are extermi-
nated with the greatest difficulty;
as they strike very deep root. The
usual method of extirpating them, <
is that of bringing them to the jj[(
surface by the plough; after which
they are gathered by hand: but, ,:
as this mode is very expensive, it j
will be more advantageous to cut J
them half-through, about the mid- 1
die of June, or when they are in ^|
full vigour: for the sudden inter- J
ruption of their circulating sap, J
causes that fluid to stagnate in the *
roots; in consequence of which the I
plant generally perishes: thus, such
weeds may be collected by means
of Mr. S/.ndilands' Wrack-Har-
WEE
WEE 367
row, (see vol. iii. p. 252) then
burnt, and strewed on the land by
way of Manure....See also vol. iv.
p. 32.
Weeds often abound in the beds
of navigable canals and rivers. As
their eradication, however, is tedi-
ous, and sometimes occasions con-
siderable expense, M. De Bktax-
court Molina, in 1796, present-
ed to the Society for the Encour-
agement of Arts, he. a model of a
machine designed to mow or cut
them, so that they may then be
carried down with the stream ; or,
if the current be not sufficiently
rapid for that purpose, they n ay
be collected on the surface of the
4 Avater, and employed as manure.
For this contrivance, he was re-
Avarded with the premium of forty
guineas; but, as a plain descrip-
tion Avould not convey an adequate
idea of the principles on which it
is constructed, we refer the reader
to the 14th volume of the " Tran-
sactions " of that Society, where a
complete account is inserted, and
illustrated with an engraving.
k [ " Operations " says Dr. An-
M. derson, " may be conducted ei-
ther so as to be calculated for the
extirpation of weeds in general,
without having a view to any par-
ticular class of weeds ; or, as be-
ing calculated, in an especial man-
ner, for the extirpation of some
particular class of weeds, such
as,
1. Weeds that spread by the
* root, and are chiefly propagated
in that way, viz. a docks, pcren-
£ nial; b dandelion, this also spreads
..£ greatly by seeds ; c hemlock, this
r| | also ; d colts-foot; e crow-foot;
/ perennial convolvulus; g wild
liquorice ; // perennial lychnis ;
i couch-graSs ; k lion's-tongue ;
/ horse-tail (equisetum) ; m net-
tles, he.
2. Shrubs and perennial weeds,
that increase chiefly by seeds......
Of this description the following
are those that chiefly abound in
this country,(England) viz. a furze,
goss, or whins; b broom; c heath;
d brambles ; e briars ; / docks ;
g dandelion ; h hemlock; i wild
carrot; k narrow leaved sorrel,
8cc.
3. Biennial plants. The most
common of these are, viz. a rag-
wort, b rattle, c narrow leaved
dock, d biennial thistle, e hem-
lock, Sec.
4. Annual weeds that are pro-
pagated by seeds only, viz. a wild
oat, b charlock, c corn poppy, d
spurry, e duckweed,/ annual so-
lanum, g annual ragwort, h annual
thistles, &c.
5. Aquatic plants, viz. a rushes,
b flags, c reeds, 8cc.
6. Moss, as affecting pastures,
lichens, and other plants of the
cryptogamia class, as affecting
trees and perennial plants,misIetoe,
and other parasitical plants, he. "
Mr. Dean, (« N. England farm-
er") in order to destroy weeds,
directs " the land to be employed
in hoed crops for two or three
years in successiop, not omitting
autumnal weeding. A crop of
peas, or any crop that forms a
close cover to the surface may do
much." A crop of the Cassia
Chamxcrista, (which see) would
answer very well. Mr. Dean adds
" if all other methods were to
prove ineffectual, laying tillage-
land down to grass, and sowing it
with cleaned grass-seeds, Avill not
fail. " ]
Weevil. See Corn-chafer.
[The Society of Meaux in France
368 W E I
WEI
has invited all those who may
think proper to make use of the
following very simple method of
preserving grain from Weevils and
other insects, to communicate the
result of those trials.
Soak cloths, made of flax, in
water, wring thern, and cover your
heaps of grain with them : in two
hours lime you will find all the
Weevils upon the-cloth, which
must be carefully gathered up,
that none of the insects may escape
and then immersed in water to de-
stroy them.
A plant of henbane, placed in
the middle of a heap of corn, drives
them away : in this case, it is ne-
cessary to watch and crush them
as fast as they come out, which
they do in a short time....See also
voL iv. p. 492.]
WEIGH, or Wet, a species of
provincial English weight, employ-
ed for cheese, wool, Sec. : it con-
tains 256lbs. avoirdupois. A weigh
of corn should comprise40bushels;
that of barley or malt, amounts to 6
quarters; but in Essex, and some
other counties, a weigh of cheese
consists of 300lbs.
• [WEIGHTS to raise....In build-
ings, heavy stones and timbers are
often required to be raised, which
require many men. The annex-
ed plate represents an elevation
and section of a simple and very
effectual contrivance, for the pur-
pose of saving labour, which has
been used with great success in
Philadelphia.
The letters, a, b, c, d, represent
the frame of this machine, Avhich
is 10 feet long, by 5 feet Avide, and
made of 3 inch, by 7, Avhite oak
scantling, Avell pinned and strapped
together, [e e e e, in elevation.)
There are six Avheels,....2 of Avhich
are 4 feet....2 of 1 foot....and 2 of
I
8 inches diameter on the pitch
lines, by 21 inches thick, the cogs
are about 1 of an inch thick. As ■
the 4 small wheels are fixed on
one axle, it is therefore made to
move sidewise occasionally as the
smallest *, or second sized wheels
are used......there is necessarily a
double set of bushes for this axle
(f, in elevation,).i..for when the'
small wheel is used, it must be
moved two inches (or half the dif-
ference in diameter between the
smail wheels) up to the large
wheels. The rope being guided
by snatch-blocks, the machine is
made to act upon buildings, ves-
sels, Sec....The lower part of the
frame is floored, that it may be
loaded to prevent its being dragged,
stakes are also driven in the ground
for this purpose.
There is nothing new in this
machine but its application to the
erection of buildings. Mr. Latrobe
architect, and engineer, introduced
it at the erection of the new build-
ing for the Pennsylvania Bank, and
in the buildings of the Water-
Works, for the purpose of hoisting *
the heavy materials used in their *
erection, particularly marble.
In that part of the roof of the
Pennsylvania Bank, Avhich is of
marble, there are several blocks
of from 5 to 7| tons weight, the
heaviest of which were hoisted by
two of these machines, and eight
men, in the short space of fifty-five
minutes. And the columns of the
Centre Square Engine House,
Avhich weigh about 9 tons each,
were set by the same force. The
same kind of machines were em-
* The smallest wheel is used when the
utmost power of the machine is requir-
ed.
>js I'-vav; IMachine.
Elevation.
Plan and Section.through tht &udaif the presence of
fixedair.or suffocating choke damp.
The following easy method of
expelling the foul air from wells,
was pursued with success by Mr.
Robert Patterson of Philadel-
phia. It is much more practica-
ble than that of Mr. Robertson,
noticed under the articles, Aiu,
Vapour.
He took a hoop a little less in
diameter than that of the well, to
which he fastened a piece of cloth,
nearly in form of a scoop net....
1 hree cords were made fast to the
hoop at equal distances from each
other, each about the length of the
diameter of the hoop and knotted
together. This vessel wis let down
to the bottom of the well, by a
strong line over the windlass, vvhich
vvas placed directly above the cen-
ter of the well ; he took hold of it
with his hand, and running from
the well's mouth, forcibly drew up
the vessel, with the whole volume
of incumbent air. Two or three
repetitions of this simple process,-
completely cleared the well of all
its noxious air, and the workmen
descended with safely. The ex-
periment has been frequently re-
peated, and always with equal suc-
C'CHS.
Mr. Latrobe mentioned to the
Editor, that he frequently saw an
experiment tried inEn^landlbund-
ed upon the same principle as that
of Mr. Patterson''. A rope was
fastened to a bush of furze, and let
down the well; a person then hav-
ing laidhold of the rope,run quickly
back from the well, forcibly drawing
up the furze bush, and causing a cur-
rent of air after it, and thusforcing
up the deadly vapour.
Another successful method, is
to lower down a dish, containing
quick lime, in a state of efferves-
cence, into the well. The carbonic
acid (fixed air) seizes greedily
upon the quick-lime, and leave*
the space it formerly occupied, to
be filled with the common atmos-
pheric air. Repeatedly dashing-
buckets of water down the well,
also dissipates the fixed air.]
In the year 1794, the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, he.
conferred their silver medal on
George Butler, Esq. for his in-
vention of a Bucket for drawing
water from deep wells. It consists
of a common barrel, the head of
vvhich is taken out: across the top
are fixed two thin bars of iron,
having in the centre a small piece
of the same metal, vvhich Mr.
Butler terms a standard. This
is furnished with a collar, which
has 4 moveable arms; and above
it, there are a mortise containing a
small brass pulley, and a loop, to
which the well-rope is secured:
farilu-r, a cord is tied to one ex-
tremity of the collar, vvhich, after
passing over the pulley, communi-
cates with a valve applied to the
l<)\ver head of the vesv:l.......The
bucket, thus constructed, when let
down into the well by a rope, is
filled through such valre; and,
on being drawn up, the iron cross
WEL
WEL
above mentioned is passed against
two parallel bars, so that the valve
is opened, and the water discharged
into a trough, or vessel, prepared
for its reception.....The principal
advantage, arising from this con-
trivance is, that the bucket is not
only filled expeditiously, but it is
also brought up steadily, so that
no water is spilt; and, if any of it
accidentally drop, it falls directly
from the valve into the well, with-
out wetting the descending rope;
a circumstance of considerable im-
portance ; for, by such continual
moisture (which is necessarily oc-
casioned by the common buckets),
it speedily decays, while the ves-
sels are seldom drawn up com-
pletely filled. A more minute ac-
count of Mr. B.'s invention will be
found in the 12th volume of the
" Transactions" of the Society a-
bove mentioned, where it is illus-
trated, with an engraving.
A patent vvas granted in Au-
gust, 1798, to Mr. John Ashley,
of Islingtom, for a method of rais-
ing water from wells of any depth,
upon a very simple and permanent
construction ; of which, however,
we have not met with a specifica-
tion.
[The following simple and con-
venient mode of constructing what
is called in the U. States, Sweep,
the editor is favoured with, by Mr
Benjamin Dearborn, to whom
it was shewn by some person
whose name he forgets. In con-
venience it is superior to the com-
mon kind, as the bucket, when
this is fixed, is drawn double the
perpendicular distance which the
end of the sweep moves where the
pulley is fastened. Its simplicity
is such, that the only remark ne-
cesary to make is, that one end of
the cord is to be fastened inside of
the well, at or near the top. The
contrivance in other respects, con-
sists of a strong post, firmly set
in the ground, at a small distance
from the well, and which is about
eight feet above the surface of the
earth, as represented at a....With
the top of this post is connected
a baulk, b, that turns on an iron
pin ;.....c is a pole, linked to the
smaller end of each baulk., and
on which the pail d is suspended,
that swings when empty over the
well e.
In order to raise water by the
apparatus here described, a person
lays hold of the pole, which is
pulled down till the bucket de-
scends into the well for filling it;
when it is again easily lifted up-
wards by a small force at c, being
assisted bv the weight delineated
at/.
SlSSf.__1.1=
WEN
WEN .. 377
WEN, is an indolent tumor, or
an enlargement of the thyroid
gland, which is situated in the an-
terior part of the neck. This af-
fection frequently occurs, and is
endemial in some parts of Eng-
land ; for instance, in Derbyshire.
It is uncommonly prevalent among
the inhabitants of marshy, low
countries, surrounded by woods,
bordering on rivers and standing
waters, or exposed to southerly,
hot winds ; and especially among
females, young people, children,
and persons of a delicate or tender
habit: even strangers, who settle
in these parts, are not exempt from
its attacks. Nevertheless, if timely
attended to, it is often cured; but,
where it is hereditary, or has been
suffered to remain after the age of
adolescence, its removal is ex-
tremely difficult.
The principal causes of wens, are
scorphulous matter; violent exer-
tions ; poor, or indigestible food ;
and bad water. Several authors
suppose it to arise from the use of
snow-water: thus, Forster, in
his voyage round the world, ob-
served glandular obstructions to
originate from drinking solutions
of ice.
Cure....Where this malady pro-
ceeds from a vitiated lymph, as in
the Scrophula, it will be neces-
sary to have recourse to the treat-
ment recommended under that
article. Should it have been in-
duced by frequently taking solu-
tions of ice, or snow, great benefit
may be derived from the use of
water, saturated with fixed air.....
With a view to dissolve the tumor,
various remedies have been de-
vised ; of vvhich the following de-
serve particular notice: E'.tciric.ity
in conjunction vyilh alteratives ;
for instance, mild mercurials and
roL. v.'
antimonials; hemlock; or 30 grains
of the liver of sulphur dissolved in
a quart of water, 2 table-spoon-
fuls of which are to be taken every
3 hours. During such course, Pe-
ruvian bark, or other tonics, ought
to be used as auxiliaries. Among
external remedies, camphor com-
bined with sweet-oil; or a solution
of sal-ammoniac in vinegar, have
often successfully been applied to
the tumor.
Internally,the use oiburntsponge
(as directed in the article Scro-
phula) has been attended with
the best effects, in dispersing wens.
[The following prescription is
warmly recommended by the re-
spectable Mr. J. Ring of London,
who says, " He has been very suc-
cessful in the cure of bronchoctle
with it.
" Take of burnt sponge 2 oz.:
powder of gum arabac 2 dr.: cin-
namon £ a dr.: simple syrup a
sufficient quantity to make 24 lo-
zenges. The mass is to be well
beaten, and the syrup added slow-
ly. The lozenges are to be dried
before the fire, on a plate that has
been slightly oiled, or in a galli-
pot, tied over with skin. One of
them is to be taken twice or three
times a day. Mr. Ring says, he
knew an instance, where one was
taken twice a day, for a great
length of time, to no purpose ;
but when the number was increas-
ed to three, the good effect was
soon evident. The bronchocelc, or
goitre, as this disease is called, pre-
vails in several parts of the United
States, particularly in the western
part of Pennsylvania, and in the
Genesee district of the state of N.
York. It also prevails in Canada
to an alarming degree. The above
prescription deserves the attention
of sufferers by the complaint,
3C
378 WEN
WH A
Wens frequently make their ap-
pearance in the side of the cheek,
or the back of the neck. To re-
move these, the mere bathing with
salt and water has been found ef-
fectual, as the following account
shews.
From the Gentleman's Magazine.
Chisholme, Roxburgshire,
Aovember 20, 1799.
Mr. Urban,
Having had a wen of the stea-
tomatous kind, of brge size, and
long standing, upon the side of
my face, immediately before and
below my right ear. I was inform-
ed by different people that, if I
would apply salt and water to it,
I would get rid of it. In August,
1798, 1 put a quantity of salt and
Water in a saucepan, and boiled
it for four minutes, with which I
bathed the whole surface frequent-
ly while it continued warm, as
also after it became cold, so often
as ten or twelve times daily ; al-
ways stirring up the salt deposited
at the bottom of the bason, and
incorporating it again with the wa-
ter, before I applied it. On the
11th day from the first application,
while shaving, I observed a small
discharge ; while assisting by a
gentle pressure, the whole con-
tents were soon emptied, without
the smallest pain, and without
blood.
Being informed of some others
who had been benefitted in like
manner from the same application,
and knowing myself of some late
instances under my own immedi-
ate direction, I feel it a duty thi's
to make it public ; being convinced
it can produce no bad effect, and
every person having it in bis power
to make the trial. At the same
time, I beg leave to caution that
no one should be disheartened from
the length of time it may be ne-
cessary to continue the applica-
tion ; as, in some cases, it has re-
quired 3 or 4 months, though in
the last, only thirty days ; but in
all, without pain or inconveniencies
of any kind, or any previous no-
tice of the discharge, till it actu-
ally took place.
William Chisholme.]
WHALE, the Common, or Ba-
Ixna mysticetus, L*. is the largest
inhabitant of the ocean, frequent-
ing the north-seas, where it is from
70 to 90 feet, and in those of the
Torrid Zone, to 160 feet in length.
Its head is uncommonly large, so
that it is equal to* one-third of its
length : in the middle are two ori-
fices, through which it spouts wa-
ter to a considerable height; and to-
wards the back,there are two small
eyes, protected by eye-lashes, like
those in quadrupeds. The tail has
the form of a crescent; and the
colour of the whole body is vari-
ous, the backs of some being red,
and the belly perfectly white. The
female produces one, or not ex-
ceeding two young whales, after a
gestation of nine or ten months,
vvhich are suckled in the manner
of other n.ammillary animals.
The whale is a very useful fish:
its flesh, however, is rank and un-
fit to be eaten ; but the small la-
minae, known under the name of
whale-bone, vvhich are taken from
the upper jaw, furnish a lucrative ,
article in commerce. The tongue
consists of a soft, spongy, fat sub-
stance ; which, when boiled down,
often yields five or six barrels of
oil ; tbcuiib the most valuable part
is the Blubber, or fat, found be-
neath the skin, to the depth of from
WHE
W H E 379
eight to twelve inches, and which
is converted into train-oil.
Whales are chiefly caught in the
vicinity of Greenland j though a
fishery has lately been success-
fully commenced in the South Sc-a.
As their fat is of essential utility in
domestic life, the maritime powers
of the north annually send nume-
rous vessels on this pursuit. Each
ship is provided with six boats,
which are respectively furnished
with harpoons, appended to ropes
from 200 to 300 fathoms in length.
When a whale is perceived float-
ing on the surface of the ocean,
and spouting up torrents of water,
the boats approach and a harpoon
is discharged. The wounded fish
plunges into the deep; and if the
rope belonging to one boat be run-
out, that of another is speedily fas-
tened to it, to prevent the little
bark from being carried down with
the whale. As soon as the un-
wieldy creature re-appears,another,
and,it necessary,a third harpoon, is
discharged, till it rises to the sur-
face, and at length expires. The
whale bone is then taken out, the
blubber cut to pieces, and stowed
in hogsheads.
The proper season for the whale-
fishery, is from May to July ; and
great are the advantages derived
from it, not only as an object of
commerce, but also as a nursery for
seamen.
WHEAT, or Triticum, L. a ge-
nus of plants,comprehending about
16 species, of which the lollovving
are the principal:
I. The repens. See Dog's-
grass.
11. The gstivum, or Spring
Wheat, is probably a native of
Southern Siberia andSicily, whence
its culture has been gradually dis-
persed throughout Europe : it ri-
pens about the same time as the
Winter, or Common Wheat, even
though it be sown in February or
March. This species is divided
into the following varieties, name-
ly:
l.The T. xstivum, spica et grana
rubente, or spring-Wheat, with a
red spike or ear and grain.
2. The T. testivum, rubrum, spi-
ca alba, Red Spring-Wheat, with a
white ear.
3. The T. aslivum, spica et gi-a*
na alba, or Spring-Wheat, with a
white spike and givin. These, and
all other varieties of the same spe-
cies, are beardless, and may be
sown from the .end of February
till early in May. They 'are not
easily affected by moisture, or se-
vere frost, and afford excellent
starch.
III. The hybernum, Winter or
Common Wheat is principally
raised in Britain: its grains are
somewhat fuller than those of the
preceding species ; and its chief
varieties are :
1. The T. hybernum, spica et
grana rubente, or Common Wheat,
with a red ear and grain.
2. The T. hybernum rubrum,
spica alba, or Common Wheat,
with a white ear.
3. The T. hybernum rubrum,
spica et grana alba, or Winter
Wheat, with white ears and grains.
...These varieties are also destitute
of beards, and should not be sown
earlier than in September, nor later
than in November....They produce
the most valuable wheat, which
yields the largest proportion of
flour.
IV. The turgidum, Thick-spiked,
or Cone Wheat, each plant bearing
from four to eight ears, and each of
the latter from 30 to 70 grains j
it differs from the preceding spgr
380 W H E
cies, both in its bearded ears, and
its small plump grains, which are
more convex on the back than those
of the Spring or Winter Wheat...
The principal varieties are :
1. The T. turgidum conicum al-
bum, or White Cone Wheat.
2. The T. turgidum conicum ru-
brum, or Red Cone Wheat.
3. The T. turgidum aristiferum,
Large-bearded Cone-wheat, Clog-
wheat, Square-wheat, or Rivets.
4. The T. turgidum, spica mul-
tiplied or many-eared Cone-wheat.
.....These varieties are well-calcu-
lated for strong, damp, soils ; but
the corn is apt to lodge, if it be
sown too closely. Its grain is said
to be productive of more flour than
any other sort of wheat, though it
is much browner, and of an inferior
quality.
V. The Polonicum, or Polish
Wheat, resembles the preceding
species ; but its stalks attain the
height of 5 or 6 feet; the leaves
are white-striped from 12 to 24
inches, and the ears six inches, in
length. This noble 'grain is not
cultivated to any extent in Britain,
though remarkably fruitful, and
yielding abundance of flour. It
ought to be sown sparingly ; as it
is apt to lodge, in consequence of
which the quality of the corn is
impaired.
VI. The Spelta, Spelt, or Ger-
man Wheat, is principally raised in
that country, and nearly resembles
barley ; though its stalks are short-
er. In Tburingia, it is generally
sown about Michaelmas, in stony,
mountainous lands,which are other-
wise fit only for oats. In France,
Swabia, Franconia, and on the
banks of the Rhine, it is more ex-
tensively cultivated, even in better
soils....:It is well known in com-
merce, that the incomparable Nu-
WHE
remberg and Frankfort starch and
flour are solely obtained from Spelt-
wheat. Hence, we are induced to
recommend its culture in the nor-
thern parts of this island, vvhich
abound in rocky pasture grounds,
especially in Scotland, where they
are often rented at 1 s. 6d. per acre.
We must, however, remark, that
this excellent grain cannot be di-
vested of its husks by thrashing,
and that it requires the operation of
a mill for that purpose; but it ought
to be sown or drilled together with
the husks.
VII. The Siberian SpringWheat,
has but lately been introduced into
Britian : it attains to maturity as
early astheCommon SpringWheat,
and increases in the proportion of
25 to one.
VIII. The Switzerland Spring
Wheat, ripens a fortnight earlier
than the common sort of that sea-
son.
IX. The Egyptian Wheat is re-
markable for its uncommon fruit-
fulness : its straw is strong and
tough, whence it has received the
name of recd-wheat. The grains,
however, do not yield so large a
proportion of flour or meal as any
of the preceding species or varie-
ties ; and the flower is scarcely su-
perior to that obtained from the
finest barley.
X. The Zealand Wheat is chiefly
raised in the county of Kent: ihe
straw is long and tough, resembling
reeds; the ears are large; the
grains white, and full-bodied.......
This species is well calculated for
poor soils ; for if it be sown on
rich lands, it is apt " to run up lo
straw."
Lastly, there is a species of
Spring Wheat, cultivated in the
island of Jersey, and vvhich is
termed Froment Tremais; being
WHE
*nly three months in the ground :
its cars and grains are small, but
yield a nutritious flour....Like the
Cone-wheat, the last seven species
are furnished with long beards.
The White, or Spring and Sum-
mer Wheats, flourish best on light
soils, while the other kinds and
varieties are more advantageously
raised on strong lands. The ground,
however, ought previously to be
well tilled and pulverized : thus,
if a crop of wheat be taken after
clover has been ploughed in, it
will prove uncommonly fine and
abundant.
This beneficial corn is propagated,
by sowing it either broad-cast, or
by Drilling it with Mr. Cooke's,
or similar drill-machine ; or by Mr.
Jervas Weight's implement for
sowing wheat and other grain;
which may be affixed to a plough,
or manufactured of any requisite
size......Mr. W. obtained a patent
for this invention, in 1784 ; and,
farmers may avail themselves of
his contrivance, described in the
15th volume of the " Repertory of
Ann,1' where it is farther illustrated
by an engraving.
Wheat may also be dibbled; but,
though a considerable saving is
thus obtained in the quantity of
seed, yet such method is by no
means preferable to drilling. With-
in a few years, indeed, it has been
proposed to increase the plant by
dividing the root; and various ex-
periments have been successfully
made, with a view of saving seed-
corn : the most remarkable is that
of Mr. Charles Miller,of Cam-
bridge. He sowed some wheat on
the 2d of June, 1766 ; on the 8th
day of August in the same year, a
sing!', plant was taken up, divided
into 18 parts, and each p..rt sepa-
rately transplanted. Between the
WHE 381
middle of September and Octoljer,
these plants were again removed,
their roots divided into 67 portions;
which were likewise set at a pro-
per distance from each other, for
enduring the winter. Next, they
were dug up a third time, and di-
vided in a similar manner, between
the middle of March and the 12th of
April; in consequence of which,
they produced five hundred plants.
Thus, a single grain yielded in one
season :
Ears 21,109
In number 570,000 fold !
In measure 31 pecks.
In weight 47 pounds.
For a more particular account of
this experiment, the reader will
consult the 58th vol. of the " Phi-
losophical Transactions of the Royal
Society".....The superiority of the
Transplanting System over the
Drill-Husbandry, is also fully de-
monstrated in the 3d vol. of the
" Letters and Papers of the Bath
and West of England'Society."
Wheat is subject to the Mil-
dew, and various other disoiders,
of which we have already treated,
under the heads of Barley, Corn,
&c. Hence we shall, by way of
supplement, communicate two
other remedies, which are recom-
mended as being singularly effica-
cious in preventing the Smut......
M. Hochheimer, whose authority
is often questionable, relates in his
German collection of economical
and other facts, that wheat mois-
tened wilh strong vinegar, in the
proportion of 24 lbs. of the grain
to one pint of this liquor, will be
perfectly secure from that distem-
per. Tbe corn should thus be pre-
pared, shortly before it is sown ;
and, though it be kept for a fort-
night in such acidified state, on
account of rainy weather, yet it
!82
WHE
WHE
will not receive the least injury....
The next remedy is that proposed
by Mr. Robert Somerville
(" Communications to the Board of
Agriculture," vol. ii.), who attributes
this disease to an insect resembling
the wood-louse, though infinitely
smaller ; depositing its eggs in the
chaff, or downy-part of the wheat:
and, as there vermin, if sown with
tiie seed, would either totally des-
troy the stem of the future plant,
or cause it to produce smut-balls, he
advises the infected or suspected
grains to be washed in water ; by
which expedient, ail light or im-
perfect seed may not only be skim-
med off the surface, but the greater
part of the eggs of such insects
will be separated. As, however,
some of these eggs, notwithstand-
ing this precaution, adhere to the
grain, Mr. S. recommends the
following preparation, that is pre-
ferable to infusions of lime, ar-
senic, and other mineral ingre-
dients, vvhich often retard and de-
stroy vegetation : Take of tobac-
co-leaves, of pulverized hellebore,
and of Barbadoes aloes, each one
pound; boil the two first sub-
stances, for about an hour and an
half, in 10 English gallons of wa-
ter. The fluid should next be
strained through the sieve ; then
put into a vessel over the fire ; and
the aloes be added in a state of
powder. The whole must now
boil, till the last ingredient be com-
pletely dissolved : the liquor ought
afterwards to be removed from the
fire, and poured into a large vessel:
when perfectly cold, it should be
diluted with such a quantity of
pure water as will amount to 30
gallons. The seed ought to be
immersed in this preparation, and
briskly agitated for 20 minutes;
after which it must be dried on
canvas, or on the floor....Mr. S.
remarks, that if 2 lbs. of coarse
glue or gum-arabic be dissolved,
its tenacity will cause the bitter
ingredients to adhere more firmly
to the grain. The expense of this
compound is said not to exceed
seven or eight shillings, and to be
sufficient for twelve bolls (six Eng-
lish quarters) of wheat; and, tho'
such liquor be not prejudicial to
vegetation, it is so nauseous, that
neither pigeons, nor any other of
the devouring tribe, will touch it.
Mr. Somerville, therefore, pro-
poses the following method of des-
troying vermin on the growing
crop : A piece of double flannel,
about two yards in breadth, and
sufficiently long to go across a
ridge, ought to be provided with
cords at each end, to serve as
hands, and also furnished with small
pieces of lead at the bottom, as re-
presented in the following figure.
cccccccccccccc
WHE
WHE 383
A, the flannel.
B, B, the cord. ,
cccccccccccc c c, are
the weights.
This cloth, or blanket, must be
dipped in the preparation above
described, or in a strong decoction
of rue, chamomile, and similar
bitter herbs ; which is equally dis-
gustful lo vermin of every descrip-
tion. One person is then to lay
hold of each end of the cord, and
to draw the flannel after them in
the direction of the ridge, so as to
touch the top of every plant: the
same operation is repeated a se-
cond time over each ridge, in a con-
trary direction ; by which means,
both sides will come in contact
with the liquid, and the depreda-
tions of insects, in general, be ef-
fectually prevented. This sweep-
ing, however, ought, if possible,
to be performed in dry weather ;
because those particles of the nau-
seous ingredients, which may be
left upon the cars, will more firm-
ly adhere, than if the latter were in
a wet state.
The proper period for reaping
wheat, is by no means ascertained;
some farmers asserting that it is
most advantageous to cut the grain
before it is perfectly ripe, while
others are of opinion, that it ought
lo stand till nearly ready to be
reaped and housed. The anony-
mous author of the " Farmer's
Calendar," observes, that the safest
way is that of adopting a middle
course, with a particular regard to
a fair time. If, however, there be
any appearance of blight, Mr. A.
Young thinks, that farmers cannot
cut their wheat two early. He re-
marks, that the green state of the
straw is no indication that the grain
is immature ; because the straw
of blighted corn never acquires a
bright yellow colour : but remains
green till it becomes black. When
the stalk is in this conditiop, the
circulation of the sap ceases ; and
the grain daily decreases in size.
He therefore advises the wheat to
be cut; laid down on the stubble ;
exposed to the dew; frequently
turned ; and, when perfectly diy,
the grain may be tied up in
sheaves, and carried to the barn.
Thus, thousands of bushels may
be annually saved, that might af-
ford good marketable grain ; part
of which would otherwise never be
thrashed out of the ears, while
the remainder would be so light
and brittle, as to be dispersed in
winnowing: the straw will at the
same time be tough, and fit for
thatching; whereas, without adopt-
ing such method, it could not
fail of being beaten to pieces in
thrashing.....See also the article
Granary.
To Prepare Seed Wheat.
[Various steeps have been propo-
sed to expedite the vegetation of
the seed, and to protect it from
mildew or rust.
The experienced Du Hamel
was of opinion that washing the
seed well in plain water answer-
ed better than any artificial im-
pregnation, and Mr. Wagstaffe
of Norwich, (Bath Soc. Trans.) is
of the same opinion. Mr. Cha-
i'ELlk 's experiment, however,
mentioned in vol. i. p. 180, is de-
cisive as to the great advantage
derived from soaking barley seed
in the black carbonic water of a
stable manure heap, in a dry sea-
son. Mr. William Johnston,
of Jenkintovvn, formerly mentic ti-
ed in vol. ii. p. 284, stated to the
Editor, that he also steeped his
384 WHE
grain intheblack water of a manure
heap, in which was dissolved some
nitre, and then sifted gypsum over
it: the grain thus prepared was
sown, and from thirty acres of
ground he produced 702A bushels
of wheat.
The following experiment is
taken from the " Balance, " a pa-
per published at Hudson, (New
York) and is worth repeating.
" A man in this state, in pre-
paring his seed wheat for sowing,
steeped one bushel, twelve hours
in pickle, and then roiled it in
plaister, and sowed it through the
middle of a field containing eleven
or twelve acres ; on each side of
this throughout the field he sowed
wheat that had been rolled in plais-
ter, but not pickled. Soon after
the grain began to vegetate, he
perceived a striking difference,
and that, during the whole grovvth,
the stems of the pickled seed were
much superior in thriftiness and
luxuriance.
" After reaping, thrashing, and
measuring the grain, and making
a comparison between the ■products
of the pickled and unpickled seed,
the owner has affirmed it, as his
opinion, that, if he had pickled the
whole of the seed, which was sown
in that field, his crop would have
been increased thereby not less
than seventy or eighty bushels."
Mr. Cartier, of Quebec also,
advises to wash seed wheat thrice
thoroughly in water, then to steep
it eighteen hours in strong brine,
and to sift lime over it, stirring it
well with a shovel, until the wheat
be equally dusted, in the propor-
tion of half a gallon to every
bushel of wheat. Some exceed-
ingly smutty wheat, was prepared
in the above way, and immediately
sown, and produced a good and
WHE
clean grain. Carey's Museum, vol.
vii. p. 273.
Modes of Sowing Wheat.
The following modes of sow-
ing wheat are practised in various
countries.
1. Broad cast.
2. Drilling in continued rows
like garden peas.
3. Drilling clusters ; in rows.
4. Dibbling: dropping seed in
holes.
However easy the broad cast
mode of culture may be to the
farmer, he is deprived of the bene-
fit arising from hoeing, which the
other modes readily admit of.
When the second mode is prac-
tised, the plants are horse-hoed
between the rows. It is generally
agreed that this mode yields more
than the broad cast.
WALTEltRuTHERFORDEsq.ofN.
Jersey, speaks highly of a mode of
drilling vvhich is pursued in N.
Jersey. The drill was invented by
a fanner, in Somerset county, in
that state, and consists of a seed-
box over a cylinder that turns with
the wheels, and having four holes
in the box, answering to notches
sloped in the cylinder, thus per-
mitting the seed to fall into drills
at 13 inches a part. The drill is
drawn by a pair of horses, with a
tongue to turn it: when turning,
the wheel is to be held fast, and
brought round, to run in the out-
side drill: the head lands are
afterwards to be drilled. Eight
acres a day may be put in, pro-
vided the ground be previously
well harrowed.
The advantages.of this method
as stated by Mr. Rutherford and
according to the experience of
many farmers, are 1. It takes
WHE
WHE 385
somewhat less seed. 2. The seed
is much better covered. 3. The
ridges on each side mouldering
gradually on the green grain, it
does not freeze out, during the
winter. 4. It is sheltered from
the bleak spring winch. 5. It
draws off the wet. 6. A crop
thus put in, stands the drought
well, the roots being well covered.
Mr. Rutherford observes fur-
ther, " Where the land is richly
manured, perhaps this method
may not be necessary, and if the
fallow be covered with large stones
or stumps of trees, it will be im-
practicable ; but on land considera-
bly exhausted, our farmers have
experienced it to be advantageous;
I reckon it yields double the old
method (broad cast.) When I
first practised drilling, it was on
?. field that, the year before, was
in summer grain : one part of it
gave a much better crop than the
rest; and I found that without di-
rections, the teams-man sowed this
part by hand." See Transactions
of the New York Agricultural So-
ciety, volume 1st.
Drilling in clusters, permits
horse-hoeing and hand-hoeing:
and yields still more than wheat
drilled in a continued line.
Mr. Bordley is of opinion that
f dibbling yields the mos^t productive
crop : but that eight or ten grains
should be dropped in each hole.
This method is tedious and expen-
sive, where labour is scarce.
Mr. Bordley invented a sim-
ple strong machine vvhich dropped
five or six grains of wheat in each
cluster on about eight acres. The
clusters were seven inches apart
•in the rows; and the rows were
about nine inches from one another.
A horse on each side of a bed
walked in the water furrows, and
VOL. V.
sowed an intire bed in eight rows
at a time. A light pole extended
between the horses, from the
neck of one to that of the other.
It appeared that, as Lr as nine
grains in a cluster, and from Mr.
Singleton's experiments, in Tal-
bot county, as far as 15 grains in
every cluster, the produce in wheat
vvas progressively the better. Mr.
B. recommends to drop the seeds
so as to touch one another if pos-
sible, as they thus proved greatly
superior to the same number of
grainsspread within circles of three
inches, the centres whereof were
seven inches from the centres of
other similar clusters ; when the
dibbled were only six inches apart.
Mr. B. estimated his crop at
15 per cent, better than drilled
wheat in continued rows, both be-
ing hoed alike : which would be
J or 33 per cent better than broad
cast wheat not hood.
Mr. B. further observes ; " af-
ter a number of instructive expe-
riments on eleven acres of wheat
harrowed in, and compared with
wheat at the same time ploughed
in ; of wheat sown on a broad level;
on round ridges of various heights;
and on fiat beds having deep part-
ing furrows, the ridges and beds
with their water furrows being
seven feet wide, Some running
North and South, and others East
and West, I clearly preferred beds
to ridges ; because it is immate-
rial in what direction they lie, the
sun shining equally on the whole
horizontal surface ; and because
the soil being alike in quality on
the whole bed, the wheat grew
equally well from edge to edge.
The wheat, in reaping, also, vw-.s
better saved, no short wheat being
observed as on the edges of ridges,
and the furrows beingopened deep,
3 D
386 WHE
WHE
the rains presently glided into the
furrows, and were by them con-
veyed into the main drains of this
flat land,without ever drowning the
wheat, or hardening the ground
upon the flat beds. " Page 89, 90,
2d Edit, of Notes on Husbandry.
Preparative cropfor Wheat....rYhe
most experienced farmers in Penn-
sylvania, are now in the constant
practice of preparing wheat by
ploughing down clover after having
stood two years. But they have not
sufficiently attended to the proper
distance of time that ought to in-
tervene between the ploughing
down, and the sowing wheat. The
great point to be attended to, is
to sow the wheat at the period
when it is expected that the clover
is rotting, and when of course the
seed will derive the benefit from
the extrication of those elastic
fluids( which are the great supports
of vegetation,) and of the heat of
the fermenting plant. Hence, Mr.
Macro says, (Young's Annals,
vol. i.) " that 20 years experience
has convinced him, the best way
of sowing clover lands with wheat,
is to plough the lands 10 or 15
days before you sow it, that the
land may have some time to get
dry, and after rain enough to make
it dress well." Hence too the
propriety of Mr. Macro's practice
of ploughing in the clover on a
fall of rain, and of waiting for a
due state of the ground. Mr.
Bordle? adds, that if rain falls
after burying the clover, and be-
fore sowing the wheat, it may be
necessary to wait for the ground
becoming only moist, rather than
sow when it is wet and heavy. If
the farmer ploughs in clover, when
the ground is dry,he may choose to
wait for rain before he sows.Though
for this reason alone he need not
wait. I have found it generally safe
to sow during a drought, when the
soil is very dry; but not when a light
rain has fallen on very dry ground.
In the former case, the seed is safe
till a rain falls, which is usually in
plenty after a drought; and the
seed then quickly grows up: in
the other case, it is slightly damp-
ed, and it swells, but the moisture
is so soon evaporated as to leave
the seed to dry-rot and perish."
An experienced person made the
same observations to the Editor,
with respect to sowing seeds in a
garden.
Mr. Steele, of Montgomery
county, (whose admirable plan for
extirpating wild garlic, was men-
tioned in vol. iii. p. 148) commu-
nicated the following experiment:
He ploughed down part of a
ten acre lot, one half of which he
harrowed and sowed with wheat,
the other half vvas permitted to re-
main about 14 or 20 days, and vvas
then ploughed a second time, har-
rowed and sown with wheat. The
clover at the second ploughing was
found completely rotten, and the
wheat sown upon this twice plough-
ed piece, yielded nearly double the
crop of the other vvhich had been
ploughed but once.
In the above experiment it is
probable, that the piece first.
ploughed had been sown before the
decomposition of the clover took
place ; the part twice ploughed,
by some management, may not
have had the rotten clover turned
out as is commonly done when a
clover lay is ploughed twice ; but
there can be no question as to the
superiority of the crop, if after
being once ploughed, it had beea
merely harrowed and sown, at the
period, and instead of the se-
cond ploughing ; for by this ope-
WHE
ration, much carbonic acid (fixed
air,) must have been evolved, which
would have been retained.
Gypsum, a manure to wheat.....
In the Friends Settlement in Lou-
don county, Virginia, south of the
Blue Ridge, a great quantity of fine
wheat is raised. The soil is of a
deep chocolate colour. Mr. Wm.
West, of Delaware county, Penn-
sylvania, vvas told last spring, that
the crop of 1802, averaged 30
bushels to the acre. Gypsum was
scattered on the wheat in the
spring, in the proportion of one
bushel to the acre, and was said to
be attended with the most remark-
ably good effect of trebling the
produce of the land. Gypsum is
found useless in Pennsylvania for
winter grain. See article Gyp-
sum.
This surprisingly good effect of
gypsum upon wheat, which is so
contrary to the experience of our
farmers in Pennsylvania, ought lo
be carefully attended to. The in-
telligent farmers of Loudon coun-
ty, should inform us of the nature
of their soil, and their medical men
should analyze it. If gypsum
could be generally made to in-
crease the product of wheat, as it
lias of clover, a Second Mine
would be opened to the people of
the United States.
The means of getting out wheat
from the straw are three.
I. By the flail.
2. By treading with horses.
3. By threshing mills.
The method by means of the
flail is well known. The second,
is but partially used in the United
States, though there can not be a
doubt of its superiority to the mode
by the flail. It is a (omraon prac-
tice in Marj land ant! Virginia.
Mr. Bordley observes "some
WHE 387
farmers shift their treading floors
from field to field ; whence much
rough dirty wheat goes to market.
Those who have a proper earth,on
a perpetual floor used for treading
crops of wheat, year after year,
will have it glossy, and the wheat
from it will have no more dirt than
if threshed on plank with flails;
provided they are attentive in tak-
ing off the horse-dung directly as
it is dropped, andnotletthe horses
stop, to stale, until each journey
ends and they are led off; and,
provided, that as soon as the tread-
ing season is over, they cover the
floor thick with straw, to remain
till a week or two before they are
to tread in the next season. Cat-
tle may be foddered on it all win-
ter, keeping it full of litter, to pre-
vent horses from sinking and
poaching the ground. When
horses in halters are led in ranks,
and each rank kept as far apart
from the others as possible, time
is given for taking off the dung
dropt before the next rank tram-
ples on it; and in this detached
way of travelling, the horses are
kept cool. Mr. Bordley states
the advantages to be : 1. An entire
crop of wheat beat out before the
end of July, which preserves it
against the moth-fly.
2. Little opportunity is left for
pilferers, and the wheat is ready
for an early market.
Treading floors are from 60 to
100 feet*diameter, some are only
40 feet; others again 130, and
more. The larger the diameter
the easier to the horses. I never
knew a horse disordered on a large
floor, (above 60 feet). The track
or path, on which the sheaves are
laid and the horses tread, is from
12 to 24 feet wide.
Mr. Bordlet submits the fol-
388 WHE
lowing method as the best within
his knowledge. The floor is un-
incumbered with any fence. A
barn 60 feet square is in the mid-
dle of it, around which the horses
travel, on the bed of sheaves about
25 feel broad ; so that the diame.cr
of the whole treading rioor is 135
feet.
