»'*> V.' '••- ' ** -■ *'jSSBf^KSi.^'Vf> l/ * ' *•"**' ^ *'.+ '. *; *t * ^ 'A* Ft *>*j a. ^fy *** ' 1 >.-«£' P /' . ri*^l,* '* * . .->'" P 'F ... ~" ■F^F'Fi *-VA- • . ':■ ^-A \;&- i-A i * . pFFpF^Ff^. -: ri^ W v.;.■ ,a4<^7 ;:.■'>■ S& *K>" V .5' ■#•■ .*. S ?V*$& ,**,>h ^i* . ^:-:: >! «<£ ♦«* 'v'^; i^r#> .' * ;■, ^ *"«.** iff. sfot, m ■n ■■ '5>' f^t/tr X ?.}■. . Compass 189 Crop - ■ 277 Complexion *,'-"«■ ib. Cross-Avert 0 r ib. ib. 336 Disease Diseases of Plants - - Distemper Distilling Distortion Ditch Dittany - Diuretics Dock Dodder Dog Dog-fly Dog's-grass Dog's-mercury Dog-rose Dog's-tail grass Dog's-violet Dolphin - Door - - Dough - - - Drag, (with a cut) Dragon's-blood Draining, (with several cuts) Draught DraAvback Drawing DraAV-net Drilling - Drinking Drone - - - Dropsy DropAvort Drowning Drunkenness Dry-rot Duck Duck's-meat Duel Dumbness Dung - Dwarf-trees Dyeing - Dyer's-gi'een-Avced Dyer's-Aveed Dysentery . Eagle Ear Ear-wig Earth Earth-banks Earth-nut Earthquake Earth-worm Eau-de-luce Ebony \ ■ PAGE 336 . 337 338 340 347 348 349 ib. 350 351 352 354 ib. ib. 356 357 ib. ib. 358 ib. 359 360 ib. 370 ib. ib. 371 lb. 384 335 ib. 386 387 394 395 . 396 , 398 " ib. 399 ib. 406 ib, 430 - ib. 433 434 435 436 ib. 437 ib. 438 439 ib. AFl CONTENTS. All PAGE 1 PAGE Economy 440 Expectorants - •% 468 Fddoes ib. Extracts 469 Education 441 | Extravasation ib. Eel - ib. : Eye ib. Egg 442 Eve-bright 473 Elder 443 Face - 474 Elecampane 444 Faggot ib. Electricity ib.\ Fair ... 475 Electuary 446 Falcon ib. Elephant ib. Fall ib. Elm-tree 447 FalloAving ib. Elocution 449 Fan - 477 Embroidery ib. Farcy ib. Emerald 450 Farm - ib. Emery - ib. House 480 Emetics 451 Yard 485 Emollients 452| Farriery - 490 Emulsion ibF Fasel-nut 491 Enamel ib. Fashion ib. Encyclopaedia 453 Fasts, or Fasting ib. Engrafting 455 Fat - - - 492 Enriching Plants ib. ' Fattening of Colours ib. Epidemic - - ib. Feather ib. Epilepsy 456 Felt 493 Epsom Salt ib. Fen ... ib. Eryngo - 457 Fence ... 495 Eschallot ib. Fennel ib. Espaliers 458 Fenugreek 496 Essence - ib. Fermentation ib. Etching 459 Fermented Liquors 499 Ether ... ib. Fern, the. Female ib. EUPATORIUM 460 , the Male 501 Euphorbium ib. Ferret - ib. EUPATORIA ib. Fescue-grass 502 Evacuation 461 Fever - 503 Evaporation ib. Feverfew 507 Evening 462 Fever-powders 508 Evefrgreens ib. Field 509 Exchange 463 Fig-tree - - 510 Excoriation 465 Fig-wort 511 Excretion ib. File 512 Exercise - ib. Filtration, (Avith tAvo Cuts) ib. Exhalation 467 Finch - - - 517 Exotic - 468 Fir-tree ib. PLATES IN THE SECOND VOLUME. I. Wright and Bowler's Churns, and Lester's Cultivator, to face p. 13:. II. Andrews's Crane, p. 273. N~t> III. Anderson's Condensing Tub, p. 346. '<• / ' IV. Darwin's Drill, (1st. Plate) fig. 1 and 2, 3 and 5, p. 373. V. Ditto, (2nd. Plate) Avith the Drain Plough, p. 380„ VI. Instruments for recovering the drowned, p. 391. VII. Implements of restoration from drowning, p. 392. VIII. Plan of Messrs. West and Cooper's Stalls, and Mr. Peterson's Barn, p. 4S5. IX. Plan of Mr. Miller's Barn, p. 486. INDEX TO THE CORRESPONDING SYNONYMS, AMD INVERSIONS OF TERMS, OCCURRING IN THE SECOND VOLUME. >r Catch-fly; see Fly, the Catch. Cat's-foot; see Cud-weed. Chagreen; see Shagreen. Channel; see Kennel. Cheshire-cheese; see Cheese. Childing-pink; see Pink. Chimney-swallow; see Swallow, the common. Chirurgeon; see Surgeon. Chive, or Chived-garlic; see Garlic. Chronology; see Kalendar. Citric Acid; see Acids. Citron-Avater; see Distilling. Clove-water; see Distilling. Colds, in Dogs; see Dog. Cole-wort; see Cabbage. Confectionary; see Paste and Pastry. Congo-tea; see Tea-tree. Copying-machine; see Writing. Corinthian Brass; see Brass. Corker; see LiverAvort, the Dark- coloured. Corn-marigold; see Ox-eye, the Great White. Corroborants; see Debility. Cos-lettuce ; see Lettuce. t Cottenham Cheese; see Cheese. Cotton ; see Bleaching. Cotton-thistle; see Thistle, the Cotton. Coughs, in Dogs ; see Dog. CoAV-itch; see Couhage. CoAv-pox; see small-pox. Cowslips of Jerusalem ; see Lung- wort. CoAvr-lungAVort; see Mullein, the Great White. Crack-willow ; see Willow. Crap; see Buck-wheat. Crow-berries, the Black; see Heath, the Berry-bearing. Daisy, the Greater ; see Ox-eye, the Gieat White. Dead-nettle, the YcIIoav ; see Weasel-snout. Dead-tongue; see Hemlock Drop- wort. Deafness ; see Ear Decyphering; see Deciphering. Dee-nettle; see Dead-nettle. Deglutition ; see Swallowing. Denshiring; see Burning of Land. Dentition; see Teetii. Dentrifice ; see Teeth. Devel's-bit Scabious; seeScabious. Diary ; see Journal. Dibber; see Dibble. Dill; see Fennel. Dills: see Sea-Avrack, the Pal- in at ed. Dock, the Small-grained; see Blood-wort. Dcg-Msh ; sec Shark, the Spotted. Dog-wood; see Cornel-tree. Dor; see Chafer, Drawers; see Flannel. Dress; see Flannel, Shirt, and Stocking:. Duilesh, Dulls, or Dulse; see Sea-wreck, the Palmated. Dutch-rushes; see Horse-tail, the Rough. Dwarf-cider; see Elder. Dwarf-thistle ; see Thistle. Dyer's Mulberry-tree; see Fustic. Dyspepsy ; see Indigestion. Eglantine; see Rose. Elastic-rubber ; see Caoutchouc. Essential Oil; see Essence. Evil; see Scrophula. Experimental Farm ; see Farm. F..ir-maids-of-February ; see Snow-drop, the Common. F:il;-';.), the Dove-coloured; see Hen-harrier. Feeling; see Touch. Fenberries; see Bilberry. Fern, the FloA\eiing; see Os- mund-royal. Fetch ; see Vetch, the common. Field-eryngo; see Eryngo. Filly ; see Colt. ERRATA. Page 107, column 2, line 11 from bottom, for- Virginia, read Virginian;*. ----108, column 1, lines 4 and 5, d.le the [ ] ----148, column 2, line 11 from bottom, in some copies, after Soc. read by Mr. L' Hommedieu. -------column 2, line 12 from bottom, in some copies tlele by Mr. L'Hommedieu. ----1S1, line 14, between tlu words " and stand" insert " let it." THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPEDIA. CAR CARP, or Carpio, L. is a spe- cies of the Cyprinus, a genus of fish comprising above thirty spe- cies. Carp are also called white- fish, on account of their glittering scales, and are distinguished from other fish, by having no teeth, the want of which is supplied by seve- ral small rough bones fixed in their throat. They were introduced into England during the 16th century. These fish are much celebrated For their longevity, many of them attaining an age of from 60 to 100 years, and growing to the extra- ordinary length of six feet. They delight in muddy ponds, Avhich are well sheltered from the wind, and into which should be thrown the liquor from cattle-yards,mixedwith clay, peas, beans, oil-cake, Sec. In order to fatten them, and increase their size, the growth of grass under the water should be particu- larly attended to; as they princi- pally feed on it during the summer months. To effect this, when the water decreases in summer, the dry naked sides of the pond should be raked, and grass-seeds abun- VOL. II. CAR dantly sown : these will produce a plentiful supply of herbage, which, when the pond is filled up by rains, affords a feeding place, where the fish will speedily fatten. In the winter, they crowd together in the mire under the ice, which should be occasionally opened to admit air, for want of which the carp is often severely affected.....But where it is practicable, part of the water should be drawn off, which will be more beneficial to the fish, than to penetrate the ice. This should also be done, when the pond has been struck by lightning, or when the fish are sick, which some- times happens, if the Avater become foul or turbid. Carp are much celebrated for their docility, and have been knoAvn to be so tame, as to swim to the shore, and take their food, on be- ing called, or summoned by the sound of a bell. In general, how- ever, they are extremely cunning, and difficult to be caught, except during the time of spaAvning...... The best season for catching carp and barbel, is the month of July, B CAR CAR and the most proper time, at day- break. Care must be taken to use neither lead nor shot in the lines ; Avhich ought to be proportionate to the length of the rods, and made of Indian twist, or strong pearl-co- loured silk, armed at the bottom links with sea-grass, Turkey- grass, or strong silk-worm gut, perfectly free from knots or fret- tings. When the spot for angling is fixed upon, it is requisite, on the preceding night, to throw in a con- siderable quantity of paste, pre- pared of bread and bran, or mixed Avith lob-AVorms cut to pieces. This purpose may also be effected by throAving in a mixture of blood and grains,Avhich must be repeated three successive nights ; the spot being marked with particular atten- tion. In the daAvn of the morning, after the depth has been plumbed with the greatest exactness, the bait for the first rod, which is to lie at the bottom, should be a well- scoured lob-worm, and the hook must be passed through its body, about three inches from the tail; that part being more agreeable to the fish than the head. An addi- tional ground-bait should be thrown in, at the same place, on the three preceding nights. The worm be- ing dropped as exactly as possible on the ground-hait just throAvn in, the first rod is to be laid on the ground, and the second baited. The bait for this rod must be four red Avorms, properly cleansed and pierced through the head. The third rod ought to be baited Avith a paste prepared ofthe following ma- terials : the crumb of Avhite bread one day old, soaked in warm milk, till it has imbibed enough to make it of the necessary consistence; when the milk is to be pressed out, and a sufficient quantity of honey added, to impart to it a sweet flavour. A little saffron, well dried and poAvdered, must also be mixed, together with a few drops of oil of rhodium, in order to tinge it of an orange colour. It is then fit for immediate use; but care must be taken, that the floats for each rod be of the short single- plugged kind, and that the fish " be played deep ;" as, if this caution be neglected, the fish will " break," and make its escape. Carp are much esteemed for their delicacy and flavour, which may be greatly improved by keep- ing them in river water for a few days before they are eaten. Their gall is in much repute among the Turks, for staining paper, and also for making a fine sap-green colour. Formerly, it Avas erroneously believed, that the frequent eating of this fish proved a certain remedy for dimness of sight; and, Avith that view, many persons used it as their daily food ; though without consulting their health. Of all ani- mal substances, carp is doubtless the most liable to putrescency; and as its fat is indigestible, it ought particularly to be avoided by fe- brile patients, invalids, and conva- lescents. Carp is the most valuable ofthe finny tribe, for stocking ponds, on account of its speedy groAvth, and uncommonly rapid increase ; the sale of these fish is a source of con- siderable profit to landed proprie- tors on the Continent ; and, if the rearing of them were better un- derstood and practised in the marshy parts of this country, they would amply repay every expence and trouble thus bestowed. The CAR CAR * most proper situations for carp- ponds, are those surrounded by rich pastures, or corn-fields, having soft springs on the spot, or being at least in the vicinity of pure run- ning water: they should be ex- posed to the sun, and sheltered from the easterly and northerly winds. Those persons who propose to breed carp on a large scale, ought, in the opinion of the Hon. Roger North, to be provided with three reservoirs, namely: 1. A Spawn- ing-pond, which should be cleared of all rapacious fish, and other animals; 2. A nursery, intended for the reception ofthe young carp, which should be removed from the spawning pond, in the month of March or April; and, 3. The main- pond, which is designed for such fish as exceed 12 inches in length. The best carp for breeding, are those from five to seven years old, with long bodies, fine full eyes and scales, Avithout any blemish or wound: three or four such male fish, with six or eight females, will be sufficient to stock a pond one acre in extent; they should be conveyed thither on a fine calm day, toward the end of March, or early in April. One thousand, or twelve hundred, young fish may conveniently inhabit a nursery of a similar capacity ; but, when they are first put in, it will be necessary to watch and drive them away from the sides, lest they become the prey of rapacious birds. The most favourable seasons for stocking main-ponds, are the spring and au- tumn ; Avhen a space, of 15 square feet (perhaps four cubic feet), will be sufficient for each carp : the growth of the fish depends on the room, and quantity of food allowed them. The winter seasons sometimes prove so severe, that the water freezes as often as the ice is broken for the admission of air ; in conse- quence of which the carp frequent'' ly. perish. In such case, the fish may be preserved in a cellar, by the folloAving expedient: Let each be enveloped in wet moss laid on a piece of net, and then be secured in a purse, so as to admit the air. The net must be immersed in wa- ter, at first every third or fourth hour, and suspended to the ceiling, though afterwards such dipping may be performed once in six or seven hours. Their food ought to consist of bread, soaked in milk, which should be given in small quantities, and gradually increased, as the animal becomes accustom- ed to this mode of living. By such treatment many fish have been preserved alive for a consider- able time, and have even grown fat, so as to become more fit for the table. CARPET, a covering for floors, &c. manufactured of wool, or other materials, and Avorked with the needle, or in a loom. The carpets in the greatest estimation are those of Persia and Turkey ; but a ma- nufactory has been established at Paris, where they are.,made in the same manner as the-true Persian carpets, to Avhich they are little in- ferior. There is also a good sort made in Germany ; these are often embellished with silk, and some are even made of dog's hair. In Eng- land, carpets are manufactured of a superior quality ; the most ele- gant and valuable of Avhich are those known by the name of Brut* sels. CARRIAGE, a vehicle Avhich is employed in conveying persons, goods, merchandize, &c. from on« 4 CAR place to another, and is usually constructed with two, or four wheels. Carriages have various names, which, together with their struc- ture, are so generally known, as to render any description of them unnecessary. From their great utility, more particularly when ap- plied to the purposes of family convenience, they have excited the attention of the most ingenious ar- tisans, who have sedulously studied to improve them. Hence a varie- ty of experiments have been made, in order to ascertain the best, and most proper mode of constructing them, and preventing the different obstacles, which tend to impede their motion. To discuss these, would be to embark into too wide a field of enquiry into the princi- ples of mechanics, and to deviate from that plan of conciseness we have adopted. Those of our rea- ders, who may be desirous of ac- quiring minute information on this subject, Avill be gratified by a pe- rusal of Mr. Anstice's Remarks on Wheel Carriages, 1789, 8vo. 2s. 6d. in which it is fully and in- geniously investigated ; and the rules for constructing Avheel-carri- ages are laid down, according to the strictest principles of mecha- nics. In August, 1800, a patent was granted to Mr. Isaac Hadley Reddell, for a neAv method of constructing carriages, intended to convey merchandize, either by land or by Avater; and which may be removed (whether loaded or unla- den) from the Avater to the land, vadviceversa,with ease, expedition, and safety. The patentee makes the bodies of any size or shape re- quired, principally of wood ; but, to strengthen, and render thedifferr CAR ent parts water-tight, they are connected with iron, or other suit- able material. A proper number of wheels are next affixed either in recesses or in narrow boxes or compartments, that are so con- structed as to resist the water : these wheels are farther so arrang- ed, that the bottom ofthe carriages be not more than six, nor less than three inches, above the ground..... When in the water, the carriages thus adjusted, may be fastened to- gether, and drawn by one horse ; but, in the contrary case, it be- comes necessary to separate them, and draw them up an inclined plane. A more particular descrip- tion of this curious contrivance, is in the 14th vol. of the Repertory of Arts, &c. In the year 1800, the society for the Encouragement of Arts, &c. conferred a bounty of thirty guineas on Mr. George Davis, for his in- vention, calculated to prevent pas- sengers in carriages from being in- jured, when horses have taken fright. As a mere verbal account would not convey an adequate idea of this useful machinery, we are under the necessity of referring the reader to the 18th vol. ofthe Trans- actions ofthe Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts, Iffc. where the whole is illustrated with an engrav- ing. Let it suffice to remark, that the apparatus is fixed behind the splinter-bar of a carriage ; and the communication is, by means of a copper chain, carried through the boot, to the side of the coach-box; so that, in case the horses take fright, or the reins break, the coachman can discharge the ani- mals instantaneously. An advan- tage peculiar-to this contrivance is, that the horses can be liberated even •when the poles are at right angle*, CAR •r are locked close to the perch ; a position which otherwise overturns a carriage. Mr. Davis's invention has been exhibited with complete success, in the presence of His Majesty, a Committee ofthe So- ciety, and many other spectators ; but, as apprehension was entertain- ed that passengers might suffer in- jury from the motion of the carri- age, after the horses were disen- gaged, Mr. D. has added a gripe for stopping the wheels ; so that, by one pull of the chain, the ani- mals may be discharged, and two bolts be propelled on the nave of the two fore-wheels, in such man- ner as effectually to retard their motion. CARROT, or Daucus, L. a ge- nus ofplantscomprisingten species, of which the Carota, or common carrot, only is cultivated in Britain, where it was introduced from Flan- ders, in the reign of Queen Eli- zabeth. Carrots are propagated from seeds, which may be sown at dif- ferent times, during the whole sea- son ; in order to procure a succes- sion of young roots for the table. They require an open situation, at a little distance from a Avail; the seeds should be previously rubbed between the hands, to take off their beards, as they will otherwise ad- here to each other, and come up in patches ; but if sown close under the wall, they will too quickly run up to seed, and produce indifferent roots. These plants delight in a warm, light, sandy loam, which should be dug to a considerable depth, to facilitate the roots strik- ing downwards, as they are apt to become forked, and to shoot out la- teral branches. They grow most luxuriantly after turnips, Avhich vender the land more clear of Aveeds CAR 5 thanitis found after any other crop. As a culinary article, the carrot is well known ; it also furnishes a wholesome and nutritious fodder for coavs : if given to them in the winter, and early in the spring, it greatly increases their milk, and imparts to it an agreeable flavour. Hogs thrive well on carrots, which they fondly eat, when boiled in their wash. A sparing allowance of these roots, besides the usual food, is said to produce an invigo- rating effect on hunters : plough and cart horses also eat them Avith avidity; and while thus fed require no corn, and very little hay. Oxen and sheep fatten very speedily on carrots ; and, if the latter animals are " half fat," when put up, they will be completely so, in about tEree months. This vegetable has also been cultivated for feeding deer, in parks ; a practice, which in severe winters, Avhen every other kind of food is scarce, has been attended with advantage. As a fodder for cows, sheep, and swine, the tops of carrots are equally valuable with the roots. Nay, sometimes even hay has-been made by mowing these tops, towards the latter end of June ; yet they should not be cut so closely as to injure the crown of the root. Although carrots, when left in the ground, will not endure the se- verity of winter, like cabbages and other vegetables, yet, by proper care, they may be preserved, so as to afford a Avholesomeand strength- ening fodder for cattle. The me- thod alluded to, is amply described in the eleventh volume of the An- nals of Agriculture, from which we extract the folloAving account: Soon after Michaelmas, Avhen the weather is dry, the carrots are dug out, and piled up on a bank of 6 CAR CAR earth, raised c bout six inches above the level of the soil, and propor- tioned to the quantity of carrots intended to be preserved. On this bank is spread a thin layer of straw, on which the carrots are placed, with their tops turned outward, and the ends folding one over ano- ther. The small roots are topt, and laid in the middle, to prevent the two sides from separating, by the greater pressure of weight on the centre. Every second or third row is covered with a little dry straAV, and the stacking thus con- nued, till it reaches to the height of about four feet, when an addi- tional quantity of dry straw is care- fully spread over the tops, and the whole is thatched Avith sedge. Ano- ther line is then commenced in the same manner as the preceding, and sufficient room left for one person to pass between them. The inter- mediate space is next filled up with dry straAV, and the outside defend- ed with bundles of the same mate- rial, staked doAvn, or fastened Avith hurdles. Thus secured, carrots will protect themselves from frost, by their OAvn tops, and ensure a constant supply of fodder, at a pe- riod when almost every other ve- getable is destroyed. [Upon a gravelly soil on a hill, Major Spooner, of Roxbury, Mas- sachusetts, sowed carrot-seed in a firrow made by the plough, leav- ing a space of two feet between the furroAvs. On the 15th June, the soAving Avas completed. The car- rots were neglected until buried in weeds, and a severe drought suc- ceeded. On the 15th July, the patch was ploughed and Aveeded : on the 1st of August, between five and six hundred cabbages Avere transplanted in the spaces left. The necessary hoeing for those, kept the carrots also in tolerable order. In the autumn, they prov- ed to be of the middle size of gar- den carrots. After cutting the tops, the whole produce measured forty bushels. Mr. Ford is of opinion, that in common fields, with the usual proportion of ma- nure, the average produce would be twenty bushels per acre. If this be the fact, no husbandry will keep so many head of cattle on a given quantity of land, and at so little expence. Mr. Dean says," a sandy soil it very proper for carrots ; but they do very well in gravelly and loamy soils, when loosened to a sufficient depth. The ground should be ploughed or dug more than tAvelve inches deep, and well pulverized. I have found by long experience that carrots should be soAved early. The last week in April is late enough; and they may be sowed earlier, if the ground be in good or- der, and so dry as to be made light and loose. The earliest sown will be the largest, and nearly as tender and good tasted as if sown later. A small quantity of dressing will be sufficient for them. But what- ever manure is used, should be well rotted, and made fine, or putrefy- very soon in the ground; other- Avise the little obstacles in it, will cause the roots to divide, and be- come forked. I have known car- rots manured Avith hog-dung, grow to a surprising bigness. But if a large quantity of this strong manure be used, they will groAV so fast as to burst open.....It is a crop that bears drought well, as it draws its principal nourishment from a con- siderable depth. Carrots may be soavii pretty thick, as they are remarkable for grow- ing better in a crowded situation than almost any other kind of roots. And it is easy to thin them at any CAR CAR T time when it is thought proper, as they are so shaped as to come up easily. In the garden I soAVthemin drills, or little furrows, made an inch deep with the head of a rake, from 9 to 12 inches apart, across beds four feet wide. This prevents treading the ground hard too near to the roots ; greatly facilitates clearing them of weeds Avith a hoe, and keep- ing the earth loose to a sufficient depth. I do not thin them much, till I begin to pull them for use, about the beginning of July ; from Avhich time I pull them, not only for the table, but to feed swine, as that sort of animals are so fond of them, that they will greedily de- vour both roots and tops.....The spaces between the beds may be kept clear of weeds, by turning over the soil with a narrow spade, once or twice in May and June. It will not only subdue the weeds, but in- crease the pasture of the nearest plants. But the field culture of this root begins to prevail in the country. As carrots are found to be valuable for feeding not only sAvine, but hor- ses and cattle, and for fattening them ; but to fatten swine on them, they should be boiled, or par-boiled. They are so easily cultivated, and so hardy, that they may be raised in fields. They will grow Avell in a soil that is but moderately rich, if it be ploughed deep, and made melloAV. And there is no difficulty in keeping them through the av in- ter, in good order for feeding cattle. The ground should be ploughed in the fall preceding, and ploughed very deep. If the plough do not go deep enough at once, it should be trench ploughed ; that is, the plough should pass tAvice in the i\mw. And if some of the earth which was never before stirred, should be thrown up to the surface, it will be no damage, provided it be such earth as crumbles easily, and does not remain in lumps, after the winter frosts. If the land incline to much wet- ness, it should be water-furrowed, after ploughing, that so it may be dry, and fit to be ploughed again very early in the spring. It must be well harrowed before sowing, first with a heavy harroAV, and af- terwards with a lighter one, with shorter teeth placed near together. After the seed is soAvn, the ground should be raked. When soAvn in the broad-cast method, they should stand so far apart after thinning, as to have each half a foot of soil. There will be no danger in thinning them early, as they are a plant which is seldom diminished by in- sects. After the first hoeing, the Eu- ropean farmers harrow them. It is said not one in fifty will be de- stroyed by the operation. It -will loosen the soil, and greatly forward their growth. But it will be advis- able to go among them after har- rowing, and uncover those which are buried under heaps of mould. A Mr. Billing, in England, one year sowed thirty acres of carrots, and had an extraordinary crop. Some of the best of the land yield- ed him twenty-four cart-loads per acre. If his cart contained 40 bushels, which is a common size in this country, he had 960 bushels from an acre. And this is not a greater crop, than a gentleman at Newbury had last year, unless I am misinformed. Mr. Billing had 510 loads of carrots per 30 acres,Avhich he thinks equal in use and effect to near 1000 loads of turnips, or three hundred 8 CAR CAR loads of hay. If so, he had as good a crop as ten loads of hay per acre would have been. But the half of this quantity is seldom if ever ob- tained in hay ; or if it were, it must be very coarse, and not near so va- luable as hay in general. This farmer found, that his car- rots answered extremely Avell, not only for fattening swine, but bul- locks ; and for feeding milch cows, sheep and horses; and that the land was left in a better condition for a succeeding crop, than land after a crop of turnips. It is Avith pleasure that I find the attention of some of my coun- trymen turned to the field culture of this excellent root. They who have but little land may probably enable themselves to keep consi- derable stocks by means of it. This root has greatly the advan- tage of turnips, not only in its being a richer and more nourishing food, and in yielding a larger produce, but also in its being never annoyed or hurt by insects. This crop right- ly managed, I have never knoAvn to fail, as it is Avell known the other often does. The drill-method is preferred by some, and is that which I use. But the labour will perhaps be increas- ed a little. The seeds must be sown by hand, as their shape will not admit of their being drilled. To prepare them for sowing at all, they should be well rubbed, and passed through a sieve. The first hoeing of carrots in rows must be also by hand; at Avhich hoeing they should be thinned to one or tAvo in- ches asunder, if large ones arc de- sired. It is not amiss, if they grow large and rank, when they are chiefly designed as food for cattle, though small sized ones are pre- ferred for the table.....The Avay to keep carrots good for eating through the winter, is to bury them in dry sand of the yellow kind from pits." Carrots \yhen intended for win- ter food must be taken up in the autumn and packed in a cellar or barn.....In this situation they Avi- ther a little, and it is said yield more nourishment than when given fresh. Horses are said.to be very fond of carrots, and to prefer them to oats]. Various, but unsuccessful, expe- riments have been made to prepare sugar from carrots; as they yielded only a thick syrup, similar to trea- cle. Nevertheless, these roots have lately been more advantageously employed in distillation. After mashing, and properly fermenting them, M. Brieger, a foreign dis- tiller, obtained from ten pounds of the roots, onequartof Avhatis called " first runnings," and half a pint of a very strong ardent spirit.....As a German acre of land produces, upon an average, 10,000 pounds weight of carrots, he is of opinion, that a loose soil might be more advanta- geously employed in the culture of those roots, than in that of any seed-corn.....See also Brandy. In medicine, a marmalade of carrots, on account of their strong antiseptic qualities, has been suc- cessfully used for preventing, and curing the sea-scurvy. An infu- sion of them has also been found to afford considerable relief to per- sons afflicted with the stone, and Avorms, but especially the tape- worm.....A poultice, made of the roots, has often been attended with similar success, in mitigating the pain, and abating the smell, of foul and cancerous ulcers. CART, a land carriage, with tAvo Avheels, draAvn either by horses or C AR oxen, for conveying heavy goods, See generally at short distances. In rural economy, the proper construction, and adaptation of carts to different soils and situations, are objects of the first consequence to every reflecting farmer. Never- theless, it is surprising, that little attention has been paid to this im- portant subject, previous to the late improvements in agriculture ; the flourishing xra of Avhich,. in Bri- tain, commenced about the middle of last century, or the year 1754, when that patriotic Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Ma- nufactures, and Commerce, was instituted at London. Since that memorable period, numberless in- ventions have been introduced into rural economy, and the names of Lord Romney, Messrs. Shipley, More, and many other illustrious promoters of true national wealth, will ever be remembered by a grateful posterity. One of the most active members of this re- ' spectable institution is Mr. Ar- thur Young, of whose public spirit, and indefatigable labours, Ave have before us the most ample and satisfactory proofs. His " An- nals of Agriculture," though con- ducted on a plan too diffuse for ordinary readers, is a work replete with practical facts; and on the whole, the best illustration of Bri- tish husbandry. In the 18th vo- lume of these Annals, Ave meet with an elaborate paper, entitled " The Partner's Cart;" by the CAR 9 editor ; from which we shall ex- tract the following particulars: Mr. Young first observes, that the most general farmer's carriage in England, is a waggon drawn by four horses, in which is convey- ed corn, hay, wood, &c but not dung or earth, which are usually moved by carts, or tumbrils, drawn by three, or four horses....carriers almost universally employ broad- Avheeled Avaggons, drawn by eight horses. In Scotland, waggons were for- merly used, but afterwards chang- ed for large carts, and more late- ly for small ones, drawn by one horse. In Ireland, the most common vehicle at present is the one-horse car, with low wheels beneath the body of the machine; Avhich has univerally superseded the use of English carts and Avaggons, from a conviction of their inferiority. No- thing, says Mr. Young, exceeds the amazing expedition with Avhich corn and hay fields are cleared in that country, by means of this use^ ful, though inelegant implement. In consequence of such a decishre encomium, as well as the very fa- vourable account given of this ma- chine by the late Mr. Bakeavell, of Dishley, Leicestershire, in the " Communications to the Board of Agriculture," we have been induced to present our readers Avith the fol- lowing cut, and description, of an Improved Irish Car. ▼ OL. II. e 10 CAR CAR The advantage of this vehicle, ence, that the resistance to the cy- Avhich was preferably employed, lindrical wheel is not increased, but and strongly recommended, by the diminished, by increasing the breadth last mentioned agriculturist, con- and the flat bearing of its rim. The sist in the facility with which it is knoAvledge of this fact is of very laden, on account of its lowness ; great importance to the farmer, as and, when gate-ways and roads well as to the waggoner; for, by are narrow, much room is gained availing himself of this simple im- by the wheels being fixed under prcvement, he may be enabled, in the body of the cart. In such si- almost all seasons, to drive his broad tuations, therefore, it is Avell cal- wheeled carts, &c. on his meadow culated for carrying manure, espc- or ploughed ground, Avhenno nar- cially on meadow or ploughed row wheel can be employed....... land ; and, for that purpose, its [The draught is also much inclin- Avheels ought to have a flat bear- ed, which is a circumstance of great ing and to be at least six inches in consequence. See Draught.] breadth. Another peculiarity in the Hence it Avould be superfluous to construction of this cart is, that its enumerate the farther advantages wheels are necessarily cylindrical; of this implement; yet, Avhen the and that the facility of draught width of gate-ways and the breadth arising from this unobserved cir- of roads will admit of the Avheels cumstance, was probably imputed being placed at the sides of the to some other part of the machinery, cart, without confining the width of But, though contrary to the gene- its body, it will probably be more rally received opinion, Mr. Alex- advantageous to have them at the ander Cummings (in his Obser- sides, than under the cart. vations on the Effect which Car- One of the greatest advocates riage-wheels with Rims of different for one-horse carts, is Lord Robert shapes have on the Roads, printed Seymour, whose excellent paper in the Communications to the Board on this subject, dated Taliaris, 5th of Agriculture), [See Wheels,] September, 1796 (inserted in the has satisfactorily demonstrated, and 27th volume of the Annals of Agri- it is likewise evinced by experi- culture), deserves the thanks of all CAR CAR II British farmers. This patriotic no- bleman strongly recommends the cart which he employs on his estates, as a most useful implement of husbandry. Convinced of its superior excellence, in many situa- tions, Ave have thought proper to annex an accurate engraving of this cart, for the elucidation of which, Ave shall extract the folloAV- ing particulars from his Lordship's letter, addressed to the editor of the last-mentioned work: The advantages of single-horse carts are universally admitted, wherever they have been atten- tively compared Avith carriages of any other description. By his own observation, Lord Seymour is led to conclude, that a horse acting singly will do half as much more Avork as in conjunction Avith ano- ther, so that tAvo horses will, sepa- rately, perform the work of three conjunctively. This difference, he believes, arises partly from the sin- gle horse being so near the load he draws, and partly from the point or line of draught being so much below his breast; as the wheels of single-horse carts are usually made very Ioav. When a horse draws in conjunction with another, he is ge- nerally embarrassed by some dif- ference of rate....the horse behind or before him, being quicker or slower than himself: Avhereas a single horse has only his load to contend Avith, and is not inconve- nienced by the greater or lesser height of his fellow. Nor is there any necessity for employing addi- tional drivers ; as horses, once in the habit of going singlyi Avill fol- low each other as uniformly, and steadily, as they do Avhen harnessed together : hence, on the most fre- quented roads in Ireland, one man conducts three, four, or five single- horse carts, without any inconve- nience to the passenger. Dimensions of the body of the cart employed by Lord Robert Seymour :.......Two^ feet eleven inches across the bottom ; three feet nine inches, inside length; one foot high ; sloping top, nine inches. Iron wheels......Tavo feet eight inches high ; rim, three inches and a half wide, and from three-quar- ters to an inch thick ; spoke, three inches and a quarter at each end, worked off to tAvo inches atits centre. In the introduction to the letter above alluded to, his Lordship ob- serves, that the price of iron cast into wheels is 16s. per cwt. and the- weight of each Avheel is about three- quarters of a hundred.....Two in- conveniencies, however, arise from the use of Ioav cast-iron wheels ; namely, 1. That such iron is very liable to break upon concussion ; and 2. The the course of a Avheel of so small a diameter, occasions a very quick consumption of grease. The first of these objections is, in a great measure, removed by the facility Avith Avhich the rim of the wheel may be repaired by the ap- plication of wrought iron ; the lat- ter being joined to the former by a rivet, the Avheel acquires a degree of elasticity, and thus becomes, perhaps, stronger than it Avas when neAV. In order to furnish a regular supply of grease, Lord Robert has introduced four grooves or ca- vities in the boxes, increasing a little towards their centres : and with a view to defend the axle- tree, which consists of wrought iron, against the harder body of the box, he ordered the extremity of it to be steeled. - ■* ■ Mr. Arthur Young, in the ' 18th, volume of his Annals of A^ri' 12 CAR CAR culture, before quoted, states the folloAving dimensions of a single- horse cart, Avhich he, by the test of experience, has found to be the most advantageous : Buck....Length, 5 feet 1 inch. Breadth, 3 feet 7 inches. Depth, 2 feet. Cubical feet, 35 and a fraction. On his farm of 350 acres, in Suffolk, Mr. Young employs only five such carts ; and observes, that he Avould not add more than one to the number, even though he should increase his business to 4 or 500 acres : hay, corn in the straAV, fag- got-Avood, billets, dung, clay, marl, lime, bricks, Sec. are all conveyed by them ; carrying out 9, and even 10 Toombs of wheat in sacks, and they are never drawn by more than one horse or ox.....No farm of the same extent, in an arable country, has less than three Avaggons, three tumbrils, and a light cart: the ex- act price of these different imple- ments, in the year 1792, amount- ed to 109/. st. while the building of six carts, upon Mr, Young's plan, costs only 63/. thus he saves about 40 per cent, in annual repairs. Be- sides this great reduction of ex- pence, another circumstance de- serves particular notice....As these carts had for many years been the object of ridicule, Mr. Young offered a bet to one of his preju- diced neighbours, that he should load a Avaggon, till five horses could not stir Avith it; and Mr. Young engaged to carry away that load with case, in his carts, Avith four of the same horses ; but the confidence, which his antago- nist possessed in Avaggons, would not allow him to accept the offer. The infinite benefit, concludes Mr. Young, of which these carts would be to the roads, if their use should become general, may be easily conceived. In all the exa- minations before Committees of the House of Commons, as well as in most of the treatises published on the subject, it has been admit- ted that no police or management can keep the roads in repair, Avhile such vast weights are permitted to be drawn in a single carriage. Par- liament has been made so sensible of this fact, that repeated acts have been passed, by which the weight of Avaggons was limited, and a certain breadth of the Avheels en- joined. Experience, however, has proved, that both are insufficient, and that the only method of effect- ing a faA'ourable change, would be to prohibit numerous teams. Let every man carry Avhatever weight he pleases in a one-horse cart, and pay a light toll: let the load of a two-horse cart be limited, and the toll increased ; farther lessening the weight, and raising the toll, Avhen four horses are employed ; and thus advancing the turnpike expences for every additional horse, till it amounts nearly to a prohibi- tion. If such a plan Avere to be adopted, Ave should soon see all our roads in an improved state. Rollers have, indeed, been greatly indulged both in weight and toll ; but this was a preposterous mea- sure, for a roller will crush a peb- ble to dust as Avell as a Avheel, and the badness of roads must be at- tributed to the materials being reduced to powder, almost as soon as laid on, and either blown away in dust, or carried off in mud.... Having folloAved some of Sharp's waggons, and observed the effect, C AR Mr. Young is persuaded that the roller is more detrimental to the road than nine-inch wheels. In such an inquiry, facts only can de- cide the question : the Irish roads are made at an expence beyond comparison less than the Eng- lish, and were, at the time he visit- ed that country, greatly superior to those in England. This differ- ence, in his opinion, must be attri- buted entirely to the use of on e-horse carts, as he has explained in his " Tour of Ireland." " Many hun- dred thousands a year would be saved in England, if these carts Avere so favoured in road-acts, as to ensure a great decrease of Avag- gons." On the Avhole, he ven- tures to recommend the use of one- horse carts to his brother farmers, with that confidence which ought to arise solely from numerous and varied experiments. [A predilection has long prevail- ed in England and America, in favour of large teams and Avag- gons, in regard to which, says Dr. Anderson, the great object of emulation seems to be, to try how an immense load of goods may be transported in one carriage, with- out regard to any other circum- stance. But this is acting in di- rect opposition to the best es- tablished principles of mecha- nics, of economy, and of common sense. The* parts of large machines must be made so' proportionally thick, because of the largeness of size on which they are con- structed, that the very Aveight of the machine, itself, is a load which not only subjects the OAvner to a great and unnecessary expence in the purchase,-but what is AVorse, obliges him to be at a great ex- pence for horses to drag that un- CAR 13 necessary load from place to place. When four or more horses are yoked to a team, three of these horses must draw horizontally, and consequently in a manner incon- sistent with their mechanism, which will be explained under the Art. Draught. The immensely large wheels of waggons, also add exceedingly to the draught of the horses, because a Avaggon from the sloAvness of its motion, obliges the horses to over- come its vis inertia every moment they are dravping it. That is, it is the same thing as putting it into a state of motion from a state of rest every moment; for eveiy one knoWs how small a force is capa- ble of keeping a heavy body in mo- tion. The very great Aveight of our Western country Avaggons is Avell knoAvn. Let any one then reflect upon the great portion of the horse's strength which is spent in draAving the Avaggon besides the load it contains, and Avhich ought to be applied to support an increase of the latter. Why could not each horse draAv his own cart ? There can be no doubt, that four horses Avith each a properly constructed cart, will draAv more and with more ease to themselves, than when they are yoked to one waggon. A good horse will draAv as a common load 15 cwt. of goods, and travel farther in a day than our waggons, and over Avorse roads, Avhereas 10 or 12 cwt. of burthen, is as much as falls to the share of one waggon horse; his superioi strength being wasted upon a cum- brous Avheel. The rough roads beyond the mountains may probably prevent the adoption of the plan of om- horse carts, but Avhy could not each 14 CAR CAR horse draAv his own carti from the farms of Lancaster County ? The halter of one horse might be tied to the cart which goes before it, and by this means one driver would have the Avhole as much at command as if they were yoked in the chains of a v/aggon. A horse has also the momentum of his draught increased by having a por- tion of the weight on his back....... The expence of turnpike may be increased by the carts, but would not the increased freight more than make up ?] In the 2d. vol.' of " Communica- tions to the Board of Agriculture," we meet with a description of a Drag-cart, and an ingenious me- thod of regulating the centre of gravity of the load; by Lord Som- erville. This memoir is illus- trated Avith plates, from one of which Ave have selected the folloAV- ing figure, representing a perspec- tive view of a cart designed to be drawn by two strong oxen, with a pole, yoke, and bows; such carriage being calculated to convey 45 cwt. In the front of the body of this eart is represented the manner in which the centre of gravity of the load is adjusted; in order to pre- vent it from pressing too much on the animals, when descending a hill; the front of the cart is eleva- ted by means of a toothed rack screAved on it, and Avorked by a pinion, and the handle a, being immediately connected Avith the pole r....By the aid of this pinion and rack, the front of the carriage is raised in a greater or less degree according to the declivity ; so that the weight of the load bears more on the axle, and less on the necks of the cattle. On the side of this cart is deli- neated the position, in which the friction-drag is applied, and is made to press in a greater or less degree, according to the steepness of the descent..,.d,d, is the friction- bar ; one end being connected with the tail of the cart, by means of a small chain: and the othei* being fastened to the front by a toothed rack b,d, that catches on a staple in such front; so that the friction bar may be made to act more or less powerfully on the side of the CAR wheel, at the discretion of the driver««the notches, or teeth, on this rack should be set as closely together, as circumstances will permit. The friction-bar, in the figure above given, is stated by Lord S. to be placed loAver on the Avheel than it was originally designed, with a view to divide the pressure and friction more equally on the opposite side of the wheel: so that the action on each is diminished ; and the risk of over-heating and destroying the friction bars is ren- dered less, than if the Avhole pres- sure were applied in one point, on the top of the wheel. The advan- tages arising from the drag here described, are.as follow : 1. The pressure and degree of friction may, with great expedition be adjusted to the steepness of the declivity ; so that the carriage will neither press forward, nor require much exertion in the draught. 2. The friction is, with great propriety, applied to the Avheel in such a direction, that a given pres- sure Avill produce twice the effect in retarding the progress, Avhich it would have, in case it had been im- mediately applied to the body ofthe cart, or to the axis. 3. This apparatus is so easily arranged, that it may be immedi- ately adjusted, without stopping the carriage, or exposing the dri- ver to danger. 4. Lord Somerville's useful contrivance -will be of still greater utility when applied to both the hind wheels of waggons : for by this expedient, the resistance may not only be always adapted to the steepness of the descent, so as ef- fectually to prevent both the tear- ing up high-roads, and the unne- cessary exertion of cattle, when CAR 15 drawing locked carriages down hills; but also the frequent acci- dents to which drivers are expos- ed, will be completely obviated; and that time, which is now spent in locking and and unlocking wag- gon-wheels, will in future be saved. Having concluded the subject of single-horse-carts, we shall only observe,for the information of those who employ teams with two- wheeled carriages, that several use- ful implements have lately been invented, for the more effectual stopping of such carts, in de- scending steep hills, and likeAvise for taking off the increased weight thrown on the shaft horse's back in all descents. A description of these excellent contrivances, illus- trated by the necessary cuts, we shall communicate under the re- spective heads of Locking-pole, and Wheel-drag. In London and Westminster, carts are not permitted to carry more than twelve sacks of meal, 750 bricks, one chaldron of coals, &c. on pain of forfeiting one of the horses (stat. 6 Geo. I. c. 6). By the laAvs of the city, carmen are forbidden to ride either on their carts or horses : they are to lead or drive them on foot through the streets, under the penalty of 10s. (stat. 1 Geo. I.e. 57.) Rolling-carts are very useful machines for carrying manure on loAV-lands, during wet seasons..... According to an account given by Mr. Richard Moyle, and in- serted in the 14th volume of the Transactions of the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts, &c. such a cart consists of three circu- lar pieces of strong elm, tAvo feet in diameter, and each eighteen in- ches long, through which a strong iron axis is passed, so as to pro- 16 CAR trude a few inches on each end beyond the rollers ; after all, al- lowing an inch between each piece, for the conveniency of turning round. On the projecting part of the axis, a fixed frame is placed, for supporting the body of the cart which, according to the nature of the soil, may be loaded to any de- gree, and employed simply as a roller, or for carrying manure, &c. on land where common wheels cannot be admitted. By means of these rolling carts, the surface of the land is to be fre- quently compressed, in order to consolidate the soil more perfectly, so that the earthy particles may embrace the roots of the grasses, and retain their proper moisture ; on which the luxuriancy of such soils in a great measure depends. CARTILAGE, is a smooth, elastic, and insensible animal sub- stance, someAvhat approaching to the nature of bones. Cartilages have a natural elasti- city, the power of which is so great that, on being forced out of their situation, they spontaneously re- turn to it, as soon as that force is removed. They are principally situated in those parts of the hu- man body, Avhich require a slight and easy motion, as in the ears, nose, Sec. Their elasticity supplies the place of antagonist muscles, or such as are by Nature designed to counteract each other. Cartilages also invest all the ends of those bones, that arc conjoined for per- forming motion; because, as they are both smoother and softer than bones, Avhich are insensible, the at- trition occasioned by the motion ofthe joints is thus more effectu- ally guarded against. See likevrise Charcoal. CAS CASCARILLA, is the bark of the Croton eleutherio, L. a native of the East-Indies, [said to be also found in Georgia,] Avhence it is im- ported in the form of curled pieces, or rolled up into short quills, about an inch in width; externally resem- bling the Peruvian bark. Divested of its Avhitish upper rind, the Cascarilla possesses an agreeable smell, and a bitterish, pungent, aromatic taste. This inflammable drug, when burning, emits a fragrant odour, not unlike that of musk ; on account of Avhich property it is often employed in fumigations, or as an ingredient in tobacco, Avith the fanciful view of purifying a corrupted atmosphere. The cascarilla is frequently and successfully administered in inter- mittent fevers, even as a substitute for the Peruvian bark ; being less liable to produce the inconvenien- cies Avhich the latter is apt to occa- sion by its astringency. The former drug, according to medical Avriters, has also been prescribed with un- common advantage in dangerous epidemic and petechial fevers, in flatulent colics, internal hemorrha- ges, dysenteries, diarrhoeas, and similar disorders. The virtues of the Cascarilla"are partially extract- ed by water, and totally by rectifi- ed spirit; though it operates most effectually Avhen given in poAvder; the doses being regulated, accord- ing to circumstances, from ten to thirty grains every four,six,oreight, hours. CASE-HARDENING of Iron, is a superficial, conversion of that metal into steel, by a cementation of it Avith Aegetable or animal coate. Thisoperation is usually performed on small pieces of iron, Avorked into tools and instruments, by put- CAS CAS 17 ting them together with the ce- ment, into an iron box, which is closely shut, and exposed to a red heat, for several hours. Thus, the surface of the iron, to a certain depth, is converted into steel, to which a proper degree of hardness may be given, by a sudden immer- sion of the heated pieces into a cold fluid. See Cutlery, Iron. CASSAVA, or IatropliaManihot, L. a native shrub of South-Ame- rica, eminently deserving to be transplanted to our climate; for it is asserted that one acre of its roots produces a quantity of food equal to that usually obtained from six acres of seed-corn. This shrub groAvs from four to .seven feet high, is knotted, covered Avith an ash- coloured bark, and pithy within : its broad palmated leaves, together Avith its white and rose-coloured blossoms, render it a very beautiful plant. According to M. Bru- nelli, it may be propagated by seed, but more expeditiously by suckers : when these are planted in a deep, rich, and light soil, they vegetate with surprising luxuri- ance, and produce in the course of one year, a Avhite, soft, and farina- ceous root, from one to two feet in length, and from five to six inches in circumference. The very extensive use of the cassava, as an article of food in South-America, is a striking in- stance of human ingenuity success- fully directed to prepare wholesome nutriment from such vegetables as, in their natural state, are very ac- tive poisons. A mild, nutritious food is obtained from these roots in the following manner: Immedi- ately after being gathered, they are Avashedand stripped of their thick rind by means of a knife : the heart, VOL. II. a pulpy mass, either Avhite or yel- loAvish, is repeatedly passed between cylinders, and turned by mill-work, till all the juice is expressed. The dry pulp, being thus freed from the poisonous juice, is a compound of farina and vegetable fibre, and requires no farther preparation than to be thoroughly dried, over a very slow fire. In this state it will keep for several months in close vessels ; and, Avhen wanted, it may be formed into cakes, by kneading up with Avater, and baking it; or into pottage, by boiling it with water, and a little Cayenne pepper. The pure farina is the tapioca of the shops : it is separated from the fibrous part, by taking a handful of the pulp, after the juice is ex- tracted, and working it in the hand, till a thick white cream appears on the surface : this being scraped off and washed in water, gradually subsides to the bottom, and after pouring off the liquor, the remain- ing moisture is dissipated over a slow fire, constantly stirring the farina, so that at length it con- cretes into grains, about the size of sago, which become hard by- keeping. This is the purest and most nutritive part of the pulp, and forms a very Avholesome and pa- latable food, which, if preserved in a dry place, may be kept for any length of time. By heaping together the cassa- va cakes, till they begin to heat and become mouldy, and then infusing them in Avater, to induce a very rapid fermentation, the Indians prepare a very sharp and disagree- able, but intoxicating liquor, Avhich will not keep longer than a day, without spoiling. Although this liquor, previous to distillation, has. a sweet and mild taste, yet, Avhen D 18 CAS CAS drunk in any quantity, it oc- casions excessive swelling of the body, convulsions and death. According to M. Brunelli, hogs and some other animals, eagerly devour the fresh root, without the least injury. But Dr. Bancroft, in his Essay on the Natural History of Guiana, 8cc. (8vo. 6s. 1769), states, that the expressed juice of the cassava-root, when drunk by sheep, hogs, and poultry, proves inevitably fatal to them; yet the animals thus poisoned are ahvays eaten by the inhabitants....The best antidotes against the virulent effects of the cassava, in its crude state, are red pepper and rum, if imme- diately used. Fatal as this root is in its natural condition, it is- ren- dered perfectly innocuous, and Wholesome, by fire. By baking the meal, says the last mentioned author, it is converted into nutri- tious food, and the poisonous juice of the root is, by both the Indians and colonists, boiled Avith venison, pepper, &c. by Avhich process they prepare an agreeable and salu- brious soup. We have enlarged upon the pro- perties of this beneficial vegetable, because we think its general intro- duction into our West Indian set- tlements Avould be attended with the happiest effects ; and that it might, by proper management, also be transplanted to the northern hemisphere. This, however, is certain, that exotics of almost every description might gradually be na- turalized in colder climates, if the following particulars were strictly attended to: namely, 1. That they be placed in a soil and situation congenial to their original habit ; 2. That in removing them farther northward, only the seeds and suckers of plants already accus- tomed to a cooler region, should be selected ; and 3. That this method of transplanting them, be regulated Upon certain principles, to be de- rived from a careful examination of the greater or less intimate con- nection, or affinity, subsisting be- tween vegetables ofthe same class, or genus. Thus, the potatoe, arti- choke, Anne, mulberry-tree, and many other of the most useful ve- getables, have been inured to cli- mates very remote from their ori- gin ; and the three last mentioned are noAv enabled to Avithstarid the severest Avinters. As Ave intend, on similar occa- sions, to refer to this article, with regard to the method of depriving certain vegetables of their poison- ous juices, we shall conclude this account with a few practical direc- tions to that effect; because these will be applicable to any other tuberous and farinaceous root, as Avell as to seed, or fruit. Instead of grinding, or bruising such sub- stances, in the rude manner adopt- ed by the Indians, the roots, in particular, should first be properly peeled, and then grated upon a sieve. By moderately pressing this pulp Avith the hand, the juice, to- gether with some feculent matter, will pass through ; the latter will speedily subside, so that the liquor may be poured off and fermented, by which method it will probably be deprived of all its poisonous qualities: should this, however, not be the case, there is no doubt, that from the' expressed juice of all me bly roots, (if the fermenting process be duly conducted) a very pure ardent spirit may be obtained by distillation. The pulp Avhich remains on the sieve, must be either repeatedly washed Avith cold Avater, or soaked CAS in several waters, without suffer- ing it to ferment, till the liquor comes off quite clear : all these washings being put together, will deposit a mealy sediment; Avhich after pouring off the water, should be dried in a gentle heat; but the fibrous residuum on the sieve can be used only as fuel. Thus, the purest tapioca may be extracted from the cassava, and similar gra- nulated masses may be obtained from European vegetables ; many of which Ave have already mention- ed in our work, under the article Bread. CASSIA, in botany, a genus of plants, comprising thirty species, the most remarkable of Avhich are: 1. The cassia fistula, L. or purg- ing Cassia of Alexandria. It is indigenous in Egypt, and both Indies, and bears a cylindrical pod, containing a soft, black pulp, of a sAveetish taste, Avhich dissolves, for the most part, both in water and rectified spirit. This pulp is a gentle laxative, and frequently given, in doses of several drams, to persons of costive habits. In inflammatory complaints, it is some- times administered in much larger doses, from one to two ounces, when acrid purgatives are improper ; though it is apt to nauseate the stomach, to produce flatulency, and griping ; especially if the pulp be of an inferior kind, or spoiled by long keeping: these effects may, hoAvever, be obviated by the addi- tion of aromatics, and by taking it in a liquid form. [There are several species of Cassia in the United States. Tavo in particular deserve notice: a. Cassia Marylandica, is used as a purgative, and possesses nearly the same virtues as the senna of the CAS 19 shops ; both plants belong to the same genus. b. Cassia Chameecrista, is culti- vated in Maryland, and on the east- ern shore of Virginia, for the pur- pose of recovering A\orn-out lands, and of enriching such as are natural- ly poor. Sandy lands, in particular, are ameliorated by it. It bears the absurd and confusing trivial names of Eastern-shore Bean, Golden Cas- sia, Peacock Flower, Aquamaque, or Magothay-bay Bean. Mr. Bord- ley asserts, that " this plant, which is not the partridge pea, is so difficult to eradicate, that it might become an injurious Aveed in other soils and courses of crops than those in Aquamaque. The courses there being maize and oats, lay on a sandy, loose soil." This plant is particularly described, and an ac- count of its culture, detailed by Dr. Greenaway. Amer. Phil. Trans, vol. 3.] 2% The Cassia Senna. See Senna. Cassia-bark. See Laurus Cas- sia. [Cassine, South sea tree, Native of S. States, rises to the height of ten or twelve feet, sending out branches from the ground upwards, which form themselves into a sort of pyramid. The floAvers are pro- duced in close Avhorls at the joints of the branches, near the footstalks of the leaves ; they are Avhite, and are succeeded by red berries, Avhich continue upon the plant most part ofthe winter, and being of a bright red colour, make a fine appearance intermixed Avith green leaA es. Cassine is thought to be one of the most powerful diuretics hither- to discovered. It also vomits se- verely. It is highly esteemed among the S. Indians, Avho call it " Youpon." They use'the plant in 20 CAS decoction....Cassine is generally supposed to be the same plant that is called " Paraguay" in South America, where the Jesuits for- merly made a great revenue from the leaves, of Avhich an account is given by Mr. Frezier.] Castor. See Beaver. CASTOR-OIL is extracted from the castor nut, or the seed of the Ricinus communis, a native of the Westlndies. These seeds are about the size of small beans, Avhich, in their brittle shells, contain Avhite kernels, of a sweet, oily, but some- what nauseous taste. Nor is the expressed oil quite free from the acrimony of the nut; though it is, in general, one of the mildest and safest purgatives ; so that half a tea-spoonful for a dose has been given, with success, to new-born infants, for lubricating the first passages, and expelling the meco- nium. It is also one of the best vermifuges, and a most efficacious remedy for the dry belly-ach, and iliac passion, when administered in proper doses, to children and adults ; viz. the dose for the for- mer, from one to two tea-spoon- fuls ; and the latter, a table-spoon- ful, repeated every tAvo or three hours. As patients generally have a great aversion to this oil, in its pure state, it may be taken SAvim- ming either in a glass of pepper- mint, or simple Avater, or in the form of an emulsion, with muci- lage, or with the. addition of a small quantity of rum. The greatest precaution, hoivever, is necessary with respect to the quality of this oil, as there are tAvo modes of pre- paring it, namely, by decoction and expression: the former is of a brown colour, has a rancid, dis- agreeable taste and smell, and con- C A S sequently unfit for internal use ; whereas that obtained by expres- sion, is more limpid, rather verging to a green colour, and almost taste- less ; but, Avhen spoiled by long keeping, it is likeAvise an improper medicine. Externally, castor-oil wanned, and rubbed on the parts affected, has been successfully applied in that painful spasmodic contraction, and rigidity of the muscles, called the tetanus; as likeAvise mixed with opium and camphor, in the form of a liniment, to relieve the most distressing spasms, and par- ticularly the trismus, or locked jaw; in Avhich cases, however, it posses- ses no specific action. [The plant producing this excel- lent medicine groAvs very Avell in Penns. It is said there are two sorts, one with a reddish stalk, another with a light blueish stalk. The plant of this last kind only, is pro- pagated for the oil; the former is supposed to have poisonous qua- lities. To procure the oil, shell the seeds and boil them in water ; as the oil rises, skim it off. When the seeds yield no more to the wa- ter, press them Avrapped loosely, in a coarse cloth, or hair bag. This oil is SAveet, without bad taste or smell, and as clear as olive oil: or bruise the seeds and boil them..... The oil skimmed off is much pur- er, and may be kept much longer than that obtained by expression, because the water detains the mu- cilage, Avhich abounds in the expres- sed oil, and disposes it to spoil sooner. This plant should be cul- tivated in every garden in this state nnd south of it. In the Avarm sands of NeAv-Jersey it Avould thrive well, if the seeds Avere put in the ground early in the spring. Every farmer might raise as much castor CAT oil in one year as Avould be requir- ed by his family during several years : and an experiment is Avorth making upon half an acre of plants as to the profit of their produce.... The plant is cultivated largely near Lexington, Kentucky, and in New- York. In Georgia, and in the FIo- ridas, it grows to a great size.] CAT, or Felis Catus, L. a genus of animals, comprising twenty-one species, and belonging to the same class as the lion and the tyger..... Though originally a variety of the wild cat, one of the most ferocious brutes, this animal is noAv domes- ticated, and bred in Britain, as well as in other parts of Europe, Asia and Africa, of Avhich countries it is a native. The former inhabits hollow trees, especially the oaks of large forests, and in winter retreats to the deserted holes of foxes and badgers. Its skin is an excellent fur, but by no means compensates the damage done by wild cats to game and poultry. The domestic cat, when suffer- ed to retire to thickets, easily re- turns to a wild state. Its colour is uncommonly diversified ; but the most beautiful varieties are, the reddish Spanish cat, and that of Angora, Avith long silken hair. A tame cat generally attains the age of about tAvelve years : the female breeds in the first year ; though it groAVs till eighteen months old ; she usually produces from four to six blind kittens, after a gestation of fifty-five days; and carefully conceals them, apprehensive ofthe unnatural voracity of the male. It is farther remarkable, that the fe- male also has been observed to de- vour her offspring, when it hap- pened to be deformed, or mon- strous. CAT 21 The flesh of animals, or fish, is the most agreeable food to cats ; for they partake of vegetable ali- ment only from necessity. As they chew Avith difficulty, frequent drink is indispensably requisite to the preservation of their health.... There are, however, some plants of Avhich they are excessively fond; and when indulged Avith them, pre- sent a variety of whimsical gesti- culations : of this nature is the valerian root, and the herb called nep, or cat-mint, the nepeta cata- ria, L. on the contrary, they shun other vegetables as their mortal enemies, for instance, the common rue, or ruta graveolens, L. Any substance rubbed Avith the leaves of this plant, is said to be perfectly secure from their depredations: for the communication of this useful fact, in domestic life, we are in- debted to C. P. Funke, a German naturalist. Cats enjoy a warm temperature, and a soft couch.....moisture and filth, as well as water and cold, are equally repugnant to their na- ture ; hence they are continually cleaning themselves Avith their paws and tongue. Another pecu- liarity is, the purring of these ani- mals, Avhen they are cajoled, or flattered, by passing the hand over their backs: this singular noise is performed by means of tAvo elastic membranccs in the larynx, or the upper part of the Avind-pipe..... Their hair is so electric, that the expanded skin of a cat makes an excellent cushion for the glass cv- linder, or globe, of an electrifying machine. The flesh of cats is eat n by se- veral nations, but the substance of the brain is said to be poisonous. From the intestines of these ani- 22 C A T mals are manufactured the cele- brated Roman chords, for covering the violin. With respect to their peculiari- ties, we shall remark, that cats possess a A-ery acute sense of both smell and sight; by the structure of their eyes, which sparkle in the dark, they are better enabled to discover objects of prey, such as mice and rats, at night, than in the day time : hence they ought not to be luxuriously fed, if kept for the destruction of those vermin. It is, hoAvever, to be regretted, that this useful domestic creature is one of the most deceitful companions..... Constantly bent on theft and ra- pine, the cat is a compound of cun- ning and dissimulation, seizes eve- ry opportunity of doing mischief, and flies from punishment, Avhen detected. It is, therefore, not a little sui prizing, that many elderly ladies are so partial to these quad- rupeds, that they Avill even suffer them to sleep in the same bed ; a practice fraught Avith considerable danger ; as the exhalation of cats is extremely detrimental to the lungs; besides Avhich, they are liable to hydrophobia, as Avell as the more faithful dog. For these reasons, Ave Avould advise parents, not to permit their children to play for hours, with these animals, even though the SAvalioAving of cat's hair should not be attended Avith such bad effects as many are inclined to believe. Lastly, Whether the marvellous stories concerning the revengeful disposition of cats, be well founded, or otherwise, it cannot be doubted that many judicious persons have so invincible an antipathy against these creatures, that they have been knoAvn to faint in rooms where cats CAT were concealed ; and that no ar- guments Avere sufficient to efface the impression. We are, there- fore, decidedly of opinion, that great precaution ought to be used in the treatment of the purring tribe; and instead of provoking them to malice and anger, it will be more prudent to keep them at a due distance. CAT-SALT, a beautiful granu- lated species of common salt, thus denominated by the manufacturer. It is made from the bittern, or leach brine, by the following pro- cess : When the common salt is drawn out of the boiling pans, it is put into long, wooden troughs, the bottoms of which are perforated, that the brine may drain off. Be- neath these troughs, vessels are placed for the reception of the brine, and across them small sticks, to Avhich the cat-salt adheres in large and beautiful crystals. This salt is very pungent, and, though pellucid when in a mass, becomes white on being reduced to powder: it is sometimes used for culinary purposes, but more frequently employed by the manu- facturers of hard soap. Cataplasm. See Poultice. Cataract. See Gutta Se- rena. CATARRH, or Cold, a disease arising generally from a sud- den diminution of insensible per- spiration, by exposing the body to a damp, or cold air, after having been, for some time, under the in- fluence of a warmer temperature. It is at first attended with an in- creased secretion of mucus, from the glands and membranes of the nose, eyes, throat, windpipe, &c. hence a defluxion of a thin, acrid humour,which irritates those glands % CAT and membranes, occasions some difficulty of breathing through the nose, with a sense of fulness, and sooner or later, produces all the usual symptoms of a common cold. Contrary to the prevailing opinion, Ave are convinced that bleeding is seldom, if ever, neces- sary in these, and similar affec- tions. As, hoAvever, catarrhs are sometimes attended with a slight degree of inflammation, and feA-er, their treatment must be regulated accordingly : but, if unaccompa- nied Avith febrile symptoms, there is no danger to be apprehended.... In the latter case, only, we shall suggest a feAv directions for ma- naging those frecpient complaints, which are generally neglected at their commencement. It was formerly maintained, that mil colds may be cured by sudorific remedies; but experience has prov- ed that this method, though some- times successful, has often been productive of injury. In modern times, the opposite treatment has been adopted, and both the inter- nal use, and external application of cold Avater, have been indiscri-. minately recommended. The true and proper plan, however, appears to be the medium between these extremes ; for it cannot be doubt- ed, that keeping the body too warm, and excessive indulgence in hot, diluent drink, predispose it to catarrhs ; as, on the other hand, the internal and external use of cold Avater tends to strengthen the whole animal frame, and renders it less susceptible of the impressions of air and cold. But, ui: fortunately, the preservative means have, in this instance, been confounded Avith the curativ-, or those intended for effecting the cure.....Hence, in the beginning of every catarrh, the fol- CAT 23 lowing particulars deserve atten- tion : 1. To dilute and weaken the acrid humour, secreted by the glands: this purpose may be attained by in- haling the steam of Avater, and drinking proper quantities of warm diluents. 2. To prevent too great a de- fluxion of humours, or to render the mucus itself milder, and faci- litate its excretion, it will be of great advantage to apply vesicatories con- tiguous to the parts most affected by the cold. (See Blister.) 3. To eA'acuate the concocted, or digested matter : this salutary effect is accomplished either by spontaneous defluxion, or by the pores and urine. Both must be principally intrusted to Nature ; as we should assist, and direct, her operations only in the mildest, and most cautious manner. Dr. Mudge, in a treatise en this disease, recommends the steam of hot Avater, as a most efficacious and safe remedy, and which indeed he considers as almost infallible. The method of inhaling these steams is very simple ; but he observes that, for healthy persons, Avho may acci- dentally see his machine, great precaution is necessary, not to make the experiment of respiring through cold water ; as thus they Avould be almost certain of contract- ing a severe cold. For those trou- bled with a catarrh, he directs as follows: In the evening, a little before bed-time, the patient, if an adult, is to take three drams, or as many tea-spoonfuls of paregoric elixir, in a glass of Avater : but, if a child, under five years of age, One tea-spoonful; or, from five to ten years old, two. About three quar- ters of an hour after, the patient should •go to bed, and, being caver- 24 CAT ed warm, the inhaler three parts filled with Avater, nearly at the boil- ing point (Avhich from the coldness of the metal, and the time it ordi- narily requires before it is used, will be of a proper temperature), and being Avrapped up in a napkin, but so as not to obstruct the valve in the cover, Avhich is to be placed at the arm-pit, and the bed-clothes be- ing draAvn up, and over it, close to the throat, the tube is to be applied to the mouth, and the patient should inspire and expire through it, for about twenty minutes, or half an hour. It is very evident, says Dr. Mudge, as the whole act of res- piration is performed through the machine, that by inspiration the lungs will be filled with air, which , will be hot, and loaded with vapour, by passing through the body of wa- ter ; and in expiration, all that was contained in the lungs will, by mix- ing Avith the steam on the surface of the water, be forced through the valve in the cover, and settle on the surface of the body, while under the bed-clothes. The great use of this particular construction of the inhaler is, 1. As there is no necessity, at the end of every inspiration, to remove the tube from the mouth, in order to expire from the lungs the vapour Avhich had been received into them, this machine, may, therefore, be used with equal facility by children and adults. 2. As febrile symp- toms frequently accompany the dis- order, the valve, in that respect, is also of the utmost importance : for a SAveat, or, at least, a free perspir- ation, not only relieves the patient from the restless anxiety of a hot, dry, and, sometimes, parched skin, but is of all evacuations, the most eligible for removing the fever: and CAT it Aviil be generally found, that, af- ter the inhaler has been used a few minutes, the warm vapour under the clothes will, by settling upon the trunk, produce a sensible per- spiration, which will gradually ex- tend itself to the legs and feet. In any feverish habit attending this cough, it would be proper to take a draught of warm, thin whey, a feAV minutes before the inhaler is used ; and after the process is over, the sweat Avhich it has occa- sioned, may be promoted by drink- ing small draughts of Aveak, Avarm Avhey, or barley-Avater. The sweat- ing is by no means so essential to the cure of a catarrhous cough, as that the success of the inhaler at all depends upon it; yet the Doc- tor observes, that its advantages are very important, when the dis- ease is accompanied by febrile symptoms. After this respiratory process is performed, the patient generally passes the night without the least interruption by the cough, and feels no farther attack than, per- haps, once, or twice, in the follow- ing morning, to throw off the tri- fling leakage, Avhich, unperceived, had failed into the bronchix and vesicles, during the night; the thinner parts of Avhich, being eva- cuated, the remainder is easily ex- pectorated. However, continues Di'.Mudgk, if the patient hopes not to be dis- appointed in the success of this process, it is essentially necessary that he strictly attend to the fol- lowing rules: 1. As valetudinarians are but too Avell acquainted Avith the first symptoms of this disorder, the remedy must be used the same evening ; which will, in an ordi- nary attack, be attended Avith an CAT awyaafctaelq b>' BHonthat~with an immediate cure : but, if the sore- ness of the respiratory organs, or the petulance of the cough, indi- cate the severity of the cold, the in- haler, Avithout the opiate, should be repeated the next morning. 2. If the use of this apparatus, 8cc. be delayed till the second night, it will be always proper to repeat the process the follow- ing morning, without the opiate, except where the attack has been violent. 3. Should the cough be neglect- ed for some days, it Avill always be necessary to employ both parts of the process at night, and the suc- ceeding morning, as the first sim- ple inflammatory mischief is now most probably aggravated by an additional disease, of a chronic na- ture. But if this should be omit- ted, and the cough continue to harass the patient, it is of the utmost consequence, particularly in delicate and tender indiAdduals, to attempt the removal of it as soon as possible, before any float- ing acrimony in the constitution (from the perpetual irritation) re- ceives an habitual determination to an organ so essential to life as the lungs. If the patient, with ease and freedom, expectorates a thick, and well digested, inoffensive phlegm, there is generally but little doubt of his throwing off the disorder, with common care, in a few days : and till that be accomplished, a proper dose of paregoric elixir, for a feAV successive nights, will be found very useful, in suppressing the fatiguing irritation, and ineffec- tual cough, occasioned by a matter Avhich in the early stage of the disease, Aoavs into the bronchiac, during the night, and is generally vol. n. CAT 25 too thin to be discharged by those convulsive efforts. But should the cough still continue, notwithstand- ing a free and copious expectora- tion, and the discharge, instead of removing the complaint become a disease greater than the constitu- tion can support, it is possible that a tender patient, possessed of weak and relaxed lungs, may do him- self irreparable injury without the least appearance of purulence, or any suspicion of suppuration. In those cases, besides increasing the general perspiration, by the salu- tary friction of a flannel waist- coat, change of situation, espe- cially long journies on horseback, conducted as much as possible, through a thin, sharp, dry air, will seldom fail to remove the com- plaint. On the contrary, if the cough should continue dry, husky, without expectoration, and fatigu- ing to the breast, provided there be no apprehension of tubercles, either forming or already formed, there is not, perhaps, a more efficacious remedy for it than half a drachm of gum ammoniac, with eighteen or twenty drops of liquid lauda- num, made into pills, taken at bed-time, and occasionally repeat- ed. This excellent remedy Avas recommended by Sir John Prin- gle, and Dr. Mudge, observes, that he has, in many instances, found it to be very successful, and generally expeditious; for it al- most uniformly produced an ex- pectoration, and abated the dis- tressing fatigue of the cough...... The latter practitioner has, like- wise, in many instances, knoAvn a salutary revulsion made from the lungs, by the simple application of a large plaster, about five or six inches in diameter, of burgundy pitch, between the shoulders ; as E 26 C A T the perspirable matter which is pent up under it, becomes so sharp and acrid, that it generally pro- duces, in a feAV days, a very consi- derable itching, some little tenden- cy to inflammation, and frequently a great number of boils. This ap- plication should be continued (the plaster being occasionally chang- ed), for three weeks, a month, or longer, if necessary. Although seemingly a trifling precaution, yet it is by no means a useless one to the patient, not to expose his shoulders to the cold air, Avhile in bed, during the night; but to take care that they be kept v.-arm, by draAving the bed-clothes up to his neck, when he reposes. If, notAvithstanding these, and other means, the cough should continue dry, or be unattended Avith a proper expectoration, and together Avith a soreness, produce shooting pains through the breast, and between the shoulders, accom- panied with difficulty of breathing, flushes of the cheeks after meals, a burning sensation in the hands and feet, and other symptoms of a hectic fever, no time must be lost, as there is the greatest reason to appprehend, that some acrimony ii) the habit is determined to the tender substance of the lungs, and that consequently tubercular sup- purations Avill folloAV. In this cri- tical and dangerous situation, the Doctor observes, from long expe- rience, that the patient will derive the greatest benefit from a change of air, and by strictly adhering to a diet, consisting of asses' milk and vegetables....His advice concerning large bleedings, appears to us lia- ble to manv objections. CATCH-WEED, the Trail- ing, or German Madwort, Aspe- C A T rugo procumbens, L. an indigenous plant, groAving near roads and amongst rubbish. Its angular stem bears blue, or purple floAvers, in April and May. Sheep are exceedingly fond of this weed ; and its tender leaves may be dressed and eaten as an excellent culinary vegetable. There is another plant to Avhich Dr. Withering gives the name of Catchaveed, namely, the Ga- lium Aparine, L. but which is more generally denominated Clea- ver's Goosegrass : hence we propose to treat of it under that article. CATECHU, or Mimosa Cate- chu, L. or sensitive plant, which is a native of the East Indies, and comprises above sixty species..... From this plant is produced the ex- tract denominated catechu, Avhich Avas for a long time erroneously called Terra Japonica, from the earthy particles it contains; but Avhich are entirely adventitious, and consist of impurities adhering to it, Avhile in the furnaces or kilns, in which it is usually pre- pared. The extract of Catechu, when in its purest state, is a dry substance, which may be reduced to powder, and almost entirely dissolved in Avater, or in spirits of Avine. It is a mild, but excellent astringent, and leaves in the mouth an agree- able SAveetness....This medicine is more particularly useful in alvine fluxes; and where, on this ac- count, astringents become neces- sary, it is perhaps the most saluta- ry. It is also successfully employ- ed in complaints peculiar to fe- males, laxity and debility of the viscera, in general, and in various other diseases, Avhich require strengthening remedies. CAT When dissolved in the mouth, the catechu has frequently afforded relief for weak and ulcerated gums, for aphthous eruptions, or the thrush, and similar affections. The best form in Avhich catechu can be taken, is that of simple in- fusion in Avarm water, Avith the ad- dition of cinnamon, or cassia : thus it is freed from its impurities, and rendered more palatable. It is given in doses from fifteen to forty grains, according to the age and constitution of the patient. CATERPILLAR, or Eruca, a genus of insects, comprehending many species, of Avhich that most generally known is the common, or garden-caterpillar. The natu- ral food of these creatures consists ofthe leaves and verdure of vege- tables ; but, harmless as they ap- pear, there are some species among them which destroy one another, whenever an opportunity offers: the generality of caterpillars, how- ever are very peaceable, and many species live together in the same place, without molesting each other. These would breed and multiply to an incredible degree, Avere they not devoured by other insects, which prey upon them, both externally and internally, and literally consume them alive. Caterpillars are very destructive in gardens and fields, especially those denominated the black, and the black-canker caterpillar, which prey principally on turnips. The former insect is of the colour of soot; and, Avhen full groAvn, about three quarters of an inch in length. •It commences its depredations to- wards the end of August, or the beginning of September, and is particularly numerous, Avhen the north or easterly winds prevail. CAT 27 To counteract the devastation oc- casioned by this insect, it has been recommended at the first plough- ing, to irrigate the furroAvs with lime-Avater, Avhich will effectually destroy it ; as feAv insects like the smell of any thing that has been burned. The black-canker caterpillars are principally found in the county of Norfolk, Avhere, from the great number of insects which have been washed upon the beach,by the tide, it is generally believed that they are not natives, but Avafted across the ocean. These cankers are sup- posed to be the caterpillar state of the yellow fly, Avhich is particularly destructive in fields planted Avith turnips and cabbages; forthey haAe been observed regularly to assume the appearance of those flies. For this evil, there appears to be no other remedy, but to pull the crea- tures off their nests, and to Avatch the flies, which during the hot wea- ther are daily depositing their eggs on those plants. There is also another variety, called by gardeners the grub, the skin of which is very tough, and of a broAvn colour. This insect is particularly injurious, usually de- positing its eggs in the very heart ofthe plants, through all the blades of Avhich it eats its way, leaving be- hind a great quantity of its excre- ment, Avhich is hurtful to vegeta- tion. Grubs likeAvise burrow under the surface of the ground, and do great damage to young plants, by eating off their tender stalks, and drawing them into subterraneous holes. This mischief is princi- pally done in the night; but if the earth be stirred about an inch deep, Avhere a plant is found to be thus injured, the insect will be disco- 28 CAT CAT vered : and this is the only cer- tain Avay of exterminating these noxious vermin. When caterpillars attack fruit- trees, the most efficacious way to destroy them is the following :.... Make a strong decoction of equal quantities of rue, wormwood, and common tobacco, and sprinkle this liquor on the leaves and young branches every night and morning, while the fruit is ripening. Various other experiments have been made with a vieAv to extirpate these mischievous vermin. We shall, hoAvever, mention only the following methods which have been attended with peculiar success : Take three quarts of Avater, and one quart of vinegar ; let them be heated till they nearly boil; then put one pound or more of pure soot into the mixture, and stir it with a Avhisk till the Avhole is duly incorporated. Sprinkle the plants with this preparation every morn- ing and evening: in a feAV days all the caterpillars will disappear..... This has also been effected by sprinkling plants (and more espe- cially gooseberry-bushes, Avhich are remarkably subject to the depreda- tions of these insects) with a pre- paration consisting of one quart of tobacco-liquor, in which an ounce of alum has been dissolved. As soon as the plants or bushes appear to be in the least degree corroded, or any eggs are observed on the leaves, a brush should be dipped into the liquor, whch, by drawing the hand gently over its hairs, is carefully sprinkled on them. If any eggs be there deposited, they never come forward after this ap- plication ; and if those eggs have already been changed into Avorms, they either die, or sicken, so as to fall off the bush ; in which case they may be easily killed. When the trunk and boughs of trees abound Avith the eggs of ca- terpillars, especially in the early spring, it is advisable to rub the bark of all the affected places Avith a sponge dipped in soap-water ; and, where the height of the tree renders it necessary, this operation may be facilitated, by fastening pieces of flannel to a lath or pole, after soaking them in a similar li- quor. [The following excellent obser- vations upon the means of prevent- ing the effects of caterpillars on fruit trees are by W. Hampson, Esq. Some time ago, having an inten- tion to improve a number of apple- trees, Avhich, OAvingto their being yearly infested with the caterpillar, had been long neglected, I began in the folloAving manner. It being early in the spring, I first caused the thick brown moss to be remov- ed from the trunk of the tree, around which, but at a distance equal to the extremities of the roots, I spread Avarm rotten litter; and then, with the back of a prun- ing-knife, scraped off the livid-co- loured moss with which the branch- es ofthe tree Avere entirely encrust- ed. But Avhat surprised me, and to what I would beg particular at- tention, was, that small detached pieces of moss hung upon the bough by fine threads after it had been cleaned : this led me to think they belonged to some eggs or in- sects which lay concealed between the moss and the outer bark, or be-' tween the outer and the inner rind : but being then without the help of glasses, my curiosity remained un- satisfied, although the effects dis- CAT CAT 29 covered in the opening season jus- tified my strongest apprehensions; for those trees which had been tho- roughly cleaned, put forth strong and healthy shoots, and retained their leaves ; when others, their neighbours, Avere eaten up; yet what convinced me beyond the least doubt was, a tree which through ne- gligence had been left in part cleaned ; the boughs Avhich I had cleaned Avere untouched by the ca- terpillar ; on the contrary, the leaves of those boughs I had not cleaned were soon consumed by them. These facts being stated, the fol- loAving remarks are naturally sug- gested : First, that the eggs of the caterpillars lie, during the winter, concealed in such trees as are over- grown with moss, between the moss and the rind, or, where the rind is decayed, in the cavities oc- casioned by such decay ; a circum- stance which, with the assistance of a microscope, I have since ascertained: but through mere neg- lect, having not preserved the eggs forfuture observation, I cannot say, detenninately, they were the eggs of the caterpillar ; but this I can say, that the removal of those eggs prevented the leaves of the tree from being eaten. Secondly, that the proper time for destroying them would be before the eggs are hatched ; for, by the time the ca- terpillar is come out, the buds be- gin to open, and of course become its immediate prey ; and as the butterfly tribe are so numerous and so perfectly free from restraint, the nature of the case will require an annual search to be made in such places as are thought favourable to them for depositing their eggs: there will be often found full-grown trees, which by being encumbered Avith branches, the power of the sun is not admitted to shrivel the old rind as the neAV one is forming; consequently such trees become encrusted Avith decayed coats, the fit receptacles for preserving the embryo caterpillars; and such trees whose wounds have been suffered to heal, so as to form an hollow, retaining moisture, which cankers the wood, and renders it easily per- forated by the fly, are likewise liable to become a prey to the insects they have preserved. See Goose- berry] About the middle of the last century, experiments were made to manufacture paper from the cods which caterpillars spin, and in which they undergo their transformations from a worm to a nymph, or chry- salis, and thence to a butterfly.... These cods, after being cleared of the leaves that adhered to them, and Avell beaten, were reduced to a kind of pulp, which when spread in >vater, Avas collected into the form and made into sheets of paper of a coarse brown colour; but as some of them Avere much Avhiter than Others, it was supposed, that by being beaten and washed a longer time in the mortar of the mill, they would acquire a greater degree of Avhiteness. At the pre- sent period, when the materials for manufacturing paper are exceed- ingly scarce, we would recom- mend a repetition of this experi- ment ; for, if the result should be successful, considerable advantage may be derived from the cods of those insects, which occasion often irreparable damage to the indus- trious cultivator......See also, In- sect. Water-Caterpillars, Erucee aquaticz, L. are thus called from their living under water. They SO CAT CAT feed on aquatic plants, and respire by their stigmata in the same man- ner as the common caterpillars of the garden. There are, according to Reau- mur, two varieties -of these insects, the one on the Potamogcton, or pondweed ; the other upon the Lenticula, or duck-meat: the first of these is the larger ; and as its operations are more easily distin- guished, it is better knoAvn than the other. Though strictly an aquatic animal, it does not delight in the Avater, and is extremely soli- citous to avoid wetting itself. It is produced in the same manner as the land-caterpillar, from an egg which the parent butterfly deposits on the leaf of a certain plant, out of which the insect, as soon as it is hatched, gnaivs a piece of a circu- lar form. This it carries to ano- ther part ofthe same leaf, and pla- ces it so as to construct a cavity in which it may safely lodge. It then fastens doAvnthe piece to the larger leaf, by silk of its oavii spinning, leaving holes at certain distances, through which it may push its head, and prey upon the adjoining leaves: these are naturally so smooth, that they are seldom Avetted ; and, as often as its habitation becomes too small, the insect makes others suc- cessively, each being adapted to its periodical size, till it undergoes the usual changes into a butterfly. In this state, as soon as its wings are dry, it leaves the water, never to return again. Wood - Caterpillars, Eruca .sylvestres, are thus denominated, because they live, contrary to the generality of caterpillars,under the bark, in the trunk, branches, and roots of trees, and sometimes in the body of the fruit. They are pro- duced from eggs deposited on the surface ; and eat their way farther, as soon as they are hatched. Some of these caterpillars leave their abode in order to change into their chrysalis, and thence into their butterfly state ; but most of them remain there, and pass through all their changes. These insects Avould increase to an immense number, were they not destroyed in a similar manner Avith the com- mon caterpillars, by a species of worms, that insinuate themselves into the fruit or tree inhabited by the former, Avhich successively be- come their prey. Various experiments have been tried to extirpate these pernicious vermin ; but none has been attend- ed with more success than that of lighting small fires near trees, about sun-set, into which they will eager- ly fly ; and thus, by burning their wings, meet with inevitable de- struction. Cathartics. See Purgatives. CATMINT, or Nep, the Nepe- ta Cataria, L. a native plant groAV- ing on pastures and hedges, in a calcareous soil....near Bungay, Suf- folk ; Wick Clifts ; on the beach at Rampside; Low Furness ; Dudley Castle, Sec. Its stalk is a yard high, and branched ; the leaA-es are of a velvet-like softness ; the blossoms Avhite, Avith a tinge of red, spotted Avith purple, and appear in July. This is a hardy plant, and easily propagated by seeds ; it has a bit- ter taste, and strong smell, resem- bling a mixture of mint and penny- royal. An infusion of the cat- mint is recommended as a good cephalic, and deemed a specific in chlorotic cases : tAvo ounces of the expressed juice are usually given for a dose. Cats are exceedingly fond of it, especially when it is wi- thered. Mr. Ray mentions, that CAT CAT SI he had transplanted the common catmint from the fields into his garden; but the cats soon destroyed it: those plants, hoAvever, which came up from the seeds, uniformly escaped ; and thus he found the old proverb verified, namely, " If you set it, the cats will eat it; if you sow it, the cats will not knoAV it.".....The plant is eaten by sheep, but refused by cows, horses, goats, and swine. [A watery infusion of the leaves and stalks of this plant, is a common and successful domestic remedy in Pennsylvania for promoting perspi- ration, when the body is affected by flying pains after exposure to cold.] Cats-Milk. See Wart-wort. CATS TAIL, or Reed-Mace, the Typha, L. a genus of natiA'e plants consisting of two species : ]. The latifolia, or great cats tail, bearing a stalk from six to eight feet high, leaves a yard long, and somewhat sword-shaped, cylindri- cal catkins, and no blossoms ; it grows on the banks of rivers, fish- ponds, and in marshes ; 2. The angustifolia, or small cats tail, with semi - cylindrical leaves beloiv, where sheathing the stem; but flat and strap-shaped towards the end ; it also grows in ditches and ponds, and is frequently met Avith in the clay-pits of Norfolk and Suf- folk. There is, according to Lin- n.eus, a variety ofthe second spe- cies growing among rocks, where its roots are confined ; so that it becomes smaller, but its spikes are more numerous. Specimens of it have been found on HounsloAV- heath. The cats tail is one of those ne- glected plants which might be ea- sily applied to various useful pur- poses. At present, its leaves only are employed, partly by coopers for calking the bottom of casks, and partly by the manufacturers of rush- bottomed chairs. In Russia, the woolly down surrounding the seed, is mixed with the feathers of quails, and used for stuffing bolsters. But the Germans have lately made suc- cessful attempts towards converting the downy catkins of this plant into a more valuable article of com- merce. In 1789, M. Weichhan, an ingenious hatter of Ostritz, in Lower Lusatia, transmitted to the Economical Society of Leipzig, an excellent hat, manufactured of one part of this vegetable substance, and tAvo parts of hare's fur. He assured the Society, that the mix- ture not only worked admirably well under the bow, but likewise formed a complete union when felted. A proportionate addition of Spanish wool, would probably afford a still better material, and produce hats sufficiently fine and elastic. Professor Forster, of Halle, in the year 1790, sent to the Society aboA'e-mentioned, a specimen of blotting paper made of a mixture, consisting partly of the villous hair of the cats tail, and partly of the coarsest linen andAvoollen rags em- ployed for that purpose ; but Dr. Bohmer, whose botanical work we have frequently quoted, asserts, that a good writing paper has been manufactured of the dry doAvn ob- tained from those catkins, after they had been, in a manner, parched by the heat of the sun ; and that such paper Avas peculiarly fit for draw- ings and paintings. CATTLE are those quadrupeds, which serve either for tilling the ground, or as food for man. They are divided into black cattle, which comprise horses, oxen, bulls, cows, 32 C A T and their young ; and into small cattle, that is, rams, ewes, lambs, goats, &c. Having incidentally treated on some of the animals that are classed under this denomination, we shall confine our present account to the management of cattle in general ; pointing out such vegetables, as may be given them with advan- tage, together Avith a few sup- plementary rules, to be observed in the breeding of these useful animals, and some observations on the most common distempers to which they are peculiarly liable. I. With respect to food. The first object in the article of food, is Avholesomeness : Avild cattle feed entirely on the green vegetables, Avhich they find through- out the year. Similar nutriment should therefore, if possible, be procured for tame cattle, in all seasons; but such food can be found only among those plants, Avhich are either constantly green, or arrive at maturity in the winter. Of all vegetable productions, the most exuberant, for this purpose, appears to be the cabbage, Avith its numerous A'arieties, of which we have already spoken : the dis- agreeable taste, Avhich that plant is supposed to impart to milk, can be no reasonable objection to its use; as it may be obviated by boiling, or, still more effectually, by preparing it in certain vessels, of which Ave shall give a descrip- tion, Avith a cut, under the head of Root-Steamer. Turnips and carrots constitute the next article, and. cannot be too forcibly recommended, especially as a Avinter food. So very great is the produce of the latter plant, that, according to the account of Mr. Arthur Young, twenty CAT work-horses, four bullocks, and six milch cows, Avere fed at Par- tington, in Yorkshire, England, for above five months, with car- rots, the produce of three acres ; nor did they, during that period, taste any other food, except a little hay. The milk, he farther adds, Avas excellent, and the refuse fat- tened thirty hogs, with very little additional food. [Almost every English book on farming extols the great benefit de- rived from feeding cattle during winter on turnips. In the United States the practice is not adopted of choice, and where an experi- ment has been made of this food, a favourable opinion of it has not been the consequence. A judi- cious friend, W. R. Avho success- fully folloAvs grazing, lately had an abundant crop of turnips, which he could not dispose of; he therefore determined to feed his cat- tle upon them. The beasts were put up in October, and were fed un- til February upon turnips. They did not thrive as he expected, on the contrary, they rather lost flesh ; but on changing the food to hay, In- dian corn meal, and chopped pota- toes, they soon fattened....Whence is the cause of this different re- sult in Europe and the U. S. ?] Potatoes furnish a supply, equally excellent and Avholesome. Horses are particularly fond of them. To these may be added, the plant, called whins, the utility of Avhich has but lately become ge- nerally known. They require, it is true, to be ground in a mill, be- fore they are given to cattle, and do not materially ameliorate the ground, a circumstance considered as an objection to their culture ; but, notwithstanding these appa- rent disadvantages, they produce CAT CAT 33 an excellent and invigorating fod- der, and constitute one of the cheapest articles of winter provi- sion ; as they continue green dur- ing the whole year, and will grow on the most indifferent soils. Burnet, white beet, the Mangel Wurzel, or root of scarcity, hav- ing been already mentioned, it is unnecessary again to point out their utility in feeding cattle. There is another branch of the vegetable creation, usually deno- minated grasses, which contain a variety of species that are particu- larly useful for this purpose, such as the Festuca ovina, or sheep's fescue ; the Festuca rubra, creep- ing, or purple fescue ; and the Holcus lanatus, meadow soft-grass; the physical properties of which, we shall notice hereafter. To this numberbelongs likewise the Astra- galus glycyphillos, sweet milk- vetch, or wild liquorice-vetch, or milk-Avort, as it is differently call- ed ; which, independently of its utility in affording aAvholesome and nutritious winter-fodder, deserves every attention from the cultivator, as it will flourish luxuriantly on the most barren soil.....The Lathyrus Aphaca andpratensis, yellow vetch- ling, and everlasting tare ; several species of trefoil and clover ; the purple, or everlasting bush vetch, and the everlasting pea, all are most excellent fodder for cattle..... Fir-tops, that is, the tender shoots of firs, .though not generally known, also constitute an useful substitute. A remarkable instance of this fact occurs in the fifth vo- lume of the Bath Society Papers, where an ingenious correspondent mentions, that, being greatly in want of provender, having very little, or no hay, he Avas obliged to feed his cattle on fir-tops. And, VOL. II. though he had upwards of 400 head of horned cattle, yet he did not lose above four or five; while many farmers and graziers, who lived in the same county, lost one-half, and several of them almost their whole stock. Hence Ave seriously recommend farther trials to be made Avith this article, which, in our opinion, promises a Avholesome and invigorating food, and might, in a short time, be procured with- out employing large quantities of land for the growing of >vinter pro- vision. The last vegetable that peculiar- ly merits attention, as affording a proper food for cattle, is the Trifo- lium Melilotus officinalis,^, common melilot, which frequently calls forth all the patience of the indus- trious cultivator ; but which, from being a noxious Aveed, may become an inestimable resource. Thisplant has been given, both in a green and dry state, to horses, bullocks, asses, goats, and sheep, all of which have eaten it eagerly ; it has also been allowed to pigs, which, however, relished it only while green. Let it suffice to ob- serve, for the present, that, as the melilot grows on the worst soils, where it spreads like a shrub, and rises to the height of from three to five feet, great advantages may be obtained by planting it in desolate and barren places. % In enumerating the various ve- getables, which appear to be the most beneficial food for cattle, we have necessarily avoided entering into any particular details concern- ing their culture ; because some of them have already been, and the rest will be, hereafter noticed in their alphabetical series.....Two articles have lately been employed Avith considerable success in fatten- F 34 C A T ing of cattle. The first is wash, or the refuse of grains remaining after distillation: this liquor is conveyed from the distillery in large carts, closely jointed and Avell covered, so as to prevent leaking. It is then discharged into vats or other vessels, and Avhen these are about two-thirds full, a quantity of sweet hay, previously cut small, is immersed for two or three days, in order that the wash may imbibe the flavour of the hay, before it is used. In this state, the mixture is carried to the stalls, and poured into troughs, from Avhich it is eager- ly eaten by cattle. Some animals, hoAvever, shew at first an aversion to such food ; in Avhich case their hay should be frequently sprinkled with the wash ; so that, by having the smell constantly before them, and seeing others eat with avidity the same preparation, it gradually becomes less nauseous, and is at length much relished.....The coavs and oxen thus fed, not only repay the expence of their keeping, by fattening speedily, but yield a large quantity of rich manure, which is more \ aluable than that from any other food. An equally successful method of fattening cattle in general, and oxen in particular, consists in giv- ing from half to a Avhole pint of molasses, twice in the day, to every starving animal, that has been exhausted by continual and severe labour, for a series of years." For this purpose, a gallon of oats, or anyother damaged grain, rough- ly ground, or the same proportion of potatoes, should be boiled in a sufficient quantity of water, to form a thick mash. It must be Avell stirred while on the fire, to prevent its burning, or adhering to the sides of the vessel ; and, Avhen it becomes cool, the mixture is CAT 7 formed into balls, each weighing; about a pound. One half of these balls, after dipping them into the molasses in the morning (the re- mainder in the evening), is given to the cattle, Avhich devour them with great eagerness, and speedily groAV fat, by the addition of a little hay, or any green fodder that is not too succulent. Besides, one or tAvo spoonfuls of salt are generally dissolved in the composition, which contributes to preserve the health of the animals ; and in case ground corn cannot be procured, oil-cake, diluted with water, seasoned with a little salt, and moistened with the same quantity of molasses, may be advantageously substituted. II. The breeding of cattle. The English cattle are divided into several classes, or breeds, de- nominated from the different coun- ties in Avhich they are reared ; as the Lincolnshire and Holderness, which are distinguished for their size; the Welsh and Norfolk breeds, which are as remarkable for their lean and wretched appear- ance, as the Lancashire and Here- fordshire are for their beautiful and healthy look. Besides these, there are several others, as the Sussex, Devonshire, or Somersetshire, Avhich, though fine cattle, do not attract that attention which is generally, and deservedly, paid to the Lancashire and Hereford- shire breeds. The former of these is particularly celebrated for the improvements made* by the late ingenious Mr. Bakeavell, of Avhose mode of breeding we have already given a concise account. There was a remarkable peculi- arity in Mr. Bakewell's cattle ; namely, their uncommon docility and meekness, which were so great, that a boy with a switch could, Avithout any difficulty, con- CAT iluct them from one part of his farm to another. This gentleness was the effect of management, and evinces the superiority of his mode of breeding. While Ave admire and acknowledge its excellence, Ave cannot but advert to the mischief Avhich is frequently done by honi- ed cattle, and doubtless arises from very contrary practices. Such in- jurious consequences, however, might be prevented by tipping, that is, by saAving off the points of the horns of coavs, bulls, and oxen, and fixing on them small knobs of wood, about three inches in diameter; then boring a hole through the horn and wood, and clinching a nail on the opposite side. Although, by this precaution, the horns are in a manner despoiled of their beauty, yet, when compared with the advantages resulting from it, this trifling loss cannot be regretted. Concerning that fatal disorder, the rot in sheep, Mr. Bakeavell Avas particularly attentive to its ori- gin and progress : he found, from experience, that it Avas generated solely by floods. When, there- fore, particular parcels of his best breed were past service, he fatten- ed them for the butcher ; and to be certain that they Avould be killed, and not* go into other hands, he used " to rot them" before they Avere sold. This singular practice appears to have been the offspring of jea- lousy : it was effected by overflow- ing a pasture, or meadow, in sum- mer ; as the soil thus inundated inevitably rots all the sheep that feed on it the succeeding autumn. ....[See Sheep.] In the breeding of stallions for obtaining cart-horses, Mr. Bake- well Avas also particularly suc- cessful ; by observing the same rules of proportion as we haA-e men- koned under the article " Black CAT 35 Cattle ; and making them in like manner docile and gentle. His economical plan of feeding the lat- ter with turnips, cannot be suffi- ciently recommended to every in- dustrious breeder. All these roots Avere carted to the stalls, by which one acre went as far as three. With respect to the saving of straw, he observed similar care ; for, by giv- ing it to his lean beasts in small quantities, he preserved their ap- petite sufficiently keen to make them eat clean, and thus prevented an unnecessary waste for litter, which is but too prevalent among agriculturists. Nor was his hay consumed in a careless and extra- vagant manner; the same econo- mical management that Avas con- spicuous in other departments of his agricultural concerns, also pre- vailed here; and the measures he pursued, to ensure as large a quan- tity as possible at all seasons, dis- play an ingenuity and spirit of hus- bandry that rarely occur. This great object was effected by water- ing his meadows (which were situ- ated near a small brook), by means of cuts that intersect them, and convey water to those parts which are at a distance from the brook; and by making others for carrying off the water, after it had flowed the land. These various works, which were completed at a consi- * derable expence, notwithstanding the disdain and censure of his neigh- bours, enabled Mr. Bakewell tq float from sixty to eighty acres of land at pleasure ; and he found hj| * labours croAvned Avith the most ample success ; as no other an- nual manuring Avas required. In- stead of thistles, ridges, furrows, holes, hills, &c. that are a dis- grace to any farmer, those charm- ing meadows present fine level * crops of hay, and beautiful Yer* 36 CAT CAT dure, reflecting the highest credit on his character, as an enlighten- ed and public-spirited agriculturist. The Herefordshire breed above- mentioned, appear to be a mixture of the Welsh, and a spurious race of long-horned cattle. Mr. Camp- bell, of Charlton, in Kent, how- ever, is of opinion, that the true Herefordshire cattle, with respect to kindly disposition for feeding, or delicacy of flesh, is not more than equal to the true-bred Sussex; though the former are more com- plete in their make, generally Avider and fuller over the shoulders or fore chine, and the breast or brisket, also in the after-part of the rump, which is much oftener narrow and shelly in the latter. In short, the cattle of Herefordshire are, in the opinion of the most experienced farmers, considered as the best in England for oxen, the dairy, and forfattening. BesideSfhe rules we have already stated, under the head of Breed- ing, we shall in this place observe, that cattle may be much improv- ed by crossing, the strain, or breed; which is said to be attended Avith the most beneficial consequences. This practice, though ridiculed by some prejudiced farmers, is never- theless sanctioned by the opinion and long experience of many suc- % cessful breeders, and especially the late Mr. Bakeavell ; who has re- commended the propagating from the old breed, only, till a better could be procured. t In keeping live-stock on grain, fc well as grass-farms, their kinds, size, and number, in proportion to the means of subsistence, deserve unremitted attention ; as likewise the modes of keeping them, and saving their manure. It is assert- • ^ ed, that English coavs require, in general, from one to two acres of pasture : this is mostly made, by soAving grass-seeds after the ground has produced crops for many years, being both ameliorated and ex- hausted under manurings and good tillage. Such land continues seve- ral years afterwards in grass, Avhich is carefully cleared of bram- bles and strong weeds. During this time, the coavs drop their dung, Avhich is exposed on the ground, to be exhausted by the united ef- fects of the sun and wind ; and which, according to the old sys- tem, is supposed to benefit the soil in a considerable degree. But the good effects of this irregular me- thod of fertilizing our pastures is, in a great measure, counteracted by the continual treading of the cattle; and we have every reason to hope that such wasteful and un- profitable modes of manuring will sooner or later be relinquished, and better practices be generally adopted....See Irrigation. These inconveniencies may, how- ever, be obviated, and the cattle supported at less expence, by soil- ing them, a practice, now becom- ing general in [England,] andAvhich cannot be too strongly recommen- ded. By this means, very few or no division-fences are required: insted of 1 i of an acre, [the usual proportion to one head] one-fourth part Avill suffice for the subsistence of a beast during the six Avarmer months; the Avhole of their ma- nure is Avell preserved, and given to the soil, Avhere it is most Avant- cd, and in the best condition ; the land is no trodden in, and the cat- tle always ready for immediate use. They are also kept more cool, are less tormented by flies than if pastured, acquire good coats, and full flesh ; though they CAT CAT 57 consume a much smaller quantity of food. Many persons, hoAvever, may object to the laying aside of division-fences, that bad seasons will happen, Avhen no grass can be cut and carried in, on account of heavy rains, or cold winds, which retard its growth ; and,consequent- ly, that it will be requisite to have some fields divided off, in which the cattle may find pasturage. To these it may be answered, that it will always be found a more safe and profitable plan to keep a quan- tity of hay in store, to meet the contingencies of unfavourable sea- sons, and to feed beasts in the man- ner practised in towns, where they frequently are kept on hay and straw, during the whole year, and thrive exceedingly well. [Hard or light stocking of pas- ture ground....Some persons con- tend that the pastures ought to be stocked very lightly ; alledging, that although much of the produce is thus allowed to run to seed, which the beasts will not eat, and which of course is trodden under- foot, and rotted by rain and thus wasted ; yet experience they say, proves, that a greater profit will be thus derived from it, upon the whole, than by any other practice, on account of the superior thriving of the animals. Others pretend on the contrary, that light stocking of grass land is a practice highly to be condemn- ed ; as it tends not only gradually to diminish its produce, but also to encourage the growth of coarse and unprofitable grasses, which greatly deteriorate the pastures ; and that hard stocking of grass lands, especially those of a rich quality, is an indispensible requi- site of good management. These two opinions so diametri- cally opposite to each other, and Avhich are equally maintained by sensible men, clearly proves the e mbarrassment to which they are subjected, in consequence of not having adverted to the circum- stances stated above, and many other particulars that require still to be developed, as affecting the economical consumption of the produce of grass-lands. A third party, who approach per- haps nearer to the truth than ei- ther of the above, advise, that mix- ed stock should be ahvays kept upon the same field : and were the consumption of the foul grass producedby the dung ofthe animals, the only article to be adverted to, it might be, doubtless, so manag- ed as to correct this evil: but there are so many other circumstances to be adverted to, that it is not ea- sy, by this means, to get them all remedied. In every fiedd, a variety of plants spontaneously spring up, some of which are disrelished by one class of animals, Avhile they are eaten by some others; and some of which plants, though eaten readily by some animals at a particular period of their growth, are reject- ed by them entirely at another age. Thus it becomes necessary, not only to have a vast variety of ani- mals in the same pasture ; but also a very particular attention is re- quired to augment or to diminish the proportion of some of these classes of animals, at particular seasons ofthe year,othenvise some part of the produce will be allowed to run to Avaste, unless it be hard stocked to such a degree as to re- tard their thriving. But if a great variety of animals be allowed to go at large in the same pasture, they are never suf- fered to feed Avith that tranquillity which is necessary to insure thriv- 38 CAT CAT ing in the highest degree. One class of these Avishes to feed, or to play, while the others Avould incline to rest. They thus mutually dis- turb and tease each other: and this inconvenience is greatly aug- mented, if penning of any sort be attempted. From these considera- tions, the practice of intermixing various kinds of stock very much together, is found to be productive of eArils, in many cases, greater than those Avhich result from the waste of food this practice Avas intended to prevent. And though there is no doubt that by hard stock- ing the grass will be kept shorter, and consequently will be more pa- latable in general to the animals which eat it, than if it Avere allowed to run to a great length, and that thus even unpleasing patches may beconsumed; yet as animals, which are to be fattened, must have not only sweet food, bufr an abundant bite at all times, to bring them for- Avard in a kindly manner, it seems to be nearly impossible to obtain both these advantages together in the practice of pasturage. Many arguments tend to'show that the practice of soiling, Avould be, in general, highly economical. This subject may be considered under the folloAving points of view : First.....The greater or less varie- ty of plants that Avould thus be con- sumed,and consequently prevented from running to Avaste. Second.....Whether stall feeding or grazing tend most to promote the health and comfort of the ani- mal ? Third.....The proportional quan- tity of manure obtained by the one or the other practice. Fowth.....The quantity of herbage that will be afforded from the same field, under the cutting or grazing system. Under head the first. If the con- sumption of the plants be the ob- ject principally attended to, it is plain the benefits will be great: for experience has clearly proved, that there are many plants gree- dily consumed by beasts, if cut and given to them in the house, Avhich never Avould be touched by them when growing in the field. Of this nature is the dock, cow-parsley, (chaerophillum sylvestre), thistles, nettles, and many other plants. Upon what principle it should hap- pen that these plants should be so readily eat, when thus given, Avhile they are totally rejected Avhen in the field, I cannot say : but that they are thus eaten, without re- luctance, even Avhen the animal is not hurtfully hungry, is evident from this circumstance, that the beasts often fall greedily to these at the moment they are brought in from the field, even before they have had time to become hungry after they had come in. Thus feAv- er plants will be rejected or suffer- ed to go to Avaste. In the second place. It is Avell known that many of even the best kinds of grasses, which, when young, form the most palatable food for these creatures, if once suffered to get into ear, are dis- relished so much as never to be tasted by them, unless to prevent starvation ; and as in most pasture fields, many of these grasses get into ear from various causes, all the produce of these plants is ine- vitably lost to#the farmer. But if cut doAvn by the scythe in proper time, not one of these is ever suf- fered to get into that nauseating state ; and consequently no waste is sustained from this cause. Thirdly.....When animals are suffered to go upon the field, many »f the plants are trodden under CAT C A T 39 foot by the beasts, and bruised, or in part bruised in the earth ; in Avhich state they are greatly dis- relished by animals, and are suffer- ed to run to waste ; which never. could take place, were the practice of cutting adopted. And, Lastly, on this head. Those feAv plants Avhich are totally dis- relished by one class of animals, so as to be rejected by them even in the house, will not from this cir- cumstance, becomes less accepta- ble to others, but much the reverse. Food that an animal has breathed upon for any considerable time, becomes unpleasant to other ani- mals of the same class ; but not so to those of another species: it seems indeed thus to acquire for them a higher relish. Even great- er defilement by one animal, seems to render food more acceptable to others : for straw, that in its clean state has been rejected by cattle, if employed as litter for horses, ac- quires a relish for cattle that they search for with avidity. Hence it happens that the sAveepings of the stalls from one animal, furnishes a dainty repast for those of another kind : which can easily be shifted from one to the other, if the plants are consumed in the house, but which must have been lost in the field. We shall soon have occa- sion to show that* this peculiarity may be employed to answer ano- ther useful purpose. Under head the second. If the health and the comfort of, the ani- mal be chiefly adverted to, the ba- lance will be clearly in favour of the cutting system, Avhen compar- ed with that of pasturing. It is well known that when animals are exposed to the sun, in the open air, they are not only greatly incom- moded on many occasions by the heat, but also are annoyed by swarms of flies, gnats and hornets, as Avell as the terrible gad-fly, Avhich drives them into a state of perturbation little short of furiosi- ty, Avhich must obviously tend to retard their thriving. At other times they are hurt by chilling blasts, or drenched by cheerless rains, which renders their situation very unpleasing, and greatly re- tards their feeding, as is well knoAvn. Under proper manage- ment, in well constructed stalls, all these evils would be alike re- moved, and they would be kept perpetually in a proper state of coolness, tranquillity and ease, so as to make the same quantity of food go farther in nourishing them, than it otherwise could have done. They would also be prevented from licking up snails, worms, and other noxious creatures,among their food, which by pasturing they are apt to do, Avhen they feed at those times of the day, or night, when these creatures crawl abroad. This Avould be entirely avoided by cut- ting the grass at those times of the day when none of these are to be found. Thus, lingering diseases might often be avoided, which al-, Avays retard the thriving, and often prove totally the destruction qf the animal. And, lastly, by giving an opportunity of administering dry and nourishing food, along Avith the soft and succulent, Avhere circum- stances requires it, in any requisite proportions, and by varying the tastes, so as to provoke an appe- tite, not only the health, but the thriving of the creatures, would be greatly augmented beyond Avhat they otherwise could have been. Under the third head. If Ma- nure is to be chiefly attended to, there can he no comparison be- 40 C A T tween the two modes of consump- tion. This is so greatly in favour of stall feeding, that it Avould be idle to spend time in searching for proofs of a proposition, that may be considered as self evident. In the last place. If the quantity of herbage produced from the same field be adverted to, it will be found to be equally in favour of the cut- ting system. It is well known, that all animals delight more to feed on the young fresh shoots of grass, than those that are older. Hence it invariably happens, that those patches in a pasture field that happen to have been eaten once bare, in the beginning of the season, are kept very short ever afterwards throughout the whole of that season, by the creatures de- lighting to feed upon them in pre- ference to the parts of the field that have got up to a greater head ; so that these last are suffered to remain, in a great measure, un- touched, throughout the season. It is not however, in general known, that grass, even the leafy parts of it, when it has attained a certain length, becomes stationary; and, though it will retain its verdure for some months in that state, makes no sort of progress Avhatever; Avhereasif it had been cropped do Avn frequently, it Avould have con- tinued in a constant state of pro- gress, advancing with a rapidity in a great measure proportioned to the frequency of its being cropped. For experimental proofs of this fact, see Essays on agriculture and rural affairs vol. 2. disquisition 5. Nor has the diminution of produce that must thus be incurred, eA^er been adverted to by persons Avho are interested in it ; nor have these circumstances entered in any re- spect into their estimation. From my OAvn experiments and observa- C A T tions, hoAvever, I am satisfied that, in some cases, the actual produce of the same field, by a judicious management in this respect, com- pared with bad management, may be augmented fourfold in the same season. It is owing to this cir- cumstance, though the reason of the fact has not been understood, that hard stocking of pasture lands has been found to enable the same field to sustain a much greater weight of stock, than it Avould do Avhen lightly stocked. But under no system of management can the evil of unequal cropping of land under pasturage be avoided, un- less it be by a destructive degree of hard stocking, which must be avoided where the animals are ex- pected to thrive. By cutting with the scythe frequently, so as to keep the grass always short, and there- fore in a state of continual vigorous vegetation, all these evils are avoid- ed. The quantity of produce will be raised to the maximum that the land, in its present state is capable of producing, while the stock to be fed by that produce need not be in the smallest degree stinted in point of food. Under every point of view, then, that this question can be consider- ed, Ave are forced to conclude, that the practice of cutting of grass, and consuming it green, in all cases where the ground is in a state that can admit of it, when compared with that of pasturage appears to be so greatly economical, that the particulars under Avhich that mode of management can be practised, and the peculiarities affecting it, deseiwe to be much more minutely investigated, than they ever yet have been. In confirmation of the justness of this conclusion, it is now univer- sally admitted as a fact, that a crop CAT of red clover, when cut and con- sumed in the house green, in all cases, Avill go at least twice as far, Avhen cut, as when pastured up- on : some go as high as to say it will go four times as far. As every person, Avho has tried the experi- ment, agrees, that the saving, by cut- ting this crop, is very great, that practice has of late years begun to prevail very much; though reason has not yetbeen able to stem the tor- rent of ancient prejudice, so as to render it entirely universal. But the cutting of other grass grounds, and consuming their pro- duce green, seems not yet to have been deemed even practicable, and has not of course been ever thought of being experimentally tried, al- though I have reason to be satisfi- ed, from some experiments, that I myself have made, and the con- siderations above stated, that the benefits to be derived from con- suming the produce of rich grass- lands of any sort, in this Avay, will be even greater than that Avhich takes place with regard to red clover. The circumstance that made me first advert to those benefits that might be derived from con- suming grass lands by cutting, in preference to pasturage, was mere- ly accidental. I had a pretty long and broad grass-Avalk, leading from my dwelling-house to a garden, which could be avoided, Avhen inT convenient to Avalk upon it, by tak- ing another path ; and as the pile upon this avenue was extremely close, I found it very pleasing to Avalk upon it, while free from Avet, even Avhen the grass Avas an inch or more in length. Instead there- fore, of having it close shaven like a lawn, every three or four days, and throAving the sweepings away, VOL. II. CAT 41 as usual, it occurred to me, that by cutting it less frequently, I should be able to have all the use of my walk I Avished for ; while I would at the same time lose no part of- the produce. From these consi- derations, I resolved to have it cut so as to admit of being given with economy to my coavs, while in the house. As much grass Avas there- fore cut each day, from it as serv- ed my beasts for the time, and so proceeding on regularly, first cut- ting one side of the walk from end to end, and then the other, the walk being frequently rolled when fresh cut, especially after rain, to keep the surface smooth, so as to alio w the scythe to cut quite close. In this manner I not only effected the purpose originally intended, but, to my great surprise, I had soon occa- sion to perceive, that I thus obtain- ed food for the beasts much greater in quantity, as Avell as SAveeter in quality, than