If the weather be likely to con-
tinue fair, the morning is suffered
to pass away until the dew is off
the stacks and floor. A row of
sheaves is first laid flat on the floor,
with the heads and butts in a line,
across the stack of it, as a bolster
for receiving the other sheaves
with their heads raised on them ;
and these sheaves range with the
path and circle, the butts resting on
the floor. Other sheaves are in like
manner ranged, with the heads
raised on the former sheaves, till
the whole floor is filled, appearing
with nothing but heads of wheat,
sloping upwards. The bands are
to be cut, layer by layer. A west-
erly wind is to be wished when
treading ; and it is preferred to
place the stacks eastward of the
floor, to give a free passage to the
west winds.
In my treading, 24 horses are
formed at some distance from the
floor into four ranks; when the
floor is ready, a boy mounted,
advances in a walk with the rank
haltered together, and enters c:i
the bed of wheat; another rank
follows, as soon as the#first has
obtained a distance equal to a
fourth part of the circumference
of tbi bed, and so of the other
ranks. They are forbid to go out
of a walk, till having walked upon
the bed five or six rounds ; word
is given to move on in a sober,
slow trot, and to keep the ranks at
theirfu".! distance from one another.
WHE
The trot is continued till the horses
have-travelled 8 or 9 miles ; t'-ey
are then led off to l>e fed, ,.er-
ed and rested, vl. le the odden
light straw is t:\'v. i off, r , deep at
to where tb.e sh u es be somewhat
close, a:Ki but partially bruised.
One third of the width of the
bed, is turned over on the other
two thirds from the inner side or
circle of the bed. The horses
are again led on, and trot out
their second journey, till the straw
be again light and clear of wheat.
It is then taken off, as deep as to
what lies more close. The horses
are again rested, 8cc. while, the
outer third of the bed is turned
upon the middle part of the bed.
A third journey is sufficient. The
straw being taken off, the whole
remaining bed is turned up from
the floor, and shook out with forks
and handles of rakes. The horses
tread this well; their journies are
then finished.
A neighbour viewing the tread-
ing of wheat on my floor, said Jhe
method h admirably easy to the
horses, and that most of the time
is spent in taking off and carrying
away the straw ; but he thought
it would be a saving, if the outer
half of the bed be trodden till
enough, and then the horses shift-
ed on the inner half of the bed;
and whilst this is treading, the
straw might be carried off from the
outer half, first trodden.
3. Many threshing mills have
been invented in England and
Scotland : but they have all been
highly expensive, and so compli-
cated that they were easily de-
ranged; and hence, even at this
day, opposite opinions are enter-
tained as to their utility. In the
" Sherborne Mercury," for Janu-
ary 12, li,j!, mention is made
WHE WHE 389
of a threshing machine, erected exhausted of the nourishment.
for J. Hanning, Esq. of Dorset, which they had imbibed, so that it
which threshes and cleans 400 could not reach the ear or grain.
bushels of grain and sacks it in If with this sudden heat and dry-
12 hours, with the assistance of ing state of the air, the plants be,
five men." What a treasure struck with rust, and are still suf-
would such an implement prove fered to stand longer, the grain,
to an American farmer !. receiving no more nourishment,
On this subject Dr. James An- can never fill; but by cutting it
derson observes, to the Editor, instantly, and setting it sheltered
" that no threshing machines re- to cure gradually, the best chance
quiring a greater power than that is had for obtaining marketable
of one good horse, can ever give good wheat.
satisfaction to an intelligent far- "The reaping corn 10 or 14
mer; because, when it works days earlier than my neighbours,
faster, the man who feeds it, is too (says Mr. Parkinson) is an ad-
much hurried to be able to do it vantage I have attended to. As
well; in consequence of which the corn begins to decay first at the,
grain is laid in unequal lumps that root, all the nourishment it can re-
derange the operations, and great- ceive, while standing uncut, after
ly augments the force required : the decay of the root, must be de-
for these obstructions must, to be rived from the straw. The dews
overcome, break the machine, and may feed the grain at one time ;
never perform the work well." but when nearly ripe and the root
This is an important general rule, decayed,the sun and wind have so
well worth attending lo. much power as to ripen it too
The threshing mill of Mr. quickly, or scorch or dry it before
Hoxie, of Hudson, New York, its,natural period of maturity.
was mentioned in p. 114, of the " Riding on the road about har-
present volume, to which we refer, vest time, he observed a field of
The following observations upon wheat that had taken the mildew.
harvesting wheat, u.id on the mil- The straw was of a remarkably
dew deserve attention. deep green, and instead of being-
" What stage'of ripeness is the dead, appeared to have acquired
best for cutting wheat, is not as- a greater verdure ; though after
certained in America ; but I have such appearance comes on, it
seen enough of cutting early to be never receives any nourishment
convinced that it commonly is suf- or grows larger. Instead whereof
fered to stand too long. the straw becomes distempered,
" At the time of reaping, we ge- spotted, and discoloured. The
ncrally have a clear *oky and a pe- sooner it is then cut the better.
culiar drying air, which in some He took 12 ears of the wheat,
harvests ripen wheat very sudden- which, as well as the straw, were
ly, so that the plants from an ap- green as grass, and at thesametima
parent state of vigour, are killed in mildewed. A great deal of rain
a day or two, and receive no fur- had fallen the forepart of the day ;
ther nourishment from tb.e root or but the ears of wheat were ffretty
blade ; and even the ster.v, become dry. He tied them in a bunch.
S90 WHE
WHE
intending to hang them up in his
house to dry and ripen. Several
weeks afterwards, having been
forgot, he took them out of his
•great coat pocket ; when the straw
was found to be still green. The
grain was then rubbed out, and to
his astonishment he never saw bet-
ter. It was fine in colour, and well
filled ; but what remained in the
field, from which he took these
ears, was very small and of little
value. This is a strong case,
which ought to make an im-
pression on the minds of our far-
mers. He adds....From hence it
would seem, that if the farmers
would cut their wheat when it is
struck with mildew, and set it up
in the field in small stacks of about
a cart load each, so as neither to
heat nor mold, it would be better
than to let it stand, as is the prac-
tice, uncut.
" Hehad, at the same time, taken
twelve ears of wheat from an ad-
joining riper field, vvhich were
likewise found in the other pocket
of the great coat. Though these,
when gathered, appeared so much
superior to what had taken the
mildew, they did not turn out near-
ly so good as the others. From the
above circumstances, Mr. Park-
inson was ever after partial to
cutting wheat when the straw ap-
peared of a reddish cast, or some
of it green with the joints full of
sap; and it fulfilled his expecta-
tions. The straw, he adds, is bet-
ter for chaff; the flour much
fairer and heavier ; and for fine
flour it will grind into broad bran.
But he does not think that if the
wheat escapes the mildew, it ought
to be cut so green.
" The farmer may take into
consideration at what time it will
be best that he cut down his wheat;
for a slight degree of rust it need
not be hurried ; but when greatly
rusted in its advanced state of ri-
pening, and when considerably
scabbed (vvhich never happens but
in the moment before it ripens)
immediately cut down, and guard
it against sun and wind, slightly,
lest by securing it too close, it
heat and be entirely spoiled.....
What in wheat is by some called
scab, by others is called empty
ears."
Captain Romans, in his account
of Florida says, that a Mr. Young
of Georgia, mixed rye among his
seed wheat, and thus escaped the
blast. It was repeatedly tried till
he was convinced of its efficacy;
and then he sowed five acres with
wheat, surrounded by a list of 25
feet breadth of rye, and this also
succeeded. Mr. Bordley heard
an English farmer say, that rye
sown mixed wjth wheat, will pre-
ventthe wheatfrombeing blighted,
in England.
Beside the mildew, the wheat
has to encounter two great enemies,
in the fly and moth. The one at-
tacking it in the ground, and the
other after it is cut.
The first insect has been already
noticed in vol. 3d', p. 54. where the
valuable observations of Joseph
Cooper, Esq. may be found.
This insect is now known to be a
Tipula, belonging to the Diptera
order of Linn^us, and to the
eleventh order or Antiliata of
Fabricius.
The other insect is a species of
moth. It is believed to be de-
scribed by Du Hamel ; its history
is accurately detailed by L. Car-
ter, Esq. of Virginia in the 1st
vol. of the Trans, of the American
Philo. Society. Mr. Carter is
of opinion, that the egg is lodged
WHE WHE 391
in the grain before it hardens ; and the time required by common
the same opinion was expressed wheat, and that twenty bushels per
to the Editor, by an intelligent hour can be turned out.
farmer, in the neighbourhood of Wheat blanched in this way,
Philadelphia. When the grain is may be kept for any length of
threshed and laid in heaps it heats time, without any risk, and might
and hatches the insect, but if kept be laid 20 feet thick in the ware-
cool and free from the air, it will house withou t injury.
escape. It is found best to thresh To what American shall the
speedily after cutting the grain, U. S. be indebted, for the intro-
and before it is sweated. duction of this useful machine into
Mr. Robert Ferryman of his country ! !
England, has invented a machine Connected with the subject of
to take off the outer coat of wheat, wheat, may be mentioned the/ire**
previously to being ground, by for packing flour invented by Mr.
which the whole of the grain may Evan Evans of the Federal city,
be used in "bread, without any of and which is in actual operation at
the inconveniences hitherto found Mr. Oliver Evans' store inPhi-
in bread, made from the whole of ladelphia. The following cut and
the meal. explanation will give an accurate
It appeared in the examination idea of this very useful contrivance,
of Mr. F. by a committee of the by which a barrel of flour may be
House of Commons ; that blanch- packed in a minute.
ed wheat grinds in two thirds of
392 WHE
Explanation.....A, the barrel of
flour : B, the funnel, resting upon
the edge of the barrel by a shoul-
der : C, D, the driver: E, F, the
lever : G, 11, the connecting bars,
fastened by a strong pin to each
side of the lever at G, and to the
driver at II: I, I, two strong posts
put through the floor, and keyed
below the joists at K : the lever
works between them on a strong
pin L : the lever brought down-by
the hand, moves the pin G, in the
dotted circle I, and the connecting
bars draws.down the driver C,
forcing the flour into the barrel;
and, as it becomes harder packed
the power of the machine in-
creases, as the pin G, approaches
the posts I; this with its dispatch,
is what constitutes its excellence ;
for a weight being hung to the
end of the lever, continues to pack
more powerfully as the lever de-
scends ; by which^ goods may be
packed very hard in a short time.
To increase the power, the under
sliding part of the lever is drawn
out to increase its length ; the le-
ver is raised again by the weight
M, fastened to a line passing over
the pullies N, O.]
Yvtheat, thft Cow. See Cow-
wheat.
WHEEL, is a simple ma-
chine, consisting of a nave, fel-
lies, and circular brim, or pieces
of wood generally surrounded
with iron ; and thus revolving on
ks axis.
In the year 1793, the Society
for the Encouragement of Arts,
he. rewarded Mr. Joskimi Dixon
with the sum of 15 guineas, for
hjs contrivance of a Preservative
Wheel, that may be affixed to a
walking wheel-cranc\; by means
of vvhich all accidents to labourers
will be obviated, in case the weight
WHE
should at any time overcome the
power. His implement is attached
to the axis of the crane-wheel;
over the latter are passed two
ropes, of vvhich the men may take
hold, so as to suspend themselves
with the greatest safety, during
the time of danger. Pullies are
likewise placed near such preser-
vative wheels, over vvhich the ropes
turn, and are thus prevented from
taking fire, in consequence of the
friction. For a more explicit ac-
count of this useful invention, we
refer to the 11th vol. of the So-
ciety's " Transactions ;" where his
statement is elucidated by an en-
graving.
A patent was granted in August,
1799, to Messrs. George Dod-
son, and John Skidmore ; for a
method of making the naves or
stocks of wheels, of cast-iron,
brass, or compound-metal. A des-
cription of their process is inserted
in the 12th vol. of the " Repertory
of Arts," he. together with an ap-
propriate plate.
Wheel-drag. See Drag.
Wheel-carriages. See Car-
riage, Cart, Waggon, he.
[" In the second volume of ths
Communications to the Board ofAg-
griculture, is an excellent paper
' On the effects which carriage-
wheels, with rims of different
shapes, have on the roads.' By
AlexanderCumming, Esq. F. R.
S. Edin.
" Mr. C begins with shewing,
that the properties of all wheels,
so far as regards this lirtquiry, de-
pend upon their affinity to the cy-
linder or the cone : and in order
to shew the nature and tendency
of each class, he proceeds to state
such properties as unavoidably
arise from the shape of these
bodies.
WHE
WHE 393
« In the first place, the cylinder
having all its parts of equal diame-
ter, will, in rolling on its rim, have
an equal velocity at every part of
its circumference, and necessarily
advance in a straight fine : and as
all the parts of the rim have an
equal velocity, none can have a ten-
dency to drag forward, or retard
the progress of the others : they
all advance with one consent, with-
out the rubbing of any part on the
surface on which they roll. As
there is no rubbing, there can be
no friction ; and consequently a cy-
linder perfectly round, hard, and
smooth, would roll on a surface
perfectly level, hard and smooth,
with the least possible resistance,
however great its weight, or the
pressure on its rim. It therefore
follows, that all the power that is
employed in drawing forward a cy-
lindrical body, in a straight line,
on a compressible substance, is
ultimately applied in compressing,
smoothing, and levelling the sub-
•tancc on which it rolls. The roll-
ing of a cylindrical body, therefore,
can have no tendency to alter the
relative situation or position of the
parts of materials on which they
pass, nor any how to derange them,
but by a progressive dead pressure,
to consolidate, level, and smooth
them. These properties of the cy-
linder are practically confirmed by
the effect which frequent rolling
with a cylinder has on gravel walks;
it renders them compact, hard,
smooth, and impervious to rains ;
and consequently secure against
the devastations of hard frosts....
Nor does it break or grind the gra-
vel, more especially after the first
time of rolling, when all the parts
are laid flat and smooth. If a cy-
linder be cut into several lengths,
each part will possess all the above
YOL. V.
properties ; and if the rim of a car-
riage-wheel be made exactly of the
same shape, it must necessarily
have the same tendencies ; and its
rolling will have the same effect
on roads, provided it be not narrow,
that cylindrical rollers are observed
to have on garden walks*.
" All these properties of the cy<
linder depending wholly upon the
equality of every part of its diame-
ter, and consequently upon the ve-
locity of every part of its circum-
ference, are peculiar to it; and it
is impossible to gain equal advan-
tages with any other shape of the
circumference of a wheel.
But as conical rims' have been
universally preferred for a series
of years, it is natural to suppose
that there were obvious reasons
for such preference. On this ac-
count, Mr. C. proceeds to inves-
tigate the properties that must
necessarily arise from the shape
of the cone ; in order to see how
far this preference can be justified.
The cone diminishing gradually
from its base to its point, the ve-
locity of every part of its circum-
ference in rolling on an even plane,
will be dimished as the diameter;
and at the very point, where there
is no visible diameter, there will
be no perceptible motion, the cone
revolving round it, as a fixed point,
or centre. If the cone revolve about
this centre, the space described by
each part of the cone in rolling
round its point, being as the velo-
city with which that part moves,
the cone will roll in this din aim
" The advantage of increasing the
breadth of cylindrical rims is too obvious
to be insisted on: as the surface which
sus'ains the pressure of the load is in-
creased, the pressure on each part of it
is diminished; and consequently the pow-
er of crushing the materials on which cher
roll. '
3 E
394 WHE
without rubbing, and with the same
facility that the cylinder does in a
straight line. But if the cone be
made to advance in a straight line,
the natural velocities of its several
parts will not be as the spaces over
which they are compelled to ad-
vance ; therefore a rubbing or fric-
tion will take place at its circum-
ference, from the different velo-
cities of its parts, which must ren-
der the draught heavier. And if
the cone be supposed cut, and se-
parated into several parts, and each
to form the rim of a broad wheel;
each part, if rolled in this separated
state on a level plain, would roll in
the same circle round the conical
centre, that it did when all the
parts were connected. And the
difference of velocity of the parts
of each wheel, and consequently
the friction and resistance at its
rim, when advancing in a straight
line, may easily be determined. It
will also clearly appear, that the
rubbing at the rim of each, will, in
passing over a given space, be in-
creased as its diameter is dimin-
ished, and its breadth augmented:
so that a wheel of this shape must
have the smallest part of the rim
absolutely dragged along the sur-
face of the road a certain portion
of all the way it goes, which will
be a great weight to the draught.
But the evil arising from this
friction at the rim of conical wheels
is not confined to the increased
labour of the cattle only; the
greatest efficacy is also given to
their increased exertions in destroy-
ing the hardest and most valuable
materials of the road3: the larg-
est part of the wheel dragging for-
ward the smallest, and it with equal
force resisting, there arises an ac-
tion and counter-action, and the
largest and smallest parts of thq
WHE
rim advancing with different velo-
cities, and pressed by the weight
of a heavy load, become alternate
fulcrums to each other, for the des-
troying and grinding of the hard-
est materials that can be procured.
Whoever takes the trouble of en-
quiring into the requisites of a well
constructed pulverizing mill, will
find them combined in the conical
broad wheel of a heavy-loaded
waggon. The materials beingthus
ground to powder, this is raised
in a cloud of dust, to the great
annoyance of the traveller, to re-
medy which, watering is used near
the metropolis, which keeping the
roads moist, anticipates and in-
creases the effects of wet seasons.
When the roads are moist, pli-
ant, and compressible, the effect
of the conical rim is altered, but
not less destructive: on the ap-
proach of wet seasons, the body of
pulverized matter that lies upon
the more solid gravel vvhich sup-
ports the wheels, is soon mixed
with water, and forms a body of
sludge, vvhich excludes air, and
keeps the roads in a constant state
of moisture ; this soon renders the
interior parts of the roads so moist
and pliant, that the pressure of a
heavy waggon-wheel will make
the whole breadth of its conical rim
to apply flatly, and press hard up-
on the more solid materials that
lie under the sludge: the parts of
vvhich being now in a state more
susceptible of altering their relative
positions, comply with the motion
of such parts of the wheel as im-
mediately press upon them : thus
all former concretion is destroyed,
induration prevented, and the ma-
terials vvhich form the crust of the
road are left in a broken unconnect-
ed state, ready to imbibe the water
which the sludge on its surface
WHE WHE 395
supplies constantly and abundantly.
How different is this from the con-
solidating effects of cylindrical rims
under the same circumstances.
In rolling on paved streets, no-
thing can be conceived more calcu-
lated for their destruction than the
conical rim of a broad wheel. Let
us suppose the largest part of the
circumference to bear upon one
stone of the pavement, and the
smallest part of it upon the ad-
joining stone; the one will be
pushed backwards, and the other
dragged forwards by the force of
the horses that draw the carriage ;
if this force be sufficient to open the
joints between them, so as to ad-
mit water, the mischief is done : a
wet joint imbibes more water ; this
softens the gravel with vvhich the
paving is laid, and leaves it less
able to resist the next effort, by
vvhich the joint gets more loose,
and admits water sufficient to float
and discharge the gravel, Cylin-
drical wheels will not only pre-
vent all this mischief, but also im-
prove the streets by producing the
effect of the rammer wherever the
wheel passes. Conical wheels
likewise increase the friction on
the axis by their constant tenden-
cy from a rectilinear direction:
this likewise occasions a rubbing
against the sides of deep rutsj
which throws up the dirt towards
the middle of the road, greatly ob-
structs the progressof the carriage,
and increases the labour of the
horses.
Such are the effects that un-
avoidably arise from the conical
shape of wheels, and they seem as
much calculated for the destruc-
tion of roads, as those of cylindri-
cal wheels are for their preserva-
tion and improvement: and seeing
that the cylindrical rim is the
most favourable that can possibly
be adopted for the preservation
and improvement of roads, and
that the conical is the most de-
structive, a certain advantage;must
be gained by using the former in-
stead of the latter ; and as this ad-
vantage must be in proportion to
the space and surface that is rolled,
it cannot be thought excessive,
Mr. C. thinks, to rate that differ-
ence at one shilling for every acre
of road that is rolled with an im-
proving roller instead of an im-
pairing one.
Mr. C. then goes on to inquire
what may be the probable amount
of the advantage that may thus be
gained to the nation yearly by
adopting cylindrical rims for the
wheels of such waggons only as
travel the turnpike roads. The
number of waggons in England is
upwards of 96,600 : and supposing
that only a tenth of that number is
employed on the turnpike roads,
and a fourth of that tenth, or a for-
tieth of the whole, to have wheels
twelve inches broad: and of the
remaining three-fourths, that one-
half have wheels six inches broad,
and the other half, wheels only four
inches, the statement will be as
follows:
Number of waggons employed on the roads
Waggons with twelve-inch wheels
D° with six-inch wheels
1)° with four-inch wheels
9,660
2?415
3^622^
3,622-1
-9.66')
396 WHE
WHE
A wheel 12 inches broad, will,
in rolling 30 miles, cover a space
of 158,400 feet,and the four wheels
of a waggon rolling a double sur-
face, will, at the same rate, in a
day's journey, roll a surface of
633,600 feet, vvhich is equal to
the whole surface of four miles of
a road 30 feet wide; and something
more than 14* acres. So that
2,415 waggons, with 12-inch
wheels will, in a day's journey of
30 miles, roll, 35,012 acres.
3,622 waggons with
6-inch wheels 26,259
3,662 waggons with
4-inch wheels 17,506
The number of acres
rolled in a day by
all the waggons 78,777
" And supposing all the wag-
gons, at an average, to travel only
90 days in a year, they vvill roll a
surface equal to 7,089,930 acres ;
which, at one shilling only per
acre, will exceed 350,000/. per an-
num.
" Independent of pecuniary es-
timates, the quantity of surface
that is rolled yearly by waggons
that travel the roads of Epgland,
is equal to the entire surface of
l,948,8SO miles of road 30 feet
wide. It is surely therefore of
importance to use such wheels to
roll this very extensive surface,
vvhich will improve instead of im-
pairing it.
" In the preceding estimate no
allowance was made for such wag-
gons as are used in agriculture,
and that seldom come upon the
public roads ; but as every improve-
ment of the private, as well as of
the public roads, must be a national
benefit, our author proceeds next
to consider what udvr.tagesmay be
gained on the private roads by the
same means.
" 86,940 waggons are supposed
to be employed for the purposes
of agriculture, which is nine times
the number that has been supposed
to travel on the turnpike roads:
but as they do not keep constantly
even upon the private roads, he sup<
poses them to travel the roads only
1 day in a month, at which rate they
vvill, ceteris paribus, roll one-ninth
more surface than all the waggons
that travel the public roads at the
rate of eight days in the month.
" But supposing it only equal, as
the quantity of surface that would
be rolled annually by all the wag-
gons travelling the turnpike roads
in England, is equal to the surface
of 1,948,880 miles of road 30 feet
wide ; and in taking an equal quan-
tity for the private roads, the whole
surface that is rolled yearly by
waggon-wheels, on the public and
private roads together, if uniformly
diffused, would cover every part of
the surface of 3,897,760 miles of
a road 30 feet wide; and in pro-
portion as the length of road on
vvhich this traffic is supposed to be
carried on is shortened, so much
the oftener would it be rolled. The
circumference of the terraqueous
globe is computed at 24,900 miles,
and if a road 30 feet broad was
made quite round it, the waggons
that travel the roads of England
would annually roll every part of
its surface 150 times.
" Now suppose two such roads
made close to each other, and in
every respect similar, as to forma-
tion, materials, and exposure, but
that the one is rolled by cylindrical
and the other by conical wheels,
75 times in the year, the former
will be rendered more compact,
close, and impervious to water,
WHE
each time of rolling ; and in the
end, vvill be so solid and hard, and
its surface so close and smooth,
and so free from dust in summer
and sludge in winter, as neither to
admit nor lodge water, which is
the most effectual means possible
of guarding against the destructive
influence of wet seasons and severe
frosts, and consequently of keeping
the roads in continual good repair
at the least expense. But the
other road being rolled also 75
times, but with conical wheels, they
will in dry seasons pulverize and
destroy the best materials intended
for the protection of the roads ; and
in wet seasons, they alter the ar-
rangement, and destroy the texture
of the component parts of the crust,
and leave them in a broken uncon-
nected state, ready to imbibe wa-
ter, which is constantly supplied
by the sludge on the surface;
which also effectually excludes the
sun and air ; and thus the roads
become rotten, and Break into holes
and ruts ; and if a rainy season be
succeeded by severe frosts, they
will raze to the foundation every
part into which the water and frost
have penetrated.
" If any man of observation, who
has had an opportunity of attend-
ing to the nature and repair of roads,
and the expenses attending such
repairs, seriously consider all the
above circumstances, and make his
own estimate of the number of
men, quantity of new materials, as
well as the extent of labour and
expense that would be yearly ne-
cessary, but more especially after
a wet autumn and a severe winter,
to restore the road that had been
rolled by conical wheels, to an
equal state to the road that was
rolled by cylindrical wheels he will
probably, make his estimate to ex-
WHE 397
ceed any thing that has been here
stated. The road rolled by the
conical wheels will not only be
much more expensive than the
other, but is liable, for some months
in the year, to be in a very disa-
greeable and dangerous state, and
at no time so pleasant as the road
which is' rolled with cylindrical
wheels, on account of the dust in
summer, and the deep sludge in
winter. And the draught of car-
riages is at all times, and especially
after repairs, much heavier than on
that road which remains always
unimpaired.
" When the advantages of cy-
lindrical wheels are fully proved,
and universally known, there is no
doubt that light, smooth rims, truly
cylindrical, and broader than are
now used, will be adopted univer-
sally for carriages of pleasure and
dispatch, as well as for those of
burthen ; which, considering the
immense number of carts, coaches,
he. he. in this kingdom, will add
greatly to the advantages already
stated; and the savings that must
arise in the repairs of private roads
from the use of broad cylindrical
wheels, will very soon repay the
first expense of making them of a
sufficient breadth toadmitcarriages
of any dimensions, which will to-
tally obviate the only reason that
now exists for using a bended axis
and conical rim, and pave the way
for the universal adoption of a
straight axle and a cylindrical
wheel.
" The narrowness of roads in
their early state, made it necessary
that the wheel-carriages should also
be narrow, and it is more than pro-
bable that the carriages first used
were only for the purposes of hus-
bandry, and drawn by one horse.
But in process of time, it was found
398 WHE
WHE
expedient to enlarge the carriages,
and to increase the number of
horses ; but the narrowness of the
roads, and the depths of the ruts
that were already cut in them, made
it necessary that the wheels of the
new carriages should run in the
tracks of the old. To gain the
advantage of a wider carriage with-
out making the wheels run wider
it became necessary to alter the
original construction ; the axletree
was now fixed immoveably to the
body of the carriage, and the
wheels made to turn independently
of each other on its ends, which
were made to incline, or bend down-
wards, by which means the wheels
stood farther apart at top than at
bottom ; and thus room vvas gained
for the body of the carriage, with-
out widening the track of the
wheels. The axis being for this
reason bent, and the wheels no
longer standing parallel, it was
necessary, in order to gain a flat
bearing of the whole rim, to shelve
it off towards the outer edge, as
much as the ends of the axis were
bent from the straight line, and
thus the rim became conical. The
reasons for this structure now no
longer exist.
" If the breadth of cylindrical
wheels, and the lengths of the
axles be made to bear a regular
proportion to the number of
draught horses; and the fore
wheels to run narrower than the
hind, so as to roll a double surface;
the roads formed fiat, and proper
regulations made for quartering the
roads; every waggon might be
made as efleclually to improve that
part of the road on which it rolls,
as if the horses had been em-
ployed for that only purpose. It
i.s true, that the rollers in this case
are not so broad as might be de-
sirable for that purpose, but if the
effect be not so extensive, it is
more dense and compressive ; and
if the roads are made so nearly flat
that carriages may with equal con-
veniency drive upon every part of
them, they will be more equally
traversed, and more uniformly im-
proved than at present; the des-
tructive effects of the conical wheel
vvill be evaded, and the draught of
the horses made much easier.
" The author next proceeds to ex-
amine what sum would pay for the
labour of the horses that might be
thus made to roll the roads gratis,
if they were only employed for the
purpose of rolling them; and on
the supposition that the number of
waggons that travel the roads is
9,660, each on an average drawn
by three horses, the number of
horses will be 28,980 : and taking
an equal number for those wag-
gons that use the private roads,
the whole number will be 57,960 ;
and supposing them to be employ-
ed only 90 days in the year, at 4*.
a day for each horse, it would
amount yearly to upwards of a
million sterling, without reckoning
the expenses of the men necessary
to attend the rolling.
" Our author then goes on to
examine the bad effects which
arise from using wheels that have
not an equal bearing of their whole
breadth, but bear on a narrow part
of the middle of the rim. These
wheels which were contrived to
evade the wise regulations of the
legislature' with respect to broad
wheels, he shews are still more
destructive than the flat conical
rims, as they plough up the roads.
He next proceeds to inquire into
the best methods of constructing
roads, and objects to the convex
or barrelled roads which have been
WHE
WHE 399
generally preferred. These roads
he observes certainly possess the
advantage of carrying off the wa-
ter towards the sides when they
are just finished, and have their
surface ofthat perfect smooth form
which the theory always supposes
,them to have : but as soon as any
' ruts are formed, they obstruct the
running of the water towards the
sides, and retain and conduct it
longitudinally along the road, con-
trary to the original intention;
and as no proper means have been
used in forming the roads, to carry
off the water from those ruts, it
remains in them, and is mixed
deeper and deeper with the mate-
rials of the road by every wheel
that passes, till at last, the hard
protecting crust is worn through,
and the wheels penetrate to the
soft materials of which the road
was originally formed, and deep
holes are thus made, which, by
the constant passing of all carriages
in the same track, are enlarged
into dangerous gulphs; and all
those evils arise from the convex
form, vvhich obliges all carriages
to drive on the very highest part
only ; and thus the imaginary ad-
vantages of convex roads vanish in
practice, and in place of advanta-
ges, we meet with evils of the most
formidable nature.
" When the crown of the convex
road is rendered impassable by
the constant traffic of all carriages
in the same track, if any be com-
pelled to travel on the declivity on
either side, the wheels force the
hard materials down the sides;
aided by their own (weight and the
tremulous concussions of the roads,
and thus the best materials of the
convex road are insensibly shifted
from the middle towards the sides;
from the only part of the road coa-
\
stantly frequented, to the extremi-
ties, where they can be of no ser-
vice.
" Flat r«ads, that are level from
side to side, our author observes,
are much more pleasant to travel
than the convex ; every part of the
whole length being equally conve-
nient, is frequented, and equally
worn, and there being no such de-
clivities as on the sides of convex
roads, the materials have no ten-
dency to shift from the spot on
which they are laid ; no deep ruts
are formed, because the road is
equally traversed, and the traffic of
carriagesequallyand voluntarily dif-
fused over every part of its surface;
the track of every wheel, however
shallow, becomes a small channel
or drain to conduct the water in
small quantities along the road, in
which direction it was intended to
flow, provision being accordingly
made to gain a proper current, and
to carry the water off the road by
shallow channels across it; at proper
and convenient distances; and here
it is to be observed, that as each
carriage takes its own course,there
being neither rut nor declivity to
prevent it, every carriage making
new channels to carry the water
from the surface of the flat road
lenthways; the more carriages that
pass, the sooner will the roads get
dry ; and thus the frequency of
carriages passing on a flat road, in
rainy seasons, has a tendency to
keep it dry, and in that respect, to
improve it; whereas on a convex
road, the frequent passage of car-
riages tends to its immediate des-
truction.
" Mr. Cumming next proceeds
to illustrate his doctrines of the ef-
fects of conical and cylindrical
wheels on different kinds'of roads,
by a series of well contrived expe-
/
400 WHE
WHE
riments with models. The appa-
ratus is particularly described, and
the interesting results given at
length, which we cannot copy in
this work, as it would extend our
account to too great a length ; we
shall only observe, that the con-
clusions from the result of the ex-
periments, and from the theory
stated in the preceding part of the
paper, concur in proving, that so
far as regards the labour of cattle,
or the facility of the progress of
carriages, as well as the preserva-
tion of roads, the cylindrical shape
of a wheel is preferable lo any
other. We have endeavoured to
place before our readers a rude
sketch or outline of Mr.CuMMiNG's
excellent paper, which contains
63 quarto pages; and should the
subject be interesting to any of
them, they will find their trouble
repaid by turning to the Communi-
cations to the Board of Agriculture,
vol. ii. p. 351."
Wheel (lifting) the American
lifting wheel is described by Mr.
Wm. Tat ham, in his late work,
entitled " National Irrigation," p.
39. which -has been already refer-
red to, and which ought to be con-
sulted by every farmer.
The diameter of the wheel is
equal to the perpendicular height
of the summit level to which the
water is to be raised at a single
operation ; allowing for so much
thereof as should clip into the
stream to fill the buckets, and so
much as should pass above the
uppermost trough to discharge the
water from them.
This shape is then reduced to
an exact circle by the means of a
line and chalk, extended from its
centre, and the surplus plank be-
ing hewn down to the scribe of the
circle, an axis of about two feet
six inches in length, is fitted to it
with arms of the same plank, and
two small iron gudgeons to turn
upon. Flutter boards are then
fitted on with the saw, and cleated
at convenient distances ; with a
close box between every second
and third of them, nailed upon the
rim of the wheel. These boxes
(by some, termed gaining and
loosing buckets) have two aper-
tures or holes for receiving and
discharging thf water ; and as the
bucket is immersed in the stream
below, by the power of this little
rapid acting upon the successive
flutter boards, the water is taken
in at one hole and discharged out
at the other, as the wheel revolves
it over the trough above. These
are sometimes formed out of a
worn-out cart wheel fixed upon an
axis, which answers for a small
elevation. The nearest descrip-
tion of an invention similar to this
wheel, which I have met with in
any of the English authors, is that
described by Mr. Ferguson, in
p. 152 of his Lectures, under the
name of the Persian wheel. This
wheel of Mr. Ferguson's acts in
the same manner by a flutter board)
and discharges by strikeing the
bucket against a pin at the sum-
mit point of its revolution ; but
the German lifting wheel has
greatly the superiority in respect
to simplicity and cheapness, vvhich
brings it within the reach of every
man who occupies land ; and, pos-
sessingequalpowerwiththePersian
wheel, may be considered steadi-
er in the fixture of its flutter boards,
and the best medium between this
and the ruder contrivance describ-
ed by Sir George Staunton,
as one applied to similar purposes
in China.]
WHE WHE 401
402 WHE
WHI
WHETSTONE, is a kind of
sand-stone, dug up chiefly in Der-
byshire, and other northern coun-
ties. It is of a dusky-yellow co-
lour ; resists the action of acids,
though permeable to water : being
of a rough, and coarse structure,
it is easily crumbled or broken
between the fingers, and will not
strike fire against steel. This fos-
sil affords an useful article of trade,
and is employed for sharpening
knives, scythes, bills, and; other
implements of rural and domestic
economy.
WHEY, is the serum or watery
part of milk, vvhich remains after
the cream and coagulable matter
of that fluid are removed, either by
churning, or by separating it with
Rennet, vinegar, cream of tar-
tar, Sec.
Whey is an agreeable and whole-
some liquid : the best is that sepa-
rated by rennet; as a considerable
portion of curd and saccharine
particles are suspended in it: where-
as the serum, arising from the spon-
taneous decomposition of milk,
possesses an acid taste, is totally
divested of the nourishing proper-
ties of milk ; and ought to be used
only in certain cases of fever, or
inflammation. On the other hand,
the latter is a pleasant, cooling,
beverage, during the heat of sum-
mer, and may be advantageously
drank by the scorbutic and con-
sumptive.
Scalding Whey is prepared by a
simple expedient, adopted in the
midland counties, for improving
the quality of Whey Butter. It
consists in suspending each meal
of cream, as it is taken • off the
whey, over the fire, till it become
scalding hot; care being taken that
it may not boil. Thus, the butter
is greatly improved; and, if the
milk have become rancid or bitter,
from the cows having eaten fur-
nips, or barley-straw, such disa-
greeable taste will be completely
removed.
Mustard Whey is made by boil.
ing 1| oz. of mustard in a pint of
milk, and an equal portion of wa-
ter, till the curd be entirely sepa-
rated ; after which the liquid is
strained through a cloth. This
preparation is one of the most plea-
sant and ejficacious forms, in which
mustard Tran be tak-e%» the dose
being one tea-cupful,Twhich may
be sweetened with a little sugar,
and taken three or four times in
the course of the day.
White*wine Whey is made by
pouring equal parts of white wine
and skimmed milk into a hason;
and, after they have stood for a few
minutes, by adding a douWe por-
tion of boiling water. In a short
time, the curd will collect, and
subside at the bottom : the whey
is now to be strained into another
vessel, and sweetened with sugar:
a sprig of balm or slice of lemon
will greatly improve its flavor.
This kind of whey affords a salu-
brious beverage ; and, v. hen taken
immediately before retiring to bed,
it is particularly serviceable to
those who have undergone severe
bodily fatigue ; or been exposed to
the inclemency of the weather;
as it vvill excite a.gentle perspira-
tion, and thus obviate a sudden
cold or catarrh.
Whins. See Furze the Com-
mon.
WIIIN-CIIAT, or Matacilla
rubetra, L. a bird found on British
heaths and commons, during the
summer months : it is about five
inches in length ; the upper parts
of its body being blackish, edged
with rufous spots, and the lower
WHI
extremities are reddish-white; but
the legs are black.
Win-chats build their nests early
in the spring, near some low bush
or stone, where the female depo-
sits five dusky-white eggs, mark-
ed with black spots. These birds,
subsist principally on insects; and,
when fat, the flavour of their flesh
is esteemed equal to that of the
Ortolan.
WHISKEY, a spirituous liquor,
chiefly prepared in SaMland and
Ireland, by distilling barley.
With respect to its relative salu-
brity, whiskey is doubtless prefer-
able to any home-made brandy
drawn from malt; as the former,
though strong, is not very pungent,
and, if properly distilled, it is free
of any empyreumatic taste or smell.
A moderate and occasional use of
it, by way of cordial, after "great
bodily fatigue, may, to some hard-
labouring persons, notbe injurious;
but, when such practice is carried
to excess, as in Scotland and Ire-
land, it deserves severe animadver-
sion ; and, though the legislature
has wisely imposed heavy duties
on the distilleries, we fear that the
immense consumption of this li-
quid fire, can be prevented only
by the most vigorous measures.
If, however, the lower classes of
people cannot be legally restrained
in their vicious propensities, the
only remedy left to the power of
. government, would be the prohibi-
tion of employing grain for such
vile and destructive purposes. See
the article Spirits.
White. See Colour-making,
vol. ii.
White-bean. See FIaw-
thokn.
White-Bottle. See SPAT-
LING-POPPY.
WHITE-SWELLING is atu-
W H I 403
mor of the joints, but chiefly of
the knee : at first, it is not per-
ceptibly enlarged ; being of the
same colour as the skin; very pain-
ful, and diminishing the power of
motion. There are two species of
this disorder, namely, the rheu-
matic, and scrophulous. As it is
of the first consequence to distin-
guish these maladies, the origin of
which is essentially different, we
shall state the symptoms peculiar
to each.
The rheumatic white-swelling is
attended with acute pain over the
whole joint; and which is in-
creased by heat: the patient finds
(he greatest relief in a relaxed po-
sition ; the tendons become rigid ;
and the joint appears as if the bones
were enlarged. The tumor in-
creases to three or four times the
size of the knee, and feels elastic
to the touch ; while the limb de-
creases, or sometimes becomes
dropsical: at length, abscesses are
formed, discharging matter which
soon degenerates into a fetid ichor.
Unless, therefore, a cure be timely
effected, the patient is attacked
with a hectic fever, which gene-
rally closes the scene of misery.
In the scrophulous kind, the pain
is more acute, and confined to one
spot: as the disorder gains ground,
the swelling, and stiffness increase,
while the ends of the bonesbecome
visibly enlarged. Similar elasticity
is perceivable, and abscesses are
likewise formed, which, on being
opened, discharge an offensive hu-
mour : the bones decay, and pieces
are often ejected through the ori-
fices of the wounds. The adjacent
parts become progressively affect-
ed, till the sufferings of the patient
are also terminated by the hectic
fever.
As the distinction above pointed
404 W II I
WHI
out, sufficiently explains the proxi-
mate causes, we shall only mention
those which occasionally occur;
and the principal of vvhich are,
suppressed perspiration ; injudici-
ous treatment of cutaneous dis-
orders ; especially of the measles,
small-pox, rose, Sec.; external vio-
lence, such as falls, blows, and
frequent kneeling.
Cure....ln the rheumatic white-
swelling, which, at first, is of an
inflammatory nature, it will be ad-
visable to adopt a cooling regimen.
Farther, blood should be taken
from the diseased part, by cupping
or scarification ; a practice which
is far preferable either to venesec-
tion or to the application of leeches;
and it may be repeated according
to the strength of the patient, and
urgency of the symptoms. Next,
a blister must be applied to the
opposite side, and kept open, till
the scarified part is healed.
Internally, mild cooling laxatives
should be occasionally taken, and
heating liquors, as well as coarse
food, must be strictly avoided. If
a stiffness of the knee remain, after
the swelling has subsided, great
benefit will be derived from the
application of pure, warm olive oil,
and from gentle frictions, repeated
three or four times every day.
But where suppuration has already
taken place (which may be ascer-
tained by the softnessof the tumor);
or, if the disorder make rapid pro-
gress, professional advice should
be speedily procured.
In the scrophulous white-swelling,
the treatment specified under the
head of Scrophula, should be
resorted to without delay. When
this affection is confined to the
smaller joints, it has by those
means,been sometimes cured; but,
when the larger joints, for instance,
the knee, ancle, See. are thus dis-
eased, amputation is the only
remedy. If, however, the whole
system be tainted with a scrophu-
lous acrimony, even that operation
is frequently ineffectual.
White-thorn. See Haw-
thorn.
WHITE-WASHING, is the
act of cleansing ceilings and walls,
with a solution of lime in water,
to which a little size is occasionally
added, m
The practice of white-washing
apartments eminently contributes
to the preservation of health: hence
we would recommend the proprie-
tors of cottages, to enjoin their
tenants regularly' to perform this
operation, at least once annually.
In countries abounding with lime,
the expense vvill be trifling ; and,
even though the article should be
purchased, the whole cost will not
exceed one shilling. It ought to
be remarked, however, that hot or
quick-lime is preferable to any
other, and must be employed as
soon as possible after it is slacked ;
for, by attending to this circum-
stance, its effects, in destroying
vermin, and removing Infection,
will be considerably increased.
WHITING, or Gadus merlan-
gus, L. a well-known fish, of an
elegant shape, rarely exceeding 10
or 12 inches in length, and gene-
rally weighing from eight to six-
teen ounces.'
During the spring, extensive
shoals of whitings frequent the
British seas ; but seldom come
nearer the shore than within half
a mile, or retire farther from it,
than about three miles. They are
caught in considerable numbers by
the hook and line, and afford great
diversion : in the rivers Thames
and Medway, these fish are pro-
WHI
hibited to be taken, if less than
six inches in length ; nor are they
allowed to be caught at any season,
excepting from Michaelmas to
Ember-week.