I had ever been able, under any other mode of manage- ment, to obtain from the same ex- tent of ground. The grass Avas cut six or seven times during the season, and at each timethe quanti- ty, on account ofthe extreme close- ness of the pile, Avas much greater than I could have supposed, and of a much sweeter quality also...... There was not in the whole, a sin- gle blade of grass, that was either bruised or decayed in any way, so ' that the beasts devoured it with in- conceivable avidity,Avhereas if,upon such rich land, it had been allow- ed to stand a little longer, the root ends of the grass Avould have be- gun to Avither and turn musty for want of air, though the top con- tinued green; some stalks also being choaked by others, would not only begin to rot, so as to be- come unpalatable to the animals, G 42 CAT CAT but their roots also, being suffocat- ed, begin to die out, and the grass becomes thinner, so as to be longer in springing up after each cutting ; and thus the quantity of the pro- duce is diminished, as Avell as its quality much impaired. Some farmers to a\ horn I sheAved this experiment, in the course of its progress, judged, Avhen they look- 'ed at the grass wdiile growing, that it Avould be too short to be Avorth while to cut it ; but Avhen I caused some of it to be cut before their eyes, the quantity laid doAvn by each swathe Avas so much greater than what they expected, as to excite a high degree of asto- nishment. Some of them even ad- mitted that the quantity of forage thus obtained atone cutting,though it did not, at the most, exceed two inches in length, was, in their opi- nion, equal to that obtained at one cutting of a field of red clover, when advanced to be in full floAver ; and my own opinion coincided with theirs. This experiment first sug- gested doubts in my mind, as to the propriety of consuming rich grass-lands by pasturage, and every observation I have since made, has tended so strongly to add to my conviction, that I haA^e now not a doubt remaining on this head ; and I conceive that the loss which is annually sustained by the nation at large, from an inattention to this circumstance, is so great, as in some measure, to call upon me to publish these remarks, -with a vieAV to direct the attention of others to investigate the subject with greater care than it has hitherto obtained: for, however inattentive men may be for the present, to these hints, a time will come, if they are made public, when they will claim the investiga- tion of some considerate mind- When that time comes my object Avill be attained. Since the former edition of this Avork Avas printed, I have met with a publication by Dr. Thaer, phy- sician of the Electoral Court of Hanover, and published in the first volume of Communications to the Board of Agriculture, page 376, in Avhich I am happy to find, that the conclusions I have drawn above, by reasoning from the few facts that have fallen under my own observations, have been confirmed by experience of Baron De Bu- low, and others ; which have prov- ed, as Dr. Thaer says, that the following facts are incontroverti- ble. " 1st. A spot of ground, Avhich, when pastured upon, will yield suf- ficient food for only one head, will abundantly maintain four head of cattle in the stable, if the vegeta- bles be moAved in proper time and given to the cattle in a proper or- der. " 2d. The stall-feeding yields, at least, double the quantity of manure from the same number of cattle ; for the best and most effi- cacious summer manure is pro- duced in the stable, and carried to the fields at the most proper period of its fermentation; whereas, when spread on the meadoAV, and ex- hausted by the air and sun, its pow- er is entirely Avasted. "3d. The cattle used to stall- feeding will yield a much greater quantity of milk, and increase faster in Aveight, when fattening, than Avhen they go to the field. " 4th. They are less subject to accidents, do not suffer by the heat, by flies and insects ; are not affect- ed by the baneful fogs that are fre- quent in Germany, and bring on CAT inflammations ; on the contrary, if every thing be properly managed, they remain in a constant state of health and vigour." Dr. THAERbelieves that the stall system of feeding on green herb- age has never been adverted to by the farmers or agricultural Avriters of Great Britain. It appears that he, in this respect, labours under a mistake, yet it cannot fail to prove very satisfactory to me, to find a practice I have so Avarmly recom- mended to the attention of my countrymen, so strongly support- ed by practical men in Germany. It deserves, hoAvever, to be noticed, that the observations of Dr. Thaer, seem to respect broad clover alone, and not any culniferous grasses, al- though I am -satisfied, from my own experience and observations, that the economy in the consump- tion of these last kind of grasses, green in the house, will be much greater than that Avhich will result from the consumption of broad clo- ver in this Avay. Hence I cannot help Avarmly recommending the folloAving experiment to the notice of the British farmer, in hopes that some person of enterprize and ac- curacy, will see it carefully per- formed. I regret that my present situation does not admit of its being- done by myself. Experiment proposed....To as- sist such well hitentioned investiga- te i*s,itmay perhaps be proper forme here to state what I should conceive to be the most economical mode of consuming the produce of rich grass-lands,that it may be subjected to the fair test of accurate experi- ments, conducted more at large than the circumstances of my farm permit me to make. If two fields of rich grass-land can be found of exactly the same CAT 43 extent and quality, the experiment can be fairly made by stocking the one with cattle, alloAving them to .pasture upon it, and reserving the other to be cut and given to cattle of the same kind, by hand, properly kept in the house; the difference of the profit drawn from each class of beasts, will thus ascer- tain the comparative value of the two modes of management. I need scarcely obserA-e, that in order to make the experiment fair- ly, the tAvo fields should be as much alike in all respects as possible ; and in particular that the surface ofthe land intended to be cut should be smooth and even, so as to ad- mit of being rolled frequently ; for Avhich purpose the flatter the ground is in general the better. Let the field that is to be cut, be carefully shut up from cattle, es- pecially during wet weather ; and let it be rolled with a weighty rol- ler in the spring, as soon as it is firm enough to bear the tread ofthe beasts without hurting the surface, first in one direction,.and then in the direction across it. If it be twice rolled in that manner., it aa ill be an advantage rather than a de- triment, for it is of the utmost con- sequence under the mode of ma- nagement proposed, that the scythe should cut very close, vrith- out taking up any earth ; one quar- ter of an inch at the bottom, is as much as a Avhole inch at the top ; so that on account of the quantity of grass to be obtained, close cutting is of the greatest use. It tends also greatly to promote the quick springing up of the succeeding •crop, as I have often observed ; and by this practice no dead leaAres are left, which is unavoidable in rough cutting. Frequent rolling with a Aveighty roller, Avhile the 44 CAT CAT ground is a little soft, is absolutely necessary for this purpose ; and is also of use on other accounts, as will aftenvards be noticed. The field should begin to be cut when the longest piles of grass on it have attained the height of tivo inches at most, and proceed regu- larly day by day, cutting as fast as the beasts consume it, so as to go over the Avhole in three or four weeks as the Aveather is warm or cold ; when that Avhich Avas first cut will be ready to be cut a second time, and so on ; never omitting to roll it when the weather is moist, and not too wet. The grass should be carried off in a light sparred or wicker cart, drawn by one small horse ; this cart to move upon three broad Ioav Avheels, placed tAvo on one axle and one on another, below the body of the cart, so as to act as a roller when going overthe ground: a cart or rather barrow, of this con- struction, I had made, and found it a most convenient implement. In this manner the Avork will proceed regularly, and without trouble throughout the whole season : the beasts should be regularly fed ; getting only a small quantity at a time,butfrequently, fresh and fresh; giving them SAveet Avater when ne- cessary, and as much grass as they will eat, allowing them proper time for rest. Nothing should be left in their stalls, at these times, to be breathed upon, and thus rendered disgustful to them; and if the house be so constructed as that the beasts can be easily kept cool to a proper degree, quiet and clean, they will thrive abundantly. From the result of this experi- ment, when fairly made, and often enough repeated, so as to guard against the effects of accidental un- observed peculiarities, many corol- laries may be drawn, that will be found of high importance, in regard to rural economists. In making this experiment, how- ever, the full result of it cannot be clearly perceived, ueless it shall be continued for several years ; for in the course of time, many impor- tant changes may be expected to fol- low, as Avell in regard to the quan- tum ofthe produce of the two fields kept under these two modes of ma- nagement, as in regard to its qua- lities. The experimentofone year can do little more than ascertain Avhat is the result Avhile the produce is nearly of the same quantity and kind ; but as changes in both these respects may be expected, the com- parison between the real benefits to be derived from the one or the other mode of management, might be very fallacious, were it not conti- nued for several years ; and to do justice to the experiment,the Avhole dung made by the beasts in the house, should be returned to the field Avhich produced their food. Grass lands, if constantly cut, are not deteriorated.....What the chan- ges would be, both in regard to the quantity and the nature ofthe pro- duce from the same field, if annu- ally cut, and the produce carried off, as above mentioned, or if con- sumed by suffering beasts to pas- ture upon it, cannot at present be told with certainty ; but there are not Avanting facts that enable us to have some idea of the probable re- sult. It has been rendered probable, at least, from facts already stated in this essay, that dung Avhen drop- ped upon land by cattle pasturing upon it, does not tend to enrich it perhaps at all; or if it does so, it is only to a very small degree. Whethern'cA grassland, if con- stantly cut, and the produce carried off from it, without returning any CAT CAT 45 ofthe dung, will thus, in time,come to produce crops less abundant than the same land would have done, if kept under pasturage, will not, Avith many persons, seem to admit a doubt: yet there are considerations which so strongly operate upon my mind for doubting if this be the case, that nothing short of actual experiment can remove those doubts. I have often seen lawns around gentlemen's houses that have been kept under a course of continued shaving from time imme- morial, that discovered no symp- toms of exhaustation, nor any sen- sible diminution of luxuriance or of verdure, though no manures of any sort had ever been laid upon them. And as we have already seen that rich grass land, under pasturage, produces as much dung as ought to manure each year more than dou- ble its OAvn extent of surface; it folloAVS, that if the same quantity of grass land will only nourish as many beasts in the house, as if it were pastured upon, (and there are strong reasons for thinking it -will do much more), there can be an- nually obtained from each acre of land kept under the scythe, as much dung as might manure two acres more, which might be abstracted from that grass land without dete- riorating it. Of course, if the land be such as that it can admit of be- ing made richer, a dressing of that dung, noAv and then returned upon itself, would give it the richness wanted, without any extraneous aid. In this point of view then it seems to be impossible to deny, that rich land, if kept under the scythe, can never become poorer, if none ofthe dung made by the beasts fed upon it be abstracted from it; but that on the contrary, it can thus be made to afford a large annual supply of dung for the purpose of enriching poorer land, while it still continues to be equally fertile itself. In regard to the other practice recommended, there seems to be no doubt but that the ejuality of the grass must continue to improve while under the scythe, much more than while under pasturage. Every person who has bestowed the smal- lest attention to objects of this sort, must have remarked, that the worst kinds of grasses groAV most freely upon those parts of rich grass lands that are the most open and spungy in their texture ; and that they are in general much SAveetened in the pile^ where they chance to be much trod upon. Hence the finest gras- ses, on such fields, are always found to abound most upon those paths, which are moderately trod upon ; white clover and the sweetest gras- ses being seen there in abundance, while they are less frequent in the spungy parts of the field. But fre- quent rolling tends to produce this effectmore universally and equally, than any kind of treading by beasts, (a practice frequently recommend- ed by the best farmers) ever can do. Again.....It has been frequently remarked by intelligent farmers, that the hard stocking of land tends much to improve the quality ofthe pastures, as Avell as its quantity. On this subject as well as on many others, the observations of Mr. Davies of Longleat, in his account of the agriculture of Wiltshire, de- serve to be particularly adverted to. He observes, p. 18,that" the sweet- ness of the feed depends much more on its being kept close, and eaten as fast as it shoots, than on any peculiar good quality of the grass itself: for there are many doAvns that, when close fed, appear to be a very sweet pasture, but 46 CAT which, if suffered to run a year or tAvo Avithout a full stock on them, Avill become so coarse, that sheep will almost as soon starve as eat the grass : the closer the downs are fed, the more stock they will keep." The above full statement of the advantages of soiling, over the com- mon practice of pasturing, has been given in the words of the truly excellent Dr. Anderson, with Avhom the editor has had the plea- sure to correspond since the year 1795. It is suggested by a friend avIio thinks well of the plan, that cattle confined in stalls will be too much heated during the summer months, and their health affected: but surely •stalls may be constructed under trees, so as effectually to secure the animals from the flies, and at the same time enable them to enjoy air. An attention to both these particu- lars is indispensable to the preser- vation of their health, and the speedy fattening of the animals. The grass must be cut in the morning for the evening food, and in the afternoon for the morning mess ; the afternoon crop must be carried to the barn, and spread to exhale its superfluous moisture ; and in rainy weather, both crops must be taken off' the ground. At- tention must however be paid to the due proportion to be cut, and until the fact be ascertained, Mr. Bord- ley recommends to measure each mess, and chalk doAvn Iioav much a basket, or cart body, holds of the articles in weight. The practice will at least have a tendency to teach servants to observe metluA, the value whereof is considerable in all business. On the supposi- tion that 75lb. of green clover alone, will suffice for one beast, (and thir- ty-two heads are to be fed) 1,200lbs. will be cut twice a day. Eight CAT acres cut four times in the season of soiling, Avill give one cutting in six weeks; or nearly thirty perches are cut daily. A man and boy may perform all the Avork and attention in soiling the above number. Upland blue grass (poa compres- sa) is particularly proper for soilin g, because it inclines to grow rank and hard, and to bind the soil, and there- fore will bear close and frequent mowing. But whether the practice of soiling or pasturing be followed, it is essential that the grass be occa- sionally changed. All animals thrive better for a change of food. In cases, hoAvever, where it is im- possible to soil, the next best me- thod is to make a proper division of the land, and to proportion the num- ber of head to the quantity of acres. Cattle should be changed from a field whenever the grass is eaten short: otherwise they will fall in flesh, and additional time and grass will be required to bring them to their former standing. It is only by regular full feeding, that cattle will soon be brought to look Avell, and to be fit for market. Where a small number of cat- tle are fed, and it is necessary to turn them into a clover field in the close of the day, a man should watch and turn them out the mo- ment they are satisfied, otherwise they Avill lie down, or stroll about, and by blowing on the grass, will cause great waste. Cattle fed in the meadoAvs south of Philadelphia, are generally kept one year before they are sold..... They are pastured one summer, and then stall fed upon hay, and 4 quarts of meal of Indian corn, (Zca Mayz) and 3 quarts of chop- ped potatoes 3 times a day. In the spring and early in the summer, they are sold. In some cases they are fed on hay alone, in Avhich case CAT CAT 47 they require two tons per head; but having short feed as above each requires but one ton. Hay com- posed of white clover and timothy (phleum pratenae), fattens quickest. One grazier thinks that the second crop of blue grass and clover is best to make hay; but a farming friend thinks that this mixture is not nourishing, though cattle will eat more of it. In stall feeding cattle, it is a common practice to give a certain mess every day Avithout regard to any circum- stance, but an experienced feeder deems this practice absurd, and justly observes that a bullock will eat Avith a much keener appetite on a clear cold day, than in Avarm damp weather ; his mess ought to be proportioned accordingly. By giving the same quantity every day, the animal may be induced to over-eat itself, and many days may elapse before he will recover his appetite. By this delay he may £all away, and time will be required to bring him to his former good flesh. The waste hay, or that made from grass moAved after the cattle, is used commonly to feed the stock when the winter sets in ; the best hay being reserved for the spring before the beasts are turned out to grass. A handful of salt is broad cast over every load as packed in the loft, and so grateful is this con- diment to them, that they have been observed to prefev poor hay salted, to good hay unsalted. The economical Flemish and German practice of boiling the pota- toes, corn, &c. is not folloAved. But there can be no doubt that a por- tion of liquid food g'iAren every day, would have an excellent effect in producing an open state of the bowels, in loosening and softening the hide, and k^;ep the animals in better plight, than by confining them to dry food. Beans, mashed potatoes, mashed turnips, rye, In- dian corn and oats, coarsely broken, should be boiled Avith a large pro- portion of Avater, and given warm t- salt may be added when the mess is poured into the troughs. Corn blades and corn stalks may be also boiled Avith double advantage in- stead of giving them dry. The Germans in Lancaster county, now chop their corn cobs by means of mills, and with great benefit. If boiled, they would still go further, for their juices having been ex- tracted by the water, would nour- ish, Avhile the solid substance would stimulate by its quantity, and thus- combine the characters of a strong food. A boiler properly constructed, so as to save the heat, would render the expense of its erection a trifle; and this trifle Avould be more than balanced by the greater quantity of nourishment afforded by the pro- cess. Cattle fed on a mess of sour food, prepared by fermenting rye flour and water, and then diluted Avith water, and thickened with hay cut small, are said to fatten beasts quickly. It is known that hogs de- rive more benefit from sour milk and swill than Avhen fresh, and it is highly probable that good effects may be derived from acid food for horses, but it can only be consid- ered as preparatory to the essen- tial article Indian corn (zea mayz), without which neither steer, or hog Avill acquire that firmness in mus- cle and fat which are so deservedly admired.] Much, however, depends in the fattening of cattle, on their " thriv- ing disposition : singular as it mav appear to many of our readers, the 48 CAT tendency of animals to become fat, is not a little promoted by what is called sweating them; a practice Avhich has been attended Avith un- common success. This has been particularly experienced by the in- genious Mr. Moody, who asserts, that the hotter cattle are kept, the better they will fatten. He there- fore, shuts them up in an ox- house, and for some time admits no air to enter through the holes of the doors. The breath of so many beasts, and the heat of their bo- dies, soon make them sweat ex- ceedingly, and when this is at its highest point, they most speedily fatten. After SAveating tAvo Aveeks, all the hair falls off, a fresh coat appears, and they SAveat no more : but those beasts which do not sen- sibly perspire, seldom groAV fat. Linseed oil-cake remarkably con- tributes to the fattening of cattle, and renders their dung much richer than any other vegetable aliment; but, as this article is advancing in price, and difficult to be procured, it has lately been superseded by linseed-jelly, which is incompara- bly superior, and Avhen given with hay or meal, makes an excellent mixture for stall-fattening. It is prepared as follows: To seven parts of water put one of linseed, for 48 hours ; then boil it gently for two hours, stirring the mass continually, to prevent it from burning. It should afterwards be cooled in tubs, and mixed Avith meal, bran, or cut chaff. Mr. Moody gave Iavo quarts of this jelly every day to each large bul- lock, Avhich amounts to little more than one quart of seed in four days, and is a great saving in the article of food. [A grazing friend tried the effects of linseed oil, mixed Avith Indian CAT com meal, upon a steer stall fed. The animal was observed to thrive rapidly, and to sweat profusely. But through inattention, too much oil was once mixed Avith the food, which disgusted the animal, and occasioned the cessation of the ex- periment. Flaxseed jelly would no doubt be more agreeable to the animals, less liable to surfeit from an acci- dental over proportion, and less liable to affect the meal with a pe- culiar taste, than either oil or cake, and therefore deserves to be tried. To each head may be given, about half a gallon of jelly daily, mixed with meal and cut straw. But this food ought to be changed about one month, before the ani- mal is killed, to prevent the pos- sibility of the flavour of the oil, cake, or jelly, remaining in the flesh.] Having already, in the articles Black Cattle and Bullocks, stated the most proper method of fattening cattle, we refer the reader to those heads, and proceed to discuss the last section of this sub- ject. III. The Diseases of Cattle. No distemper is perhaps more common among these useful ani- mals, than that of being swoln, that is, blown or hoven, as it is termed by farmers. It arises either from their being exposed to damp situa- tions, or from eating too greedily of any succulent food, such as tur- nips, clover, particularly red clover, which is a dangerous food for horn- ed cattle ; for, Avhen wetted by deAv or rain, it may prove a destructive poison. For this fatal malady, va- rious remedies ha\re been tried, Avith more or less success, of which Ave shall select the most effectual and expeditious. The general prac- CAT tice is, to make an incision Avith a penknife in the body of the affect- ed animal, [under the short ribs, and a tube of ivory, bone, or smoothed elder put in:] in order to give vent to the confined air: the Avound is then covered with a common or adhesive plaster, to prevent exter- nal cold from penetrating it; and thus the danger, in general, is spee- dily removed. But, where it is practicable, it surely behoves us to employ more gentle remedies for the alleviation of this disorder : we, therefore, extract Avith satisfaction, the following recipe from the 33d volume of the Annals of yJgricul- lure ; where it is announced as a specific for hoven cattle, even in the most desperate cases ; effect- ing a cure within the short space of half an hour.....Take three quar- ters of a pint of olive oil; one pint of melted butter, or hog's lard ; give this mixture by means of a horn or bottle ; and if it does not produce a favourable change in a quarter of an hour, repeat the same quantity, and walk the animal gently about. For sheep attacked Avith this mala- dy, the dose is, from a wine glass and a half to two glasses. Besides these remedies, instruments have been invented for the purpose of re- lieving bloAvn cattle : tAvo of these contrivances we shall describe, as being particularly distinguished for the ingenuity of their construction, and the speedy relief they afford. The first is a flexible tube, invent- ed by the celebrated Dr. Munro, Professor of Anatomy at Edin- burgh : it consists of iron wire, about one sixteenth of an inch in diameter, twisted round a rod three eighths of an inch in diame- ter, and made of polished iron, in order to give it a cylindrical form ; VOL. II. CAT 49 the wire, after being taken off the rod, should be covered with smooth leather. To the end of the tube, which is intended to be passed into the stomach, a brass pipe tAvo inches long, of the same size, or rather larger than the tube, is to be firmly connected : and to prevent the tube from bending too much within the mouth, or gullet, an iron Avire, one eighth of an inch in diameter, and of the same length as the tube, is put within it, but afterwards . Avithdrawn, when the tube has entered the stomach..... As Dr. Munro has ascertained that the distance from the fore- teeth to the bottom of the first stomach of a large ox, is about six feet, the tube ought, therefore, tq be at least two yards long, that it may operate effectually in the largest oxen. When the instru- ment has been introduced into the stomach, it may remain there for any length of time, as it does not obstruct the respiration of the animal: the greater part of the condensed air will be speedily dis- charged through the tube; and, should any ardent spirits, or other liquor calculated to check the fer- mentation, be deemed necessary, it may be safely injected through this pipe. In short, the flexible tube here described, has been found of infinite service in saving the lives of cattle, and especially of sheep, Avhen subject to similar disorders, or any other swelling peculiar to these creatures. Another Instrument for relieving hoven cattle and sheep, is that con- trived.by Mr. Richard Eager, of Graff ham farm, near Guildford. Its peculiar simplicity, and great utility, have induced us to subjoin the following representation. H A, A, is the knob of wood, and part of the cane to which it is fas- tened, of a proper size for oxen: the length of the cane should be at least six feet. B, B, is the knob of wood and part of the cane, calculated for sheep, and the length of which ought to be about three feet. When any beast is bloAvn or ho- Aren, Mr. Eager directs a person to lay hold of it by the nostril, and one horn, while an assistant stea- dily holds its tongue with one hand, and pushes the cane doAvn its throat with the other. Care, how- ever, should be taken, not to let the animal get the knob ofthe cane between his grinders, and also to thrust it doAvn far enough-; because its whole length Avill do no injury. As there Avill be found an obstacle CAT at the entrance ofthe paunch, the cane must be pushed with addition- al force ; and, as soon as a smell is observed to proceed from that place, and the animal's body sinks, the cure is performed, and Nature will complete the rest. Mr. Eager justly attributes this disorder to the superabundance of air introduced into the stomach, by eating too large quantities of succu- lent food, which occasions a greater than natural portion of wind to ascend from the paunch of the beast. This forces the broad leaves before the passage, at the entrance of the stomach ; and these leaves prevent the wind from passing up- Avards in its regular course. Thus the paunch immediately begins to swelh; the heat of the body rare- fies the air, so rapidly as to impede the circulation of the blood, and the animal, whether bullock or sheep, unless instantaneous relief be procured, expires in half an hour. In justice to Mr. Eager, we cannot omit to mention, that the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Ufc. in 1796, voted to him a reAvard of fifty guineas, for com- municating to the public his simple, yet effectual, method of relieA'ing cattle thus dangerously affected; and that the Earl of Egremont has candidly testified his conviction ofthe propriety ofthe principles on which Mr. Eager's opinion, rela- tive to the cause of that distemper, was established. In short, several respectable persons have farther at- tested, that the practice, also, has been attended with complete suc- cess. [The Rev.Mr.E.PARsoNS of E. Haddam, Connecticut, describes a disease in the Medical Repository, New- York, vol. 1. which has been CAT CAT 51 very destructive to horned cattle in Connecticut for ten years past. It is chiefly confined to cattle under three years....Cows are sometimes attacked, but oxen rarely. It has been most fatal to calves in autumn and to yearlings in May and June. The largest and highest fleshed are most liable to the disease. The vulgar name for the disease is " The mortification." The symp- toms are, umvillingness to move, a soft swelling in the leg, shoulder, flank, side, but oftener in the back and region of the kidneys. In the course of six, twelve, or twenty- four hours, life terminates with little expression of pain. The stink before death is intolerable. Upon skinning, the swollen spot is found to contain a jelly and black blood. The cause of the disease is sup- posed to be too much fulness, or plethora, as it proves destructive to cattle after a change of pasture or fodder, from bad to good. Many calves have died after feeding in the fields of grain. The remedies are chiefly of the preventive kind, such as bleeding, or a change of pasture of a better quality, and care not to permit a sudden change, from bare to full bite. One person bled copiously in the neck, gave the animal his OAvn blood to drink, which purged; and then made an incision in the swollen spot, took out the jelly and gore, and filled the cavity with rum and salt; after which the recovery Avas gradual. Three head of cattle thus treated, recovered : on all the rest this treatment had no effect, either good or bad. A disease Avhich originally ap- peared in a drove from North Ca- rolina, in the autumn of 1796, spread devastation throughout the country among the cattle as it pass- ed. The editor first heard of it near Columbia, on the Susquehan- nah, where the drove remained one night in a ploughed field. The stock of the farm were seized in a few days afterwards, and many pe- rished. At the same time the beasts in the drove appeavedperfectly well. The disease was traced doAvn to Derby, 8 miles S. W. of Philadel- phia, where great havoc was occa- sioned by it. The symptoms were first,disinclination to food, inability to stand, tumbling, laborious breath- ing, and deep groaning : bloody urine was sometimes discharged. Costiveness, in general, was a symptom. The blood was dissolved when drawn. No remedy was found effectual. The circumstance attending the above mentioned disease, suggests the propriety of keeping drove cattle separate from an old stock for some time, and of permitting the latter to mix with the former by degrees, in order to see whether a disease appears. The little attention that has hi- therto been paid to the diseases of cattle in the United States, is a matter of very serious concern. It frequently happens that an epide- mic rages among horned cattle with great violence, and no more information is communicated re- specting it, than what is contained in a newspaper paragraph, though the country abounds Avith men of education, fully capable of record- ing a good account of the disease. Such negligence is highly repre- hensible, and by continuing it, we shall always remain stationary in our knowledge of the diseases of cattle. The symptoms ought to be described, whether the complaint may or may not be cured ;and the various remedies stated, in order t« 52 CAT C AT direct the mode of cure, or prevent the loss of time on future occasions. Many thousands of dollars were lost by the fatal disease mentioned above, and noticed first among the North Carolina drove, and yet no other account of it is to be found, except the imperfect one here giv- en. In Europe, the diseases of cattle are deemed worthy of parti- cular attention by men of science, and professorships are endowed in many universities, for the express purpose of having the physical eco- nomy of all domestic animals pro- perly examined. The advantages of these establishments are often perceived, and no time ought to be lost in following the example in the various colleges in the United States. It is well knoAvn that En- gland was indebted to a physician (Dr. Ledyard) for the stoppage of the ravages of a wide spreading epidemic which raged among the homed cattle between 1750 and 1760. Cattle are also sometimes affect- ed by diseases of the hoof; in consequence of feeding upon hay made of the bog meadoAv grass. Such a disease Avas seen by a grazing friend (W. R.) among the cattle in Blooming Grove near Gray Court, New-York, in the Avin- ter succeeding the dry summer of 1793. Many beasts lost their hoofs entirely. A similar complaint was observ- ed by another friend (I. C.) to pre- vail among cattle from feeding upon the natural grass which comes upon meadoAvs made by banking out the river Delaware, and which are not duly Avatcred. The ends of the blades of the grass become tip- ped with a black powder similar to rust on grain. Cattle do not relish the grass, and Avill not eat it unless forced by necessity. Care must therefore be taken to Avater such meadows at proper sea- sons.] There are various other distem- pers, to which the farmer's live- stock are frequently subject ; such as the worms, or botts in horses, the mildeAV, murrain, quarter-evil, rot, scab, Sec. among different spe- cies of cattle. With respect to the nature and cure of these, we refer to the order of the alphabet: such of our readers, however, as may wish for more minute inforanation, on the subject of cattle, will pro- bably be gratified by the perusal of Mr. Culley's " Observations on Live-Stock," (8vo. 4s. 6d.) a small Avork that was published a few years since, and is believed to pos- sess considerable merit: also Mr. Topham's " New and compendious System on several Diseases incident to Cattle," Sec. 8vo. 1788 ; a Avork containing some valuable hints, and of Avhich a new edition Avas lately published. Before we conclude this interest- ing article of national importance, we shall add a few general re- marks, tending chiefly to preserve the health, and improAre the phy- sical properties of cattle. It is ad- mitted, by all enlightened breeders, that cleanliness is one of the most essential requisites to the prospe- rity of those animals; and Ave may venture to add that, in this respect, a degree of attention ought to be paid, little inferior to that bestowed on the human frame. Hence, fre- quent Avashing,especially after hard labour ; friction Avith proper brush- es, and curry-combs, gentle Avalk- ing after a fatiguing journey ; and the immediate removal of litter, both from the stalls, and farm- yards, should not be neglected.... CAT But, alas! let us look around, in the vicinity of London, and inspect the filthy situation of coavs, in ge- neral, which are kept in a state worse than hackney coach-horses, for the sole purpose of giving the greatest possible quantity of milk, without regarding its quality..... every judicious person Avill shudder at the picture. And yet, we de- rive from these beneficial brutes a considerable part of our daily sustenance, especially for children, and those persons whose organs of digestion have not been impaired by the habitual use of fermented, Bpiritous, or intoxicating liquors. See Milk. In a preceding part of this work we have pointed out the great necessity of supplying Cattle with sufficient quantities of com- mon salt; and for the reasons al- ready stated, we are of opinion, that all kinds of cattle, especially sheep, would be much benefited by the continual use of this simple and natural spice, Avhich eminently conduces to the digestion of suc- culent Aregetables, and is almost a specific for preventing the effects of flatulence. Salt cannot be given in excess: it is affirmed, that it enables the farmer to increase his live-stock ; as it augments the nour- ishment of the food eaten, in propor- tion to the quantity of saline matter. It is also said greatly to improve the wool in quality, as well as quantity. Hence it ought to be freely given to sheep, and cattle of every description: but, to imitate Nature, it should be previously dis- solved, and then mixed with a pure, fine clay, in a mass, Avhich is to be placed under shelter, so that the animals may lap it at pleasure : such is the process Avhich the un- C A U 53 prejudiced grazier will be disposed to adopt....Lastly, Mr. Bordley, relates a fact worthy attention. About sixty years ago, he learnt, from a country farrier, that, " once or twice a week, giving salt to horses, effectually secures them against botts;"....ever since that period, he has experienced the good effects of this management; and adds that, during twenty years' re- sidence on his farm, at Wye, in Maryland, he always kept upwards of fifty horses on the banks of a river, containing salt-water, and never met Avith a single instance of that disease. CAUDEX, a botanical term, signifying, in general, the stem, or trunk of a tree. It is properly that part of plants Avhich joins together the plumula, or leaf, and the radicle, or root fibres; and which is called the caudex, by Linnaeus, when ap- plied to entire plants. He conse- quently divides it into the ascend- ing and descending body ofthe ve- getable : the former contributes to the formation of the trunk, the lat- ter to that of the root. In herbs and shrubs, the caudex is denominated Caulis, or the stalk. Dr. Darwin observes, that, in herbaceous plants, the caudex is generally a broad, flat, circular plate, from which the leaf-stems ascend into the air, and the radi- cles, or root-fibres, descend into the earth. Thus, the caudex of a plant of wheat lies between the stem and the radicles, at the basis of the loAvermost leaf, and occasionally produces both new stems and ra- dicles, from its sides; Avhereas that of a tulip is situated under the principal bulb, and generates neAV, though smaller ones, in the bosom of each bulb-leaf, besides one prin- 54 C AU cipal, or central bulb....the caudex of the orchis, and of some species of the ranunculus, lies aboAre their bulbous roots; but those of the buds of trees constitute the longi- tudinal filaments of the bark, ex- tending from the plumula, or apex, of the bud on the branch, to the base of it, or its root-fibres, beneath the soil. The elongation ofthe caudexes, which takes place in the buds of trees, says Dr. Darwin, is ana- lagous to what happens to some herbaceous plants, as in wheat: when the grain is buried two or three inches beneath the soil, an elongation ofthe caudex occurs al- most up to the surface, Avhere ano- ther set of fibrous roots are pro- truded, and the upright stem com- mences. It is the same with tulip- roots, and also those of many other vegetables, when planted too deep in the earth. This caudex ofthe buds of trees, not only ascends, as before de- scribed, but likeAvise descends from each bud to that above it; as on the long shoots of vines, AvilloAVs, and briars; in this respect, resembling the Avires of strawberries, and other creeping plants. Thus the caudex of perennial herbaceous plants con- sists of a broad plate, buried be- neath the soil, to protect it from the frost; while that of the buds of trees is furnished Avith a long, vascular cord, extending from the bud, on the branch, to the radicle, beneath the earth, and enduring the Avinter frosts, without injurv. When treating of vegetable ge- neration, and the organs of re- production, Dr. Daravin, in his " Phytologia, mentions a remark- able animal fact, illustrative of this curious, and important subject: C AU Many insects, such as the common earth-worm, and the polypus, are said to possess so much life, throughout a great part of their system, that they may be cut into two or more pieces, without de- stroying them ; as each part will acquire a new head, or a new tail, or both ; and the insect thus be- come multiplied. How exactly this is resembled by the long cau- dex of the buds of trees, which possess such vegetable life, from one extremity to the other, that when the head,- or plume, is lopped off, it can produce a neAV plume ; and when the lower part is cut off, it Avill generate new radicles; and thus may be Avonderfully pro- pagated. See also Bud, Bulb, and Leaves. CAULIFLOWER,the Botrytis, L. a variety ofthe Brassica oleracea, or sea-cabbage, a native ofthe Isle of Candia, but, of late years, has been so far improved in Britain, as to exceed, in size and flavour, those floAvers which are produced in most parts of Europe. Cauliflowers are raised from seeds, which ought to be saved only from large, and Avhite flow- ers; as, Avithout this precaution, they will not prosper. The seeds should be sown in March, in a rich, but not too dry soil, where the young plants, on their first sprouting out, may be sheltered from the evening frosts, which usually happen at that season. About the middle of April, while in their first leaf, they should be transplanted into a nursery, five or "ix inches apart; where they must remain till the latter end of May, or the beginning of June, Avhen it will be proper to remove them to those spots, in which they C AU are intended to blossom. The best time for this purpose, is in wet weather, Avhich Avill make them strike root quickly ; but if the season be dry, holes should be dug in the ground, at about three feet distance, which must be well Ava- tered, previously to setting the cau- liflowers. By these means, and also by watering them frequently, during Avarm Aveather, the plants will grow rapidly, and produce large flowers in autumn. It some- times happens that, notwithstand- ing these precautions, they will not flower till after Michaelmas; in which case they must be dug out, together Avith the earth at their roots, and set upright in a green- house, or other Avarm place, where the blossoms Avill increase in size, and be fit for use in Avinter. But, in order to have caulifloAvers in the summer, a different mode of culti- vation must be pursued. To effect this, the seed should be soAvn in the beginning of August, on an old cucumber, or melon-bed, over which a little mould should be sifted, about a quarter of an inch thick ; this should be shaded with mats, and occasionally watered, to prevent the sun from injuring the plants. About a month after sow- ing, they Avill be fit to " prick out," when they should be set four or five inches apart, either under a south wall, to remain there till spring, or in the places Avhere they are destined to blossom, and cover- ed with glass bells during the se- verity of winter. Thus, and espe- cially by the latter method, the plants will, in the spring, become firmly rooted, and consequently produce larger blossoms than those which are set in that season. The caulifloAvers planted out at Michaelmas, will bloAV about three C AU 55 weeks sooner than those set in the spring; nevertheless, it is necessary to make plantations in both seasons, that there may be a constant suc- cession of crops. Care should, at the same time, be taken to set them Avhere they may not be exposed too much to the sun, and also to Avater them well, which will contribute greatly to their growth : M. Bech- stein, a German writer, however, asserts, that they will thrive most luxuriantly in the open fields..... As soon as the blossoms begin to appear, it will be requisite to break off the large leaves, and lay over the floAvers,in order to shelter them from the rain, and the scorching heat of the sun, which would other- wise cause them to turn yellow. As cauliflowers are apt to be da- maged by the wind, and sometimes to be blown up by the roots, parti- cularly during the months of March and April, they require to be safely protected from its violence. For such plants, therefore, as blossom early, and have large, close flow- ers, we would recommend the prac- tice adopted in some parts of Eng- land, namely, of allowing some of the most forward ones to remain for seed, and tying them carefully to stakes, to prevent their receiving any injury from the Avind. As soon as the pods are full grown, and the seeds have arrived at maturity, the Avhole stalk must be cut off, and dried, previously to the seeds be- ing rubbed out; as they are liable to be shed, if left upon the plants, till the seed-vessels are dry. Among the succulent plants pro- duced in our climate, this doubtless is one of the most nourishing, and likeAvise the best adapted to tender organs of digestion, especially in Araletudinarians and invalids : such persons, however, oughttoeatit with 56 C A U C AU the addition of some aromatic spice such as pounded cardamoms, or caraway....or a small proportion of bread. To prepare cauliflowers.....Let the cauliflowers first be par-boiled ; next they must be immersed in cold, hard water, for some time, till they be nearly wanted forthe table : thus, on being boiled for a few mi- nutes, they will become more firm and crisp than if they had been cooked in the usual manner. CAUSTICS, in medicine, are remedies, the operation of Avhich resembles that of fire ; by destroy- ing the texture ofthe part to which they are applied, and converting it into a substance not unlike burnt flesh. Those bodies which possess cau- sticity, are, when taken internally, mortal poisons: so powerful is their action, in general (for instance, ar- senic), that cautious physicians he- sitate to prescribe it, eAcn exter- nally. There are, however, seve- ral others, Avhich may be in a great measure divested of this deleteri- ousquality,such as the nitrous acid, or aqua fortis ; lunar caustic, or a solution of silver in nitrous acid ; common caustic, or pure kali; ei- ther of which are daily and success- fully used, especially for extirpat- ing fungous flesh, removing warts, &c.....See Cautery. The causticity of bodies depends, principally, on the state of the sa- line and acid matters Avhich they contain. When the latter are con- centrated and attached to the sub- stances with Avhich they are com- bined, they possess great activity, and are corrosive or caustic. In this manner, both fixed and volatile alkalis, though already caustic, ac- quire that property in a far greater degree, by beinsr mixed with quick- lime ; as this substance deprives them of a portion of unctuous and inflammable matter, and divesta them of all their- fixed air, which binds and restrains their saline principle. The late Dr. Black, when treat- ing on this subject, observed that the compounds produced by the union of metals with acids, are in general corrosive. Many of them, Avhen applied to the skin, destroy it almost as soon as mineral acids ; and some of the most poAverful cauteries are made in this way. Others are supposed to be more acrid than the pure acids themselves, and produce apparently more poAv- erful effects, Avhen taken internally. Thus, a person may sAvallow ten or twelve drops of spirit of salt, with- out feeling any inconvenience ; but the same quantity of acid, previous- ly combined with silver, quick-sil- ver, copper, or regulus of antimo- ny, Avill throw the whole body into violent disorder, or even prove fa- tal, if taken in one dose. Caustics are not at present in general use ; they are, hoAvever, applied occasionally in abscesses, to produce an orifice, and to give vent to the suppurating matter ; as likewise to make issues in parts Avhere incision is difficult, or dan- gerous, on account of the contigu- ous blood-vessels. CAUTERY, a surgical term gi- ven to substances which corrode or burn any solid part of the body : they are divided into tAvo classes, actual and potential. By the for- mer are understood red-hot instru- ments, which Avere much in use among the ancients, and are still employed by several barbarous na- tions, as their almost only means of curing diseases ; but, in the mo- dern practice of Europe, they are C A V C A V 57 seldom resorted to, except for the firing of horses and cattle. Some practitioners, hoAvever, cauterize with burning tow, others with cotton, or moxa (particularly the inflamed part of a toe, for pre- venting a fit of the gout) ; others again Avith live coals, Spanish wax, pyramidal pieces of linen, &c. But of all actual cauteries, the most ex- peditious and least painful, is that of streAving on the wound a small quantity of the finest gun-powder, and then setting it on fire : a me- thod Avhich, particularly after the bite of a mad dog, has generally been attended Avith the happiest effect, while it always renders the operation with the knife unneces- sary. Potential cauteries are those which we have already explained under the head of Caustics. In this place, therefore, v/e shall only observe, that one of the most ef- fectual methods of cleansing foul, indolent ulcerations, and checking the progress of mortification, espe- cially in the legs, is the cautious application of the following lotion : Take thirty grains of lunar caustic, dissolve it in a pint of the purest spring, or twice filtered Avater. If it produce a burning sensation Avhich continues too long for sustaining the pain in the part affected, Avash the ulcer with pure water, and make the solution weaker every time it is applied. Although this, in ge- neral, proves an excellent remedy in those cases, yet as it is a power- ful caustic, Ave do not advise an in- discriminate use of it, without con- sulting professional men.....See Ul- cers and Warts. C AY ADILLA, a plant but little known, though its seeds have long been applied externally to destroy vermin ; as they produce a consi- VOL. II. derable irritation in the skin...... Lately, however, the celebrated Schmucker has successfully ad- ministered these seeds internally for the same purpose, in the fol- lowing manner : Haifa dram ofthe powder mixed with honey, Avas or- dered to be taken, on an empty stomach, for five successive morn- ings ; after which he prescribed a brisk laxative. By this treatment, the caAradilla has, by several Conti- nental physicians, been observed to expel the ver-solitaire, or solium, a species of tape-worm extremely difficult to be removed. It is far- ther affirmed, that in a variety of cases it uniformly produced that effect. CAVIAR, a species of food chiefly imported from Russia: it is made of the hard roes of the stur- geon, formed into small cakes, about an inch thick, and three or four inches in breadth ; but some- times the whole is loosely packed up in small kegs. It is prepared by taking all the nerves or strings out of the spawn, washing it in white Avine vinegar, or spreading it on a table, then salting and pressing it in a fine bag; after which it is . put into a vessel perforated at the bottom, to alloAV the moisture to run out, if any should remain. From the latest accounts pub- lished by Professor Pallas, in his Travels into the Southern Provinces of the Russian Empire, in the years 1793 and 1794 (an English transla- tion of which, by the editor of this Encyclopaedia, is now in the press), it appears that caA-iar is made of the following three species of fish, caught in the river Volga and the Caspian sea: 1. Belugas, or the great sturgeon, of which there are taken annually 103,500 ; each fish being Avorth, upon an average, tw» 58 C A V C A V rubles and a half, or from six to seven shillings sterling: the roe, or caviar, of 1000 sturgeons weighs 4000 Russian pounds, so that this number yields 414,000 pounds, and the value of each pood, or forty pounds, is generally computed at three rubles and a half; 2. The little sturgeon, of Avhich there are taken every year 302,000, yielding 724,800 pounds of the roe ; and 3. The Sevrugas,ov Acipenser stellatus, L. the annual produce of which is not less than 1,345,000, caught in the different fisheries ; and from which 3,228,000 pounds of caviar are obtained : or from the Avhole number of 1,750,500 fish, 4 million 366,800 pounds of caviar........See also Isinglass. Pallas observes, that it would be difficult to find in the whole world, a fishery more productive to the natives, and advantageous to government, except that on the banks of NeAvfoundland. During the long Lent of the Greek Church, and the weekly fast days, Avhich to- gether are at least four months in the year, this fishery affords the principal food to the whole Euro- pean part of Russia, and its popu- lous capitals. No caviar was ex- ported in British vessels till the year 1781, and only 1040 pounds (Russian Aveight) of that commo- dity -were sent to England in 1782 ; but the increase of this trade Avas so rapid, that in the following year, 46,040 lbs.; in 1784, 64,480 lbs.; in 1785 and 1786,above 40,000lbs.; in 1787,nearly64,000lbs.; in 1788, 160,000lbs.; and in 1789, not less than 450,160 lbs.; but in 1790, only 1000 lbs.; and in 1792, I51,240lbs. were shipped in English vessels.... The exportation to Italy has also amounted to upwardsof 400,000lbs. during the last-mentioned years, exclusive of aboul 120,000 lbs. W other countries, and a still larger quantity through the ports of the Black Sea, and that of Azov. At present, the annual value of the sturgeons caught in the Avaters of Astrakhan, and the Caspian sea, amounts to 1,760,405 Russian ru- bles ; a great part of which is paid in British money, for the articles of isinglass and caviar. These fish proceed in shoals to the mouth, and a considerable way up the current of rivers, Avithout the least apparent diminution of their numbers. As the Persians eat no sturgeon, the fisheries of the Sallian are rented by Russians, who, during the spaAvning season, take 15,000 large fish in one day with the hook, at the weirs formed across the Avater : nay, it is remarkable, that if the fishermen be accidentally prevent- ed from Avorking but for a single day, the fish accumulate in such numbers at the weir, as to fill the whole channel, so that the upper- most appear Avith their backs above Avater, in a river not less than 28 English feet deep, and 60 fathoms wide. But those injudicious fisher- men, after having collected the roes for caviar, and the air-bladders for isinglass, throw the body of the fish into the sea as useless......See Manure. With regard to the physical qualities of caviar, we shall only remark, that it is a nourishing food, and more easily digested than pick- led salmon; it someAvhat resembles in taste, and nutritive property, the essence of anchovies ; though few persons, on first trial, relish its fla- vour. [As the sturgeon abounds in the rivers of the United States, caviar might be easily made in immense quantities. At present the roes are CE A CED 59 thrown away ; the young Bturgeon is pickled in Virginia, and deserv- edly esteemed.] CAYENNE PEPPER, one of the most heating and stimulating spices Avith Avhich we are acquaint- ed. [It is the produce of the Capsi- cum Annuum, L. The plant varies extremely in its fruit. There are several species of Capsicum, most of which are natives of both Indies ; but they have been chiefly brought from Cayenne, Surrinam, and the West Indies. The well known preparation, called Cayenne Pepper, is made from the pods ofthe smal- ler sorts of Capsicum.] This powerful spice, in a state of powder, has lately become the com- panion of the table, and is much esteemed for its,flavour, and the quality it is supposed to possess, of promotingthe digestion offish, and other articles of strong food. We are, hoAvever, of opinion, that such practice is not conducive to health, in general; for, though Cayenne pepper, like high flavoured Indian soys, may occasionally assist diges- tion, Ave would preferably advise those who stand in need of artificial stimulants, if they value their con- stitution, to abstain from dishes re- quiring a vigorous stomach, rathei than resort to precarious and de- structive means. Dr. Unzer mentions a prepara- tion of Cayenne pepper, called chi- quetaille, which is so powerful a caustic, that the smallest portion of it applied to the skin, burns more violently than fire : he advises, therefore, in accidents of this na- ture, immediately to wash the part affected with brandy, which pro- cures speedy relief. [CEANOTHUS AMERICA- NUS, New-Jersey Tea. This shrub seldom rise* more than three 01 four feet high,sending out branches on every side from the ground up- ward. The branches are very slender, and are garnished with oval pointed leaA-es, having three longitudinal veins running from the footstalk to the point,and diArerging in the broad part of the leaves from each other: the leaves are placed opposite, are deciduous, and of light green colour. At the extremity of each shoot, the flow- ers are produced in close thick spikes, and are composed of five small petals, of a clear white. These appear in June. During the revolutionary Avar, the leaves of this shrub Avere dried and used as a substitute for com- mon tea. The plant is said to dye wool a fine strong nankin cinna- mon colour.] CEDAR, or the Pinus Ccdrus, L. a species of the pine-tree, usu- ally called the Cedar of Libanon, is a native of Syria. It is an ever- green of the larger kind, bearing roundish cones, with smooth, erect scales, each fruit about five inches long, and four in circumference. The cedar attains a considerable size, and is said to arrive at a greater age than the oak. It ap- pears to have been introduced into England towards the latter end of the 17th century, and may be easily propagated by seed ; as it Avill groAV on a poor sandy soil with a mixture of clay. Planta- tions of this beautiful tree might conduce to the ornament as welkas convenience of domestic life : for the wood of cedar is not subject to the depredations of Avorms, and is admirably calculated to withstand the effects of moisture : hence attempts have been made to imitate it, by dyeing inferior Avood of a red colour : but the fraud ma\ 60 C E D C EI be easily detected by the smell, as that of the cedar is very aromatic. Beside the numerous articles ofthe cabinet-maker and joiner, the wood of cedar is also made into moulds for black lead pencils. [Both the red and Avhite cedar are natives of North-America. The former grows to a height of fifteen or twenty feet. Its berries are smaller than those of the true juniper.] It has some seminal varieties, some trees producing, as they groAv up, leaves similar to those of the cypress, while others more resemble those of the juni- per. It is a most durable wood, especially for posts, Avhich, when once fixed in the ground, Avill stand unimpaired for a century. It was formerly in much request in Ame- rica, for chests and wainscoting; but its smell being rather disagree- able, it is noAV almost entirely disused. The white cedar from its very small cones,resembles the cypress. From its bark are gathered small lumps or grains of dry resin, called olibanum, or frankincense. The wood of this tree is much used in America for shingles, and has a sweet smell, not unlike cinnamon. Both these last mentioned varieties delight in a dry sandy soil; and, if planted in England, would add much to the beauty of the country. [Cedar, Red and White. These tAvo celebrated trees are of differ- ent genera. The first is the Junipe- ruf Virginiana, and the latter, Cu- pressus Th.yoides. The red cedar is famous in America for affording the most durable fence posts, and in Bermuda for its durable and light timber, in the construction of fast sailing vessels. In Virginia and Carolina the berries of this tree are distilled into brandy. The wood is said to preserve furs or woolens enclosed in boxes of it from being touched by moths. The Avhite cedar, affords one of the most useful woods in the United States, partic.larly for covering houses, and other buildings : most of the houses of Philadelphia are roofed Avith shingles made of this wood. It is preferred to all other Avood for the purpose before men- tioned, as Avell as for fence rails, boarding frame buildings, and all sorts of inside work of houses, par- ticularly, where paint, varnishing, or paper hangings are intended ; it is preferred to all other wood, for coopers-ware, such as wooden cis- terns, tubs, pails, churns, &c. This celebrated tree possesses an extensiAre range on the Atlantic coasts, from NeAv-Jersey southAvard as far as East and West Florida. Its natural situation and soil, is the flat country, near the sea shore and fifty or sixty miles back, where swamps, or a Avet morassy soil abounds, but will grow very well if planted in higher land,provided the soil be sandy and moist.] CEILING, in architecture is the top, or roof, of an upper room, made of plaster, laid over laths nailed on the bottom of the joist of the upper room ; or, where there is no upper room, on joists made for that purpose, which are therefore called ceiling joists. Plastered ceilings are in much greater use in England than in any other country of Europe; they are preferable to papered, or other ceil- ings, as they make a room not on- ly lighter, but also prevent the dust from penetrating through crevices; lessen the noise from above; check the progress of accidental fires; CEL C E L 61 and, during summer, contribute to cool the air....See Mortar, and Plaster of Paris. Celandine. SeeCHELiDONiuM. [CELASTRUS, Climbing Staff- Tree, nearly allied to Euonymus. Three species of this genus are found in the United States. C. bullatus, c. scandens or climbing staff tree': c. myrtifolius. The se- cond species possesses all the pow- ers of sarsaparilla.] CELERY, a variety ofthe Apium graveolens, L. originally denomi- nated smallage, or parsley. The root, in its wild state, is thick and fibrous ; its bushy stalk attains the height of two or three feet, and bears yellow flowers in August: it grows in ditches and salt-marshes, is fetid, acrid, and noxious; but when cultivated in dry ground, it is divested of those qualities, and then called Celery. There are tAvo remarkable varie- ties' of this vegetable: 1. The shrubby celery, which is raised from seed: it should be sown at two or three different times, in order to preserve it the better for use during the season, without running up to seed. The first sowing ought to be in the begin- ning of March, on a gentle hot- bed; the second towards the end of the same month, in an open spot of light earth, Avhere the plant can enjoy the benefit of the sun ; and the third in the latter end of April, or the beginning of May, on a moist soil; Avhere it may be exposed to the morning sun only, but not too near trees, as the Avet occasionally dropping from their leaves tends to retard its growth. Towards the middle of May, some ofthe roots ofthe first sowing will be fit to be transplanted into trenches for blanching. These must be cut at the distance of three feet from one another, about eight or ten inches in width, and of the same depth; the mould dug out of them should be equally laid on each side, that it may lie ready to draw in again, and to earth up the ce- lery, as it adA-ances in height. As soon as the trenches are midc, the plants, having been previously trimmed, and the tops of the long leaves cut off, must be set in the middle of them, about four or five inches apart; care being taken to close the earth well around them, and to water them plentifully, un- til they have taken neAvroot. When about half grown, the lateral fibrous roots should be carefully removed with a knife, and the earth again placed round the parent root, Avith- out burying the hearts. By repeat- ing this operation, as occasion re- quires, Mr. KiRCHNER,a German gardener, asserts that he obtained celery roots of an extraordinary size. The last crop should be planted in a drier soil; and, in or- der to prevent it from rotting in the winter, it -will be necessary to cover it, when the frost is severe, with pease-haulm, or some similar sub- stance, Avhich admits the access of air. Care should, however, be ta- ken to remove this covering as soon as the Aveather becomes milder; for otherAvise the celery will be apt to pipe, and run to seed. When full blanched, this rootAvill not continue good above three weeks or amonth; hence to preserve it, and insure a succession of crops, it is necessary to have, at least six or seven sea- sons of planting, proportioned to the consumption. 