As an article of diet, the whit-
ing is justly valued; being exceed-
ingly delicate, tender, and nutri-
tious ; so that it affords proper
aliment for invalids, and persons
having a weak digestion.
Whiting, in Mineralogy. See
Chalk. ^
WHITLOW, orWHiTLoE, a
painful swelling of the extremities
of the fingers, beneath the nails,
and usually terminating in a dis^
charge of serous fluid, that is fre-
quently so acrid as to corrode the
periosteum, or membrane lining
the bones, which thus become ca-
rious. It is always attended with
inflammation, and sometimes to so
violent a degree as to affect the
whole arm.
Where whitloes arise from ex-
ternal causes, it will be proper to
apply emollient poultices, in order
to affect a suppuration. Should
such tumors, however, proceed
from unknown causes, it will be
advisable to apply a few leeches,
and afterwards ardent spirits, or
other astringents; but, if the bones
have already become carious, a
total or partial removal of the af-
fected part can alone effect a cure.
The following preparation has been
extolled, as being very efficacious
in common cases of whitloes;
though we cannot vouch for its
success : Take equal parts of pel-
litory of the wall, previously bruis-
ed, and hog's-lard ; let them be
properly mixed, folded in several
papers, and surrounded with wood-
embers, of such a degree of heat
as to incorporate the ingredients,
without burning the covering. The
W I L 405
ointment, thus prepared, must be
spread on a piece of soft linen, and
applied to the whitloe, two or three
times every day, till the tumor be.
healed.
WHITLOW-GRASS, the Com-
mon, or Nailwort, Drabaverna,
L. a native plant, growing on walls
and in dry pastures; blowing in
the months of March and April.
According to Dr. Withering,
the Nailwort is one of the earliest.
flowering plants, and may be used
as salad. It is also eaten by
horses, sheep, and goats ; but not
relished by cows, and is totally
refused by hogs.
Whortleberry, the Red. See
BlLBERREY.
» WIDGEON, the Red-headed,
or Anas ferina, L. a bird of pas-
sage, frequenting fenny places in
the winter season : its breast is
black ; the back and coverts of the
wings are of a pale grey, intermix-
ed with narrow black lines ; and
the legs are of a lead colour.
Widgeons subsist on small fish
of every kind ; their flight is rapid:
and they frequently associate with
wild Ducks, Teal, and other
aquatic birds. Considerable num-
bers of the former fowl are exposed
for sale in the markets of the me-
tropolis, under the name of Dun
Birds, and are greatly esteemed
at the tables of the luxurious.
Wild-briar. See Dog-hose,
the Common.
Wild-climber, the Great. See
Traveller's-joy.
Wilderness. See Maze.
Wilding. SeeCRAn-TRFE,
Wild-parsley. See Milk-
weed, the Marsh.
Wild Pear-tree. See Haw-
thorn.
W'ild-radish. See Radish.
W ild-rocket. See Rocket.
406 W I L
WIL
Wild-tansy. See Silver-
weed.
WILLOW, or Salix,h. a genus
of trees comprising 42 species ; 22
being indigenous, of which the fol-
lowing are the principal:
1. The viminalis. See Osier.
2. The capreata. See Sallow.
Beside the purposes to which this
species may be applied, its soft,
white, and smooth wood, is used for
making handles tohatchets,prongs
spades, and other rural implements:
it also furnishes shoe-makers with
cutting and whetting - boards, on
which they cut leather, and sharp-
en the edges of their knives. In
Sweden, the young bark is not only
used for tanning, but also, in com-
bination with that of the alder-tree,
for dyeing linen-yarn of a fine
black colour.
3. The purpurea, v. Helix, v.
motiandra, Rose, Purple, or Red
Willow, grows in hedges, wa-
tery places, and the sides of rivers,
where it blossoms in the months of
April and May. Its long, slender,
and flexible shoots, are manufac-
tured into baskets, cradles, and
other articles of wicker work....
This species eminently deserves to
be cultivated in the sandy banks of
rapid streams ; as it is one of the
most useful trees for consolidating
loose soils, and even drift-sands.
4. The triandra, or Smooth
Willow, grows to the height of
from 6 to 10 feet, in moist woods,
hedges, and the banks of rivers ;
flowers in the month of April. Its
bark, in doses of from one to two
drams, have been successfully em-
ployed in agues.
5. The pentandra, Sweet, or
BAY-LEAVED WlLLOW, is found
in forests and hedges, principally
in the North of England, where it
flowers in April. The wood of
this species remarkably crackles in
the fire ; the young shoots are eaten
by sheep and goats ; the leaves af?
ford a yellow dye ; and the pliant
branches are converted into ham-
pers, or the larger kinds of bask-
ets. For medicinal purposes, the
bark from young trees is even pre-
ferable to that of the preceding
species. Lastly, the down of the
seeds, when mixed with one-third
part of cotton, has been found to
be an useful substitute for that
vegetable wool, in the manufac-
ture of stockings, and other ar-
ticles.
6. The vitellina, Golden, or
Yellow Willow, abounds in
osier-holts, and flowers in May....
Its shoots are used by cradle or
basket-makers ; its white, tough,
pliant twigs, are employed by nur-
sery men and gardeners, for tying
up the branches of wall and espa-
lier-trees. The wool surrounding
its seed-vessels, when mixed with
cotton, affords excellent yarn for
various manufacturing purposes.
7. The amygdalina, or Almond-
leaved Willow, grows on the
banks of rivers, where it flowers
in April or May; and a second time
in August. The tough branches
of this species are employed like
those of the preceding.
8. The fragillis, or Crack Wil-
low, attains a considerable height
in moist woods, hedges, and on
the banks of rivers ; it blossoms
in April or May....This tree grows
with uncommon luxuriance, and
vvill admit of being cropped every
year: it has received this name
from the remarkable brittleness-of
its branches ; which, if stricken
with a finger, break off at the
shoot of the current year. The
WIL
W I L 407
bark of these branches, possessing
uncommon bitterness and astrin-
gency, has been recommended as a
substitute for the Peruvian : it is
certainly preferable to that of all
other native trees ; and, if given in
doses about one-third exceeding
the proportion of such expensive
drug, it may, with advantage, be
used where the latter is indicated.
When administered in powders, of
from one to two drams, it has also
proved efficacious in removing in-
termittent fevers. On account of
its early blossoms, which are very
grateful to bees, it should be raised
near their hives: a decoction of
the roots imparts a reddish brown
colour.
9. The herbacea, or FIerba-
ceous Willow, is the smallest
tree of the willow kind ; its stem
not exceeding 2 feet in height, and
the branches being scarcely one
foot long. It grows in moist, moun-
tainous situations, chiefly on the
sides of Snowdon, and the moun-
tains of Westmoreland, Yorkshire,
and Scotland ; where its yellow
flowers appear in July. This spe-
cies is, according to Hoffmann,
fondly eaten by horses and other
cattle.
10. The rubra, or Red Wil-
low, is a very scarce species, be-
ing found wild only in the Osier-
holt, between Maiden head and
Windsor : it flowers in the month
of May. There is a variety of it,
known under the names of the
Norfolk, Hertford, Hereford, and
Broad-leaved, Red-hearted Hun-
tingdonshire Willow, vvhich may
advantageously be planted in moist
situations, on account of the luxu-
riance and rapidity of its growth.
The tough, light wood of this tree
is employed for gates, hurdles, and
Other agricultural implements: the
pliant twigs are in great request
for making baskets, cradles, and
also for tying up wall fruit-trees.
11. The cinerea, or Sallow-
willow, is the most common of
the kind,abounding in moist hedge
rows, and woods ; where it attains
the height of more than six feet,
and blossoms in April. This spe-
cies is chiefly remarkable for its
beautifulflowering branches, which
are gathered about a week or ten
days before Easter, and sold under
the name of palms.
12. The alba, White or Com-
mon Willow, abounds in woods,
hedge rows, in wet meadow, and
pasture-grounds, where it attains a
considerable size ; flowering in the
month of April. Its blossoms are
eagerly visited by bees ; its leaves
and young shoots are eaten by
horses, cows, sheep, and goats :
the wood is employed in making
poles, hoops for casks, stakes, and
likewise for fuel : the bark com-
municates a cinnamon colour to
yarn, and is not only advanta-
tageously used in tanning leather,
but has also, like that of the Crack
and Smooth Willows, been suc-
cessfully administered in agues....
The Rev. Mr. Stone (" Philoso-
phical Transactions of the Royal
Society," vol.liii.) directs such bark
tobe gatheredinthe summer,when
it abounds with sap, and to be taken
in doses of one dram, every 4 hours,
between the fits : in a few obsti-
nate cases, Mr. S. found it neces-
sary to mix one-fifth part of Peru-
vian bark with that of the Common
Willow. As this tree frequently
grows in wet, marshy, situations,
where agues are most prevalent, its
bark promises to afford a valuable
substitute for the foreign drug,
especially as the price of the latter
has lately been so exorbitant, that
408 W I L
WIL
the poor cannot easily procure it;
while its quality becomes every
year more impaired, by base and
fraudulent adulterations.
Beside these indigenous species,
there are two exotics, which de-
serve to be mentioned :
1. The Babylonica, or Weep-
ing-willow, is a native of the
East, whence its culture has been
introduced into Britain. It flourish-
es by the sides of rivers, attaining
to a considerable size; and its
long, depending branches, contri-
bute greatly to diversify the scene-
ry : it is raised chiefly for orna-
ment.
2. The Dutch Willow has lately
been transplanted into England.
Its wood is chiefly employed for
posts, rails, gates, Sec. to vvhich
purposes it is well adapted.
All the species above enume-
rated, delight in moist' situations,
excepting the sallow, which thrives
better in a dry soil. They may be
easily propagated by planting sets,
cuttings or truncheons of willows,
about 6 years old, either in spring
or in autumn ; as they speedily
take root, and in the course of a
few years, amply repay the ex-
pense and trouble bestowed on
their culture. In order to ensure
success, the truncheons ought pre-
viously to be steeped in soft water,
for a few days : both ends must
then be obliquely smoothened ; the
upper part be covered with soil,
and exposed wilh its orifice towards
the east. The earth should be mo-
derately compressed with the foot,
around the stem, so that it
may more readily absorb.mois-
ture : in the third year, the top
should be cleared, to promote the
growth of the bark. The Yellow
Willow, however, ought never tu
be planted too near wells or springs,
because its spreading roots retard
their course : thus, Mr. Bordley
(in his " Essays and Notes on Hus-
bandry," he.) mentions an instance,
in which a spring was completely
choked up, by their rapid absorp-
tion of water. On the contrary,
this species may with advantage
be propagated in swampy situa-
tions ; as its roots tend to consoli-
date the ground ; and, after a few
years, the soil will generally be
converted into a firm meadow.
[The salix latifolia, or broad-
leaf willow, possesses greater me-
dicinal properties than any of the
other species of salix ; and is now
substituted by many British phy-
sicians for the Peruvian bark. Dr.
Wilkinson, has published a dis-
sertation on this species, and from
his work the following account is
taken.
" This species of salix may he
distinguished by the shape of its
leaves from all others, except the
S. Pentandra, or bay-leafed wil-
low. The leaves of the latter are
smooth, and shining, of a deeper
green, and have not the downy ap-
pearance on the under surface,
vvhich is so remarkable in the 5.
Capreaia. It is found in woods and
hedges on hilly situations, and de-
lights in cold, clayey, moist
grounds.
u The most proper time to
gather the bark, is in May or June;
it should be cut in small pieces,
and dried in the shade.
This bark is very astringent to
the taste, and somewhat bitter,
but it looses the latter quality when
dry : the tormentil root has nearly
the same taste, but is more astrin-
gent. It gives out its virtues more
freely to soft water in decoction,
WIL
WIN 409
than in infusion: Dr. Wilk-
inson directs one ounce and a
half of the coarse powder of the
bark, to be infused in one quart of
water, for six hours ; then to boil
it over a gentle fire for a quarter
of an hour, and strain for use....
The dose two or three large table
spoonfuls, three or four times a
day ; but in the ague and fever,
one or two ounces may be given
every third hour in the interval of
the fit. When boiled with a small
quantity of Juassia root, it is ren-
dered much stronger.
" Dr. W. relates a number of
cases of the successful use of the
decoction, in cases of general ^debi-
lity, or relaxation of the body from
various causes, and in which bit-
ters and tonics are usually prescrib-
ed ; and in some instances with
benefit, after the common reme-
dies had failed : in particular, p. 99,
he relates' a case of extreme ema-
ciation from an ulcered foot, which
was perfectly cured, after having
resisted the continued use of Peru-
vian bark, and the exertions of the
physicians of two public chari-
ties."
It is not known whether the salix
latifolia is a native of the United
States, but it deserves the attention
of our medical men in the country,
for if found native, they might also
substitute it for the Peruvian bark,
and other foreign bitters.]
WILLOW-HERB,* or Epilobi-
um, L. a genus of plants consisting
of 13 species, 8 being indigenous ;
of which the following are the
principal :
l.Thehirsutum, Great Hairy,
or Large-flowered Willow-
herb, or Codlings and Cream, is
perennial: grows in moist hedges;
ditches, the banks of brooks, rivers,
and lakes ; where it flowers in
vol. v.
July. The young tops of this
vegetable possess a delicate odour,
resembling that of scalded cod-
lings : but which is so transitory,
that after they have been gathered
five minutes, their fragrance is
entirely dissipated. Horses, sheep,
and goats eat the plant; though
it is not relished by cows, and is
wholly rejected by hogs. Accord-
ing to Bechstein, this herb] re-
markably absorbs the inflammable
air generated in moist situations ;
so that it deserves to be cultivated
in the neighbourhood of dwellings
on marshes, bothon account of such
useful property, and its large beau-
tiful purple flowers.
2. The angusiifolium, or Rose-
bay Willow-herb, is also peren-
nial, being frequent in woods and
hedges ; where its rose coloured
flowers appear from June to Au-
gust. This species is eaten by
sheep, cows, and goats ; but is
refused by horses and hogs. An
infusion of the leaves produces
intoxicating effects ; though the
suckers of the roots, when pro-
perly dressed, afford a wholesome
dish. The inhabitants of Kamt-
schatka brew a kind of ale from
the pith of this plant, vvhich tbey
convert into vinegar ; and the down
with vvhich its seeds abound, has
in combination with cotton, or fur,
been advantageously manufactured
into stockings, and other articles
of wearing apparel: this fibrous
substance may also be profitably
employed as a material for making
paper.
WIND, is a perceptible agita-
tion or commotion of the atmos-
phere, occasioned by a strong-
current of air from one region to
another.
The temperature of climates be-
ing greatly modified, by the winds;
3 G
410 WIN
WIN
and navigation depending almost'
entirely on their influence, the ori-
gin of this powerful agent has na-
turally engaged the attention of
many inquisitive naturalist?: hence
different theories have been framed
with a view to account for the
cause of these changes ; but, as
none of the conjectures appear to
us conclusive, or satisfactory,
we shall briefly state the effects
produced on the -human frame,
by this airy meteor......Thus, a
south wind debilitates and relaxes
the whole system ; and disposes
the body to catarrhal diseases : on
the contrary, the north wind in-
vigorates the animal fibre, and re-
markably contributes to health ;
because it dissipates noxious va-
pours, while it purifies the air, and
renders it serene....Winds blowing
in the earlier parts of the day, are
of a drying nature ; and, conse-
quently, walking in the forenoon
is more salutary than at any
other period ; whereas the even-
ing breezes, being generally damp
and cool, are less beneficial both
to the healthy and infirm: besides,
the latter are frequently accom-
panied with rain....The relative
salubrity of these various winds,
however, greatly depends on local
circumstances : for, if they blow
across the sea, over mountains, or
continents, they necessarily con-
vey, and communicate to the at-
mosphere, a greater or less degree
of cold or humidity....See also
Anemoscope ; Climate ; and
Weather.
WIND, or Broken Wind, a
disorder incident to horses : in this
affection, they cannot breathe free-
ly, and their natural functions are
impaired: it is usually preceded by
a dry cough, and may be known by
the animals eating litter, and swal-
lowing frequently copious draught*
of water.
Farriers are by no means agreed,
respecting the cause of this mala-
dy : Mr. Gibson attributes it to
an injudicious-or hasty method of
feeding young horses, especially
those for sale ; so that their lungs,
and the other organs contained in
the chest, become preternaturally
enlarged ; in consequence of which,
the chest is not sufficiently capa-
cious to admit of their due expan-
sion. According to his advice, the
diseased animal should be bled two
or three times ; when its bowels
must be opened by a dose of calo-
mel, and the following balls be
given for several days:....Let 8 oz.
of aurum mosaicum (which con-
sists of equal parts of mercury,
tin, sal-ammoniac, and sulphur);
4 oz. of myrrh, and an equal quan-
tity of elecampane, both reduced
to powder ; bay-berries and ani-
seed, each 1 oz.; with half an oz. of
saffron, be triturated together, and
made into balls, with a sufficient
quantity of oxymel of squills.....
This preparation may be divided
into 12 doses ; but, as the aurum
mosaicum is a tedious and expen-
sive preparation, either 8 oz. of
Dulverized squills, or a similar por-
tion of gum-ammoniac, or 4 oz.
of reach, may be safely substi-
tuted.
Mr. Gibson directs the food of
broken-wintkd horses to consist
principally of corn, slightly moist-
ened with urine or pure water ;
and, if two or three cloves of gar-
lic be given with each meal, they
will afford great relief; as that
root stimulates the solids, and dis-
solves the viscid fluids, which im-
pede the action of the lungs.
Mr. Taplin, however, conjec-
tures that broken-wind originates
WIN
from obstructions in the minute
vessels of the lungs; which are
occasioned by foul feeding, want
of sufficient exercise, and inatten-
tion to cleansing the intestines of
horses, by occasional purgatives ;
so that the elasticity of the whole
system is impaired. He is there-
fore of opinion, that a cure can
only be effected in an early stage
of the disease ; and, with this view,
he recommends frequent, but mo-
derate bloodlettings, which should
be succeded by a regular course, or
three doses, of the following pur-
gative balls, namely: Take of
Socotrine aloes, nine drams, jalap
and rhubarb, of each 1| dram,
gum-ammoniac, calomel, and gin-
ger, of each 1 dram, and 60 drops
of oil of juniper. These ingre-
dients are to be carefully incorpo-
rated, and formed into 3 balls, with
a proper quantity of syrup of buck-
thorn. Three days after the opera-
tion of the third dose, Mr. Taplin
directs one ball, prepared in the
following manner, to be taken
every morning, for such a period
as will enable a person lo judge,
whether there be any prospect of
recovery: Take 8 oz. of the best
white soap, 3 oz. of gum-ammo-
niac, and a similar quantity of guai-
acum, 2 oz. of aniseed, and the
same portions of liquorice, myrrh,
and Benjamin ; also balsam of
Peru, Tolu, and oil of aniseed, of
each i an oz. these articles are to
be compounded into a mass, with
Barbadoes tar, and divided into 20
doses, or balls.
Throughout the whole treatment
of this malady, whether Mr. Tap-
LiN's or Mr. Gibson's directions
be followed, it will be advisable to
allow but little hay and water, lest
any accumulation should takeplace
W I N 411
in the intestines......The animal
should likewise be moderately ex-
ercised ; and the greatest precau-
tion taken to prevent a cold. Thus,
it vvill speedily be ascertained, how
far a total or partial cure may pro-
bably be obtained.
Wind-flower. See Anemone.
WIND-GALL, in farriery, sig-
nifies a windy swelling, on both
sides of the back sinew, above the
fetlocks, in the fore or hind-legs of
a horse ; though these tumors may
likewise arise in various other parts
of the body.
Wind-galls are generally occa-
sioned by strains or bruises on the
sinews; which, on being over-
stretched, produce ruptures of the
fibres ; but, if these swellings hap-
pen in the interstices of large
muscles, and appear distended,
similar to air bladders, they may
be safely opened, and dressed as
a common wound.
On their first appearance, wind-
galls should be treated with re-
stringents, and covered with ban-
dages ; hence, the tumefied parts
ought to be bathed twice a day
with strong vinegar ; or the swell-
ing may be fomented with a decoc-
tion of oak-bark, pomegranate, and
alum, boiled in verjuice ; applying
to it a roller previously soaked in
this liquid. Some farriers employ
red-wine lees ; others use curri-
er's shavings moistened with the
former, or with vinegar, as a
substitute for the bath and fomen-
tation.
Should, however, these applica-
tions prove unsuccessful, it has been
recommended to open the parts
affected with an awl, or by means
of a knife ; or, which is still pre-
ferable, to apply mild blistering
plasters, that will effectually dis-
412
WIN
WIN
charge the confined humour ; dis-
perse the inclosed air, and gradu-
ally accomplish a cure.
WTND-INSTRUMENTS, or
those which must be played by the
breath, are generally opposed to
such as are stringed, or those of
the vibrating kind.
The principal wind-instuments
are the fife, flageolet, flute, French-
horn, hautboy, bag-pipe, clarionet,
and trumpet....Playing on the most
fashionable of these, is esteemed an
elegant acquirement; but we deem
it necessary to remark, that though
the occasional indulgence in such
practice, may afford an innocent
and agreeable relaxation, yet it
should not be too frequently en-
joyed : for, as the muscles of the
abdomen, are thus necessarily
contracted, the circulation of the
fluids is impeded; and asthma,
cough, pulmonary consumption,
or other fatal maladies, are often
the melancholy consequence.......
See also Flute.
WINDMILL, is a contrivance
for grinding corn, or raising
water : it is put in motion by the
action of the wind upon its sails,
or vanes. *
In the 55th vol. of the " Gentle-
man's Magazine," for 1785, we
meet with an account of a wind-
mill for raising water, by Mr.
Merriman. It is furnished with
a large sail, affixed to a mast, that
inclines to the horizon, and thus
imparts motion to certain pieces
of machinery termed braces, vvhich
are connected with/o7-cer* ; so that
every gale of wind will act on the
apparatus, and raise a greater or
less quantity of water. During
tempests, the mast vvill bend, and
the sail yield to their force; so that
when their violence is abated, the
upper parts are restored to their
original position, without injuring
the works.....The mechanical de-
scription of such contrivance be-
ing foreign to our plan, the in-
quisitive reader will consult the
work above cited.
As wind-mills essentially contri-
bute to agriculture and domestic
convenience, we shall present our
readers with a delineation of a
specimen of those empoyed in
the vicinity of Lisbon; because
the construction of their sails is
in some respects different from,
and, in the opinion of Lord So-
merville, superior to, those used
in Britain.
The advantages of mills, on this
construction, are stated by his
Lordship to be the following:
1. That the broad part of the
sail is at the end of the lever, or
branch, and thus an equal resist-
ance may be overcome with less
length of branches, or arms. These
being consequently shortened, a
considerable weight of timber will
be rendered unnecessary, and a
material saving of expense, be
obtained, in the height, prime-
cost, and subsequent repairs of
the mill.
2. The sails, constructed on the
plan above represented, may be set
to draw in a manner similar to the
stay-sails of a ship ; and, as they
are swelled more than those in
England, Lord S. remarks, that
they will render it unnecessary to
bring the mill so frequently to the
wind ; a practice which, in ma-
chines of the usual construction, is
always attended with considerable
trouble.
In November, 1783, a patent vvas
granted Jo*Mr. Benjamin Wise-
man, for his invention of sails,
with horizontal levers, designed to
communicate motion to windmills.
WIN WIN 413
His patent is now expired ; but,
as a description of such machinery
would be unintelligible without the
aid of engravings, the reader is
referred to the 4th volume of the
" Repertory of Arts," he. ; where
his specification is illustrated by
two plates.
A patent vvas likewise granted
in December, 1795, to Daniel
Maunsel, Esq. for his invention
of a horizontal windmill, upon new
principles, for grinding com, and
for other purposes : an account of
his complex machinery is inserted
in the 7th vol. of the work above
cited, and elucidated with two en-
gravings.
WIND-PIPE, or Trachea, is a
tube composed of cartilaginous
rings, and situated in the fore part
of the neck,before the gullet. After
descending to the third or fourth
joint of the back, it divides itself
into two branches, called bronchia,
which enter the substance of the
lungs, and there spread themselves
in numberless ramifications, termi-
nating in the air-cells, that consti-
tute the chief part of the lungs.
Towards the posterior part, the
rings are fleshy, or fibrous; in
consequence of which structure,
the wind-pipe is enabled to shorten
or lengthen itself, as well as to di-
late or contract the diameter of the
passage. The internal surface is
lined with a very sensible mem-
414 W I N
WIN
brane, which, like the whole tra-
chea, is continued from the larynx,
being the upper part of the former,
below the root of the tongue ; and
lubricated by means of numerous
glands. This membranous form
facilitates the descent of food ; and,
by its contraction and dilatation,en-
ables us to expel and admit the air
in greater or smaller quantity, and
with more or less velocity, as may
be required, in speaking or sing-
ing.
The affections to which this
part is exposed, are but few. Thus,
if acrid or corrosive vapours, or
exhalations, have been inspired,
demulcents, and mucilaginous
drink, for instance', oil, milk, or
linseed tea, should be swallowed
in copious draughts, and the steam
of the same liquids frequently in-
haled ; or, the throat ought to be
diligently gargled with them, in
order to sheath the internal sur-
face, and prevent the inflammation.
For this purpose, a spoonful of the
following mixture should be taken
at short intervals; namely equal
parts of sweet-oil, syrup of violets,
and honey of roses, properly in-
corporated. But, if the inhaled
vapours have been of a corrosive
nature, such as those of arsenic,
aqua-fortis, he. the treatment re-
commended under the article Ar-
senic, should be immediately
adopted.
Sometimes improper substan-
ces, such as crumbs of bread,
coarse dust, he. enter this pas-
sage ; and, though they may often
be expelled by a fit of coughing;
vet great precaution is necessary,
that such effort be not too violent;
because ruptures of blood-vessels,
or instant suffocation, have often
been the melancholy consequence.
Should, however, the substances
fallen into the wind-pipe, be point-
ed, or of large dimensions, they
generally produce fatal effects;
unless relief be timely obtained by
an operation, vvhich has occasion-
ally proved successful....See also
Gullet.
With respect to inflammation of
the wind-pipe, we refer the reader
to vol. iv. p. 35S.
WINDOW, an aperture left in
the walls of houses, with a view to
admit the light, and which is ge-
nerally provided with glass, dis-
posed in sashes.
A patent was granted in May,
1783,toMr. William Playfair,
for his method of making bars for
sash-windows, of copper, iron, or
any mixed metal, containing cop-
per. Although the term of his pri-
vilege is now expired, yet as amere
description would be insufficient to
explain the manner in which the
requisite forms are imparted to the
metals, the curious reader will con-
sult the 8th vol. of the " Repertory
of Arts," he. where a full specifi-
cation is inserted and illustrated
with an engraving.
Another patent was obtained in
1801, by Mr. David Young, of
Connecticut, in North America ;
for a new mode of raising sash-
windows. His contrivance is re-
markably cheap and easy: it con-
sists simply, in boring three or four
holes in the side of the sash, and
inserting in them common bottle-
corks, so that the latter shall pro-
ject about the 16th part of an inch.
Such corks press against the win-
dow-frames, along the usual
groove; and by their elasticity,
support the sash at any requisite
height...See also Country-house ;
Farm-house, £re.
[The proper distribution of
windows in a house, is an object of
WIN
W I N 415
great importance. The following
just observations on the subject of
lighting apartments general-
ly, are taken from Mr. James
Malton's late elegant work entit-
led " Collection of Designs for
Rural Retreats," a work which
cannot be too warmly recommend-
ed to the consideration of all who
are about to build. The common
rules observed by builders in the
United States, in the arangement
of windows, exhibit any thing ex-
cept taste and utility.
" Experience and observation,"
says Mr. Malton, " have deter-
mined me to be decidedly of opi-
nion, that the cheerfulness of
rooms depends chiefly, if not in-
tirely, on the mode of conveying
in the light ; not on the quantity of
it. It is not abundance merely
that makes it cheerful; an apart-
ment may be too light, it may be
glaring. Furniture, dimensions,
, and proportion, may have consi-
derable influence. in making a
room cheerful, but all these aids
combined are insufficient when
light is ill diffused.
" I am fully satisfied, that an
apartment is made cheerful by a
sufficiency of light flowing in from
a centre. Convinced of the
above position, I have throughout
the designs contained in this work
(Designs, he.) uniformly aimed,
wherever it vvas necessary lo con-
sider beauty especially, to throw
the light into the rooms from the
middle of a side or end, as either
best suited. In internal areas,
light is more attracting, and first
engages attention, it is therefore
that light should be central; and
is best situated, when opposite to
the door by which an apartment
is entered.
" A moderately sized well-pro-
portioned room, sufficiently light-
ed from one window in the mid-
dle of a side or end, will be cheer-
ful, from the united circumstances,
of immediately drawing regard to
a centre, by that regard not being
distracted by rival lights; and by
the light being uniformly distri-
buted over the space it is confined
in. These objects are best effect-
ed when the apartment is lit from
a bow in the middle.
" An apartment to be well lit,
should have the light to flow in
uninterruptedly ; this it does not
do when the walls are thick, and
jaumbs are. kept square ; the
jaumbs should be splayed to convey
the light well into an apartment.
If a room be large, and cannot be
handsomely lit from one opening
of flight, there should be then
three openings, or five or seven ;
the middle should be distinguished
by an opening, not by a pier.
" In the smaller class of town-
houses, where three windows can-
not be introduced into the drawing
room ; by the adoption of splayed
sides, three advantages vvill be ob-
tained, setting aside the more
elegant appearance to the eye, the
room would be better lit, the mid-
dle pier would be greatly reduced,
and the necessity would be avoided
of battening so much, to receive
the necessary depth of boxing to
contain the shutters.
" It is a mistaken notion that
by the extra sized side piers, made
in consequence of having but one
window in the side of a room, the
corners next the light are very-
dark. But I have observed it not
to be so, and I know theoretically,
from the reflection of light, that
it vvill not be so. The great and
brilliant body of light emitted
through a middle window, strikes
416 W I N
WIN
centrally on the opposite side of
the room, and is reflected back
again with adequate force and
brightness ; and inasmuch as that
centre is light, so vvill the opposite
side be also, by reflection."
Mr. Malton (and with great
propriety) appoints the space over
the chimney piece for the looking
glass, instead of the pier, between
the windows.
" How one window can be made
handsome, and even to appear
more elegant than two," I shall
next explain.
" I propose that in rooms up to
20 or 21 feet in front, within, but
one window only, be employed ;
which window, if not a bow, may
be such as are represented in the
following Cut, and which might
be variously ornamented, agreeably
to the general elegance of the
apartment.
W WJJ!Wl«W»U«7grnyr-JB'llKm»E ■ ^g?
The above is for a 16 feet front :
The proportion is one and two
thirds the, breadth of glass of two
separate windows. The small
pilasters between, might be fluted
or otherwise ornamented; the
lower pannels of the splayed shut-
ters might be plates of looking-
glass, or the windows might be
down to the floor, and finished in
the utmost style of elegance."]
WINE, is an agreeable, spiri-
tuous, aromatic liquor, prepared
by fermenting the juices of those
vegetables which contain saccha-
rine matter. Its constituent parts
are : 1. Sugar, or the sweet juice,
usually termed must, from which
the liquor is. obtained ; 2. Alkohol,
or pure spirit, that is disengaged!
during the vinous fermentation ;
and 3. Water, which is the most in-
WIN
W I N 417
nocuous part of the whole, and
tends to moderate its properties,
that may otherwise prove hurtful.
A receipt to make an excellent
American Wine, by Joseph
Cooper, Esq. of Gloucester
county, New Jersey.
" I put a quantity of the comb,
from which the honey had been
drained, into a tub, and added a
barrel of cyder, immediately from
the press ; this mixture vvas well
ttirred, and left for one night. It
was then strained, before a fer-
mentation took place ; and honey
was added, until the ^ strength of
the liquor was sufficient to bear an
egg. It was then put into a bar-
rel ; and after the fermentation
commenced, the cask was filled
every day, for three or four days,
that the filth might work out of
the bung-hole. When the fer-
mentation moderated, I put the
bung in loosely, lest stopping it
tight might cause the cask to
burst. At the end of five or six
weeks, the liquor was drawn off
into.a tub ; and the whites of eight
eggs, well beat up, with a pint of
clean sand, were put into it: I
then added a gallon of cyder spi-
rit ; and after mixing the whole
well together, I returned it into the
cask, whLh was Well cleaned,
bunged it tight, and placed it in a
proper situation for racking off,
when fine. In the month of April
following, I drew it off into kegs,
for use ; and found it equal, in my
opinion, to almost any foreign
wine: in the opinion of many
judges, it was superior.
" This success has induced me
to repeat the experiment for three
years ; and I am persuaded, that,
by using clean honey, instead of
the comb, as above described, such
VOL. V.
an improvement might be made,
as would enable the citizens of the
United States to supply themselves
with a truly federal and wholesome
wine, which would not cost a quar-
ter of a dollar per gallon, were all
the ingredients procured at the
market pi ice ; and would have this
peculiar advantageover every other
wine, hitherto attempted in this
country, that it contains no foreign
mixture, but is made from ingre-
dients, produced on our own
farms."
We shall now state the method,
in which Foreign wines are obtain-
ed from the fruit of the vine. See
also Vine.
When the grapes are sufficiently
ripe, they are gathered, and sub-
mitted to the action of a press ;
from vvhich their juice runs into
vessels furnished for that purpose.
Here it remains for several hours,
or for a few days, according to the -
temperature of the atmosphere :
when the fermentation commen-
ces, the liquor rises, and a consi-
derable portion of fixed air, or car-
bonic acid gas, is evolved. At the
expiration of some days, the fer-
mentation ceases : when the liquor
becomes clear, and cool, it is
poured into other casks or vessels,
where it undergoes a slight de-
gree of a new fermentation ; in
consequence of which, it becomes
divested of all feculent particles,
while its taste and flavour are re-
markably improved. In order to
clarify it still farther, the Albu-
men, or whites of eggS,IsiNGLASS,
8cc. are either suspended or dis-
solved in the cask ; and various
other expedients are practised,
most of which have already been
stated in the article Clarifica-
tion, as well as in different parts
of this work : a summary of these
3 H
418 WIN
WIN
materials, the reader will find in
the General Index of Reference.....
With the same view, it has been
recommended to filter turbid wine
through fine sand laid on a sieve ;
but, as the mucilage of the foul
liquor speedily fills up the inter-
stices, the following method may
be preferably employed: it con-
sists simply in showering such sand
on the wine, through a sieve ; so
that the weight of this mineral
may carry along with it, and de-
posit all the mucilaginous and
gross particles of such wine.....
Should, however, any matters ac-
cidentally remain, Dr. Darwin
directs a little gum-arabic, or a
few whites of eggs, to be added ;
after which the sand-shower is to
be repeated, till the fluid become
perfectly clear.
The colour of wines is, in gene-
ral, independent of their proper-
ties ; being in many instances ar-
tificial, and imparted to those li-
quors, after they have come into
mercantile hands. Thus, white
wines are tinged red, by decoc-
tions 'of logwood, the juices of
elder and bilberries ; in France, by
the husks of tinged grapes; and,
when a proper colouring matter is
required, solutions of stick-lac,
and turnsol, have been proposed
as useful substitutes. There are,
however, other ingredients fre-
quently employed by unprincipled
persons , and which produce dele-
terious effects on the human sys-
tem. As it is of great importance
lo expose such adulterations, we
shall communicate a few simple
means, by which they may be dis-
covered, both by the taste, and by
the eye. Thus, if new white wine
be of a sweetish flavour, and leave
a certain astringency on the tongue;
if it have an uncommonly high co-
lour, which is at the same time
disproportionate to its nominal age,
and to its real strength ; or, if it
have an unusually pungent taste,
resembling that of brandy, or other
ardent spirits, such liquor is gene-
rally sophisticated....Farther, when
red wine presents either a very pale,
or a very deep colour ; or possesses
a peculiarly tart and astringent
taste ; or deposits a thick crust on
the sidesor bottoms of glass-vessels,
it has then probably been coloured
with some of the substances above
mentioned; and which may be
easily detected, by passing the li-
quor through filieringpaper; when
the tinging matters will remain on
its surface. Such fraud may also
be discovered, by filling a small
phial with the suspected wine, and
closing its mouth with the finger :
the bottle is then to be inverted,
and immersed into a bason con-
taining pure water; when, on with-
drawing the finger from its aper-
ture, the tinging or adulterating
matter will pass into the water,
so that the former may be observ-
ed sinking to the bottom, by its
greater weight.
Wines frequently become tart,
and even sour, in consequence of
the fermentation having been mis-
managed ; or by keeping them in
improper places ; or from unfore-
seen accidents : in these cases, cy-
der, or the juice of carrots and tur-
nips, is commonly mixed with the
liquor, to overcome its acidity ;
but, as such juices do not always
sweeten the wines to a sufficient
degree, the latter are often adul-
terated with alum, or with sugar of
lead; preparations, that cannot
fail to be productive of tbe worst
effects; as they doubtless are
slowly operating poisons. Hence
we deem it our duty to give an
WIN
analytical account of the principal
tests, or test-liquors, discovered by
ingenious chemists, both for the
health and satisfaction of our rea-
ders.
If wine be adulterated with alum,
M. Beraud directs a small qu an -
tity of the suspected liquor to be
mixed with a little lime-water : at
the end of ten or twelve hours, the
compound must be filtered; and, if
crystals are formed, it contains no
alum : in the contrary case, the
residuum, after filtration, will split
into small quadrilateral segments,
that vvill adhere to the paper on
which it is spread.
In order to detect the litharge,
or sugar of lead, 10 or 12 drops of
a solution of yellow orpiment
and quick-lime should be poured
into a glass of wine : if the colour
of the fluid change, and become
successively dark-reddish, brown,
or black, it is an evident proof of
its being adulterated with lead.
As orpiment, however, contains a
large proportion of Arsenic, it is
apt to produce effects equally fatal
with those resulting from the sugar
of lead: we shall, therefore, subjoin
a few other tests, which are per-
fectly harmless. Thus, Fourckoy
(" History and Memoirs of the
Royal Academy of Sciences at Paris,
for the year 1787," Sec.) directs a
few drops of vitriolic acid, or of
pure saccharine acid, to be intro-
duced into a certain portion of the
suspected liquor. These vvill cause
the lead to sink to the bottom of
the glass, in the form of white
powder ; which, if laid on a piece
of solid charcoal, may be reduced
to metallic globules, by means of
the lamp and blow-pipe. Never-
theless, he preferably recommends
a solution of hepatic gas in dis-
tilled water: this, he observes,
W I N 419
will, on being added to wine so-
phisticated with lead, produce a
black sediment, and thus shew the
smallest quantity of that metal ;
whereas, in pure wine, no preci-
tation will take place : the preci-
pitate of lead may be readily dis-
tinguished from that of other mi-
nerals, by its deep colour.
Dr. Watsok (" Chemical Es-
says," vol. iii.) advises 1 oz. of
quick-lime, and half an ounce of
flowers of sulphur, to be boiled in
one pint of water : when the liquor
is cpld, it must be carefully bottled
up ; and, on adding a few drops
to the wine, or cyder, impregnated
with lead, jlhe colour of the whole
will become of a lighter or deeper
brown, according to the quantity
held in solution. But, as this test
also precipitates iron, when dissolv-
ed in any vinous fluid, we think the
following probatory liquor may be
preferably employed : it vvas in-
vented and published in 1791, by
Dr. Hahnemann, but the merit of
his claim has lately been assumed
by an obscure German chemist in
London ; and we understand, that
the recipe for this test has been
surreptitiously sold to a French
speculator, on whose account it is
now retailed by several venders,
under his directions. Dr. H.'s
original test has, within the last
three or four years, been simplified
and improved, so that it is now
prepared in the following manner:
Let one dram of the dry liver of
sulphur, and two drams of cream
of tartar be shaken in two ounces
of distilled water, till the whole
become saturated with hepatic gas:
the liquor must now be filtered
through blotting paper, and kept
in a phial closely stopped. In order
to try the purity of wine, from 16
to 20 drops of this test are lo be
420
WIN
WIN
poured into a small glass : if the
wine become only turbid, with
white clouds, and a similar sedi-
ment be deposited, it is then not
impregnated with any metallic in-
gredients. Should it, however,
turn muddy or black; its colour
approach to a deep red ; and its
taste be at first sweet, and then
astringent; the liquor certainly
contains the sugar, or other per-
nicious preparation of lead. The
presence of iron is indicated by
the wine acquiring a dark-blue cast,
similar to that of pale ink; and* if
there be any particlesof verdigrease
or copper,a blackish-grey sediment
will be formed. In making all
these experiments, the test ought
to be newly prepared, and the trials
made in the open air.
A small portion of sulphur is
always mixed with white wines,
in order to preset ve them-: but, if
too large a quantity be employed,
the wine thus impregnated be-
comes remarkably intoxicating;
oppresses the organs of breathing ;
and excites intense thirst; while
cutaneous eruptions, palpitation of
the heart, gout, and numerous
other nervous affections, are often
induced. Sulphur may, however,
be easily detected: for, if a piece
of an egg-shell, or of silver, be
immersed in the wine, it instan-
taneously acquires a black hue.
Quick-lime is also frequently mixed
with wine, for imparting a beauti-
ful deep-red colour: its presence
may be ascertained, by suffering a
little wine to stand in a glass, for
two or three days; when the lime,
held in solution, will appear on
the surface, in the form of a thin
pellicle or crust.
The last, and certainly the least
hurtful adulteration of wine, is
that with water, which n.ay be
detected by throwing into it a
small piece of quick-lime : for, if
the lime be slacked, the wine must
have been diluted ; as, on the con-
trary (vvhich however will seldom
be the case), such liquor may be
considered as pure.
The moderate use of wine cer-
tainly conduces to health,especially
in weak and languid habits : hence
it has been emphatically termed the*
" milk of the aged :" it accelerates
the circulation ; invigorates both
the bodily and the mental faculties;
increases the action of thestomach;
and is of essential service to con-
valescents, especially to those who
are recovering from the severe
attacks of typhus, or other malig-
nant fevers. On the other hand,
intemperance in wine is productive
of DRUNKENNESS, OV INTOXICA-
TION, with all their attendant
evils, and not unfrequently lays
the foundation both of acute and
of chronic disorders : the mental
powers are impaired; and linger-
ing death only terminates the suf-
ferings of the debauchee. Hence,
we seriously advise parents, to
beware of giving wine to their
children indiscriminately; because,
to them, it can be of service only
when taken as a medicine: and
those injudicious persons, who en-
courage young people to take wine
habitually at their meals, are guilty
of an abuse, which cannot be easily
repaired by future abstinence.
WINNOW, or more properly,
Winnowing-mackine, is a con-
trivance employed for separating,
by an artificial current of air, the
chaff from the grain, after it has
been thrashed out of the straw.