2. The bulbous celery, generally called, by gardeners, French Cc- 62 C E L CEL leriac, but seldom to be met with in this country : it produces a large, knobby root, of a delicate flavour, and from three to five inches in dia- meter. This plant is usually sown early in the spring, on hot-beds, and afterwards transplanted into a deep, and Avell prepared garden soil, at equal distances of ten or tAvelve inches from each other, where it will thrive rapidly, if it be frequently earthed up, and Avater- ed, as it requires constant mois- ture.....Having been disappointed in obtaining the proper seed for this variety, instead of which, an eminent old botanist, of Covent- garden market, furnished us with that of the common fibrous-root- ed, or shrubby celery ; we are led to belieA-e, that the latter may be artificially converted into bul- bous roots, by adopting the simple expedient before suggested by Kirchner. Although Ave have no decish'e proof of this useful con- version, Avhich might be easily ap- plied to the improvement of many other culinary vegetables, yet there appears to be a considerable pros- pect of a successful result in many of those plants, now vegetating in a garden at Paddington. When distilled, the seeds of both, the Avild and cultivated celery, pro- duce an essential oil. The roots of the former are eaten by sheep and goats, but coavs and horses refuse them.....As an article of food, the celery is Avell known, but is said to be hurtful to persons subject to ner- vous complaints. It is, however, considered as an excellent anti- scorbutic. The bulbous root of celeriac is much esteemed on the Continent, where it is preserved in sand for the winter, and eaten chiefly as sa- ke. For this purpose, it is cut in slices, and soaked a few hours in vinegar : by such simple prepara- tion, it becomes as melloAv as a pine-apple, and affords a delicious, and very nourishing repast: hence it is much relished by invalids or the aged. We doubt, however, whether it deserve the great cha- racter it has acquired among the French and Germans, for its brac- ing and restorative virtues, in cases of general relaxation and nervous debility. [Cellery having a solid stalk, is now generally cultivated in and near Philadelphia. The seeds must be sown in March in a hot bed, or in the open ground ina. moist andwarm situation. In six Aveeks the plants Avill be fit for putting into trenches, Avhich must be prepared by having some well rotten manure put into thebottom. The black mould found on the surface in Avoods, Avhich abounds Avith carbon, or the black earth from ditches will answer very well. Where manure is used, that of hogs is commonly preferred, and the older it is, the less liable it will be to give the plant a rank bitter taste. When the plants are about six inches high, they should be transplanted, by Avhich they will gain strength. When of a tolerable size, they must be earthed up, tak- ing care to leave out the top ofthe central stem, or heart as it is ge- nerally termed, above ground. Un- less the autumn should prove very warm, the cellery will be excellent, and not run to seed. To preserve this plant during the winter, it should be taken out of the trenches late in the autumn, and put in a Avarm sheltered spot leaning against a bank of earth, and covered with earth or leaves. The plants must not touch each other.] C EL CELLARS, in modem building, are the lowest rooms in a house ; their ceilings are usually level with the surface ofthe ground, on which the house is built. They are also situated under the pavement before it, particularly in streets and squares. On account of the great utility of cellars in preserving wines, ale, &c. various attempts have been made to prevent the generation of damp and noxious air, in subterra- neous places: two of these merit particularly to be noticed. The first is that of M. Westbeck (in the Memoirs of the Royal Swedish Academy ofthe Sciences),who caus- ed a vaulted cellar to be constructed, without stone or lime: instead of the former, he employed charcoal, placed in the manner of brick Avork ; and, as a substitute for the latter, he used a cement, consisting of clay, kneaded with charcoal dust. These brittle materials were em- ployed, because they attract no moisture, or acidity, either from the air, or earth ; a circumstance which renders them even more du- rable than stone. Another method, is that fre- quently practised in Germany, where the vaults are so constructed, that a canal, or passage of commu- nication, is opened from the cellar to the principal chimney of the house. [A communication should be made betAveen each cellar (where there are more than one), by means of an opening over or near the doors and next the ceiling, three feet long and one foot deep. A cir- culation of air would thereby be effected, and for security parallel iron bars may be placed in the openings.] By this means, the cellars may be continually venti- lated, so as to expel the damp and noxious vapours, which are usually CEM 63 collected in them; while the draught of the chimney is, in a considerable degree, promoted. The dangers arising from the sudden, or frequent inhalation of such air as is often generated in close, and damp cellars, have al- ready been stated; together with the most proper method of obviat- ing its deleterious effects. See Air. CEMENT, generally signifies any glutinous matter, capable of uniting and keeping substances in close cohesion. It principally de- notes compositions employed for holding together broken glass, &c. For this purpose, the juice of gar- lic is recommended as exceedingly proper; for it is very strong ; and, if the operation be performed with care, leaves very little or no mark. This is also effected, by a prepara- tion of fresh cheese cut in thin slices, which should be boiled in different waters, and continually stirred : thus it is converted into a very tough and elastic mass, which will not incorporate with liquids. After being sprinkled with a little boiling water, and worked upon a hot stone, a small quantity of un- slacked lime should be added, and the whole beat into the consistence of a paste. This composition Avill prove a strong and durable cement for Avood, stone, earthen ware and glass : when thoroughly dry, it re- sists every effect of water. There is a cement for joining glass and china, used in Germany, and which appears to be preferable to that above mentioned. It is pre- pared as follows: Take, by mea- sure, two parts of litharge, one of unslacked lime, and one of flint glass ; let each be separately re- duced to the finest powder, and Avorked up into a paste with old 64 C EM C E M drying oil. Hochheimer asserts, that this compound is very durable, and acquires a greater degree of hardness, w hen immersed in water. Another composition, which is successfully employed by the Ger- mans, for cementing wood, is pre- pared from pitch, mixed with bul- lock's blood, linseed-oil, and tur- pentine. The Avhole of these must be put over a fire, in an iron pan, and as much brick-dust added as will make them of the consistence of a thin paste. The tub, or cask, to Avhich this preparation is to be applied, must be perfectly dry be- fore it is laid on ; and the chinks or crevices filled up with tOAv, Avhile the cement is warm. Some melt a due portion of colophony with the other liquids, previously to the adding of the brick-dust; by which means the composition is said to be much improved. Cement, in building, is used to denote any kind of mortar, Avhich is stronger than that usually employ- ed. The cement commonly used, is either cold or hot. The former is the second above described, for cementing china, Sec. whichis some- times, though seldom, resorted to in the erection of walls. The hot cement, in general use, is made of resin, bees-wax, brick- dust, and chalk, boiled together. The bricks to be conjoined are heated, and rubbed together, with cement between them. If the as- sertion of foreign writers be well- founded, there is a much superior composition for cementing stones prepared on the Continent. It con- sists of eight parts of pitch, four of colophony, two of minium, or very fine litharge ; two of Avhite lead ; and one of brick-dust, melted to- gether. Sometimes, hoAvever, the following materials are substituted for those last mentioned: Take pure quartz, reduce it to a fine pow- der, by means of the same free- stone, to Avhich it is to be applied: add one third part of unslacked lime, and work the Avhole into a paste Avith the Avhites of eggs, just be- fore it is wanted. So effectual is this preparation, that in a few mi- nutes it will acquire the compact- ness and solidity of iron. A cement of tolerable firmness, may be obtained, by a mixture of gypsum and quick-lime, with the addition of water: this compound may prove of considerable service in making troughs for holding wa- ter, or lining small canals. A cheap mortar, or cement, that will not crack, may also be procur- ed, according to M. \v"if.gleb, by mixing three parts 'of the thin re- siduum after slacking the lime, with one of powdered gypsum ; but he adds, that it can be used only in dry situations. [Coarse cement for fastening handles in pestles, glass feet in electrical stools, Sec. Rosin 2 parts, Avax one part, thickened with very dry poAvdered brick-dust,orearthen- Avare, and used hot. Cement to join china. Powdered-. cheese, white of egg and powdered quick-lime, worked up together and used quickly. . Cement to join china by fire. Melt together two parts of borax and one of white siilcious sand. Pour them out, grind them into a fine poAvder, mix them up with a little glue Avater, and apply it Avith a hair pencil to the pieces of china to be joined: expose it to a heat just enough to melt this flux. Willis's cement for broken re- torts, even during the distillation of phosphoms. Dissolve 2 oz. of borax in a pint of water, thicken it C E M C E M 65 with sifted slacked lime, smear it on the crack with a spatula. Cement or lute for distillation. Blood, quick-lime, and silicious sand, or quick-lime and size, or quick-lime and white of egg. Where you want it to come off easily, put but a small quantity of lime. For the distillation of acid spirits. Size or blood thickened with Plais- ter of Paris and silicious sand in equal proportions: or in common cases, cloths smeared Avith white paint. Cemejits for Derbyshire Spar and other stones. Melt seven or eight parts of resin and one of bees-wax together, with a small quantity of Plaister of Paris (gypsum). If it is wished to make the cement fill up the place of any chips that may have been lost, increase the quan- tity of Plaister. Knead the mass well, heat the broken pieces until they will melt the cement,and press them together, some of the cement being previously interposed. Temporary cements. To fix glass plates to be ground for optical pur- poses, joining metallic plates to be turned in a lathe. Resin 4 oz. bees- wax i oz. add 4 oz. of whitening made previously red hot. Pitch, resin, and a very small quantity of tallow melted together, and thickened by stirring in dry brick-dust, is employed by chasers of gold and silver articles to sup- port and hold their Avork. Shell Lac is a very strong ce- ment for holding metals, glass, or precious stones, while cutting, turning, or grinding them. The metal should be warmed. White of eggs mixed with a little quicklime, (or a bit of chalk burnt in a common fire and pOAv- dered) makes a pretty good cement VOL. II. for glass and porcelain. Gum Arabic dissolved in Avater, diluted Avith spirits: and gum am- moniac added, answers well for glass and porcelain. Isinglass cements. Dissolve the isinglass in warm proof spirit: by adding one third gum ammoniac, previously to its solution in proof spirits, the cement is improved. Ex- pose the mixture to a boiling heat until the isinglass and gum are dis- solved, and until a drop of the com- position becomes stiff instantly as it cools. When joined to broken china or glass, the pieces should be previ- ously warm ; then lay on the ce- ment with a pencil, press the pieces together, binding them Avith a string. Japanese cement, or rice glue. This elegant cement is made by mixing rice flour intimately Avith cold Avater, and then gently boiling it. Papers pasted together by means of this cement, will sooner separate in their own substance, than at the joining, which makes it extremely useful in the preparation of curious paper articles which require laye rs of paper to be cemented together. It is white, dries transparent, and is much preferable to flour paste. With this composition, made with a comparatively small quantity of Avater;models,busts,statues,8cc.may be formed. When dry, the articles are susceptible of a high polish, and are very durable. The Japanese make quadrille-fish of this sub- stance, which so nearly resemble those made of mother-of-pearl, that purchasers are often imposed upon. A cement that resists moisture. Melt Avithout Avater common glue, Avith half its weight of resin, to which add some red ochre. Useful for cementing hones to their frames. Cement that hardens under wa- K 66 C E M C E M ter. Mix clay and calces (oxides) of iron plentifully Avith oil, the mass will harden under water. Mr. Gad, Stockholm. In Eton's Survey of the Turkish Empiredately published in London, the following composition is men- tioned as being in common use among the Turkish and Armenian Jewellers, to join glass or steel, or to fasten to Avatch cases, &c. a setting of jewellery. " Dissolve five or six bits of mas- tic, as large as peas, in as much spirit of Avine as Avill dissolve them: in another vessel dissolve as much isinglass (previously soaked in wa- ter till soft and SAvollen) in French brandy, as will make two ounces of strong glue ; add two small bits of gum galbanum or gum ammonia- cum, which must be rubbed till they are dissolved. Mix the Avhole together with a sufficient heat." The process above described may be simplified by adding the gum ammoniac to the isinglass du- ring its solution in proof spirits, and exposing the mixture to a boil- ing heat until it is dissolved, when the solution of mastic in alcohol may be added. The gum ammo- niac previously dissolved Avith the isinglass, promotes the union of the mastic with the mucilage. This cement has been tried in London, and found to answer AVell: it stands against moisture. A cement that will stand against boiling water, and even bear a con- siderable pressure of steam. In joining the flanches of iron cylin- ders and other hydraulic and steam engines, great inconvenience is often experienced from the want of a durable cement. Boiled linseed oil, litharge, red and Avhite lead, mixed together to a proper consistence, and applied on each side of a piece of flannel, previously shaped to fit the joint, and then interposed between the pieces before they are brought home (as the workmen term it) to their place by the screAvs or other fastenings employed, make a close joint. The quantities of the ingredient may be varied Avithout inconveni- ence, only taking care not to make the mass too thin with the oil. It is difficult in many cases instantly to make a good fitting of large pieces of iron work, which ren- ders it necessary sometimes to join and separate the pieces repeat- edly before a proper adjustment is obtained. When this is expected, ' the Avhite lead ought to predominate in the mixture,as it dries much slow- er than the red. A workman knoAV- ing this fact can be at little loss in exercising his OAvn discretion in regulating the quantities. It is safest to be on the side ofthe white lead, as the durability ofthe cement is no Avay injured thereby, only a longer time is required for it to dry and harden. When.the fittings will not ad- mit easily of so thick a substance as flannel being interposed, linen may be substituted, or even paper or thin pasteboard ; the only rea- son for employing any thing of the kind, being the convenience of handling. This cement also ansAvers well for joining broken stones however large. Cisterns built of square stones, put together Avith this ce- ment will never break or Avant any repairs. In this case the stones need not be entirely bedded in it, an inch or eA'en less of the edges that are to lie next the water need only be so treated : the rest of the joint may be filled with good lime. C E M Another cement that will stand the action of boiling water and steam. This cement which is pre- ferable to the former for seam- engines, is prepared as follows: Take 2 ounces of sal ammoni- ac, 1 ounce of flowers of sulphur, and 16 ounces of cast iron filings or borings. Mix all well together by robbing them in a mortar, and keep the powder dry. When the cement is wanted for use, take one part ofthe aboA-e pow- der, and twenty parts of clean iron borings or filings, and blend them intimately by grinding them in a mortar. Wet the compound with water, and Avhen brought to a con- venient consistence, apply it to the joint with a wooden or blunt iron spatula. By a play of affinities which those Avho are at all acquainted with che- mistry, will be at no loss to com- prehend, a degree of action and re- action takes place among the in- gredients, and between them and the iron surfaces, which at last causes the whole to unite as one mass. In fact, after a time, the mixture and the surfaces of the flanches become a species of pyri- tes (holding a very large propor- tion of iron), all the parts of which cohere strongly together. Another cement of the same kind. Take two parts of flowers of sulphur, and one part of sal-ammo- niac, and mix them together with a little water into a stiff paste. Take also borings or turnings of last iron in the state in which they are commonly found in the Avorks where boring and turning are car- ried on, viz. mixed with sand, and sift them finely to get rid of the grosser particles. Yv'ben the ce- ment is wanted for use, dissolve a portion ofthe above paste in urine, C EM 67 or in Avater rendered slightly aci- dulous, and to the solution add a quantity of the sifted borings. This mixture, spread upon or be- tween flanches of iron pipes, or put into the interstices of other parts of iron work, will in a little time be- come as hard as a stone. Blood cement. A cement often used by coppersmiths to lay over the rivets and edges of the sheet of copper in large boilers, to serve as an additional security to the join- ings and to secure cocks, Sec. from leaking: is made by mixing pound- ed quicklime Avith oxen's blood. It must be applied fresh made, as it soon gets so hard as to be unlit for use. We believe, if the properties of this cement were duly investigated, it Avould be found useful for many purposes to Avhich it has never yet been applied. It is extremely cheap, and very durable. For an account of the mode of making a cement for terraces ; and ofthe use of liquid pitch to render them impenetrable to water, and secure from the attacks by frost, by C. PuYMARi.r, see Tilloch's Phil. Mag. Vol. 13. Cement for preserving Avood and brick from decay, and for stopping leaks and fissures, by Silas Con- stant of New Jersey. The ce- ment is composed of the following materials; viz. tar, puh'eri zed coal (charcoal is esteemed the best) and line well slacked lime ; the coal and lime to be Avell mixed together, about four fifths coal one fifth lime ; the tar to be heated, and, Avhile hot, thickened with the mixture of coal and lime until it becomes so hard that it may be easily spread upon the surface of a board, and not run off Avhen hot. Turpentine or pitch ay 111 answer nearly as Avell 68 C E M CEM as tar, and Plaister of Paris will an- swer instead of lime ; to be used in the same manner. The cement must be applied when warm, and is found to be used easiest Avith a trowel. The following valuable composi- tion for a cement for water cisterns, was given to the editor by captain Hunn Avho had used it with suc- cess. He lined the Avell with bricks, and left a space of about six inches between the bricks and the sur- rounding solid earth : this space he filled with mortar made of lime and pounded gravel: (probably covering the face of the pit Avith the hot mortar would answer.) Equal parts of pounded brick, sand and sifted stone lime, Avere Avell mixed and worked up Avith hot lime Avash. This composition was spread on as hot as possible upon the inside of the well. To prevent the cooling of the cement,only a gallon must be made at a time. A floor of the cement must be laid, and the top arched, leaving room for a pump to be put doAvn.] A peculiar kind of cement is pre- pared at Madras, with Avhich most ofthe buildings erected in that In- dian capital, are cemented. It consists of sand and lime, Avith the' addition only of a small quantity of water, in which a proportion of coarse sugar has been previously dissolved. The quick-setting of this mortar, and the great hardness it acquires, can, as Dr. James An- derson has observed (in his Re- creations in Agriculture, vol. i.), only be attributed to one of these two causes, namely, either the su- gar added, or the quality of the lime-stone employed at Madras.... There are some kinds of lime-stone hi Britain, which afford a much better mortar than others; and this also may be the case in India. Most calcareous earths are blend- ed with sand and other particles, in various proportions; the quality of the mortar or cement will con- sequently vary, according to the nature of these different ingre- dients. It has lately been discovered, that the scrapings of certain roads, consisting chiefly of levigated lime- stone, which is impregnated in a greater or less degree with the dung and urine of animals, form an excellent cement. For ordinary Avails, these scrapings alone are frequently used; and, according to the account of Mr. Marshall (in his Rural Economy of Glouces- tershire), the proportion for the best building is about one part lime to three of those materials, collect- ed from roads composed of lime- stone. By the ingenuity of speculative men, however, several other modes of forming cements, have been contrived and successfully em- ployed ; but the enumeration of these would necessarily lead us to a greater length than our limits will permit. We shall, therefore, only give an account of the prin- cipal Patents lately granted for the invention of various cements. The first, is that of Mr. John Worth, chemist, dated the 28th of May, 1771, now expired; for a " Preparation, or cement, for the purpose of preserving His Majesty's and other ships and vessels from Avorms, &c and for various pur- poses in agriculture and com- merce."....This composition con- sists of fourteen pounds of pow- dered or small pieces of resin ; twenty-eight of sand, sifted and washed clean from dirt or loam; C EM C E M 69 three and a half of red lead ; and one pound and three quarters of oil: the resin must be melted over a moderate fire, the sand and lead gradually put in, and then the oil; care being taken, when they are boiling, to stir them constantly till they become cold, so that the mass may be uniform. When there is occasion to use this cement, the quantity required must be broken into small pieces, and a pound of what is usually denominated by the chemists, fat oil, mixed with every twelve pounds of it. As soon as this is melted, it may be applied to the object intended, either by pouring it on, or by a brush, while boiling. The quan- tity of oil to be added to the ce- ment must also be increased, or lessened, in proportion as the com- position is required to be of a greater or less degree of hardness. or softness. The second, Avas granted to Dr. Higgins, for his invention of a " Water cement or stucco for build- ing, repairing,and plastering Avails, &c." The component parts of this cement, are drift or quarry sand, cleansed by wadiing, and carefully strained from clay, salts, and cal- careous, gypsous, or other grains less hard and durable than quartz; after which it is dried, either in the sun, or on an iron plate in a fur- nace, in the manner of a sand heat. [Sand from the DelaAvare only re- quires sifting.] To this must be added, fourteen pounds of the neAv- est lime-stone that can be procured; and Avhich heats most in slacking, and slacks soonest Avhen duly Ava- tered; [which is fresh and closely kept,] dissolves in distilled vinegar with the least effervescence ; leaves as little as possible of an insoluble residuum, and contains the small- est quantity of clay, gypsous or martial matter. This must be pre- viously sifted in a brass Avire sieve, as finely as possible, and slacked, by being repeatedly immersed in, and quickly drawn out of, a butt filled with soft water, till it be made to pass easily through the sieve; rejecting that part of the lime which is too coarse. The patentee directs to continue that process, till as many ounces have been pass- ed through the sieve as there are quarts of water in the butt. The impregnated liquor, must stand in the vessel closely coArered up, until it becomes clear, when it should be drawn off through wood- en cocks, as fast and as low as the lime subsides ; being now fit for use. Dr. Higgins nominates this solution, the cementing li nor. Fifty- six pounds of lime, prepared in the same manner as before, are next to be slacked, by gradually sprinkling on it the cementing li- quor, in a close and clean place. The slacked part must be immedi- ately sifted, and the lime, if not used instantly, kept in air-tight vessels ; care being taken to reject those pieces which do not pass through the sieve. This richer lime, the Doctor calls fiurifi d lime. Bone-ash is then prepared, by grinding the Avhitest burnt bonei, Avhich must be sifted much finer than that commonly sold for mak- ing cupels. The principal inc.terials beingthus prepared/:fty-six pounds of the coarser sand, and forty-two ofthe fine sand, are to be mixed on a large plank of hard Avood, placed horizo tally, and spread so that it Avill stand to the height of six inches, Avith a flat surface on the plank. This must be wetted with the cementing liquor, and Avhat- ever superfluous quantities of it 70 C EM C EM will not incorporate with the sand, must flow off the plank. To the wetted sand are to be gradually added fourteen pounds of the puri- fied lime, tempered in the same manner as fine mortar; Avith this composition are, by degrees, to be mixed fourteen pounds ofthe bone- ash, and the whole beaten quickly together; as the sooner, and more perfectly these materials are tem- pered together, and the quicker the cement thus formed is used, the better it will ansAver the pur- pose. This Dr. Higgins calls the water cement coarse-grained; it is to be applied in building, pointing, plastering, stuccoing, Sec. in a si- milar manner Avith mortar; the principal difference being, that as cement is shorter, and dries much sooner than mortar, or common stucco, it ought tobeAvorked expe- ditiously in all cases; and, in stuc- coing, should be laid on by sliding the troAvel upAvards on it; and that the materials used with this cement in building, ought, when it is laid on, to beAvell moistened Aviththe ce- menting liquor ; which is also to be employed, if necessary, in wetting the cement, or reducing it to a fluid state. When such cement is re- quired to be of the finer sort, nine- ty-eight pounds of the fine sand are directed to be wetted with the ce- menting liquor, and tempered w ith the purified lime and bone-ash, in the manner already described; with this only variation, that fifteen pounds of lime are to be used in- stead of fourteen, if the greatest part ofthe sand be as fine as Lynn sand. This is called water cement fine-grained, and is to be used in giving the last coating to, or finish- ing, any work intended to imitate the finer grained stones, or stucco: it may, nevertheless, be applied to all the uses of water cement coarse- grained, and in a similar manner. Whenever, for any of the above- mentioned purposes of pointing, building, Sec. a coarser grained and cheaper sand is required, fifty-six pounds of the coarsest sand, or of fine rubble Avell washed, twenty- eight of the coarser, and fourteen pounds of the fine sand, are to be mixed together, and wetted Avith the cementing liquor, as above di- rected; to which fourteen pounds, or someAvhat less, of the purified lime, and a similar quantity of the bone-ash, are to be added; and the Avhole tempered together in the manner already mentioned. When the cement is required to be white, colourless sand, lime, and the whitest bone-ash, are to be select- ed. Grey sand, and grey bone- ash, formed of half-burnt bones are to be chosen for making the ce- ment grey. Other colours may be obtained, by employing coloured sand, or by mixing the necessary quantity of coloured talc in powder, vitreous or metallic poAvders, or other durable ingredients, usually employed in making paint. This water cement, whether coarse, or fine grained, may be used in form- ing artificial stone, by making al- ternate layers of cement, and of flint, hard stone, or brick, in the moulds of the intended stone, and by exposing the masses, thus formed, to the open air, in order to harden. When such cement is wanted for water-fences, two-thirds of the pre- scribed quantity of bone-ash are to be omitted, and an ec;ual propor- tion of powdered tarras to be substi- tuted: and if the sand be not of the coarsest sort, more tarras must be added, which should not exceed in weight one-sixth part of the form- er. When a cement of the finest CEM CEM 71 grain, and in a fluid form, is requir- ed, so that it may be applied with a brush, flint-powder, pounded Quartz, or other hard, earthy sub- stance, may be used, instead of sand, but in smaller quantity, and in proportion to the fineness of the flint, or other powder, so that it shall not amount to more than six times, nor less than four times, the weight of the lime. According to the greater, or smaller quantity of lime, the cement will be more or less liable to crack, by quick dry- ing. Where the sand above de- scribed, cannot be conveniently procured, or, where it cannot be washed and sorted, that which bears the geatest resemblance to the mixture of coarse and fine sand, may be selected; provided due at- tention be paid to the quantity of lime, which is to be increased, Avhen the sand is fine, and to be diminished, in proportion to its coarseness. In situations where sand cannot be procured, any dur- able stony body, or baked earth, grossly powdered, and sorted in a similar manner, may be substituted by measure, but not by weight, un- less such gross powder be of the same specific gravity.....Sand may be cleansed from softer, lighter, and less durable matter, and from those particles Avhich are too fine, by various methods, preferable in certain circumstances to that above described. Water may be found naturally free from fixible gas, selenite, or clay; and may be employed in- stead of the cementing liquour; in which state, the water will not re- quire so much lime for its prepar- ation. Where stone-lime cannot be procured, chalk-lime, or shell- lime, Avhich approaches nearer to stone-lime, may be substituted) in the manner above directed; with this exception, however, that fourteen pounds and a half of chalk-lime will be necessary, instead of fourteen pounds of stone-lime. The propor- tion of lime may, without incon- venience, be increased, Avhen the cement, or stucco, is to be applied, where it is not liable to dry quick- ly : on the contrary, it may be les- sened, and the deficiency supplied, Avith considerable advantage, by causing an additional quantity of the cementing liquor to soak gra- dually into the work, so that the calcareous matter of this liquor, and the elastic fluid attracted from the atmosphere, may fill and strengthen the workmanship. The powder of almost every well-dried, or burnt, animal matter, may be substituted for bone-ash, and seve- ral earthy powders, especially the micaceous, and the metallic, as Avell as calcareous ashes of mine- ral fuel, and the elixated ashes of various vegetables, the earth of which cannot, by burning, be con- verted into lime, will, in some measure, answer the purposes of bone-ash: in short, the quantity of the latter may be lessened, Avithout injuring the cement, particularly in those circumstances which admit of a diminution of lime, and where the cement is not liable to dry quickly. For inside work, it will be very useful to mix hair with the cement. The last patent, Avhich we shall notice, Avas granted in November, 1800, to Mr. John Baptist De- nize, chemist, for a cement, ap- plicable to various purposes. The basis of this is petroleum, or rock- oil, in any form; in which a small portion of sulphur is dissolved, by melting; to which is added any kind of vitrescible, earthy matter, 72 CEP CH A such as clinkers, and scoria, from iron, or glass furnaces; puzzolane, or any volcanic ashes, 2ec. These are to be poAvdered, and stirred in- to the melted sulphur-oil, till the whole becomes of such a consist- ence as to be easily spread with a troAvel, and does not adhere to the fingers, Avhen cool. This cement is firm, durable, and impervious to moisture. Those of our readers, Avho may be desirous of additional informa- tion, relative to this interesting sub- ject, we refer to the translation of M. Louiot's " Practical Essay on- Cement and Artificial Stone," (8vo. Is, 6d. Cadell, 1774); and to Dr. Higgin's " Experiments and Ob- servations, made with a view of Im- proving the Art of composing and . applying Calcareous Cements, and of preparing Quick-lime, (Jfc. (8vo. 5s. Cadell, 1780); in Avhich the matter is fully and ingeniously dis- cussed. See Mortar. [Lime.] CEPHALIC, generally signifies whatever relates to the head. Hence those remedies that are given for disorders of that part, are deno- minated cephalic medicines. Under this description are comprehended cordials, and Avhatever tends to promote a free circulation of the blood through the brain. Thus ce- phalic snuff is taken with a view to remove pains in the head, by occasioning the patient to sneeze, and, in this manner, perhaps, giv- ing vent to obstructions in the smaller vessels. Such is the im- perfect theory of cephalic medi- cines ; and, strictly speaking, Ave are possessed of no specific remedy for relieving a common head-ach, unless the cause from which it pro- ceeds, can be ascertained. Of the multiplicity of circumstances which may operate to produce that com- plaint, and likewise of the most proper means of alleviating it, we shall endeavour to convince the reader, under the article Head- ach. Cerussa. See White Lead. Chadlock. See Charlock. CHAFER, Cock-chafer, May- beetle, Jefi'ry Cock, or, in Norfolk, Dor, the Scarabaus Melolontha, L.isan insect belonging to a genus, Avhich comprises eighty-seven spe- cies. It has, like all the rest, a pair of cases to its Avings, of a red- dish, brown colour, sprinkled with a whitish dust, which is easily se- parated. The necks of these in- sects are, in some years, covered with a red plate ; in others, Avith a black ; but they are distinct va- rieties. Their fore legs are very short, and thus better calculated for burrowing in the ground, to which they instinctively retreat. Chafers are well known by the buzzing noise they make, in the evening, when rising in the air; but particularly for the irreparable mischief they occasion to the in- dustrious cultivator ; having been found, in some seasons, so nume- rous, as to consume every vegeta- ble production. These pernicious vermin are generated from eggs, which the females usually deposit, about six inches deep in the ground. Three months after, the inclosed insects begin to break the shells, and crawl forth, in the form of small grubs, or maggots, which feed upon the roots of whateA'er vegetables they meet with. In this worm state, they continue for more than three or four years, devouring the roots of every plant they ap- proach, and burrowing under the ground Avith the utmost celerity for food. At length, they exceed a Avalnut in size, being large, white, thick maggots, with red heads, which are most frequently found in C H A newly turned earth, and are much sought after by every species of birds. When largest, they are an inch and a half long, of a whitish, yellow colour, Avith bodies com- posed of tAvelve segments, or joints, on each side of Avhich there are nine breathing holes, and three red feet. The head is larger in proportion to the body ; of a red- dish colour, with a forceps, or pincer before, and a semi-circular lip, with which they cut the roots of plants, and suck out their moist- ure. They have no eyes, but are furnished with two feelers, Avhich serve to direct their motions under ground. At the expiration of four years, these destructive insects prepare to emerge from their subterraneous abode. About the latter end of autumn, the gmbs begin to per- ceive their transformation ap- proaching ; when they bury them-. selves deeper in the earth, some- times even six feet below the sur- face, where they form capacious apartments, the walls of which be- come very smooth and shining, by the excretions of their bodies. Soon after, they begin to shorten them- selves, to swell, and burst their last skin, preparatory to their change into a chrysalis. This appears at first to be of a yelloAvish colour, Avhich gradually heightens, till at length it becomes almost red. Its external figure clearly displays the characters of the future winged in- sect, all the fore-parts being dis- tinctly seen; Avhile, behind, the animal seems as if Avrapped in swaddling clothes. In this state, the young Cock- chafer, or May-bug, continues for about three months longer ; when, toAvards the beginning of January, the aurelia divests itself of all its vol. n. CH A 73 impediments, and becomes a com- plete, winged insect. But it has not attained its natural health, strength, and appetite: unlike all other insects, which arrive at their state of perfection as soon as they become flies, the cock-chafer con- tinues feeble and sickly. Its colour is much brighter than in the per- fect animal ; all its parts are soft, and its voracious nature appears suspended. In this state, it is fre- quently found, and is erroneously supposed by those Avho are ignorant of its real history, to be an old one, of the former season, which has buried itself during the winter, in order to re-visit the sun the ensuing summer. The fact is, the old one never survives the season, but pe- rishes, in the same manner as every other species of insects, from the severity of the cold, during winter. ToAvards the latter end of May, these insects burst from the earth, the first mild evening that invites them abroad ; after having lived from four to five years under ground. They are then seen to emerge from their close confine- ment, no longer to live on roots, and imbibe only the moisture of the earth, but to choose the sweetest vegetables for their food, and to sip the evening deAv. An attentive observer will, at that time of the year, see every path-way strewed with them ; and, in Avarm evenings of May, myriads of them are buz- zing along, flapping against every thing that impedes their flight. The heat of the mid-day sun, how- ever, seems to be too poAverful for their constitution; they, there- fore, conceal themselves in clus- ters, under the foliage of shady trees, but particularly of the wil- low, which appears to be their most L 74 CH A CH A favourite food, and Avhich they sel- dom quit, till they have consumed all its verdure. In seasons favour- able to their propagation, they are seen in an evening, in considerable swarms ; their duration, however, is but short, as they never survive the summer. They begin to pair, soon after they have emerged from their subterraneous prison; and the female then carefully bores a hole in the ground, with an instrument for that purpose, with which she is furnished at her tail, and depo- sits her eggs there, generally to the number of sixty. Destructive as these insects, in their Avorm state, are to vegetation, they Avould be still more so, were they not destroyed by birds, and more especially rooks, which de- vour them in great numbers. Half a century ago, they were so ex- ceedingly numerous in the county of Norfolk, England, that they de- stroyed not only the verdure of the fields, but even the roots of vege- tables. One farmer, in particular, was so much injured by them, in the year 1751, that he was unable to pay his rent. Many crops in that county Avere then almost ruin- ed by the devastations these insects committed, in their worm state; and, when they took wing next sea- son, trees and hedges were in many parishes, completely stripped of their leaves. At first, the people brushed them down Avith poles, sAvept them up, and burnt them. James Ebden, a Norfolk farmer, made oath, that he gathered dghty bushels ; but their number did not seem much diminished, except in his fields. Neither the severest frosts in our climate, nor even water, will kill them ; as, on being exposed to the sun and air, for a few hours, they will recover, and resume their former lively state. One of the best methods to be adopted for pre- venting their transformation, is, to plough up the land in thin furrows, to employ children to pack them up in baskets, and then to strew salt and quick-lime on the ground, and harrow it in. We have but an imperfect Iuioav- ledge of the nature and history of the insect, called by the French Vinaigrieur, and of other scarabi- vorous animals, to avail ourselves of their labours. This, however, is clear, that if such insects as devour grubs, should take posses- sion of the soil where cock-chafers abound, they must, in a short time, destroy immense numbers of the latter; and as they have five suc- cessive seasons to prey on them, till they attain their perfect state, they may be entirely extirpated, before one fly can be produced. It is a circumstance well known, that the Avhole of the corvus, or crow, and pie-tribes, are exceed- ingly fond of chafers, and particu- larly at a season when grain is scarce (i. e. from the end of seed- time to the beginning of harvest); they search for them with the ut- most avidity. These sagacious birds, having observed that the leaves of such plants as are attack- ed by the grub, appear Avithered or drooping, during the day, they fly to them, dig for it with their strong bills, to the very root; and, if they do not find it, pull the plant itself out of the ground. It also frequently happens, that they mis- take the drooping leaves of plants neAvly set, for those injured by grubs, and seize upon these ; thus finding no prey, they strike their bills into the ground, at their roots, pull them up one after another, and, if not watched, do great mis- C H A chief. Strawberries are particu- larly liable to the depredations of the grub; hence, sometimes, Avhole fields of straAvberry-plantsare spoil- ed by the rooks, immediately after they have been set. To prevent such devastation, it is necessary to guard them, till their leaves assume an upright position. This damage, however, is but trivial, when compared Avith the real benefit occasioned by the rooks picking these vermin out of both grass and corn land. Great care ought, therefore, to be taken not to disturb these birds, especially as in fallowed lands, where grubs ge- nerally abound, they are of infi- nite service. In this case, the land should be stirred Avith the plough as often as the weather will per- mit ; for, if the rooks once find their way thither, they will not abandon the plough, unless driven away by violence ; and each time the land is stirred, they will de- stroy multitudes of these vermin. Were this the only advantage to be derived from their destruction, it would amply compensate the far- mer for the labour and expence bestowed upon it. Independently of the beneficial effect which this management produces on the fer- tility of fallow-land, it may fre- quently be attended with the de- struction of a whole race of grubs, in the adjacent fields. But, as this method is imprac- ticable in gardens, recourse ought to be had to other expedients. Gardeners have observed that cab- bages, cauliflowers, strawberries, and especially lettuces, are the fa- vourite food of the grub. In order to destroy that pernicious insect, they plant a ioav of lettuces be- tween the roAvs of strawberries, in which case the insect will prelVra- CH A 75 bly attack the former. Hence, they carefully examine the plants every day, walking along the roAvs with a trowel: Avherever they observe leaves falling, they know their enemy is on the spot; immediate- ly dig it up, and thus destroy the grub. The Avhole race of these insects may probably be extirpated in stiff soils, by long continued rains, dur- ing the Avinter. For at that time, they having descended deep into the ground, the passage must be in some measure left open, so as to allow the water, if in abundance, to soak down to the bottom of their hole ; Avhich, in* a retentive soil, it will fill, and, if continued a sufficient time, infallibly droAvn them. Wherever irrigation is em- ployed for other purposes, the ex-. termination of the grub may be effected by this method ; and there are many situations, in Avhich water may be commanded in quan- tities adequate to this important purpose. It is highly probable, that, if a stream of water could be spread over the surface of the grass-field, only for a feAV days, during any of the winter or spring months, all the grubs might be drowned in their holes : and as water is most abundant in that season, a very small stream might be so conducted, in different di- rections, as to inundate a large tract of ground. The benefit of one irrigation, thus managed, would be felt for five years. We therefore venture, with Dr. Ander- son, to recommend this mode of destroying grubs, to those who have grass-lands infested with them ; especially Avhen they are intended to be converted into corn- land ; for the injury done by grubs to the fir^t crop, is often severely • 76 CH A CH A felt. It might even be safely ap- plied to orchards and wood-lands, provided that the Avater were not continued longer than is necessary to effect the destruction of the Avorms. Having thus given a succinct analysis ofthe different methods of exterminating the cock-chafer, in its earlier stages of existence, sug- gested by native Avriters, we pro- ceed to lay before our readers the latest discoveries made on the Con- tinent, relative to this important Subject. The Hamburgh Society for the Encouragement of the Arts and Use- ful Trades, has published the fol- lowing methods of destroying this voracious insect, as communicated by different authors : 1. In order to prevent the worm from changing into a chafer, it is advisable to intersect the fields Avith ditches : as this insect is continu- ally creeping about, it penetrates through the sides of those trenches, falls into the water which they ge- nerally contain, and cannotextricate itself from that situation ; but it is necessary to collect the Avorms eA'ery day ; for they will serve as an ex- cellent food for sAvine and poultry. 2. Take two ounces of oil (it is not stated whatkind of oil) to every pailful of water, and sprinkle it on such places as are visited by the worm : or bury tAventy small pots, at equal distances, from 8 to 10 inches deep, and each containing from 20 to 30 drops of sulphurated oil, or thick balsam of sulphur, the exhalation of which expels the in- sects.....This expedient, hoAvever, can be practised only in gardens. 3. Another correspondent sug- gests the frequent hoeing of plants, or ploughing of the soil in the ninths of June and July, in order to bruise the insect, or to expose it for the prey of birds. He also ad- vises to pour boiling Avater on those less productive, or barren spots of meadows, Avhich may be easily dis- tinguished from others: this reme- dy, however, appears to us excep- tionable : because hot water would at the same time injure the vege- tating roots of grasses. 4. Previous to a shower of rain, the following poAvder strewed on the land has been found of great sendee : namely, two parts of pul- verized quick-lime, two parts of sif- ted wood-ashes, and one part of pounded sulphur: the hepatic va- pour disengaged from this mixture, on being moistened, is affirmed, to be effectual in destroying that per- nicious grub. 5. The Rev. J. F. Mayer, an aged German clergyman, has in a separate essay on this subject (1786) published the following method of extirpating the cock-chafer: he found from long experience, that irrigation of the fields towards the latter end of May, or in June; al- ternate manuring of land with marl, street-dung, acrid and cor- rosive matters, such as quick-lime, gypsum, nitre, the ley of wood- ashes, and of tanners waste, &c. are the only practicable means of destroying that insect in a grub- state ; besides which, he advises to drive a flock of sheep frequently over such land as has been much perforated by this insect; to Avater the meadoAvs in spring; to sow red clover early in March, or (in Germany), as soon as the snow is melted on the soil; then to har- r% roAV in the seed, to cover it thinly with a melloAv dung, and to repeat the soAving in the first three or four years, as occasion may re- quire. CH A In the Memoirs of the Agricul- tural Society of Paris (for 1787, vol. hi.) the Marquis de Gouffieb has suggested a very simple, but, as he asserts, effectual remedy for preventing the depredations of this injurious grub, and consequently its progressive transformation into a chafer. He observed, namely, that turf or peat ashes, streAved on the fields, produced that desirable effect. This pernicious family of insects may be effectually destroyed, while in the state of gru6«, by encouraging the propagation of moles. For the discovery of this important fact, we are indebted to Edward Jones, Esq. Avho relates it in the 19th vol. of the " Transactions ofthe Society for the Encouragement of Arts," 8ec. He observes that, by protecting the race of moles, the cock-chafers have gradually decreased in his neigh- bourhood, so that they are now rarely seen on his estate; because the grubs afford a favourite food to those subterraneous little quadru- peds. Uses of the Cock-chafer. Al- though this numerous and voraci- ous insect is by no means calcu- lated to compensate the hundredth part of the injury it inflicts on Are- getables; yet we are inclined to think that, especially in a grub state, it might be more frequently employed for the feeding of poul- try, than it is at present. Nor does it appear to us impracticable, to feed and fatten great numbers of swine with these chafers, if they were previously bruised, and mix- ed with such vegetables chopped, or cut small, as are eagerly eaten by hogs. We shall farther communicate to artists, a curious fact lately pub- lished by M. Busch, a German CH A 77 writer. He informs us, that an uncommonly beautiful brown co- lour, of a reddish shade, for paint- ing, may be easily obtained from the cock-chafer; this colour is said to be of superior lustre and delica- cy to every other water-paint hi- therto discovered. The colouring matter is found in the throat and stomach of the winged insect, and probably consists of its food, Avhen changed into chyle. After sepa- rating the posterior part of the body, there appears to be a thin, Avhite canal, or duct, which should be carefully opened, the juice ooz- ing out, collected on a fine pain- ter's pencil, and then deposited on a shell. Each chafer affords at least three drops of this juice, which may be employed without any farther preparation; and is not liable to fade, or spoil, by long keeping. The r ost proper time for performing this operation, is the evening, and before the chafers begin to swarm ; because they will then be replete Avith nourishment. CHAFFINCH, or Fringilla Ca- lebs, L. a small beautiful bird, abounding in Britain, and in various parts of Europe: it is chiefly valued for the variety and melody of its song. Chaffinches construct their nests in hedges and trees; where the fe- males lay four or five dusky Avhite eggs, spotted Avith deep purple; and produces three broods Avithin a year....They are hardy birds, and will subsist on various seeds, but prefer chaff, whence they derive their name. These creatures, though seldom attacked Avith di- sease, are apt to be infested Avith lice, unless sprinkled with Avine, every fortnight or oftener.....The Essex finches are generally alloAV-" ed to be the best sort, both for the 78 C H A C H A continuance and diversity of their notes. CHAFF, in husbandry, the husks of the corn separated from the grain, by screening or winnow- ing it. This term is also applied to the rind of corn, which in grind- ing it, produces the coarser part of the meal. By treating com in a manner si- milar to that practised by the Tar- tars with buck-weat, it may be ea- sily deprived of its rind, or, in a manner, blanched ; and the same effect may be produced by merely steeping it in water, and expressing the starch: but the husky part thus separated, cannot with propriety be called chaff, as it is in reality part of the grain. Nor do we think that cut straw, deserves that appel- lation ; because it is a distinct part, or the stalk ofthe plant. For this reason, Ave shall delay the descrip- tion of its properties, as well as the various machines invented for sav- ing the labour of cutting straw by the hand. Chaff-Cutter. See Straw- C utter. CHAIN, a series of rings, or round pieces of metal linked one into another: it is of various forms and sizes, and applied to different purposes. Notwithstanding the general utility of this article, for almost every branch of extensive manu- factures, we have but lately been furnished with a chain, so con- structed as to become an effectual substitute for ropes, and in every respect as pliable, Avhile it is far more durable. The metal rope, or chain, we allude to, is that in- vented by the ingenious William Hancock, of Birmingham; for which the Society for the Encou- ragement of Art*, Manufactures, and Commerce, in 1796, liberally granted him a premium of fifty guineas. This chain is particularly useful in the working of coal and other mines, wells, Sec. The common chains, it is Avell knoAvn, cannot be depended upon, and break in the Avelded parts, when overstrained. Such dangerous accidents cannot easily happen in the metal ropes, being woven together while cold, out ofthe strongest iron drawn into wire, about 3-eighths of an inch in diameter ; and so tempered, that it is almost impossible to find in them a link of inferior quality. Han- cock's chains will run as flexibly on the pulley as an hempen rope of two inches in diameter, manu- factured ofthe best materials: they have been employed in several large iron Avorks, and with the greatest success. Indeed, they de- serve to be generally adopted; as thus a considerable saving Avould arise in the consumption of that valuable article, hemp ; and an im- portant new manufacture might be established, from one of our staple commodities. Viewed in a national light, we cannot but regret that the inventor's situation in life does1 not enable him to make this article for ready sale: we therefore pre- sume to appeal to the statesman, and the patriot. Chaffaveed, the Small. See Bastard Pimpernell. CHAIR, in general, an article of furniture contrived for the pur- pose of relieving the lower extre- mities from the incumbent Aveight ofthe body. Chairs have been held in great estimation, in all ages and coun- tries. But, instead of recording the flying chairs of the heathen gods and goddesses, or those great arm- C H A chairs in which, according to an- cient custom, the successful candi- dates, after election, are carried through toAvns, by certain corpora- tions in England, we shall confine our account to the plain house- chair......This useful contrivance, for which we are occasionally ridi- culed by the more luxurious Ori- entals, consists, generally, of a nquare basis, supported by four posts, or legs. Although we are no advocates for innovation, and the quadrangular form appears to be the most eligible for strength and steadiness, yet in this instance, we venture to pronounce that it is not the most proper. Square seats are liable to many objections, when considered with respect to their influence on the health of the aged, infirm, and es- pecially persons afflicted with the piles, or troubled with ascaridcs.... For these, a round, or blunt, trian- gular form of a chair, resembling the shape of a saddle, would be far preferable, and more conducive to the alleviation of their complaints. The reason is obvious; because the thighs and legs, when compressed, occasion an additional irritation, on a part which is already in a preter- natural state of excitement, or, per- haps, subject to chronic inflamma- tion, as is frequently the case in the hemorrhoids. Nor do we ad- A-ise those patients to accustom themselves to rest upon very soft cushions, or pillows, except such as are tightly stuffed with horse- hair, dry mosses, or chaff. Hence we are of opinion, that the studious and all those who are engaged in sedentary employments, if they re- gard their health and convenience, should employ either round, wood- en chairs, slightly concave, or such CHA 79 as we have before ventured to sug- gest. A Patent, we understand, has lately been granted to Mr. But- ler, of Catherine-street, Strand, for his invention of a chair-bed, of peculiar construction : but, as we have not been favoured with its specification, we cannot communi- cate farther particulars. Sedan-Chairs are vehicles, sup- ported by poles, for carrying single persons at short distances in town ; and borne by two men. Their number in the metropolis, alloAved by act of parliament, is four hun- dred ; and the fare to which the chairmen are legally entitled,ought not to exceed two-thirds of the rate fixed for a hackney-coach, driven to the same distance. CHALDRON, is a dry English measure, generally used for sea- coal, and consisting of 36 bushels, filled up according to the sealed bushel kept at Guildhall, London. On ship-board, 21 chaldrons are al- lowed to the score ; each of which should Aveigh 2000 pounds : hence a bushel of coals ought to weigh from 56 to 621b.....See Bushel. CHALK, Creta, is a Avhite earth, abounding in Britain, France, Nor- Avay, and other parts of Europe, which is said to have been anciently dug chiefly in the island of Crete, Avhence it has received its name. This substance is found most plentifully in the county of Kent, in England, on the sides of hills, which the workmen undermine to a certain depth : they then dig a trench at the top, as far distant from the edge as the mining ex- tends at the bottom ; then fill the trench Avith water, which soaks through during the night, Avhen the whole mass falls down. In 80 C H A C H A other parts of the kingdom, it ge- nerally lies much deeper in the ground. Chalk is of tAvo kinds : hard, dry and firm, or soft and unctuous...... The former sort is the best calcu- lated for burning into lime ; but the latter furnishes the best manure for lands. Both these species, how- ever, are an excellent manure for sandy soils, as they fill up the in- terstices, or pores, and give the land a degree of consistence, Avhich adapts it for the purposes of vege- tation, and totally exterminates that pernicious weed, the corn ma- r/gold, or yeHoAV ox-eye, Chrysan- themum scgetum, L. which abounds particularly in sandy soils. It has a very different effect on clayey ground ; for, so far from rendering it more compact(which is too much so already), it insinuates itself into the small pores ; and, by raising a fermentation, exposes the clay more to the operations of the frost, rain, sun, and air ; by which means its too coherent particles are loos- ened, and it is reduced to a state of pulverization. It is, however, a circumstance worthy of remark, that, although the Kentish chalk agrees extreme- ly well Avith other clayey soils, yet, when laid on those lands in Kent, situated near the pits, it by no means ansAvers the expectations of the farmer. This is probably owing to the Kentish clays partaking in some degree ofthe nature of chalk, which, therefore, has not so good an effect in Kent, as in other parts of England; the quality of the ma- nure being nearly congenial with the soil. It also deserves to be no- ticed, that chalk, however excellent it may be in itself, Avhen mixed with dung or any other manure, is so far from ameliorating the soil, that crops to be raised from it, receive no benefit whatever, and it totally loses its invigorating qualities. Chalk easily imbibes water: hence masses of it are employed for drying precipitates, lakes,earthy powders that have been levigated with water, and other moist prepa- rations. Its domestic uses for clean- ing and polishing metallic or glass utensils, are well known ; for which purposes it is pounded, and by washing it, cleared from whatever gritty particles it may contain, and then called whiting. It is also of considerable service on ship-board, when mixed in the proportion of half an ounce to a gallon of distil- led sea-water, which may thus be sAveetened, and kept perfectly fresh. In medicine, chalk is reputed to be one of the most useful absorb- ents, and in this light only, deserves notice ; as the astringent virtues, which some have attributed to it, are utterly unfounded, unless in so far as the earth is saturated with acid, in which combination it forms a saline concrete, that is manifestly astringent. Several years since, a person at Edinburgh pretended to have discovered a specific for curing every kind of those erythe- matous or inflammatory eruptions, Avhich often attend the chronic ery- sipelas, or the rose, on the legs, merely by applying poAvdered chalk to the parts affected : and though we have had no experience of this remedy, it does not appear to us, as proper and safe as hot flour, the good effects of which, on such oc- casions, we have frequently wit- nessed. Chalk Lands are thus denomi- nated, from their consisting prin- cipally of chalk, Avith a thin layer of mould, or soil over it. They are well calculated for the growth of C H A barley and Avheat, and especially of oats, which will thrive Avell on any kind of chalky land, however indif- ferent. It naturally produces a small species of vetch, called the smooth podded tare, or tine tare, Ervum tetrasperum, L. together Avith poppies, May-Aveed, occ. Sain- foin, and hop-clover, will also suc- ceed on these lands; and where they are of the better sort, the hares- foot trefoil, Trifolium arvense, L. will thrive. The best manure for this species of soil are, dung, old rags, and the dung left after folding sheep; a practice which is particu- larly useful here, and a\ hich, we hope, Avill become more general. CHALYBEATE, in medicine, is an appellation given to any liquid, as wine or water, impregnated Avith particles, of iron or steel. Chalybeate medicines operate, like other preparations of iron, both as aperients and as astringents, the only difference being in degree..... They are likeAvise supposed to dif- fer according to the nature of the acid united with the metal: thus, vegetable acids impart to them a detergent and aperient virtue...... when combined with the vitriolic acid, they operate on the first pas- sages as poAverful aperients; the nitrous acid renders them very styptic, and the muriatic produces the same effect, in the highest de- gree. The use of chalybeates has, oc- casionally, been attended Avith great success, when united Avith cathar- tics, especially in cases of chlorosis, pains of the stomach, and palpita- tions of the heart ; but Ave think it our duty to caution the reader against resorting indiscriminately to remedies which are extremely precarious for plethoric, or very irritable constitutibns, and some- VOL. II. C H A 81 times producliA-e of dangerous ef- fects. Hence females, in particular, ought never to take them, without proper advice. CHAMIJER, in building, apart of a lodging, or a partition of an apartment, usually intended for the accommodation of beds. We have already given a feAv directions for correcting a vitiated atmosphere, particularly that of bed-chambers, (see Air, and Bed-room); so tfu.t we may conclude this article Avith a short account of a curious mode of cooling the air in rooms, frequent- ly practised by the Germans. In the hot days of-summer, es- pecially in houses exposed to the meridian sun, a capacious vessel filled with cold water is placed in the middle of a room ; and a feAv green branches ( or as many as it Avill hold), of a vigorous lime, birch, or willoAv-tree, are plunged with their lower ends into the fluid. By this easy expedient, the apartment will, in a short time, be rendered much cooler ; as the evaporation of waterproduces this desirable effect, in sultry Aveather, without any de- , triment to health. Besides, there can be no doubt, that the exhala- tion of green plants, under the in- fluence of the solar rays, greatly tends to purify the air ; and conse- quently deserves every attention of persons liable to pulmonary, or other complaints, in which the or- gans of respiration are affected. CHAMOMILE, Anthemis, L. a genus of plants comprising 21 species : of these, five only are in- digenous in England ; the principal ofAvhichare the three folloAving : 1. The nobilis, or common cha- momile, also called sweet scented, or Roman chamomile, groAving in sunny meadows and pastures, most plentifully in Cornwall, and also in M 82 C H A other parts of England. Its creep- ing stalks shoot forth branches, and these again strike root: the leaves and floAvers have a strong, though not ungrateful, aromatic smell, and a bitter,nauseous taste. They afford an essential oil. An infusion of the flowers taken luke-Avarm, is anti- spasmodic ; and cold, a stomachic. In large quantities the former is apt to excite Aomiting. Dr. Wi- thering asserts that the poAvder- ed flowers have cured agues, even when bark had failed, but ought to be taken in considerable doses ; we suppose from one to tAvo drams every other hour, to be repeated six or eight times during the re- mission of the paroxism. Both the leaves and flowers of the chamo- mile possess remarkable antisep- tic properties, and are therefore used in fomentations, and poultices. From their antispasmodic powers, they are frequently found to relieve pain, especially in complaints of the kidneys, and in childbed. 