In the year 1797, a patent was
granted toMr. S. W. Dix, for his
invention of a vvinnovving-machine,
designed to clear grain from the
WIN
W I N 421
straw, instead of thrashing. It
eonsistsof an upright square frame,
furnished with a hopper for receiv-
ing the corn, whUe in the ear: the
grain is separated from the chaff,
by means of the friction of a large
circular rubber. The implement
is set in motion by a pair of ribbed
rollers, connected with the main
axle, by a baud or strap ; and this
axle is turned by the aid of a com-
mon hand-winch.
The advantages resulting from
the use of this contrivance, are by
the patentee stated to be as follow :
1. No grain vvill be scattered ;
and the farmer will be enabled to
carry in one waggon, ten times
more corn in the ear, in sacks,
and without the straw, than possi-
bly can be conveyed with the straw,
at one load.
2. As the same quantity of com
may thus be conveyed in one day,
as is usually performed in ten, it
follows, that not only nine days la-
bour, both of men and cattle, may
be saved, but also the risk of wet
weather, which frequently injures
the grain, and increases the ex-
pense of housing, is in this man-
ner effectually avoided.
3. The corn being in the ears
without any straw, and such ears
being rough, it will lie lightly, so
as to admit a free current of air:
hence, sweating and shrinking of
the grain will be prevented; which
accident often happens, when ma-
naged according to the prevailing
method.
4. The ears of corn, thus sepa-
rated from the straw, will occupy
incomparably less room in tiie
barn ; consequently farmers will
be enabled to guard it more com-
pletely from the depredations of
rati., i<<\ce, and ether vermin.
5. iUe reed, or prime s'raw.
being thus preserved in a sound
state, will be more fit for thatching,
collar-making, the manufacture of
hats, &c. for it is neither broken
nor split, as generally happens
when the flail is employed : at the
same time, all the natural chaff
remains in an integral state for
feeding cattle.
Lastly, every grain is by means
of such contrivance separated from
the ears: thus, the advantages of
a thrashing and winnowing ma-
chine are combined ; and Mr. Dix
is of opinion that every farmer,
who adopts the various methods
proposed in the specification of bio
patent, will find an increase of pro-
duce, far exceeding the most san-
guine expectations.
It is, however, to be justly ap-
prehended, that most agriculturists
who are already provided with
large barns, and who are accus-
tomed to submit their corn to the
action of the flail, in tb.e manner of
their forefathers, will not be dis-
posed to introduce new methods,
unless convinced of their superi-
ority, by the most decisive result
of experience. And, as we cannot,
in this instance, produce vouchers
to attest the excellence of Mr.
Dix's plan, we decline entering
into any examination of its merits.
[Winnowing machines, or fans,
as they are called, were firet intro-
duced into Philadelphia by Adam
Echard, forty or fifty years since,
from a Holland model. Some years
since, a Mr. Every presented a
model of the same machine lo the
Society of Arts in London, and
obtained a premium of 50 guineas
for the invention. It is represented
in Bayley's Plans of Machines,
folio. Excellent fans are con-
structed in Philadelphia.]
W in i ex-cr e b s es, or Winter-
422 WIT
Rocket. See Mustard, the
Hedge.
WIRE, is a cylindrical piece of
gold, silver, copper, iron, or other
metal, forced and drawn through
holes of an iron frame : it is made
of various sizes, according to the
purposes for vvhich it is designed.
Whiten-tree. See Sallow.
WITHERS, a term in farriery,
denoting the juncture of the shoul-
der-bone, at the bottom of the
neck and mane. This important
part of the horse's body, is liable
to bruises, generally occasioned by
a narrow saddle ; frequently form-
ing imposthumes ; and, if impro-
perly treated, becoming fistulous.
On the first appearance of the
welling, it should be bathed with
hot vinegar, three or four times in
the day : but, if this fomentation
be insufficient to disperse the tu-
mor, an ounce of oil of vitriol may
be added to a quart of vinegar, or
haif an ounce of white vitriol dis-
solved in a small portion of water,
may be mixed with the' former li-
quid, and the compound be ap-
plied to the part affected. If the
swelling be attended with pain,
heat, and small watery pustules,
it ought to be bathed with the fol-
lowing preparation : Take 2 oz.
of crude sal-ammoniac, and boil it
in a quart of lime-water : when it
has subsided, pour off the decoc-
tion, and add to it half a pint of
spirit of wine ; after which, the
tumor should be dressed with lin-
seed oil, or elder-ointment, in order
to soften the skin.
In critical swellings, however,
repellents should, on no account,
be resorted to ; but it will be pro-
per to apply suppurating poultices.
Experienced farriers advise, never
to open these tumors till they spon-
taneously burst; as otherwise the
WO A
excoriation will become spongy,
discharge a bloody ichor, and
speedily degenerate into a foul ul-
cer. Where fungous flesh happens
to be troublesome, and the matter
discharged is of a yellow colour,
and an oi'y, viscid, consistence,
pledgets soaked in the following
composition have proved very suc-
cessful : Dissolve half an ounce
of blue vitriol in a pint of water;
add oil of turpentine, and rectified
spirit of wine, each 4 oz. ; white-
wine vinegar 6 oz. ; oil of vitriol,
and oxymel of verdigrease, each
2 oz. Farther, let the tumefied
pari be washed with a mixture of
spirit of wine and vinegar. But;
when the cavities of the wound
are fistulous, the callosities must,
if practicable, be extirpated with
a knife, and the remainder de-
stroyed by escharotics.
WO AD, or Isatis, L. a genus of
plants comprehending six species,
of which only the tinctoria, or Wild
Woad, is a native of Britain. It is
biennial; grows in corn-fields, prin-
cipally at New Barns, in the Isle of
Ely; where it flowers in the months
of June and July. The stalk attains
a height of from 3 to 4 feet; and
the leaves are eaten by cows, but
refused by horses,goats, and sheep:
these leaves are highly valued by
dyers, for the beautiful blue colour
which they impart to wool; hence,
this vegetable is cultivated to a
considerable extent.
Woad prospers in a deep, fat
loam, though a moderately rich
and mixed soil is the most proper:
as this plant remarkably exhausts
the ground, more than two crops
should never be taken in succes-
sion.. The land ought to be plough-
ed four times ; first, shortly before
the winter ; a second lime in the
spring, when it will be advisable
WO A
W O L 423
»o form the ridges ; a third time
in June ; and, lastly, towards the
end of July, or early in August:
in the intervals between each
ploughing, it will be necessary to
harrow the soil, so that all weeds
may be destroyed.
Woad, in this country, is sown
early in August, and generally
broad-cast, though the drill-hus-
bandry is the most advantageous.
At the end of two or three weeks,
the plants must be hoed, at the dis-
tance of at least six inches ; after
vvhich they will require no farther
attention, except a careful weeding
in October, and particularly in the
month of March.
The proper time for gathering
the leaves, is determined by their
full grovvth, and the first change of
colour at their points: they are cut
with an edged tool, and collected
into baskets by women and chil-
dren. If the land be good, three
or four successive crops may be
taken ; but the two first are the
finest, and produce from 25/. to
30/. per ton; whereas, the third or
fourth do not sell for more than 7
or 8/. per ton. After the leaves are
gathered, they are submitted to the
action of mills, similar to those
employed for grinding oak-bark ;
ami in which they are reduced to a
kind of pulp. The woad is then
laid in small heaps, which are
closely and smoothly pressed down.
As often as the crust, formed on
the outside, cracks or separates, it
is again closed, to preserve the
strength of the colouring matter.
In this state, it remains for a fort-
night ; at the expiration of which,
the heaps are broken up ; the ex-
ternal part is worked into a mass,
and the whole is formed into oval
balls, either by the hand, or by
means of moulds. The balls are
now exposed to the sun, under
shelter: when perfectly dry, they
are ready for sale; or are prepared
for the vat, in the manner stated in
article Dyeing....Such is the pro-
cess vvhich woad undergoes, before
it becomes fit for dyeing blue co-
lours ; but M. Astruc is of opi-
nion, that, if this vegetable were
cured in the same manner as in-
digo, it would produce a colour of
equal lustre to that obtained from
such an expensive foreign drug.
Thus, considerable sums of money,
that are annually exported for indi-
go, might probably be saved; a con-
jecture which \:> now corroborated
by the test of experience.....Da:.i-
bourney directs to boil the fresh
leaves of woad with diluted bul-
locks' blood, or more . effectually
with caustic soap-boilers' ley : in
this simple manner, a dark green
decoction of a blueish shade will
be obtained ; and, after clarifying ,►
the liquor, it will form a blue pre-
cipitate ; which, dissolved in oil of
vitriol, and properly diluted, im-
parts a beautiful colour to woollen
cloth. Farther, even the leaves, in
a state of fermentation with pure
water, on adding a small portion of
a caustic alkaline ley, afford a fine
blue sediment, resembling the true
indigo.
[This useful article abounds in
the western states, and also in
Pennsylvania, according to the re-
port of an experienced native of
Britain, who is settled near the
head of Ohio, in Washington coun-
ty, Pennsylvania. It appears, that
the farina is much richer than that
in England; and that instead of
two crops, vvhich are produced in
England, five are yielded in the
United States. This plant is well
worth cultivation.]
WOLF'S-BANE, the Large
424 W O L
WOO
Blue, or Monk's-Hood, Aconi-
tam Napellus, L. is an exotic pe-
rennial, growing wild in the moun-
tainous parts of Switzerland and
France......The juice of this plant
possesses a disagreeable smell and
an acrid taste: of the latter, how-
ever, it is in a great measure di-
vested by inspissation. Being one
of the most active vegetable poi-
sons, when taken in large portions,
it excites sickness, vomiting, di-
arrhea, giddiness, delirium, faint-
ing, cold sweats, convulsions, and
death.
Dr. Stoerk, of Vienna, informs
us, that tiie Wolf's-bane is a very
effectual remedy in glandular swell-
ings, the itch, amaurosis, in gouty
< id rheumatic pains, intermittent
fevers, and in convulsions. He
prescribed 10 grains of the pow-
der to be taken at night, and in the
morning ; but the dose is to be
gradually increased to six grains of
the inspissated juice, twice every
day. Other physicians have em-
ployed a tincture prepared of one
part of the dry, pulverized leaves
of this herb, and six 'parts of spirit
of wine ; in doses of 40 drops.....
In Britain, however, this remedy
has not answered the high expecta-
tions formed of its virtues : though
it doubtless is a very active, and
useful medicinal plant, if duly pre-
pared, and regularly prescribed.
A decoction of the roots of the
Wolf's-bane, affords an efficacious
liquor for destroying bugs...if this
root be reduced to powder, mixed
with oatmeal and honey, or any
other palatable vehicle, and thus
exposed to rats or mice, it will cor-
rode and inflame their intestines,
so as speedily to' prove a fatal re-
past......The juice expressed from
this plant, is occasionally poured on
flesh, i.nd thus employed as a bait
to allure wolves, foxes, and other
beasts of prey.
Lastly, it is remarkable, that the
best antidote for the poison of the
Monk's-hood, is asserted to be the
root of the anthora, a species of the
same genus called kcatthful, or
wholesome yionk's-hood.
Wolf-fish. See Sea-wolf.
WOLVES-TEETH,in farriery,
frequently occur in old horses,
when the upper bones of the mouth
considerably project over the lower
ones : thus, the almost only incon-
venience resulting from this cir-
cumstance is, that the points of the
teeth prick, and lacerate, either the
tongue or gums, and thus distress
the animal when feeding.....In or-
der to remedy such defect, the su-
perfluous prominences, or unequal
points of the teeth, may be tiled
down; by which simple expedient,
these useful bones will be reduced
to their natural size.
Wolverene. See Bear.
WOOD, denotes the fibrous sub-
stance, of which the branches,
trunks, and roots of trees-, are prin-
cipally composed.
[The Society for the Encourage-
ment of Arts, in London, bestowed
in 1801, a silver medal to Mr. R.
Knight of Cheapside, for the dis-
covery of a me thod of breaking up
logs of wood for the purposes of
fuel, by blasting them with gun-
powder......The following is the
mode of procedure.
First, an entrance for an auger
is made by a gouge. The auger
is thin introduced, and a hole
bored of a proper depth to receiye
the rending or blowing screw. A
charge of gun-powder is then in-
troduced ; a screw, having a small
hole drilled through its centre, and
a head formed into two strong
horns, is then turned into the bote
woo
till it nearly touches the powder ;
a quick match 18 inches long, is
then to be put down the touch-hole
till it reaches the charge, and fire
set to it, the attendant retiring.....
The hole of the screw must be
well cleared previously to the in-
troduction of the quick match :
this match may be made of a twine,
or cotton twist, steeped in a solu-
tion of salt-petre.
A strong round bludgeon or
stick, must be used to wind the
screw into the wood, and a leather
thong attached to it, in order to
fasten it occasionally to the screw,
to prevent its being lost, in case it
should be thrown out when the
block is burst open; a circumstance
vvhich does not often occur ; for in
all Mr. K.'s experiments, when the
wood was tolerably sound, he found
the screw left fixed in one side of
the divided mass.]
Having already stated the most
approved methods of seasoning
wood, under the article Timber,
we shall at present direct our at-
tention to the most advantageous
expedients that have been devised
(or preserving this useful substance;
and conclude with an account of
the best modes of imparting to it
different colours.
To render timber more durable,
it has been recommended to saw
the trees into scantlings; or, where
the wood is designed to be used
entire, to hew it into the requisite
shape ; when it is to be laid in a
bed of sand (contained in a case or
shell of brick-work) and heated by
means of a furnace, built beneath.
As soon as the wood becomes hot,
the sap exudes, and is imbibed by
the sand; in consequence of which,
the quality of the timber is greatly
improved. This method has been
successfully tried ; but, as it is too
yol. v.
,W O O 425
expensive, Dr. Lewis advises all
wood, that is exposed to the incle-
mency of the weather, to be coated
with a preparation of pulverized
pit-coal and melted tar, reduced to
the consistence of paint, which he
has found very efficacious. In those
cases, however, where piles, or
other masses of timber, are subject
to the action of water, the most
simple mode of preserving it, is
that employed in the Bermuda
Islands, and other parts of Ame-
rica. It consists in covering such
wood repeatedly with train or
whale-oil, allowing each coat to
become perfectly dry, before an-
other is applied.....For preventing
the combustion of wood, the rea-
der vvill consult the article Fire-
proof.
Mahogany, ebony, and the finer
woods, being very expensive, ar-
tisans have contrived various pre-
parations for tinging timber, so as
to be with difficulty distinguished
from them. Thus, ebony may be
imitated, by boiling clean, smooth
box in oil, till it become perfectly
black; or, by washing pear-tree
wood, that ha> been previously
planed, with aqua-fortis, and drying
it in a shady place in the open air;
after vvhich, writing-ink must re-
peatedly be passed over it, and the
wood dried in a similar manner, till
it acquire a deep black colour. It
may then be polished with wax and
a woollen cloth, which vvill give it
a fine lustre.
In the new " Transactions of the
Royal Society of Gottingtn," Prof.
Beckmann has published the re-
sult of numerous experiments, re-
lative to the staining or dyeing of
wood. He directs, for instance, a
piece of plane-tree to l>e put into a
glass vessel, containing pulverized
dragon's-blood mixed with oil or
3 I
426 W O O
WOO
turpentine, and placed over tl»e
five : in a short time, the wood will
acquire a beautiful colour, resem-
bling that of mahogany ; and the
dragon's-blood, adhering to the sur-
face, may be separated by applying
rectified spirit of wine. If gam-
boge be dissolved in spirit of tur-
pentine, it will impart a bright-yel-
low colour ; and one part of dra-
gon's-blood, with two of gamboge,
communicate various shades to the
wood of the beech and plane-trees.
A fine walnut-tree tint may be
obtained, by rubbing common wood
with a mixture, prepared of the
bark of the trees, or the sheMs of
walnuts, previously dried, pulve-
rized, and reduced to a proper con-
sistence with nut-oil.
Another preparation for commu-
nicating a perfect mahogany-colour
to inferior woods, especially those
of the elm, maple, and sycamore-
trees, consists of the following in-
gredients : Dissolve two drams of
dragons's-blood, one dram of wild
alkan et (Anchusa tinctoria, L.), and
half a dram of aloe, in half a pint
of rectified spirit of .wine. Previ-
ously to using this tincture, the
wood ought to be moistened with
aqua-fortis; when two or three
coats of the former, each being al-
lowed to dry before the next is
applied, will be sufficient to pro-
duce the desired effect.
In March, 1778, a patent was
granted to Mr. Humphrey Jack-
son, for his method of beautifying,
and preserving the colour of every
kind of wood, by means of a stain,
varnish, and powder. He directs
the substance first to be polished
with the following composition :
Take pumice-stone andburntalum,
of each equal parts ; lapis calami-
naris, and green-vitriol calcined to
redness, of each half a part; let
the whole be reduced to a fine
powder, and rubbed with a woollen
cloth on tiie wood, till it acquire a
fine polish: the stain must now
be prepared as follows : Let 6 lbs.
of stick-lac be boiled in three
gallons of water, till the colour be
extracted, when the liquor ought
to- be strained : half a pound of
madder-root is also to be boiled in
three quarts of water: next, half
a pound of cochineal, a similar
quantity of kermes, and 4 oz. of
clean scarlet-rags,are to be digested
in a glass vessel, containing one
gallon of spirit of wine, and a so-
lution of 2 oz. of pearl-ash in half
a pint of water, till all the tinging
matter be combined with the li-
quor. After straining it, the de-
coction of stick-lac must be added,
and a sufficient quantity of aqua-
fortis be mixed with the whole, to
impart a proper red colour; when
the compound may be laid on with
a brush.....In order to prepare the
varnish, the patentee directs one
pound of clear white amber, half
a pound of copal, a similar quan-
tity of spirit of turpentine, as well
as of the oils of rosemary, and
lavender ; and six pounds of nut-
oil, to be digested in a sand-heat,
till the oils acquire the consistence
of syrup : the liquor is now to be
strained for use ; and, when the
varnish becomes clear, it must be
applied to the stained wood with
a painter's brush ; after which it
should be suffered to dry.
A patent vvas likewise granted,
in November, 1791, to Samuel
Bentham, Esq. for his invention
of a method of planing wood.
Our limits will not admit of an
analysis of his diffuse specification:
we shall therefore only state that,
by his contrivance, the operation
of planing is simplified to such a
WOO
degree that animals, steam, water,
machinery, and other brute or
inanimate agents, may be advan-
tageously employed. A minute
account of his patent is inserted in
the 5th vol. of the " Repertory of
Arts," &c.
Various other methods of stain-
ing wood blue, green, purple, red
and yellow, are practised by artifi-
cers. Of these, we shall commu-
nicate only the most expeditious,
and least expensive.
Blue....Take iwo drams of the
best indigo reduced to a fine pow-
der; put it in a glass with 2 oz. of
oil of vitriol, and agitate them with
a new clay-pipe.....After standing
10 or 12 hours, at the farthest, in
a temperate place, pour it into a
large glass vessel, or china bowl,
and add such a portion of pure
water as may be expedient to give
it the tint required....Those, to
whom the saving of time is an ob-
ject, may purchase this staining
liquor ready prepared, from the
dyer. Another mode of tinging
wood blue, is that of dissolving
verdigrease in distilled vinegar;
then making a separate solution of
2 oz. of pure pearl ashes in a pint
of water : the former liquid should
be first repeatedly applied to the
surface of the wood, till it be of
a sufficiently deep green colour;
when the latter preparation must
be drawn over it, with a soft
painters brush, as often as may be
necessary to change it to a proper
blue cast.
Green :—Dissolve purified ver-
digrease in distilled vinegar, or in
aqua-fortis diluted with 15 or 20
times its weight of water, and ap-
ply the solution to wood previously
warmed.
Pubple: Take 1 oz. of log-
wood, and 2 drams of Brazil-wood;
WOO 427
boil them together in a quart of
water, slowly, over a moderate
fire : when-one half of the fluid is
evaporated, it must be strained,
and several times laid on the wood,
with a proper brush, till it have re-
ceived a dark-red shade. Thus
prepared, and being allowed to
become perfectly dry, it may be
changed to a fine purple shade, by
drawing over it repeatedly a weak
solution of the purest pearl-ash,
namely, one dram in a pint of
water. Some dexterity, howeveT,
must be exerted on this occasion ;
as, by too sudden and frequent
applications of either of the two
liquids, the colour is very apt to
assume a dark blue, instead of a
purple shade.
Red :—Take 2 oz. of Brazil-
wood, and 2 drams of purified
pot-ash ; mix them with a quart
of water ; and let the composition
stand in a warm place for several
days ; stirring it occasionally.—
When sufficiently extracted, the
coloured liquor must be decanted,
moderately warmed, and in that
state applied to the wood as man^
times as may be deemed necessary
for giving it a more or less bright
cast. Next, a solution of alum,
in the proportion of 2 oz. to a
quart of water, is to be laid on the
wood (while it is still wet from the
former stain) with a soft brush, or
other instrument.—After pobshing
the articles thus stained, their co-
lour may be rendered still more
beautiful and permanent, by giv-
ing them one or more coats, with
a varnish prepared of shell-lac.
Yellow :—This delicate tint
may be easily imparted to wood,
which is naturally white : for this
purpose, take 1 oz. of pulverized
turmeric, and a pint of rectified
spirit of wine ; shake them in a
\
428 WOO
WOO
glass bottle ; allow the infusion to
stand for several days, closely co-
vered : then decant the liquor, and
lay it on the wood repeatedly,
as may be found necessary.—A
cheaper method, however, con-
sists in applying weak aqua-fortis
to wood previously warmed, and
immediately after the stain is given
holding it to the fire, at some dis-
tance, till it acquire the desired
cast. But it should be remarked,
that the aqua-fortis must be suffi-
ciently diluted with water; as
otherwise, the wood is apt to ac-
quire a brown or blackish hue. In
order to improve the articles thus
stained, the same expedients may
be adopted, as those suggested in
the preceding paragraph.
To conclude:—As it is fre-
quently an object of some import-
ance, to close and secure the
chinks, flaws, or other accidental
defects in wooden vessels, in the
most expeditious manner, we con-
ceive that a tough paste, com-
posed of whiting, a solution of
gum arabic or tragacanth, and a
proper quantity of oak-bark re-
duced to a fine powder, may be
advantageously applied lo tubs or
casks, with a view to prevent far-
ther leaking. But on such occa-
sions, it will always be more ad-
visable to empty the vessels ; and,
after drying them, to use a ce-
ment, consisting of pitch, bullock's
blood, linseed-oil, turpentine, and
the finest brick-dust, melted toge-
ther in an iron pan : before, how-
ever, this powerful lute be laid on,
all the crevices or chinks ought to
be properly caulked, or filled up
with tow or oakum.
Wood-ashes. See Ashes.
Wood-bine. See Honey-
suckle, the Common.
WOOD-COCK, or Scolofiax
rusticola, L. a bird of passage,
generally appearing in England to-
ward the latter end of October, and
retiring early in March.—It is
about 14 inches in length, and,
with expanded wings, 26 in breadth;
the crown of the head, hind-part of
the neck, back, and coverts of the
wings, are beautifully marked with
ferruginous red, black, and grey
colours; though the breast and
belly are barred with numerous
transverse lines of a dusky hue.
Wood-cocks, on their first ar-
rival, take up their residence in
copses of 9 or 10 years growth ;
but seldom continue in one place
longer than 12 or 15 days. They
subsist on worms and insects,which
their long bills enable them to
extract from soft grounds, and
moist woods. In the evening,
these birds repair to pools and
springs, whence they retire to
open fields and meadows, for the
remainder of the night. The
sportsman may, therefore, with ad-
vantage, take his stand in those
narrow passes on the borders
of woods, communicating with
streams ; or he may watch these
fowls about the close of the even-
ing near the pools vvhich they fre-
quent.
As an article of food, the wood-
cock affords, to the luxurious, one
of the most delicious dishes : its
flavour is consideredsuperiorto that
of the Partridgk.
Wood-louse. See Slaters.
WOOD-PECKER, or Picus, L.
a genus of birds comprising 10
species, 4 of which are frequently
met with in Britain : the following
of these are the most remarkable.
1. The viridis, or Green Wood-
pecker, is about the size of a
throstle ; of a greenish-yellow
shade ; and feeds entirely on in-
woo
sects: its principal employment
consists in climbing up and down
the trunks or boughs of trees, vvhich
it perforates with such exactness,
as if the holes were made with hu-
man art. After having sufficiently
excavated an unsound tree, the fe-
male deposits 5 or 6 semi-transpa-
rent, white eggs ; and the young
brood are taught to ascend and de-
scend trees, before they are able to
fly.—These active birds are said to
occasion great havock among bees,
in the winter season.
2. The minor, or Least-spotted
Wood-pecker, scarcely weighs one
ounce, being only about 6 inches
in length, and 11 in breadth : it is
likewise a formidable enemy to
bees :—in the winter, this bird fre-
quents orchards, whither it resorts
for the purpose of picking up the
larvae of caterpillars, and other in-
sects. It also builds its nest in
holes of trees, previously scooped
out with its penetrating bill ; and
is known in some parts of Eng-
land, by the name of hickwall.
[This family of birds is remark-
able, for the gay and variegated
colours of their plumage ; as also
in the structure and formation of
their feet, tail and bill ; their short
strong feet and position of their
toes, and the stiff pointed feathers
of the tail, assist them in climbing
and attaching themselves to the
trunks and limbs of trees, and the
beak formed like a hatchet, and
wedged, is well adapted for per-
forating the barks and chipping
decayed wood, to obtain their prey.
We have nine species in the Uni-
ted States, lour of which we shall
particularly notice.
1st. Picus principalis, (white-
billed Wood-pecker, Carpenter.)
This is a large bird, above the
weight of the domestic hen, and his
WOO 429
wings extended, measu'.ss near 4
feet, has a high peaked crest of
beautiful crimson red feathers, his
bill large and strong, wedge shap.
ed and white as ivory. The re-
maining part of his head, neck and
body, Mack and white. Two or
three of these birds working to-
gether, will in a short time reduce
the trunk of a decaying tree to a
heap of chips. They build their
nest in the trunks and limbs of
trees vvhich they excavate for that
purpose.
2. Picus auratus (Golden wing
Flicca.) This is a fine bird drest in
featfiers of splendid colours and
elegantly variegated. A rich crim-
son pile covers the back part of the
head, which with the upper side of
the wings, back and tail, are dusky
brown, variegated. The lower
part of the neck, joining the breast,
is of a dove-blush. Breast and
belly yellow, finely speckled with
black, and a dark or black cresent
lays on the breast. Under side
of the wings, and their shaft are
of a splendid golden yellow.
Some eminent zoologists have
been inclined to establish this bird
in the family of Cuculus, from the
form of the bills and of some of his
habits: but we adhere to Cates-
by and Linnjel's's arrangement:
for although his beak is not so well
formed for hacking wood, yet his
general configuration, and habits of
language, sufficiently declare him
to be of the family of Picus.
3. Picus pileatus. (Woodcock.)
In size next to P. principalis, but
yet not half so large ; of a colour
mostly a deep black, having a few
spots of white on the quill:feathers.
His head ornamented with a high
crest of crimson feathers. Cheeks
and throat variegated with black,
white and yellow feathers: they
430 WOO
WOO
utter aloud crowing and screaming
noise : their habits, and vjgilance
in chipping wood is similar to P.
principalis, and like it, they inha-
bit forests, and in consequence are
become scarce in the cultivated
districts: their flesh is eaten, and
much esteemed by epicures.
4. Picus eryocephalus. (Red
Head.) This is a fine bird, about
the size of a Jay or Thrush. He
has no crown or pecked crest, but
the whole head and neck is of a
deep and splendid scarlet colour:
wings, breast and belly white,
quills of wings and tail speckled
black and white. They build in
hollows of trees near our habita-
tions : they are fond of ripe apples
and pears. The red head migrates,
leaving us, passing south, gene-
rally a few weeks before Christ-
mas, and returns to us the succeed-
ing spring, about the last of April.
It is a general observation, that if
these birds leave us in the autumn,
or early in the winter, it prognos-
ticates a long and severe winter. It
may be proper to observe, that all
the four species here noticed, are
passengers in severe winters, re-
treating southerly. Wm. Bart-
ram.]
WOODROOF, the Sweet, or
Asperula odorata, L. an indigenous
perennial, growing in woods and
shady places ; where it flowers in
the month of May. This plant
possesses an exceedingly grateful
odour, that increases on being mo-
derately dried: it has a sub-sa-
line, and somewhat austere taste,
which, together with a peculiar
fine flavour, it also imparts to vi-
nous liquors. According to Lin-
n-eus, the smell of this herb, ex-
pels ticks, and other insects.
The swee't woodroof is supposed
to attenuate viscid humours, and
strengthen the bowels ; to remove
obstructions of the liver and bili-
ary ducts; and vvas formerly es-
teemed a medicine of great effica-
cy in epilepsies and palsies. The
plant is eaten by cows, horses,
sheep, and goats ; having the re-
markable property of increasing
the milk of animals, and especially
of those first mentioned. See also
Tea.
Wood-sage. See Wood-Ger-
MANDER.
Wood-sorrel. See Sorrel
the Common Wood.
Woody-nightshade. See
Nightshade.
WOOL, in general,signifies the
hairy substance which forms the
covering of Sheep.
The growth of wool is always
completed in one year, when it
spontaneously decays, and is natu-
rally renewed ; in which respect it
resembles the hair of most of the
lower animals; though that of
sheep is considerably finer, and
grows with more uniformity, each
filament advancing at an equal
distance ; separating from the skin
nearly at the same time ; and, if it
be not previously shorn, it falls off
naturally ; the animal being al-
ready provided with a short coat of
young wool, that undergoes simi-
lar changes in the subsequent year.
Another circumstance, that dis-
tinguishes wool from hair, is its va-
rious thickness in different parts of
the same sheep ; being closer at
the points than at the roots ; and
the part, which grows during the
winter, being considerably finer
than that produced in the sum-
mer.
Wool, when first shorn, is called
a fleece, and every fleece is divided
into three kinds, namely : The
prime or mother wool, vvhich is
taken from the neck and back ; the
seconds, or that of the tails and
a
woo
legs ; and the thirds, which is ob-
tained from the breast, and beneath
the belly.
[Other authorities say, that the
back and belly give superfine wool;
the neck and sides fine, and that
the breast, shoulders and thighs
yield a coarse quality.]
The finest and most esteemed
sorts of British wool, at present,
are those obtained from the Rye-
land, South-Downe, Shetland, Cots-
wold, Herefordshire, and Cheviot-
sheep : and as this article forms the
most extensive staple commodity
of British commerce, various and
successful attempts have lately
been made to improve its quality.
To effect this desirable object, re-
course has been had to intermixing
or crossing the different breeds ;
and, by the patriotic exertions of
the British Wool Society, the Board
of Agriculture, Lord Somerville.
and Dr. Parry, the British wool
is now little inferior to the best
kind imported from Spain.
Our limits not permitting us to
detail the results of their useful
and interesting experiments, we
shall only remark, that those who
are about to select a flock of sheep,
whether for fattening, or chiefly on
account of their wool, should not
venture to purchase any animals
without the assistance of an emi-
nent wool-stapler ; for such person,
being conversant with the different
qualities of wool, is doubtless bet-
ter enabled to form an accurate
judgment, than could be expected
from any farmer or agriculturist.
Besides, the situations to vvhich
sheep have been accustomed,ought
to be carefully investigated. Those,
for instance, which have been habi-
tuated to hilly or mountainous pas-
tures, should not be removed to a
verdant plain : nor must the re-
WOO 431
verse plan ever be adopted; for it
is not the gigantic size that consti-
tutes the value of sheep, but ail
ability to withstand the seasons,
togelherwith a disposition to fatten
kindly, and to produce the largest
quantity of fine wool, in poor lands.
It is principally by attending to the
natural habits of this noble animal,
that the Spanish wool has acquired
such celebrity. But as a complete
account of the management of
sheep in Spain, would exceed the
limits of this work, we shall only
recommend to the consideration of
our country readers,
Lord SoMERViLLE's"Sz/«fe/n/b/-
lowed during the Two last Years
by tiie Board of Agriculture," isfc.
1800 ; also the 2d vol. of " Com-
munications to the Board of Agri-
culture ;" and, lastly, Dr. Par-
ry's " Facts and Observations tend-
ing to shew the Practicability and
Advantage lo the Individual and
Nation, of producing in the British
Isles, Clothing Wool, equal to tiiat
of Spain," he. 4to. p. 93. 4s. Ca-
del and Davis, 1800.
The utility of wool, as a warm
and useful clothing (see Cloth,
Flannel, 8cc.); and when no
longer serviceable as a garment^
its shreds or rags in the manufac-
ture of Soap, having already been
sufficiently explained, it will be
needless to enter into farther de-
tail. We shall conclude with
briefly stating the different exclu-
sive privileges that have been
granted for dressing, preparing,
and manufacturing wool, and wool-
len cloth.
The following are the principal
patents of which specifications have
been published, namely : 1. In
March 1787, Mi'.JohnHarmar's,
for a machine designed to raise a
shag on wcolh-n cloth:.2. Mr.
432 WOO
Geo. Jeffrey's, in March, 1791,
for a new method of dyeing stuffs,
and woollen cloth of various co-
lours : The Reverend Edmund
Cartwright's, in May, 1792, for
a machine designed to comb wool.
[By this curious and useful ma-
chine the following advantages are
obtained. Each 'machine in the
course of a day's work of 12 hours
work a pack and a half, or 360 lbs.
of wool ; and the saving of labour
is at the rate of 11 50/. sterling per
annunt; but the mills are calcu-
lated to work by night also.
Five sets of these machines,
saved in one year 5750/. on the
single operation of combing, which
is only a preparative operation for
the spinning. When worked by
night, the profit on the labour of
the five machines is estimated at
10,000/.
It is represented by a plate in
1st. volume of the Repertory of
Arts.~\
4. Messrs. Henry Wright and
John Hawkins, in June, 1793 ;
for their invention of certain.ma-
chinery, that may be employed in
combing dressing, and preparing
wool. And 5. Mr. Thomas Con-
top's, in January, 1795 ; in conse-
quence of his newly invented ma-
chine for batting wool. These
various contrivances, however, be-
ing too complex to admit of plain
descriptions, the inquisitive reader
vvill consult the 1st, 2d, 3d, 8th,
and 12th volumes of the " Reper-
tory of Arts," he. where full spe-
cifications are inserted, and illus-
trated with several engravings.
[Process for cleaning, carding, and
spinning clothing wool.
The first thing which is to be
done to the wool, when it is put
woo
into the hands of the maufacturer,
is to clean and free it, as much as
possible, from the greasy matter,
which, by perspiration, issues
from the body of the animal ; ad-
heres to the wool; gives it nour-
ishment, and brings it to the re-
quisite degree of maturity.
For this purpose, a liquor is
prepared, consisting of three parts
rain or river water, and one part
of urine: when this liquor is
brought to a scalding heat, so as
that the hand can hardly be borne
in it; about 20, 30, or 40 lbs. of
wool, according to the size of the
kettle, must be put into a net,
and plunged into the hot liquor.
It must then be well stirred, and
agitated for about ten minutes, so
that all the parts of the wool may
be well soaked, and the perspirable
matter drawn out or loosened by
this bouking, that it may be
brought out by the washing which
is immediately to follow.
But it would be very detrimental
in many respects if this bouking
water or bath, has not the degree
of heat which has been mentioned.
For if it were but lukewarm,'it would
not loosen the animal perspiration
sufficiently. And if it were too hot,
the sweat would boil into the wool,
and only settle the faster. The
one, therefore, is as detrimental as
the other. It would be mucji
better to have the wool worked
up without any bouking or clearing
at all, than to have it done under
either of those mistake1- For
cloth vvhich has been made of wool
badly bouked, will never get pro-
perly clean in fulling. It must
then lie much longer in the earth
or soap, which renders it less valu-
able. There is even a great risk,
that it vvill always remain greasy
woo
WOO 433
and sweaty ; because it is difficult
to get the sweat out when it is
once hardened and boiled in.
The manufacturers know by
their own experience, that the
fullers, in their own way of work-
ing, follow a certain routine, and
proceed in the old accustomed
manner, which the smallest diffi-
culty will be apt to stop in its
progress; and likewise, that these
people vvill not give themselves
the least trouble, to obviate, or
remedy even the smallest obstacles.
It is therefore a great advantage,
to deliver them the cloth, as well
prepared for fulling as possible.
In order to avoid the too great
heat of the water, the wool ought
to be cooled, from time to time, by
lifting it up above the kettle, with
the stick, which is usual for stir-
ring and airing it. In this ease,
the same care ought to be taken,
as is required in dyeing the wool.
For either by putting more wood
under the kettle, or by taking it
away from under it, the water is
kept in the necessary temperature
as above mentioned.
When the wool has lain a suffi-
cient time in the bouking liquor,
and is sufficiently soaked through,
it is taken out of the kettle, and
thrown in a heap, on a wooden
railing or hurdle, where it is left
for about half a quarter of an hour
to drain. During this time the
liquor perfectly penetrates the
wool; and it gets sufficiently cool
to be fit to be rinsed or washed in
the current of a river.
The wool must not be washed
whilst too hot, because the cold
water would cool it too suddenly ;
whereby, the sweat that is in it
would harden, and then it would
not be an easy matter to get it out
of the wool. Bal again, if the wool
vol. v.
was to get too cold, the running
water would not be able to carry
away entirely the sweat which had
been chilled and got stiff therein
already. It must, therefore, be
brought into the run, when it is
neither too cold, nor too warm:
moreover, the frequent use and the
natural qualities of the water, will
soon afford the knowledge requi-
site for this part of the work. That
water which has the strongest
current, and is the purest, is the
best fitted for this purpose, because
it takes off the sweat with more
certainty, and renders the vvcel
much whiter.
As the wool leaves its sweat or dirt
in the bouking liquor, which will
form a sediment at the bottom of
the kettle, it is proper to strain it
by inclination each time it is used ;
and if the matter is properly car-
ried on, the same liquor may
serve for six months.
In Languedoc, the wool is
cleared from its sweat by making
the bath of common water only,
without any addition of urine, and
by soaking therein, first, the raw
country wool, the sweat or grease
whereof perfectly cleanses the Spa-
nish wool, and makes it even
whiter than if it had been put into
urine.
As both, ways of proceeding are
equally good, it would be unne-
cessary to force the manufacturers
to clean their wool of the sweat
according to the first mentioned
method in preference to the se-
cond, and so vice versa. The only
end is, that the wool is to be well
cleaned, and it is unimportant
whether this be done in the first
manner or the second.
The wool which has lain in the
warm bath in the manner before
described, must, when it is to b?
3 K
434 WOO
washed, be put into large baskets
of wicker work, either round or
rquare. These baskets are 5 or
6 feet long, 4 feet wide, and 3
feet high. In these the wool is
carefully washed and frequently
stirred, in order that the ;>;reasi-
ness and other dirt that may be in
it, may be carried off by the cur-
rent of the water. Out of the
first basket it is put into the second;
and sometimes even into the third,
if it is to be very clean and pure.
No more than 6 or 7 pounds must
be put into the baskets at once,
and this, when it is rinsed clean,
is gradually taken out, and other
wool put into it, and this may be
continued as long as there is wool
that wants washing after the bouk-
ing in the kettles.
From this circumstantial de-
scription, it appears,that the wash-
ing of the wool must not be delay-
ed too long, after it comes out of
the kettle ; for as has been said
already, it must be still lukewarm
when it is put into the fresh water
for rinsing.
After the wool is washed, it is
hung up in garrets upon thin rods
which are called drying rods....
Here it is dried as quick as possi-
ble ; but this rather to get it out of
the way, than from any fear that it
should loose any of its quality if it
lay long undried. It is not proper
to dry it at the fire : the fire might
take away the fatness and silky
substance in the wool, which is
absolutely necessary for the well
working of it; but it will do very
well to dry it in the sun.
When the wool is dry, it is
beaten, that the dust may come
out. This work is done either on
a hurdle of wooden strips, or on
ropes, plaited into a square frame,
put upon two tresscls. On this
WOO
5 or 6 pounds of wool are lai-i;
and beaten with sticks of about an
inch thick. The wool is then put
into the hands of women who pull
it, and pick those parts that stick
too closely together: but they must
be very careful not to pull the wool
to pieces, nor to tear the hair.
These women pick out the coarse
lumps, with the bits of straw,
thistles, and other things, which
frequently adhere so close, that
they must be cut out with scissars.
It is true this work does not seem
to be of any great consequence,
nevertheless it is highly necessary,
in as much as it prepares the wool,
that it may be easily carded ; for
this reason, great care ought to
be taken of this operation.
ri he wool then comes into the
hands of the carders, whose first
care is to grease it. They use
for this purpose; olive oil, and to
one pound of wool, which is in-
tended for chain, they take * of a
pound ; and, to the filling wool the
fifth or sixth part. In many manu-
factures, they make use for this
purpose of rape-oil or hog's-lard,
but the latter is not as good as the
common sweet or olive oil. The
former dries and hardens the wool,
and makes it so tough, that it is
not so good for spinning after-
wards, nor is it an easy matter lo
get the grease again out of the
stuffs that have been manufactur-
ed thereof. Sweet-oil (olive-oil),
therefore, is ahvays preferable
wherever it can be had. Amongst
the different kinds of sweet-oils,
the green Seville-oil is to be pre-
ferred, particularly if it be clear
and pure.
Carding is one of the most ne-
cessary operations, in the manu-
facture of wool. It is upon this,
that the goodness of the cloth
WOO
W O O 435
principally depends. For if the
wcol is not well carded, it is im-
possible to spin it smootii and
even. Many other very bad conse-
quences originate from this cause ;
for the mixed goods get an un-
even colour thereby, and appear,
here and there, spotted or striped,if
the colours have not been well mix-
ed and absorbed one by the other.
Therefore, the dyed wool which is
intended to be mixed, must pass
once oftener through the cards
than white wool. It would be even
very desirable if the cards for the
last carding, were much finer than
for the former, although the manu-
facturers do not make it a prac-
tice.
There are three kinds of wool-
cards of the same size. The whole
difference depends upon the qua-
lity of the iron wire, of vvhich they
are made; and the number of teeth
in each. Those cards wherewith
the wool is to be worked for the
first time, are called breaking
cards; they must be made of a
stronger wire, and the teeth less
numerous. The others wherewith
the work is repeated once or twice,
consist of a finer wire, vvhich, with
respect to the wire, are in proper
proportion with the former.
The proportion of the strength
of the wire and the number of
teeth, depends upon the kind of
wool which is to be carded.
The teeth of the cards must be
perfectly even, in order that the
card may not lay hold quicker in
one part, than in another: the
teeth must be set even and per-
fectly well fixed "and distributed.
If there is a fault in this, the
wool will be carded better or
worse in one place, than in another.
As the cards for the first, as well
as for the second and third card-
ing, are exactly of one size, it
naturally follows, that, the wire in
the cards, used for the second and
third carding, being finer than that
of the first kind of cards, the num-
ber of the rows of teeth must be
greater, and the teeth in the rows
more numerous.
One of the cards is fixed on a
wooden bench or frame which
serves for a seat for, the wool
carder, in such manner, that the
work, vvhich he has to do, lies be-
fore him. The other card he
moves backwards and forwards
with both his hands, by means of
a handle vvhich is fixed on the top
of the card.
Before they begin to work with
these cards, tbey ought to be filled
with shear-wool, for vvhich there
are three reasons: First, the shear-
wool supports the teeth in the
cards, and prevents them from
bending: Second, the carder then
cannot lay on so much wool on the
card at once, and the wool gets
better carded. And lastly, if the
cards were not filled in this man-
ner, a part of the wool would re-
main in them, vvhich could not be
taken out. The shear-wool vvhich
is used for this purpose of filling
the cards, is that wool which
comes off when shearing the cloth.
The carder performs his work
in this manner; he first works the
wool wilh the coarse cards, and
afterwards draws it once or twice
through the clearing cards. For
white wool, two kinds of coarse
cards are sufficient; but for wool
of mixed colours, three kinds are
necessary.
It is lo be observed, that too
much wool must not be put in the
cards at once, because then the
wool will not be drawn clear
enough. Whether the wool be suf-
456 WOO
ficiently carded, may be known by
holding it against the light. If it
be well drawn out, it appears
thoroughly clear, loose, and lying
even and straight: but if it be
badly worked, there are little
lumps or twists seen in it, which
is a certain sign, that the wool
vvas not equally carded.
By carefully observing these
directions, well carded wool will
be obtained. This is afterwards de-
livered into the hands of other
carders, who work it with small
cards, in such a manner, that it is
now made into rolls for spinning.
This last carding is done on the
knees, with small cards, which
may be three inches wide, for the
wool for the chain, and four in-
ches for the wool for the filling.
The difference in the size of the
two last mentioned kinds, is there-
fore necessary; because the rolls
for the filling ought to be some-
what thicker than tnose for the
chain ; and consequently the wool
which is intended for the filling
must be spun into a thread about
one third thicker or coarser than
the wool for the chain.
It is of consequence that this
work should be well done, because
it is a great assistance to spin the
yarn afterwards in that due pro-
portion, which must be observed
between the chain and the filling.
If this be not done, the manufac-
ture of cloth never can be brought
to any perfection, let the care and
attention bestowed upon the other
parts of the labour be ever so
great.
As soon as the wool is converted
into rolls, it is delivered into the
hands of the spinners.
There are two kinds of spin-
ning, the one for the chain, and
WOO
the other for the filling. They
ought always to be kept separate.
The yarn for the chain must be
fine, close, and well twisted, that
it may have strength enough to
bear the constant motion of the
gears, and the strokes of the reed
in the box. To this may be added,
that it is the chain which binds
and keeps together the filling.
The proportion of the thickness
of the thread between the chain
and the filling, which has been
observed in the common cloth
manufactures, is usually one third ;
so that if the yarn for the chain
weighs 20 pounds, that for the fill-
ing must weigh at least 30 pounds,
and must be less twisted, because
it is intended for the purpose of
spreading on the surface of the
cloth, and of covering the chain.
The chain and the filling are
spun on the same wheels. The
wheels made in the Holland fash-
ion are the best, because the frame
of the wheel before, is even with
the floor, and the hind part there-
of is raised about a foot above it,
whereby the wheel is kept in a kind
of equilibrium, is easily moved,
and can be much better governed
by the spinners, than if it stood
horizontal. Besides this, the spin-
ners who draw their thread from
below upwards, are by such a
sloping direction, better enabled
to observe the inequalities, use-
less hairs, and little lumps in the
wool, than if they had to draw the
thread straight towards them."
The following slight sketch vvill
shew the process pursued in pre-
paring wool in the British manu-
factories, and at the same time,
give an idea of the number of peo-
ple to whom we are obliged for
every coat we wear of English.
WOR
W O R 437
cloth. The fleece is sorted, ac-
cording to its different qualities,
by the wool stapler, and the Spa-
nish has all its pitch marks clip-
ped off. It is then carried to the
Dye-house, and when cleansed
from its impurities, (by scouring
it in a furnace of hot water) dyed,
and returned to the manufacturer ;
afterwards, woven in the loom,
burled, by nipping off its knots
and burs; milled by the fuller,
dubbed with cards of Teazle:
[Dispsacus Fullonum] stretched on
the tenter-hooks ; dressed ; shear-
ed ; pressed between heated planks
and press-paper; and packed for
the markets. " JVanier's excur-
sions from Bath.']
Woolen Cloth. See Cloth.
Wowk. See Labour.
Work - house. See Poon-
1I0LSE.
WORMS, are the meanest of
the lower animals. Those vvhich
infest the bowels of the human
body, are generally divided into
three kinds, namely, 1. the asca-
rides, or small round and short
vv hite worms ; 2. the teres, or lum-
bricus, a round and long worm ;
and 3. the taenia, or tape-worm.
Having already treated of the first
and third kinds, under their re-
spective heads, we shall now give
an account of the second, or round
wori.i.
Symptoms of Worms:...Paleness
of the face ; itching of the nose ;
dilatation of the pupil; grinding of
the teeth during sleep ; voracious,
or bad appetite ; fetid breath ; nau-
sea, while the belly is mostly in-
flated, hard and painful. Erup-
tions.often appear, particularly on
the face : and, in the morning, the
patient is affected with a copious
flow of saliva, and an uncommon
craving for dry food, such as bread,
potatoes, he.
The manner in whkh wbrms
originate in the human body, is not
yet ascertained; but, in general,
it has been observed, that they are
found principally in persons and
children of a weak and relaxed di-
gestion ; in such as eat great quan-
tities of fruit, and raw vegetables,
as well as in the inhabitants of the
sea-coast. Hence persons, who sub-
sist chiefly on fish, are often trou-
bled with worms.
Cure....To expel such as already
exist in the body, and to prevent
their re-production, it will be ad-
visable to administer strong purga-
tives and tonics. With the former
intention, a variety of medicines
have been recommended, and many
unprincipled empirics have levied
contributions on the credulous; but
one of the most efficacious reme-
dies, is a composition of jalap and
calomel, when used in the manner
directed, p. 92 of this vol. The dose
should be repeated t-.vice or three
times, during the space of a fort-
night. The following treatment
has likewise, in many instances,
been attended with success. Take
of pulverized worm-seed, two
drams; jalap, valerian, and iEthi-
ops mineral, of eacb one dram;
mix the wdiole with a sufficient
quantity of treacle, or honey, to
form an electuary ; of vvhich a tea-
spoonful is to be taken twice a day.
The operation of these medicines
may be considerably increased by
clysters, consisting of strong: so-
lutions of salt with the addition
of oil.
The principal tonics to be used
against worms, vvill be the Peru-
vian bark, valerian, and steel; but
none of these active drugs can
438 W O R
WOR
with safety be resorted to, with-
out proper advice. The patient's
diet should be duly regulated : his'
beverage ought to consist of cold
Water, or sweetened with honey,
carefully avoiding new beer, and
all fermented liquors.
With regard to solid food, the
bread ought to be well baked, and
a slice spread with treacle and
scraped carrot, garlic, or pulve-
rized wormseed, eaten every morn-
ing, has often been productive of
good effect?. Onions, horse-radish,
salted and dried animal food (even
sound Dutch herrings, occasion-
ally), as well as spices, and ripe
fruit, are here proper articles of
food. On the other hand, all such
substances as tend to occasion fla-
tulence ; especially white cabbage,
pease, dried beans, potatoes, and
other farinaceous articles ; for in-
stance, pastry, confectionary, and
whatever is of a fat and oily na-
ture, particularly pork, ham, Sec.
must be carefully avoided.
Children troubled with worms,
should take moderate exercise ;
and be directed to masticate their
food properly. It is farther abso-
lutely necessary, that the motions
of their limbs and body should
never be constrained by tight gar-
ments, particularly those around
the belly and hips ; as such inju-
dicious practices cannot fail ulti-
mately to impair their digestion.
[An infusion of the West India
plant Spigelia Anthelmia is a power-
ful vermifuge : it is given in infu-
sion, in the dose of two table
spoonfuls to children four or five
years old ; of the juice, one table
spoonful is to be s^iven. From
five to t-Mi grains of the dried plant
may be given.
The Carolina pink root, or
Sf.igelia Manjlandica, is a well
known and powerful vermifuge.
See also Cabbage tree bark,
Calomel, Couhage, Melia,
Fern, Tenia, Vermifuge.]
WORMS, or Earth-worms,
in husbandry, are very injurious
creatures, especially in corn-fields ;
where they consume the young
roots, and thus destroy the greater
part of the crop.
To prevent such depredations, it
has been recommended to manure
the soil with soot, or salt; or to
sprinkle it with sea-water ; and,
where this cannot be easily pro-
cured, with a solution of bay-salt
in common water. The brine of
salted meat may likewise be em-
ployed in gardens; or, if walnut-
leaves be steeped in water for a few
days, the fluid will acquire such a
degree of bitterness, as to prove a
certain poison to reptiles of every
description.
Worm, the Glow. See Glow-
worm.
Worm, the Silk. See Silk-
worm.
. Worm, the Tape. See Tape-
worm.
Worms, in Ecg<. See Dogs.
Worms, in Horse--. See Botts.
Wormwood, the Common. See
Mugwoht.
WORMWOOD, the S:c a, or
Sea Southern-wood, Artemisia
maritima, L. is an indigenous pe-
rennial growing en the sea-coasts,
and flowering in Ihe month of
August.....In its wild state, the
odour of this plant is similar to
that of the Marum Germander (see
vol. iii. p. 15.); or of Camphor;
but, when cultivated in gardens,
it becomes less fragrant. Its vir-
tues correspond wilh those of the
Mugwort, or Common Worm-
wood, though in ah inferior de-
gree.
W OU
The Sea Wormwood is fre-
quently used as an ingredient in
distilled waters: when triturated
with fine sugar, it is formed into
a conserve. This marine plant is
eaten by horses ; but refused by
cows, goats, and slu-vp.
WORT, is an infusion of malt,
from which different kinds of Ale
and Beer are brewed.
Wort possesses considerable an-
tiseptic properties, and has often
proved an excellent diet-drink,
which remarkably promoted the
cure of the true Scurvy :....it may
also be advantageously used as
common beverage, in cancerous
ulcers, and in all other cases,
where a strong putrid disposition
prevails in the fluids.
WOUND, in surgery, is a re-
cent and violent solution of con-
tinuity, in a soft external part of
the body ; being attended with an
effusion of blood.....To enter into
a full discussion of the different
kinds of wounds, as denominated
from the parts affected, would ex-
ceed the limits of this work : we
r.hall, therefore, first give a short
account of wounds in general, and
afterwards treat of such casualties,
according to their particular situa-
tions.
The danger attending a wound,
depends chiefly on the part vvhich
is injured, and on the constitution
of the patient. If, however, the
heart, any of the large internal
bloodvessels, the spinal marrow,
or the brain, be wounded, the as-
sistance of an expert surgeon ought
instantly to be procured ; as the
event generally proves fatal. Si-
milar consequences may be appre-
hended, when nerve? proceeding
to the heart, are materially in-
jured.
On the other hand, if the wound
W O U 439
be superficial, or what is usually
termed a cut, in the upper or lower
extremities, especially in the mus-
cular part of the arm, hand, finger,
or in the leg or foot, it will be ad-
visable immediately to compress
the wounded part (without exa-
mining its size or dimensions), so
as to exclude every access of air,
and to prevent the efflux of blood :
next any tenacious matter, such
as glue, shoe-maker's wax, gold-
beater's leaf, or the common
sticking-plaster of the shops, should
be speedily applied. Thus arti-
sans, working'with edged tools,
very properly treat the frequent
accidents of this nature: and,
though the wound may extend
even to the bone, yet it will in this
simple manner, be safely and ex-
peditiously healed. Nay, dailv
experience evinces) that external
injuries of the head, neck, breast,
he. may be successfully treated by
a similar method, especially by
the aid of slips of adhesive plaster ;
vvhich, in the latter situation, must
be applied to the part during the
act of inspiring ; so that it may-
net be displaced by the alternate
expansion and contraction of the
muscles in breathing; and that it
may prove no impediment in that
important process of the animal
economy. Where, however, a
wounded part has been-neglected,
aid exhibits rough edges ; or, if
the skin and muscles have been
lacerated, a different treatment
must be adopted : in these cases,
a pledget or lint dipped in sweet-
oil, should be applied to the in-
jured spot, and the whole covered
with a piece of fine oil-cloth. After
24 hours, the first dressing may
be removed, without tea:ing cr
breaking the small fibres adhering
to the lint; when the nicest
440 W O U
WOU
ought to be renewed. On such
occasions, a proper bandage will
be indispensably necessary, in or-
der to promote the juncture of the
lips of the wound ; but in case the
latter shew a disposition to sup-
purate, the use of oil will be hurt-
ful ; as the wound must be treated
in the manner pointed out, under
the article Ulcer.
In fresh wounds, or in severe
bruises, the application of cold wa-
ter is strongly recommended by
Nannoni, an Italian; and Ar-
quebusade water, [vvhich see] by
Theden, the first German sur-
geon. Percy advises the follow-
ing efficacious ointment: Take a
small glassful of the clarified juice
expressed from the green leaves
of the burdock, and a similar por-
tion of almond or olive-oil: these
liquids must be duly incorporated
in a pewter vessel or mortar, by
means of a leaden pestle. Thus
a green ointment vvill be obtained.
which may be spread on lint or
soft linen, and applied to the
wound every 12 hours, or oftener.
This preparation softens the cal-
lous edges of the ulcer, and clean-
ses the latter, while it equally pro-
motes suppuration and cicatriza-
tion. If the fungous flesh grow
too rapidly, the simple juice of
burdock, without the oil, will be
preferable. At each dressing, the
pledget or lint may be covered
with a fresh leaf of the same plant;
vvhich may also be laid on the
newly formed scar, with a view to
render it more firm. As the un-
guent above described is in great
estimation on the Continent, Dr.
Unzer adds, that it may be pre-
served for a considerable time,
when kept in a cool place ; or, for
long voyages, it should be boiled,
and allowed to become cold, two
or three different times, till it ac-
quires a thick consistence.
M. De Kessel, a respectable
German writer,observes from long
experience, that new honey spread
on folded linen, affords an excel-
lent remedy for fresh and bleeding
wounds, which ought not to be
washed or otherwise handled; pro-
vided they contain no foreign sub-
stances ; for instance, glass, splin-
ters, Sec. If they happen to be
deep, or have large orifices, the
honey-plaster should be repeated
every four or five hours, and after
some days, only once in twenty-
four. He farther states, that such
application not only stops bleed-
ing, but also prevents inflamma-
tion, swelling, and suppuration,
while it checks the growth of fun-
gous flesh.
In all open wounds, it is an ob-
ject of the first importance, that
the patient, especially during the
act of dressing them, breathe a
pure, salubrious air ; for, a foul or
contaminated atmosphere, such as
that of hospitals, and crowded ha-
bitations, always increases the
danger ; so that small, superficial
injuries have, from that source,
frequently been attended with fatal
effects.
Tight bandages often occasion a
considerable swelling of the adja-
cent parts : in such cases, the roller
ought to be very gradually remov-
ed ; as, otherwise the tumefaction
of the compressed places vv ill sud-
denly increase, and sometimes ter-
minate in mortification. Flence,
Petit recommends the bandage
to be renewed every three hours,
so that it may each time be less
tightly fastened. In wounds vvhich,
from their nature, cannot be spee-
dily healed, the use of Goulard-
water, or other preparations of
wou
W O U 441
lead, is extremely improper; as
they should, from their commence-
ment, be dressed with suppurating
remedies. Hence, in all cases of
febrile heat, and external inflam-
mation, emollient poultices, com-
posed of the crumb of bread boiled
in milk, must be instantly applied,
and changed several times in the
day ; or, as often as they become
cold, withoutdisturbing or touching
the wounded part with the fingers.
In order, if possible, to obviate
the symptoms of inflammation, it
will, in some instances, be advisa-
ble to draw blood from a vein of
the arm or foot; to resort to open-
ing medicines, such as neutral
salts, with a few grains of nitre ;
to apply similar clysters ; and, on
the whole to observe a cooling
regimen. Such treatment is par-
ticularly necessary, in consequence
of stabs or cuts given with sharp-
pointed or edged instruments, and
in other wounds proceeding to
interior parts. Hence, persons
who had been dangerously wound-
ed in the chest, in the abdomen,
or in the thighs, have completely
recovered [by frequent bleeding,]
by abstaining from all animal food,
even from broths, and salted and
pickled provisions of every descrip-
tion ; while they subsisted for se-
veral weeks exclusively on barley-
water, wort, or other mucilaginous
vegetable decoctions; without using
any medicines, or applying oint-
ments.
Foreign bodies, such as iron,
lead, splinters of wood, glass, linen,
he. should, if possible, be speedily
extracted from wounded parts ;
and, in all serious accidents of this
nature, surgical aid ought to be
procured without delay. When
the wound is not inflamed, such
extraction may he promoted by
vol. v.
enlarging its orifice with a proper
instrument; afterwards immersing
the limb in tepid water, or repeat-
edly applying to it a cloth soaked
in a similar fluid. But, if any
pointed bodies, for instance, pieces
of glass, cannot be thus removed,
the wounded part should be ex-
posed to the steam of water, and
frequent emollient cataplasms be
laid over it, with a view to facili-
tate the ejection of hurtful matters,
by means of a speedy suppura-
tion. As soon as the tumor thus
treated becomes soft, and presents
a yellowish-white spot in its cen-
tre, it must be opened ; though
such favourable change sometimes
requires an attentive treatment,
for several weeks.
Wounds inflicted by blunt in-
struments, or by the grazing of a
bullet, or by the large and blunt
teeth of animals, provided they be
not poisonous, should also be treat-
ed in the manner already stated;
though it vvill, in these cases, be
useful to apply a pad of folded
linen, moistened with sweet-oil, or
with a tepid mixture of vinegar
and water; because such wounds
partake of the nature of bruises.
With a view to afford greater se-
curity, the parts thus bitten, may
preferably be washed with milk,
or with luke-warm vinegar and
water.
There are many instances on
medical recor.l,where smallwounds
of the veins, inconsequence of un-
skilful blood-letting, have been at-
tended with fatal effects: thus, if
a tendon, or cutaneous nerve, be
injured, or the orifice in venesec-
tion be made too small, the whole
arm or leg will become inflamed,
and the swelling suddenly spread
to the points of the fingers or toes.
In these cases, the whole limb
3 L
442 W O U
wou
ought to be speedily tied up with a
proper bi-mdage, and dressed with
lead-water; and Bra m bill a re-
commends emollient, anodyne, and
antispasmodic remedies to be ap-
plied to the wounded part...There
are, however, instances, where the
method before suggested would be
insufficient to effect a cure The
celebrated FIeister recommends
a mixture of oil of turpentine and
spirit of wine, to be applied to such
wounded nerves : others advise
warm spirituous liquors; and Sher-
wen justly praises the efficacy of
warm oil of turpentine, which is
used by country people, in deep
wounds inflicted by a needle, or
other pointed instrument, with a
view to prevent suppuration : and
he observes, that cooling and emol-
lient external remedies are unavail-
ing in those nervous casualties,
consequent on blood-letting. [See
Lock. Jaw.]
Persons wounded by gun-powder,
especially in the face, should not
attempt to extract such particles
of the powder as may have pene-
trated through the skin ; because
they are apt to break, and sink
deeper into the muscular fibres :
the only application necessary, on
these occasions, is Goiiiard-vvater,
or, more effectually, the ointment
composed of oil and lime-water,
stated under the article Burns.
With respect to gun-shot wounds,
we shall only remark that, accord-
ing to the experience cf the ablest
surgeons on the Continent, such
injuries are always more speedily
healed with oil and emollient cata-
plasms, than wilh essences, bal-
sams, and other beating drugs.
But, as the opinions of professional
men greatly differ on tins subject,
we must refer the curious reader
to Mr. John Bell's late publica-
tion, entitled " Discourses on the
Nature and Cure of Wounds," (8vo.
9s.) and shall add a few remarks
of Dr. Robert Jackson, extract-
ed from the 11th vol. of" The Lon-
don Medical Journal," where this
skilful practitioner expresses him-
self to the following effect....The
practice of dilating, poulticing, Sre.
of gun-shot wounds, appears to be
justifiable only in those cases,where
it becomes necessary to extract the
ball, or the fragment of a bone ;
or in which inflammation is about
to commence. In all other in-
stances, Dr. J. considers dilatation
as superfluous, and even as contri-
buting to retard the cure : in his
opinion, it is sufficient to bind the
wound with linen rags, or similar
bandage, to prevent the access of
air. Cataplasms, says he, may be
serviceable in cold climates ; but,
in warm countries, bandages moist-
ened with laudanum, or spirituous
liquors, and even the affusion of
cold water upon wounded limbs,
dispose them to heal in a very re-
markable manner. He confirms
these observations by numerous
cases of soldiers who were wound-
ed in the contest with America;
and who recovered more speedily
by this treatment, than by adopting
the practice of dilatation, and sup-
puration. See also the articles
Styptic, Tourniquet, and [Ge-
ranium Maculatum.~\
Wounds of the joints, such as
the knee, foot, he. heal most ex-
peditiously by the simple applica-
tion of cold water; provided the
orifice of such wounds be immedi-
ately contracted by means of ad-
hesive plaster. If they happen to
be deep, Schmuckeii advises blood
to be drawn from a vein: while he
observes, that, by renewing the
compresses with fresh water, as
w ou
soon as they become warm, such
injuries have generally been cured,
without producing inflammation,
or any other symptom....See also
Tendons.
WOUNDS, in farriery, maybe
occasioned by various accidents;
but, as our prescribed limits do not
admit of a minute detail, we shall
at present state only the treatment,
which may be most advantageous!y
adopted, on common occasions.
In all fresh wounds, occasioned
by cutting instruments, it vvill be
sufficient to bring the lips together
by ligature, or by suture : after
which, rags dipped in brandy should
be applied : or the orifice may be
covered with a pledget spread with
the following ointment: Take of
Venice turpentine, and bees-wax,
each 1 lb. ; of olive oil li lb. ; and
12 oz. of yellow resin : let these
ingredients be melted together, and
2 or 3 oz. of finely-pulverized ver-
digrease be added: the whole be-
ing stirred, till it become cold....
See also art. Horse.
In cases of scalds or burns,
where the skin remains sound, it
will he advisable to bathe the part
with camphorated spirit of wine,
and to cover it with rags dipped in
the same liquor: salt may also be
applied to the burn or scald with
considerable efficacy. But, if the
skin be once broken, the part af-
fected must be anointed v\ ith lin-
seed or sweet-oil, and a plaister,
consisting of bees-wax and oil, be
laid over it. If, in consequence of
the pain, a slight degree of Fever
occur, the animal must be bled,
and treated in the manner direct-
ed under that article.
The most important, and also
the most frequent, of the simple
wounds, however, are those of
broken knees : this injury is some-
W O U 443
times occasioned by accident, but
more commonly by the negli-
gence of grooms; the careless-
ness of bad riders on rough roads;
or, by exhausting the horse's
.strength through excessive la-
bour. On such unfortunate occa-
sions, the wounded parts must
first be washed with a sponge dip-
ped in warm water, to prevent the
inflammation that would otherwise
ensue, from the particles of gravel
or sand adhering to the flesh :......
next, they ought to be gently wiped
with dry cloths, and bathed with a
mixture, consisting of equal parts
of camphorated spirit of vine, and
vinegar: thus cleansed, they should
be covered with a pledget of tow,
dipped in the same composition.
But, if the wound be so deep, as
to produce a considerable degree
of inflammation, it vvill be necessa-
ry to promote suppuration, and to
treat it in the manner pointed out
vol. iii. p. 465....For the proper ma-
nagement of the more dangerous
wounds, the reader vvill consult the
articles Hoof-boxy, Hoof-hurt,
Over-reach, Punctures, Qi it-
tou-bone, &c.
WOUNDWORT, or Stachys,
L. a genus of plants consisting of
22 species ; 4 being indigenous ;
of which the following are the
principal.
1 The palustris, or Marsh-
Woundvvort. See Clown's All-
heal.
2. The sylvatica, or Hedge-
nettle Woundwort, is peren-
nial , grows in hedges and woods,
where it flowers in the months of
July and August....The whole of
this plant possesses a fetid smell;
and under its shade, toads are said
to retreat for shelter. A yellow
dye is obtained from its leaves and
branches. It is eaten by sheep and
444 W R E
goats ; but refused by horses, cows
and hogs.....Bfchstein observes,
that the stalks of the Hedge-nettle
Woundwort, when managed in the
mannersimilar tothat pursued with
hemp, afford a woolly substance,
which may be spun into yarn ; and
on bleaching it, becomes remarka-
bly whit-j.
WREN, the Common, or Mo-
tacilla troglodytes, L. is a very di-
minutive bird, inhabiting all parts
of Europe, and especially Eng-
land, where it maintains itself,
during the severest winters. It is
from 3 to 4 inches in length; the
head, neck, and whole body, are
of a deep brown colour.
Wrens construct their nests in
the corners of out-houses, stacks of
wood, or holes in walls, being nearly
of an oval shape, and composed
chiefly of moss, lined with feathers:
the female lays from 16 to 18 mi-
nute white eggs, marked with red
spots ; and produces two broods in
a year....These creatures subsist
on small worms and insects : they
have a pleasing note in the fiairing
season, as well as in the winter,
especially when fed with poppy-
seed ; and the voice is much strong-
er than could be reasonably expect-
ed from a little warbler which
scarcely weighs 3 drams.
WRESTLING, is a wanton
combat, or engagement between
two unarmed persons, who exert
all their strength and dexterity to
throw each other on the ground.
Wrestling was in great repute
among the ancients; but, with the
modern nations, it is seldom prac-
tised. Indeed, it is almost forgot-
ten in Britain, excepting in a few
of the less civilized counties, where
it forms a favourite game at wakes.
This exercise, however, like that of
cudgel-playing, ought to be abo-
WRI
lisbed ; on account of the accident*
thus wilfully occasioned ; for every
nerve is strained by the candidates
for rural fame, who thus fre-
quently lay the foundation of some
severe chronical complaint,ormeet
with dislocations, fractures, and
other casualties, vvhich often ter-
minate in lingering illness, or pre-
mature death.
WRITING,is the art of convey-
ing our ideas to others, by means
of certain characters.
As the history of this noble in-
vention is lost in the remote pe-
riods of antiquity, it would be fo-
reign to our plan, to enter into a
detail of the opinions and hypothe-
ses that have been formed by anti-
quarians, with a view to account!
for its origin....Hence we shall no-
tice the patent which was granted
in February, 1780, to Mr. James
Watt, for a new method of Copy-
ing Writings. He directs a piece
of thin, unsized paper, of the same
dimensions as that which contains
the original writing, to be moist-
ened with water ; or, which is pre-
ferable, with the following liquor:
Take 21bs. of distilled vinegar, and
let 1 oz. of the sedative salt of bo-
rax be dissolved in it: next, 4 oz.
of oyster-shells, calcined to white-
ness, are to be put into the vine-
gar : the mixture must be repeat-
edly shaken, during 24 hours-;
when it is suffered to stand till it
deposit its sediment. The clear li-
quor should nowbe filtered through
blotting-paper into a glass vessel ;
2 oz. of bruised Aleppo-galls be
added ; and the mixture kept in a
warm place for 24 hours, being
frequently shaken : at the end of
that period, it must be filtred a
second time, and afterwards dilut-
ed with one quart of pure water.
Now it should again be suffered
WRI
to stand for 24 hours ; and, if any
sediment be deposited, it ought to
be strained a third time....When
the paper has been moistened with
this liquor, it should be placed
between two thick unsized pieces
of the same material, in order to
absorb the superfluous humidity ;
and, thus prepared, it must be
applied to the writing which is to
be copied : a piece of clean writ-
ing paper being placed over both.
The whole is now directed to be
submitted to the action of a rolling
press : in consequence of which,
the written characters will appear
on both sides of such moistened
paper....The patentee employs a
peculiar press, of his own inven-
tion ; which, however, cannot be
satisfactorily described, without the
aid of delineation : hence, the in-
quisitive reader will consult the 1st.
volume of the " Repertory of Arts,"
he.; where this specification is il-
lustrated by an engraving.
[The Polygraph, invented by
Mr. J. Hawkins, and improved
by Mr. C. W. Peale, of Phila-
delphia, is the most simple and
complete writing apparatus, yet
invented. Two or three copies,
(or rather originals) are taken at
the same time......The apparatus
folds up in a large portable
writing desk, and is sold for fifty
Dollars.]
Besides the simple method of
restoring illegible writing, already
stated under the article Deed, we
shall mention two other expedi-
ents, either of which may be used,
accordingly as the characters are
more or less obliterated : Boil half
an ounce of best Aleppo-galls in
4 oz. of water, till one half of the
fluid be evaporated ; filter the de-
coction through blotting-paper, and
apply it by means of a soft paint-
WRY 445
ers' brush, to the effaced part of
the writing; on vvhich it must be
suffered gradually to dry : thus,
the illegible letters will in most
cases, become black, and re-ap-
pear. If, however, this mode of
recovering them should not prove
successful, the following applica-
tion has often effectually answered
the purpose : Take a leaf of white
unsized paper; moisten it with a
strong solution of green vitriol in
water ; so that it may be damp,
without being wet. Next, apply
such paper to the illegible part of
the writing, by means of the flat
hand, in order to communicate its
moisture to the latter; when it
must be allowed to dry in the open
air. In this manner, the almost
dissipated astringency of the galls
will be renovated, so that the va-
nished characters will generally re-
appear on the surface. Let it,
however, be remembered, that both
preparations must not be tried on
the same paper; as they would
certainly change the whole to a
black colour.
WRV-NECK, or Jynxtorquilla,
L. is a bird of passage, somewhat
larger than a lark ; of a brown and
black colour, with wave-like stripes;
appearing in Britain in the spring,
and preceding the Cuckow: it has
received its name from a whimsi-
cal habit of turning and twisting its
neck, so as to bring-the head over
its shoulders : it also possesses the
faculty of erecting the feathers of
its head, similar to those of the
Jay.
Wry-necks construct their nests
of dry-grass in the hollows of trees:
the female lays 6 or 8 white eggs,
vvhich have a very thin shell: it is
remarkable, that the young brood,
while in the nest, utter a hissing
noise, not unlike that of snakes....
446 WRY W Y M
During the period of incubation,
the male attentively supplies the
hen with ants, which furnish to
these birds a very agreeable repast.
M. Buffon informs us that, to-
ward the end of summer, the Wry-
neck becomes exceedingly fat; and
that its flesh, in point of delicacy,
is equal to that of the Ortolan.
Wymote. See Marsh-mal-
X.
X AN
XAN
XANTHOXYLON, Prickly
Yellow Wood, or Yellow Her-
cules, is a native of Jamaica, and
other tropical countries, where it
grows to the height of 16 feet, and
is about 12 inches in diameter.....
This straight tree somewhat re-
sembles the common ash: the bark
of the trunk is covered with nume-
rous prickles ; and the wood is of a
bright-yellow cast.
The wood of the Xanthoxylon is
chiefly employed for the heading of
hogsheads, for bedsteads, and nu-
merous other purposes: it also pos-
sesses remarkable medicinal vir-
tues. The fresh juice, expressed
from the roots, affords certain re-
lief in the painful disease, termed
dry belly-ache. This important
fact was discovered in the West-
Indies, by watching a female slave,
who collected the root in the woods,
and gave two spoonfuls of its juice
to a negro, suffering under that
colic, at an interval of two hours.
Such medicine occasioned a pro-
found, but composed, sleep of 12
hours ; when all sense of pain, and
other distressing symptoms, had
vanished: the cure was completed,
by giving an infusion of such ex-
pressed roots in water, by way of
diet-drink.
Farther, the juice of the Prickly
Yellow WTood, when preserved in
rum, and administered in doses
not exceeding a wine-glassful, has
effectually removed the most ob-
stinate epileptic fits ; but Dr. He-
ney has not mentioned the manner
in which this preparation ought to
be managed.
[Two species grow in the United
States.
1. X. fraxinifolium or ash-leaved
X. growing in Pennsylvania, and
Maryland: and X calvis Hercules
or Prickly Yellow Wood, which
grows in the more southern states.
The bark and capsules are of a
hot acrid taste, and when a small
quantity is chewed, powerfully
promotes the flow of saliva. It is
used in this way to relieve the
tooth-ache. A tincture of the same
X AN
X A N 447
parts of the tree is a common coun-
try remedy for the chronic rheu-
matism.
In the West-Indies, a decoction
of the bark is used with great suc-
cess as an internal remedy, and
also as a wash for foul ulcers, which
it powerfully cleanses, and disposes
to healthy granulations...........The
powdered bark is also mixed
with the dressings. In the London
Medical and Physical Journal, vol.
2d. and following, there are seve-
ral cases related of the efficacy of
this medicine in the above disease.
XANTHORHIZA, tinctoria,
Shrub Yellow Root. Is a native
plant of N. Carolina, first brought
by the late John Bartram, from
that slate, and planted in his gar-
den at Kingsess in the county of
Philadelphia, where it has conti-
nued to flourish in a most luxuri-
ant manner. It is denominated
Simplicissimaby Marsha \.\.,Afuifo-
lia by L'Herretier, and Mar-
boisia by Mr. Wm. Bartram, in
honour of Mr. De Marbois.....X.
tinctoria is a more expressive name
than any it has yet received.
Dr. Woodhouse has given an
excellent account of this valuable
plant, in the 5th vol. of the Medi-
cal Repository of New-York, from
vvhich the present extract is taken.
" The stems are three feet high,
and somewhat thicker than a goose
quill. The root is from three to
twelve inches long, aod about the
diameter of a man's little finger,
sending off numerous scions. The
leaves are placed alternately, hav-
ing long petioles and pinnated,
terminating in an odd one ; the
folioles sessile, and lacerated deeply
on their edges. The peduncles
are branchy, and are placed im-
mr.diately benealh the first leaves,
from vvhich cause, the flowers ap-
pear before the leaves, very early
in the spring."
The stem and root are of a bright
yellow colour, and possess a strong
bitter taste.
The Xanthorhiza tinctoria, con-
tains a gum and resin both of vvhich
are intensely bitter ; the resin is
more abundant than the gum.
It imparts a drab colour to cloth,
and a handsome yellow to silk, but
the dye will not take on cotton or
linen. The different mordants
which were used, altered the shade
of the yellow colour considerably,
but did not appear to render it more
permanent. While every shade of
this elegant colour can be obtained
from that truly valuable dyeing
drug, the quercitron bark, (black
oak), Dr. W. thinks it will always
supercede the Xanthorhiza, and
every other native dye, among
vvhich that of the hydrastis Cana-
densis, may justly be reckoned the
most superb.
The watery extract of the grated
roots, mixed with alum, and added
lo Prussian blue, was first used by
Mr. James Bartram, for colour-
ing plants, and the plumage of birds
of a green colour....The green is
far more lively and elegant than
thai made with gamboge and Prus-
sian blue, which is generally used
for painting in water colours, and
stands well in the shade, but soon
contracts a dull colour when ex-
posed to a bright light, and to a
high temperature. Various sub-
jects coloured by this green, and
iiv losjd in a book, were as lively
after one year, as when first paint-
ed.
It is a strong and pleasant bit-
ter, and preferable to all our native
bitters. It sits easy on the sto-
mach, in the dose of two scruples
(40 grains.)
448 X A N
X AN
The colour of the leaves appears
to reside in a resin, which is altered
by the combined action of light and
oxygen, by either of which, sepa-
rately, it cannot be affected.
As the Xanthorhiza is a strong
and pleasant bitter, and very nearly
allied to the columbo-root, it pro-
mises to become a valuable addi-
tion to the American Materia. It
is preferable to all our native bit-
ters. The Aristolochia Sipho,
(Dutchman's pipe,) is a weak aro-
matic bitter. The root of Actea
racemosa, (black snake-root,) is a
nauseous bitter. Chironia angula-
ris, (Centaury,) Gentiana Sapona-
ria, (blue Gentian ;) Veratrum lu-
teum, (Devil's-bit;) the red berries
of cornus fiorida, (dog-wood,) and
the bark of several species of salix,
or willow, are weaker bitters than
the yellow root. Dr. Woodhouse
has often used the powdered stem
and root of the Xanthorhiza with
success, in the dose of two scru-
ples to an adult, in many of those
diseases in which bitters are re-
commended, but generally com-
bined with other remedies. It is
a medicine, which sits easy upon
the stomach, and produces no dis-
agreeable effects.
Reference to the Plate.
A, a branch representing the fo-
liage, flowers, and fruit of the X.
tinctoria.
a, a flower somewhat magnified.
b, a branchy peduncle, showing
the capsules.
c, a capsule.
d, a capsule open, showing the
single seed.
/, a portion of the root, sending
off a scion.
The Editor is indebted to Dr.
Woodhouse, for the use of the an-
nexed plate.]
Y.
YAM
YAM
YAM, or Dioscorea bulbifera, L.
is a nativa of Ceylon, whence its
culture has been introduced into
the West Indies, and other parts
of America : it is divided into two
varieties, known under the names
of red, and white ; from the colour
of their bulbous roots.
Yams flourish best on poor soils;
and retain their beautiful verdure
till a late period in the year: hence,
they are said to ameliorate the
ground nearly as much as a crop
of turnips. Being propagated by
setting the eyes, their culture cor-
responds with that of potatoes;
and, like these roots, yams often
prove an excellent preparatory crop
for wheat. Farther, they are very
productive; so that the red variety
Xant/ior/ii~owl full of hops
in two quarts of water to one
q art ; put eight table-spoonfuls
cf Hour into a pan, and strain the
hop-waler boiling on it ; when
mixed, it should be thick batter,
and when milk-warm, stir in a
breakfast-cup of good yeast, pour
it into three porter bottles, stop-
ping them with paper; put thum
in a miliv-pm near the fire, and
as soon as the mixture rises to
the top of the bottles, remove
them to the cellar until it subsides,
then cork the bottles, and set the :ii
on a cool cellar floor, or in an ice-
ho.ire. In very warm weather,
the corks ought to be taken out
every day, to let out the carbonic
acid air, and the bottles again
stopped.
2. Another receipt directs the
addition of a table-spoonful of gin-
ger, which is to be boiled with
the hops ; and the further addition
of a table-spoonful of brown sugar
before the flour is stirred in.
3. Perpetual yeast:.....Mix one
pound of flour with boiling water,
to the thickness of gruel, add to
it half a pound of brown sugar,
mix them well together ; put three
spoonfuls of purified yeast into a
large vessel, upon which put the
abore ingredients, vvhch will soon
ferment. Collect the yeast off the
top, and put it into a small necked
pot, and cover it from the air;
keep it in a dry place, and mode-
rately warm. When used in part,
replace it with flour made into a
thin paste, and sugar, in the for-
mer proportion. It will keep for
half a year or more. No yeast is
necessary except the first time....
Cdumbian Magazine, December,
1788.
4. The editor can recommend
yeast made after the following re-
ceipt, as preferable to any other
kind.
Boil twelve clean washed, mid-
dle sized potatoes; and at the
same time, boi!, in another vessel,
a handful of hops in a quart of
water; peel, and mash the pota-
toes in a marble mortar, pour part
of the hop-water, while hot, upon
the potatoes, mix them well, and
pass them through a sieve; then add
the remainder of the hop-water,
and half a tea-cupful of honey, beat
all well, and add a small portion
of leaven to bring on the fermen-
tation. Put the whole in a stone
jug, and set it by the fire, (in the
winter). All the utensils must be
scalded every time they are used,
and washed perfectly clean. Onetea
cupful of the above potatoe yeast,
will answer for two quarts of flour.
In summer, the yeast ought to be
made every second day.
YEA
YEA 455
The following mode is most
commonly adopted out of the great
towns in the United States : Four
table-spcoiisliil of bran or shorts,
and one of hops are boiled in a
quart of water, and set by the
fire to ferment. A small quantity
of salt to the water, wherewith
the flour is kneaded, is an im-
provement. With ihis, bo.sever,
the practice is to use leaven saved
from * former baking.
Where bread is made from lea-
ven alone, some sugar should be
added to correct the sour taste,
and probably a small quantity of
pearl-ash, v.x-uld add to the rising
of tne bread, as well as correct
the acid of the leaven.]
An useful substitute for yeast,
may be obtained by nearly filling a
bason, or tea-cup, with bruised, or
split pease, and pouring on them
boiling water : the whole is now to
be set on the hearth.or other warm
place, for 24 or 48 hours, accord-
ing to the temperature of the sea-
son : at the end of that time, a
froth, possessing all the properties
of yeast, will appear on the sur-
face of the fbiid. This method, we
understand, is commonly practised
in the eastern countries ; and the
barm, thus procured, is said to
render the bread light and palata-
ble. [See article Breao.]
To ihe different modes of pro-
curing yeast, already specified, we
shall add an easy and expeditious
process, which appears to be very
plausible ; and has lately been
communicated to the editor, by an
anonymous correspondent; though
be cannot vouch for its success....
Take six quarts of soft water, and
two handfuls of wheaten or barley-
meal ; stir the latter in, before the
mixture is pF.ced over the fire,
where it must very gradually sim-
mer, and at length boil, till two-
thirds of the fluid be evaporated,
so thatit may consist of two qvarts.
When this decoction becomes
cool, incorporate with it (by means
of a whisk) a powder, consisting
of two drams of s. It of tartar, and
one dram of cream of tartar, pre-
viously mixed. The whole should
now be kept in a warm place....
Thus a very strong yeast for brew-
ing, dis illing, and baking, is said
to be obtained. For the last men-
tioned purpose, however, such
barm ought to be first diluted with
pure water, and passed through a
sieve, before it be kneaded with
the dough ; in order lo deprive it
of its alkaline taste.
The preservation of yeast, for a
considerable time, is an object of
equal importance to that of pro-
ducing it artificially : htnee, it
has been recommended to put a
quantity of that commodity into a
canvas bag, and to submit the
whole to the action of the screw-
press, so as to deprive it of all
moisture; in consequenceof which,
the barm will remain in the bag,
as firm and tough as clay : in this
state, it must be packed in casks,
well secured from the access of
air, and may be kept in a sound
state for any period of time. We
believe, however, it would be more
safe and advisable to form the
pasty yeast into circular, flat ves-
sels, resembling tea-saucers, and
in that state to dry the whole mass,
either in the open air under shade,
or in the moderate warmth of a
baker's oven.