2. The Cotula, fetid chamomile, May-weed, or Mathen; which groAVS in corn-fields, on road sides, and borders of dung-hills: it is a troublesome weed in tilled lands, very ungrateful and disagreeable to bees, and not relished by either horses, coavs, sheep, goats, or swine ; but toads are said to be fond of it. By its uncommon acrimony, it frequently blisters the skin of reapers. Notwithstanding its very pungent taste, it has often been used Avith advantage in dis- eases peculiar to females.....Bech- stein. In dyeing, a decoction of the - whole plant, when in floAver, im- parted a permanent citron colour to wool prepared in a solution of bis- muth.....Dambourney. , 3. The tinctoria, or ox-eye cha- C H A momile, grows on high sunny pas- tures, but is rarely to be met with in Britain. Mr. Dickson found it in Essex. Formerly, it Avas disco- vered by Ray, on a bank near the river Tees, not far from Sugbuni, Durham. This plant has doubly winged, serrated leaves, cottony un- derneath, and its stem supports a corymbus, or flowers progressively standing each on a proper fruit stalk ; attains the height of about eighteen inches ; spreads out its branches, and bears yellow blossoms in July and August. It is eaten by horses and goats; but not fondly by sheep, and refused by cows and SAvine. The flowers of the yelloAv ox-eye afford a remarkably clear and good yellow dye....Withering....If the root of nettles and a little alum be boiled together with this plant, a most beautiful yellow may be given to wool......Linnaeus......None of these colours, however, is perma- nent.....Dambourney. Chamomile, the Wild. See Common Feverfeav. CHAPS, are flaws or cracks which appear on the skin, and are induced by various circumstan- ces. Chaps in the face generally pro- ceed from the action of external cold ; Avhich, by impeding the per- spiration of this part, or contracting the fibres unequally, causes them to be drawn asunder ; so that a fis- sure succeeds, which produces very uneasy sensations ; and is often at- tended Avith acute pain. In order to prevent or remove such chaps, the face ought never to be suddenly exposed to the cold air, after leaving the fire-side, or a warm room : nor should such part be washed with common soap. Previously to re- tiring to bed, it may be anointed C HA C H A 83 with unscented pomatum, which should not be removed till the fol- lowing morning; or honey-water may be preferably applied, and suffered to dry ; care being taken to cleanse the part from dust and other impurities. C/iaps in the lips, frequently arise from the same cause as those ofthe face; though the former sometimes occur in scrophulous habits, or are occasioned by acrid humours set- tling on the part affected ; in con- sequence of which the lips are apt to SAvell on each side of the Avound- ed spot. When the complaint is attributed to cold, the treatment above stated will generally effect a cure: in scrophulous cases, a course of medicine, adapted to the nature of that disease, can alone remove the external affection* But, where acrid humours are the immediate cause, it will be proper to procure medical adAdce......The following salve may, in the opinion of Dr. Shaw, be advantageously applied to the lips, in either of the cases above specified : Let 2 scruples of the bark of alkanet, and 1 \ oz. of oil of sweet almonds, be simmered together over a gentle fire ; then strain the liquor; add 3 drams of white Avax, I dram of spermaceti ; and 1 scruple of the expressed oil of mace ; when the Avhole should be formed into an ointment. Lastly, if chaps in the hands ori- ginate from scrophula, the treat- ment suggested for similar affec- tions ofthe lips may be advanta- geously adopted ; but, where they are occasioned either by cold, the use of hard Avater, or of soap con- taining quick-lime, the hands may be anointed with the fat of geese. Should, hoAvever, such fissures ex- tend to a considerable depth, and be very difficult to h«al, it will be pro- per to apply digestive ointment, and to treat them as simple wounds. CHARCOAL, or Carbon ofthe French chemists, a sort of artificial coal, or fuel, consisting of half- burnt wood. It is chiefly used, where a clear and strong fire Avith- out smoke is required ; for the hu- midity of the wood is dissipated by the fire in Avhich it was prepared. The art of making charcoal is very ancient; for even Solomon (Proverbs xxvi. 21), distinguishes that kind of fuel from common fire- wood. Among the Romans, it Avas held in great estimation, and iEMi- lius Scaurus, the conqueror of the Ligurians, Avas a charcoal-mer- chant. Pliny describes the piles of wood 'erected by the manufacturers of this article, and observes that the blocks ought to be placed in a pyramidafrform, coated with clay, and a bole left on the top for con- ducting the smoke, when the wood is set on fire. Thus, it would be unnecessary to describe the process, for those Avho employ themselves in the preparation of this article. Properties. A surprizing num- ber of pores have, by the micros- cope, been discovered in charcoal. Dr. Hoek counted, in the 18th part of an inch, 150, so that in a piece of an inch in diameter, there will be upwards of five millions. To this circumstance must be ascribed the blackness of charcoal, as the rays of light striking on it, are re- ceived and absorbed by its pores, instead of being reflected ; conse- quently, the body of coal appears black....a colour arising from the want of reflection. Charcoal may be preserved to an, indefinite length of time, and in the ancient tombs of northern nations, entire pieces are frequently disco- vered. It is, therefore, deserving 84 C H A C H A the attention of those, who Avish to preseiwe valuable records from the " destructive tooth of time;" for there yet exists, according to Do- dart, charcoal made of corn (pro- bably in the days of Cesar ), which is in so complete a state, that the wheat may be distinguished from the rye. This substance is not soluble in any of the acids, but may be dis- solved in considerable quantities, by plunging it in a solution of the liver of sulphur, to which it im- parts a green colour. Melted with colourless frits, or glasses, it gives a pale, dark yelloAV, reddish, brown- ish, or blackish colour, accordingly as the inflammable matter is in greater or less proportion. Fresh charcoal made of Avood strongly at- tracts the air, and will absorb it for a considerable time"} but Dr. Priestley uniformly observed, that, after submitting it to distilla- tion, the expelled air was less pure than that of the atmosphere, and part of it was fixed air. Hence it may occasionally be employed in a dry and powdered state, for damp and foul habitations. Lastly, Dr. Priestley has discoA'ered that several of the metals, such as cop- per, iron, silver, &c may be con- verted into charcoal, by passing the steam of either spirit of wine or turpentine, over them Avhen red hot; and this, by Avay of distinction, he calls the charcoal of metal--. As charcoal has been separated from the purest spirit of wine in the pro- cess of making xther, M. Lavoi- sier is of opinion, that it is one of the constituent parts, or elements, of that volatile liquid. Uses. Besides the great advan- tage Avhich charcoal affords to the artist and manufacturer, it has late- ly been employed with consider- able success, 1. In correcting the burnt or empyreumatic taste of ar- dent spirits ; 2. In depriving rancid oil of its disagreeable flavour ; and 3. In restoring putrid meat. For these useful purposes, hoAvever, it is fit only Avhen kept in close vessels immediately after it has been pre- pared, so that it may absorb no aci- dity, or fixed air, from the com- mon atmosphere. When employ- ed in the two first-mentioned cases, it should be previously reduced to powder, a very large quantity of which is required for the rectifica- tion of distilled liquor ; but a smal- ler proportion, for purifying -nimal or vegetable oil, so that even the common train-oil may be rendered fit for being burnt in chamber- lamps. Several manufactories of this description have lately been established in the vicinity of Lon- don, of Avhich we shall only men- tion that carried on by Mr. Joshua Collier, of Southivark. From the great attraction which charcoal possesses for any kind of oily matter, or for that invisible something, formerly called phlogis- ton, it is excellently adapted to be- come an extensively useful agent in various branches of the arts...... We shall therefore communicate the following abstract of the late discoveries made on this subject, chiefly by Prof. Lowitz, of St. Petersburgh, [in 1786.] This phi- losopher found, that charcoal ren- dered the crystals of tartar very Avhite and pure, wdien employed in preparing them ; that the marine and nitrous acids are decomposed by being distilled upon it; that the red juices of vegetable fruits are deprived of their colour, without losing part of their acidity ; that brown, rancid oils are rendered sweet and cleai>by agitating them C HA C H A 85 for some days with charcoal in pow- der ; that it changes the smell of putrid vegetables to that of a pure volatile alkali, and produces the same effect on fresh meat. By boil- ing coals in powder, with honey, the pure saccharine parts of the latter are said to be separated, and the honey to become a Avell-tasted sugar. Vinegar concentrated by freezing, and distilled from a large portion of powdered coal, is ex- tremely strong, pure, and fragrant. Corn-spirit, merely shaken with coal, loses its bad flavour; and, if honey be added, it becomes a SAveet and pleasant liquor. Even the tainted flavour of ardent spirits, when impregnated with any vege- table oils, may in a similar manner be destroyed ; and, if the spirit be distilled, the residuum is said not to be broivn ; so that no inconve- nience will arise from carrying the distillation too far. These effects Avere produced by every kind of coal, Avhether fossil or charred ve- getable substances ; though the latter appear to us, in many re- spects, preferable to coke. [Charcoal is of the greatest uti- lity in purifying water on ship- board. The most offensive Avater may be rendered perfectly sweet by merely filtering it through sponge, maple,hickory,or oak charcoal,and sand. A simple apparatus for per- forming this operation, shall be de- scribed under the article Filter. Casks charred on the inside Avill preserve Avater a long time SAA'eet; but it would seem to be a preferable mode (where practicable), to permit the Avater to undergo the usual fer- mentation, and then draAv it off into the charred casks. See also Fence, Cucumber, Melon.] There are considerable differ- ences in the coals of various vege- tables, with respect to their habi- tude to fire : the very light coals of linen, cotton, some fungi, Sec. quickly catch fire from a spark, and soon consume: the more dense ones of Avoods, and roots, are set on fire with greater difficulty, and bum more slowly ; the coals ofthe black berry-bearing aider, of the hazel, Avillow, lime-tree, and maple, are the most proper for making gun- powder, and other pyrotechnical compositions. For the reduction of metallic calces, those of heavier wood, as oak and beech, are pre- ferable ; because these appear to contain a larger proportion of the inflammable principle, and perhaps in a more fixed state. Considered as common fuel, those of the heavy woods afford the greatest heat, and require a most abundant supply of air, in order to keep them burning; on the contrary, the coals of the light woods retain a glowing heat, till they are consumed, Avithout a strong draught of air; the baik usually crackles . while burning, which is seldom the case Avith the coal ofthe Avood itself. Charcoal is likewise of consider- able service to ('-liferent artis's, for polishing brass and copper-plates, after they have been rubbed clean with poAvdered pumice stone. Horn plates may be polished in a similar manner, and a gloss afterwards given them with tripoli. Coals of different substances are also used as pigments ; hence the bone and ivory-black of the shops. Most paints of thiS kind are not only in- corruptible, but also possess the advantage of full colour, and work freely in all the forms, where poAv- dery pigments are employed; but they ought to be carefully prepared, by thoroughly burning the sub- stance in a close vessel, and after- 86 C HA C H A wards reducing the coal to a fine powder....In draAving outlines, the artist avails himself of pieces of charcoal, the marks of Avhich may be easily rubbed out. For this pur- pose, the smaller branches of a tree, such as the willow and vine, are usually preferred ; and Avhich, after being freed from the bark and pith, afford the best drawing pencils..... Dr. Lewis remarks, that the shells and slones of fruit yielded coals, so hard that they Avould with diffi- culty mark on paper, Avhile those of the kernels of fruit were very soft and mellow. All these expe- riments must be conducted in pro- per vesels, closely covered (the barrels of old guns, or pistols, may occasionally serve as substitutes). The Doctor levigated various coals into fine powder, mixed them Avith gum-water and oil, and appliedthem as paints, diluted Avith different de- grees of white. When laid on thick, they all appeared of a strong, full black ; nor could it be discerned, that one Avas of a finer colour than another; but those diluted Avith Avhite, or spread thin, had a blueish cast....Horns, and the bones, both of fish and land animals, produced coals more glossy, and of a deeper colour, than vegetables ; and which in general Avere so hard that paper could scarcely be stained with them: but silk, wool, leather, blood, and the fleshy parts of animals, yielded soft coals. Some of these remark- ably differed from others, in colour; that of ivory being superior to all, and doubtless the finest of black produced by fire. In agriculture, charcoal has, in many parts of France and the Ne- therlands, been substituted for turf- ashes, as a manure. [The utility of charcoal (oxyd of carbon) a& a manure, has often been mentioned by practical avriters, but was not muoh regarded until Mr. Kiravan called the attention # of chemists to the subject. Mr. Deane says, that he had long ob- served the great fertility of lands near to Avhere coal kilns Avere burnt, and quotes the Complete Farmer for a confirmation of the fact. Carbon is now known to be one of the most universal materials of na- ture. The Avhole atmosphere con- tains always a quantity of it in the form of carbonic acid. It also exists in lime-stone in the same form, and in the black earth left by the de- composition of vegetable and ani- mal bodies. Morasses too, consist principally of the carbonic recre- ments of vegetable matter. By Avhat means this solid sub- stance is rendered fluid, so as to be capable of entering the fine mouths of vegetable absorbents, is not yet decided by chemists. The present opinions on the subject, will be no- ticed under the article Manures. It is, hoAvever, sufficient for the practical man to be assured of the fact, that he will derive much be- nefit from strewing charcoal on his land. Charcoal prepared from maple wood, and finely poAvdered, makes a simple, efficacious, and safe tooth- poAvder, and ought to be preferred to any other. The way to prepare charcoal in the nicest manner, is to cut the wood in small billets, and distil them in an iron cylinder, having a tube fixed to one end, to permit the free exit of the smoke and Avater, which are retained in the common process of charring Avood, and tend to render the pro- duct impure, and of a disagreeable taste. When no more smoke or water escape from the tube, put out the fire, and close the mouth C H A CH A 87 with clay until the cylinder cools, or the pieces of wood may be put in a pot not closely covered, and surroun- ded with live coals, until all smoke from the pot shall cease. Then re- move the coals, and closely lute the cover with clay until the pot cools....then poAvder the charcoal. Meat which has been kept too long in summer, may be deprived of its bad smell by putting it in Ava- ter,and throwing into the pot, when beginning to boil, a shovel full of live coals, destitute of smoke ; after a few minutes have elapsed, the water must be changed, when the operation, if necessary, may be re- peated. It is probable that meat surround- ed by fresh charcoal would keep for months. Mr. Mushet of the Carron Iron works, observes, that charcoal is preferable to coke for the manufac- tory of iron, owing to the superior quantity of unalloyed carbon it af- fords to the iron. A determinate quantity of charcoal by measure, Avill smelt and convey principle to three times the quantity of iron, that can be done by the same mea- sure of pit coal. In the refinery way, it is peculiarly preferable. An engineer of considerable merit states, that in this respect it is superior to coke in the propor- tion of 7 to 12. Charcoal is one of the greatest non-conductors of heat. This qua- lity renders it applicable to a vari- ety of economical purposes. See Fike-Places, Kitchen, Lamp.] Besides these various purposes to which charcoal is daily applied, it also promises to be of consider- able service in medicine ; on ac- count of its absorbent and antisep- tic properties. ( See Breath. ) From a late account given by Dr. Metzler, an eminent physician in Germany, we learn the folloAving extraordinary fact: The corpse of a person that had been murdered twelve days, was brought before a coroner's inquest; and, contrary to the expectation of the court, there Avas not the least mark of putrefac- tion, nor any offensive smell per- ceptible. On opening the intes- tines of the abdomen, they were found in an unusual dry state....... The cause of this phenomenon was soon discovered ; for it appeared in the course of examination, that the body had been kept for the whole time buried in dry coals, coarsely pounded, at least twelve inches deep. It Avas still more re- markable, " that the cartaligenotn parts, especially those ofthe breast, had acquired a degree of softness, resembling that of butter.".....We submit the application of this sin- gular property to the discernment of our readers. With regard to the treatment of persons suffocated by the deleterious vapour of charcoal, we shall in this place only observe, that a body in that unfortunate situation, ought to be without delay exposed to the strongest draught of cold air ; all the garments loosened; volatile spirits held to the nostrils ; the bo- dy rubbed either with vinegar, or Avithadilutedspiritofsalammoniac; the face should be turned toAvards the ground, and the head, breast, back, Sec. either washed Avith, or the Avhole body suddenly plunged into, cold Avater; then dried, and again washed with vinegar ; stimu- lating clysters repeatedly adminis- tered, and venesection performed at the jugular vein, or, for Avant of medical assistance, a number of 88 C H A CH A leeches applied to the neck and temples......Of the particular cir- cumstances connected Avith this treatment, we propose to give a more detailed account, under the head of Suffocation. CHARITY is one of the cardi- nal virtues of mankind, displayed chiefly in the spontaneous habit and disposition, of supplying the wants of others, Avhether Avith mo- ney, counsel, assistance, Sec Pe- cuniary relief, being generally re- garded as the most efficacious, it merits some attention, at a time Avhen we are most inclined to ex- cuse ourselves from affording it to the needy. Hence, Ave propose to impart a few miscellaneous hints, supplementary to those Ave have already given, under the articles Alms, and Beggars. We cannot but reprehend the selfish principle of such modem philanthropists as practise, syste- matically, the trite, but prevailing, adage, that " charity begins at home." For, though in the dis- pensation of alms, we may find it, perhaps, altogether impossible to avoid giving charity to some unde- serving persons, yet it is a duty in- cumbent upon every good man, to bestow it at all times, Avithout deep- ly entering into the merits of the question, and carefully to shun eve- ry species of ostentation. It may, indeed, be objected, that the pres- sure ofthe times is such as to pre- clude, in many Avell-disposed indi- viduals, the ability of contributing their mite towards the relief of dis- tressed objects; having, perhaps, large families to maintain, as well as heavy taxes and poor-rates to defray; yet Ave venture to reply, that prudence and frugality Avill al- ways enable them to adjust their domestic economy; so that, after satisfying every natural and legal demand, they may have a small overplus to spare, for the assist- ance of those who are destitute of human aid. There are many other objections to the indiscriminate giving of cha- rity, Avhich our limits will not per- mit us to discuss: and though it may appear a bold assertion, yet we pledge ourselves for the truth of it; namely, that it is chiefly pride and indolence, or some other equally disgraceful motive, Avhich keeps the one half of the world in a state of ignorance, Avith respect to the AArants, distresses, and suffer- ings of the other. CHARLOCK, Wild-Mustard, Chadlock, or Corn-Cale, the Sinapis arvensis, L. an indigenous British plant, which grows in corn and turnip fields. It is a very nox- ious weed, especially among tur- nips, to which it bears so great a resemblance, that it is said, instan- ces have occurred, of hoers taking up a whole crop of turnips, and leaving the charlock. To obviate this evil, it has been recommended to turn a flock of sheep into a field abounding Avith this weed; for, dur- ing the early period of its growth, they Avill prefer it to the crop. Some lands are exceedingly liable to be overrun with the charlock, particularly when they have been manured with coAv-dung alone, as that is very favourable to its growth. Experienced farmers, in general, are so well convinced of this effect, that they always mix horse- dung Avith that of cows, for manur- ing arable land. When barley is in- fested with charlock, to such a de- gree as to endanger the crop, that Aveed has been movved down Avith success in the month of May, while in floAver; but care should be taken CHE to cut of, at the same time, the tops of the barley leaA'es. Thus, the latter will shoot up above the weed, and it is a remarkable fact, that four quarters of grain have been obtained from such land as, with- out this expedient, would have been almost unproductive. The most effectual method of extirpating the charlock is, to sow arable land with grass-seeds, and thus convert it into pasture; be- cause the former never grows Avhere a coat of grass covers the ground. When this plant arrives at ma- turity, it produces yellow flowers, and turgid, angular pods, contain- ing seed, which is commonly sold under the name of Durham mus- tard seed. In Ireland, and the northern parts of Europe, this plant is boil- ed, and eaten in the same manner as cabbage. It is also relished by cows, goats, and SAvine ; sheep are extremely fond of it; but it is gen- erally refused by horses. Bees de- rive much nourishment from its flowers. Instead of being spuriously vend- ed for Durham mustard, the seeds of this plant might be rendered more profitable, by expressing the excellent oil Avith Avhich they abound. This has been attempted Avith success, in Germany; for Ave are informed by Bechstein, that he obtained thirty pounds of pure lamp-oil, from one hundred pounds weight of the seed. Chaslock, the Jointed, or White flowered. See Wild Radish. [CHELIDONIUM, Celandine, or Horned Poppy. There are two species of this genus indigenous in the U.S. 1. C. majus, greater, or common Celandine. The juice ofthe plant is extremely acrid. It is a VOL. II. CHE 89 common remedy for warts, and it is said will cure the itch, tetters, and ring-Avorms.] From the Saf- fron coloured juice of the greater Celandine, no permanent colour could be obtained; but Rossig a re- putable German author, says, that the whole plant produced by fer- mentation, a good blue colour, si- milar to that obtained from woad or the Isatis tinctoria L. a fact well deserving the attention of dyers. [2 C. Glaucium, Sea Celandine, yelloAv horned poppy. This plant is very ornamental to sandy shores, but poisonous.] CHEESE, a species of solid food,. prepared from curdled milk cleared of the whey, and after- wards dried for use. As this arti- cle constitutes a material part of domestic consumption, we find in almost every country, one or more places celebrated for the superior quality of their cheese. Hence, we propose to enumerate the prin- cipal sorts of this manufacture, both at home and abroad; introducing also an account of the mode in which they are prepared. I. Stilton Cheese is produc- ed in the town of that name, in the county of Huntingdon; and from its peculiar richness, and flavour, is sometimes called English Parme- san. The process of making it is as folloAvs: the night's cream is put to the morning's milk, with the rennet; when the curd is come, it is not broken, as is usually done Avith other cheese, but taken out Avhole, and put into a sieve, in or- der to drain gradually. While draining, it is pressed till it be- comes firm and dry; when it is placed in a Avooden hoop, or box, made to fit it, as it is so extremely rich, that without this precaution, it Avould be apt to separate. It is N SO CHE CHE afterwards kept on dry boards, and turned daily, with cloth binders round it, which are tightened as oc- casion requires. After being taken out of the hoop, the cheese is closely bound Avith cloths, which are changed every day, till it ac- quires sufficient firmness to sup- port itself: when these cloths are removed, each cheese is rubbed over daily, for two or three months, with a brush; and, if the Aveather be damp, or moist, twice a-day: the tops and bottoms are treated in a similar manner every day, even before the cloths are taken oft". Stilton cheese is sometimes made in nets, resembling cabbage nets ; but these are neither so good, nor so richly flavoured, as those pre- pared in the manner before de- scribed. Although the Stilton farmers are in much repute for their cleanli- ness, they take but little pains Avith the rennet; as they, in general, cut small pieces from the veil or maw, that are put into the milk; and, being gently agitated with the hand, break, or turn it, so that the curd is easily obtained. We ven- ture, however, to say, that their valuable cheese might be improved, and feAv broken ones occur, if they would prepare the rennet in the manner adopted in the AVest of En- gland ; namely, by keeping the veil, maw, or rennet-bag (as it is differently called), perfectly sweet and fresh ; for, if it be in the least degree tainted, the cheese Avill never acquire a line fUwour. When the veil, or maw, is fit for the pur- pose, a strong solution of salt should be made, Avith two (piarts of soft, sweet, Avater, into which are to be introduced sAveet briar, rose leaves, and flowers, cinnamon, mace, •cloves, and, in short, almost every kind of spice and aromatics, that can be procured. The whole must boil gently, till the liquor is reduced to three pints, and care should be taken that it be not smoked. The spices should next be strained clean, and the liquid, Avhen milk Avarm, poured upon the veil, or maw. A lemon may then be sliced into it, and the whole stand at rest for a day or two; after which it should be again strained, and bottled. Thus, if Avell corked, it will keep good for twelve months, or longer, possess a fine aromatic odour, and impart an agreeable flavour to the cheese. II. Cheshire Cheese is pre- pared in the following way: The evening's milk is not touched till the next morning, Avhen the cream is taken off, and put to warm in a brass pan, heated Avith boiling wa- ter: one-third part of that milk is heated in a similar manner. The coavs being milked early in the morning, the new milk, and that of the preceding night, thus prepar- ed, are poured into a large tub, together with the cream. A piece of rennet, kept in hike-warm Avater, since the preceding evening, is put into the tub, in order to coagulate the milk; with Avhich, if the cheese is intended to be coloured, a small quantity olarnotto (or of an infusion of marigolds, or carrots), is rubbed fine and mixed ; the whole is stirred together, and, being covered up warm, allowed to stand about half an hour, or till it is coagulated; when it is first turned over with a bowl, to separate the whey from the curds, and broken soon after into very small particles: the Avhey being separated, by standing some time, is taken from the curd, Avhich sinks to the bottom, and is then col- lected into a part of the tub, pro- CHE CHE 91 vided with a slip, or loosj board, to cross the diameter of the bottom, for the sole purpose of effecting this separation : on Avhich a hoard is placed, weighing from 60, to 120 pounds, in order to press out the whey. As soon as it acquires a greater degree of solidity, it is cut into slices, and turned over several times, to extract all the whey, and again pressed with weights: these operations may consume about an hour and a half. It is then taken from the tub, and broken very small by the hand, salted, and put into a cheese A'at, the depth of which is enlarged by a tin hoop fitted to the top. The side is then strongly pressed, both by hand, and Avith a board atthe top, well Aveight- ed ; and wooden skewers are placed round the cheese, at the centre, Avhich are frequently drawn out. It is then shifted out of the vat, a cloth being previously put on the top of it, and reversed on the cloth into another vat, or again into the same, if well scalded, before the cheese be returned to it. The top or upper part, is next broken by the hand, down to the middle, salted, pressed, weighted, and skewered, as before, till all the whey is extracted. This being done, the cheese is again reversed into another vat, likevvise wanned, with a cloth under it, and a tin hoop, or binder, put round the up- per edge of the cheese, and Avithin the sides ofthe vat; the former be- ing previously inclosed in a cloth, and its edges put Avithin the vessel. These various operations are per- formed from about seven o'clock in the morning till one at noon. The pressing of the cheese requires about eight hours more, as it must be twice turned in the vat, round which thin wire skewers are pass- ed, and shifted occasionally. The next morning it ought to be turn- ed, and pressed again, as likewise at night, and on the succeeding day; about the middle of which it is removed to the salting room, where the outside is salted, and a cloth binder tied round it. After this process, the cheese is turned twice daily, for six or seven days; then left two or three days to dry, during which time, it is once turned, and cleaned every day ; and at length deposited in the com- mon cheese-room, on a boarded floor, covered with straw, Avhere it is turned daily, till it acquires suf- ficient hardness. The room should be of a moderate Avarmth, but no wind, or draught of air, must be permitted to enter, as this generally cracks the cheese. The outsides, or rinds of them, are sometimes robbed Avith butter, or oil, in order to give them a coat. III. Gloucester Cheese is made of milk immediately from the cow; but Avhich, in summer, is thought too hot, and is, there- fore, lowered to the requisite de- gree of heat, before the rennet is added, by pouring in skim-milk, or, if that will not answer, by the addition of Avater. As soon as the curd " is come," it is broken with a double cheese knife, and also Avith the hand, in order to clear it from the whey, Avhich is laded off. The curd, being thus freed from the principal part of the Avhey, is put into vats, Avhich are set in the press for ten or fifteen minutes, in order to extract all the remaining liquid. It is then turned out of the vats into the cheese tubs again ; broken small, and scalded with a pailful of water, lowered with Avhey, about three parts of Avater to one of Avhey; and the Avhole is briskly agitated, 92 CHE CHE the eurd and Avater being equally mixed together. After having stood a few minutes, to let the curd subside, the liquor is poured off; and the former collected into a vat, the surface of which is. when about half full, sprinkled, Avith a little salt, that is Avorked in among the curd. The vat is then filled up, and the whole mass turned two or three times in it, the edges being pared, and the middle rounded up at each turning. At length, the curd is put into a cloth, and placed in the press, whence it is carried to the shelves, and turned, generally, once a day, till it has acquired a sufficient degree of compactness, to enable it to undergo the opera- tion of washing. IV. Wiltshire Cheese. The milk which produces this cheese is run, as it comes from the cow, or as it happens to be lowered, by the small quantity of skim-milk mixed with it. The curd is first broken Avith the hand and dish, care being taken, in first crushing the curd, to let the Avhey run off gradually, to prevent its carrying aAvay Avith it the "fat" of the cowl. For thin cheese, the curd is not broken so fine as in Gloucester- shire ; for thick cheese, it is crush- ed still finer; and, for what is call- ed loaves, it is, in a manner, redu- ced to atoms. The whey is poured off as it rises, and the curd pressed down. The mass of curd is then pared down, three or four times over, in slices about an inch thick, in order to extract all the Avhey from it, pressed, and scalded in a similar manner to the Gloucester cheese. After separating the whey, the curd is, in some dairies, rebroken, and salted in the cowl; while, in others, it is taken Avarm out of the liquor, and salted in the vat: thin cheese being placed, with a small handful of salt, in one layer; thick ones, Avith two small handfuls, in tAvo layers; loaves, with two handfuls, in three or four layers; the salt being spread, and rubbed uniformly among the curd. Wiltshire cheese is commonly salt- ed twice in the press, where it re- mains, in proportion to its thick- ness ; thin cheese three or four meals ; thick ones, four or five; and loaves, five or six. [Wiltshire cheese is esteemed among the best kinds that are made in England.] V. Cottenham Cheese. The superiority of this cheese, both in delicacy and flavour, is not ascribed to any particular manage- ment of the dairies, but solely to the fragrant nature of the herbage on the commons. VI. Suffolk, or Skim-Cheese. The curd used in making this cheese, is "broken up," in the whey, which is poured off, as soon as the former has subsided; the remainder, with the curd, being thrown into a coarse strainer, and exposed for cooling, is then press- ed as tightly as possible; after Avhich, it is put into a vat, and set in a press, for a few minutes, to dis- charge the remaining whey. When all the liquid part is drained off, the curd is taken out, again broken as finely as possible, salted, and re- turned to the press....In some large dairies, mills are employed for breaking the curd....This kind of cheese is much used at sea, as be- ing less liable to be affected by the heat of Avarm climates, than the others. [Dr. Anderson remarks, that these cheeses are remarkable for " a horny hardness and indigestible quality."] CHE CHE 93 VII. Chedder Cheese is held in high estimation; but its good- ness is attributed chiefly to the land on which the cows feed, as the method of making it is simi- lar to that pursued throughout Somersetshire, and the adjoining counties. VIII. Lincolnshire Cheese. By adding the cream of one meal's milk, to that which comes imme- diately from the coav, excellent cream cheese is made in that county. It is gently pressed two or three times, and turned for a feAv days, previous to its being sent to market. This cheese is usually eaten while new, with salad, radishes, 8cc. Bath Cheese....Take 6 quarts of luke-warm new milk, to which should be added two quarts of spring water, and one large table-spoonful of rennet: when the coagulation is completed, which generally takes place in half an hour, the curd must be broken to pieces ; then suffered to settle; and, after straining the whey, it should be put into square vats. In the course of an hour, it Avill be requisite to turn the curd ; which operation must be repeated after some hours, or at night; and continued twice every day, till the cheese be fit for the table. Hafod Cheese....Let 30 gal- lons of new milk, and 3 gallons of sweet cream, be mixed with the juice expressed from one peck of picked marigold floAvers. An ale- glassful (perhaps A of a pint) of sack or canary wine is then to be mixed ; and a sufficient quantity of rennet contained in a bag, toge- ther Avith cloves and mace, should be added, in order to coagulate the milk. When the curd is formed, it must be broken A'ery small; and, after carefully expressing the Avhey it ought to be put into a cheese vat, covered with a Avet cloth, and press- ed by the hands. A pound of newly made butter is then to be incorpo- rated Avith such a quantity of salt as may be required to season the cheese ; and, after combining these ingredients with the curd, the Avhole must again be put into the vat, and treated in the manner above described. Now, the cheese must be submitted to the action of the press; the Avet cloths be chang- ed for dry ones, every four hours ; and, after having been thus squeez- ed for 24 hours, it should be placed beneath a smaller weight, and pressed for one week; during which it ought to be turned every day : at the expiration of that period, it must be removed to a dry place, and shifted every other day, till it be ready for use. Hafod Toasting Cheese, is pre- pared by warming neAv milk above the natural temperature; after which the rennet is added. As soon as the curd is come, it must be completely drained of the whey, and aftenvards scalded Avith this liquor. The curd is now to be pressed in the cheese-mould, in order to render it as dry as its na- ture Avill admit; when it is broken into small pieces by the hand, and seasoned Avith a proper quantity of salt. Noav it is again submitted to the press, and treated in the usual manner....This process, though more simple than that pursued in Gloucestershire, produces a toast- ing cheese, little inferior to that prepared in the latter county. Having thus given an account of the principal sorts of cheese pro- duced in this country, we. shall like- wise enumerate some ofthe most celebrated kinds prepared on th« continent. 94 CHE CHE 1. The Parmesan Cheese is made of the evening's milk, after having been skimmed in the morn- ing, and at noon, and mixed Avith that of the morning, which has likewise been previously skimmed at noon. The Avhole is poured in- to a copper cauldron, resembling an inverted bell, and suspended on the arm of a lever, so as to be moA'cd off and on the fire, at plea- sure. In this, the milk is gradu- ally heated to the temperature of about 120 degrees, when it is re- moved from the fire. As soon as it has subsided, the rennet, in a small bag, is steeped in it; and, being occasionally squeezed, a suf- ficient quantity of it soon passes into the milk, Avhich is then Avell stirred, and left to coagulate. In the course of an hour, the coagu- lation is completed, when the milk is again put over the fire,and raised to a temperature of about 145 de- grees: and, while it is heating, the whole mass is briskly agitated, till the curd separates in small lumps. Part of the whey is then taken out, and a little saffron added to the remainder, in order to colour it. When the curd is thus broken suf- ficiently small, nearly the Avhole of the. whey is taken out, and two pailfuls of water poured in, by which the temperature is loAvered, so as to enable the dairy-man to collect the former, by passing a cloth be- neath it, and gathering it up at the corners. The curd is then press- ed into a frame of Avood, resembling a peck-measure without a bottom, placed on a solid table, and covered by a round piece of wood, Avith a great stone at the top. In the course ofthe night, it cools, assumes a firm consistence, and the Avhey drains off. The next day, one side is salted, and on the succeeding day the cheese is. turned, and the other side rubbed in a similar manner. This operation is continued for about forty days, when the outer crust of the cheese is pared off, the fresh surface is varnished Avith linseed oil, the convex side colour- ed red, and the cheese is fit for use. [The climate of Pennsylvania is similar to that of Placentia and Milan, Avhere the cheeses called Parmesan are made: and it is high- ly probable, if we fail in making cheeses of equal flavour and excel- lence with the English, that we may rival those of Italy, Avhich have a superior advantage in being found to keep in Avarm climates, much better than most other cheese.] 2. Green Saviss Cheese ap- pears to possess no other peculia- rity than that deriA-ed from the fra- grant powder of the Common Me- liot, or the Trifolium Melilotus offi- czk.L. [a native plant of the United States,] Avhich, however, imparts to it a strong flavour, rather offen- sive than agreeable to most per- sons : hence it is not calculated to become a favourite article in this country, though considerable quan- tities of Swiss cheese are annually imported for the tables of the lux- urious. 3. Dutch Cheese is likewise prepared in the manner generally adopted in Cheshire, Avith this dif- ference, that the Dutch, instead of rennet, make use of spirit of salt Hence their cheese not only ac- quires a sharp saline taste, but is also said to be exempt from the de- predations of mites: its rich but- tery quality must be ascribed to the luxuriant vegetation in the Ioav countries. r CHE 4-. Westphalia Cheese. M. Hochheimer, a German author, asserts " that it is preferred in England to the Dutch, SAviss, and even Parmesan cheese." Having had no experience of its taste, we can only give an account of the manner in which it is prepared. After the cream is removed from the milk, when in a sub-acid state, the latter is placed near a fire, spontaneously to coagulate. The curd is then put into a coarse bag, and loaded with ponderous stones to express the Avhey: in this dry state, it is rubbed between the hands, and crumbled into an emp- ty, clean milk-vat, where it is suf- fered to remain from three to eight days accordingly as the cheese is intended to be strong, or mild. This part of the process is called " skinning," or more properly, mellowing; because it undergoes the putrid stage of fermentation, and acquires a coat, or skin, on the top, before it is taken out of the vessel, and kneaded into balls, or cylinders, Avith the addition of a considerable portion of caraAvays, salt, and butter; or, occasionally, a small quantity of pounded pepper, and cloves. But, if it be too far ad- vanced in the melloAving process, a third part of fresh curds, likewise crumbled into small pieces, is su- peradded, to prevent, or correct its putrid tendency. In short, the whole mass requires a powerful hand to form a complete union cf parts; for it is very apt to corrupt, when imperfectly kneaded. As the pieces, when moulded, are*of small size, not exceeding three or four ounces each, in weight, they soon dry in the open air, and are then fit for use. It is, hoAvever, necessary to turn and clean them, as Avell as to shift their places every day upon a CHE 95 board, in order to promote their maturity. After being nearly dry, they are sometimes (for the palate of epicures) suspended in a wood- fire chimney, by means of a net, for several Aveeks, or months: and both their taste and flavour, are said to be remarkably improved, whether kept in a dry air, or sub- jected to the action of smoke. 5. Potatoe-ChEese. There are three varieties of this curious article prepared in Germany: we shall, however, describe only that sort which appears to us the most plausible.....The best mealy pota- toes are selected, and half-boiled in steam; as, by bursting, their fla- A'our and efficacy are diminished. When cool, they are peeled, and finely grated, or beat into a pulp with a wooden pestle. Three parts of this soft mass, and two parts of SAveet curd, after expressing all its whey, are kneaded together, and allowed to stand two or three days in warm, and four or five days in cold, weather. The mixture is then formed into small pieces, like those of Westphalia cheese, and dried in a similar manner. But, says M. Hochheimer, if you wish to procure a more deli- cious potatoe-cheese, take only one pi'rt of potatoes, and three of the curd made of sheep's milk; let the kneaded mass remain three or four days in a vat, to become mellow; then put a stratum of it, one inch high, into a small firkin, streAv a few lilac floAvers, or caraways and mace, over it; spread a little fresh butter, about the size of a walnut, over these aromatics; then form another layer, repeat the same mode of seasoning the cheese, and proceed in a similar manner to the top of the vessel. When thhs cheese has been kept for some days 96 CHE CHE in a dry, airy place, without being exposed to the sun, it is said to ex- cel in taste the best sort made in Holland ; and to possess the addi- tional advantage, that it improves Avith age, and generates no vermin. ....We have had no opportunity of ascertaining the truth of this boast- ed superiority, and candidly submit the process to the decision of our economical readers. [Dr. Anderson thinks that the goodness of cheese depends more upon the particular process adopted in the management, than upon the materials of Avhich the cheese con- sists. The taste of a Gloucester and that of a Cheshire cheese is very different from each other, though the quality of the milk of which they are made varies very little. The same thing may be said of Stilton and Parmesan cheeses, though their peculiarities are attri- buted to soil, or pasture, or other circumstances that seem to throAv the blame of want of success from off our oavii shoulders. The business of cheese-making fias greatly improved within a few years past in the United States. The state of Connecticut, and the islands near New-Port, Rhode- Island, have deseiwedly obtained a great character for cheese-making; and an English family near Fle- mington, New Jersey, has also justly acquired the highest reputa- tion in the business. Indeed they have clearly evinced, even to the most prejudiced, (upon some of whom an experiment has been made,) that age is only required to render their cheese equal in flavour and richness to those of England. And why should they not ,be equal, if the same care be used in every part of the process ? As no good cheese can be made without good rennet, it may be well to add the following account of the preparation of that substance, to the mode described by Dr. Wil- LICH. " Dairy AVomen usually preserve the maw, and the curd contained in it, after salting them; and then by steeping this bag and curd, make a rennet to turn their milk for making cheese. But a method Avhich seems to be more simple, and is equally good in every res- pect, is, to throw away the curd, and after steeping it in pickle, stretch out the maw upon a slender bow inserted into it, which will soon be very dry, and keep well for a long time. Take an inch or two of the maw thus dried, and steep it over night in a few spoonfuls of warm water; which water serves full as Avell as if the curd had been preserved, for turning the milk. It is said that one inch will serve for the milk of five coavs. An ingenious writer, Avho has made strict inquiry into this sub- ject recommends the following method of preparing a rennet, Avhich he has found to be better than any other...." Throw away the natural curd, which is apt to taint, and give the bag a bad smell; then make an artificial curd, or rather butter, of new cream, of sufficient quantity to fill the bag. Add three neAV laid eggs well beat- en, one nutmeg grated fine, or any other good spice: Mix them well together, with three tea-cup fulls of fine ^alt: Fill the rennet bag Avith this substance : Tie up the mouth : Lay it under a strong brine for threedays, turning it over daily. Then hang it up in a cool and dry place for six weeks, and it will be CHE fit for use. When it is used, take with a spoon out of the bag, a suf- ficient quantity of this artificial butryous curd for the cheese you purpose to make : Dissolve it in a small quantity of warm water, and then use it in the same manner, as other rennet is mixed with the milk for its coagulation." Whatever kind of rennet the dairy Avonian chooses to prepare, ihe should keep it in mind, that this animal acid is extremely apt to turn rancid and putrify, and take care to apply a sufficient quan- tity of salt to preserve it in its best •tate. For it is probable that the rank and putrid taste, Avhich is so often in cheeses made in this coun- try, is owing to a putridity in the rennet." Deanc's N. E. Farmer.'] Preservation of Cheese. Among the various productions of the ve- getable kingdom, there are per- haps none better calculated for this purpose, than the following: 1. The leaves of the Yellow Star of Bethlehem. Ornithogalum luteum, L. 2. The Tutsan, or Park-leaves, Hypericum Androsamum, L. and 3. The tender branches ofthe com- mon birch tree, Bctula alba, L.... The tAvo first of which, in particu- lar, have from experience been found to possess considerable anti- septic properties. They ought, however,to be employed only when moderately dry, in which state they should be placed upon, or at the sides of the cheese, in an airy situation. The twigs ofthe birch are especially useful, in preventing the ravages of mites. Hard and spoiled cheese may be restored in the following manner: Take four ounces of pearl-ash, pour sweet white wine over it* till the mixture ceases to effervesce. Filtre the solution, dip into it clean linen VOL. II. CHE 57 cloths, cover the cheese with them, and put the whole into a cool place, or dry cellar. Repeat this process every day, at the same time turn- ing the cheese ; and, if necessary, continue it for several weeks : thus, the hardest and most insipid cheese has frequently recovered its former flavour. Although Ave have devoted much room, and attention, to this im- portant subject, considered in an economical vieAv, Ave shall be very concise on the physical properties of cheese. This substance, being the coarsest and most viscid part of the milk, is digested with diffi- culty; and therefore calculated only for the more vigorous stomach of the healthy and laborious. Hc*ee, persons of a delicate organization, as well as the studious and seden- tary, ought carefully to abstain from its use ; for, Avhen eaten new, for instance cream-cheese, it is apt to disagree, produce rancid eructa- tions, and impair the digestive or- gans : when old, it has a remark- able tendency to putrify, and taint the breath, even of the healthful. After dinner, a very small quantity of sound, old cheese, may do no injury; but it neither assists the digestion of food, nor produces any additional nutriment, when the vessels already abound with ali- mentary matter....Lastly, we advise those Avho know the value of health, and are enabled to procure more salutary food, never to make a meal upon bread and cheese alone. CHEESE-RENNET, or Yel- loav Bed-Straw, Galium verum, L. is a native plant growing on tha sides of fields and roads. It has a firm, erect, square stem; short branches, terminating in spikes of small yellow blossoms, appearing in July and August. O 98 CHE CHE The flowers of this plant coagu- late boiling milk; and it is, Ave ap- prehend, erroneously supposed that the best Cheshire cheese is pre- pared by their influence. When boiled in alum-water, says Dr.Vv'i- thering, they tinge wool yellow. The roots dye a very fine red, not inferior to madder. They also im- part a similnr colour to the bones of animals fed upon them. Ac- cording to the experiments related by Succow, the German chemist, a decoction of the whole plant, when in blossom, on adding vitriol of iron and spirit of salt, produced a fine green colour, which Avas like- wise imparted to avooI and silk. Sheep and goats eat the yellow bed?straw; but it is refused by horses, swine, and coavs. In France, the flowers are prescribed in hys- teric cases. The juice of the plant has been successfully used in Bri- tain ; and, from an account given in the Edinburgh Medical Commen- taries, it appears to be an effica- cious remedy for the cure of scor- butic complaints. CHEMISTRY is one of the most important branches of Phy- sics, or Natural Philosophy; and, though not easily defined, Ave shall attempt the following short ana- lysis : The science of chemistry implies the knowledge of the com- ponent parts of bodies, whether ani- mal, vegetable, or mineral; that is, the art of decomposing compound substances ; re-producing them, if possible; and ascertaining their physical properties, and relations to each other, as well as of deter- mining, with accuracy, the affinity subsisting between simple earths, metals, Sec......Others have defined chemistry to signify the study of such phenomena, or properties of bodies, as are discoverable, by va- riously mixing them, or by expos- ing them to different degrees of heat, in order to enlarge our know- ledge of Nature, and improve the useful arts......There is no doubt that the changes taking place in bodies, are caused bymo«'on,Avhich, particularly by means of heat, is infused into, and perpetually agi- tates, the vast corporeal system..... The chemist, therefore, inquired into the causes of this motion, and by AAhat means it may be gene- rated, diverted, or checked. But, as these impulsive poAvers are not within the reach of reason unas- sisted by the observation of effects obvious to the senses, he endea- vours to ascertain their nature, by carefully attending to the different action of bodies, Avhen placed in contact Avith others, either in a dry or fluid state, or submitted to the operation of fire ; from which he has discovered, more by accident than design, many hidden processes of Nature. The extensive utility of chemi- cal science, to a commercial and manufacturing nation, in almost every branch of trade, must be evi- dent to the most superficial obsen-- er ; for this knowledge essentially' contributes to the improvement of all the productions of Nature and Art. Thus, the husbandman, the artisan in general, the breAver, dis- tiller, soap-manufacturer, nay, even the baker, and the cook, may avoid many errors and disappointments, if they are but tolerably acquainted Avith the first principles of an art, Avhich daily administers to our comforts and necessities. The history of chemistry is in- A'olvedin much obscurity: Hermes Trismegistus, a noble Egyptian, who lived 1900 years before the Christian xra, is said to be its in- CHE CHE 99 Ttntor ; though Moses, the legis- lator, probably possessed some knowledge of this captivating sci- ence. Previous to the time of Ro- cf.r Bacon, an English friar of the 13th century, the Avhole was involved in mystery,andalchemical jargon. Like a bright star in a dark hemisphere, this genius de- monstrated to his superstitious bre- thren, that, by studying Nature, and reducing her powers within the rules of Art, he could produce effects, which far surpassed the miracles of vaunting magicians, while they dispelled the Avhole tribe of charms, sorceries, and in- cantations. Nay, it is admitted, that he invented, but carefully con- cealed, the composition of gun- powder. But his deluded cotem- porarieti were not to be rescued from the grossest superstitious no- tions, till the Avay had been paved by the reformation of Luther ; and another luminary arose, who was placed in circumstances more favourable to excite attention, and ensure respect to his doctrines..... This was the illustrious Hook, Avho laid the foundation of chemical science in Britain. Others, indeed, on the Continent, such as Paracel- sus, Van Helmont, and Sir Theodohe Mayerne, the last of whom afterwards spent thirty years in England, had successfully la- boured forthe improvement of che- mistry ; but the first of these Avas an impudent juggler ; and the se- cond, a credulous votary of the Pa- racelsian system. Van Helmont, hoAvever, must be allowed to be the original discoA'crer of gaseous, or aeriform bodies ; for which disco- very he Avas called a magician, and imprisoned by the dark tribunal of the inquisition. Dr. Hook proved, 1. That the air in which we live, move, and breathe, is the universal solvent of alLJnfiamniable bodies ; 2. That it does not perform this action till the body be first sufficiently heated ; 4, That this process of dissolution generates a vei y great heat, or Avhat is called fire ; 4. That light is also produced from this action ; 5. That these phenomena do not arise from the air itself as an element, but from that part of the air which is inherent in it, and is like, if not the very same, as that which is fixed in salt-petre. Thus we find that the foundation Avas laid for the subse- quent discoveries of Boyle, Ma- yow, and Hales, who first ascer- tained the exact quantity of air, or an elastic fluid analogous to air, either produced or absorbed by the burning of sulphur, or of candles, or by the respiration of animals..... Hence, the last mentioned philoso- pher compares the air to ''a true Proteus, now fixed, now volatile, entering into the composition of bodies, wdiere it exists in a solid form, deprived of elasticity, and of those properties Avhich formerly dis- tinguished it, adding gravity to these bodies, and under certain circum- stances,alone capable of recovering its elasticity, and becoming again an elastic thin fluid, and therefore well deserving to be adopted among chemical principles, and to possess a rank which has hitherto been de- nied it." In his admirable work, entitled Vegetable Statics, we per- ceive the first tracesof the existence of air in those waters called acidu- lous; and he not only remarked that they contain four or five times more air than common water, but also conjectured, that they OAved to it their sparkling and briskness..... 100 CHE CHE The truth and practical application of this discoA-ery to medical pur- poses, were vigorously enforced by the immortal Boerhaave, whgse reputation, both as a physician and a philosopher (tAvo great qualifica- tions, not always united), had rot sounded to the remotest parts of the globe.....Previous to his time, the illustrious Becher first began to coilect ind compare the immense store of chemical facts, and arrange their relations towards a new sys- tem. Persecuted and despised, like most benefactors of mankind who forsake the beaten track, he fled fom his native country, retired to England, and died of a broken heart at London in 1632. His theory, hoAvever, Avas adopted by the saga- cious and intrepid Stahl, then first physician to the King of Prus- sia. In the opinion of these two authors, fire enters into the com- position of all inflammable bodies, into metals, and most minerals ; and in that condensed and fixed state, they called it phlogiston, or latent fire, to distinguish it from its condition, wh-en in a free state. They farther believed that phlo- giston is actually a material body, liable to be modified and influ- enced by circumstances ; and that cor.'.equentlv all metals Avere com- pounds ; and water, as containing no phlogiston, a simple body. Al- though this vague theory has been strenuously maintained by nearly all the chemists of Europe, for up- wards of a century, and is still sup- ported by Dr. Priestley, and many of his followers in this and other countries, yet, to the honour of our age, and Ave venture to say, the credit of that voluntary exile, the doctrine of the phlogiston is yearly exploded. To proceed in this explanation, according to the order of time in which the leading facts were ascertained, Ave shall first mention, that Dr. Black, our late illustrious professor of chemis- try, in the University of Edinburgh, about the middle of last century, observed, that certain substances, such as marble, chalk, and lime- stone, when submitted to the pro- cess of fire, lost half their former weight ; and, when treated Avith acids, the compound weighed less than before. Hence, it became evi- dent, that something was lost; and, from a strict chemical analysis, he proved this something to be a per- manently elastic fluid, which he termed fixed air.......deprived of which, the residue Avas caustic, or quick-time, capable of corroding all animal and vegetable substances. Hitherto, the existence of fixed air, and its combination with bodies, Avas only conjectured, and no phi-' losopher, since Van Helmont's time, had adopted this opiniofl...... Thus, new views were opened in the examination of all matter, and the attention of experimental in- quirers Avas principally directed to the decomposition of solid bodies. Dr. Rutherford extended this inquiry, and determined the dif- ference between fixed and azotic air, another species of suffocative gas, which cannot be respired by animals, nor is it miscible with water, and therefore by some called mephitic, or phlogisticated air...... This azotic air constitutes about seventy-two parts in the hundred of the common atmosphere, and there- fore deserves particular attention : it was discovered by Dr. Priest- ley, and arises from the changes which atmospheric air undergoes in every process of combustion* CHE CHE 101 putrefaction, and respiration ; in short, it is of the same nature as that contained in the air-bladder of the carp, and other fish. Being much lighter than the atmosphere, the azote instantly extinguishes bumingtapers, and rapidly destroys the life of animals immersed in it. The most splendid and important discovery of Dr. Priestley, Iioav- ever, is that of vital air, or oxygen, to Avhich he was accidentally led, in August 1774, and which will trans- mit his name to posterity. This aerial fluid, which he denominates dephlogisticated az'r,because he sup- posed it to be deprived of all its phlogiston, also forms a consider- able part of our atmosphere, so that it has been ascertained, by ex- periment, to exist there in the pro- «ortion of about 27 or 28 parts in bo. Thus, the composition of that boundless element in which we ' breathe and move, was, at length, discovered, and thoughBergmann and Schfele in SAveden, as well as Lavoisier, in France, claimed an equal or coeval merit with Dr. Priestley,having,about the same period, in their experimental re- searches on this subject, observed similar phenomena; yet, we believe the last mentioned philosopher is justly entitled to the honour of be- ing called the author of this great discovery. The manner in which it Avas made, is foreign to our pur- pose ; and Ave shall therefore briefly state, that the ingenious and noble Lavoisier, Avho fell a sacrifice to the ambition and tyranny of Rcbes- pierre, of infamous memory, estab- lished a neAV and more plausible system of chemistry upon the ground-work of this contested dis- covery, by which the component parts of the atmosphere were clear- ly and indubitably determined. In contradistinction to the exploded doctrine of phlogiston, the theory adapted by Lavoisier, and sup- portedby Berthollet,Morveau, Adf.t, Hassenfratz, De la Place, Monge, Chaptal, Four- croy, and others, was now termed the Antiphlogistic iiptetn. The principal feature ofthe new French system is, that the air is a compound body, and that metals, in general, are simple substances. We cannot, in this place, enter into farther par- ticulars ; and therefore only re- commend to the juvenile reader, the perusal and study of such ele- mentary works as affoid a plain and accurate explanation of that admirable and highly useful sci- ence ; Avithout a competent know- ledge of which, he Avill ever remain in a state of infancy, at least with respect to the numberless pheno- mena taking place in the physical world. We regret, however, that a publication calculated completely to answer the expectations of an or- dinary reader, is still a de.dderatum; though there have been published within the last twenty years, a great variety of instructive books on this subject. The principal difficulty appears to arise from the unsettled state of chemical nomenclature, which has lately been, in a great measure, removed by the praise- Avorthy labours of Dr. Pearson, Dr.DicKSON, and Mr.Parkinson; yet, whatever merit these introduc- tory works may possess, there is still wanted a concise, perspicuous, and systematic analysis of the sci- ence of chemistry, such as could be read, Avith satisfaction, by tvery person possessed of ordinary ta- lents. Girtannf.r and Scherer, in Germany, have attempted such 102 CHE CHE works ; but their manuals abound in too abstract propositions, and are Avritten in a dogmatical rather than narrative style, and may tyid to entertain the reader, and imper- ceptibly lead from the more simple to connected propositions. Al- though it be perfectly consistent with scientific arrangement, to be- gin the explanation of a system with general truths, and then de- scend to particulars; yet we incline to think, that the young student, as well as readers in general, would acquire a more correct idea of a subject, by commencing the series of principles with such illustrations as would render every term, involv- ed in the first definition, perfectly clear and familiar to their under- standing. Thus, the immortal Ba- con was peculiarly happy in de- fining simple ideas, before he pro- ceeded to reduce them under gene- ral heads, and draw the inference, or exhibit the result, by the most unequivocal process of induction. Instead, however, of following the footsteps of this mighty genius, most of our modem physical wri- ters, either begin the analysis of the subject with general maxims ; or they dissect and divide the whole into distinct parts, and fatigue the reader with endless repetition, with- out affording him a view of the synthesis, or conjuncture of mem- bers (if that expression be allowed), which alone could enable him to connect the several causes and ef- fects, of which the whole is com- posed. In justice, howeA-er, to La- voisier, the founder of the new system, Ave shall obsen-e, that his « Elements of Chemistry" possess, in this respect, uncommon merit; though he dwells too long upon the rationale, without exemplifying the principles, in such a manner as to impress the mind with sensible objects, which alone can perma- nently fix the idea, and connect every link of the proposition. We claim the indulgence of our readers for this involuntary digression; and though we cannot, in truth, exclu- sively recommend any late work, published in the form of a. popular, or familiar introduction to chemis- try, yet we shall mention several valuable treatises, that have suc- cessively appeared, and are entitled to attention. The different trans- lations from the French of Lavoi- sier, Chaptal, and Fourcroy, and especially that of the last, by Mr. John Thomson, deserves to be read, and diligently studied ; that from the Germanof Professor Gren is likewise a Avork of merit, for pro- fessional readers ; and among the original English works, we shall point out Dr. Higgins's " View of the Phlogistic and Antiphlogistic Theories" (8vo. 7s.); Mr. Nichol- son's " First Principles of Chemis- try (8ao. 8s. 6d.); and Dr. Gar- nett's " Outlines of Lectures on Chemistry (8vo. 4s.) ; besides these, there are several smaller tracts, among which we remember with satisfaction, the perusal of that Avrit- ten by Mr. Henry, of Manchester. [It is much to be regretted that this noble and pleasing science, should have been so long pursued without being applied to the useful purposes of life. Of late, however, the application of the principles of the science to the mechanic arts, to agriculture, and the common pur- poses of life, has engaged the at- tention of some celebrated charac- ters, and occasioned a great increase CHE •f certainty in various domestic and mechanical arts, and consider- able benefit to whole nations. In a domestic point of view, a knowledge of chemistry Avould seem indispensable. The making of bread, the brewing of beer, mak- ing of Avine, cyder, and vinegar, the distillation of ardent spirits; the preservation of animal and vege- table foods; the extraction of starch, flour, sugar; the making of butter, and cheese, the making of soap, are all truly chemical processes, which will be conducted with most ad- vantage by those who are best ac- quainted with the principles con- nected Avith them ; and it may be . safely concluded that were the in- dustrious economists more gene- rally possessed of chemical know- ledge, domestic processes Avould not be often unsuccessful. To the farmer, a knoAvledge of the principles of chemistry is no less necessary. By chemistry he will become acquainted with the precise composition of soils and manures; and will thence knoAV how to distinguish the different kinds of earth in his grounds, to judge ofthe proportions in Avhich they are mixed, and to determine those soils which are most suited to certain crops: to ascertain the different qualities of the various manures, and thus know the pro- per methods of applying them; to ascertain the best method of im- proving a poor soil, and to effect by a mixture of earths, what is not to be done by manure alone. Indeed any knowledge that can be acquir- ed on these subjects, Avithout the aid of chemistry, must be vague and indistinct, and can neither en- able its possessor to produce an intended effect with certainty, nor be communicated to others in Ian- CHE 103 guage sufficiently intelligible. Thus the expressions, clay, loam, marl, chalk, convey different ideas to different persons, by Avhich all ge- neral benefits of experience in agri- culture must be greatly limited. Chemistry may to farmers, be- come an universal language, in which the facts that are observed in this art, may be so clothed, as to be intelligible to all nations and ages. It would be desirable, for example, when a writer speaks of clay, loam, or marl, that he should explain his conception of these terms, by stating the che- mical composition of each sub- stance expressed by them. For all the variety of soils and manures, and all the diversified productions of the vegetable kingdom are capa- ble of being resolved, by chemical analysis, into a small number of elementary ingredients. The for- mation of a Avell defined language, expressing the proportion of these elements, in the various soils and manures noAV so vaguely characte- rised, Avould give an accuracy and precision, hitherto unknown, to the experience of tillers of the earth. CHENOPODIUM, Gooscfoot. Of this genus Ave have several spe- cies, as the album, viride, botrys, (cut leaved), aristatum, (aAvned), ( anthelminticum, (A\-orniseed, Jeru- salem oak.) The last mentioned species is much used as a remedy for worms. The whole plant has a powerful smell, of which it is very retentive. The taste is bitter, with a great deal of acrimony. The whole plant may be employed. Sometimes the expressed juice is used, in the dose of a table spoonful for a child, tAvo or three years old. The seeds are more commonly used. They are reduced to a fine powder, and made into an electu- 104 CHE CHE ary with some syrup. Of this the dose for a child, two or three years old, is a table spoonful taken early in the morning. The patient is to be kept without nourishment for some hours after. At night a like dose is to be given. It is often ne- cessary to continue this course for several days. See Goosefoot.] CHERRY, a species of the Pru- nus, L. or plumb-tree, a genus of plants, comprising many species, originally natives of Persia; whence they were introduced into Italy, as well as other parts of Europe ; and are supposed to have been brought from Flanders into England, in the reign of Henry the Eighth....The principal species, groAving in our climate are the following: 1. The Padus, or bird-cherry, or wild cluster cherry, a shrub Avhich flourishes wild, on almost any soil, if not wet (Withering); and is found chiefly in the hedges and woods. It bears lopping, and does not stifle the groAVth of grass. Sheep, goats, and swine eat the leaves, but they are not relished by cows, and refused by horses. Its fruit is nauseous ; but, Avhen bruis- ed, and infused in wine, or brandy, it imparts an agreeable flavour. Its smooth and tough wood is made into handles for knives and Avhips. The inner bark is said to afford a fine green colour, on boiling it Avith alum. Bechstein observes, that this dwarf tree, when transplanted into a rich soil, attains the height of forty feet, and two feet in diame- ter; and that it thrives most luxu- riantly near hedges and waters. As its abundant Avhite blossoms, in May, present a picturesque view, it deserves to be cultivated on the borders of parks and gardens...