Mr. Felton Mathew's mode
of separating beer from yeast, and
preserving the latter (for vvhich he
obtained a patent, in Fcf-iuarv,
17lJ6), in many respects corre-
sponds with that just described :
456 YEA
YEA
the principal difference is, that he
directs the bags to be p'aced in
troughs perforated with hoies, to
prevent the former from bursting ;
and then to submit them to the
action of a lever, aided by in-
cumbent weights. When the beer
is thus expressed, the yeast remain-
ing in the bags, will crumble into
coarse powder: this must be spread
on canvas, hair-cloth, or similar
porous materiahand gradually dried
in a malt-kiln, or in any room or
stove, where a regular temperature
of from 80 to DO degrees is main-
tained ; and, lastly, as soon as it
becomes perfectly dry, the barm
must be packed in bottles or casks,
from which the air is completely
excluded.
Another mode of preserving
yeast, consists in throwing a withy,
or the young shoots of willows
twisted together, into the vessel
v here the yeast is working ; and
suspending them in a warm room,
till the next opportunity of brew-
ing arrives. We conceive, how-
ever, the following expedient to be
preferable, both in point of clean-
liness and economy; it being suc-
cessfully practised by some careful
house-. Ives: Take a clean woorl-
en bo.v'i, of such size as mv.y be
most convenient: spread a regular
co.-ting of yeast around its inner
surface; and, as often as this dries,
repeat the process, till a thick cake
be formed: the vessel must be kept
in a dry place. When any bar r,
is wanted, a small piece may be
rut out ; and, after dissolving it
in warm water, the solution will
answer all the purposes of fresh
yeast, whether designed for baking,
w-foi-brewing.
'; he following process being ad-
vantegcously emplcyeii in ' ierma-
ny, for preserving bann, so as to
be fit for all domestic uses, after a
considerable time, we have inserted
it for the benefit of our country-
readers : When the yeast is taken
from new beer, it must be put into
a clean linen bag, and be laid in a
ve-sel half full of dry, sifted wood-
ashes : the whole is then to be
covered to the thickness of three
or four inches with similar ashes,
and be pressed together. In this
situation, the barm should remain
for a day, or longer, if it be neces-
sary ; when the ashes will absorb
all the moisture, and the ye?st ac-
quire the consistence of a thick
paste. It must now be formed into
small lumps, or balls ; dried in a
moderate heat ; and kept in bags,
in an airy, dry place : when any
barm is wanted, a few of such
balls may be dissolved in warm
water; or, which is preferable, in
beer ; and they vvill answer every
purpose of fermentation.
Besides its utility, in baking and
brewing, late experiments have
fully proved, that yeast is of sin-
gular efficacy in putrid fevers, pu-
tiiJ sore throats, and similar ma.
Infant complaints : for the first
discovery of this important fact, we
are indebted to the Rev. Ed:iund
Cartwkijht. The dose of barm,
according lo his experience, and
that of other practitioners, is two
large spoonfuls, to be repeated
every three hours: in some cases,
this has been sufficient; but, in
others, it was necessary to admin-
ister the Peruvian baik, b-.tweea
each • dose. In a few instances,
indeed, emetics and laxatives were
riven previously to taking the
yeast; but. in general, this simple
remedy seV.oni failed to effect a
cure ; provided due attention was
bestowed on the diet and regimen
7i the patient.
YEL
Y E L 457
YELLOW, is one of the seven
primitive colours.
The principal article affording a
yellow dye, is the Weld, or Dyer's
Green-weed; of the culture of
which, the reader will find an ac-
count in that article.
An excellent yellow dye may
likewise be prepared from the
flowers of the acacia. These must
be gathered, before they be fully
blown, and dried in an earthen ves-
sel over a moderate fire, till they
crisp, or curl up, in the same man-
ner as tea-leaves. The ripe seeds
of the same tree are then added in
the necessary proportions; and the
whole, when boiled in river-water,
wilh the addition of alum, will im-
part a yellow colour of any shade
required.
[The United States have several
fine native yellow vegetable dyes,
among which the Hydrastis Cana-
densis, Quercus tinctoria, (Black-
oak,) and Xanthorhiza, deserve to be
particularly mentioned. See those
articles.]
In the 61st vol. of the " Philo-
sophical Transactions of the Royal
Society," for 1771, the following
receipt for preparing a beautiful
yellovr dye, is communicated by
Mr. Peter Woulfe: Take half
an ounce of pulverized indigo, and
mix it in a deep glass vessel, with
2 oz. of strong spirit of nitre,
previously diluted with 8 oz. of
water, to prevent the indigo from
taking fire. Let this mixture stand
for a" week, and then digest it in a
sand heat, for one or two hours ;
adding 4 oz. of water. The solu-
tion is now to be filtered: when
mixed with water, in the propor-
tion of one part of the former to
four or five of the latter ; and, on
adding a little alum, it communi-
vol. v
cates a durable yellow colour. Mr.
Woulfe remarks, that none of the
tinging matter separates from the
water, during the operation of dye-
ing, except the portion adhering to
the cloth ; so that this preparation .
promises to be of essential service 1
to dyers. He farther states, that
cochineal, cudbear, or orchal, and
similar colouring substances, when
treated in this manner, will also im-
part a yellow tinge to silk and wool.
The chief yellows used in paint-
ing, are Dutch pink, Turbith-mine-
ral, King's and Naples yellow : of
these we have given a concise ac-
count; see Colours; but, as the
preparation of the two last-men-
tioned pigments has not been ac-
curately stated; we shall subjoin,
by way of supplement, a few hints
respecting the manner in which
they are compounded, for the use
of artists.
Eing's-yellow:....yl\x 20 parts
of pulverized arsenic with one part
of the flowers of sulphur: let
them be sublimed in a proper ves-
sel, in a sand-heat. "When the
sublimation is effected, the colour
will be found in the upper part of
the glass, whence it must be care-
fully removed, and levigated till it
become a fine powder....This pig-
ment may also be obtained, by
subliming orpiment in a similar
manner; and it may be rendered
of a deeper or lighter colour, by
increasing or diminishing the pro-
portion of sulphur.
Naples yellow is prepared by le-.
vigating, on a dry stone, 12 oz. of
white lead: 3 oz. of antimony ; 1
oz. of alum ; and a similar quan-
tity of sal-ammoniac. These in-
gredients must now be exposed,
in an open crucible, to a moderate
heat for some hours ; after which,
3 N
458 Y E L
YEL
the fire ought to be increased for
a short time ; and, at length the
mixture should continue for three
hours, in a degree of heat suffi-
ciently powerful to keep the cru-
cible red hot. At the expiration
•of that term, it will acquire a beau-
tiful yellow colour; which may be
rendered of a brighter golden
shade, by augmenting the propor-
tions of antimony and sal-ammo-
niac.
Yellow pigments of various
shades may also be obtained, by
triturating flowers of sulphur, or
yellow ochre, in different propor-
tions, with a solution of gum in
water : and, lastly, the calx of iron,
when precipitated by quick-lime,
from a solution of green vitriol,
has been recommended as a sub-
stitute for yellow ochre, in house-
painting.... Another method of pre-
paring the celebrated Naples yel-
low, is that of M. Passery, who
makes use of the following ingre-
dients, namely: antimony, 1 lb. ;
lead \\ lb. ; alum and common
salt, of each 1 oz....We have in-
serted this recipe, on the authority
of Mr. Wiegleb ; who simply
enumerates the articles here stated,
without communicating the pro-
cess of compounding them.
Yellow Ink may be prepared, by
previously dissolving a small por-
tion of alum and gum-arabic in
pure water, and then infusing a
few grains of dry saffron in the
same solulion....It may, likewise,
be obtained by slowly boiling 2 oz.
of Avignon, or French berries in
one quart of water, with half an
ounce of alum, till one-third of
the fluid be evaporated; when 2
drams of gum-arabic, 1 dram of
sugar, and a similar quantity of
pulverized alum, are to be dissolv-
ed in this liquid: the mixture
should then be filtered, and pre-
served in bottles.
Sympathetic Yellow Ink, is direct-
ed, by Wiegleb, to be prepared
in the following manner :....Take a
handfull of the leaves of common
marigold (Calendula officinalis, L.)
and macerate them for eight days,
or longer, in half a pint of the best
distilled vinegar; when the liquid
must be separated from the leaves,
by expressing them through white
linen or cotton, and preserved in a
glass bottle carefully stopped. If
the desired colour is to be of a
pale shade, an additional quantity
of water may be added. Invisible
characters may be formed with
this liquor on white substances,
such as linen, silk or paper; and
the yellow tint will appear on im-
mersing them in the following
liquor:...Take a sufficient quantity
of violet or daisy flowers; bruise
them in a marble mortar ; add a
small portion of water; express
the liquid through white linen, and
also preserve it in a glass bottle....
An infusion of turnsol vvill answer
the same purpose.
YELLOW FEVER, is one of
the most fatal epidemics to vvhich
the inhabitants of warm clfmates
are subject.
As the 'opinions of physicians,
concerning the nature and treat-
ment of tbe Yellow Fever, are va-
rious and contradictory, we shall
avail ourselves of the clear and sa-
tisfactory view of this malignant
disease, lately given by Dr. Tho-
mas Dancer, in bis excellent
work, entitled " The Medical As-
sistant, or Jamaica Practice of Phy-
tic," (4to. Kingston, Jamaica ; and
Lond.Murray and Highley,p. 384.
1/. 1*. in boards), designed chiefly
for the use of families and planta-
tions." This intelligent practi-
YEL
Y E L 459
tioner justly observes, that the mis-
understanding on the subject has
probably arisen from an improper
use of terms, or from the variable
character of the disease ; accord-
ing to the prevailing constitution
of the season : the quantity and
force of contagious matter, and
other causes. He is fully convin-
ced, that it is not regularly one and
the same disorder: but is often a
compound, at one time partaking
of the nature of the Malignant Fe-
ver, at another resembling the Bi-
lious Remittent. Hence, it is not
uniformly contagious, and the fe-
ver of new-comers may not always
be malignant: there are instances
in vvhich, on their first arrival, they
had a common fever, which after-
wards changed into the yellow fe-
ver : though the reverse of this ge-
nerally occurs.
Means of Prevention : Dr. Dan-
cer observes, that, though bleed-
ing is precarious and hazardous
after the fever has commenced, it
may, nevertheless, in particular
cases, where the habit is very full,
8cc. be considered as a mean of
preservation. Young and athletic
persons, therefore, may, on their
first arrival, lose a few ounces of
blood : their bowels should, on the
same principle, be kept open ; and
every species of intemperance, as
also exposure to the sun, and even-
ing air, ought to be carefully avoid-
ed. It is, however, of still greater
consequence to retreat, as soon as
possible, from the shipping and
sea-shore, the seats of infection, to
a pure, airy, cool situation in the
country, and there to remain for
some months. Dr. D. has known
many young men, who thus have
avoided any dangerous fever ; and
Borne who, by returning too speedi-
ly to the towns or sea-ports, fell
victims to the disease.
" The prevailing mortality among
new comers (says this accurate
observer), is a good deal to be at-
tributed to their own misconduct.
Coming out in convoys, they ar-
rive in numbers; meet at taverns ;
and, allured by scenes of novelty,
they walk the streets, indulge lo
excess in the use of the country
fruits; and enter too readily into
the customs of the seasoned inha-
bitants, which are not at all suited
to persons in their situation."
According to the experience of
Dr. Clark, the best preventive of
this destructive epidemic, is mer-
cury. Hence, he advises all per-
sons, who have sufficient leisure,
to undergo one or two courses of
that medicine, after their arrival in
the West Indies ; to take a few
laxatives ; to confine themselves to
a moderate use of wine ; and to
live principally on fruits and vege-
tables, for the first two months:
for, by pursuing such conduct,
" they may rely almost to a cer-
tainty on escaping the fever."
With respect to the character-
istic symptoms of this malignant
disorder, we cannot, on comparing
several authors who have written
on the subject, select a better or
more correct description, than the
following, given by Dr. Dancer;
whose words we do not hesitate to
quote ; especially as many of our
readers, or their relations, residing
in Jamaica, or other parts of the
Western World, must feel greatly
interested on the occasion: " This
fever, then, peculiar to new-comers,
attacks suddenly ; with alternate
fits of heat and cold ; violent pain
in the head and back. The face is
prodigiously flushed ; the eyes are
460 Y E L
YEL
red and watery ; the w hole physi-
ognomy of the patient is very pecu-
liar, denoting anxiety and dejec-
tion of mind: and this unnatural
appearance continues, till recovery
begins to take place. The pulse,
in the beginning, is frequent, full,
and hard, sometimes irregular;
the heat of the body very great;
and the patient labours under great
inquietude. This state of the fe-
ver continues for a longer or short-
er period : sometimes only for a
few hours ; at others, for several
days ; and, when the ardent symp-
toms begin lo decline, if not soon-
er, an irritation at the stomach
commences, which is hardly, by
any means, to be subdued, or even
allayed. The patient now feels
himself in other respects well; his
pulse and heat being nearly natur-
al, and he has seldom any return
of fever; but the irritation and
anguish at the stomach continu-
ing, he at length vomits blackish
matter; his eyes and neck first
become yellow, and then the whole
body. Blood flows from the mouth
and nose: Delirium, preceded by
a hurried perturbed state of mind,
and great restlessness, at length
comes on ; ending in total in-
sensibility, &c. and ultimately in
death."
The yellowness of the skin, how-
ever, is not a constant symptom ;
for sometimes it does not appear,
or at least not till after death. Dr.
Dancer farther observes, that the
yellow fever is particularly distin-
guished by its sudden attack; as
it is seldom, like other fevers, pre-
ceded with any* symptoms of lan-
guor, weariness, he.; by its hav-
ing no very sensible abatement or
remission, till it totally subsides;
by the extraordinary anguish about
the fore-part of the chest, and at
si- the same time a torpid state of the
;u- bowels ; so that the strongest pur-
ine- gatives, and in large doses, are of-
ral ten attended with little or no effect.
:ry Such are the general symptoms,
se, attending this fever in Jamaica;
ill, but numerous variations often oc-
r ; cur in America, and other warm
it; climates, where it is modified by
;at the season of the year, or other cir-
fe- cumstances, which our limits vvill
rt- not permit us to detail: we shall,
a therefore, briefly mention the sup-
ral posed origin of this malady, and
ip- exhibit an account of the treatment
»n- that ought to be adopted.
ch The yellow fever is certainly
by endemial in the West Indies: its
en cause is reputed to be a peculiar
sis contagion, which very generally
lis affects persons recently arrived
ir- from a cold climate, and especially
rn Europeans, or those who have not
nd long resided in hot countries. Fe-
u- males, and negroes are, in general,
sh exempt from its influence ; but
rst mulattoes, and tawnies, or such as
>le are descended from European and
th black parents, are equally subject
by to the fever with the whites. From
id, the West Indies, this epidemic has
•th been conveyed to America, where
in- it committed dreadful ravages, in
in the year 1793, especially in the
province of Pennsylvania : nor is
vv- any person, who has once been
1; seized with it, secure from a second
ir, attack.
)r. Cure: Conformably to the symp-
he toms above stated, and drawn
n- from actual observation, by Dr.
as Dancer, we shall first exhibit his
e- mode of treatment, in the different
n- stages of the yellow fever, as ap- '
lv- plicable to the climate of Jamaica.
or He previously remarks, that his ac-
s; count, though incomplete, is suffi-
ut ciently full and accurate, to enable
at any person to distinguish that dis-
YEL
Y E L 461
ease from any other, except the
malignant fever; to which it has
an obvious affinity.
Where the yellow fever attacks
in the manner of a common remit-
tent, and shews no symptoms of
malignity, till after some continu-
ance, Dr. D. observes, that the fol-
lowing treatment may not be deem-
ed necessary or suitable ; though,
he thinks it is, on the whole, the
safest plan, to consider every fever
with which a new comer may be
seized, as being of this kind ; for,
unless the method of cure suited to
it, be adopted in the beginning, it
cannot afterwards be employed
vv ith any probability of success.
On a supposition, that a person
newly arrived in Jamaica, or any
other tropical country, be suddenly
attacked with violent pain of the
head and back, with heat and
flushing of the face, he. in the
manner before described, Dr. D.
recommends, in the first place, to
let the patient be put to bed, as
soon as he is taken ill ; then an
opening clyster to be administer-
ed ; and, immediately after, a dose
of calomel and jalap to be taken,
either in powder, mixed with syrup
of tamarinds, or made into pills....
The dose must be regulated by the
constitution of the patient, and the
greateror less violence of the symp-
toms ; so that from 5 to 10 grains
of calomel, and from 15 to 30
grains of jalap, have been occa-
sionally prescribed. Some time
(from 2 to 3 hours) afterwards, a
tea-cupful of tamarind-water, or a
decoction of tamarinds with cream
of tartar, should be drank ; and, if
stools do not freely follow, the pre-
ceding, or a smaller dose may be
repeated in the course of 5 or 6
hours. If plentiful evacuations
have taken place, but without any
abatement of symptoms, small
doses of calomel and antimonii.l
powder should be given, in the
proportion of from 5 to 10 grains
of the former, to 3 or five grains of
the latter ; to be taken every three
hours in barley-water, or thin pa-
nada? During the intervals, Dr.
D. directs the following saline ju-
lep : Salt of wormwood, or salt of
tartar, 2 drams, to be dissolved in
half a pint of mint-tea. To every
two table-spoonfuls of this solu-
tion, add one table-spoonful cf
strained lime-juice ; which mixture
is to be swallowed during its effer-
vescence, or immediately after. In
order to ascertain the exact quan-
tity of the acid requisite to neutra-
lize the saline draught, it should
be tried first, by pouring into the
latter small portions of the former,
till the frothing be completed. At
the same time, the mercurial fric-
tions must be commenced; namely,
two drams of the strong mercurial
ointment, rubbed into the inside of
the knees orthighs,every six hours;
or, in some cases, every three
hours ; or otherwise, half an ounce
every six hours. If, in 12 or 15
hours from the first attack, there
be no obvious remission, in conse-
quence of such treatment, the fric-
tions ought lo be continued every
three hours ; and, if the bowels
have not been opened, ten grains
of calomel must be given in com-
bination with jalap ; or, in the con-
trary case, with one quarter of a
grain of opium, to prevent the ca-
lomel from acting on the bovreis,
if already tooloc-.e. Thin barley-
water, or other diluents, may be
allowed frequently, and the medi-
cines above specified be continued,
till the moulh becomes sore, and
the breath affected ; unless a dis-
tinct remission of the fever be p-^r-
462 Y E L
ceived. Should the stomach be-
come irritable, and retchings com-
mence, a blister must be instantly
applied, either to the pit of the sto-
mach, or between the shoulders ;
the vitriolic alher be administered
in a little water, or in the saline
julep before described. •
The quantity of mercurial oint-
ment to be used, as well as the ca-
lomel to be taken,during the whole
course of this malady, is some-
times very considerable, before ei-
ther the glands of the mouth are
affected, or any remission of the
symptoms take place. In some
cases, more than 1000 grains of ca-
lomel have been given, and several
ounces of mercurial ointment have
been rubbed in, not only with im-
punity, but with evident success.
In general, when the salivation
commences, the fever and irrita-
tion at the stomach subside. Ne-
vertheless, it vvill be necessary to
continue the frictions, in a more
moderate degree, to support the
flow of saliva.
Although Dr. D. does not pre-
tend that this mode of treatment is
uniformly efficacious, yet, on com-
paring it with any other in use, it
is, in his opinion, eminently suc-
cessful, and affords the patient a
double chance ; because it does not
hinder the employ mentof any other
means that could be devised, if
mercury were not administered....
The violence, however, with which
the fever frequently attacks, leaves
in many cases, but little hope from
any plan or cure whatever : hence,
Dr. Blane justly observes, that
there are instances, where the
disease is determinedly fatal, or
where the animal functions are,
from the beginning, so deranged,
that there are no possible means of
restraining the morbid motions;
YEL
and dissolution necessarily takes
place. In more favourable circum-
stances, however, Dr. Dancer re-
marks, that the sore mouth, result-
ing from the use of mercury,though
often very distressing, is seldom at-
tended with any danger, or incon-
venience of long duration. Fie
quotes on this occasion, Mr.BLANE,
who, in his late publication on the
use of the nitric acid, says, that
although this sometimes causes sa-
livation, yet it is the most powerful
means of allaying ptyalism, in-
duced by mercury. Indeed, this
affection of the mouth is not easily
removed ; but it may be greatly
alleviated by the frequent use of
proper gargles, such as the follow-
ingdirectedbyDr. Dancer: Sage-
tea, 1 pint; vinegar, 4 oz. and
honey, 1 oz ;....or, sage-tea, 1 pint;
honey, 1 or 2 oz ; and alum, 1
dram. The following gargarism we
can recommend, from the frequent
experience of its good effects in
similar cases, namely : Equal parts
of distilled vinegar and lime-water;
adding a small portion of syrup of
red roses, sufficient to sweeten the
mixture.
The Peruvian bark may, occa-
sionally, be given in the latter
stages of the yellow fever, to com-
plete the cure ; but, as it is not
always found to agree, Dr. Dan-
cer concludes with saying, that
" food and wine are the only things
farther required."
However inconsistent to theory,
ortopreconceivednotions,thismode
of treatment may appear to others,
Dr. Dancer affirms, that " it has
stood the test of experience, and
ought to be adopted, till a better one
has been discovered." Having
thus fairly stated his practice, in
this virulent disorder, he briefly
recapitulates that of other physi-
YEL
Y E L 463
cians: and, as it may be of some
service to persons who reside in
those tropical climates, or propose
to visit them at any future period,
we shall also subjoin a concise
view of* the various modes of
treating thuf malady, practised by
Drs. Hillary, Mosely, Rush,
Clark, Blane, and Jackson.
With a view to moderate the
rapid motion of the fluids, and to
abate the violence of the yellow
fever, during the first two days, Dr.
Hillary directs blood-letting, in
the proportion of from 12 to 20 oz.
according to the age, strength and
other circumstances attending the
case of the patient. The next in-
dication is, to evacuate putrid bile,
and corrupted humours, with such
expedition as maybe consistentwith
safety: hence Dr. H. advises small
but frequent draughts of warm
water to be swallowed, with the
occasional addition of a little oxy-
mel, green tea, he.; when a grain
or a grain and an half, of crude
opium is given, in order to com-
pose the stomach after the violent
retching, pain, and anxiety, neces-
sarily occasioned by severe vomit-
ing. And, as this organ is unable
to retain either solid or fluid mat-
ters, the body should be kept open,
by means of a mild purging clyster.
The third indication is, to prevent
the putridity of the fluids, and also
the approach of gangrene, by ex-
hibiting proper antiseptics....For
such purpose, Dr. H. prescribes a
slight infusion of the Virginian
Snake-root; as it braces the sto-
mach, and enables it to bear the
Peruvian bark.....A more particu-
lar account of Dr. Hillarv's
treatment, may be found in his
" Observations on the Air and Dis-
eases of Barbadoes. "
Dr. Mosely recommends re-
peated bleeding in the first stage,
and continued purging with vitrio-
lated tartar.
Dr. Rush bleeds copiously and
repeatedly ; gives purgatives com-
posed of calomel and jalap ; then
continues the calomel alone, till it
affects the mouth. He conceives,
that as the symptoms of the yellow
fever are extremely violent, and its
progress is uncommonly rapid, the
most efficacious remedies ought to
be employed, as early as possible.
Hence venesection should, in his
opinion, not be deferred beyond the
first day ; for it is of peculiar ser-
vice to persons of robust and ple-
thoric habits, especially such as
have recently arrived from Europe.
And, though this operation may not
be performed sufficiently early to
save life, yet it contributes greatly
to relieve the sufferings of the pa-
tient. Farther, it vvill be advisable
to take some blood, every day,
while the fever continues: the
quantity to be drawn depends on
the state of the pulse. The blood
appears thick and sizy ; and, it is
a remarkable fact, that patients of
every age can support the loss of
that fluid, much better in the yel-
low, than in any other inflamma-
tory fever. After venesection, pur-
gatives are administered: with
this intention, small doses of calo-
mel, consisting of 2 or 3 grains,
taken every hour ; or, of 5 grains,
combined with half a grain of opi-
um ; or, of 10 grains of calomel
mixed with 15 grains of jalap ; to
be swallowed every 5 or 6 hours,
have been prescribed by Drs.Rusn,
Clark, and other practitioners,
with the best effect. Instances
have occurred, in which patients
have taken from 100 to 230 grains
of calomel, within three or four
days ; in all of whom the violence
464 YEL
Y EL
of the disease abated, immedi-
ately after salivation commenced.
......Blisters, applied to the legs
and thighs, have likewise proved
very useful.
According to Dr. Jackson,great
benefit has been derived from the
affusion of cold water on the
body of the patient, after hav-
ing lost 20 or more ounces of
blood. But, as this remedy has
in some cases produced contrary
effects, from being injudiciously
employed, Dr. Blane proposes
the application of cloths soaked
either in cold water, or in a mix-
ture of that fluid and of vinegar :
by such treatment, patients have
been recovered, whose cases were
apparently desperate.
As vomiting is the most dis-
tressing symlom in the yellow
fever, various remedies have been
proposed, wilh a view to check it,
and to dispose the stomach for the
reception of the Peruvian bark, or
other tonics and antiseptics. With
this intention, the saline draughts
above mentioned, when in a state
of effervescence, have been ad-
vantageously swallowed. Similar
effects have resulted from the use
of acid juices, such as those of
oranges, and lemons, combined
with wine, hot water,^sugar, and
nutmeg; then succeeded by fre-
quent doses of magnesia and mint-
water....M. Desportes affirms,
that milk, boiled with a little flour
or bread, and given repeatedly, in
the quantity of one spoonful, ope-
rated more powerfully than any
other remedy, for stopping billious
vomiting. Dr. Blane, however,
stales, tbat this symptom was re-
lieved by fomenting the stomach
with stupes, or cloths, dipped in a
decoction of bark, and sprinkled
with camphorated spirit, or with
the tincture of bark. But the most
efficacious means, which he pre-
scribed for checking such symp-
tom, was that of blisters laid on
the stomach : these were attended
with the greatest success ; and his
practicehasbeen justlyfecommend-
ed by Drs. Clark, and Maclkan.
When the irritation of the
stomach has subsided. Peruvian
bark may be administered ; and,
if such drug disagree, it may be
given in the form of a clyster....
Farther, it may perhaps be of some
service to try the essence of spruce ;
as that vegetable preparation has
been retained on the stomach, when
every other remedy was discharged
by the mouth : it must be diluted
with hot water, in the proportion
of 3 oz. to one quart; and half a
pint of the solution should be swal-
lowed every two hours.
Lastly in the more advanced
stages, camphor combined with
opium, may be given with advan-
tage, particularly in the evening; as
perspiration and sleep will thus pro-
bably be procured, and consequently
the patient will be greatly relieved.
During the continuance of the
yellow fever, few patients are able
to take any food: they ought,
therefore, to be kept as quiet as
possible; and should endeavour to
dispel all intense thought or care;
for anxiety cannot fail to aggra-
vate the violence of the disorder.
Those of our readers, wdio wish
to acquire more extensive informa-
tion respecting this terrible scourge,
in all its various modifications,
vvill meet with complete statements
in Dr. Clark's " Treatise on the
Yellow Fever, as it appeared in the
Isle of Dominica,"hc. Svo. Murray
and Highley, 3s. &d. ;....in Dr.
Jackson's " Outline of the His-
tory and Cure of Fever," he. 8vo,
YEL
5s. ;....in Dr. Rush's « Account of
the Bilious Remitting Fever, as it
appeared in the City of Philadel-
phia, in the year 1793," 8vo. Maw-
man 6*. ,....in Dr. Maclean's,
" Inquiry into the Nature and
Causes of the great Mortality
among the Troops at St. Domingo,"
1797, 8vo. 7s.;.....and in Dr.
Blane's valuable * Observations
on the Diseases of Seamen," 3d
edit. 8vo. 1799, 7s. Murray and
Highley.
YELLOW-HAMMER, or Em-
beriza citrinella, L. is a well known
diminutive bird, which inhabits
Britain, and other parts of Europe:
according to Mr. Pennant, its bill
is of a dusky hue; the crown of
the head, and the belly, are of a
pale yellow, or straw-colour ; the
hinder part of the neck is tinged
with green ; and the breast is of
an orange-red.
Yellow-hammers frequent mea-
dows, where they construct their
large flat nests of dried moss,
roots, and horse-hair ; and the fe-
male lays six white eggs, streaked
with purple veins.....These birds
are of considerable service to the
husbandman, By devouring innu-
merable insects during the sum-
mer ; but, in winter, they resort
for sustenance to farm-yards, in
common with sparrows and other
birds.
YELLOW - RATTLE, Cox-
comb, or Penny-grass, Rhinan-
thus Crista-galli, L. a native plant,
growing in meadow s, pastures, and
woods ; blowing in the months of
lune and July.....This vegetable
sometimes overspreads whole mea-
dows with its yellow flowers : in
a green state it is eagerly eaten by
cattle ; but, when dry, it forms a
hard and tough fodder. Hence,
careful farmers cut off the flowers,
vol. v.
YEL 465
before the seed attains to matu-
rity, in order to prevent its propa-
gation.
YELLOWS, or Jaunoice, in
farriery, is a disorder to which
horses are occasionally subject: it
is known by the dusky-yellow ap-
pearance of the eyes, the inside of
the mouth, and of the lips. The
animal looses all his vigour, and
refuses to take any food ; a slow
fever prevails, which increases,
together with the yellowness, ac-
cording to the malignancy of the
disease. His dung is hard, dry,
and of a pale yellow or green cast:
the urine isof a dark-brown colour;
and is discharged with great pain
and difficulty : after it has lain for
some time on the pavement of the
stable, it acquires a bloody hue.
In a short time, if the horse be
neglected, he becomes delirious
and frantic.
When aged animals are thus
attacked, there is little prospect of
recovery ; but, if the distemper be
recent, and the horse young, it vvill
be advisable to adopt the treatment
already pointed out, vol. iii. p. 351.
Should no relief be obtained in the
course of two or three days, the
animal must be bled copiously ;
and the following laxative clyster,
be injected : Let two handfuls of
marsh-mallows: one handful of
chamomile flowers; and one ounce
of fennel-seed, be boiled in three
quarts of water, till one-third be
evaporated : the liquor must then
be strained, and incorporated with
4 oz. of treacle, and a pint of lin-
seed, or any common oil.
After such clyster has been in-
jected, it will be necessary to ad-
minister two or three purges, each
consisting of \\ oz. of pulverized
Indian rhubarb; 2 drams of saffron;
and 6 drams of socotrine aloes,
3 O
466 YEL
YEL
mixed with syrup of buckthorn ;
which ought to be given once in
48 hours: on the intermediate
days, the following balls and drink
should be introduced between each
dose: Take half an ounce of
iEthiops mineral; a similar quan-
tity of millepedes ; and 1 oz. of
Castile soap: let them be formed
into a ball, and washed down with
a decoction made of 4 oz. of mad-
der-root ; the same weight of tur-
meric ; half a pound of the sliced
roots of burdock ; 4 oz. of Monk's
rhubarb ; and 2 ounces of sliced
liquorice : these ingredients must
be boiled in one gallon of forge-
water, till one quart be evaporated ;
when the liquor should be strained,
and sweetened with honey.
By this treatment, the violence
ef the disease will generally abate
in the course of a week, or ten
days; a change which may be as-
certained by the eyes and mouth
losing part of their yellow cast;
though it vvill be advisable to con-
tinue the medicine above directed,
till such colour totally disappear :
when the animal is in a state of
recovery, a few purges should be
given, and he ought to be moder-
ately exercised, in order to recruit
his exhausted strength.
[The yellows, or yellow-water as
the complaint is most generally
called, has prevailed with great
mortality in Pennsylvania and N.
Jersey, within the last 15 years,
among horses.
The symptoms, in addition to
those mentioned above, are as
follow. " The tail is occasionally
projected horizontally and dropped
in an unusual manner, frequent and
ineffectual attempts are made to
dung. The flanks are hollow,
partial chills take place, and the
hind legs arc stiff and straddle
wide ; finally, all the limbs failing,
the horse falls to the ground and
writhes in agony.
" On dissection, the liver is
found schirrous, dry, and may be
even rubbed to pieces. In one
case it was reduced to one-fourth
its original size."
Richard Peters, Esq. to
whom the Editor is indebted for
the above remarks, thinks that
horses feeding in open pastures,
in warm weather, exposed to the
chilling damps of night, are most
subject to this disorder ; and there-
fore advises that they be permit-
ted to sleep under a shed. He
has known a horse affected with
the disease, that had pastured in
a field for a long time alone, and
had no communication with any
other horse. Fie also knew two
or three horses that died with
the disease in stables containing
SO or 40 horses without spreading
the disease.
The remedies which Mr. Pe-
ters successfully used, when the
disease appeared among his horses
in 1799, were : 1. copious bleeding,
viz. a gallon of blood the first day,
and half a gallon every day for
three or four days. 2. Frequent
doses of the following prescription,
two drams of calomel, joined to
two oz. of aloes. 3. Large doses
of nitre. 4. Roweling and blis-
tering, and the free use of mercu-
rial ointment about the neck,
mouth and cheeks. He observed
the salivation to appear, about the
period that the blister drew, and
from that hour the animal exhi-
bited signs of recovery. He also
used clysters of a decoction of
black snake root (actea racemosa)
and peach-leaves, to which some
salt and molasses were added.....
If the clysters are rejected he di-
YEL
YEL 467
rects the gut to be scraped, to pro-
mote the evacuation of hardened
dung: deanliness, good nursing,
hard rubbing, to clothe the horse
and to keep him from the night
air. Every thing in his opinion
depends upon early attacking the
disease.; for after a certain time,
which occurs probably in the first
24, or at furthest 48 hours, nothing
will cure ; and as 12 and often 24
hours are required for the opera-
tion of any purgative, it should be
given on the first attack. The
above treatment vvas pursued by
a gentleman on the recommenda-
tion of Mr. Peters, and with suc-
cess.
In the Medical Repository of
New York, vol. 3. Dr. Sayre,
describes the Yellow Water as it
prevailed in New Jersey. He
also used frequent and copious
bleeding, and large doses of calo-
mel and jalap, with success.]
YELLOWS, a disorder affect-
ing black cattle, which, if it be not
timely attended to, will induce the
Murrain, and other fatal dis-
tempers.
Symptoms ;....Every morning, a
general tremor over the animal,
particularly in the hinder legs,
loins, and thighs ; the eye-lids ap-
pear hollow ; the whole body as-
sumes a yellow cast; the nose is
dry ; and, if the creature have
taken a severe cold, the ears hang
down ; the dewlap, shoulders, and
loins swell; the udder of cows
become tumefied, and produce
little milk ; wdiich, in a few days,
acquires a peculiarly yellow tinge,
coagulating when boiled; and,
lastly, the fore-teeth become so
loose as to be in danger of dropping
out. It will be necessary to ob-
serve these symptoms with ac-
curacy, and particularly that first
mentioned; because, if they re-
main unnoticed for a few days,
the disease will settle on 6ome of
the interior parts, and be followed
by uncommon weakness, wheez-
ing, dropsy, or other fatal dis-
temper.
This malady is conjectured to
proceed from the folds, io the in-
ner membrane of the neck of the
gall-bladder, Incoming too weak
to perform their functions ; so that
the bile, instead of being conveyed
into the intestines, preternaturaliy
forces itself into the biliary ducts,
whence it passes through the ve?i*
porta, and mixes again with the
blood : hence, that fluid acquires a
coreosive quality, becomes thick or
sizy, and consequently circulates
slowly throughout the system....
From such disorganization, the
livers of the diseased animals are
incapacitated from performingtlieir
functions, so that the supply of
bile is inadequate to the quantity
thus unnaturally expended ; and
the blood concretes in different
parts of the body, forming painful
tumors, both internally and exter-
nally. This distemper is most to
be apprehended, for about five
weeks, in the commencement of
the spring and autumn, when the
days are warm, and the evenings
cold : in those seasons, the grass
being very rich and sucoulent, the
animals are apt to eat too freely.
The following remedies have
been recommended, as being pe-
culiarly efficacious in removing the
yellows. First, take a handful of
the tops of rue, and a similar por-
tion of the greater celandine : let
them be cut into small pieces, mix-
ed with I oz. of pulverized tur-
meric (or, if this cannot be pro-
cured, of red Saunders-wood), and
boiled in three pints of stale beer
468 YEW
YEW
or ale. When the liquor is luke-
warm, it must be given to the ani-
mal, and the dose repeated at the
expiration of two days. Should a
diarrhoea or scowering take place,
the following preparation may be
administered in the interval: Let
2 lbs. of oak-bark be boiled in one
gallon of, water, till one-fourth part
be evaporated : it is then to be
strained, and 2 lbs. of rice should
be boiled in such liquor, till it be
soft: half a pound of burnt crust
of bread, taken from the lower part
of a loaf, and 2 quarts of milk, are
next to be added ; and the whole
is suffered to simmer for about 20
minutes, when it should be divided
into two portions, and given in a
warm state to the animal. By
this treatment, cattle may be re-
covered in the course of a few
days ; provided they have not been
too long neglected: for, when the
disease has gained ground, such
remedies ought to be continued for
an additional length of time.
Yellow-Weed. See Dter's-
Weed.
YEW-TREE, the Common, or
Taxus baccata, L. a native of Bri-
tain, and other parts of Europe, as
well as of America: it grows in
mountainous woods, hedges, and
rocky soils; producing its flowers
in March or April, which are suc-
ceeded by bright-red, soft, oblong
berries, containing a mucilaginous
white juice, and arriving at per-
fection in September.
The yew-tree thrives most luxu-
riantly in a moist, loamy soil: it
may be propagated by sowing the
ripe berries in autumn, in a shady
bed of fresh earth, and covering
them to the depth of half an inch
with similar mould : when the
young plants appear, they ought to
be carefully weeded, and "occa-
sionally watered in dry seasons....
In this situation, they must remain
for two years; after which they
ought to be removed, in the month
of October, into beds of unmanur-
ed soil, at the distance of 6 inches
from each other, and in rows one
foot asunder ; being gently watered
till they have taken root. Here
the plants should again continue
for two years ; at the expiration of
which, they must be transplanted,
in autumn, into a nursery, and
placed 18 inches from each other,
in rows three feet apart. When
the young trees have stood three
or four years in the nursery ; it
will be advisable to set them, in
September, or October, in dry
ground ; and, at length, in the sub-
sequent spring, to place them in
cold, moist situations, where they
are designed to remain. The pe-
riod of their growth is computed at
100 years; and their duration in the
ground, at four centuries.
Formerly, the yew-tree vvas cul-
tivated in Britain, chiefly for the
manufacture of bows; but, since
these implements of war have been
superseded by fire-arms, it is ge-
nerally raised as an ornament to
parks and plantations, on account
of its ever-green leaves. This use-
ful tree admits of being frequently
pruned ; and may be made to as-
sume any particular figure : hence
the gardens of our forefathers were
filled with ships,birds, quadrupeds,
men, and other vegetable mon-
sters. But such absurd fancies
are gradually disappearing; a more
natural system of horticulture is
making rapid progress; and the
yew is at present advantageously
planted in hedges, as a fence for
orchards and shrubberies, against
severe winds.
The wood of this tree is hard and
YEW
YEW 469
smooth; beautifully veined with
red streaks; admits of a fine po-
lish ; and is almost incorruptible :
hence it is advantageously employ-
ed by turners and cabinet-makers,
for manufacturing spoons, cups, as
well as tables, chairs, and various
other articles. It is also usefully
converted intocogs for mill-wheels,
axle-trees, flood-gates for fish-
ponds ; and may perhaps be effec-
tually substituted for box ; so that
considerable sums of money might
be annually saved, which are now
exported to the Levant, in order to
supply engravers, and other artists,
with that wood.
The red berries of the yew-tree
have a sweetish taste, and abound
with mucilage: they are not only
devoured by hogs and birds, with-
out any pernicious effects resulting
from them, but are also frequently
eaten with impunity by children ;
though, in some persons, this fruit
is apt to produce noxious effects,
especially if the stones be swal-
lowed. We are nevertheless, per-
suaded, that a very copious and
strong spirit may be easily extract-
ed from these berries, by distilla-
tion ; and that their conversion to
this purpose might annually save
many thousand bushels of grain,
vvhich are unnecessarily wasted in
the still, while the abundant ve-
getable productions of the woods,
hedges, and commons, are suffer-
ed to decay, or are heedlessly left
to become a prey to wild birds, and
other animals. See also Spirits,
p. 26.
The leaves of the yew-tree are
reputed to be poisonous to the hu-
man species, as well as to cattle of
every description. Attempts, how-
ever, have lately been made, to
employ them for feeding horses, in
times of scarcity ; and, if our ac-
count be accurate, we have read in
some recent publication, that such
leaves were given to those animals
with perfect safety, when cut toge-
ther with hay or straw, so as to
use, at first, only the tenth or twen-
tieth part of this foliage, and gra-
dually to increase the proportion
of the latter, and to reduce that of
the former, lo one-half, or even a
smaller quantity. Thus, it appears
to be perfectly consistent with rea-
son and analogy, that the oily and
astringent principle of the yew-
tree leaves may be corrected, by
sheathing it with a large portion
of balsamic huy, and absorbent
straw ; yet we cannot, on this oc •
casion, speak from positive txpe
rience. According to agricultural
writers, the loppings and bark of
this tree are equally pernicious to
cattle, especially when in a half-
dried state ; several sprigs having
been found in the stomachs of
dead animals, entire or undigest-
ed. It is, however, an erroneous
supposition, which still prevails in
some country places, that the very
shade of its foliage is hurtful to
animal life.
On the other hand, Bechstein
informs us, that the wood of the
yew-teee, when reduced to powder
by a file, mixed with paste, and
baked in an oven, has been highly
extolled in Germany, as a sove-
reign remedy for the bite of a mad
dog : it is, therefore, taken in doses
of half an ounce.
Dambourney observes, that a
decoction of yew-tree berries im-
parts a handsome chamois dye to
wool previously immersed in a
weak solution of bismuth....On
boiling the red root of this tree,
together with the bark of the
common birch-tree, he obtained
a beautiful cinnamon colour, with
470 YOU
YOU
a mordore tint; but the wool was
first boiled for a considerable time
in a solution of tin : and, by adding
alum, the dye assumed an aurora,
or bright-red colour.
YOKE, in agriculture, is a
wooden frame, adapted to the
necks of oxen, by means of vvhich
they are coupled and fastened to
the plough, or other vehicle. It is
composed, 1. of a thick piece of
wood, that passes over the neck,
and is strictly called the yoke, 2.
of a bow, which encompasses the
neck, and 3. of the wreuthings, or
stitchings, that serve to connect the
whole. Beside these parts, there
are employed, a ring, denominated
the ;/ ,h-;.';;-; and a chain, for
securing the traces.
The yokes chiefly used in Eng-
land, are those known under the
name of the Roman Ox-yokes, which
are preferable to the cumbersome
frames formerly employed: because
the animals thus acquire a greater
power of draught. As, however,
the Roman yokes are apt to chafe
the necks, and the oxen are com-
pelled to draw with their noses close
to the ground, we conceive the
Portuguese and French methods of
working oxen to be the most effec-
tual ; and, having already given
an account of them, we refer the
reader to the article Oxen.