- Holmberger, a Swedish author, remarks, that the dried kernels of this cherry are equal in taste and flavour to almonds, and yield, on expression, a fine and plentiful oil, A decoction of the berries is some- times successfully given in the dy- sentery. 2. The Cerasus, or common Avild cherry tree, Avhich is frequently found in Avoods and hedges, but is probably produced from the stones of the garden-varieties, dropped by birds. It delights in a sandy soil, and an elevated situation, and often grows from fifteen to thirty feet in height, but is seldom more than nine inches in diameter. It flowers in the month of May ; its sour fruit is eaten by country people, either fresh or dried, and is fre- quently infused in brandy, on ac- count of its aromatic flavour. Cherry-trees require to be plant- ed from tAventy to thirty feet distant, and to be set deeper in the earth than apple-trees; Avith the management of which, in other respects, they correspond. Their growth is said to be uncommonly promoted, by laying a composition of lime and night-soil on their young stems, Avith a brush, Avhich operation has a similar effect on apple-trees. The best method of raising cher- ry-trees is, to plant them among hops, in alternate rows Avith apples, and with tAvo rows of filberts be- tween each ; by which means they arrive very speedily at perfection, and thus amply repay the expence and labour bestowed on them at first. The proportion (in the coun- ty of Kent, where this species is principally cultivated) is usually, to an acre, 800 hop-hills, 200 fil- berts, and 40 cherry and apple trees. The hops will stand about twelve years, and the. filberts about CHE thirty, by which time the cherry and apple trees Avill occupy the whole land. This species of the Prunus is, according to Linnaeus,the parent- stock, from Avhich many of the cultivated varieties are derived: there are many different sorts, which are knoAvn under the names of Blackheart, Whiteheart, Flemish, or early Kentish, Courone, and Hertfordshire black, Cherries. All these have been raised originally from stones, and aftenvards pre- served by budding, and grafting on stocks of the wild black and red cherry, reared for this purpose. In order to ensure a luxuriant vegeta- tion, and a delicious flavour.to these varieties, the stones of the black cherries should be set, or soAvn, in autumn, to raise stocks ; and plant- ed out, the second year after they come up, in lines at the distance of about tAvo feet. [Cherries are said to have come originally from the borders of the Caspian Sea. The following twenty are the principal cherries cultivated in the U. S. the account of which was furnished by Mr. William Prince of Long Island. May Duke, ripe in May and June: long stem, round and red, an excellent cherry, and bears well. Black Heart, ripe in June : a fine cherry. White Heart (or Sugar Cherry) ripe in June : white and red. Bleeding Heart, ripe in June, a very large cherry of a long form and dark colour; it has a pleasant taste. Ox Heart, ripe in June: a large, firm, fine cherry. Spanish Heart, ripe in June. Carnation, ripe in July, it takes its name from its colour, being red and Avhite, a large round cherry, VOL.II. CHE 105 but not A*ery sweet. Amber, ripe in July. Red Heart, do. Late Duke, do. Cluster, planted more for orna- nament, or curiosity than any other purpose. Double Blossom, ripe in July. Honey Cherry, do. small sweet cherry. Kentish cherry, ripe in July. Mazarine, do. Morello, do. and August; a red acid, cherry, the best for preserv- ing, and for making cherry-brandy. Early Richmond Cherry. This fruit originated near Richmond in Virginia, and is the earliest cherry in America, and valuable on that account; it is the size of a May Duke, and resembles it in form. Red Bigereau, a very fine cherry, ripe in July, of a heart shape. White Bigereau, ripe in July and August: remarkably firm, heart shape. Large Double FloAvering Cher- ry, This tree produces no fruit, but makes a handsome appearance in the spring, when it is covered with clusters of double floAvers as large as the cinnamon rose ; it dif- fers from the common double flow- ering cherry which never forms a large tree, and has small pointed leaves. The three last were imported from Bourdeauxin 1798. Small Morello Cherry, celled also Salem Cherry, because it came originally from Salem county, New Jersey, is cultivated by Mr. Cooper of that state, who values it lvgh- ly. The fruit has a lively acid taste. The tree produces abundantly, and is the least subject to A.orms of any cherry treee. Mr. C. says that the P.leeding Heart suits a sandv soil, but tlu.t P 106 CHE CHE the May Duke will not flourish in it. Those who are disposed to have a greater variety of cherries will find an account of all that are cultivated in England, given by Forsyth in his Treatise on Fruit Trees. The following directions. for planting, pruning, and training cherry-trees, are given by the same author. "In the choosing and plant- ing of young cherry trees, the same rules are to be observed that are given for apricots, peaches and nectarines ; and they must, in like manner be headed doAvn the first year. t In pruning cherries never short- en their shoots ; for most ofj them produce their fruit at the extremi- ties, the shortening, or cutting off of which very frequently occasions the death of the shoot, at least of a great part of it. The branches, therefore, should be trained at full length. I have often seen the Avhole tree killed by injudicious pruning. WhereA'er the knife is applied it is sure to bring on the gum, and af- terwards the canker, which will in- evitably kill the trees if no remedy be applied to the Avounds. I have headed doAvn a great many cherry trees Avhich were almost past bear- ing, and so eaten up by the gum and canker, that the few cherries they bore, Avere veiybad. In the years 1790 and 1791, I headed down fifty trees. The ope- ration should be performed in the month of April in each year. These trees made shoots from three to five feet the same summer, bore fine cherries the next year, and have continued to bear good crops ever since. To the above trees I applied the composition. At the same time I cut doAvn tAvelve trees in the same row, but did not apply the compo* sition: these twelve trees all died in the second and thircl years after. One tree where the composition Avas applied now produces more fruit than the whole number for- merly, also much finer and lar- ger. When cherry-trees are very old and much injured by large limbs having been cut or blown off (which will bring on the canker and gum) the best AVay to bring them to have fine heads, and to fill the vacant space, is to head them down as low as possible, taking care to leave some small shoots, if there be any; if not, a bud or two at the end of some of the shoots. Sometimes it is difficult to find any buds. In that case, before you mean to head the trees, make some incisions in the branches. This should be done on different branches, at the most con- venient places for filling the tree with good wood. The size of the incisions should be from one to two inches according to the size of the branches, observing to make them just above the joint where the buds should come out. The time for performing this operation is March, April, or May, (in America, March). The above method is only recommended where there are no young shoots or buds, and when the tree is in the last stage ofthe canker. Where you find a few young shoots or buds, cut down the head as near to them as you can, and take care to cut out all the canker till you come to the sound bark. If any gum remains it must be cut or scraped off: the best time for this is Avhen it is moistened with rain; it may then be scraped off without bruising the bark. This operation is very necessary. CHE CHE 107 Wherever the bark or branches have been cut off, the edges should be rounded, and the composition applied. If the young shoots are properly trained, they Avill produce fruit the following year ; and in the second year they will produce more and finer fruit than a young tree which has been planted ten years. Never make use of the knife in summer, if it be possible to avoid it, as the shoots die from the place where they are cut, leaving ugly dead stubs, which Avill infallibly bring on the canker. These shoots may be cut in the spring to about "2 eyes, Avhich will form a number of flower-buds. YV hen cherry trees begin to pro- duce spurs, cut out every other shoot to make the tree throw out fresh Avood : When that comes into a bearing'state, which will be in the following year, cut out the old branches that remain ; by that me- thod you -will be able to keep the trees in a constant state of bearing, taking the same method as before directed Avith the fore right shoots. Great care should be taken to rub off many of them in the month of May (middle of June in Ame- rica), leaving only such a number as you think a\ ill fill the tree. By so doing your trees will continue in a fine healthy state, and not be in the least Aveakened by bearing a plentiful crop of fruit. The rea- son is obvious, the great exhalation which Avotdd be occasioned by the sun and air in the common mode of pruning is prevented by the com- position keeping in the sap which nourishes the branches and fruit. I cut some trees, as directed above, more than twelve years ago, that are iioav in as good a state of bear- big, as they were in the third year after the operation, and likely to continue so for many years. In 1797 I cut some very old trees in the month of May, which were left, to shew the old method of pruning ; I at the same time cut some branches off the same trees, ■according to the new method, to shew the difference of the fruit, which Avas taken by all who saw it for a different sort of cherry. The cherries from the old spurs Avere not half the size of the others, and Avere at least three Aveeks later. Several persons have adopted the .new method Avith great success, and by renovating their old trees which scarcely bore any fruit, have obtained from them an abundant quantity. But even the increased quantity ofthe fruit is not so mate- rial, in cherries, as the increase in the size and in the richness of the favour. In this respect the method of pruning here laid down, is inva- luable. When old standard cherry trees become decayed and hollow, I Avould recommend heading them down, as directed for w all- trees and dAvarfs. Scoop out all the rotten, loose, and decayed parts of the trunk, till you come to the solid wood, leaving the surface smooth ; then use the composition as direct- ed for Fruit Tre.s." The common Avild or native cherry (Prunus Cercsus Virginia) though it bears only a small bitter cherry, which serves as food for birds, is valuable on account of its medicinal bark, and also for its timber,Avhich is of a reddish streak- ed colour, resembling mahogany, and capable of receiving a fine po- lish ; it is used by Turners and Cabinet makers, for many puposes. The tree groAvs to a huge size. 108 CHE CHE Birds are very fond of the fruit of the wild cherry tree, and they will frequently become intoxicated from eating them. [The leaves are poisonous to calves.] The barjs. of the Wild Cherry tree is powerfully tonic, and has been frequently substituted for the Peruvian bark with great success. It is slightly narcotic, and com- monly produces drowsiness in those who take it. From the experiments of Mr. C. Morris of Virginia (Inaug. Diss. i802. Phil.) it appear- ed that the bark of the root was more powerful than the bark of the trunk. Very excellent effects have been produced by washing ill conditioned ulcers with a decoction of the bark. While this valuable tree abounds in the United States, we act very unwisely in sending thousands of dollars out ofthe coun- try for the Peruvian bark. It ought to be propagated by every land holder : and when a tree is felled for timber, the bark should be care- fully preserved.] Cherry-trees prosper best when grafted; and, exclusively of their delicious fruit, afford, by their plentiful leaves, an excellent article of food for fattening hogs....They also exude a gum in every respect equal to gum arabic; and which is so extremely nutritive, that, ac- cording to Hasselquist, above 100 men were kept alive, during a siege, for nearly two months, Avith no other sustenance than that pro- duced by gradually dissolving a little of this gum in the mouth.... The wood is hard and tough; it is used by turners in the manufacture of chairs, and stained to imitate mahogany. From the ripe black cherries of the second species, the SAviss distil a very agreeable liquor, or ardent spirit, by the sale of which, to the French and Germans, they annual- ly derive considerable profit. For preserving this fruit during the winter, Ave communicate the fol- loAving recipe, inserted in Hoch- heimer's German work on Do- mestic . Economy....Take, in the proportion of two pounds of sour cherries, half a pound of fine loaf sugar, and a pint of Avhite wine vinegar; boil the two last, and skim off the impurities from the top; then let the liquor stand, till it become lukewarm. Meanwhile, prepare a coarse poAvder, consisting of two drams of cinnamon, and one of cloves ; break the stalks of the cherries in the middle, so as to leave half of their length for the jar, into which they must be care- fully put in layers, strewing a little ofthe spice between each stratum," pouring the liquor above-mention- ed on the top, and securing the whole from the access of air. With respect to their physical effects, cherries may be divided into SAveet, sub-acid, and pulpy. The first kind, though the most palatable, are the least Avholesome, as they readily ferment, and pro- duce flatulency in weak stomachs; the second are the most antiseptic; and the third, the most nourishing, but digested Avith some difficulty. Hence we Avould preferably recom- mend the sub-acid cherries, as an excellent article of domestic medi- cine in the true scurvy, in putrid fevers, and the dysentery; as like- Avise to those persons, avIio are liable to obstructions in the alimen- tary canal. With this intention they may be eaten in considerable quantities, and frequently from half a pound to a pound each time, but particularly on an empty stomach. Nor will they be found less saluta- CHE CHE 109 ry to constitutions whose bile is vitiated, whose stomach is troubled with foul eructations, and who are afflicted with an offensive breath: all such persons should eat them freely. For similar reasons, dried ch-rries form an excellent article of diet, in acute or inflammatory dis- orders : where they should be used both in substance, and in decoc- tions, which are equally cooling and antiseptic. [Cherry Brandy is best made in the folloAving manner. Fill the cask with an equal pro- portion of morello and sweet black cherries; pour over them as much brandy as the cask will contain. When it has been on ten days, draw it off", and pour on hot water, let this remain some time, shaking the cask frequently, then draw it off and mix the last with the first liquor. Cherry Bird, Cedar Bird, Crown Bird. (Ampelis Garrulus) a beautiful creature, the plumage of a silky, or velvet-like texture, and an active bird; his head is adorned Avith a high peaked crest. The peculiar characteristic of the species, is having the second order of quill feathers in his Avings tipped with a bright red boney substance, representing little drops of red sealing wax : this is confined to the male. These birds are residents, sheAving themselves in flocks every month in the year, except June, July and August, when they are employed in building their nests and rearing their young. They feed on all sorts of succulent fruit, par- ticularly such as have a sweet pulp, as cherries, See. Wm. Bartrai.] CHERVIL, or Charophnllum, L. a genus of plants comprising ten species. 1. The sylvestre, or wild chervil, or smooth cow-parsley, or cow- weed chervil, which thrh'es in hedges, orchards, and pastures. It has a woolly striated stem, erect umbels, and white floAvers, which blow in the month of May. The umbels of this plant afford an indifferent yellow dye; the leaves and stems a beautiful green. Its presence indicates a fruitful soil, but it ought to be eradicated from all pastures early in the spring, as cows, rabbits, and asses, are the only animals that will eat it....... Linnaeus informs us, that the roots, Avhen eaten as parsnips, have been found poisonous ; yet, accord- ing to Mr. Curtis, they were in some parts of Britain, during times of scarcity, eaten as a pot-herb. 2. The temulentum, rough coav- parsley, or rough chervil, growing in hedges, and bearing flowers in the months of July and August..... It possesses no peculiar properties. [3. The c arborescens is a native of the United States : its stem is shrubby; leaves large, superdecom- pound, Avith the palms much ex- panded, glossy, gash serrate...... Umbels thin, white, with a partial involucre; all the florets fertile.] Chervil, the Great, or Shep- herd's Needle, the Scandix odorata v. Cerefolium. See Sweet Cicely. Chervil, the >\i".edle, or Ve- nus Comb, the Scandix Pectin..... See Common Shepherd's Needle. CHESNUT, or Castanea, L. is a species of the lagus or beech- tree, a genus of plants comprising five species. It flourishes on poor gravelled or sandy soils, and will thrive in any but moist or marshy situations. Those trees, however, Avhich are intended for fruit, should be rah.ed in nurseries from nuts, 110 CHE CHE removed at least three times, and have the tap-roots cut off, in order to facilitate their groAvth. There is no plant cultivated, that is more valuable than the ches- nut; as it grows to a considerable height, and its wood, if kept dry, is extremely durable. This orna- ment to the country is, at the same time, of great utility for domestic purposes. It excels the oak in two respects, namely, that it groAvs faster, and that the " sap-parts " of the timber are more firm, and less liable to corruption. The shoots from the stubs being numerous and luxuriant, it makes an excellent underwood, and is of great service for hop-poles, as it may be cut when about eighteen or twenty years old, and will continue productive for nearly thirty years. Being greatly superior to elm for door jambs, and several other purposes of house carpentry, it is considered as nearly equal to the oak itself; but, on ac- count of its possessing a precarious brittleness, Avhich renders it un- safe for beams, it ought not to be employed in any situation, where an uncertain weight is sometimes to be supported. It has been much questioned, in England, whether the chesnut is indigenous or exotic. There is no doubt, that it was industriously cultivated by our ancestors ; and this circumstance, together Avith the existence of the celebrated chesnut at Tortworth, in Glouces- tershire, has been urged, with great probability, as a proof of its being a native. That stupendous tree is 52 feet in circumference, and has according to authentic records, stood there ever since the year 1150, Avhen it was so remarkable as to be called " the Great Chesnut of Tortworth." It fixes the bounda- ry of the manor, and is probably not less than 1000 years old. On the contrary, it has been asserted, that from its being called the Span. ing Chesnut, it is a native of Spain, and Avas introduced from that coun- try, at some distant period. How- ever the question may be decided, it will be generally admitted that, in this climate, there is no plant which so fully merits the great at- tention which has of late years been paid to its groAvth. We, therefore, cordially join in recommending it to those who intend to form plant- ations, whether for ornament or use, as a tree which for dura ility, beauty, and stature, will amply, and in a very short time, repay all the labour and expence that may be bestOAved upon its culture. All writers agree that the wood of the chesnut is peculiarly excel- lent for casks, as it neither shrinks, nor changes the taste, or colour, of the liquor. It is also converted into various articles of furniture, and when stained, may be made to re- semble in beauty and colour the finest mahogany: this improvement is effected, by rubbing it over, first with alum water, then laying on with a brush a decoction of log- wood-chips ; and lastly, a decoction of Brazil-wool. Besides these va- rious uses, to which this tree may be applied, its fruit affords an agree- able addition to our Avinter dessert. If properly managed, a sweet and nutritious bread may be prepared of it, especially when mixed with a small proportion of wheaten or other flour. In its wild state, it is called the horse-chesnut, and, inde- pendently of its beauty as an orna- mental tree, its mealy nuts supply not only an excellent food for fat- tening deer and hogs, but are like- wise of great service in whitening CHE CHE 111 eloth, and the manufacture of starch. For this latter purpose, a patent was granted to Lord Wil- liam Murray, March 8, 1796, of whose process Ave subjoin the fol- lowing account. The nuts must be first taken out ofthe outward green prickly husks, and the brown rind carefully pared off, so as totally to eradicate the sprout, or growth..... They are next to be rasped, or grated fine into water, and the pulp thus produced should be washed, as clean as possible, through a hair sieve. This Avashing is repeated tAvice through fine sieves, constant- ly adding pure Avater, to prevent any starch from adhering to the pulp. The last process is, to strain it with a large quantity of Avater (about four gallons to a pound of starch) through a fine gauze, mus- lin, or laAvn sieve ; in order to clear it entirely of all bran, or other im- purities. 0ls soon as it subsides, the water is to be poured oft", and the remaining substance mixed up repeatedly with clean water, till the latter becomes perfectly colourless. It should then be drained off' till it is nearly dry, and set to bake, either in the usual mode in which starch is baked, or spread out before a brisk fire ; care being taken to pre- vent it from "horning", or turning into a paste or jelly ; which, as soon as it becomes dry, acquires the solidity and hardness of horn. M.Lalevrie, a few years since, directed his countrymen, in one of the Paris Journals, first to peel the chesnuts, and to dry tbem either in the open air, or in a room...... When perfectly dry, they should be grated and pounded. The sifted flour is to be passed into a vessel containing water, and there strong- ly agitated. After standing at rest for an hour, the water is carefully poured off, to prevent the loss of any sediment. This infusion should be repeated eight or nine different times, with a proportionate quantity of water, till the liquor becomes colourless and insipid. The sub- sided pulp is then fit to be passed into a close linen bag; and, after pressing it, to be slowly dried..... The fine floury mass, or starch, thus obtained, will be found free from all bitterness, and astringency; it has no longer any disagreeable taste, and affords Avholesome nu- triment. Chesnuts, especially the small esculent sort, form an important article of commerce, in Italy, and in the island of Corsica; Avhich latter alone exports annually such quantities as amount in value to 100,000 croAvns. The Germans roast them among embers, and eat them with butter and salt; the French, with lemon-juice and su- gar, which agrees better Avith Aveak stomachs. This leguminous fruit is also employed in several articles of confectionary ; as a substitute for coffee, and in the preparation of chocolate. Although these nuts are palata- ble, and less oily than most produc- tions of a similar nature, yet, when used in abundance, they are not easy of digestion, and oughWthere- fore to be eaten only by the healthy and robust. To promote their so*- lution and assimilation in the sto- mach, they require the aid of salt, in a considerable proportion ; but the addition of butter renders them still heavier, and tends to retard rather than to accelerate their con- version into alimentary matter. [The characters of the chesnut tree are nearly the same as the beech, except that the male flowers are disposed in cylindrical katkins. 112 CHE CHE The styles more numerous and bristly. The capsules much larger, round, and set very thick with long prickly spines; containing from one to four or five, but generally two or three nuts, filled with sweet kernel. This tree is highly valuable for many purposes, and ought to be carefully attended to by the people of this country. The superiority of the timber over most others in du- rability, is Avell knoAvn ; and the nuts are also very profitable. The tree splits easily, and hence is used for fence rails. An old chesnut tree is very brittle, and apt to crack, and therefore should never stand longer than while it is in a growing state. If cut Avhen it squares only six in- ches, it Avill be most durable, having very little sap in proportion toother trees. The nuts are the usual, and in some places, almost the only food ofthe common people in Italy, Savoy, and France, not only boiled and roasted, but also in puddings, cakes, and bread. The tree may be propagated by planting the nuts with the burrs, in the spring. The best nuts for plant- ing, are such as are brought from Portugal and Spain, or a large fine kind which are sometimes seen in the Philadelphia markets. The di- rection to plant the nuts in theburrs is given, in consequence of the de- struction of them, Avhich a gentle- man in New-Jersey (avIio has wise- ly planted several acres) latelv ex- perienced from field mice. The nuts, if imported, must be brought over in boxes of earth. In setting the nuts, make a drill with a hoe, about 4 inches deep, and six inches distant, with the eye uppermost: then draAv the earth over them Avith a rake, and make a second drill at about a foot distance from the for- mer, proceeding as before, allowing three rows in a bed, with an alley betAveen them three feet broad, for conveniently cleaning the beds...... Keep the ground clear of weeds, and in two years remove the trees to a nursery, at a wider distance. In three years afterwards, trans- plant them into the places where they are intended to stand. In Portugal and other countries, they graft cyons from trees bearing the largest and fairest fruit, upon stocks raised from the nut. Those grafted trees are unfit for timber. Another way of propagating the tree is, to encircle the stump of a tree, recently felled, by rails...... Shoots Avill come out the first year, and form a bush in tAvo seasons. Chesnut trees, but particularly those bearing large fruit, ought to be preserved with religious care. No more certainly productive legacy could be left by a parerft to an in- fant than land planted with an hun- dred thousand chesnuts. Forsyth gives a number of ju- dicious directions respecting the propagation of chesnut trees, Avhich cannot be well abridged, but ought to be consulted by every one who may wish to propagate this valuable tree. Mr. Wm. Prince, of L. Island, informs the editor, that the Spanish or Portugal chesnut succeeds well in the United States, aud produces fruit in about seven years from the seed: it grows more rapidly than the American chesnut; the fruit is more than four times as large, and for boiling or roasting is generally preferred. It may be budded on the com- mon chesnut, but, being of quicker growth, is apt to overgrow the stock. It is best to raise it from seed, v/hich, if the trees from which CHE CHE 113 the seeds are taken do not grow too near the common chesnut, will produce the genuine sort. 2. Fag us, Castanea pumila, DAvarf chesnut tree, or Chinquepin. This seldom rises above eight or twelve feet, otherwise much resembling the chesnut in the appearance of its branches and leaves. Its fruit capsules are small, and generally contain but one conical shaped nut. It groAvs naturally in a light gravelly ■oil: when exported, the nuts should be put up in sand, when ripe, and sent away immediately, otherwise they loose their vegetating quality.] Horse-Chesnut, or /Esculus, L. a genus of exotic plants, natives of the East, consisting of four spe- cies : the principal of these is the Hippocastanum, or Common Horse- Chesnut. It thrives best in rich fat land, but will also flourish on clayey and marley soils. The horse-chesnut Avas brought from Asia to Europe, in the year 1550: it is propagated from the nuts, which are gathered in au- tumn, and set in drills, about three inches asunder. In the spring, young plants Avill appear, which, at the end of twelve months, are to be taken up, the top roots shorten- ed, and afterwards planted in a nursery. As soon as they are of a proper size to be finally trans- planted, they should be carefully removed, and set in large holes level Avith the surface of the ground, all the fibres being spread, and co- vered Avith fine mould. A stake should then be placed, to protect them from high winds, and the de- predations of cattle, till they are of a sufficient size to defend them- selves. This tree grows so rapidly that, in the course of a few years, it be- comes large enough, in groves and VOL. n. alleys, to afford a good shade dur- ing the heat of summer, when it is in full bloom. Its fruit furnishes a grateful food to horses, and has been successfully employed for fat- tening cattle, the tallow of which it renders uncommonly firm, espe- cially when mixed with ground barley. The milk obtained from cows fed with it, is also said to be richer than that produced by any other aliment. The nuts have like- wise been used with advantage in feeding poultry ; but they are un- wholesome for hogs. Deer are pe- culiarly fond of this fruit; which has also been usefully substituted for soap ; because on steeping and boiling it in water, it makes a good lather, preparatory to the use of that more expensive article. There are, besides, various other purposes to which horse-ehesnuts may be rendered subservient in the arts and manufactures. Dr. Bohmer informs us, that M. Sprogel, an ingenious artisan of Gera, in Saxony, has discovered a method of preparing a paste, or size, from wild chesnuts, which may be used preferably to that made of wheaten-flour, by shoe-makers, book-binders, card-manufacturers, and especially by paper-hangers, who consume, or rather waste, con- siderable quantities of grain, in their respective branches of trade. With this design, the nuts are first cleared of the hard shell, as well as the inner skin ; then cut into three or four parts ; dried hard in an oven ; and afterwards reduced to fine flour, either in a mill or mor- tar : rain-water is next poured on them, and the Avhole is properly stirred till it acquire a due consist- ence. This paste possesses a great advantage over the common size ; as no moths, or vermin, will breed Q 114 CHE CHE in the articles cemented with the former ; but as it is apt to become mouldy, or sour, in 48 hours, it will be necessary to dissolve a small portion of alum in the water before it is mixed, or to employ equal quantities of chesnut and Avheaten- flour : such precaution, however, is unnecessary, when it is intended for immediate use. Prof. Beckmann states, that horse-chesnuts yield, by distilla- tion, a spirituous liquor, which, not- withstanding its bitter taste, may frequently serve as a substitute for alkohol; and, though 20 pounds of this fruit produce only three ounces of a pure spirit, yet it is equal to that obtained from wine lees, and the remainder still affords food for cattle. Prof. Leonhardi observes, in his Economical Pocket-Book. for 1793 (in German), that the prickly husks of the horse-chesnut may be advantageously employed in tan- ning leather; and, when burnt to coal, they are said to produce an excellent black water-colour........ Suckow has made experiments with the broAvn glossy shell of this fruit; from which it appears, that, when bruised and boiled in water, with the addition of a little pot-ash, it makes a saturated bark-broAvn dye, Avhich imparted to cloth pre- viously dipped in a solution of green vitriol, a yellow brown, and to that prepared in alum-Avater, a faint red- brown colour. According to Dam- bourney, both the branches and leaves communicate a good brown in- dyeing. Ruger (in his German Pocket- book for Painters) gives the follow- ing recipe for preparing an excel- lent broAvn Avater-colour : Take the smooth, ripe shells of the horse- ehesnut, reduce them to a coarse powder, and boil them for several hours in water; next filter the liquor through flannel, and let it stand till the colouring particles subside; then carefully decant the clearfluid, and dry the sediment. Even in this simple manner, the decoction afforded a beautiful brown colour ; Avhich, however, was considerably improved, on adding a small por- tion of gum-arabic. The wood of the horse-chesnut is, in every respect, equal to that of the common chesnut; and, as the former thrives luxuriantly in coppices, it desenres to be more generally cultivated, with a view of raising timber for building. In- deed, it is highly probable that the fruit of this valuable tree might be so much improved by engrafting and innoculating,thatthe nuts may, in process of time, be divested of their peculiar bitterness and astrin- gency. In medicine, the bark has been found of eminent service in inter- mittent fevers, and is often substi- tuted in Russia for the Peruvian bark. [Of this genus, JEsculus, we have 1 .JE.pavia, scarlet flowering horse- chesnut, fish-poison, or buck-eye. This species abounds in. different parts of the United States, espe- cially to the southward. The roots of it} Avashed and bruised, are used in preference to soap, for Avashing woollens and coloured cottons ; as they do not injure the colours so much as soap. Satins also, it is said, washed Avith this root, and carefully ironed, look almost as Avell as neAv. The fresh kernels macerated in water, mixed with wheat flour, and formed into a stiff paste, will, if crumbled and thrown into any water where there are small fish, make those which eat CHE CHE 115 of it so drunk, that they may be easily caught; but they soon reco- ver when put into fresh Ava'.er. The fruit of our asculus pavia is much larger than that of the fo- reign tfsc. hippocastanuuu and is of a whiter colour : that of the hippp castanum is yellow. A single nut dried, weighed half an oz. and twenty grains, and yield- ed forty four grains of fine starch. Dr. Woodhouse prepared half a pound of this starch from the nuts ofthe asculus pavia, and kept it two years, without impairing the white colour. It is superior to the finest Poland starch, and has been used, to starch various articles of dress, without imparting any yellow co- lour to them. The method of pre- paring it, is to take off the shells from the nuts Avith a knife ; grate them in a vessel of Avater, which will hold the fine particles of starch suspended, when they are to be decanted into another vessel, which must remain at rest until the starch subsides to the bottom. The water is then to be poured off, and fresh Avater added, and the starch well stirred about in it, Avhen it must be again permitted to sub- side. The Avater is then to be thrown away, and the starch dried in the sun. The Avater of the first avashing holds a poisonous matter in solution, v. hich, when evaporated to the consistence of an extract, and mixed with dough, as above mentioned, will intoxicate and SAvell the bellies of small fish. Medical Repository, xo\. 3. p. 211. 2. FF..flava,yC\\ow flowered horse- chesnut, or tall buck-eye....a. octan- draol Marshall. This often groAvs to a pretty large size. It is a native of the western parts of Pennsylva- nia a"d Yhgiiva. 3-£. alba also grows in the north west parts of Georgia, and a'\'. Florida. 4. JE. Spicafa, with Avhite spiked floAvers: it is a dwarf, and was first found by W. 13 art ram, in Creek County, and afterwards brought by Mr. Michaux to Mr. B. from Flint River, Georgia. 5. Dwarf variegated flowered horse chesnut, found in the Chero- kee country by Mr.W. Bartram. The bark of the asculus hippocas- tanum has been recommended by many writers as a substitute for the Peruvian bark: our medical gen- tlemen in the country should try the bark of our native species.] CHEST, in commerce, a kind of measure, Avhich contains an un- certain quantity of various commo- dities. Thus, a chest of sugar holds from 10 to 15 cwt.; a chest of glass from 2 to 300 cubic feet; of Castile soap, from 2F to 3 cwt. ; of indigo, from If to 2 cwt.; computed at 5 score to the hundred. CHEWING, or mastication, is the action of the teeth, by Avhich solid food is broken, and divided into smaller particles : tnus, being at the same time mixed with the saliva, it is better prepared for di- gestion, both on account of its pul- py state, and the solvent nature of the fluids, secreted by the salival glands, during the exertion of the adjacent muscles. Hence it is ob- vious, that those persons, who are in the habit of swallowing their meals with expedition, and after- wards inundate the stomach with large potations, do tV.eir.s. Ives a dobble injury : 1. Because their food pe.s.-es through the stomach only half digested.....alTo-tiing but a scanty supply of real ncurish- ineul; and -. Their saliva is, 116 C H I against the order of Nature, con- stantly determined to other emunc- tories, so that it will, sooner or later, produce cutaneous, and painful diseases. Chevdng-Pall for horses, a kind of medicated bolus, for restoring a proper appetite : it is prepared of asafoetida, liver of antimony, bay, or juniper-Avood, and the pellitory of Spain ; which, after being dried in the sun, and Avrapped in a strong linen-cloth, are fastened to the bit ofthe bridle, in order to induce the animal to cheAV the bag. Such balls, it is said, may also be made of Ve- nice treacle, and successfully used for the same purpose. See Ball, Horse-ball. [CHICORIUM INTIBUS. A species of Endive, which, by the experiments of Mr. Wakefield and others in England, seems of prodigious consequence for the sup- ply of summer feed. It has been sown broad cast, but appears to ansAver best in drills. It has yield- ed from 20 to 40 tons of green fod- der per acre. In America it would be particularly suitable for summer feed, as the roots seek nourishment from a great depth. This root is perennial and has generally been regarded in the light of a noxious weed , it has, Iioav- ever, for several years past been cultivated in France as food for cattle. In Lombardy, it is soAvn, mixed with other herbs of pasture, and cut three or four feet high. It is reputed there to encrease ■ both the milk and flesh of cattle, and to be very nutritious Avhen made into hay. Horses eat it greedily ; and it is an important object for summer soiling both for them and cattle.... It is also freely eaten by sheep. Chicory defies drought, being of early growth. The stalks are so CH I thick and stiff as to support them- selves against Avinds and the hea- viest rains. The most severe cold does not injure it. The quickness of groAvth renders it very valuable, because it furnishes abundance of salutary fodder at a season when green food is scarce It has been found to groAv seven inches in three Aveeks, whilst sainfoin and burnet grew only four inches. Two cut- tings may be made of it the first year, and three or four according to the season every year after, in May, July, August, and October, or in May, July, and October, never letting it stand till it become hard and sticky : or it may be cut con- tinually, by beginning again when the whole piece is gone over, and thus yield a constant supply of fresh food during seven or eight months. The produce is said to be supe- rior, upon the Avhole, to that of Lu- cerne, in the proportion of three to one. A piece of ground sown Avith chicory, was found to yield, by the acre, the year of sowing, at two cuttings, July the 24th, and Oct. the 17th.....19 tons, 4 cwt. Second year, at three cuttings, May 21st, July 24th, and December 3d.....38 tons, 9 cwt. And the average pro- duce of four years, was near thirty tons. The quantity of seed produced on an acre has been, the first year, an hundred and an half; the second, two hundred Aveight, and the third, from three hundred and an half to four hundred and an half.] The leaves of chicory, Avhen blanched, form an ingredient in ear- ly spring salads [in England], and if this plant be cultivated in a light, and someAvhat moist soil, they Avill be divested of their bitterness...... The roots are moderately bitter: if gathered while young, they may C HI CHI 117 be eaten among other vegetables. In its medicinal properties chi- corv is cooling. CHICK, or CHICKEN, the young of the gallinaceous order of birds, especially of the common hen. From the importance of this bird, as constituting a delicate and agreeable food, especially to inva- lids, the means of hatching, and rearing it, have long exercised the ingenuity of speculators. We shall however, confine our present ac- count to those modes only, which are the most simple, and haA'ebeen attended with the greatest success. The manner in which they are hatched in ovens, by the Eg- ptians, is too well known, to require a de- tailed description : by this contriv- ance, six or seven thousand chick- ens are produced at one time...... these, as the sprine: is uncommonly mild, being indeed much warmer than our summer, will thrive with- out " clutching." Similar success has attended the experiments of M. Reaumur, in order to remedy the severity of a northern climate, that would have otherwise destroy- ed the chickens as soon as hatched, he resorted to an expedient, which he cailed'" a Avoollen hen," namely, he put them in a warm basket, and covered them over carefully with dry animal wool. Another method of hatching and rearing chickens, Ave shall extract from the 13th volume of " Dods- ley's Annual Register" (for 1770, p. 105, Chronicle). It Avas laid be- fore a learned society, by a gentle- man, to whom a gold medal Avas aAvarded for his contrivance....The chickens should be taken away from the hen, the night after they are hatched, and be re-placed with neAv eggs, on which she Avill continue to sit, for a second and third brood. When first removed from the hen, they are to be fed for a fortnight with eggs, boiled hard, chopped fine, and mixed with bread, in the same manner as larks and other birds are reared. After this period, they are to be supplied with oat- meal and treacle, so mixed as to crumble; a food of which the chic- kens are so fond, and thrive so ra- pidly, that, at the end of two months they will be as large as fuli grown fowls......We apprehend, hoAvever, this ingenious method Avould ren- der the chickens more expensive, than Ave can purchase them in the most extravagant London markets: hence it appears to be calculated only for the curious and specula- tive epicure. See Egg and Hen. CHICKEN-POX, or Swine- Pock, Varicella, is a disorder in it- self of so little consequence, that we should not have mentioned it, if this affection were not frequently confounded with the Small-1 ex. The chicken-pox generally ap- pears Avithout any previous illness ; though, in some cases, dullness, cough, loss of appetite, and a slight fever, precede it, for two or three days. On the first appearance of the eruption, the pustules are of a reddish hue ; and, on the succeed- ing day, small vesicles are formed at the top of the former, containing a colourless, or sometimes yellow- ish, watery fluid. On the third day, the pocks arrive at maturity ; after which they gradually die away, leaving a slight scab, which, Iioav- ever, does not extend to the true skin, and produces no mark. This cutaneous affection is seldom at- tended with serious indisposition, so that medicines are but condi- tionally required, and often unne- cessary. A feAv drops of antimo- 118 C H I nial wine may, nevertheless, be ad- vantageously given, in order to ex- cite a more speedy and uniform perspiration, and consequently to promote recovery. Chickling Vetch. SeeVETCH. CHICKWEED, or Alsine, L. a genus of plants, comprising five species, of Avhich that most gene- rally knoAvn in England is the me- dia, or common chickAveed. It grows in almost every situ- ation, whether damp or even bog- gy woods, or the driest gravel Avalks in gardens. In its wild state, this plant frequently exceeds half a yard in height, and varies so much from the garden chickweed, that if a person were acquainted only with the latter, he Avould with difficulty recognize it in the Avoods. On account of its upright flowers, which blow from March to Octo- ber, it may be considered as a na- tural barometer; for, if they are closed, it is a certain sign of ap- proaching rain; while, during dry weather, they are regularly open, from nine o'clock in the morning till noon. This species affords a striking in- stance of Avhat is called the sleep of plants. Every night the leaves approach in pairs, so as to include, within their upper surfaces, the tender rudiments ofthe neAV shoots: and the uppermost pair, but one, at the end of the stalk, is furnished Avith longer leaf-stalks than the others, so that it can close upon the terminating pair, and protect the end ofthe branch. Swine are extremely fond of chickweed, which is also eaten by coavs and horses, but is not relished by sheep, and is refused by goats. It likeAvise furnishes a grateful food to small birds, and CHI young chickens: its tender shoots and leaves, when boiled, can be scarcely distinguished from early spinach, and are in every respect as wholesome. They are reputed to be refrigerating and nutritive food for persons of a consumptive habit. . CHILBLAIN, in medicine, is a small tumor, or ulcer, in the hands, feet, heels, &c. It is occasioned either by exposing Avarm parts too suddenly to a cold temperature; or by holding the hands, or feet, when extremely cold, too precipitately to a considerable degree of heat. Such affections always have a great tendency to mortification, in Avhich they frequently terminate. Children of sanguine habits, and delicate constitutions, are most liable to chilblains; which may be prevented by such remedies as in- vigorate the system; by wearing flannel socks, from the beginning of September, to the latter part of spring, and occasionally taking gentle laxatives, when they are disposed to become costive. AH these precautions, however, will be attended Avith no benefit, if young people are suffered to re- pair to the fire, immediately after coming from the most severe ex- ternal cold. In the commencement of this painful complaint, the cure is easy: immerse the part affected, several times a day, for a few minutes, into cold Avater, and guard against sudden vicissitudes of heat and cold; as either are equally hurt- ful. But, if simple water procure no speedy relief, dissolve an ounce of salt-petre in half a pint of vine- gar and an equal quantity of wa- ter, and foment with it the part affected every night. When the CHI tumours will not yield to these ap- plications, and still remain in a •welled and painful state, without producing ulceration, a few drops of the pure tincture of benzoin may be rubbed occasionally on them; and the parts should be defended against the external air, by soft linen cloaths: from this sim- ple treatment, we have experienced the best effects. CHILD, a term of relation to parent; but also metaphorically applied to adults, expressing either simplicity, or imbecility. We shall consider it only in the former sense. As the pJiysical education of thildren, in its different branches, would require a greater portion of room, than can be devoted to it in an alphabetical work; and as this subject has been amply discussed in a Avork, just published from the German of Dr. Strive, we shall, in this place, give a few hints, rela- tive to the moral duties of chil- dren to their parents. Having in- cidentally treated of various sub- jects, not less connected Avith the bodily prosperity of youth, than that of adults, and resuming others in alphabetical order, we venture to hope, our readers will approve of this arrangement. The obligations of children to their parents, arise from a prin- ciple of natural justice and retri- bution. To those who gave us existence, we instinctively owe submission, and obedience, during our minority, as well as gratitude and reverence ever after; those a\ ho protected us in the weak state of infancy, are justly entitled to our protection in the infirmity of their age: those Avho, by nurture and education, have enabled their off- spring to prosper, ought recipro- CHI 119 cally to be supported by that off- spring, if unfortunately they should stand in need of assistance. Upon this self-evident principle are estab- lished all the filial duties enjoined by positive laAvs. And, although by the statutes of this country, an ille- gitimate child appears to be exempt from such obligations towards its parent; yet Ave find, that, in cases of legal issue, the tie of nature is not dissolved by any misconduct of the parent; and consequently a child ought equally to defend the person, or maintain the cause, or suit, of a bad parent, as of a virtu- ous one ; and is alike compellable, if of sufficient ability, to maintain and provide for a wicked and un- natural progenitor, as for one Avho has sheAvn the greatest affection, and parental piety....It does not be- hove us to comment upon the con- sequences of these injunctions, nor shall we attempt to reconcile them to general principles of. equity, but submit this arduous task to the A\is- dom of our legislators. With respect to the management of children, in the early stages of life, Ave refer to the article Infancy. CHIMNEY, in building, is that part of a house, where the fire is made ; and Avhich is provided with a tube, or funnel, to carry off* the smoke. Notwithstanding the magnifi- cence of the Grecian and Roman architecture, it is very doubtful whether their common dwelling- houses had chimnies; for thev made use both of stoves, and holes cut in the roofs of their houses, to admit the free egress of smoke. But as Virgil mentions chimnies, Ave may infer, that they Avere not wholly unknown to the ancients. Method of Building Chimnies that will not smoke : Masons have 120 CHI adopted different methods of draw- ing up the funnels of chimnies, generally regulated by their own fancy and judgment, Avhich are of- ten influenced by local customs : hence they are seldom directed by sound and rational principles. It frequently happens, that the smok- ing of chimnies is occasioned by their being carried up narrower at the top than below, or in a zig-zag form, or in angles; indeed, in some instances, this is oAving to ac- cidental causes; but, for the most part, it must be attributed to those above mentioned. When chimnies are constructed in a pyramidal or tapering form, especially if the house be of a considerable height, there is much reason to apprehend that they will smoke : the air of a room being rarefied, is forced into the funnel of the chimney, and re- ceives from the fire an additional impetus to carry up the smoke. Thus it is evident that,as the smoke ascends, the impelling force is les- sened; it moves sloAver, and con- sequently requires a greater pro- portion of space to circulate through; Avhereas, in the usual way, it has less room,from the sides of the chimney being gradually contracted. Although this method of con- structing chimnies may not meet with general approbation, because it is supposed that the Avider a chimney is at the top, the more liberty the wind has to bloAV down; yet, on the other hand, it is obvious that, from the structure of the chimney, and from other causes, the Avind, having no resistance to overcome, must necessarily return, and thus facilitate the free egress of the smoke. In the usual man- ner of building pyramidal chimnies, Avhen a current of air rushes down- CHI Avards, the wind and smoke are in a manner confined, and as the resistance is less from below, the smoke bursts out into the room. Hence the reverse method before suggested, has proved effectual, after every other expedient had failed, and even in a house, stand- ing in the most disadvantageous situation, namely, under a lofty mountain to the southward, from which blasts were blown doAvn upon it. A vent was carried up without angles, as perpendicular as possi- ble, being made several inches Avi- der at the top than at the bottom; the funnel was contracted in a throat directly above the fire-place, and widened gradually upwards. Since that time, the house has not only ceased to smoke, but, when the doors stand open, the draught is so strong that it will carry a piece of paper up to the top of the chim- ney. The advantage of erecting chimnies after this mode, are so evident, that we venture strongly to recommend its adoption; for, in- dependently of their being exempt from smoking, and contributing to purify the atmosphere, by the rapid current of air continually circulat- ing through the apartment, it will prevent large quantities of soot from accumulating, and conse- quently remove every apprehension of their taking fire. Various other experiments have been made, Avith a view to prevent or cure smoky chimnies: of these we shall enumerate only the two following, which deserve particular notice. The first is, not to suffer the height of the mantle to exceed one-third of that of the room, and to carry the jaumbs and breast up- right, at least to the ceiling, when they should be turned or sloped as easily and gradually as possible. CHI CHI 121 The jaumbs from the hearth to the mantle should describe the form of a curve; and the lower part of the mantle, a broad horizontal plane; the distance from the inside of the breast to the back, on each side of the throat being from ten to four- teen or sixteen inches, according to the size of the chimney. This mode ef reducing smoky chimnies, we are infornfcd, has repeatedly been found successful. Another method, which is at- tended with but little expence, con- sists in setting the grate, if a Bath stove, eleven or twelve inches dis- tant from the fender; and in cut- ting away the back ofthe chimney, so as to leave a space of two inches between the back of the grate, and that of the chimney. If the grate be of the common form, the sides should be filled up with brick-work, and faced with Dutch tiles. By this construction, the air that pas- ses behind the back of the grate will impel the smoke with an in- creased velocity, and thus prevent it from bursting into the room. Smoky chimnies are frequently occasioned by their being so very narroAV as scarcely to admit the children, usually employed for pur- pose of sweeping them, to reach properly to the top. This evil may- be remedied, and that inhuman practice rendered unnecessary, by adopting the following mode, Avhich has been used for time immemo- rial in Edinburgh, GlasgOAV, and other cities in the North; and which effectually answers the end intended. Procure a rope for the purpose, twice the length of the height of the chimney, to the middle of which is to be tied a bush (of broom, furze, &c.) sufficiently large to fi'l the chimney. Put one end of the VOL. II. rope down the Avhole passage; and, if there be any Avindings in it, a bul- let, or round stone, is to be tied to the extremity of the rope, and the wood-end of the bush introduced after the rope has descended into the chamber, where a person must pull it downwards. By the elasti- city of its twigs, the bush sweeps the sides of the chimney as it de- scends, and carries the soot with it. Should it be necessary for the man at the top, wdio has hold of the other end of the rope, to draw the bush up again, the person below must turn the latter, so as to send the wood-end uppermost, before he gives notice to the assistant at the top to pull it upwards. Chim- nies thus cleaned, never require one-tenth part of the repairs, ren- dered necessary where they are swept by children: for, as these are obliged to work themselves up, by pressing their knees and feet on one side, and their backs on the other, they not unfrequently force out the bricks that divide the chim- nies. This is the chief cause why, in many houses of the metropolis, a fire in one apartment always fills the adjoining ones with smoke, and sometimes even the neighbouring house. Whole buildings have often been burnt down, from this conceal- ed cause; as a foul chimney, tak- ing fire, communicates it by these apertures to empty apartments, or to such as were filled with lumber; and in which it was thought unne- cessary to make any search, after the fire had been extinguished in the chimney Avhere it first began. We, therefore, seriously recom- mend this practice to be universal- ly adopted, as an object of interest, not less than on account of its hu- mane tendency. It would, farther, be no detriment to those who pro- R 122 C H I CHI cure their subsistence by the sweep- ing of chimnies : for, if this plan should be countenanced, they would be as necessary, then, for the convenience of the public as they are at present; and tiiose very per- sons would be unavoidably induced to provide themselves Avith ropes for that purpose. Lastly, such a beneficial change might afford the only practicable means of rescuing many unfortunate children from their degraded situation ; prevent many accidents by which they be- come deformed ; and obviate the evils attendant on a premature old age. [See fire places.] [Chimnies lined with mortar, in which salt has been mixed, it is said, Avill not retain soot. This was a discovery of a countryman in New-Jersey.] Among the treatises published on this subject, besides those con- tained in Count Rumeord's Expe- rim ntal Essays, we shall mention only Mr. David Porter's Consi- dera'ions on the present State of Chimney-sweepers, published some years since; and Mr. Tho. Dan- forth's pamphlet, entitled The Theory of Chimnies and Fireplaces investigated, &c. (8vo. Is. 1796.) The latter is an ingenious, but the former is a practical and valuable es- say, which, together with another on the same subject, Mr. Porter has printed at his own expence, and distributed gratis for the benefit of the public; a liberality not common to authors. CHINA. See Porcelain. CHINCOUGH, or Hooping- cough, a contagious disease, Avhich at first resembles a common cold, though it is from its commence- ment attended with a difficulty of breathing; and the eyes are pro- truded from their sockets. It ge- nerally attacks children ; to whom, if mismanaged, it frequently prove* fatal. Hence the necessity of pa- rents to pay unremitting attention to those circumstances Avhich ag- gravate the complaint....But, if the cough become so violent that res- piration is occasionally suspended, and Avhen the patient breathes again, is accompanied Avith a shrill hooping noise, n<^time should be lost to remove him to a different air, whether it be more or less pure, provided it is at some distance from his former residence. The diet in this disorder should ahrays be light, but nourishing; and if no fever prevail, white meat may be allowed in very moderate quantities, so as to divide the usual dinner into three or four different portions, and to give neither cold nor hot drinks, but toast and Avater, with a little white wine, of which the chill is taken off; gruel; decoctions of sago, tapioca, arrow-root, he. If the cough be attended Avith febrile symptoms, medical advice should be procured ; btit in ordinary cases we would advise a gentle emetic, made of an infusion of chamomile flowers, gradually administered; and afterwards to apply the follow- ing liniment to the pit of the sto- mach: Take one scruple of tartar emetic, dissolve it in two ounces of spring Ayater, and add half an ounce ofthe tincture ofcantharides. This embrocation Avas originally pre- scribed by Doctor Struve, and has, from experience, been found of superior efficacy to the patent or quack medicines advertised in the daily papers. A tea-spoon foil of it ought every hour to be nibbed on the loAver region of the stomach, with a warm piece of flannel; and the wetted part should likewise be covered with flannel. A gentle CHI previous vomiting, hoAvever, is ne- cessary to promote the absorption ofthe linament. In th beginning of the hooping- cough, especially after a change of air, great advantage has often been derived from the application of the juice of onions, horse-radish, or other stimulants, to the soles ofthe feet....See Blister. Should febrile symptoms attend this complaint, and the child be strong, the loss of a little blood Avill be highly useful in moderating the violence and frequency of the cough. Purges of calomel and rhubarb or jalap, are also very proper, to be occasionally adminis- tered. During the operation of these remedies diluting drinks ought to be given. A gentle emetic of vine- gar of squills sweetened, given early every other morning, for se- veral days, will tend greatly to mo- derate the violence of the cough. Children bear the operation of emetics in a surprising manner in this disease. In the decline ofthe disease, generous diet, riding in a carriage, together with the use of lac ammoniacurn- and Peruvian bark are highly useful. A plaister of Burgundy pitch applied between the shoulders is also beneficial in moderating the cough. Three or four drops of laudanum given twice a day in a spoonful of mint water, produce a good effect in the decline of the complaint, by abating the cough, which sometimes continues merely from habit, A change of air is indispensibly necessary to mode- rate the \ioltnce of the cough. [CHINQUAPINE. See Ches- CHION ANTHUS, Snow-drop or Fringe-tree. A genus of plants comprising four species, of which •nly one is a native of the U. S. C H I 121 This plant, the C. Virginica, is com- mon in several of the States, and rises to the height of fifteen or twenty feet, spreading into many branches, covered Avith a light co- loured bark. The leaves are large, oblong, and entire; placed nearly opposite. The flowers are produ- ced in May, towards the extremity of the shoots of the former year, hang in long bunches, and are of a pure A\hite,Avhence the name sn w- drop, and from the flowers being cut into narrow segments, it has obtained the name of Fringe-tree. When the flowers are fully grown, the tree makes a very handsome appearance. After the fioAvershave fallen, oval berries appear, of a livid blackish colour, when ripe, eacli containing one hard, oblong, pointed seed. The bark of the root of this shrub, Mr. Marshall says, bruised and applied to fresh Avounds, is esteemed by the natives a specific in healing them Avithout suppuration. The Chionanthus V. has severd varieties. CHIRJNIA ANGULARIS, common American Centaury. This plant is a native ofthe United States and has the appearance of lesser centaury, (Gentiana Centaurium.) In Pennsylvania it is constantly called centaury ; and is deservedly esteemed a highly medicinal, and very agreeable simple bitter....... It is used Avith great success, in relaxations of the stomach, loss of appetite, and general debility. In sickly situations, an infusion of this plant, joined with calamus aroma- ticus, is an excellent medicine, taken early in the morning.] CHLOROSIS, a disorder which frequently attacks females after the age of puberty. It is attended with a depraved appetite, and a desire to eat substances that are not 124 C H L CHL food, such as chalk, ashes, salt, &c. the skin is pale and discoloured; the face sallow or greenish, but sometimes of a livid hue; there is a deficiency of blood in the veins; with a soft swelling of the whole body, especially the legs during the night; debility ; palpitation ; and suppression of catamenia. Causcs....A sedentary life ; scan- ty, or indigestible food; obstruc- tions of the bowels ; and frequently also, inordinate passions. Cure....Although the experience of all ages has attested, that the most certain relief in this female complaint is a change from a single to a connubial state, yet as this ex- pedient is not always convenient, the folloAving plan should be stea- dily pursued : A nourishing diet, with an allowance of generous wine, in small quantities} abstin- ence from acids, spirituous Hquors, and whatever may suddenly heat or cool the body ; moderate daily exercise, especially on horseback ; or, if that cannot be procured, ge-' neral friction of the whole frame Avith Avarm flannel every morning and evening ; sleeping on mat- tresses, instead of soft feather beds; early rising, and cheerful company. Beside these general regulations, it will be useful to keep the bowels continually open, by taking small doses of vitriolated tartar, a scruple or half a dram, to be repeated four or six times when necessary in one day ; to bathe the lower extremi- ties frequently in Avarm water, and to wear worsted stockings in pre- ference to silk or cotton, to apply the steam of hot water Avith due precaution ; and lastly, to resort to the tepid bath every other day, or as often as is compatible with the strength of the patient....If, never- theless, these gentle means prove unsuccessful, the more poAverful remedies, such as chalybeates, bit- ters, mercurials, &c. must be pre- scribed by the profession....In some of the most tedious and inveterate cases of chlorosis, almost immedi- ate relief Avas obtained by inhaling dephlogisticated air,or oxygen gas, which, hoAvever, should be admi- nistered only by persons sufficiently acquainted with the nature of that powerful agent. [Although Chlorosis is frequently attended with the appearance of general dropsy, it is easily discri- minated from that disease : there is no diminution of urine ; frequently that secretion is in great quanti- ties, and limpid. Sometimes chlo- rosis is accompanied with cough, Avhich, joined to the difficulty of breathing, affords a suspicion of hectic, but it is not attended with the fever and flushing of the cheek, Avhich mark the disease. Supposing the disease to be as- certained, if there be turgescence ofthe belly and costiveness, a gentle purgative of aloes or rhubarb may be premised; and the use of cha- lybeates commenced. The best form of this medicine, is that call- ed prepar d steel, which is no more than simple rust of iron. The fol- loAving prescription may be taken with great advantage. Prepared steel, 1 oz. Powder of P.bark. ^oz. mix and divide into 12 doses, one of Avhich may be taken morning and evening, in syrup. The same composition may be taken in the form of pills made up with syrup of rhubarb, tAvo to be taken three times a day. Exercjse on horseback, and early rising, are indispensible remedies in this complaint. The air and scenes ought to be changed. The mineral waters of Bristol, Penn- CHO •ylvania, and also those of Scoo- ley's Mountain in Sussex county, New-Jersey, joined with the fine air of that elevated spot, have done much good in this complaint.] CHOCOLATE-TREE, Theo- broma Cacao, L. is a native of the W. Indies, and S. America, attain- ing the height of 16 feet: From the fruit of this tree Chocolate is thus prepared: The nuts are gently parched, to separate their external covering; the kernels are triturat- ed on a smooth warm stone, and a little anatlo is added. When suffici- ently triturated, it is put quite hot in- to tin moulds, where it congeals in a very short time. This is the com- mon chocolate, as prepared in En- gland from the cocoa alone, without any other ingredient. Sometimes, however, a small quantity of sugar, or of vanilla is added, for improv- ing its taste. As these cakes are very liable to contract good as well as bad scents, they should be care- fully wrapped up in paper, and kept in a dry place. Good, unadulterated chocolate, ought to possess the following pro- perties: a brown colour inclining to red, and rather lively than faint; a smooth surface not affected by mere contact of the hand; a fine and uniform consistence on break- ing it, without any granulated par- ticles, Avhich arise from the addi- tion of sugar, employed by the ma- nufacturer to conceal still baser ingredients; lastly, it should easily melt in the mouth, and leave no roughness or astrinrrency, but ra- ther a cooling sensation on the tongue....This last quality is the most decisive criterion pi genuine chocolate. Among the A'arious experiments made with the vieAv of discovering C H R 125 substitutes for the expensive nuts of the cocoa, in the preparation of chocolate: none has hitherto com- pletely succeeded. The Germans employ sweet almonds, as well as the blanched, dried, and roasted kernels of the hazel, and Avail-nut, for this purpose; and Mr. Maar- graef procured a quantity of oil from the fruit, or kernel, of the lime-tree, which he formed into a paste, resembling chocolate, but it differed much from it, both in taste and flavour. Considered as an article of diet, chocolate is a nutritive, and, in general, wholesome food, well adapted to the Aveak stomachs of invalids and valetudinarians. If duly prepared, and not too much roasted in the nuts (Avhich imparts a dark, rather than reddish colour to the cakes), it is easily dissoh'ed in a liquid state ; and, being quick- ly assimilated to alimentarv mat- ter, it is less flatulent, and oppres- sive, than most vegetable dishes of a viscid, and oily nature. To pro- mote its digestion, it ought not to be used without the addition of aromatic spice, such as cinnamon, cardamoms, vanilla, &c. Avhich last, however, must be sparingly employ- ed as it is one of the most heating, and stimulating drugs. [The Spanish chocolate has been long famous for its superiority over that of every other part of the Avorld. Two causes may conspire to es- tablish this superioritv. 