Yolk. See Egg.
YOUTH, or Adolescence, in
general, is that happy period of hu-
man life, vvhich commences from
childhood; continues as long as the
fibres increase in dimensions or
firmness ; and terminates at full
grovvth: among the Romans, it was
computed from the age of 12 to 25,
in male;-, and to 21, in females.
In modern limes, the term ado-
lescence, includes the age of
from 15 to 25 years, and some-
times to 30.
During this important stage of
our existence, the principal revolu-
tions take place, both with respect
to mind and body. While the lat-
ter progresHvely acquires muscular
energy, and adopts a more solid
deportment, the faculties of the
former begin to unfold ; and the
young member enters into society,
with all the advantages which arise
from the tender regard, interest,
and indulgence, evinced by the
generality of mankind, towards
inexperienced youth.
As it would be incompatible
with our limited plan, to enter into
a disquisition respecting all the
mental and bodily imperfections,
and diseases, incident to young
persons of either sex ; or to ana-
lyze the changes taking place dur-
ing the transition from the period
of childhood to that of puberty,
we shall here discuss only the dan-
gerous influence of the power of
imagination^ on tiie juvenile cha-
racter.
None of the mental faculties
exhibit such interesting and di-
versified phenomena, as that of
Imagination. While this power-
ful agent is restrained within due
limits, it often supplies the place
of a benevolent guide, through the
intricate meanders of life, where
we frequently meet with more ap-
pearance than reality; and in which
it is of the utmost importance to
be impressed with a due and lively
sense of the good and the beautiful,
as well asof virtue and truth. On the
contrary, no sooner are the boun-
daries of the imagining faculti/
transgressed, than we are involun-
tarily led to submit to this dreadful
tyrant, who is capable not only of
YOU
disturbing our repose and happi-
ness, but even to deprive his vic-
tim* of life. Hence, it should be
one of the most necessary maxims
of intellectual nature, always to
guard against this formidable pow-
er ; and to regulate its reciprocal
influence ; so that we may main-
tain a certain superiority. But in
order to evince the essential neces-
sity of adopting this rule of prac-
tical life, and at the same time to
demonstrate the danger attending
the neglectof it, especially to youth,
we shall quote an instance related
by Prof. Hufeland, in one of his
admired Popular Essays, in Ger-
man ; of which no translation has
yet appeared.
A student at Jena, about sixteen
years of age, having a weak and
irritable nervous frame, but in
other respects healthy, left his
apartments during twilight, and
suddenly returned, with a pale, dis-
mal countenance; assuring his com-
panion that he vvas doomed to die
in 36 hours, or at 9 o'clock in the
morning of the second day. This
sudden change of a cheerful young
mind naturally alarmed his friend;
but no explanation was jgiven of
its cause. Every attempt at ridi-
culing this whimsical notion was
fruitless; and he persisted in affirm-
ing that his death was certain and
inevitable. A numerous circle of
his fellow-students soon assembled
with a view to dispel those gloomy
ideas, and to convince him of his
folly, by arguments, satire, and
mirth. He remained, however,
unshaken in his strange convic-
tion ; being apparently inanimate
in their company, and expressing
his indignation at the frolics and
witticisms applied to his peculiar
situation. Nevertheless, it was
conjectured that a calm repose dur-
YOU 471
ing the night would produce a
more favourable change in his fan-
cy ; but sleep was banished, and
the approaching dissolution en-
grossed his attention during the
nocturnal hours. Early next morn-
ing, he sent for Prof. Hufeland,
who found him employed in mak-
ing arrangements for his burial >-
taking an affectionate leave of his
friends ; and on the point of con-
cluding a letter to his father ; in
which he announced the fatal cata-
strophe that was speedily to hap-
pen. After examining his condi-
tion of mind and body, the Pro-
fessor could discover no remark-
ble deviation from his usual state
of health, excepting a small con-
tracted pulse, a pale countenance,
dull or drowsy eyes, and cold ex-
tremities : these symptoms, how-
ever, sufficiently indicated a gene-
ral spasmodic action of the nervous
system, which also exerted ils in-
fluence over the mental faculties.
The most serious reasoning on the
subject, and all the philosophical
and medical eloquence of Dr.
Hufeland, had not the desir-
ed effect; and, though the stu-
dent admitted that there might
be no ostensible cause of death
discoverable, yet this very circum-
stance was peculiar to his case ;
and such vvas the inexorable des-
tiny of his fate, that he must die
next morning, without any visible
morbid symptoms. In this dilem-
ma, Dr. H. proposed to treat him
as a patient. Politeness induced
the latter to accept of such offer;
but he assured the physician, that
medicines would not operate. As
no time was to be lost, there being
only 24 hours left for his life, Dr.
H. deemed proper to direct such
remedies as prove powerful excit-
ants ; in order to rouse the vital
472
YOU
YOU
energy of his pupil, and to relieve
him from his captivated fancy.....
Hence he prescribed a strong eme-
tic and purgative ; ordered blis-
ters to be applied to both calves
and at the same time stimulating
clysters to be administered. Quiet-
ly submitting to the Doctor' s
treatment, he observed, that his
body being already half a corpse,
all means of recovering it would
be vain. Indeed, Dr. H. was not
a little surprised, on repeating his
visit in the evening, to learn that
the emetic had not, or but very
little, operated ; and that the blis-
ters had not even reddened the
skin. Now the case became more
serious ; and the supposed victim
of death began to triumph over
the incredulity of the Professor,
and his friends. Thus circum-
stanced, Dr. H. perceived, how
deeply and destructively that men-
tal spasm must have acted on the
body, to produce a degree of in-
sensibility from which the worst
consequences might be apprehend-
ed.... All the inquiries into the ori-
gin of this singular belief, had
hitherto been unsuccessful. Now
only, he disclosed the secret to one
of his intimate friends, namely, that
on the preceding evening he had
met with a white figure in his pas-
sage, which nodded to him ; and,
in the same moment, he heard a
voice exclaiming : " the day after
to-morrow, at nine o'clock in the
morning, thou shalt die." He
continued to settle bis domestic
affairs ; made bis will; minutely
appointed his tuneral; and even
desired his friends to send for a
clergyman; which request, how-
ever, was counteracted. Night
appeared, and he began to com-
pute the hours he had to live, till
the ominous next morning: his
anxiety evidently increased with
the striking of every clock within
hearing. Dr. H. was not without
apprehension, when he recollected
instances in which mere imagina-
tion had produced melancholy ef-
fects. But, as every thing depended
on procrastinating, or retarding that
hour in which the event was pre-
dicted ; and on appeasing the tem-
pest of a perturbed imagination,
till reason had again obtained the
ascendency, he resolved upon the
following happy expedient: Hav-
ing a complaisant patient, who
refused not to take the remedies
prescribed for him (because he
seemed conscious of the superior
agency of his mind over that of his
body), Dr. H. had recourse to lau-
danum, combined with the extract
of hen-bane : 20 drops of the for-
mer, and two grains of the latter,
were given to the youth, with such
effect, that he fell into a profound
sleep, from vvhich he did not awake
till eleven o'clock on the next
morning. Thus, the prognosti-
cated fatal hour elapsed ; and his
friends waiting to welcome the
bashful patient, who had agreeably
disappointed them, turned the
whole anair into ridicule. The
first question, however, after re-
covering from his artificial sleep,
vvas the hour of the morning : but,
on being informed, that his pre-
sages had not been verified by ex-
perience, he assured the company,
that all these transactions appeared
to him not unlike a dream ; and
he could not conceive how he had
been subject to such folly. Since
that period, he has enjoyed a per-
fect state of health, and has been
completely cured of his fancy.
There are, nevertheless, several
instances recorded, in which per-
sons have truly predicted the day
YOU
YOU 473
and hour of their death. In the
17th century, it was a fashionable
practice among the higher classes,
to apply to an astrologer, for learn-
ing the accurate duration of their
lives. Such aberration from the
human intellect, could be ascribed
only to an absurd or defective sys-
tem of education ; when youth
were not taught to discriminate be-
tween natural causes and effects ;
or, when parents granted every
species of indulgence, which alike
excited their sensual desires, and
pleased a wild, disordered imagi-
nation. Many, indeed, are the
gradations, in which that peculiar
morbid sensation, generally term-
ed irregular fane/, displays itself
under different forms, even in mo-
dern times. It cannot be denied,
that the numerous phenomena of
nervous disorders, especially the
diversified symptoms displayed by
hypochondriacal and hysterical per-
sons, doubtless originate chiefly
from the same source. We often
smile at such complaints as are
supposed to arise from a diseased
mhuj, but certainly not with jus-
tice. In short, there is no disor-
der more to be dreaded, and none
has a more solid foundation, than
that in vvhich the sensations of our
material nature, and the ideas of
our very existence, are in a manner
unhinged : nay, it is incomparably
more easy to sustain a real evil,
than to be tormented by an imagi-
nary one, the force and extent of
which cannot be ascertained.
Youth-wort. See Sundew
the Round-leaved.
z.
ZAF
Z AF
ZAFFRE, is the oxyd or calx of
cobalt, employed for imparting a
blue colour to porcelain and pottery
ware ; it is prepared, according to
Cronstedt, in the following man-
ner.
When the cobalt is dug out of
the mine, it is first broken into
small pieces, and all heterogeneous
matters are carefully separated.....
The mineral is then submitted to
the action of stamping mills, in
vol. r.
vvhich it is reduced to a fine pow-
der, that is sifted through brass
wire sieves. Next, the lighter par-
ticles are carried off by water, and
the cobalt is put into a reverberato-
ry furnace, terminating in a long
horizontal gallery ; through which
the arsenic, usually mixed with
the mineral, sublimes: farther, the
cobalt is frequently stirred with
long iron hooks or rakes, till it
ceases to emit any fumes ; when
3 P
474
ZED
ZIN
it remains in the form of a dark
grey calx, denominated Zaffre.
Considerable quantities of this
oxyd, are manufactured from the
cobalt dug out of the mines in the
Mendip-hills, and also in Corn-
wall; beside vvhich, there are large
supplies annually imported from
Saxony : such zaffre, however, is
seldom pure ; being mixed with a
considerable proportion of pulve-
rized flints.
The blue of zaffre is the most per-
manent of the different colours
employed in glass-works ; as it re-
sists, unchanged, the most intense
heat : hence, it is also advantage-
ously used for giving various shades
of blue to enamels, and to the crys-
tal glasses that are made in imita-
tion of lapis lazuli, turquoise, sap-
phire, and other precious stones.
ZEDOARY, or Kxmpferia, L.
a genus of exotic plants, consisting
of two species ; namely : 1. The
galanga, Common Galangal, or
Long Zedoary ; vvhich has long,
thick, tuberous roots, and produces
single white, flowers, with purple
bases ; and, 2. The rotunda, or
Round Zedoary, has thick, round
roots, presenting whitish flowers,
that are frequently tinged with
green, yellow, red, and purple.....
Both, species are natives of Siam:
they may be raised in hot-houses,
by dividing the roots in the spring,
and planting them in pots of rich,
light mould, where they should be
copiously watered during the sum-
mer, but less frequently in the
winter.
The roots of the Zedoary are
imported in oblong pieces, about
the thickness of a linger; or in
round masses, generally one inch
in diameter; paying a duty of 6-Id.
per lb. They possess an agreeable
fragrance, but a bitterish aromatic
taste ; both of vvhich may be im-
parted to water.
The Zedoary is a warm stoma-
chic, and has been recommended
in dyspeptic cases, for relieving fla-
tulency, and invigorating the ner-
vous system. Such root may be
advantageously used by artisans, as
an excellent yellow colour: and
it may likewise be employed in
painting with water colours. For
this purpose, it is prepared in the
following manner: Boil 1 oz. of the
root in a quart of water, till the
fluid have sufficiently imbibed the
colouring matter, for communicat-
ing a yellow tinge to paper : it is
then to be filtered through a ljn|)
cloth. The decoction may be eva-
porated or dried in shells ; after
which, it may again be diluted,
and will easily spread with the
pencil.
ZINC, or Spelter, is a semi-
metal, naturally obtained in a state
of combination with different mi-
nerals, in England, Hungary, and
other parts of the globe : it is of a
whitish colour, nearly resembling
that of lead, though it does not so
speedily tarnish.
Zinc melts a short time before
ignition ; but, when heated to red-
ness in the open air, it is liable to
combustion, and burns with a
dazzling blaze: so that a loose
white oxyd is precipitated, which
is known under the name of flowers
Qf^inc. ^
This crude semi-metal is of great
utility in the arts. Combined with
gold, in equal portions, it forms a
hard, v, bite compound, that admits
of a fine polish, and may be ad-
vantageously manufactured into
specula, for optical instruments.
Zinc and tin, melted together,
produce a kind of pewter ; and, as
the former spreads more uniformly,
ZIN
While it is much harder, and less
fusible than tin, it has been pro-
posed as a substitute for the latter,
in tinning copper-vessels.
Spelter and copper readily unite
in the fire ; provided the combus-
tion of the former be carefully pre-
vented during the process : in this
state, it forms a metal, distinguish-
ed by-'&e general name of yellow
copper; but which is divided into
several sorts, according to the res-
pective proportions contained in
the alloy. Thus, three parts of
copper and one of zinc, constitute
Brass : five or six of the former,
and one of the latter, aflbrd Pinch-
beck.....'Tombac is composed of a
still larger proportion of copper to
that of zinc : it is of a deeper red
than pinchbeck, and bears the
name of its inventor. Prince's
Metal consists of a larger propor-
tion of zinc than either of the pre-
ceding compositions.....Similor, or
Manheim gold, resembles pinch-
beck : it is manufactured into spu-
rious leaf-gold, laces, and similar
shewy articles.
Zinc is dissolved in all acids ;
though the sulphuric is most fre-
quently employed : and, in the
proportions stated, p. 227, of the
present volume, it forms white
Vitriol.
An useful substituteJMr white-
lead, in painting house*s7nas lately
been discovered in zinc, by M. de
Morveau. He directs this mine-
ral tq be calcined in a crucible,
placed horizontally in the cavity
usually made for retorts, in rever-
feeratory furnaces. The oxyd thus
obtained, is then to be washed in
water, with a view to separate such
particles as may not have been per-
fectly calcined; and, when it is re-
duced to powder, a small portion
a reverberatory furnace, for six
hours ; in order to disperse all the
ferruginous particles vvhich it may
contain. Next, the zinc is to be
reduced to powder, by the action
of a mill, and mix^d with one-
eighth part of pulverized charcoal,
by weight; after vvhich it must be
removed to a close or muffled fur-
nace, provided with two apertures,
one on each side, " and (as the
patentee expresses himself),dilated
at the end from the furnace, by a
distance of about 20 feet;" the
other end joining the body of the
furnace: such apertures should
476
ZIN
ZlN
each be furnished with a door at
the farthest extremity, and which
ought to be sufficiently large to ad-
mit a man to enter, for the pur-
pose of collecting the colour. Thus
the zinc must be introduced into
the furnace, through the top or
upper part: when it becomes red
hot throughout, a large dense,
white cloud, with a bright blue
flame, will pass into the recepta-
cles or apertures above-mentio' ed,
where it will collect in the form of
a pure, white metallic calx.
The ozyd of zinc is now to be
diluted with water, and ground or
triturated in a proper mill : from
this machine it is conducted, by
means of gutters or spouts into fine
sieves, whence it passes into se-
veral cisterns full of water, com-
municating with each other by si-
milar gutters ; so that the finest
particles float into the farthest re-
servoirs. After standing about 24
hours, the water may be drawn off,
and the colour collected into pans,
receivers, or other vessels, capable
of bearing heat, in vvhich they are
dried ; and in this state, the paint
vvill be ready for sale ; but previ-
ously to its application, it ought to
be properly levigated.
According to M. Rinman, a fine
green colour for painters may be
procured from the oxydes of co-
balt and zinc. He directs any por-
tion of cobalt-ore to be dissolved
in the nitro-muriatic acid (aqua
regia), and to be mixed with half
that quantity of nitrat of zinc : a
lixivium of pot-ash is then to be
added ; and when the precipitate
is ignited to whiteness, it will be
fit for use.
Beside its utility in the arts, zinc
is of considerable service in medi-
cine. Itsfiowers are advantageous-
ly employed as an antispasmodic,
particularly in epilepsy, and in the
acute spasms of the stomach, to
which persons of delicate consti-
tutions are subject: they have also
been given with success in some
cases of dry asthma. The dose is
from one to two grains, taken twice
in the day, and gradually increased
to 8 or 10 grains; but, being a
very powerful remedy, it ought
never to be resorted to, without
medical advice.
For an account of the affections
in which the vitriol of zinc may be
of service, the' reader will consult
the article Vitriol.
ZIZANY, the Water, or Zi-
zania aquatica, L. is a native of
North America, where it grows in
wet and marshy situations....The
root of this vegetable is fibrous, and
strikes forth many angular, smooth
stalks of a serpentine form. The
panicle on the central stalk is ge-
nerally four feet long, while those
on the others never exceed twelve
inches. The large, oval, yellowish,
mealy seed attains to maturity in
September, and has the agreeable
taste of rice ; on which account it
is much esteemed by the American
Indians, who carefully collect and
convert it into Bread, or other
culinary dishes. Hence Linnjeus
recommends its culture?in situa-
tions abounding with reeds, and
producing no other useful plant.
END.
INDEX
To the Latin Names of Plants, Animals, Minerals, Dis-
eases, and other subjects occurring throughout this Work.
u —
ACARUS Asiro, Common Mite;
A. baccarum, Red Spider.
Accipenser Sturio, Sturgeon.
Acer campestris, Common Ma-
ple ; A. Pscudo -platanus, Syca-
more-tree ; A. saccharinum, Sugar-
Maple.
Achillea Millefolium, Common
Yarrow; A. Ptarmica, Sneeze-
wort Yarrow.
Aconitum Napcllus, Large Blue
Wolf's-bane.
Acorus Calamus, Sweet Flag.
Actaa spicata, Herb Christopher.
Adonis autumnalist Autumnal
Pheasant's Eye.
Adoxa Moschatellina, Tuberous
Moschatel.
JEesculus Hippocastanum, Com-
mon Horse Chesmit; [JE. Pavia,
Scarlet; JE.. Flavia, Yellow ; JE.
Alba, ' JE. Spicata flowering.]
JEthusa cynapium, Fool's Pars-
ley ; JE. Meum, Spignel.
Agaricus, Mushroom; A. cam-
pestris, Champignon ; A. cantha-
rellus, Chanterelle Mushroom; A.
cinnamonn us, Brown Mushroom;
A. clypeatus, Long-Stalked Mush-
room ; A. muscarius, Fly-killing
Mushroom ; A. orcades, Meadow
Mushroom ; A. Quercinus, Agaric
of the Oak; A. semi-globatus, Se-
mi-globular Mushroom ; A. viola-
eeus, Violet-coloured Mushroom.
Agrimonia Eupatoria, Common
Agrimony.
Agrostemma Githago, Corn Cockle.
Agrostis Spica-venti, Silky Bent-
▼ ol. v.
grass; A. stolonifera, Creeping
Bent-grass.
Aira aquatica, Water Hair-
grass ; A. caryophallea, Silver Hair-
grass ; A. cespitosa, Turfy Hair-
grass ; A. fiexuosa, Heath Hair-
grass. *
Ajuga, Bugle, Aychamepithys,
Ground-pine; A. rcpians, Com-
mon Bugle.
Alauda arvensis, Common Sky-
lark ; A. arborea, Wood-lark.
Alcea rosea, Holly-Hock.
Alsedo ispida, Common King-
fisher.
Alchemilla vulgaris, Common-
Ladies-m'antle.
Alisma Plantago, Great Water
Plantain.
Allium, Garlic ; A. Ascalonicviv,
EschalJot ; ./'. C:pa, Onion ; A.
oleraccum, Streaked Field-garlic ;
A.fiorrum,L.cek; A. Schanoprasum,
Chive ; A. ursinum, Broad- ieaved
Garlic.
Aloe Caballina, Fetid, or Horse
aloe; A. Hepatica, Common, or
Barbadoes Aloe ; A. fierfoliata,
Socotrine Alee.
Alopecurus agrestis, Slender Fox-
tail-grass ; A. bulbosus, Bulbous
Fox-tail-grass ; A. pratensis, Mea-
dow Fox-tail-grass.
Alsine media, Common Chick-
weed.
Althaea officinalis, Marsh-Mallow.
Alumina, Pure Clay.
Alyssum sativum, Gold of Plea.
sure.
4 A
2 INDEX.
Amaurosis, Gutta Serena.
Ammodytes tobianus, Sand-eel.
Ammonia pura, Caustic Veget-
able Alkali.
Amomtcm, Ginger ; A. cardamo-
mum majus, Greater Cardamom ;
A. C. minus, Lesser Cardamom ;
..'/. zinziber, Common Ginger.
[Ampclis garrulus, Cherry-bird.]
Ampelites, Canal Coal.
Amygdulus, Almond-tree ; A.
communis, Common Almond-tree ;
A. Persica, Peach.
Amylum, Starch.
Amyris gileadensis, Balm of Gi-
lead Tree.
Anagallis arvensis, Scarlet Pim-
pernell.
Anarrfucas Lupus, Sea-Wolf.
Anas anser, Goose ; A. a.ferus,
Wild Goose ; A. a. mansuetus,
Tame Goose ; A. boschas, Duck ;
A. creca, Teal; A. cygnus ferus,
Wild Swan; A. c. mansuelus,Tame
Swan ; A. ferina, Widgeon.
Anchusa semper virens, Ever-
green Alkanet, or Bugloss; A. offi-
cinalis, Greater Garden Bugloss ;
A. lutea, Yellow Alkanet; A. tinc-
toria, Dyer's Alkanet.
Anemone, Wind-flower ; A. Al-
pina, Blue Mountain Anemone ;
A. nemorosa, Wood-Anemone ; A.
pratensis, Dark-flowered, or Mea-
dow Anemone ; A. Pulsatilla,
Pasque-flower; A. ranunculoides,
Yellow Wood-Anemone.
Anethum fxniculum, Common
Fennel.
Angelica Archangelica, Garden
Angelica; -/. sylvestris, Wild
Angelica.
Anguis fragilis, Blind-worm.
Anthcmis cotula, Fetid Chamomile;
A. nobilis, Common Chamomile ;
A. tinctoria, Ox-eye Chamomile.
Anthcricum calyculatum, Marsh
Spider-wort.
Anlhoxanthum odoratum, Sweet-
scented Spring-grass.
Antirhinum, Snap-dragon ; A.
Elatine, Fluellin ; A. Linaria,
Toad-flax ; A majus, Greater
Snap-dragon ; A. Orontium, Calf's-
snout.
Anthyllis, Kidney-Vetch ; A.
vulneraria; Ladies-finger.
Aphanes arvensis, Parsley-piert.
Aphis, Plant-louse.
Apht/iae, Thrush.
Apis, Bee.
Apium, Parsley ; A. graveolens,
Celery; A. Petrosclinum, Com-
mon Parsley.
Aquilegia vulgaris, Common Co-
lumbine.
Arabis thaliana, Common Wall-
cress.
Aranea Calycina, Garden Spi-
der ; A. domestica, Common House
Spider.
Arbutus, Strawberry-tree ; A.
Alpina, Mountain 'Strawberry-tree;
A. Unedo, Common Strawberry-
tree ; A. Uva ursi, Bear-berries.
Arctium Lappa, Burdock.
Ardea major, Heron ; A. stella-
ris, Bittern.
Areca catechu, Fassel-nut; A.
oleracea, Cabbage Palm.
Arenaria marina, Sea-spurrey
Sandwort.
Argilla, Clay ; A. aerata, aerafeed
Argile ; A. apyra, Porcelain Clay ;
A. Lithomarga, Fuller's Earth.
Aristolochia Clemalitis, Slender
Birthwort 5 A. longa, Long Birth-
wort ; A. rotunda, Round Birth-
wort.
Arnica montana, German Leo-
pard's-bane.
Ai-racMs Hypogaios Americanus,
Ground-Nuls.
Artemisia, Mugwort ; A. Absin-
thium, Common Wormwood ; A.
dracunculus, Tarragon ; A. mariti-
INDEX:
ma, Sea Wormwood ; A. vulgaris,
Common Mugwort.
Artocarpus, Bread-fruit-tree.
Arum maculatum, Wake Robin.
[A. Trypkyllum, Indian Turnip.]
Arundo, Reed ; A. arenaria,
Matweed; A. calamagrostis, Small
Reed; A. epigeios, Wood Reed;
A. phragmites, Common Reed.
Asarum Europteum, Asarabacca.
[Asclepias Syriaca, Swallow
wort.]
Aspalathus, African Broom.
Asperugo procumbens, Catch-
weed.
Asperula odorata, Sweet Wood-
roof.
Asphodelus luteus, Common Yel-
low Asphodel; A. ramosus, Branch-
ing Asphodel.
Asplenium, SpleenwOTt; A. Sco-
lopcndrium, Hart's-tongue; A. Tri-
ehomanes, Common Maiden-hair.
Aster Tripolium, Sea Star-wort.
Astragalus, Milk-Vetch; A.gly-
cyphyllos, Common Milk-Vetch:
A. Tragacantha, Tragacanth-tree.
Atriplex hastata, Wild Orache ;
A. laciniata, Frosted Orache; A.
Uttoralis, Grass Orache ; A. portu-
lacoides, Shrubby Orache.
Alropa Bella donna, Deadly
Nightshade; A. mandragora, Man-
drake.
Avena, Oat: A. elaticrr, Tall
Oat-grass; A. fatua, Bearded
Wild Oats ; A. fiavescens. Yellow
Oat; A. nuda, Naked Oat; A. pra-
tensis, Meadow Oat; A. pubescens,
Rough Oat; A. sativa, Common
Oat; A. stipiformis, Skegs.
I)u I una mysticetus, Common
Whale.
Baliota nigra, Black Horehound.
Barytes, Ponderous Spar.
Be/lisptrcnnis, Common Daisy.
Berberis vulgaris, Common Ber-
berry.
Beta, Beet; B. albissima, Man-
gel-wurzel ; B. hortensis, Common
White Beet; B. maritima, Sea
Beet.
Betula, Alder-tree; B. alba,
Common Birch; B. alnus, Com-
mon Alder-tree ; B. lenta, Canada
Birch ; B. nana, Dwarf Alder-tree.
Bidens cernua, Nodding Mary-
gold.
[Bignonia Catalpa, B. Sempervi-
rens, B. Crucigera, B. rudicuns.']
Blatta orientalis, Eastern Cock-
roach.
Boletus, Spunk; B. hirsutus,
Shaggy Spunk; B. igniarius,Touch-
wood.
Borago, officinalis, Common Bo-
rage.
Botrytes, Cauliflower.
Brassica, Cabbage ; B. alpi:ia,
Savoy ; B. campestris, Field Cab-
bage; B. Eruca, Rocket; B. Mo-
nensis, Isle-oi'-Man-Cabbage; B.
muralis, Wall Cabbage; B. Napus,
Rape ; B. oleracea, Sea-colewort;
B. rapa, Turnip.
Briza media, Common Quaking
Grass.
Bromelia ananas, Common Pine-
apple.
Bromus mollis, Soft Brome-grass;
B. piyiatus, Spiked Heath Brome-
grass ; B. Secalinus, Smooth Rye
Brome-grass, [or cheat.]
Bryonia alba, White Bryony.
Bubon gummiferum, Gum-bear-
ing Macedonian Parsley.
Bunium bulbo-castanum, Great
Earth-nut; B.fiexuosum, Common
Earth-nut.
Buxus angustifolia, Narrow-leav-
ed Box ; B. semper-virens Com-
mon Box; B. suffruticosa, Dutch
Box.
Bussus candelaris, Yellow Pow-
der-wort.
4
INDEX.
Cacalia suaveolens, Alpine Colt's-
foot.
Cactus cochenillifer, Indian, Fig-
tree.
Cadmia E"ossilis, Calamine.
[Calicarfia Americana.']
Callitriche autumnalis, Autum-
nal Star-grass ; C. verna, Vernal
Star-grass.
Caltha palustris, Marsh-mari-
gold.
[ Calycanthusfioridus, Sweet scent-
ed Shrub.]
Cambogia gutta, Gamboge-tree.
Campanula glomerata, Clustered
Bell-flower; C.lalifolia, Giant-Bell-
flower ; C. rapunculbides, Creeping
Bell-flower; C. rapunculus, Ram-
pion Bell-flower; C. rotundifolia,
Round-leaved Bell-flower.
Cancer, Lobster; C. crangon,
Shrimp ; C. grammarus, Common
Lobster; C. major, Common Crab;
C. squilla, White Shrimp.
Canis, Dog; C. avicularius, Spa-
niel ; C. Graius, Greyhound ; C.
sanguinarius, Blood-hound; C. ter-
rarius, Terrier; C. villaticus, Mas-
tiff; C. vulpes, Fox.
Cannabis sativa,Common Hemp.
Cantharidcs, Spanish Fly.
Capparis spinosa, Common Ca-
per.
Capra Hircus, Common Goat.
Cardaminc pratensis, Common
Ladies-smock
Cardialgia, Heart burn.
Cardium, Cockle.
Carduus acaulis, Dwarf Thistle;
C. Benedictus, Blessed Thistle ; C.
lanceolatus, Spear-Thistle ; C. ma-
rianus, Milk-Thistle; C. tomen-
tosus, Woolly-headed Thistle.
Carex acwta,Slender-spiked Seg;
C. arenaria, Sea-Seg; C. vulpina,
Great Seg.
Carlina vulgaris, Common Car-
line Thistle.
Carpinus Betulus, Common
Horn-beam-tree.
Carthamus tinctcrius, Common
Saffiower.
Carum carui, Common Caraway.
Caryophyllus aromaticus, Clove-
tree.
Cassia, Cassia; C. fistula, Purg-
ing Cassia ; C. Senna, Senna.
[Cassine, Youpon, South-Sea-
tree.]
Castor, Beaver; C. fiber, Com-
mon Beaver ; C. mochatus, Water-
rat ; C. zibethicus, Musk-rat.
Cavia cobaya, Guinea Pig.
Centunculus minimus, Bastard
Pimpernell.
Cephdlalgai, Head-ach.
Cerussa, White Lead.
Cervus, Deer; C. Dama, Fal-
low Deer ; C. Elaphus, Stag.
Chaerophyllum sylvestre, Wild
Chervil; C. temulentum, Rough
Chervil, [C. arborescens.]
Charadrius Pluvialis, Common,
Plover.
Chelidonium, Horned Poppy ; C.
corniculalum, Red Horned Poppy ;
C. majus, Greater Celandine.
Chenopodium, Goose-foot; C. al-
bum, White Goose-foot; C. Bo-
nus Henricus, Perennial Goose-
foot ; C. maritimum, Sea Goose-
foot ; C. olidum, Stinking Goose-
foot ; C. fiolyspermum, Upright
Blite, [C. viride botrys, Cut leav-
ed ; C. aristatum awned, anthelmis-
ticum, wormseed Jerusalem oak.]
Chlorosis, Green Sickness.
Chrysomela saltaioria, Turnip-
fly.
Cicada, Flea-locust.
Ckhorium, Succory; C. Endivia.
Endive ; C. Intybus, Wild Succo-
ry.
Cicuta virosa, Long-leaved Wa-
ter Hemlock.
Cinchona, Peruvian Bark-tree ;
C. Brach-.jcarfia, Dwarf Bark-tree •
C. Caribwa, Jamaica Bark-i.e- ;
C. Florib::nda,^\. Lucia Eaik-lree-
C. offcinaii'j, Peruvian Bark-t.ee;
INDEX.
5
C. Trifiora, Triple-flowered Bark-
tree.
Cistus creticus, Cretan Rock-
Rose.
Citrus, Citron; C. Aurantium,
Orange; C. Decumana, Giant Ci-
tron ; C. Lima, Lemon-tree ; C.
Medica, Citron-tree.
Clematis Vitalba, Traveller's Joy,
[C. Crispa Virgin's bower.]
Clupea, Herring; C. ahsa, Shad;
C. encrmsicolus, Anchovy; C. ha-
rengus, Herring; C. sprat/u*,Sprat.
Coccinella, septem-punctata, La-
dy-bird.
Coccus Cucti, Cochineal Insect;
C. Hesperidum, Green-house Bug;
C. Ilicis, Kermes; C. Lacca, Gum-
lac-insect; C. malorum, Apple-tree
Coccus ; C. Phalaridis, Canary-
grass Coccus ; C. Polonicus, Scar-
let grain of Poland.
Cochlearia, Scurvy-grass ; C.
Anglica, English Scurvy-grass; C.
Armoracia, Horse-radish ; C. Co-
ronopus, Common Wort-cress ; C.
officinalis, Common Scurvy-grass.
Cocos, Cocoa.
Coffea, Coffee-tree.
Colchicum autumnale, Meadow
Saffron.
[Collinsonia. Canadensis.]
Coluber Berus, Common British
Viper ; C. natrix, Common Snake.
Columba anas, Domestic Pigeon.
Comarumpalust re, PurpleMiirsh-
locks.
Conium maculatum,- Common
Hemlock.
Convallaria, Solomon's Seal ; C.
Majalis, Lily of the YidL-y ; C.
multifiora Common Solomon's
Seal; C. Polyjonarum, Sweet-
smelling Solomon's Seal.
Convolvulus, Bindweed ; C. ar-
vensis, Small Bindweed ; C. Jalap-
pa, Jalap ; C. Scammor.ia, Syrian
Bindweed; C. scopanus, Bushy
Bindweed ; C. sefiium, Great Bind-
weed ; C. soldanella, Sea Bindweed;
C. Turpethum, Turbith.
[C. panduratus, wild Potatoe.]
Conyza squarrosa, Flea-bane.
Copafera Balsamum, Balsam of
Copaiba-tree.
Corallina, Coral.
Coriandrum sativum, Common
Coriander.
Ccrnus sanguinea, Wild Cornel-
tree ; C. suecica, Dwarf Cornel.
Corvus, Crow; C. corax, Ra-
ven ; C. corone, Common Crow;
C. frugilegus, Rook ; C glanda-
rius, Jay ; C. monedula, Jack-daw;
C. pica, Mag-pye.
Corylus, Hazel-nut-tree ; C. avel-
lana, Common Hazel-nut-tree ; C.
avellana fi~uctu rotunda maxima,
Pound-nut; C. Hispanica, Spanish
Hazel-nut-tree; C. saliva, Al-
mond-nut ; C. sativa, fructu ob-
longo rubente maxima, Blood-nut.
Costae, Ribs.
Crambe, Sea-Kale ; C. maritima,
Cliff-Cale.
Crataegus, Hawthorn ; C. Aria,
White-beam Hawthorn ; C. Oxya-
cantha, White-thorn ; C. tormina-
lis, Wild Service-tree.
Crithmum maritimum, Rock Sam-
phire.
Crocus, Saffron; C. sativus,
Common Saffron ; C. vermis,
Spring, or Garden Crocus.
Crotolariajuncea,Chinese Hemp.
Croton tinctorium, Dyer's Wild
Ricinus.
Cucubalus Bthen, Spatling Poppy.
Cuc«/u.scan»rKtf,CoBimouCuekow.
Cucumis, Cucumber; C. cngurij,
Water Melon ; C. colocynthus, Co-
loquintida ; C. melo, Common Me-
lon ; C. sativa, Common Cucum-
ber.
Cucurbit a, Gourd ; C. lagenarij,
Bottle-Gourd; C. lignosa, Lig-
INDEX,
neous-shelled Gourd; C.Melo-pepo,
Erect Gourd ; C. Pepo, pompion ;
C. verrucosa, Warted Gourd.
Culex, Gnat.
Cuminum Cyminum, Cummin.
Cupressus semper-virens, Com-
mon Cypress-tree.
Curculio granarius, Corn-chafer.
Curcuma longa, Long-rooted
Turmeric ; C. rotunda, Round-
rooted Turmeric.
Cuscuta Epithymum, Lesser
Dodder; C. Europaa, Greater
Dodder.
Cyclamen Europ
temporaria, Common Frog.
Ranula, a swelling on the Ton-
gue.
Ranunculus, Crowfoot; R. acris,
Butter-cup; R. aquaticus, Water
Crowfoot; R. arvensis, Corn Crow-
foot ; R. auricomus, Sweet Wood
Crowfoot ; R. bulbosus, Bulbous
Crowfoot; R. ficaria, Pilewort ,
R. Flammula, Lesser Spearwort;
R. lingua, Greater Spearwort; R.
sceleratus, Round-leaved Water
Crowfoot.
Raphanus, Radish ; R. Rapha-
nistrum, White-flowered, or Joint-
ed Charlock ; R. sativus, Common
Radish.
Reseda lutea, Base-Rocket; R.
luteola, Yellow-weed, or Dyer's-
weed.
Rhamnus catharticus, Purging
Buckthorn ; R. Frangula, Alder
Buckthorn.
Rheum palmatum, Palmated-
Rhubarb; R. rhaponticum, Com-
mon Rhubarb.
Rhinanthus Crista-Galli, Xe\-
low Rattle.
Rhodioia communis, Rosewort,
the Yellow.
Rhus copallinum, Narrow-
leaved Sumach ; R. coriaria, Elm-
leaved Sumach ; R. cotinus, Yel-
low Sumach ; R. typhiman Virgi-
nian Sumach. [R. glabrum,
Smooth Pennsylvania sumach ; R.
canadense, R. toxicodendron, poi-
son oak, R. vernex, Swamp su-
mach ; R. radicans, Poison vine.]
Ribes Alpinum, Sweet Moun-
tain-Currant; R. grossularia,Rough
Gooseberry ; R. nigrum, Black
Gooseberry ; R. reclinatum, Red
Gooseberry; R. rubrum, Com-
INDEX. 15
mon Red Currant; R. uva- crispa,
Smooth Goose-berry.
Ricinus communis, Castor-nut.
Robinnia pseudo-acacia, Acacia,
the False.
Rosa arvensis, White-flowered
Dog-rose ; R. canina, Dog-rose;
R.centifolia, Hundred-leaved Rose.
R. Gallica, French Rose ; R. mun-
di, Rose of the World; R. rubi-
ginosa, Sweet Briar ; R. spinosissi-
ma, Burnet Rose; R. villosa, Ap-
ple-Rose.
Rosamarinus officinalis,Rosemary;
R. o. angustifolia, Narrow-leaved
Rosemary ; R. o. latifoUa, Broad-
leaved Rosemary.
Rubeola, Measles.
Rubia tinctorium, Wild Madder.
Rubigo, Rust.
Rubus arcticus, Dwarf Crimson
Bramble ; R. casius, Dew-berry
Bush ; R. chamoemorus, Cloud-
berry ; R. corylifolius, Hazel-leav-
ed Bramble ; R. fruticosus, Com-
mon Bramble ; R. Idxus, Rasp-
berry ; R. occidentalis, Virginian
Raspberry Bush ; R. odoratus,
Sweet-scented Raspberry; R.
saxatilis, Stone Bramble.
Rumex acetosus, Common Sor-
rel ; R. acetosella, Sheep's Sorrel;
R. acutus, Sharp Dock ; R. aqua-
ticus, Water-Dock; R. crispus,
Curled Dock; R. obtusifolius,
Broad-leaved Dock ; R. sanguina-
rius, Bloodwort.
Ruscus aculcatus, Common
Knee-holly.
Ruta graveolens, Common Broad
leaved Garden Rue.
Saccharum officinarum, Sugar-
cane.
Sagina procumbens, Pearlwort,
the Procumbent.
Sagittaria sagittifolia, Common
Arrow-head.
Salicorviu fruticoca, Shrubby
Samphire; S. herbacea, Jointed
Glasswort.
Salix alba, White Willow ; -T.
amygdalina; Almond-Laved Wil-
low ; 6". Babylonica, Weepi.i^ Wil-
low ; S. caprcata, Sdiovv; V. cine-
rear Sallow Willow ; i. fragiUs,
Crack-Willow ; V. herbacea, Her-
baceous Willow; -S'. pentandra,
Sweet Willow ; S. purpurea, Rose
Willow ; 5. Rubra, Red Willow ;
5. triandra, Smooth Willow; S.
viminalis, Osier.
Salmo alpinus Charr ; S. eperla-
nus, Smelt; S. fario, Trout; S.
salar, Common Salmon ; S. Thym-
alus, Umber, or Grayling.
Salsola fruticosa, Shrubby Salt-
wort ; A", kali, Prickly Saltwort. '
Salvia pratcnsis, Meadow Clary;
5. officinalis, Common Large Sage;
S. tomcntosa, Balsamine Sage ; S.
Vcrbenaca, Wild English Clary.
Sambucus ebuluv, Dwarf Elder;
5. nigra, Common Elder.
Sanguis Draconis, Dragon's
Blood.
Santalum album, Yellow, or
White, Sanders.
Saponaria officinalis, Common
Soapwort.
Saiureia hortensis, Summer Sa-
vory ; S.montana, Winter Savory.
Satyrium hircinum, Satyrion.
Saxifraga granulata, Saxifrage
the Common.
Scabiosa arx'cnsis,Field Scabious;
5. succisa, Devil's-bit Scabious.
Scandix odorata, Cicely the
Sweet; S. Pecten, Common Shep-
herd's Needle.
Scarabxus Melolontha, Chafer.
Schxnus mariscu3, Rush-grass,
the Prickly.
Scilla maritime, Common Squill.
Scirpu* lacustris, Bull-rush ; S.
maritimu", Salt-marsh Ciub-rirdi ;
S. palustris, Marsh Creeping Club-
rush.
16
INDEX.
Sciurus vulgaris, Common Squir-
rel.
Sclerantkus annuus, Annual Kna-
well.
Scolopax arquata, Curlew; S.
gallinago, Snipe; S. rusticola
Woodcock.
Scomber Thunnus, Tunny.
Scrophularia nodosa, Great Fig-
wort.
Scutellaria galeraculata, Com-
mon Scull-cap.
Secale sereale, Common Rye.
Sedum acre, Wall-pepper; S.
refiexum, Yellow Stone-crop; 5.
rupestre, Rock Stone-crop ; 5. Te-
lephium, Orpine Stone-crop.
Selinum palustre, Milk-weed, the
Marsh.
Sempervivum tectorum, Common
House-leek.
Senecio Jacobxa, Ragwort ; 5.
vulgaris, Common Groundsel.
Sepia, Cuttle-fish.
Scrratula arvensis, Corn Saw-
wort ; 5. tinctoria, Common Saw-
wort ; [S. spicata.]
[Sesamum, Benne or Binny.]
Silene nutans, NotinghamCatch-
fly.
Silex, Flint.
Sinapis alba, White Mustard ;
S. arvensis, Charlock ; 5. nigra,
Common Mustard.
Singultus, Hiccough.
Siscn Amomum, Common Bas-
tard Stone-parsley.