1. The richness of the nuts, which are ob- tained from the province of Carac- cas, and 2. The care taken in the manufacture. The following is the receipt by which the Spanish cho- colate is made : To six pounds of nuts, add 3-1 lbs. sugar, seven lbs. of vanilla, and IA lb. flour of Indian 126 C H O Com (zeamayz), II lb. of Cinna- mon, 6 cloves, one dram, (60 grs.) of capsicum (long pepper) ; a suf- ficient quantity of rou-cou nut to improve the colour, and amber- grease or musk to give an agree- able flavour. In the common way, to 17 lbs. of nuts, are added 10 lbs. sugar, 28 pods of vanilla, one dranvof amber- grease, and 6 oz. cinnamon. The ambergrease and musk, may be safely omitted. Chocolate, it is well knoAvn, con- stitutes the breakfast and supper of two-thirds the Spanish nation, and it is to be regretted that it is not more used in the United States. During the Avinter, it certainly is a preferable breakfast to coffee, both in respect to the labour, which it will enable a man to perform, from the stimulus or temporary strength it affords ; and also from the nourish- ment which it communicates to the system. When properly boiled with milk, it certainly is preferable to any other breakfast. As chocolate disagrees with ma- ny stomachs, it may be proper to observe, that the shells of cocoa when boiled in water, (after being washed), with the addition of milk, form a very pleasant arti- cle of diet. CHOLERA MORBUS: a vio- lent vomiting and purging. This is a common disease in the U. S. during the summer months, and most commonly proceeds from an intemperate use of spirituous li- quors, improper articles of diet, taken in the evening for supper, or exposure to night air, while sleep- ing thinly covered. If the discharges be not very violent, they ought to be encoura- ged by moderate draughts of Avarm CHR water, or weak .chamomile" or cen- taury tea ( Chironia Angularis), Avhen the offending cause (if the disease proceed from bad food) is removed, ten or fifteen drops of laudanum may be given in water every fif- teen minutes, until ease be procu- red. If spasms in the stomach and legs occur, as they sometimes do, a tea-spoonful of xther may be given in a wine-glass of water, tak- ing care not to approach the can- dle with the medicine. The legs must also be Avell bathed with lau- danum, and rubbed with a flesh- brush. Clysters of warm water and molasses ought also to be in- jected every hour for three or four hours, to evacuate the bilious ef- fusions which commonly take place in this complaint. Great care ought to be taken to aA'oid sleeping with the Avindows open, for the tempe- •>■ rature of the air frequently dimi- nishes fifteen or twenty degrees, during the night, after a warm day. [See Diarrhaea and Vo- miting. CHRISTOPHER, the Herb, or Actaa spicata, L. is an indige- nous plant, growing in Avoods and shady places. It is perennial, at- tains the height of about 2\ feet; flowers in the months of May, or June; and produces black, shining, pulpy berries in autumn, about the size of peas, Avhich are considered as poisonous. On account of its fetid smell, this plant is said to be frequented by toads : it is, nevertheless, eaten by sheep and goats, but refused by cows, horses, and swine. [See Ac- taea Spicata.] CHRONICAL DISEASES are in general, neither attended with fever, nor any other symptoms por- tending a speedy termination of CHR the complaint; and, in this sense, they are opposed to acute, or in- flammatory disorders. Physicians find no small difficulty in drawing a precise line of distinction between these affections ; as the latter often change into those of a chronic na- ture. TissoTderives the origin of inve- terate diseases from the following sources: 1. Debility of the solid parts ofthe body, either hereditary, or induced by adventitious causes ; 2. Defective digestion, and weak- ness in the stomach ; 3. Improper treatment, and impel feet resolution, of ac ute diseases ; and 4. Too great irritability, and other affections, of the nervous system. From this view of the causes, and the corresponding evidence of medical practitioners, it cannot be doubted that enronic maladies are not only the most complicated, but ah o the most difficult to be remo\T- ed : Proteus-like, they appear un- der a thousand different forms, often exhaust the fortitude of the most patient, baffle the united ef- forts ofthe Facul;y, throw the un- happy person into a state of des- pair, and deliver him over to all the artifices, and cunning of igno- rant pretenders, who impose upon the credulous victim and close the scene of his delusion ! On the contrary, in acute dis- eases, Nature, though violent in all her efforts >renerally points out the way, in which she may be assisted : in short, the cautious physician, who hi.s had a moderate share of experience, will here seldom fail to procure the desired relief. If his prescriptions be scrupulously at- tended to, a few appropriate closes, in a vigorous constitution, will pro- duce all the good effects Avhich may be attained by art. But in CHR 127 chronic affections, medicines gene- rally operate slowly, and often in a manner very different from Avhat experience entitles us to expect.... Hence the precarious nature of drugs has become almost prover- bial ; not because they are in them- selves inert (which would involve a contradiction); but because they were improperly, or injudiciously, applied. Such being the case in all those inveterate affections, which tor- ment mankind, it is matter of just surprize, that the attention of the afflicted, as well as the scientific, has not been more generally di- rected towards discovering effectual means of relieving the unhappy, instead of such as have but too often eluded the most sanguine hopes of the patient, and detracted from the reputation of the physi- cian. If it be admitted that, in chro- nic distempers, the Avhole animal frame is under a .-low, though cer- tain, influence of disease ; that the system, in all its functions, requires a very different action, or stimulus, from that generally produced by medicines,ov particular organs; and that so favourable a change can be effected only by operating on the different processes of digestion, as- similation, absorption, and respira- tion, not sefiarately, but conjointly ; then we may venture to affirm, that the prevailing plan of treating those obstinate maladies is esta- blished upon a Aery precarious basis. Novel as this assertion may ap- pear to many of our readers, it is nevertheless true ; and though it may, at first, meet Avith opposition, like most of those general truths which all acknowledge, but few will defend or practise, there is every reason to trust to the good sense 128 C H R CHR of mankind, that empiricism and knavery will gradually vanish from the tablets of history. In order to approach with our labours toAvards a plan of so bene- ficial a tendency, Ave have, on all proper occasions inculcated the ne- cessity of attending to that most important department of medicine, which treats of diet and regimen. From these alone, the most essen- tial advantages may be derived in all chronic diseases, especially such as cannot be traced to their sources, or the predisposing causes of which cannot be discovered, either from an intentional conceal- ment ofthe patient, his Avant of re- solution and capacity to disclose them, or other reasons, chiefly arising from the present imperfect state of the healing art. Hence, the writer of this article has, for many years, been sedulously em- ployed in collecting and arranging facts, towards a nevv Avork, in which he proposes to lay before the public an outline of the treatment to be adopted in a diseased state of the body ; and which will form a counterpart to his former " Lec- tures on Diet and Regimen." At present, it will be sufficient to point out the principal rules, by Avhich the conduct of such persons, as are the A'ictims of inveterate afflictions, ought in general to be guided. 1. When the patient is not con- fined to hisbed, gentle and frequent exercise will be salutary; but all violent commotions, whether of mind or body, are extremely pre- judicial, and cannot fail to retard his recovery. 2. The sick-room oijght to be lofty and capacious, frequently ven- tilated by opening the door or win- doAvs, without admitting a draught of air; and, in damp weather, the apartment cleared of foul, mephi- tic vapours, either by mild aromatic fumigations, or more effectually, by the steam of vinegar. For the same reason, all soiled linen, as well as the night-chair, Sec. should be im- mediately removed ; the bed fre- quently made ; and an assemblage of persons never suffered to vitiate the atmosphere of a patient's room. 3. Let the temperature of the air be cool rather than warm ; yet this general rule may admit of excep- tions in particular cases: only a moderate degree of warmth should, likeAvise, be allowed with respect to the bed-clothes, and especially the covering, which ought to be soft and light. When the strength of the patient permits, he should be encouraged to rise, and spend part of the day, sitting either in bed or on a chair ; but carefully avoiding a draught of air, or taking cold : hence he should not too sudf, denly venture to leave the house. 4. In regard to food, he must abstain from crude and heating ani- mal flesh, such as bacon, ham, boiled beef, hard eggs, &c. from dry, flatulent, acrid, salted, and such provisions as increase the bulk of feculent excretions. Thus, Avhite meat in the most frugal portions, blended with vegetables of a mu- cilaginous and nutritive kind, such as cauliflower, asparagus, parsnips, scorzonera, &c as well as light dishes of rice, barley, or oatmeal, in a liquid rather than solid form, and particularly baked or roasted apples, will be found the most con- ducive to health. In certain cases, hoAvever, raAv fruit may be abun- dantly allowed; but the patient must never eat any food against his appetite ; and, if, during the crisis of a disease, he should ex- press a strong desire for a partial- CHR CHR 129 lar dish, no prudent physician will object to the gratifying of this na- tural inclination, unless the sub- stance claimed be obviously pos- sessed of hurtful qualities. 5. In the article of drink, a chro- nic patient cannot be too cautious. In general, he ought to give the preference to simple, pure water, or ptisan made of pearl-barley and currants ; or wdiey ; toast and Ava- ter ; or this fluid acidulated with the juice of lemons or vinegar, and sweetened Avith sugar or honey. All spirituous liquors are, in gene- ral, unnecessary and detrimental, unless required from particular cir- cumstances. 6. The important process olper- spiration also deserves to be duly regulated : every time the patient has profusely perspired, he ought to change his linen, which should be previously Avarmed ; and, if there prevail no peculiar irritability in the system, flannel will ahvays be found the most beneficial dress next the skin. In short, every object, tending to alarm or disturb the patient, should be carefully removed; his sleep rendered as quiet and comfortable as possible ; and, if his strength and appetite begin to improve, he ought to redouble his attention, both as to the time and manner of taking muscular exercise, not less than to his mental exertions, as Avell as with regard to the gradual change of the quantity and quality of his aliment. CHRYSALIS, or Aurelia, in natural history, is a term express- ing that form of butterflies, moths, chafers, and other insects, Avhich they assume, while in a state of rest and apparent insensibility ; be- fore they arrive at their winged or most perfect state. This transfor- \l»L. II. mation, says Herder, a celebrated German author, affords a beautiful emblem of man's parage to a fu- ture life. The form of the chrysalis gene- rally approaches that of a cone : while the creature is in this state, it appears to be destitute both of legs and wings, to have scarcely power to move ; and, in short, to be almost devoid of life. It takes no nourishment, nor has it indeed any organs for that purpose: its pos- terior part is all that seems animat- ed, which has the power of motion, in a very slight degree. The ex- ternal coat of the chrysalis is car- tilagineous, of a considerable size, generally smooth and glossy, though some of them have a few hairs, while others are as hairy as the caterpillars from Avhich they are produced ; and again, others are rough, and in a manner shagreen- ed. When first produced, the chry- salis is soft, and the front of it moistened with a viscous liquor, Avhich surrounds the Avings, legs, Sec. as it hardens almost immedi- ately, all those limbs that were be- fore separated, are consolidated in- to a mass. Having undergone its change, in this state, it perforates the shell with its head, and bursts forth into day, in itsVmgcd form. See Butterfly. As this admirable part of the animal creation has, hitherto, been almost entirely neglected by eco- nomists, though it has always ex- cited the attention of the curious naturalist, Ave have inserted the pre- ceding concise account, to remind the ingenious inquirer, that even these apparently useless creatures may, perh.ips at some future time, become subservient to important purposes. See Caterpillar. S 130 C H U CHU CHUB, or Cephalus, L. is a spe- cies of the Cyprinus, a numerous genus of fish. It is mostly found in holes overshadowed by trees, where these fish are seen floating during Avarm Aveather, in great numbers. Chub being very full of bones, afford but an indifferent dish ; yet they furnish considerable amuse- ment to anglers, as they may be easily taken. The best mode of fishing for them is the folloAving : Prepare a very strong rod of suffi- cient length, and fix to the hook a grasshopper, beetle, or any other large fly. This must be dropped gently at a small distance from the fish, Avhich will bite immediately, if it does not see the angler, Avho should take the precaution of con- cealing himself from it; as, being extremely timid, this fish sinks to the bottom, on the slightest alarm, and not unfrequently at the passing of a shadoAV. In March and April, it may be caught Avith large, red worms ; in June and July Avith flies, snails, and cherries ; but in the months of August and September, the proper bait is good cheese pounded in a mortar, with some saffron, and a small quantity of butter. The best season for this fish is winter, as the flesh is then more firm, and better tasted. Dur- ing cold Aveather, the angler should keep his bait at the bottom, when it will be eagerly seized. CHURN, a vessel in Avhich but- ter, by long and violent agitation, is separated from the serous part of milk. The inferiority of the churns in common use, has induced several ingenious mechanics to exert their skill in contrivingothers.that Avould render the process of making but- ter less tedious and expensive. Of [tAvo of] these we shall give a suc- cinct account. The first is Mr. William Bow- ler's improved Churn, for which the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Com- merce, liberally gave him thirty guineas, in the year 1795. This churn is of the barrel kind, being a cylinder, 13 inches in dia- meter, and 9 wide; the sides are of wood, [tin would be better on account of the greater ease with which it may be cleansed] the rim a tin plate, which has two open- ings; one 8i inches in length, and 4 in width, through Avhich the cream is poured into the churn, and the hand introduced for clean- ing it; the other, a short pipe, one inch in diameter, by which the but- ter-milk runs out of the churn, when the operation is finished. 4 The first of these openings has a wooden cover, fastened down by two screws; and the other a cork fitted to it, while the butter is churning. There is farther, near the larger opening, a small vent- hole, with a peg to admit the pas- sage of any air that may be dis- charged from the cream, at the beginning of the operation. An axle also passes through the churn, terminating in tAvo gudgeons, on which it hangs; its lower part be- ing immersed in a trough, in order to hold occasionally either hot or cold water according to the season of the year. On the inside of the rim, are four projecting pieces of Avood, with holes, serving to agitate the cream by the motion of the churn. This movement is caused by a pendulum 3 feet 6 inches long, that has an iron bob, weighing lOlbs. and at its upper end a turn- ing pulley, 10 inches in diameter, ! I CHU from which a rope goes twice round another pulley, about 3 inches in diameter, fixed on the axis of the chum, which it causes to make a partial revolution, by each vibration of the pendulum. There are likeAvise sliding cov- ers to the machinery, and also ano- ther to the water trough; in order, when hot water is used, to secure the steam, and keep the cream in a proper degree of warmth. The motion of the pendulum is given, and continued, by means of a wood- en rod, about 3 feet 9 inches in length, which turns on a pin 3 inches above the bob ofthe pendu- lum. Explanation ofthe Engraving which represents Mr. William Bowler's improved Churn. A. A. The body of the churn. [of tin.] B. An opening, by which the cream is put in. C. The cover of the large open- ing. The small hole on the oppo- site side cannot be delineated in the print. D. The axis, or gudgeon, on which the body ofthe churn is sus- pended. E. The upper, or large pulley. F. The smaller pulley fixed on the axis of the churn. G. G. The rod of the pendulum, hanging from the upper pulley E. II. The bob of the pendulum. I. I. The handle, moveable on the pin at a, by which the pendu- lum is moved, making a traverse in the form ofthe dotted line K.. K. L. The trough for the hot or cold water. [To be made of tin because a bet- ter conductor of heat than avoocI.] M. A projecting piece of Avood, with a shoulder, which supports CHU 131 the handle I, when the churn is not at work. As butter is often made in small quantities, and the vertical motion of the common churn is extremely fatiguing, we consider those me- thods of applying thf: powers of mechanism, as valuable improve- ments. Hence we presume to re- commend the preceding improved butter-churns to be generally intro- duced; for the facility and expedi- tion, Avith which butter is thus ob- tained, will amply compensate the additional expence. [WRIGHT'S CHURN. This churn is made in the form of a cube, Avith vertical dashers, as a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a ; B, the top that takes off; C, the handle by which the dashers are turned ; D, D, D, D, the form of the churn each Avay; C, the spindle that goes through the dashers. Churns, agreeably to this form, are made by Wright and Co. Cherry-street, Philadelphia.] Churning. As Ave have alrea- dy discussed the subject of butter, and treated of the management of the dairy as connected with it, Ave shall only offer here a few supple- mentary remarks. If a pump-churn be employed, it may be plunged a foot deep in a tub of cold Avater, and remain there during the Avhole time of churning; which will harden the butter in a considerable degree. This operation, as we have before observed may be much facilitated, by pouring into the churn a small quantity of distilled vinegar, Avhich A\;ill produce butter in the course of one hour. Those Avho make use of a pump-chum, should endeavour to keep up a regular motion of the machine; and by no means admit am person to assist them, unless 132 C H Y C IC from absolute necessity: for, if the churning be irregularly performed, the butter will in Avinter go back: and, if the agitation be more quick and violent in summer, it will cause the butter to ferment, and thus to acquire a very disagreeable flavour. ....Where there are many cows, a barrel-churn is preferred; but un- less it be kept very clean, the bad effects of it will be soon discover- ed in the butter. Particular care should also be taken, to place it, in a proper temperature, according to the change of the season ; that is, to fix it in a warmer situation in the winter; and, in the summer, to expose it to a free current of air. Churn-Staff. See Wart- wort. CHYLE, in animal economy, is that white fluid, produced from the nutritious part of the food, in the first passages, after the fibrous or feculent matter has been separat- ed : it is chiefly generated in the milk-vessels of the mesentery, whence it passes to the receptacle of the chyle, situated under the left kidney, and is conveyed to A/hat is called the thoracic duct, or the ca- nal of the chest, from which it en- ters certain veins, where it is mix- ed with the blood; in short, it is the only supply of that vital fluid, and hence the great importance of wholesome food, from which alone a salubrious blood can be prepared, will be easily conceived. In this vieAv only, Ave have introduced the word chyle: a liquor Avhich resem- bles milk; has a SAveetish-saline taste; easily coagulates ; and con- sists of a mixture of oily, watery, and lymphatic parts (see Lymph); its milky colour arises from the combination of oil Avith Avater; an instance of Avhich occurs in the milk of almonds. As the chyle is, by nature, in- tended to form the blood, to supply the body with nutritious juices for the daily loss and Avaste it sustains, it is obvious that this salutary pro- cess ought not to be intemrpted by violent exercise after meals; be- cause the chyle is supposed not to be completely secreted, till about four hours after the food has been taken. Dr. Darwin observes that, though the chyle, from different kinds of aliment, is very similar, and all the various constituent parts of animal bodies are ultimate- ly produced from the chyle, by san- guification and secretion, yet it happens, that some kinds of ali- ment possess a greater quantity of these particles, than others: such materials, for instance, as al- ready contain much sugar, muci- lage, and oil, as the flesh of dead animals, or the fruits and seeds of vegetables. CICELY, the Saveet, or great chervil, or shepherd's needle, the Scandix odorata, L. is a native plant, groAving in orchards, hedges, and waste places, but generally near houses ; and is chiefly found in the counties of Westmoreland, Cumberland, Lancaster, and Wor- cester. It is perennial, produces Avhite flowers, which blow in the month of May or June, and seeds of a sv.eet and agreeable taste. The whole plant has an aromatic scent, and its seeds are used in the north of England, for polishing and perfuming oak-floors, and furni- ture: they also yield an essential oil, similar to that obtained from anise-seeds....The fresh leaves and stalks of the sweet cicely impart to wool a fine citron yellow dye, when prepared in a solution of bismuth ; as asserted by Dambourney. C IN Chicory,See A\ild Succory. CINNABAR, in natural his- tory, is either native, or factitious. The former is an ore of quicksilver, moderately compact, very heavy, and of a beautiful striated, red co- lour. The latter is composed of six, or eight parts of mercury, to one of sulphur; the whole is sub- limed, and thus reduced into a fine, red glebe. The best is of a high colour, and full of fibres, re- sembling needles ; the chief use of cinnabar is for painting. Formerly, the native cinnabar was much employed in medicine, as a sedative and antispasmodic powder, which is still vended in Germany, for the use of the igno- rant, who take a dose of it after every alarm, or fright. But as this metallic substance contains arsenical particles, of which it can- not be cleared by repeated ablution, it frequently occasions nausea, trembling, and anxiety; Avhich, however, subside after A'omiting; ....We should not have mentioned this substance, had we not learnt from a pamphlet, published by Dr. Lettsom, that a late famous Quack (whose son and AvidoAV now con- tend in the newspapers, for the authenticity of his prescriptions; and still trifle Avith the lives of un- wary persons), administered the native cinnabar, in red powders, of which he kept six kinds, con- taining different proportions of this pigment, in order to deceive the pa- tients by a greater variety of co- lours....When Avill this outrage on humanity terminate ? CINNAMON, is the hark of the true cinnamon tree, or Laurus cinnamon:uvi, L....but an inferior sort, Avhich is often sold for genu- ine, is collected from the base cin- CIN 133 namon, or Laurus Cassia, L. See Bay-Tree. Cinnamon is one of the most agreeable, and useful aromatics: it is more grateful both to the pa- late and stomach, than the general- ity of spices. It cannot, however, be doubted, that it is more heating and stimulating, than its common substitute, cassia-bark; hence the latter is better adapted to culinary uses, especially for the young and phlethoric, than the real cinnamon, which deserves the preference in medicine; and here it 'is of consi- derable service in alvine fluxes, arising from relaxation, and other immoderate discharges. CINQUEFOIL, or Potcntilla, L. a genus of plants, comprising thirty-five species, of which only eight are indigenous ; the princi- cipal of these are : 1. The fruti- cosa, or shrubby cinquefoil, which is set with fine silvery hairs, has reddish stems, and yellow blos- soms, that appear in the month of June : their flowers are conspicu- ous for their number and beauty. This plant has been usefully em- ployed on the Continent, in tanning calf-skins; and it is also eaten by cows, horses, goats, and sheep; but is refused by hogs. 2. The anserina, or wild tansey, or goose-g.ass. See Silver-aveed. 3. The argentea,ov hoary cinque- foil, which grows in meadows and pastures, in a gravelly soil, and floAvers in June....The Avhole may be used for tanning, and dyeing black colours ; as it is not touched by cattle....Bechstein. 4. The reptans, or common creeping cinquefoil, Avhich groAvs in a moist, cLyey soil of meadows, pastures, and by road-sides. It is perennial, and flowers from June 134 CIS CIS to August....A fine grained calf- leather has, likeAvise, beeti prepar- ed from this plant, on the Conti- nent....The red cortical part of the root is mildly astringent, and antiseptic: a decoction of it has been found an excellent gargle for loose teeth, and spongy gums. Cinquefoil, the Marsh. See Purple Marshlocks. Circulation. See Transfu- sion. CISTERNS are vessels employ- ed for the reception of rain, or other Avater, either under ground, such as those of-naA'i gable canals, &c. or above ground, for domestic and other purposes. In this place we shall treat only of the latter. As the Avater collected in leaden cisterns is apt to corrupt, either by stagnating for several days, Avhen the pipes happen to be obstructed, or by the deposition of feculent matter, as AVell as the incrustation formed in such vessels, it folloAvs that they ought to be frequently cleansed of the copious sediment they contain. This attention is the more necessary, as lead is a metal liable to be dissohred by acids; and, in that state, proves a sIoav, but fatal poison. Although the acidity contained in stagnant water, which has, in its course, been impregnated with animal and Aregetable particles, cannot be very considerable, yet it will be more safe, and prudent, to prevent the formation of such acids, by an early attention to the purity of the Avater. See Filtration. [For an excel- lent cement to line water cisterns, see Cement. The deeper cisterns are, the bet- ter the water will be kept. Where the ground is not so bad as to re- quire a round form, a cube is a good figure : a double cube must be better, as it gains depth and consequently coolness. A cistern of 6 cubic feet, holds 16 hogsheads of 100 gallons each, or 26 hogs- heads. A double cube of 5 feet would hold above 18 rum hogsheads of 100 gallons. The pit should be dug exactly by square and plumb. On the face of the pit, lay poi ters- clay, plasterwise,A\ith a trowel, coat over coat (as it dries and cracks) tAvo or three inches in all. Against this firm even face of plaister raise the brick or stone Avork. Bed the bottom, three or four inches thick with strong clay, beat to a smooth, even surface. Moisten the clay, and beat it with SAvitches, or small hoop poles, but Avith nothing heavy. On this clay-floor, lay a double bed of brick ; and, on the margin of this, carry up the side Avails half brick thick, laying them in terras. Cover the cistern over, but leave room to fix a small pump, Avhich must be two feet from the bottom: or a roller and bucket may be used to raise the water. The above directions are taken from Mr. Bordley's Essays, and will answrer where lime cannot be had to make Mr. Hunn's cement, before noted. In many places of Eu- rope, rain-Avater saved in cisterns is the only Avater drank. Stolberg says, he drank some in the A'icinity of Naples, near three years old, and found it excellent. Mr. Bentham has lately taught us, that water may be kept during the above pe- riod perfectly sweet. On the flat coasts of the United States, these rain Avater cisterns ought to be ge- nerally buik : for the water from the ground is very bad, and occa- sions many of the disorders attri- buted to other causes.] CIT C L A 135 CITRON, or Citrus, L. an exo- tic genus of plants, comprising six species ; of which the following are occasionally reared in hot- houses. I. The Medica, or Citron-tree, which is a beautiful evergreen, ri- ses from five to ten feet in height, and forms a full head, thickly set with leaves. It is very luxuriant in its vegetation, shooting forth a profusion of sweet flowers in the spring, and early in the summer, which are frequently succeeded by an abundance of fruit, that arrives, Jf . sometimes, at tolerable perfection. *i ■&■ This species is originally obtain- ?Ved by seed; but the most certain ■> method of propagating it, is by bud- ding it on stocks raised from seeds ^. to a proper size. These may be sown, in March, in pots of rich light earth, halt an inch deep, and plunged in a hot-bed under frames and glasses, being occasionally wa- tered. Towards the middle of June, they may be exposed to the open ai.\ in Avhich they should re- main till October, when they are to be removed to the ere en-house till the ensuing spring. In the month of March, or April, folioaing, they will be fit to be transplanted, sin- gly, in small pots, care being taken to water them immediately after that operation is performed, and to repeat it when necessary; so that, in the course of a y~ar, or two, the largest of those designed for stocks will be fit for budding. Previously to their being planted, they must be set for a day or two in tubs of water, to plump their bark and roots. Next, they should be Avash- ed and cleaned, the roots freed from diseased parts and all the small dried fibres. They are then to be planted in pots filled with light earth, and plunged in a tan- bed, where they should remain for three or four months; after which they may be exposed to the open air, but will bear it only from the end of May to the middle of Octo- ber. The fruit ofthe citron-tree yields a very agreeable acid, which is of considerable utility in medicine, particularly as an antiscorbutic..... See Lemon-Juice. There is another variety of this species, growing abundantly in the British West India Islands, pro- ducing a spherical fruit of a much smaller size than the lemon, and containing an acid juice, in a more concentrated state.....See Limes. 2. The Auran. ium. See Orange. 3. The Decumana, or the Giant Citron, which is common in the East and West Indies, and pro- duces a fruit, sometimes 141b. in weight, containing a SAveet pulp, and small compartments in the centre, which abound with a sub- acid vinous juice. As it requires nearly two years to arrive at matu- rity, in the climate of Europe, it is seldom cultivated. CLARIFICATION, is the act of clearing or fining liquids horn heterogeneous or feculent ingre- dients. For this purpose, the whites of eggs, blood, and isinglass, are usually employed: the two first, for clarifying liquors, Avhile boiling hot; the last, for those which are to be fined Avhen cold; as win^, ale, Sec. The Avhites of eggs are beaten up into a froth, mixed with the liquor, and united with the im- pure particles floating on it; which soon indurate, and are carried up to the surface, in the form of an insoluble scum. Blood operates in a similar manner, and is principal- ly used in the processes of refining salt and sugar. 136 C L A Great quantities of isinglass are consumed in fining turbid wines. A solid piece, about a quarter of an ounce in weight, is put into a cask of wine, where it gradually dissolves, and forms a skin upon the surface: this pellicle at length subsides, carrying doAvn with it the feculent matter that floated on the wine. Other vintners previously dissolve the isinglass; and, having boiled it down to a gelatinous con- sistence, mix it with the liquor, strongly agitate the cask, and then let it stand to settle. It deserves, hoAvever, to be remarked, that wines treated in this manner are tainted with a very putrescent ani- mal substance, and cannot be Avhole- some. [See Wine, Cyder, Beer.] [The following observations are abridged from a long paper by Parmentier, in "Annates de Chimie." The most simple method of clarifying liquids is, by repose: but this method is tedious, and tends to the formation of new products, which by changing the composi- tion of the fluid itself, no longer presents it, independent of the ab- straction ofthe bodies which affect- ed its clearness, the same as it Avas before its clarification. Thus, the juice of lemons, gooseberries, he. when examined before or after their spontaneous clarification, are so different in their taste, colour, and their domestic utility. The effects here stated take place only Avith respect to such liquids as are fermentable. Other fluids, as Avater, alkohol, xther, oil,Scc.are well adapted to this treatment. The second proof of clarification is by filtration. The instruments of this process1 are various. For water, viscous, alkoholic, or oily fluids ; paper may be used : and CL A such must be chosen as has its pores of a requisite magnitude to admit the fluid intended to be fil- tered, Avithout suffering any of the particles which produced the tur- bidness to pass through. For sy- rups, woollen cloths are used ; the operator fixes his cloth in a square frame, fastening the four comers upon pins disposed for that purpose. The boiling syrup is poured in the middle, where it ahvays forms a kind of concavity, and the liquid passes very clear. Essential oils are filtered by in- troducing carded cotton into the tube of a glass funnel, where it is lightlypressedtogether with a glass rod, so as to form a kind of stopper: after which the fluid to be filtered is poured into the funnel. Concentrated acids, can only be filtered through pounded glass, which must be washed several times before using; first in a larger quan- tity of water, and afterwards in an acid, in order to deprive it of the earthy substance which the acids might dissolve. Sand is also com- monly employed to clarify Avater for domestic uses : it must, however, be changed frequently. Filtering stones are bad instru- ments to procure good water; for the filtration is made slowly, and very often stops altogether, if the inner and exterior surfaces of the stone be not rubbed from time to time with a coarse brush, to detach the earth which the water deposits. The whites of eggs, the acids, certain salts,lime,blood,andalkohol, may, in many cases, concur to ope- rate the clarification of certain fluids. Experience determines the preference given to one rather than another. 2, lost syrups are clarified by heating them, after having mixed CL A C L A 137 the whites of eggs with them ; the clarification is effected at the in- stant the mixture begins to boil.... It has also been observed that the Avhite of eggs alone is not sufficient to clarify liquids, even though they be heated sufficient to cause them to boil, but that it is necessary to assist its action by means of an acid, or salt with excess of acid.... In proof of this, the clarification of Avhey, may be offered as an example. Whey, in which the white of eggs have been mixed, does not admit ofthe coagulation which carries the cheesy matter along with it, unless a portion of acidulous tartarite of potash or vinegar be added at the instant the boiling begins. Most of the juices of plants new- ly expressed, may be partly clari- fied by heat. This method may be recurred to, when the viscidity and density of the juices, prevent a fil- tration. It is highly important to observe, that in general, it is necessary to separate the magma which is form- ed in liquors clarified by the white of eggs, particularly Avhen, in order to concentrate these fluids, it is ne- cessary to evaporate them by boil- ing. Without this precaution, Ave shall seG the same magma dissolve, and the fluids become more turbid than they were before the clarifica- tion. For a like reason, it is that soups, Avhich have not been skim- med in time, ahvays retain a cloudy and unpleasant appearance. Though the Avhites of eggs are of considerable use in clarifying the juices of certain plants ; yet the nature of these fluids is some- times changed so much, that their medical properties are partly de- stroyed. Lewis has observed, that hy clarifying the syrup of diacodi- um with the Avhites of eggs, the VOL. II. medicine is deprived of its medical properties. See articles Cyder, Cqefee, Vinegar, Wine,Beer.] CLARY, or Salvia, L. is a ge- nus of native plants, producing two species : 1. The Pratensis, or Meadow- Clary, which groAvs in dry pastures, and is found principally in the counties of Surrey and Sussex. It is perennial; flowers in the months of June and July; and its leaves are slightly aromatic. When soak- ed in water for a feAv minutes, its seeds acquire a mucilaginous coat, somewhat similar to the spaAvn of. frogs. Bechstein observes, that this plant, Avhen used as a substi- tute for hops, imparts an agreeable flavour to beer and Avine ; but, at the same time, renders them more intoxicating, and pernicious to health. It may, however, be more usefully employed in tanning lea-. ther, and dyeing a permanent dark broAvn. 2. The Verbenaca, or Wild En- glish Clary, which is also perennial, grows in gravelly, calcareous soils, and blows from June to October. This species is smaller than the preceding, but more aromatic. Its seeds, when immersed in Avater, possess the property of the pratensis in a superior degree. Both the leaves and seeds of this plant, have a warm, bitterish, pun- gent taste, and a strong, though not agreeable, odour. They are prin- cipally recommended in hysteric disorders, and in flatulent colics. Clary-Water is composed of brandy, sugar, clary-flowers, and cinnamon, in which a little amber- gris is dissolved. It is also pre- pared Avith brandy, juice of cherries, straw-berries, and goose-berries, cloves, white pepper, and corian- der-seeds ; the whole of which are T 138 C L A C L A infused, sweetened, and strained. This medicated water is said to assist digestion, and to be " an ex- cellent cardiac;" but we have rea- son to apprehend that it is, like all other cordials,calculated to increase the catalogue of tipplers, rather than to promote the purposes of health. CLAY is a compact, heavy, stiff, viscid, and ductile earth, when moist, which is easily dissolved, and, when mixed with water, does not readily subside. For promoting the vegetation of many plants, clay is a necessary ingredient in the soil, with the ex- ception of those species called ar- gilla aerata, or lac lunae, and ar- gilla apyra, or porcelain, and other white, fermenting clays, for Avhich no use has hitherto been discover- ed in agriculture. By its cohesion, clay retains humidity, on which, perhaps, its fertilizing property chiefly depends. In its pure state, clay is unfit for the purposes of vegetation, on ac- count of the great adhesion of ar- gillaceous particles, which cannot be penetrated by the tender fibres or roots ; but, when mixed with calcareous earth, and siliceous sand, or marl, it is much improv- ed, and of great use in tillage. It is commonly believed, that lumps of clay, in a moist state, may be rendered more friable, by exposing them to frost; which, by expanding the water they cortain, and conA'erting it into ice, is sup- posed to cause a farther separation of the clayey particles. This no- tion, hoAvever, appears to be erro- neous ; for, unless the frost be very sudden, it will probably be attu.ded with a contrary effect. Mr. Kir- wan observes, that clay, in its dry Mate, absorbs more than twice its Aveight of water, before it parts with that fluid, and retains it, in the open air, more tenaciously than other earths ; but in a freezing cold, clay contracts more than other soils, and, as it were, squeezes out its Avater in a greater than usual proportion. As clay, by the great cohesion of its particles, is not Avell adapted to the growth of roots, Dr. Darwin remarks, that it may, in some de- gree, be corrected, by frequently exposing the air confined in its interstices ; for instance, by turn- ing it over with the plough, or spade. Another method is, by planting, in a clayey soil, first, those vegetables Avhich are known to thrive in it, such as beans; and if their roots be afterwards left to putrify in the clay they render the mass less cohesive, and enrich, rather than impoverish, the land. When clay abounds Avith vitrioliG acid, so as to be convertible into alum, it becomes very unfavourable to A'egetation, and checks the growth of trees, as Avell as of her- baceous plants, by corroding the fine extremities of their roots. This injurious quality may be most ef- fectually remedied, in gardens, by AArood-ashes, or soap-suds; and, in fields, by mixing with such clay, lime, powdered chalk,or the sweep- ings of roads consisting of lime- stone. Clay Lands, are these which abound Avith clay, whether black, blue, white, &c. of which, the black and yelloAv are the best for corn. All clay soils, as they retain too much water, are apt to chill the plants in moist seasons ; on the con- trary, in dry weather, they become hard, end obstruct vegetation. They naturally produce weeds, goose- grass, thistles, poppies, &c. but C L A CLA 139 some Avill yield clover and rye- grass ; and, if well manured, bear the best grain. Such soils are more advantageously manured than any other lands : the most proper that can be selected for this purpose, is horse or pigeons' dung, malt-dust, chalk, Sec. Clay-ground is naturally steril, because it adheres together in masses. This defect may, Iioav- cver, be remedied, by mixing Avith it burnt clay; which tends to cor- rect the cold nature of the soil, and will, by proper tillage, yield most excellent crops. A remarkable instance of rural industry, in rendering a wet clayey soil uncommonly productive, oc- curs in the 28th A'olume of the Annuls of Agriculture. The land was tAvo perches in width, and gently arched up, so that the crown of the ridge Avas about 2, or 2\ feet higher than the bottom of the furrow. These ridges were gently rounded off, so as to describe the form of a segment of a very large circle, then disposed into double beds, and well manured. The fertility of the soil Avas farther pro- moted, by adapting the course of crops to its nature ; namely, by soAving, 1st. beans; 2d. Avheat ; and, 3d. clover. In this succession, the beans Avere set upon a clover- lay, Avhich saved much lime, in preparing the land after the com- mon Avay ; and being soAvn just before, or immediately after, Christ- mas, they were ready to be hoed in the dry Aveather, usually occur- ring [in England], towards the end of February, or the beginning of March : by this management, they were brought so forward, that they could be cut in July or August. It is an error in agriculture, that beans cannot be left too long on the ground. They should be harvested while most of the pods are quite green; by which means a fine sam- ple is secured, and the straw render- ed incomparably better. After the beans, Avheat was sown ; and o\rer that, in the month of March, or April, from 15 to 20lbs. of clover seed per acre, Avhich, in the follow- ing year, was moAvn tAvice for hay. These crops are particularly valu- able on strong soils, where oats and barley never thrive well; and even if a large crop of either should be raised, it Avould be of a very inferior quality. Hence we re- commend a similar course to be pursued, as the labour and expence necessarily incurred, will be amply compensated by perseverance and industry. [Clayey lands are apt to be very barren in their natural state, un- less when a summer is so divided betwixt rain and sunshine, that they are kept on a medium conti- nually betwixt drought and wetness, which seldom or never happens. In a wet season, plants growing on such a soil are drowned, as the closeness of the clay will not suf- fer the water to soak into the ground: and, in a dry season, the ground becomes so solid that the roots of plants cannot penetrate it. This kind of earth, however, is thought to contain more of the food of plants than almost any other. But something needs to be done to bring it into action. The European farmers think their clay soils the richest, and most Ara- Iuable of their land. But many of our farmers despise them, for want of knoAving Avhat methods to take to render them profitable; or through fear of the labour or ex- pence of doing it. Some of these soils, Avithout 140 C L A much alteration, will bear good crops of grass, if care only be taken not to feed them close, nor to let cattle in upon them in the spring. But the farmer who wishes to keep them in tillage, must alter them by the admixture of such substan- ces as may serve to open the soil, and break the cohesion of its par- ticles. When this is once accom- plished, the landAvill become highly valuable ; holding the manure to admiration, and never returning to its pristine state. Dung is helpful toAvards opening a clayey soil, by the fermentation it raises, as well as by the mixture of its earthy saline and oily parti- cles. But dung of itself will not be sufficient, unless it were laid on more plentifully than farmers can well afford. A mixture of dung and sand is found to be a much bet- ter dressing for this sort of land, than dung alone. And if sand be not too far distant, it would be ad- visable to put on a layer of it two or three inches thick. Beach-sand is preferable to any other, as the salt- ness of it will help to make the ground fruitful, But pit-sand will do very well. In places Avhere sand is not to be had, the ground may be loosened with other substances. Gravel, or light loam from the neighbouring spots may be carted upon it; dust from saAv-pits, chips and rubbish from the back yards of houses, straw and stubble, sAvamp mud, the bark of trees and rotten Avood, or burnt-clay. I have known a clayey spot made very fruitful merely by the remains of a rotten log-fence, when mixed Avith the soil. When a clay soil is sanded, or any other thing laid on to open it, it will take several ploughings and CL A harrowings to mix it, so as to bring the land to a good consistence. As the expense of mixing it at once would be too great, it is better to use it for two or three years after, for the growing of such tillage- crops, as are most suitable to a clayey soil, such as barley, flax, &c. The soil will grow better, year af- ter year, till the sand, &c. is tho- roughly mixed with the soil; after which it will be fruitful forever Avithout large dressings. Hoed erops Avill mix it sooner than any other method, and without any ex- pense. A small quantity of dung, each year that it bears a hoed, or a green crop, will be proper: And the most suitable dungs, are those of horses and sheep, pigeons and other fowls, Avhich by their heat will correct the natural coldness of the soil....Folding with sheep has an excellent effect on this kind of land. Such a stiff soil is also mended by frequent ploughings. The Eu- ropeans allow three ploughings previously to feeding, to be enough for a free soil; but to a clayey soil they give four or five. The oftener it is stirred with the plough, the more the cohesion of the particles is broken, and the more easily the roots of plants can penetrate it in search for their food. But it never should be ploughed when it is so wet as to potch Avith the feet of the cattle, or to run like mortar. In this condi- tion the more it isAVorked the stiffer it will become. On the other hand, Avhen it is very dry, it cannot well be ploughed, by reason of its hard- ness. Suitable seasons should be embraced, for ploughing it, when it is neither too wet nor too dry. At the first ploughing it comes up in large clods ; but the oftener it is C L A ploughed in fit times, the smaller the clods Avill be, and the more fine mould Avill be among them. Exposing the clods to the sun and air has some tendency to mel- Ioav the soil: But a winter-furrow is of very great advantage. The frost does much towards breaking the cohesion, as I have found by experience. Clay soils, after all the amelio- ration that can be given them, will be more suitable for some plants than for others. Those plants in general Avhich require a great degree of heat, or a long summer, are not so well adapted to be cul- tivated in a clayey soil, such as In- dian corn, tobacco, &c. But it may be made to produce good crops of wheat, grass, barley, oats, flax, &c Fruit trees in general, and I think all sorts, excepting pear- trees, answer but poorly in a clayey soil, how much soever the surface may have been mixt with other substances. The roots of trees will need to draAv some of their nourishment from a part of the soil below that Avhich has been melio- rated by mixing ; but the compact- ness of it Avill scarcely suffer them to penetrate it. Fallowing and green-dressing may help to pulverize a clayey soil; and soAving it frequently with pease is recommended. Any crop that forms a close cover for the surface, causes the soil to rot, breaks the cohesion of its particles, and prevents the- ground from har- dening by the influence ofthe sun, A clay soil on which Avater stands must be water furrowed, and ploughed in ridges. Sometimes drains Avill be necessary. N. F.ng, Farmer.'} CLE HI The United States abound with a variety of excellent clays, proper for even fine wares. In North Ca- rolina a large body is said to have been found before the revolutionary Avar, some of which was taken to England and highly approved of by Mr. WedgAvood. Will any gen- tleman forward a specimen to us of the clay alluded to ? In that part of the South Moun- tain, where the Cotoctin Mountain separates from it, in Washington county, Maryland, in Conocogeague settlement, an argillaceous earth has been found, Avhich bears all the characters of the Argilla Porcelai- na of Linnseus. It lies in immense bodies along the strata of iron ore> and is called Mine-clay by the miners. Before the latercA-oIutionary war, a china manufactory was establish- ed in Philadelphia, and some ex- cellent specimens made at it, are still to be found. The clay was brought from Avhite clay creek, Delaware, as Ave have been in- formed.] CLEAVERS, or Clivers, See Goose-Grass. [Clematis, Crispa. C u rled Vir- gin's Bower. This plant has weak stalks, Avhich rise near four feet high, and by their claspers fasten themselves to their neighbouring plants. The corolla is purple, in- side curled ; flowers in June. There are other species, natives of the United States. The Clematis recta, or upright Virgin's BoAver, is highly praised by Baron Stoerck in inveterate syphilitic cases, in ulcers, and severe head aches. It acts as a diuretic and diaphore- tic. He used an extract of the leaves, but he chiefly recommends i'.v info don ofthe fresh leaves) two 142 C L I or three drams to a pint of boiling water, four ounces to be taken three times a day, whilst the powdered leaves are applied to the ulcers. Most of the species are acrid, and corrosi\re, and may be used for raising, blisters, Avhere cantharides, or the American blistering fly can- not be had. The latter insect is very fond of the Clematis crispa, and it would be well for medical gentlemen in the country to pro- pagate the plant about their resi- dence, in order to secure a constant supply of those valuable insects.] CLIFF-KALE, or Sea-Kale. See Sea-Colewort. CLERGY, Benefit of, is an ancient privilege, by Avhich a per- son in holy orders may claim to be delivered to his ordinary, to purge himself of felony. It Avas formerly confined exclusively to the clergy, but has been extended, since the Reformation, to the laity. Accord- ingly, by the 1 Edav. VI. c. 12, all Lords of Parliament, and Peers of the Realm, shall be discharged, in all clergyable and other felonies, provided for by the act, v. ithout being burnt in the hand, or trans- ported....or at most being impri- soned only for one ye{,r....in the same manner as real clerks con- vict are. By the same act, all the commons, not in orders, whether male or female, shad, for the first offence, be discharged of the pu- nishment of felonies, Avithin the benefit of clergy, on being burnt in the hand, and suffering a discretion- ary imprisonment; or, in case of larceny, on being transported for seven years, if the court shall think proper. CLIMATE, is a term usually given to any country or region, ihtU. differ', from another, as well with lesptct to the seasons and C L I quality of the soil, as to the man- ners of its inhabitants. The climate of [England], though in general temperate, is ex- tremely variable. The transitions from heat to cold, however sudden in Britain, are less severely felt than upon the Continent. Yet these frequent changes are produc- tive of many diseases. This island is peculiarly subject to shoAvers, and to close, cloudy, foggy Aveather; which must lie ascribed to its insular situation. Clouds are continually wafted over from the sea, by everv wind, and condensed by the cold land-air, as also by the humid vapours arising from plants, and thus precipitated in rain. From this circumstance, an uninterrupted continuance of dry Aveather is seldom experienced in Great Britain. But, though such frequent changes, together with the moist and cold air so gene- rally pre\-alent, render the inhabit- ants of this country liable to many disorders, yet the more malignant epidemics are less fatal, and occur less frequently, than in most conti- nental regions ; because Ave enjoy the benefit of pure and temperate sea-winds, and are exempt from the two extremes of heat and cold. The moisture of the British air, indeed, tends to relax the fibres; but it also promotes accretion, while its cool temperature condenses the solids, and invigorates the Avhole body. Hence it happens, that the natives of Great Britain are, in ge- neral, stouter, and more robust than those of other countries; and, though many persons here are sub- ject to scorbutic and rheumatic complaints, arising from these va- rious cruses, to which must be id- ded their gross and solid, or luxuri- ous food, yet a far greater propor- C L I C L I 143 tion ofthe inhabitants of this island lives to an advanced age, than of those of any continental country. This assertion, however, chiefly relates to salubrious farms and vil- lages^ where the people are more temperate, and less debauched by spirituous liquors, than in towns. We may farther remark, that the prevailing custom of wearing light and thin dresses, especially among females, is by no means conducive to longevity ; for, as those votaries of fashion and caprice, are in all seasons, exposed to colds and rheu- matic complaints,-many of them at length contract pulmonary, or consumptive diseases, and fall vic- tims of folly, at a period of life Avhen they ought to be most useful to society. The solid, nutritive food of the inhabitants, in general, is likeAvise a principle cause of many diseases originating from repletion; yet it must at the same time be admit- ted, that such substantial nutriment greatly contributes to their strength, their full, athletic size, and florid complexion.....Those of our read- ers, who wish to acquire additional information on this subject, we re- ferto Dr. W. Falconer's elaborate " Remarks on the influence of Cli- mate, Situation, Nature of Country, Population, Nature of Food, Way of Life: on the Dispositions and Temper, Manners, and Behaviour, Intellects, Laws, and Customs, Forms of Government, and Religion of Mankind" (4to. 18s. Dilly....Maw- man, 1781), in which this interest- ing topic is minutely and ingeni- ously discussed. [In a Avork chiefly of a domestic nature, a philosophical digression into the various causes which influ- ence the climate of countries in ge- neral, and of the United States in particular cannot be expected. It may however be useful to state a feAv facts on the subject, from Mr» Kirwan's admirable treatise enti- tled "An Estimate of the tempera- ture of different latitudes." I. Elevation diminishes the mean temperature of places. If this elevation be moderate, or at the rate of six feet per mile from the nearest sea, then for every 200 feet, of elevation, allow A of a degree for the diminution of the mean an- nual temperature. 2. Next to elevation, distance from the standard ocean seems to have the most considerable effect upon the mean annual temperature. Mr. K. attributes the effect of dis- tance from the standard ocean, to the unequrl capacities of land and water for heat; but Mr. Dalton, of Manchester, observes, that this alone appears inadequate to the effect, and he concludes, after some ingenious reasoning, that in the temperate zones, the western coasts of all continents and large islands, will have a higher mean temperature than the eastern coasts under the same parallel; and, particularly, will have more moderate winters. 