Sisymbrium am/ihibium, Radish
Water-cress ; 5. Nasturtium, Com-
mon Water-cress ; S. Sophia, Flix-
weed Water-cress.
Slum angustifolium, Upper Wa-
ter Parsnep ; S. laiifolium, Broad
leaved Water Parsnep ; S. nodifio-
rum, Creeping Water Parsnep ; 5.
ninarum, Skirret.
S.irilax sarsaparilla, Sarsaparilla.
Solanum, Nightshade ; S. Dul-
camara, Woody Nightshade; S.
Lycopersicon, Love-apple ; S. ni-
grum, Common Nightshade; S.
tuberosum, Potatoe.
Solidago Virgaurea, Common
Golden Rod. [S. Casia, Throat-
wort, Rattlesnake Golden-Rod.]
Sonchus arvensis, Corn Sow-
thistle ; S. oleraceus, Common Sow-
thistle ; S. palustris, Marsh Sow-
thistle.
Sorbus aucuparia, Quicken-tree;
S. domestica, True Service-tree ;
S. hybrida, Bastard Mountain-ash.
Sparganium eiectum, Greater
Burweed.
Spartium junccum, Spanish
Broom; to
render impermeable to moisture,
see Water-proof.
Clysters, their use as an anti-
dote for mineral poisons, see Cop-
per ;—for Horses, see Horse-me-
dicines ;—substances proper for,
see Fenugreek; Mutton.
Coaches, close, bad effects of,
on travellers, see Breathing.
Cocci how to destroy, see Hot-
house, [Peach-fruit.]
Cochineal, substitute for, see
Bane-berries.
Coffee, to improve, see Succo-
ry ;—substitutes for, see Acorns ;
Beech-nut; Seeds of the Common
Broom; Chesnut.
Cold, its effects on Vegetables,
and method of preventing, see
Frost.
Cold Bathing, directions for, see
Bath.
Colds, symptoms of, and me-
thod of cure, see Catarrh ; Olive-
tree ; Pitch.
Colic, symptoms of the, see
Belly-ach ;—remedies for, see
Ammoniac ; Cardamom ; Castor-
oil ; Clary ; Holly ; Cascarilla—in
Farriery, see Gripes.
Colours, vegetable, see Fruit-
trees.
Combs, material for, see Box.
Complexion, delicate, how to
preserve, see Freckles.
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 33
Compost, different kinds of, see
Manure.
Consumption, a principal cause
of, see Dancing ;....medicines for,
see Arvenusly ; Birch-wine ; Hart-
fell-water ; Hemlock; Chickweed ;
Colt's-foot; Cucumber ; Daisy ;
Fox-glove ; Issues ; Liverwort;
Oysters ; Phosphorus ; Sago ;
Tortoise. [Mercury.]
Contagion, to prevent, see
Olive-tree. [Acids.]
Copess, how to strengthen, see
Hazel-nut-tree.
Corn, best method of storing,
see Granary.
Corn-Marigold, how to extir-
pate, see Chalk.
Corns, the causes of, see Foot.
Corroborants, see Angelica;
Copaiba.
Corrosive Sublimate, remedy
for the poison of, see Antidote.
Cosmetics, see Teasel; Wake-
Robin ; Benzoine, Bismuth, Fu-
mitory.
Costiveness, remedies for, see
Beet; Charcoal; Breath ; Prunes;
Sow-bread ; Cassia ; Flummery.
Cough, substances which re.
lieve, see Dame-wort; Fir-tree .
Galbanum ; Ground-Ivy ; Gum ;
Hound's-Tongue ; Ipecacuanha ;
Mastich ; Pectorals; Pitch; Squill;
Sulphur.
Counterpanes, material for mak-
ing, see Poplar.
Cow-dung, its use as a medica-
ment, see Bruises.
Cows, food for, see Common
Burnet Saxifrage; Burnet, the
Upland; Cow-parsnep; Cow-
wheat ; Cress ; Nettle ; Dodder;
Dyer's Green-weed ; Eye-bright;
Fescue-grass ; Feverfew ; Fo;>!s-
parsley Fox-tail grass; Furze ;
Gold-of-Pleasure ; Goose-foot ;
Goose-grass ; Gout-weed ; I lop ;
John's-vvort ; Lentil ; Meadow-
grass ; Medick ; Melic-grass ;
Milk-Vetch ; Oat; Parsnep ; Pea;
Potatoes ; Quaking-grass ; Rye ;
Sneeze-wort; Sow-thistle ; Speed-
well ; Spindle-tree ; Spurrey;
Wood-roof; Yam ; Sec....Causes,
which affect the taste of their
Milk, see Butter; ....Directions
for the choice of; see Black Cat-
tle....Remedy for the Consump-
tion in, see Mullein.........when
Sick, how to treat, see Distem-
per.
Cradles, materials for, see Birch-
tree ; Osier; Willow.
Cramp in the Stomach ; reme-
dy for, see Bismuth.
Crickets, to destroy, see Lily,
the Water.
Crimson Dye, see Dog's-grass;
Goose-grass.
Crops, on the rotation of, see
Field.
Crossing of Breeds, its utility,
see Cattle.
Crow-foot, see Blister.
Crows, their utility to Hus-
bandmen, see Chafer.
Curl, on the causes and cure of,
see Potatoes.
Cutaneous disorders, remedies
for, see Anise ; Birthwort; Dcok ;
Elm-tree ; Lime ; Sponge ; Suc-
cory ; Sulphur....see also Cosme-
i tics.
D.
Dairy, hints for its management.
see Butter.
Damp, to prevent its noxious
effects, see Flannel.
Daws, to destroy, see Jack-
daw.
■ Deafness, remedies for, see Agi-
tation ; Electricity.
Death, apparent, proper treat-
ment for, see Drowning.
Debilitated persons, proper foot!
24
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE.
and management of; see Debi-
lity.
Demulcents, see Manna.
Deobstruents, see Bryony ; Pen-
ny-royal.
Detergents, see Copaiba; Fir-
tree ; Madder.
Diabetes, remedy for, see Lime.
Diaphoretics, see Ammonia;
Antimony; Burdock ; Dame-
wort ; Flartshorn ; Nightshade.
Diarrhoeas, remedies for, see
Berberries ; Cypress ; Deer ;
Hartshorn ; Nutmeg ; Olibanum ;
Opium ; Rhubarb ; Shepherd's-
purse ; Spa-water ; Cascarilla.
Digestion, to promote, see Asa-
foe tida.
Diseases of Bees, see Bee-
hives ; of Dogs to treat, see Dog.
Dish, a wholesome vegetable
one, to prepare, see Tulip.
Diuretics, see Burdock; Fen-
nel ; Fumitory ; Nettle ; Tobacco-
plant. [Serratulus spicata.]
Dodder, to extirpate, see Flax.
Dolphin, or Bean-fly, to destroy,
see Bean.
Dresses of females, in what re-
spects injurious to health, see Cli-
mate.
Drops}-, remedies for, see Ab-
domen ; Anise ; Bay-tree; Broom;
Bryony ; Dandelion ; Elm-tree ;
Fox-glove ; Gallic ; Lily ; Milk-
wort ; Orache ; Sea-air.
Drowning, a contrivance for
preventing, see Bamboe-habit ;
Cork-tree ; Spencer-Marine.
Dry Baths, their utility ; see
Bath.
Ducks, their uses in destroy-
ing insects, see Black Canker.
Dung remedy for the inconve-
nience of, in Agriculture, see
Arable Land....substitute for, see
Compost.
Dyes, permanent; see Dyeing.
Dyeing, see Leather ; Bismuth; •
Bramble ; Lime-tree ; Tutsan.
Dyspepsy ; remedy for ; see
Zedoary.
Dysenteries, relieved by Cher-
ries ; Cypress : Dock ; Hartfell-
water; Hound's-Tongue ; Mas-
tich ;' Nutmeg ; Nux Vomica ;
Opium ; Quince-tree ; Rose-bay ;
Service-tree Cascarilla.
E
Ear-ach, see Ear.
Ear-trumpets, their bad effects
in Deafness, see Ear.
Ear-wigs, how to destroy, see
Oil.
Earthen-ware, substitutes for
lead, in finishing, see Glazing.
Eating, excessive, consequences
of, see Brain ;—too fast, see Mas-
tication.
Eels, how to catch, see Bobbing.
Eggs, whites of, see Albumen.
Emetics, see Club-moss ; Fox-
glove ; Ipecacuanha ; Oxymel of
Squills ; Spearwort ;—operation
of, how to restrain, see Salt.
Epidemic Diseases, preservative
against, see Flag.
Epilepsy, remedies for,- see
Dog's Violet; Mushroom ; Night-
shade, the deadly ; Phosphorus ;
Zanthoxylon.
Errhine, see Sow-bread.
Eruptions caused by shell-fish,
see Muscle ;—remedies for, see
Chalk.
[Esparcet, see Grasses.]
Etiolation, its uses and disad-
vantages in vegetation, see Light.
Evacuations, how promoted, see
Excretion.
Exercise, partial, consequences
of, see Game.
Eye-lashes, inverted, how to
treat, see Eye ; water, see Vitriol.
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE.
25
Eyes, affections of, how reliev-
ed, see Anemone ; Antimony ;
Blisters ; Buckthorn ; Hair, Sec
F.
Famine, treatment for persons
suffering under, see Hunger.
Farcy, see Asarabacca.
Farms, large,their consequences,
see Poor.
Fawn-colour-dye, see Soot.
Fences, method of constructing,
see Bank-fence ;—materials for,
see Plantation ; Planting ;—Mr.
BakewelPs method of making, see
Hedges.
Fevers, remedies for, see Selt-
zer-water ; Abstinence ; Barley ;
Butter-milk ; Butter-burr ; Cam-
phor; Cherry; Cornel-tree; Harts-
horn ; Hop ; Nitre ; Phosphorus ;
Sassafras; Tartar; and Casca-
rilla.
Figs, see Gargle.
Filtering Machines improved,
see Filtration.
Fire, plans for securing houses
from, see Buildings.
Fish-broth, to prepare, see
Broth.
Flannel, utility of, when worn
next the skin, see Autumn.
Flatulency, remedies for, see
Alum ; Angelica ; Asafoetida ;
Cardamom
Flax, refuse of, its utility ; see
Fruit-trees ;—substitute for, see
Swallow-wort,
Fleas, to expel, see Savory.
Flies, to destroy, see Black-
Fly ; Fly ; Mushroom ; Oil.
Floor, composition for, see
Blood ;—for houses, best kinds
of; see Fire;—for barns, method
of constructing ; see Barn-floors.
Flour, vegetables which yield,
see Bread.
vol. v.
Flux, remedy for, see Cinnamon.
Fodder, see Acacia; (Acacia,
the False,) Angelica ; Bent-grass ;
Bird's-foot, Bistort; Soft Brome-
grass ; Buck-wheat ; Burnet;
Butter-burr; Cabbage ; Canary-
grass ; Kale ; Cinque-foil; Pars-
nep ; Carrot; Serradilla; Pota-
toe ; Maize.
Food, solid, a cause of diseases;
see Climate.
Freckles, remedy for, see Albu-
men.
French-Bread, to prepare, see
Bread.
Frog, for Horses, Mr. Cole-
man's artificial, see Shoe.
Frogs, how to extirpate, see
Fumitory.
Frost-bitten parts, how to treat,
see Cold.
Frosts and dew, how to protect
plants against, see Fog.
Fruit, how to raise in winter,
see Fruit-trees ;—to protect from
Insects, see Caterpillar ;—a cata-
logue of the best, see Orchard ;—
how to rear, see Forcing and
Nursery.
Fomentations, see Myrtle.
Fuel, see Coal-balls ; Sunflower;
and Tulip-tree.
Fumigation, see Sulphur-wort.
G
Galls, their uses, see Oak.
Gangrene,seeAntiseptics,Dame-
wort, Germander, Nitre, Sec.
Gardens, new method of water-
ing, see Kitchen-garden.
Gargles, see Cinquefoil ; Fig-
tree ; Myrrh.
Gas, see Fixed Air.
Gastric Juices, its uses, see
Mortification.
Giddiness, in sheep, remedy for,
see Pimpernell.
4 D
26
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE.
Ginger, see Milk-weed.
Glass, see Grass-wrack ;—to
join when broken, see Cement.
Gloves, materials for, see Larch-
tree, Poplar, Sre.
Goats, food for, see Brome-
grass ; Purging Buckthorn ; Car-
line ; Chamomile ; Cheese-ren-
net ; Cherry ; Cinquefoil ; Colt's-
foot ; Columbine ; Corn-cockle ;
Currant-tree ; Dandelion ; Dyer's
Greenweed ; Fescue-grass; Fever-
few ; Fool's Parsley; Furze;
Germander ; Gold of Pleasure ;
Goose-foot; Goose-grass ; Gout-
weed; Groundsel; Hazel-nut-tree ;
Juniper; Knawell; Ladies-Mantle;
Ladies-Smock ; Lark-spur ; Lily ;
Lovage ; Lousewort ; Lungwort ;
Mare's-tail ; Marjoram ; Marsh-
locks ; Matweed ; Meadow-grass;
Medick ; Melic-grass ; Mother-
wort ; Nightshade ; Oat ; Ox-eye-
Primrose ; Quaking-grass ; Sca-
bious the Field and Small ; Sloe-
tree ; Snakeweed : Sneezewort ;
Solomon's Seal ; Sow-thistle ;
Speedwell; Spindle-tree ; Spurrey;
Starwort ; Thrift ; Willow-herb ;
Wood-roof, Sec.
Gold-dyes, obtained from the
Angelica, Artichoke, Buck-wheat,
Fig-tree, Sec.
Goose-dung, its uses as manure,
see Dung.
Gout, see Germander ; Ground-
pine ; Horehound ; Vichy-water,
Sec.
Grain, how to ascertain its re.
lative value, see Corn ;—its pro-
portion of flour in a bushel, see
Flour ;—how to preserve, see Gra-
nary ; —how to clear from insects,
see Corn-chafer.
Grass, proper time for moving,
see Hay.
Grass-land, its fertility increas-
ed by a manure of Bones ;—its ad-
vantages for Pasture, see Cattle.
Grates, how set to prevent smo-
ky chimnies, see Chimney.
Gravel, see Garlic, Onion, Sec.
Grease, in horses, to remove,
see Burnet, the Upland.
Green-dyes, vegetables from
which they are prepared, see Ane-
mone ; Asarabacca ; Bugloss ;
Bird-cherry; Smooth Rye Brome-
grass ; Purging Buckthorn; Buck-
wheat ; Bell-flower; Carp-gall;
Cheese-Rennet; Clover ; Lily ;
Liverwort; Privet; Reed ; Tan-
sy ; Burnet the Great, Sec.
Green Pigments, produced from
Anemone ; Bell-flower ; Fleur-de-
luce, Zinc, Sec.
Greens, substitutes for, see
Dead-nettle ; Nettle ; Nipple-
wort ; Sec.
Grub, to extirpate. See Cater-
pillar.
Gums, how to treat when ulcer-
ated. See Gum-boil; also Cate-
chu, Dock, Lac, Sec.
Gunpowder. See Cautery.
Gutta serena, relieved by Ane-
mone.
Gut-tie, account of. See Calves*
II.
Hair, to restore on the head, see
Baldness ; Box-tree ; Butterwort;
Myrtle, Sec.
Hair-powder, materials for, see
Beech-mast Oil, Comfrey,Sec.
Hats, see Beaver ; Poplar; Seal,
Sec.
Hay, see Guinea-grass, Butter-
cup, Sec.
Head-ach, remedies for, see
iEther ; Blisters ; Coffee ; Hair ;
Leech ; Nutmeg, Sec.
Heartburn, see Crab-fish, Lo-
zenges, 8ec.
Heaths, how reclaimed, see
Land.
Hedges, fence for, see Furze •
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE.
27
Buckthorn the Sea ; Hawthorn ;
Holly ; Horn-beam-tree, Sec.
Hedge-rows, how to make, see
Oak.
Flemp, substitutes for, see Sun-
flower ; Tree-mallow, Sec.
Hives, improvements on, see
Bee-hives.
Hoarseness, remedies for, see
Cabbage, Olive-tree, Sec.
Hogs, vegetables for fattening
them, see Acacia ; Acorns ; Arti-
chokes ; Beech-nut; Buck-wheat;
Butter-wort; Chickweed ; Crow-
foot ; Dandelion ; Dodder ; Duck's-
meat; Earth-nuts ; Fern ; Fescue-
grass ; Feverfew ; Fool's-Parsley;
Groundsel ; Hawthorn ; Hop ;
Meadow-sweet; Parsnep, the Wa-
ter ; Pea ; Potatoes ; Sea-waure ;
Sneezewort; Sow-thistle ; Timo-
thy-grass ; Yarrow ; Sec.
Hoofs of Horses, fomentation
for, see Scabious.
Hooping-cough, relieved by
Asafcetida ; see also Chin-cough,
Penny-royal, Sec.
Hops, the best kind for Beer,
see Brewing ;—substitutes for, see
Asparagus ; Broom ; Buck-bean ;
Clary ; Germander ; Mugwort ;
Tansey, Sec.
Horse-balls, on the use of, see
Farriery.
Horse-dealers, see Badger.
Horse-dung, how to employ in
gardens, see Hot-beds.
Horse-hoe, see Drilling.
Horse-radish, see Blister; its
uses for the Skin, see Cosmetic.
Horses, cure for weeping eyes
of, see Eye ; food for, see Chamo-
mile ; Corn-cockle ; Cornel-tree ;
Cow-parsnep ; Currant-tree ; Dy-
er's Green-weed ; Eye-bright;
Fescue-grass ; Feverfew ; Furze ;
Gold-of-Pleasure ; Goose-foot ;
Goose-grass; Hazel-nut-tree; Hop;
Ladies'' Mantle ; Lentils ; Lovage ;
Matweed ; Meadow-grass; Me-
dick ; Melic Grass ; Mother-wort;
Osier ; Ox-eye ; Parsnep ; Pea ;
Potatoes ; Rupture-wort; Rye ;
Sloe-tree ; Snakeweed ; Sneeze-
wort; Speedwell; Spurrey ; Star-
wort ; Thrift; Timothy Grass ;
Willow-Herb; Woodroof; Worm-
wood.
Hot-beds, substance for making,
see Oak.
Hounds, proper method of treat-
ing, see Greyhounds.
Houses, to prevent taking fire,
see Country-houses, and 1 ire.
Hunger, to prevent, see Pea,
the Heath.
Husbandry, the Drill,advantages
of, see Drilling.
Hydrophobia, see Nightshade,
theDeadIy,[AnagallisCantharides]
Orache ; Vinegar, Sec.
Hypochondriacal compLints, re-
lieved by Asafcetida ; Balm ; Ora-
che ; Sassafras.
Hysterics, remedies for, see
Amber ; Ammoniac ; Angelica ;
Asafcetida ; Beaver-oil ; Cheese-
Rennet ; Clary ; Mandrake.
I.
Jail Distemper, see Fever.
Jaundice relieved by Alum;
Duck's-meat; Eggs; Ground-pine;
Nettle ; Ox-eye ; Strawberry.
Jelly, a nutritious one, how to
prepare, see Arrow-root; Mutton ;
Poplar; Rice.
Indigestion, relieved by Moffat
Waters ; Tunbridge-Water ; Sec
Indigo, substitutes for, see
Anise ; Common Burnet Saxi-
frage, Trefoil, Acacia the False, Sec.
Infection, to prevent, see Con-
tagion ; Olive-tree.
Inflammation, remedies for, see
Duck's-meat; Excoriation; House-
leek ; Squill.
28
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE.
Ink, black, vegetables which
produce, see Bane-berries ; Blue-
bottle ; Sumach-tree ;—Green, see
Anemone;—Sympathetic,see Yel-
low-ink.
Insects, best means of destroy-
ing, see Apple-tree ; Caterpillar ;
Chafer ; Fir-tree ; Flour ; Fruit-
trees ; Oat; Coccus.
Ipecacuanha, substitutes for, see
Asarabacca ; Flerb-Paris, [Ipeca-
cuanha.]
Iron-moulds, to remove, see Sor-
rel.
Isinglass, how to substitute for
glue, see Glue.
Itch, ointment for, see Dock ;
Elecampane ; Vitriol, [Tobacco,]
Sec.
K.
Kite, electrical, its construction
and uses, see Lightning.
Knit, in cows, how to cure, see
Cows.
Lacker, purple, see Alkanet.
Lake, see Madder.
Lamp, see Bitumens.
Land, exhausted, how to recruit,
see Arable Lands.
Lawns, how to make, see Grass.
Laxatives, see Daffodil ; Dock ;
Flax ; Fumitory ; Manna ; Night-
shade ; Peach-tree ; Rose, the Da-
mask ; Violet.
Laxity, remedies for,see Betony;
Cardamom ; Cassia ; Catechu.
Lead, relief for the poison of,
see Antidotes.
Leather, how to make water-
proof, see Boot.
[Leather-wood, DircaPalustris.]
Leaves, how to rear trees from,
see Propagation.
Leeches, see Kidney.
Legs, crooked, to remedy, see
Bandy-legs*;—pains in, removed
by Blisters.
Lemons, a substitute for, see
Berberries.
Leprosy, remedy for, see Elm-
tree.
Libraries, how to preserve from
Insects, see Book.
Lice, to destroy, see Butterwort.
Light, new method of obtaining,
see Air.
Lightning, how to secure beds
from, see Bed-room.
Lilies, effects of keeping them in
bed-chambers, see Apoplexy.
Limbs,deformed, how pro ("lie
see Distortion.
Lime, substitutes for, see Oys-
ter-shells ; Infection ;—Water, its
use in clarifying Malt-liquors, see
Beer.
Liqueur, a delicious one, how
made, see Quince-tree.
Liquid for restoring sour beer,
and directions for preparing, see
Beer.
Liquors, hot, cautions respect-
ing them ; see Epilepsy.
Lobsters, to preserve, see In-
sects.
Locked-Jaw relieved by Castor
Oil; see also Jaw ; Opium.
Locust, how to destroy, see Ca-
terpillar.
Longevity, how to promote, see
Life.
Lozenges, see Mint.
[Lucerne, see grasses.]
M.
Magnesia, its use as an antidote,
see Copper.
Mahogany, how to imitate, see
Wood.
Maize, see Paper.
Malt, substitute for, see Maize ;
—.how to know the best kind of
see Brewing ;—liquors, their phy-
sical properties, see Beer.
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE.
29
Manna, see Bile.
Manures, see Arsenic ; Ashes ;
Blood; Bones ; Chalk-lands; Coal;
Faggots ; Gypsum ; Horn ; In-
sects ; Leaves; Malt; Marie;
[Peat;] Pigeon ; Privies ; Reed ;
Saw-dust; Sea-sludge; Sea-waure ;
Stickle-back, Sec.
Manuscripts, Scd. directions for
preserving, see Deeds ;—to copy,
see Writing, and Letter.
Marble, to clean, see Alabas-
ter.
Mats, material for making, see
Bull-rush.
Mattresses, a valuable material
for stuffing, see Moss.
Maturation, how promoted, see
Fig-tree.
[Mazagan beans, to raise early
in summer; see also Beans.]
Meadow-Land, to increase its
fertility, see Ashes.
Mice, to destroy in Granaries,
see Corn ; Knee-holly ; Mullein.
Milk, see Air ; Anise ; Burnet,
the Upland ; Cabbage ; Salep ;—
skimmed, useful for preserving
animal food, see Flesh-meat.
Milking, proper times of, see
Cow.
Millet, substitute for, see Blitc.
Mites, in grain, how lo eradi-
cate, see Com.
Mock-Turtle Soup, how to
make, see Turtle.
Moles, to disperse, see Garlic.
Mordore-dye, see Bistort the
Great.
Mortar, composition for mak-
ing, see building; [Cement.]
Mortifications, a specific for, 6ee
Antiseptics ;—checked by the use
of the Cautery.
Moths, see Arvenusly ; Chris-
topher the Herb; Insects ; Laven-
der.
Jflow-burnt, see Barley.
Mugwort, see Paper.
Mushrooms, substitutes for, see
Arvenusly ;—may be raised from
the Poplar.
Musk, substitute for, see |£os-
chatel.
Nervous diseases, remedies for,
see Balm ; Blisters; Celery ; Sa^e.
Nephritic disorders, relief for,
see Birch-wine; Cyper-grass;
Raisin-wine.
Nettle-seeds, their use in im-
proving animal-hair, see Horse.
Night-air, its noxious influence,
see Bed-time.
Ni^ht-caps, thick, consequences
of wearing, see Head.
Nipples; chapped, cure for, see
Borax.
O.
Oak bark, substitutes for, < c
Tanning.
Obstructions, see Madder ; Sea-
vvater.
Oil, how purified, see Charcoal;
Sand ;—afforded by the Angelica ;
Bay-tree ; Beech-mast; Celery ;
Charlock; Cherry; Gale; Lilac •
Orange; Privet; Rape ; Ray-
fish ; Acacia; Sanders ; Stickle.
back ; Sun-flower ; Acorns ; Blad.
der-nut-tree ; Cornel-tree; Net-
tle; Nettle-Hemp;—of Olives, a
preventive of infection, see Plague.
Oil-paint, substitutes for, see
Paint.
Opium, substitutes for, see
Hemp; Herb-Paris ;—safe method
of taking, see Acids ;—its violent
effects on the brain, see Anodyne ;
—externally good for wounds,
rheumatisms, Sec. see Anodyne ;
Mortification.
Orange, see Colour-making ;—
dyes, vegetables which yield, Sas-
safras ; Bay-Ire •; Rhubarb; Li-
verwort.
SO GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE.
Owls, use of, see Mouse.
Oxen, directions for the choice
of, see Black Cattle;—for fatten-
ing, see Bullocks ;—and Horses,
comparative advantages of, in agri-
culture, see Horse.
P.
Packing, material for, see Moss.
Pain, violent, remedies for, see
Anodyne.
Paintings, how to clean, see
Picture.
Palsy, relieved by Opium, see
Anodyne ; Bay-trees ; Blisters ;
Fir-tree ; Phosphorus ; Rosemary.
Paper, materials for, see Aloe;
Bark ; Bull-rush ; Burdock ; Cab-
bage Palm ; Cotton ; Cyper-grass;
Nettle ; Traveller's-Joy ; Mallow;
Tree-Mallow ; Willow ; Broom :
Hop-bines ; [Gunny-bag,] Sec. ;
see also Book.
Papier-mache, see Amber.
Paste, for book-binders, to pre-
vent worms, see Books ;—substi-
tute for, see Asphodel; dies'
nuts.
Peach-colour dye, see Rose.
Pearl-white, Colour-making.
Pears, dwarf, method of produc-
ing, see Dwarf-trees.
Perfume, see Orange.
Perspiration, how to promote,
see Bathing ; Bath ; Consump-
tion ;-—profuse, how checked, see
Soda.
Phlebotomy, see Blood-letting.
Phlegm, to attenuate, see Birth-
wort.
Pica, or longing, remedy for,
see Sea-wrack.
Pickles, new, see Buck-bean ;
Caraway.
Pigeons, food for, see Vetch.
Pine-tree, the Scotch, its uses,
and method of culture, see Fir.
Plants, treatment of, see Irrita-
bility ;—proper for moist ground,
see Draining ;—best method of
packing, see Exotics ,—how to
preserve with their natural fresh-
ness, see Herbal.
Plant-louse, see Hot-house.
Plasters, see Fir-tree ; Olive-
tree.
Plethoric individuals, rules for,
see Diet.
Pleurisy, medicine for, see
Milkwort.
Plough, the drill, see Drilling.
Poisons, antidotes for vegetable,
see Acids ;—for mineral, see An-
tidotes.
Ponds, how to stock, see Carp
and Fish.
Pork, best method of salting,
see Beef.
Posts, best substance for mak-
ing, see Acacia ; Larch-tree, Sec.
Pot-ash, see Alkali, vegetable.
Potatoes, most economical me-
thod of cooking, see Steam ;—
utility of, as food, see Diet.
Pottage, recipe for making, see
Diet.
Poultry, vegetables, Sec. vvhich
fatten, see Acacia; Buckwheat;
Chafer ; Duck's-meat; Millet ;
Nettle ; [Bignonia.]
Prints, see Bleaching.
Pruning, see Apple-tree.
Puddings, ingredient for, see
Fescue-grass ;—to improve, see
Panada ;—best method of dress-
ing, see Steam.
Purgatives, see Bindweed ;
Buckthorn ; Fox-glove ; Jalap ;
Liverwort; Mandrake ; Plum-
tree ; Scammony ; Senna ; Stone-
crop.
Purple-dye, see Heath ; Linen ;
Cornel-tree ; pigments, vegetables
which afford, see Bilberry, Sec.
Putrefaction, how prevented, see
Charcoal.
Putrid Diseases, see Fever.
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE.
31
Quinsy, remedies for, see Aca-
cia ; Anise ; Cudweed.
R.
Rabbits, food for, see Milk-
Thistle.
Rats, how to disperse, see Gar-
lic ; Granaries ; Valerian.
Ravens, singular efficacy of their
gastric juice, see Cancer.
Red Dyes, vegetables which af-
ford, see Birch-tree ; Bloodwort ;
Cheese-rennet; Goose-grass; Rhu-
barb ; Sloe-tree ; Sumach-tree;
Madder ; Marjoram ; Mordants;
[Gallium.]
Red-water, in Sheep, to re-
move, see Parsley. [R. frigerator.]
Rennet, substances for, see But-
ter-wort ; Cheese-rennet.
Resin, see Poplar.
Rheumatism, reliev cdbyOpium;
see also Anodyne ; Bagnio ; Blis-
ters ; Bryony ; Cajeput-oil; Cam-
phor ; Dock ; Electricity ; Fir-
tree ; Flax ; Lac; Mineral
Waters ; Mustard ; Pitch ; Sec.
Rice, substitute for, see Millet.
Rickets, remedy for, see Mad-
der.
Ripple, see Clover.
Rock-salt, its advantage in pick-
ling, Sec. see Beef.
Roofs, fire-proof, how to make,
see Reed.
Rope, materials for, see Aloe ;
Birch-tree.
Rose-pink, see colour-making.
Rot, in sheep, by what occa-
sioned, and method of cure, see
Cattle ; Sundew ; remedies for,
see Buck-bean ; Parsley ; Salt;
Sec.
S.
Salad, vegetables which may be
eaten as, see Avens ; Bell-flower;
Brook-lime ; Burdock ; Burnet;
the Upland ; Lungwort ; improve-
ment in, see Borage ; Ox-eye.
Salt, see Beef; how to recover
from Pickle, see Bacon ; method
of purifying, see Basket-salt; of
Lemons, substitute for, see Sorrel;
springs, indication of, see Star-
wort ; water, improved method
of distilling, see Air.
Sap-green, how prepared, see
Green.
Saponaceous Plants, which may
be substituted for soap, see Bur-
dock ; Horse-chesnut; Orache ;
Soap-wort; Wake-Robin.
Sassafras, its use in brewing and
distilling, see Bay-tree.
Scab, in Sheep, see Dock ; Ele-
campane ; Farsley.
Scald-head, remedy for, see Ele-
campane. [Melia.]
Scarlet Dye, see Liverwort.
Sciatica, see Rue.
Scouring, in cattle, see Calf.
Scurvy, remedies for, see Agri-
mony ; Alum ; Angelica ; Anise ;
Cheese-rennet ; Citron ; Coffee ;
Colt's-foot; Garlic; Goose-grass;
Lac ; Salep ; Sea-waure, Sec.
Sea, to prevent its encroach-
ments, see Lime-grass.
Secretions, to promote, see Sa-
vin ; Scurvy-grass ; Senna ; This-
tle. [Seneka root, see Polygala
Seneka.]
Sheep food for, see Acacia
Arrow-grass ; Bell-flower ; Bird-
cherry ; Bistort; Borecole ; Buck-
thorn ; Burnet; Catchweed ; Cat-,
mint ; Cheese-rennet; Cherry ;
Christopher the Herb; Cinquefoil;
Colt's-foot ; Corn-cockle ; Cornel-
tree ; Corn-salad ; Cow-wheat;
Cress ; Dodder ; Dog's-tail-grass;
Dropwort ; Dyer's-green-weed ;
Eye-bright ; Fescue-grass ; Fever-
few ; Furze ; Germander ; Gold-
32
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE
of-Pleasure ; Goose-foot ; Goose-
grass ; Goutweed ; Hop ; Horse-
beans ; House-leek; John's-wort;
Juniper; Ivy; Knawell ; Ladies
Mantle ; Ladies Smock; Lark-
spur ; Lentil ; Lily ; Lovage ;
Lungwort ; Marjoram ; Meadow-
grass ; Medick ; Motherwort ;
Nightshade ; Oat ; Ox-Eye ;
Parsley ; Parsnep ; Pea ; Plan-
lain the Ribwort ; Primrose ;
Quaking-grass ; Rupture-wort ;
Rye ; SaiVlovver ; Salt-wort; Sca-
bious, the field, and small ; Sloe-
tree ; Snake-weed ; Sneezewort ;
Solompn's-Seid ; Sow-thistle ;
Speedwell; Spindle-tree ; Spur-
rey ; Star-wort; Woodroof, Yar-
row.
Shrubs, method of conveying
from a distance, see Plant.
Silk-worms, food for, see Cow-
slip ; Elm-tree.
Smoke of lamps, Sec. how to
collect, see Smoking.
Smut, how to cure, see Arsenic ;
Barley ; Corn.
Snake, remedy for the bite of;
see Ammonia. [Serpent. Potash.]
Soap, substitutes for, see Ful-
ler's-Earth; Saw-dust. [Horse
chesnut.]
Soporifics ; see Dog's- Mercury.
Sore-throat, remedies for, see
Abstinence ; Elder tree ; Fixed
air.
Soups, ingredient for, see Fes-
cue-grass; their injurious effects
on invalids, see Beef-tea.
Spanish-flies, caution against the
indiscriminate use cf, see Blisters ;
—substitutes for, see Butter-cup ;
Crow-foot.
Spasmodics, see Opium.
Spinach, substitutes for, see
Bine; Daisy.
Spine, see Distortion.
Spirits how to correct, see
Charcoal ;—afforded bv the fruit
of the Dog-rose ; Guinea-corn ;
Hawthorn; Quicktn-tree, Sec.
Splinters, to promote the extrac-
tion of, see Needle, the Shep-
herd's.
Sprains, see Liniment; Spirit
of Wine.
Spur in grain, remedy for, see
Corn.
Stables, Sec. how to purify, see
Fumigation.
Staggers, in horses, to prevent,
see Goats.
Starch, plants which afford, see
Arrow-head ; Arrow-root; Bry-
ony, the W kite ; Burdock ; Com-
frey ; Pile-wort; Snow-drop ;
Solomon's-seal; Wake-robin, Sec.
[Indian Turnip ; Horse-chesnut.]
Sternutatory ; see Mustard, the
Hedge.
Stings of insects, remedy for,
see Bee; Gnat; Tar.
Stomachic, see Mugwort.
Strangury, see Gum-arabic.
Straw, see Thatching.
Styptics, see Agaric ; Bistort ;
Gall ; Puff-ball; Sheperd's-Purse ;
Sponge ; Sumach-tree ; Tourni-
quet, Sec.
Sudorifics, see Diaphoretics.
Suffocation by vapour, treat-
ment for, see Charcoal.
Sugar, substitute for, see Mo-
lasses.
Sulphur, see Lead.
Surfeit in horses, see Parsley.
Swallowing, difficulty of, how
relieved, see Mezereon.
Sweet-meat, see Lemon.
Swellings, remedies for, see
Fenugreek ; Goose-grass ; Holly ;
Nightshade, the Deadly ; Ox-eye ;
Sea-water; Sponge.
Sympathetic-Ink, see Bismuth.
T.
Table-beer, recipe for making,
see Beer.
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. S3
Tanning, substitutes for Oak-
bark in, see Angelica; Avens;
Berberries; Birch-tree; Bistort
the Great; Briar ; Broom ; Bur-
net the Great ; Burweed ; Clary ;
Dock ; Feverfew; Horehound,
the White ; Larch-tree; La-
vender-Thrift; Loose-strife ; Myr-
tle ; Silver-weed ; Sloe-tree ; Tor-
mentil; Trefoil; Yarrow ; [See
Vegetable Substances.]
Tapioca, substitute for, see Or-
chis.
Tea, substitutes for, see Ash ;
Betony ; Bilberry ;—to make from
Beef; see Beef-tea.
Teeth, purifier of, see Dock.
Test-stones, see Basalles.
Thatch, how to render Fire-
proof, see Moss.
Thistle, its use, see Paper.
Timber, to preserve from de-
cay, see Beech-tree.
Tippling, see Clover.
Tobacco, substitutes for, see
Buck-bean; Cudweed ; Milk-
weed ; Pea, the Heath ; Sumach-
tree ;—to improve, see Larkspur.
Tonics, see Bitters ; Buckthorn,
Sec.
Tooth-ach, relieved, and cured
by jEther ; Agitation; Anemone;
Cajeput-oil; Marjoram ; Opium;
Thyme, Sec.
Touch-stones, see Basaltes.
Trees, best method of rooting
up, see Berne-machine ;—to de-
fend from the injuries of Animals,
see Diseases of Plants ;—frost-bit-
ten, how to recover, see Frost;—
blasted, see Lightning ;—injured,
composition for, see Blight.
Trout, Sec. how to carry alive to
a considerable distance, see Fish.
Tulips, how to preserve, see
Flower.
Tumors, see Swellings ;—in
horses, to discuss, see roll-Evil.
VOL. V.
Turf, guide in digging for, see
Sundew.
Turnip-fly, how to extirpate, see
Cabbage, and Fly.
U. V.
Vapours, mephitic, to disperse*
see Vinegar.
Varnish, see Eggs;—vegetables,
Sec. which yield, see Aloe ; Am-
ber ; Bitumens ; Copal.
Veal and Lamb, how preserved
in Germany, see Flesh-meat.
Vegetables, to keep ; see Pre-
servation ; how to protect from
cold, see Frost;—poisonous, how
to deprive of their injurious qua-
lity, see Cassava ;—when putrid,
to correct, see Charcoal ;—proper
time of watering, see Cold.
Veneering, materials for, see
Broom, the Common; Traveller's^
Joy.
Venison, its properties as food,
and best method of preparing, see
Deer.
Vermifuges, substances proper
for, see Fern ; Gamboge ; Liver-
wort, the green-ground ; Mulber-
ry-tree ; Sugar ; Spurge-laurel ;
Tansy ; Timothy-grass ; [Melia,
Tobacco.]
Vermin, to prevent their depre-
dations, see Aloe ; Oil;—in Cat-
tle, remedy for, see Meadow Saf-
fron.
Vigogne dye, see Bell-flower,
Mezereon, Sec.
Vinegar, vegetables whence it
may be prepared, see Bramble ;
Citron ; Quicken-tree ;—an excel-
lent article for making, see Grains.
Violet dye, see Rose.
Vulneraries, see Anemone ;
Daisy ; Leadvvort.
Ulcers, remedies for, see Ane-
mone ; Arsenic; Basilicon; Birth-
4 M
«
<7 £.
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE.
wort; Buckthorn ; Cock-roach ;
Euphorbium; Louse-wort; Night-
shade, the Deadly ; Sorrel; Ver-
digrease ;—how checked, see Cau-
tery ;—of the throat, remedies for,
see Mustard, the Hedge.
Ultramarine, substitutes for, see
Smalt.
Urine, discharge of, to prevent,
see Squill;—retention of, effica-
cious remedies for, see Gourd;
Ice ; [Saw-wort ; Polygonum.]
W.
Walls, cheap plaster for, see
Cement.
Warm-Bathing, directions for,
see Bath.
Warts, to destroy, see Ammo-
nia ; Poppy, the Homed.
Waste-Land, how to improve,
see Moor.
Water, its utility to debilitated
persons, when impregnated with
ferruginous particles, see Baths;—
to purify, see Alum ;—salt, how
to make fresh, see Sea-water;—
its advantage as a beverage, see
Drinking ;—Colours, how to pre-
pare, see Colour-making ;—Level,
see Irrigation.
[Water-proof, see Boot, Lea-
ther, Shoe.]
Wax, vegetables from which it
is collected, see Bees.
Weights, and ponderous bodies,
machine for raising, see Jack.
Wells, how to purify, see
Air ;—bad consequences of the
present mode of lining them, see
Bricks.
Wheat, best method of preserv-
injr, see Corn ; Granary ;—Ger-
man method of blanching, see
Barley ;—sprouted, how to reme-
dy, see Corn.
Wheel-drag, an useful one de-
scribed, see Drag.
White-lead, substitutes for, see
Paint, and Zinc.
Wicks for Candles, see Cotton-
grass.
Wigs, pernicious consequences
of Wearing, see Hair-powder.
Wine, to clarify, see Albumen ;
Alum; Common Burnet Saxi-
frage ;—to improve its flavour, see
Burnet, the Upland ;—Vegetables
which yield, see Alder-tree; Birch-
tree ; Bird-cherry ; Bramble ; Bil-
berries ; Sycamore-tree; Quince-
tree, Sec.—bottles, see Bottle.
Wood, composition for preserv-
ing, see Board ;—how to stain, see
Mahogany ;—to silver, see Bis-
muth ;—to prevent the combustion
of, see Alum.
Wood-caterpillars, how destroy-
ed, see Caterpillar.
Wool, undressed, its use, see
Moth ;—best method of preserv-
ing, see Cloth ;—substitute for, see
Willow.
Wounds, of Horses, how to
treat, see Horses ;—remedies for,
see Basilicon ; Carolina-Poplar ;
Fir-tree; Needle, the Common
Shepherd's ; Opium.
Worms, to destroy, see Aloe ;
Box ; Loose-strife ; Mustard, the
Hedge ; [Calomel ; Melia, Sec]
Writings, easy mode of Copy-
ing, see Letter.
Y.
Yarn, materials for, see Duck's-
meat ; Woundwort.
Yaws, see Limes.
Yeast, experiments to make ar-
tificial, see Fermentation.
Yellow-dyes, substances vvhich
*
GENERAL INDEX OF REFERENCE. 35
yield, see Acacia; Agrimony, the
Common ; Agrimony, the Hemp ;
Balsamine ; Berberries ; Birch-
tree ; Alder Buckthorn ; Purging
Buckthorn; Buck-wheat;Burdock,
the Lesser ; Chamomile ; Crab-
tree ; Feverfew ; Furze ; Fustic ;
Gale; Golden-Rod; Herb-Robert;
Horn-beam ; John's-wort; Mari-
gold ; Moss ; Mugwort; Nettle ;
Plum-tree ; Poplar ; Ragwort.
[Hydrastis Canadensis, Oak,
(Quercitron.]
%* The reader is requested to supply the occasional deficiencies,
or omissions, by reverting either to the primary articles, or by con-
sulting the Indices of Synonyms, Sec which are prefixed to each
Volume.
THE END,
PRINTED BY ROBERT CARR,
NO. 10, CHURCH-STREET.
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