3. All countries lying to the wimhvard of high mountains, and extensive forests, are Avarmer than those lying to the leeward, in the same latitude. Countries that lie southward of any sea, are warmer than those that have that sea to the south of them. Islands participate most of the temperature of the sea, and are therefore not subject to the ex- tremes of heat and cold so much as continents. The temperatures of different years, differ very little near the equator, but they differ more and more as the latitudes approach the poles. The climate of Pennsylvania, 144 C L O east ofthe Alleghany mountains, has unquestionably become much milder in the course of the last forty years. To account for this fact is perhaps a difficult task. On this subject the reader is re- ferred to Dr. Williamson's inte- resting paper in the first volume of the American Philosophical Trans- actions : and to Dr. Rush's account ofthe climate of Pennsyhania; and for an ingenious discussion of the causes ofthe remarkable difference which exists between the tempera- tures ofthe United States of Ame- rica, and the corresponding paral- lels of latitude in Europe," Doct. Barnwell's " Physical Investiga- tions" may be consulted. In the fourth volume of the American Philosophical Transactions may al- so be found some interesting obser- vations on the climate of the Aves- tern parts of Pennsykania, parti- culy those in the neighbourhood of Lake Erie, by Mr. A. Ellicott.] Clock. See Time-piece. CLOSE-STOOL, a chamber implement of considerable utility to patients and invalids; though it has lately been in a great measure superseded by the invention of water-closets. These, hoAvever, be- ing attended A-.ith such expence as to preclude many families from their acquisition, it may be useful to mention an easy method of sup- pressing the fetid exhalation aris- ing from vessels of the former des- cription, when kept in sick-rooms, especially during the night. A fo- reign Avriter suggests the foiloAving expedient: Take a handful (Ave suppose, three or four ounces) of green vitriol; dissolve it in half a gallon of boiling Avater; and, Avhen cold, pour a quart of it en the feces immediately after each stool. In this simple manner, Ave are in- CLO formed, the most unpleasant stench Avill be effectually neutralized; a circumstance of great importance in putrid and malignant fevers. Clot-burr. See Burdc;;;;. CLOTH, in commerce, a manu- facture made of avooI, cotton, flax, hemp, Sec. woven in a loom. In this place, hoAvever, we shall treat only of Avoollen cloths: these are of various qualities, fine or coarse, which depend on a variety of cir- cumstances. The best wools for manufactur- ing cloth are those of England and Spain, especially of Lincolnshire and Segovia. In order to use them to the best advantage, they should be previously scoured, in a hot li- quor consisting of three parts of pure water, and one of urine. When it has soaked a sufficient time in this liquor, to dissolve the grease, it is drained, and properly washed in running Avater: as soon as it feels someAvhat rough, and is divested of all smell, except. the natural one of the sheep, it is said to be properly scoured. The avooI is next exposed to dry completely in the shade ; after Avhich it is beaten with rods upon wooden hur- dles, or on cords, to cleanse it from the dust and grosser filth, and pre- pare it for spinning, when it must be Avell picked, in order to separate the remaining impurities. After this process, it is oiled with oil of olives, and given to the spin- ners, Avho first card it on the knee Avith small fine cards, and then spin it on a Avheel; care being tak- en to make the thread of the Avarp one third less than that ofthe woof, and to twist the former more com- pactly. The thread is then reeled, and formed into skeins: that de- signed for the warp is wound on small tubes, pieces of paper, or CLO C L O 145 rushes, so disposed that they may be easily put in the eye ofthe shut- tle ; that intended for the warp is wound on large wooden bobbins. As soon as it is warped, stiffened with size, and dried, it is mounted on the loom. The weavers, of whom there are tAvo to each loom, tread alternately, on the right, an 1 on the left step of the treddle, which raises and loAvers the threads ofthe warp equally ; between which latter they throw the shuttle trans- versely, the one to the other...... Every time the shuttle is thrown, and a thread of the woof inserted in the Avarp, they strike it jointly with the same frame : to this is at- tached the comb, or reed, through the teeth of which the threads of the Avarp have been previously passed ; the blow being repeated as often as is necessary. Having filled the whole warp with the woof,the cloth is unrolled from the beam on which it had been wound while weaving, and given to be cleansed from the knots, ends of thread, &c. an operation whi -h is usually per- formed with iron nippers. In this state it is carried to the fullery, and scowered with urine, or with a species of potters' clay steeped in water. As soon as the cloth is again cleared from the earth or urine, it is returned to the former hands, for taking off', as be- fore, the smaller straws, Sec. Avhen it is delivered to the fuller, to be beaten and fulled with hot Avater, in Avhich a proper quantity of soap has been dissolved. After this se- cond fulling, it is smoothed, or pulled lengthways by the lists, in order to take out all Avrinkles and unevenness. This operation is con- tinued till the cloth is brought to a proper breadth, vhen it is washed in clear water, to cleanse it from VOL. II. the soap, and aftei wards gi\'en wet to the carders, to raise the hair, or nap, with the teasel (Dipsacusful- lonum, L.) The cloth-worker then takes it in hand, and performs what is called, the first shearing, after which it is again delivered to the carders, who pass it repeatedly un- der the teasel, in proportion to the quality of the stuff. It is next re- turned to the cloth-worker, and from him to the carders, Avhere the same operation is continued till the nap on the surface be properly ranged. Thus prepared, the cloth is sent to the dyer, who, after having given it the proper colour, immerses it in pure water, and delivers it, Avhile wet, to the worker. The latter lays the nap w ith a brush on the table ; and then suspends it on tenters, Avhere it is sufficiently stretched, and brushed while Avet, it order to bring it to its proper dimensions. As soon as it is completely dried, it is again brushed on the table, to finish the laying of the nap; after which it is folded, and laid cold un- der a press, to make it smooth, and to give it a gloss. When it is taken out of the press, and the papers for glossing it are removed, the cloth is fit for immediate sale, or use. With respect to the manufacture of mixed cloths, or those in which the wools are dyed previously to their being wrought, the process varies but little from that just de- scribed, except in what relates to the colour. Cloth, in general, constitutes one of the most necessary articles of domestic convenience : hence ma- ny ingenious persons have attempt- ed to discover substitutes for Flax and Hemp, of Avhich we shall give a short account, in tneir alphabe- tical order. U 146 C L O C L O Woollen cloths being liable to be stained, or soiled, by a variety of accidents, different methods have been contrived to remove such spots, and thus restore the cloth to its former beauty. When stained with grease, fullers' earth, pure pot-ash, or other absorbents, will produce the desired effect. Spots of ink, or other stains, may be taken out by the acid of sorrel, or the oxalic acid (essential salt of le- mons), and the colour restored by alkafies, or by a solution of tin. It frequently happens, hoAvever, that spots are owing to different un- known causes, Avhich render it ne- cessary to recur to compositions possessing various powers. For this purpose, Chaptal recom- mends white soap to be dissolved in alkohol: in this solution are to be mixed the yolks of four or five eggs, to Avhich should be gradually added, some spirit of turpentine and fullers' earth, in such propor- tions as to give the whole mixture, when stirred, a due consistence for being formed into balls. The spots, after being wetted, are to be rubbed with these balls ; when the cloth also should be Avell washed, and cleansed. Thus, every kind of spots (those of ink, or other solutions of iron excepted) may be effectually removed. In February, 1796, a patent Avas granted to Mr. John Grimshaw, of Strines-hall, Derbyshire, calico- printer, for his invention of certain substances to be used in clearing, or bleaching, printed, stained, or dyed woollen, and other cloths..... The principal ingredient employed by the patentee appears to be, the common grains which remain after breAving, and which are put into a close vessel, in order to become sour. This is usually effected in six days in hot, and in about eight days, in cold Aveather. As soon as the grains have acquired the neces- sary degree of acidity, three or four bushels of them are directed to be put into a common-sized calico- printer's copper pan, nearly full of water. Into this mixture the stain- ed cloths are repeatedly immersed, and turned over a winch or reel placed across the pan. The opera- tion is continued from five to fif. teen minutes, during Avhich the mixture is directed to boil gently; the pieces are then taken out, and washed immediately, either in hot or cold Avater, and treated in the same manner as goods that are cleared Avith bran. When twelve or sixteen pieces have been thus cleaned, an additional bushel of sour grains is to be added, and the pan filled up with water: when it boils, the operation may be repeated with other cloths, as before. See Bleaching. Clothes. See Moths. Clotweed. See Burdock the Lesser. CLOUD-BERRY, or Moun- tain Bramble, the Rubus chama- morus, L. an indigenous species of the raspberry-bush, which grows in peat-bogs, and on the sides of mountains. This plant seldom exceeds one foot in height, produces white blos- soms in the month of May or June, and aftenvards red berries. These are not unpleasant to the taste, and are frequently brought to the table Avith the desert, in the Highlands of Scotland, as Avell as in the more northern parts of Europe, where they are reputed to be an excellent antiscorbutic. CLOVE, a term used in weigh- CLO CLO 147 ing wool, consisting of 71bs. In Essex, 8lbs. of cheese or butter make a clove. CLOVE-PINK, or Carnation, the Dianthus caryophyllus, L. be- longs to a genus of plants com- prising tAventy-eight species ; of which six only are natives of En- gland. The carnation in its wild state, grows on old walls, and is found among the ruins of ancient castles. It usually floAvers in the month of June or July. Although clove-pinks will thrive in almost any garoen soil, yet they delight most in those of a light loamy nature. They are propagat- ed chiefly by seed, in March or April, and generally come up in a month after sowing. When pro- perly weeded and watered till July, they will be fit for transplanting into nursery-beds, which should be about three feet wide, and in an open situation. In these beds, the plants are to be pricked during moist weather, at the distance of four inches from each other, and moderately watered ; which should be occasionally repeated, till they have taken good root. In Septem- ber, they will be fit to be finally transplanted into other beds of good earth, about three feet wide, in roAvs nine inches asunder. Here they are to remain till spring ; but if the winter prove very severe, they should be sheltered with mats. In the venial season, they ought to be carefully weeded Avith a hoe, and the flower-stalks must be tied up to sticks, in order to prevent their drooping, by Avhich their growth Avould be retarded. Clove-pinks have a pleasant aro- matic odour, and are said to be cardiac and alexipharmic. A de- coction of these flowers has been successfully used in malignant fe- vers ; and, as Paulli asserts, they raise the animal spirits, quench thirst, and poAverfully promote both perspiration and the secretion of urine, without occasioning great irritation. CLOVER, a species of trefoil, or Trifolium, L. a genus of plants comprising 55 species, of Avhich only 16 are indigenous in England: of these the following are the prin- cipal. l.The pratense, or common [red] clover, which is frequently found in meadows and pastures. This species thrives best on a firm heavy soil, and is raised from seed, which is usually sown between the months of February and[ April,] in the pro- portion of ten or fifteen pounds per acre. If it be often sown on the same land, the crop will fail; it should therefore be changed for trefoil or lucerne. Common [red] clover is usually sown together with Avheat, in the spring, as Avell as Avith barley and oats ; but experienced farmers ge- nerally prefer wheat; as, in dry seasons, the clover frequently over- powers the oats or barley ; and, if it be sown late, in order to obviate this e\il, it often fails, and the crop is lost for that season. It is also mixed with rye-grass ; and, if moAvn Avhen the latter is beginning to flower, the loAver growth is con- siderably increased, and a great quantity of excellent grass is ob- tained. Another advantage arises from this expedient; for, however severe the frost may be, the clover will be completely screened from its piercing effects by the rye-grass. The common clover is in flower from May to September, and pro- duces seeds which are known to be ripe by the stalks and heads chang- ing their colour. Cattle, sheep, and 148 CLO CLO pigs are exceedingly fond of this species, and frequently eat of it so tacerly as to become hoven or blown. That disorder, however, may be preA-ented by constantly moving them about the field, Avhen turned in, so that the first ball may sink into their maAv before the next be deposited. Or. if cattle be turn- ed into clover belly-deep, they av'uI, it is said, receive no injury by eat- ing too freely of it; as it is perni- cious only in its earlier state..... Should they, nevertheless, be at- tacked with that dangerous sA\rell- ing, they may be relieved by adopt- ing the remedies pointed out under the article Cattle, vol. i. It deserves to be noticed, that the introduction of this beneficial plant into modern husbandry, has been attended Avith numerous and important advantages. Since that period, the neAv system of stall- feeding dates its origin. Many in- significant farms, on the Continent of Europe, have since been con- verted into valuable estates ; for, as this species of clover is annually productive of three or four crops, for two years at least, it is gene- rally ploughed in, after the last mowing, in autumn, and wheat or rye, immediately sown on the land, without any other manure, except what is derived from the fertilizing roots of that vegetable. Sometimes, however, gypsum is scattered on such fields during winter, in [Peni - sylvania, this operation is general- ly performed during the months of March or April.] In SAveden, the heads are employ- ed for dyeing avooI of a green co- lour ; and if mixed with alum, they yield a light, if with copperas, a dark green colour. 2. The medium, or red perennial clover, which is found in pastures, hedges, and on the sides of woods- It thrives on a rich soil, Avhether clay or gravel, and will even grow upon a moor, if properly cultivated. It grows spontaneously on marl- land ; but is usually reared from seed, Avhich should be put in the ground from the middle of April to the middle of May. This spe- cies, as Avell as the common clover, is frequently sown together with flax, on a soil highly cultivated for that purpose ; and, as the latter is a forward plant, it is generally re- moved so early as to allow the clover time for growing. Red clover is sometimes soAvn by itself; but this practice is by no means to be re- commended ; for the crop is liable to be lost, unless it be sheltered in its infant state, during the severity of the Avinter, [or from a hot sun.] When red clover is intended for seed, the ground ought-to be care- fully cleared of weeds, that the seed may be preserved pure. It is col- lected both from the first and se- cond crop, but principally from the former. Vv hen one half of the field has changed its colour, by the dry- ing ofthe cloverh.ads,the reaping of them may then be commenced. In America, this is effected by two implements, [which are described in the trans, of N. Y. Agric. Soc. by Mr. L'Hommedieu, and were invented in Brookhaven, Suffolk County, New York,] and for inge- nuity and simplicity ofconstruetion, deserve to be greatly recommend- ed : we have therefore subjoined the folloAving representations : Dimenione. \, 2, The shafts, 4 feet 4 inches long, and three feet asunder. 3, 4, The handles, 3 feet long, and 20 inches apart. 5, The fingers, or teeth, thirteen inches long. CLO CLO 149 The wheels are sixteen inches in diameter. This machine is draAvn by one horse, and guided by a man or boy; it simply consists of an open box, about 4 feet square at the bottom, and about three in height, on three sides; to the fore part, Avhich is open, lingers are fixed, similar to those of a cradle, about 3 feet in length, and so near as to break off' the heads from the clover-stocks between them, which are thrown back into the box as the horse ad- vances. The box is fixed on an axle-tree, supported by two small Avheels, two teet in diameter; two handles are fixed to the hinder part, by means of which the driver, wnile he manages the horse, raises or lowers the ringers of the ma- chine, so as to take off'all the heads of the grass; and, as often as the box is filled with them, they are thrown out, and the horse goes on as before. This instrument is called a cra- dle, and is made of an oak board about 18 inches in length and 10 in breadth. The fore-part of itr to the length of 9 inches, is sawed into fingers; a handle is inserted behind, inclining toAvards them, and a cloth put round the back part of the board, which is cut some- what circular, and raised on the handle ; this collects the heads or tops of the grass, and prevents them from scattering, as they are struck off by the cradle, Avhich may be made of different sizes; be- ing smaller in proportion for wo- men and children, Avho, by means of it, may likewise collect larp-e quantities. Mr. L'Hommedieu says, as soon as the clover is mown, it should be immediately raked into small heaps, and exposed [about three weeks] in the field, to pro- mote the decay of the husk, as otherAvise it will be difficult to ob- tain the seed, these heaps should be occasionally turned, especially during wet weather. It may, hoAv- ever, be easily ascertained, \vhethu- the husks are sufficiently rotten, or dry, by rubbing the heads or tops between the hands: Avhen that is effected, they should be housed, and the seed threshed out when convenient, and cleared with a ivire riddle. Lfistly, this species is a valuable substitute for the common clover, as it continues much longer in the land. 150 CLO CLO [Upon the subject of collecting clover seed, Mr.L'HoMMEDiF.uob- serves further; by sowing three or four pounds of seed to the acre, on light loamy soils, which yield eight or ten bushels of Avheat or rye per acre, the clover Avill not be profit- able to moAv, but standing thin on the ground, the heads Avill be Avell filled Avith seed. The fields are to be kept up next year, till the seed is collected, by the machine repre- sented above. On rich lands, no seed comes Avith the first crop, but the second crop being shorter and thinner, is commonly well seeded. Sometimes, indeed, considerable. quantities of seed are gathered from the fir^t crop, on land Avhere Avheat has been cut the same year, the stubble, preventing the clover from growing too thick to produce seed. If the land be rich, and it is in tended to sow the first crop, and collect seed from the se- cond, eight lbs. are not too much for one acre. Red clover is an essential article in the rotation of crops in Pennsylva- nia, and the immense riches which the whole state has acquired during the last twenty years, may, in part, justly be ascribed to this grass aided by the almost magical ferti- lizing poAver of gypsum, by which more Avealth has been introduced than Avould have resulted from the discovery of a gold mine. If it is intended to soav clover upon winter barley, Avheat, or rye, many farmers prefer sowing the seed in March, and when the ground is covered with snow, as it can be seen whether the seed is strewed evenly. If all the seed be soAvn in February or March, and a dry season should folloAv, while the roots are young and tender, the crop of grass will be lost. Mr. L'Hommedieu therefore finds it a safer Avay, to sow one half the clover seed proposed for an acre, at the time the Avheat is sown, and the other half on the same land, in the last of the winter, or the first ofthe spring. Probably the diversity of opini- ons with respect to the proper time for soAving clover seed, may arise from the difference in the na- ture of the soils on which trials have been made. An experienced agriculturist (Edward Duffield Esq.) of Philadelphia county, as- sures the Editor that he repeatedly failed in obtaining a crop Avhen he sowed his clover in the autumn or AA'inter, and that he is uniformly successful Avhen he soavs in the spring. His soil is a tight loam. The quantity of seed alloAved to an acre is various, but it is evident, that the more seed, the more bene- fit will be derived from the grass, both as an ameliorater of the soil, and as a destroyer of weeds. The quantity of hay produced will also be much greater. TAventy pints to an acre, however, need not be ex- ceeded. Mr. Bordley says, a box for sowing clover seed on flat Avheat beds rather than ridges, five and an half feet wide, exclusive of the water or opening furroAv, seven feet inclusive, was made of light half inch boards, for the sides, bot- tom, and partitions. It Avas seven feet long, five or six inches Avide, that the seed lyingthin might easily shift about and not press heavily on the outlet holes. The box was three inches deep, and divided into seven parts, each division having two holes bored through the bot- tom half an inch in diameter, and placed diagonally. The holes were CLO singed with a hot iron to smooth them. Square pieces of strong writing paper were pasted over the holes, on the inside of the box. A hole was burnt, with coarse knit- ting needles, through each paper. At about a third of the distance from each end ofthe box, were fas- tened strong leather straps, by which the box was held, and a little agitated in carrying it before the seedsman, in a direction cross- ing the beds, while the seedsman walked along the beds. By an ex- periment made by Mr. B. it ap- peared, that the growth from the box soAving, was thicker, and more equally distant than that from the broad cast, and the plants more sufficiently close. The seeds were left on the ground of the field of wheat without any means used to cover them. The seven feet lands were preferred to 5A feet lands. The Avater furroAvs Avere included both in the 7 feet and the 5\ feet lands. After many experiments, beds were preferred to ridges, 1. be- cause the soil being alike in quality on the whole of the bed, the wheat grew equally well from edge to edge; 2d. in reaping, the Avheat was better saved; 3. the furrows being opened deep, the greatest rains presently glided into the furrows, and Avere by them conveyed into the main drains of this flat land. The beds were separated by deep water furroAvs, formed by a double mould board plough, dipt deep by the poAverof only two horses. When clean clover seeds are soAvn on a clean ground and har- rowed in, numbers arc smothered under small lumps of earth, as well as under larger ones. This waste does not take place when seed is left on the ground, or shoav. CLO 151 CloA-er seed of a bright yellow, with a good quantity of the purple and brown coloured seed among it, (Avhich shews the maturity of the seed) should be preferred. When thoroughly ripe, and Avell got in, the vegetative power will continue- for three or four years. Lancaster county seed is preferred to that of any other place. The late A. C. Du Plain gave me the following account of a crop of clover which he raised at Kensington on one acre of ground. He ploughed deep in the autumn and manured with leached or spent ashes; in the following spring he ploughed in March and sowed barley after one harroAving; he har- rowed again; then sowed clover seed at the rate of 20lbs to the acre: and reversing the harroAv, and filling the spaces betAveen the teeth with brush, went over the ground. He ha.dforty-fine bushels of barley per acre, and a small cutting of clover the first year in September: but the succeeding summer his ground yielded eight tons at three cuttings. Mr. D. was a man of the highest integrity, the account may therefore be depended upon. Great care must be taken to pre- vent cattle from becoming hoven, by feeding on green clover. This is done by permitting them to fill themselves Avith ether pasture or food, and at first turning them into the clover field for a short time, say twenty or thirty minutes, in the middle of the day, and turn them out the moment they shew a disposi- tion to wander or lie down. They must never be turned in, during Avet weather. This mode of pasturing is only recommended as the most saving to those who will not soil, as advised under the article Cattle. 152 CLO CLO Two kinds of red clover are sown in Pennsylvania. One is particu- larly distinguished by the name of Dutch clover, and grows much better, and Avith a thicker stalk than the other. From this peculiarity, the hay made of it, is not equal in quality to that made from the com- mon sort, but is preferable as a preparative for wheat, if ploughed in, or after one crop ; and Avould ansAver admirably for soiling. It may be Avell to have both kinds of cloA-er on a farm. Hogs thrive exceedingly upon clover, and when soil d, no food is more economical. A statement of the number of hogs fed by a certain quantity of clover, near Wilming- ton, Delaware, shall be given un- der the article " Hogs." In the State of Pennsylvania, clover is not, in general, permitted to continue in the ground longer than two years. It is then plough- ed in, and other grain sown. See Wheat, Rye, Oats, Rotation of Crops, Pasture, Hay.] 3. The procumbens or hop-clo- A'er, or hop trefoil, which grows in dry meadoAvs and pastures. It floAvers in the months of June and July. When mixed Avith common clover, on light land, it makes a most excellent fodder. This plant is variously called back-grass and nonsuch. 4. The repens, or white-clover, which abounds in meadoAvs and pastures. It also delights in light land, Avhere it will thrive luxuriant- ly, if frequently rolled. It is usu- ally sown Avith red clover, rye-grass, er barley, and is in blossom from May to September. It produces the sAveetest hay on dry land, espe- cially when mixed Avith hop-clover and rye-grass ; and possesses this advantage over the common clover, that it will admit of being irrigated. Horses, coavs, and goats eat it but sheep are not fond of it, and hogs totally refuse it. [White clover, Avhether soiled or pastured, is one of the most valu- able grasses for cattle. It is evi- dently a natural grass of the coun- try, and uniformly appears in our meadows south of the city, Avhen closely nibbed by sheep or cattle ; and a gentleman who has travelled much through the hostile Indian country, says, he has seen fields covered Avith this grass. The re- port, therefore, as stated by Mr. Stricland, to prevail among the Indians, that this plant is not to be met with but where white men have trodden, must be Avithout founda- tion. The SAveet blossoms of white clo- ver poAverfully attract the bees, all summer, but it is chiefly in the months of May and June, that this aliment is collected and stored in hives : and it is observed that clo- ver honeymay be easilydistinguish- ed from that of any other flowers in the hive. It is much to be re- gretted, tho' the flowers of the red clover yield the greatest quantity of honey, yet the honey bees profit but little by them, because the tubes or nectaries of the florets are so long, that they cannot reach to the bottom, where the honey lies; for Avhich reason it is observed that, the red clover is but little visited by bees....they yield place to the great hermit bees, or wood-borer, and humble bees, which being fur- nished Avith strong beaks that sheath their tongues, pierce the lower parts of these tubes, and suck the honey. White clover, Avhen mixed with Timothy, or green grass,(7?oa viri- dis)makes excellent hay .See Hay.] CLU CLO 153 The great utility of cloArer in fattening cattle is well known : we shall, therefore, conclude this ar- ticle with recommending the prac- tice of tippling, generally folloAved m the north of England, for pre- serving clover in wet seasons..... This is effected by rolling up the grass, immediately after it has been moAvn, intp bundles, or tipples of the size of a small barley sheaf. A band is then drawn out from one side, which is twisted and tied firmly round: the tipple being placed between the knees, the part above the band is drawn through the hands with a twist, and the longest grasses are pulled out, so as to tie in a knot, which finishes the point of the cone, and forms the tipple. The advantages of this practice are obvious to the most superficial observer, as the rain is carried off in manner similar to the thatch of a house; and the sun and wind thoroughly penetrate it, so as to prevent fermentation. In Scotland, when clover is made into hay, it is formed into ricks, containing from 40 to 60 stone weight, within two or three days after it is cut; thus it remains for two or three Aveeks, till it is collected into long stacks, some of Avhich consist of 10,000 stone..... Few instances occur of hay preserv- ed in this manner, being damaged by heating; nor is there the least danger of its taking fire, CLOVE-TREE, or Cqryophyl- lus aromaticus, L. a native of the Molucca Islands, particularly of Amboyna, Avhere it is chiefly cul- tivated. The clove-tree resembles the olive in its bark, arid the laurel in its height and leaves : no grass groAVS under it. Adorned with nu- merous branches, it produces vast quantities of floAvers, which are at VOL. II. first white, then green, and at last red and hard. When they arrive at this degree of maturity, they are, properly speaking, cloves: in a dry state, they assume a dark yellowish cast, and at length a deep brown. Cloves acquire Aveight by imbib- ing water, when suspended above it, even at some distance. The Dutch, who were formerly in the sole possession of the cloye-trade, are supposed to have frequently taken advantage of that property ; but such nefarious practices may be easily detected, by squeezing the. cloves with the hand, and express- ing their moisture. This spice possesses a very fra-. grant, agreeable scent, and a bitter- ish pungent taste, which, in a man- ner, burns the mouth and throat. Considered as a medicine, cloves are very hot, stimulating aromatics. When distilled, they yield a limpid essential oil, which is often, though improperly, employed for curing the tooth-ach ; as, from its pungent nature, it is apt to corrode the gums and injure the adjacent teeth, Club-grass. See Club-rush, CLUB-MOSS, or Lycopodium, L. a native genus of plants, com-? prising six species, the principal of Avhich are.....1. The clavatum, or common club-moss, which grows in dry mountainous places, heaths, and woods. It is principally found in the north of England; produces a prostrate creeping stem, from one to three yards in length; flow-: ers from July to August, and bears seeds, which, if infused in ropy Avine, will, in a few days, restore it. When thrown into a fire, these seeds emit a bright flash, and alsq possess the peculiar property of be- ing almost impervious to moisture, so that if they are scattered on a bason of water, the hand may be X 154 C L U C L Y immersed to the bottom, without being Avetted.....In the north of Europe they are pulverized, and applied externally for curing chaps in the skin and other sores. Beau- tiful mats, or summer carpets, are manufactured of the stalks of this plant, in Sweden. 2. The selago, or fir-leaved club-moss, Avhich is very common on the mountainous heaths in the Highlands of Scotland, the He- brides, and in the northern parts of England. This plant rises from two to five inches in height, and is in bloom from April to October. In the island of Raasay, in Ross- shire, and likeAvise in some other places, the inhabitants employ it as a substitute for alum, to fix the co- lour in dyeing. The SAvedes make a decoction of it, and apply it to hogs and cattle, for the destruction of vermin. The Highlanders also occasionally take an infusion of it, as an emetic and cathartic, but it operates violently ; and unless tak- en in a small dose, causes giddi- ness and convulsions. CLUB-RUSH, or Scirpus, L. a native genus of plants, consisting of twelve species: the following are the principal: 1. The palustris, or marsh creep- ing club-rush, which thrives on the banks of rivers, ponds, and ditches, and is chiefly found in the western parts of England. It is perennial, grows from six inches to two feet high, flowers in the month of June or July. Hogs ea- gerly devour the roots of this spe- cies when fresh, but will not touch them when dry. They are also eaten by goats and horses, but re- fused by cows and sheep. 2. The lacustris. See Bull- rush. 2, The marititr.us, or salt-marsh club-rush, Avhich is found on the sea-coast near Yarmouth, and also near Shirley-wych, Stafford. It is perennial, and floAvers in the month of July or August. Cows eat this- plant ; and its tuberous roots, Avhen dried and ground to powder, have, in times of scarcity, been used as a good substitute for flour. CLYSTERS, or Injections, or Lavemens, are liquid remedies in- troduced into the larger intestines, by the rectum. The most usual clystering machines are those con- sisting simply of the bladder of a hog, sheep or ox, in which an ivory pipe is fastened with pack-thread. A more convenient and durable sort is prepared of India-rubber, instead of a bladder; though the French and Germans employ, in preference, a long pewter syringe by which the liquor may, with more ease and expedition, be drawn in, and likewise more forcibly ex- pelled, than from a bladder. Both methods, however, are in many in- stances liable to great objections, especially the former, Avhich cannot be administered Avithout the assist- ance of another person, even though the patient should possess sufficic nt strength and dexterity to perform the operation. Hence Ave cannot, injustice to Mr. Savigny, of King-street, Covent-garden,omit to mention his newly invented ma- chine for lavemens; Avhich, for sim- plicity of construction, facility . in using it, cleanliness and durability, far surpasses every former contriv- ance. This machine is ingenious- ly adapted both for private use, and to admit of assistance. One of its essential advantages is, that the injection may be received into the body, without the least interven- tion of air; because the cylinder containing the liquid is provided C L Y CLY 155 with a piston, which, by gently pressing it doAvn upon the fluid, till it appears on the top of the ivory pipe, expels the air, and thus pre- vents its introduction into the bo- wels:....the Avhole apparatus, in a mahogany case, is sold by Mr. Savigny, for one guinea and a half. Clysters form a very important class of medicines, Avhich, if pro- perly understood and applied, might be effectually substituted for many remedies swallowed by the mouth, to the detriment of the stomach, as well as the whole ani- mal economy. For Nature never intended, that the receptacle of nourishment should become the la- boratory of drugs; the local effects of Avhich, sooner or later, cannot fail to impair digestion, and lay the foundation of more serious evils than those deluded patients vainly imagined to remove. We shall not, however, in this place, ex- patiate upon the impropriety and absurdity of these practices, wdiich more properly belong to the article QUACK-MEDICINES. Clysters not only serve to eva- cuate the contents of the belly, in cases of obstinate costiveness, but also to convey into the system me- dicinal preparations of great acti- vity. Thus opium, the Peruvian bark, &c. when they cannot be tak- en by the mouth, may be given in much larger doses, and with less danger: nay, the most nutriti\re and strengthening liquids may, in this manner, be administered to persons unable to swallow, so that their lives may be supported for many months, and even years, by means of clysters alone. In short, it may without hesitation be affirm- ed, that injections are more con- formable to the intricate functions ofthe animal body, and doubtless safer, than the introduction of me- dicines by the stomach. Although clysters should never be administered too hot, or too cold, yet there are certain complaints accompanied with such debility of the larger intestines, and the abdo- minal muscles, as renders the ap- plication of cool liquids sometimes necessary: such cases, however, must be determined by the experi- enced practitioner. In general, therefore, these remedies are given in a tepid or lukewarm state, that is, from the 80th to the 96th degree of Fahrenheit's scale. The quantity used for adults, is from half a pint to one pint; and for children, according to their age, from two or three spoonfuls to half a pint. Anodyne Clyster.....Take of ei- ther linseed-tea, or new milk, from half a pint or three quarters of a pint, and add from 40 to 60 drops of laudanum. Laxative Clyster.....Milk and water, six ounces each; sweet oil, or fresh butter, two ounces; and if a stronger dose be required, add one ounce of Glauber's salt, or two table spoonfuls of common salt. In inflammatory or putrid disorders, hoAvever, it will be more proper to inject a clyster compos- ed of two-thirds of thin gruel, and one-third of strong vinegar. For the various forms and ingre- dients of clysters, to answer differ- ent purposes, we refer to the arti- cles, Colic, Costiveness, Dy- sentery, Flatulency, Hyste- rics, Urine, Worms, &c. COACHES, are covered Aehicles fortravelling, suspended on springs, and moved by Avheels. Although these articles of convenience and luxury were not unknown to the 156 C O A C O A ancient Romans, yet the first coach appears to have been introduced into England by the Earl of Arun- del, who imported it from Ger- many, about the year 1580. Hackney-Coaches, are those exposed to hire in the streets of London, as well as other large ci- ties, and paid at certain rates, which are fixed by legal authority. The number of hackney-coaches alloAved in London and Westmin- ster, is 1000 ; which are licensed by Commissioners; and their pro- prietors pay a weekly duty of ten shillings. Numbers, painted on tin plates, are affixed to each coach-door; and their fares, or rates, are settled by parliament. Mail-Coaches, are post-car- riages of a peculiar construction, being lighter, more elegant, and npt so liable to be overturned as the common stage-coaches. For a cer- tain consideration, they carry His Majesty's mails; are protected by a guard; and subject to the regula- tions of the post-office. The time of their arrival and departure is fix- ed ; they are restricted to four in- side passengers; generally travel fceven miles in an hour; and have been found very serviceable to the bommeree and correspondence of ibis ctiuntry, COAL, in mineralogy, a solid, Inflammable, and bituminous sub- stance, commonly used for fuel: it consists of various species; the principal of which are: 1. The Lithantrax, or Pit-coal; a. black, solid, compact, but brittle mass, and moderately hard, which retains its solidity, when heated.... Its component parts, according to Mr. KirwAn» are petrol, or as- phaltum, mixed with a small por- tion of argillaceous earth, and fre- quently blended with pyrites, or fire-stone. A red tincture is ex- tracted from this species of coal, by means of spirit of wine* 2. Culm-coal, which, together with a moderate quantity of petroh, has a larger proportion of argilla- ceous earth, and vitriolic acid, than the pit-coal, to which it bears a strong resemblance. Its texture is not so bright as that of the for^ mer species ; and it bums with a flame, without being consumed, leaving a slate nearly of the same size as the original volume of the coal. 3. Slate-coal, which contains "so large a quantity of argillaceous earth, that it has the appearance of common slate. It, nevertheless, burns by itself, with a flame, and is found principally in the quarries near Purbeck; and in such abun- dance, that the poorer class of in- habitants in that neighbourhood are wholly supplied Avith it, for their common fuel. 4. The Ampelites, or Canal-coal* is of a dull black colour, and easily breaks in every direction. It burns with a bright flame, but frequently flies to pieces in the fire : it may, however, be divested of this pro- perty, by being immersed in water for several hours, previously to its being used. As this coal is of an uniform, hard texture, it is readily turned on a lath, and takes a good polish. Hence, it is used for making various toys, which greatly resenv ble those manufactured from the finest jet. 5. Kilkenny-coal is the lightest of the various species of this fossil. Although containing the largest proportion of asphaltum, it emits less smoke and flame, produces a more intense degree of heat, and is more slowly consumed than the canal-coal. This valuable coal is * C O A C O A 157 chiefly found in the county of Kil- kenny, in Ireland. These are the principal varieties oL coal mo-, commonly known ; but they are not uniformly of the same kind or nature, in the differ- ent places where they are found. O- the contrary, the A-arious pro- ^^^•rtions and qualities of their in- gredients, produce a great number of other varieties, which are calcu- lated for different purposes, accord- ing to the quantity and quality of their contents. Hence it happens, that various kinds of coal are often found intermixed in one stratum, and some of the liner sorts fre- quently run like veins among the coarser species. Coals are applied to various pur- poses, and are eminently useful in the smelting of ores, especially when burnt into coke (to Avhich Ave refer); but, by these processes, considerable quantities of tar and pitch have hitherto been, inatten- tively, wasted. To obviate these losses, the ingenious Lord Dundo- nald erected ovens of a peculiar construction, for burning pit-coal into coke, and, at the same time, for collecting, in separate vessels, the volatile alkali, pitch, oil, and tar, which Avould otherwise have been dissipated. For this invention he obtained a patent, on the 30th of April, 1781, for 14 years ; VA'hich term was aftenvards, by an act of parliament, extended to 20 years, to commence from the 1st day of June, 1785. His ovens are so con- trived, as to admit the external air to pass through the vessels, or build- ings containingthe coal, from Avhich any of the above-mentioned sub- stances are to be extracted. After being kindled, the coals are decom- posed by a slow, but imperfect combustion, without dissipating the ingredients. The residuum in the oven, forms excellent cinders, or coke ; while the volatile particles are condensed in reservoirs, placed at proper distances. [Tar distilled from coal, was thought by Lord Dundonald, to be far superior to the common ve- getable tar, in preserving timber from the effects ofthe weather, and the bottoms of ships from the de- structive Avorm of the West Indies. Some comparative experiments were tried at New York about thir- teen years since, by which it ap- peared, that boards covered with common tar, and sunk in the river for several months, were much eat- en by worms, Avhile a plank cover- ed with the coal tar remained un- touched. In consequence of this apparent proof of superiority, the bottoms of several vessels Avere coated Avith the tar, bought at the rate of 40 dollars per barrel. But the result of these trials has not served to extend and insure its character. Capt. Truxton informed the editor, that he " applied it to the bottom of a 6hip, and discovered nothing in it like a safe-guard from the worm;" and added, " that some years after Capt. Sarley, of New- York, commander ofthe ship Ame- rica, payed all the timbers and planks of his vessel with it, as a preservative of the wood, and I was informed on the ship's return from her first voyage, that it had caused a manifest decay of the frame." From another source, the editor heard that the strong smell of the coal tar penetrated into the hold of the America, and impreg- nated the cargo of teas which was on board. A friend also informed him that, the coal tar, put on in this city, came off like a sheet of % 158 C O A C O A Hmewash, and left his ship's bottom bare, atDemerara, Avhere the worm commits great ravages, and greatly injured his vessel.] It is a circumstance worthy of notice, that not less than 70 kinds of coal are brought to the London market ; the value and prices of which differ, in general, from Is. to 10s. and sometimes even 15s. in the chaldron, according to their qualities. About 45 of these various sorts are imported from Newcastle, and the remainder from Sunder- land ; the whole of Avhich may be divided into four classes : The first class contains only six kinds of coal; called Wall's-end, Bigg's-main, Walker's, Heaton- main, Willington, and Hebburn- main. The prices of these sorts vary, according to their abundance in the market, from 1 *. to 3e. per chaldron; but they are generally upon a par, except the Wall's-end, which is mostly 6d. or Is. dearer than the others. The s > rf} H > *3 ►_- re rr -> 5'=^d2? ri 5! -. sa ^ zt- 1 V ^ "■ TF-L- Z1 in r. O ~ " >>>> ^ & M = ^ ^ ^ ** PI /. C r^ ft 3 ST ' " 3*. o >>> go! o- cr "i T, -S 2 a O «£ ■£ 3 -•3 CP2 2 w » - 3: ri ~ - ~ o o 3' C § o © o — ~ W M o — o «o o o o to o o n o o 3 13 n g o S 2 m O rro jr" 3 ' -* -* ja OJ 03 -n — 00 Ol <0 o a. ij.iti.uiuiaioi'cco^ ~ to "=3 tf. 0> l» C7> 00 —■ O O .* 'iy£pAi punpunjg - .-ha C3M*»-^a>£»-00O>^J o»-^o>o>o •S7U3J 'mm \ o o o © LO N ^O ^£ v> s o — *> en G\ <3\ ~ _ ^ Oi a> to 00 $-'t Js°<» o ooio o o o o o a. ~. a ^-ts ^' o 2. 2. O en 09 - o o o i— h- en ?>. o o 00 to to ~* O O O 00 c o oo o to 00 o o So a. NewHampshire Massachusetts, Rhode Island, Connecticut, is" Virginia. o o o o ---- - to Ol .M 01 h 3 ci* S § — .- 00 00 03 O CI -I OD 0> *»■ 00 ft. Yor nd rth Una -M ^ o «o o © o o o o o o * >r o o o © ---- - to Ux W o> N k &3°^ < 3" c =r — H- -* 00 s»^ tn (Jx to o o 05 v Jersey, nsylvania laware, and iryland. fB O 00 CTl M o> o o> o o Oi o o a. rs o o o o o o — "" *"" w to *. >i 3 a § g> < n O — *k Ol ■s oo •— •-" 00 o o o So <*? a. ~". 5 IP, — O oo o o» o u< o c o o o a. rt .7 TABLE, of other foreign coins, iSfc. with their value in Federal Money, as established by a late act of Congrr'ss. E.D.d.c.m. Pound Sterling, 0 4, 4 4 0 Pagoda of India, Tale of China, Mill-ree of Portugal, Ruble of Russia Rupee of Bengal The Guilder of the -01,940 0 1, 4 8 0 0 1, 2 4 0 0 0, 6 6 0 0 0, 5 5 5 Pound of Ireland, 0 4, 1 0 0 United Netherlands, 0 0, 3 9 0 17(2 C O K E.D.d.c.m Mark Banco of Hamburg,0 0, 3 3 5 LivreToumoisofFrance,0 0, 1 8 5 Real Plate of Spain, 0 0, 1 0 0 The different weights ofthe Federal Coins. Pure gold. Standard do. dwts. grs. dvits. grs. An Eagle 10 7 4-8 11 6 Half do. 5 3 G-3 5 15 Qur. do. 2 13 7-8 2 19 4-8 Dollars 15 114-16 17 8 Half do. 7 17 10-16 8 16 Qur. do. 3 2013-16 4 8 Dimes 1 13 2-16 1 17 3-5 Half do. 0 18 9-16 20 4-5 Cents 8 16 of copper. Half do. 4 8 The standard for silver coins 1438 parts of pure silver to 179 parts of alloy, which is to be wholly of copper, or 11 and 1. All other gold coin of equal fine- ness, to be valued at 89 cents per dwt. and all other silver coin of the same fineness at 111 cents per oz. A mill is the loAvest money of account....one thousand being equal to the Federal Dollar, Unit 0,001. A cent is the highest copper coin, one hundred being equal to a dol- lar 6,01.] COKE, is fossil-coal charred, or having undergone a process simi- lar to that by Avhich charcoal is made. By this operation, coals are divested of their humidity, their acid liquor, and part of their fluid oil. They are principally used, where it is necessary to excite in- tense heat, as for the smelting of iron ore, and for processes in which the acid and oily particles Avould be detrimental, as in the drying of malt. Coke-oven is a kind of furnace, of a circular structure, erected for the purpose of converting coal into coke. Such ovens may, however, at the same time be applied to other purposes. On this account, a pa- C O L tent was granted to the Right Hon. Henry Seymour Conway, in June 1789, for his method of adapting, or corn-eying the heat arising from the fire of coal, employed in coke- ovens, for working steam-engines, baking bread, Sec. calcining and fusing ores and metals, also for warming rooms, Sec. heating wa- ter for. baths, and for many other useful purposes, by which means the expence of the coal or other fuel is entirely, or in the greatest part, saved. The leading principle of this pa- tent appears to be the constructing of flues, both beneath and on the sides of the oven ; in which regis- ters are inserted. By means of these, the heat is conveyed to the steam-engines, baking-ovens, he. Avhich arc built upon and against the sides of the coke-ovens, and may be increased or diminished at pleasure, by opening or shutting the registers ; the same fire see- ing both to burn the coke, and to communicate the requisite degree of heat. [For an account of a lately in- vented Cokeing furnace, see Rep. Arts, vol. xiv.] COLD, in natural philosophy, is the privation, or absence of heat. Its immediate effects on the human body are, contraction of the cuta- neous pores, and a temporary ob- struction of insensible perspiration. Hence we perceive Avhat is vulgar- ly called the " goose skin," and the parts thus affected will not recover their usual elasticity, till the spasm be removed, either by external or internal heat, or by friction, Avhich excites the latter. At present, we shall only treat ofthe consequences resulting from an excess of cold ; having already considered part of this subject under the article Ca- tarrh, COL Beneficent Nature has enabled our frail and complicated frame, to support the h- at and cold of diffe- rent climates, with equal facility ; and though man has devised arti- ficial means of defending his body against the action of cold, or more properly, of retaining the inbred, or vital heat, yet it often happens that, by exposure to extreme cold, the fingers, ears, toes, ccc. are fro- zen : thus, the natural heat of those parts is reduced to the IoAvest point consistent Avith life. If, in such cases, artificial heat be too suddenly applied, a mortification will ensue, and the frost-bitten parts sponta- neously separate. Hence they ought to be thawed, either by rub- bing them with shoav, or immersing them in cold Avater, and afterwards applying Avarmth in the most care- ful and gradual manner ; by which they will soon be restored to their usual tone and activity. Indeed (a popular Avriter justly observes), the great secret, or art, of restoring suspended animation, consists in nicely adjusting the natural and ar- tificial stimuli to the exact tone of the irritable fibre. As moderate cold produces at first debilitating, and eventually bracing effects on the animal body, it is the most beneficial temperature in the cure of febrile, and such dis- eases as are not attended with ex- treme debility ; but it should never be followed by any considerable degree of heat. Sydenham, more than a century ago, pointed out the evils attendant on too much heat in sick-rooms ; he seldom would alloAv his patients even to lie in bed, and very judiciously directed the rooms to be constantly Aentilated Avith cool air. The great benefit derived from this practice in the small-pox, is now generally ac- knowledged, and arises chiefly COL 173 from avoiding the stimulus of heat, after its operation. The great cold produced by evaporation, observes Dr. Daravjn, is now well understood. In all chemical processes, where aerial, or fluid bodies beccme consolidated part ofthe latent heat is pressed out, as in the instant when water freez- es, or unites with quick-lime. On the contrary, when solid bodies be- come fluid, or fluid ones become aerial, heat is absorbed by the so- lution : whence it may be said, in general, that all chemical combin- ations produce heat, and all chemi- cal solutions generate cold. This should teach the careful gardener, not to water tender vegetables in the heat of sun-shine, or in a warm dry wind, lest the hasty evapora- tion should produce so much cold as to destroy them ; an effect that will the more certainly follow, as theyha\re been previously too much stimulated by heat, in consequence of which, the power of life, or ir- ritability, had been already dimi- nished. When treating on the diseases of plants, Dr. Daravin remarks, that though excessive heat is sel- dom very injurious to vegetation in this country, yet the defect of that element, or in common lan- guage, excess of cold, is frequently destructive to the tender shoots of the ash, and the early blossoms of many fruit-trees, such as apples, pears, apricots, he. The blights occasioned by frost, generally hap- pen in the spring, when warm sunny days are succeeded by cold nights, as the living power of the plant has then been previously ex- hausted by the stimulus of heat, and is therefore less capable of being excited .into the actions necessary to vegetable life, by the greatly di- minished stimulus of a freezing at- 174 COL COL mosphere. In the northern climates of Swe- den and Russia, where long sunny days succeed the melting of copi- ous snows, the gardeners are obliged to shelter their Avail-trees from the meridian sun, in the ver- nal months ; an useful precaution, which preserves them from the violent effects of cold in the suc- ceeding night; and, by preventing them from flowering too early, aA'oids the danger of the vernal frosts. In a similar manner, the destruction of the more succulent parts of vegetables, such as their early shoots, especially when ex- posed to frosty nights, can only be counteracted by covering them from the descending dews, or rime, by the coping stones of a wall, or mats of straAV. Having given a short account of the sensible effect of a cold tem- perature on animal and vegetable life, Ave shall conclude Avith a few remarks connected Avith the natu- ral hFtory of this elementary poAV- •er. The properties of cold seem to be directly opposite to those olheat: the latter increases the bulk of all bodies ; the former contracts them; and, Avhile fire tends to dissipate uheir substance, cold condenses them, and strengthens their mutual cohesion. But though cold thus appears, by some of its effects, to be nothing more than the absence or privation-of heat, as darkness is only the defect of light, yet cold is probably possessed of another qua- lity, Avhich has induced many to consider it as a substance of a pe- cuiiar nature. It is Avell knoAvn, that when a continuance of cold has con- tracted and condensed bodies to a certain degree, if then its power re increased, instead of progres- sively lessening their bulk, it en- larges and expands them, so that extreme cold, like heat, swells the substance into Avhich it enters....... Thus fluids sensibly contract in a cold temperature, till the moment they begin to freeze, when they immediately dilate, and occupy more space than they possessed Avhile in a state of fluidity. Hence, liquor frozen to ice in a close cask, is often known to burst the vessel: Avhen ice is broke on a pond, it swims upon the surface ; a certain proof of its being lighter, or of a larger bulk, than an equal quantity of water. This dilatation of fluids, hoAvever, is probably OAving to a cause very different from that of excessive cold alone ; because the power of freezing may be artifici- ally increased, while the intense- ness of the cold receives no consi- derable addition ; and, on the con- trary, a substance capable of melt-. ing ice, will increase the degree of its coldness. Thus, for instance, sal ammoniac mixed Avith pounded ice, or with snoAv, melts either of them into Avater; and increases their cold to a surprizing degree, as is obvious from the effects of this mixture, in sinking the ther- mometer. Hence the freezing of fluids cannot be entirely considered as the result of cold, but of some unknoAvn property either in the air or water, Avhich thus mixes ivitli the body, and for a time de- stroys its fluidity. We cannot, in this place, enter into farther parti- culars relative to this curious sub- ject ; but as there have lately been invented several methods of con- \erting water into ice, which may be of service in domestic economy, Ave shall communicate the most easy and least expensive processes of this kind, under the article Ice. [An intense degree of cold was produced by W. H. Pepys, junior, of London, and also by Mr. Walker COL •f Oxford, by employing Seguin's frigorific mixture of muriate of lime and snow. Mercury was fixed, by immersing in the mixture a glass retort containing the mineral. See an interesting account of the whole experiment of Mr. P. in Tilloch's Phil. Mag. vol hi. p. 76. and a no- tice of that by Mr. Walker, p. 110.] COLIC, a disease attended Avith wandering pain in the bowels, and rumbling noise ; both abating on the expulsion of wind : there is a slight degree of thirst; the pulse is scarcely affected, and the pain is not increased by pressure, as is the sase in inflammations. This complaint may arise from a great variety of causes ; the prin- cipal of which are, 1. Flatulency ; 'J.. Tough, pituitous humours, clog- ging the intestines ; 3. Worms ; 4. Bile ; 5. The Piles ; 6. Hyste- rics ; 7. Acrid food or drink; 8. The inhalation of vapours arising from the decomposition of lead ; 9. Rheumatism ; 10. The use of sour wines and cyder; 11. The gout; 12. A sudden catarrh ; 13. An acid generated in the first passages ; 14. Obstructions in the intestinal canal; and, 15. Poisonous sub- stances introduced into the stomach. Consistently with our plan, we shall but briefly treat, here, of those colics which originate from the 2d, 7th, 10th, and 13th of the causes before enumerated ; as the reader will findthe other species discussed under their respective heads of the alphabet; and the last, or 15th, under the articles Antidotes and Arsenic, in our first volume. If the colic proceed from the second cause, it is attended with frequent evacuations of viscid and glossy humours Avhich produce only occasional relief from pain. COL 175 Camphor and rhubarb ought to be taken in small doses,- namely, one grain of the former, and two grains of the latter, every three hours, or oftener ; and after the spasms have subsided, an infusion of catechu. (which see) or solutions of alumy -will be found the most effectual remedies. When acrid food, or tart and corrupt beverage, has occasioned the complaint, it will first be ne- cessary to take a gentle emetic, or if some time has elapsed, to open the bowels, by the mildest laxatives, such as castor-oil, a solution of manna, with a feAv grains of rhu- barb, Sec. Colics arising from the use of sour w ines and cyder, are generally attended with excruciating pain, and paralytic symptoms. The most proper remedies in such cases are, the tepid bath ; emollient fomenta- tions made of chamomile floAvers, with the addition of laudanum, ap- plied to the abdomen ; all such re- medies as promote perspiration, and especially the volatile tincture of guaiacum. But the safest, and perhaps most effectual means of procuring relief from pain, are antispasmodic clysters : they should be prepared of a Aveak decoction of ipecacuanha; for instance, one dram boiled in three-quarters of a pint of water, till the third part be evapo- rated, adding to every clyster from 30 to 40 drops of laudanum ; and repeating the injection every six or eight hours, at a temperature of about 90°. A similar treatment may be adopted in those colics, Avhich fre- quently attack persons Avho have a peculiar tendency to generate an acid in their stomach and bowels : but as this acidity is generally the consequence of obstipations, or ob~ 176 COL COL structions of the abdomen, these ought to be previously removed by the use ollaxative CLYSTERs(which see), assisted by gentle aperients taken by the mouth, for instance, calcined magnesia and rhubarb, in doses of one scruple of the former, and three grains of the latter, re- peated every four or six hours. Lastly, we think it our duty to caution the reader against the use of heating,stimulating,or spirituous remedies, in every kind of colic, except that arising solely from fla- tulency, without any other pre- disposing cause : as, hoAvever, no ordinary observer will be able to ascertain whether the expulsion of wind, which generally accompanies this complaint, be its generating cause, or only a concomitant symp- tom, Ave seriously recommend, in such a state of uncertainty, to ab- stain from all violent remedies ; to apply no other but emollient clys- ters and fomentations ; and to drink large portions of lilac-floAveror cha- momile tea, or take any other di- luent beverage, till the spasms be relieved, and the nature of the dis- ease more clearly understood..... These remedies are not fraught Avith danger ; and, if properly per- sisted in, have frequently been at- tended with the most desirable ef- fects. For treating the colic of in- fants, see Bile, vol. 1. [In common cases of colic, relief is soon obtained by opening the bowels, either by glauber salts, mixed with cream of tartar, and dissolved in hot lemonade ; by cas- tor-oil, or, by purging clysters, and by afterwards giving laudanum in small dose? every half hour. But in some violent cases, a most ob- stinate costiveness prevails, attend- ed by alarming vomiting. In this case, the clysters must be repeated every half hour, some blood taken away, and cold water dashed on the feet. After the bowels have been well opened, opium in small doses may be given. In some instances the warm bath has produced imme- diate relief. Many persons are sub- ject to frequent returns of this pain- ful disease, which, very probably, proceeds from gall-stones. Dr. G. of New-Jersey, uses a decoction of the root of the common mulberry tree to prevent the disease, with great success. Some well attested instances of the success of this re- medy, have been communicated to the editor. Horses are frequently affected by colics, in consequence of violent exercise, or of the animal being permitted to eat too much green herbage, or of bad hay, new oats, or Indian-comblades. The symp- toms, according to Ryding, are great restlessness, frequent at- tempts to lie down ; the hind ex- tremities are drawn under the bo- dy ; and the horse rolls frequently. Two or three quarts of blood must be taken away, and the operation may be repeated, if required ; but above all, clysters ought to be in- jected, composed of the following ingredients : water, half a gallon ; salt, one handful; oil of any kind, one pint ; molasses, one pint; mix. This quantity must be injected by a large pewter syringe, every half hour, until the bowels are Avell opened. If the pain be not removed, a pint of SAveet-oil or castor-oil, may be poured doAvn the throat, in or- der to open the whole intestinal canal ; after which, clysters of lin- seed decoction, Avith the addition of a table-spoonful of laudanum, may be injected every hour until ease be procured. A table-spoonful of laudanum may also be poured doAvn the throat, and the horse kept warm.] COL [COLLINSONIA, Canadensis, Nettle leaved Collinsonia, horse- Aveed, knatt-root, knot-Avood. Tavo plants belong to this genus. 1. The above mentioned, and 2. C. Scabriuscida, or rough-stalked Collinsonia, found by the late John Bab tram, in East Florida. The C. Canaelensis, has a perennial root, and usually rises four feet: the stalks decay in the autumn : they are square, leaves heart-shaped, opposite and sonate. The flowers are produced at the extremity of the stalks in loose spikes, are of a purplish yellow, and appear early in July. The root is composed of woody knbts, Avhich are extremely hard; and when broken and infused in cyder have cured several alarm- ing cases of dropsy, an account of which has been communicated to the editor. The remedy ought to be tried infused in warm water.] COLOPHONY, a black resin, or turpentine boiled in water, and afterwards dried. It is chiefly used in the composition of horse-medi- cines. Coloquintida. See Cucum- ber. COLOUR is one ofthe most re- markable phenomena in nature, the explanation of Avhich, by the ancient philosophers, was vague and unsa- tisfactory, till Sir Isaac Newton, in 1666, discovered that the colour- ed image of the sun, formed by a glass prism, a\ as not of a circular, hut of an oblong form, contrary to the laws of refraction. Hence he conjectured, that light is not homo- gencal, or a simple body, but that it consists of rays, some of Avhich are much more refrangible than others. This theory Avas very gen- erally rece'iAcd, and subsequently improved upon by Dr. IIooke, as well as by other native and foreign >ui.. n. COL 177 philosophers; and, though the doc- trine of colours is far from being determined with sufficient preci- sion, yet we are warranted to admit the truth of the following proposi- tions : 1. All the colours in nature pro- ceed from the rays of light. 2. There are seven primary co- lours ; namely, red, orange, yellow, green, blue, purple, and violet or indigo. 3. Every ray of light may be se- parated into the seven primary co- lours. 4. The rays of light in passing through the same medium, have different degrees of refrangibiiity. 5. The variation in the colours of light arises from its different re- frangibiiity ; that Avhich is the least refrangible producing red ; and that Avhich is the most refrangible, vio- let. 6. By compounding any two of the primary colours, as red and yellow, on#yelloAV and blue, the in- termediate colour, as orange or green, may be produced. 7. The colours of bodies arise from their dispositions to reflect one sort of rays, and to absorb the other. 8. Such bodies as reflect tAvo or more sorts of rays, appear of va- rious colours. 9. The whiteness of bodies ari- ses from their disposition to reflect all the rays of light promiscuously. 10. The blackness of bodies pro- ceeds from their incapacity to re- flect any of the rays of light. Hence it is, that a black body, when ex- posed to the sun, becomes heated much sooner than jy»y other. Although, «f id I sensible quali- ties, colour is the least useful in as- certaining the viuues and powers of vegetables ; yet, as the foliow- A a 178 COL COL ing general positions have been laid down on this subject, by Linnaeus, and as they appear to be sufficient- ly attested by experience, Ave shall conclude this article Avith specifying them.....A yellow colour generally indicates a bitter taste, as in gen- tian, aloe, celandine, turmeric, and other yellow flowers. Red denotes an acid or sour taste ; as in cran- berries, barberries, currants, rasp- berries, mulberries, cherries, the fruit ofthe rose, sea-buckthorn, and service-tree. Herbs that turn red towards autumn, have also an acid taste; as sorrel, wood-sorrel and bloody dock. Green indicates a crude, alkaline taste, as in leaves and unripe fruits. A pale colour denotes an insipid flavour, as in en- dive, asparagus, and lettuce. White promises to be sweet and luscious to the palate ; as in Avhite currants, and plums, sweet-apples, Sec. Last- ly, black indicates a harsh, nause- ous, and disagreeable taste; as in the berries of deadly ntght-shade, myrtle-leaved sumach, herb-chris- topher, and others; many of Avhich are not only unpleasant to the taste, but pernicious and fatal in their ef- fects. COLOUR-MAKING, is the art of preparing various colours em- ployed in painting. This art, tho' one of the most curious branches ofchemistry, is the least understood. The principles that govern it, differ totally from those, on which the theory of other parts of chemistry is founded; and as the practical part is in the hands of persons Avho sedulously conceal their methods of preparing colours, we have only a superficial theory, and are but imperfectly acquainted with the practice. Colours are divided into various classes, such as opaque and trans- parent; oil and water-colours; sim- ple and compound; true and false. I. Opaque colours are those which, when laid on any substance, efface every other painting or stain; such as white and red-lead, vermillion, Sec. Transparent colours possess the peculiar property of leaving the ground, on which they are laid, vi- sible through them. These are employed for illuminating maps, charts, Sec. II. Oil and water-colours are thus denominated, from their being ap- propriated to painting in oil and in water. In preparing oil-colours, care must be taken to grind them ex- tremely fine; and, Avhen they are put on the pallet, to mix those Avhich Avill not dry of themselves, Avith drying oils; and also to mix the tinged colours in as small quan- tities as possible. With respect to the application of them, if employ- ed for large pieces, they should be laid on full, in order that they may incorporate, and more firmly ad- here. If they are intended to be glazed, particular care must be taken to paint the under-colour strong and smooth; after which the others may be gradually added, till the whole is properly filled up. Oil-colours are, however, some- times Avorked dry, where only one is used, as in cameos, in which the gradations of colours of distant ob- jects are usually managed by lights, as with crayons; and in basso re- lievos, Avhich are imitations of sculp- ture, of every kind and colour. Water-colours are wrought in various modes ; namely, in distem- per (as artists express it), where the colours are prepared in size; in fresco or painting on fresh mor- tar, in which case it is requisite that the colouring be quick, lest C OL COL 179 the stucco or mortar dry, before it can be laid on ; and that it be neat- ly and carefully executed; each colour being properly placed, and occasionally intermingled by par- cels ; in agouache, where the colours are mixed with gum, and the pen- cil drawn along, as in paint and washings ; and lastly, in miniature, for small and delicate works, in which the colours are required to be very fine and clean, to be mix- ed with gum, and worked in dots or points. III. Simple and compound colours. The former are perfect in them- selves, such as red and Avhite lead, Vermillion, the calces of iron, 8cc.; the latter are formed by the union of two or more colouring sub- stances ; for instance, blue and yel- low, when blended together, make a green; red and yellow, an orange; and white earth and cochineal, a lake, &c. IV. The last and most import- ant division of colours, is into true and false: the former retain their pristine tinge, Avithout fading, un- der every possible variety of cir- cumstances; the latter either lose their colour entirely, or change in- to some other shade. Colours are chiefly affected by being exposed to the sun during the summer, and to the cold air in winter. White lead, however, forms an exception; as, when ground with oil, it retains its vi like- ness, if it be exposed to the Avea- ther, but degenerates into a brown- ish or yellowish cast, in a confined situation. Nevertheless, when it is immersed in Avater, it is totally divested of its colour, whether it be exposed to the effects of the air or not. In the making of colours, the chief object is, that they may not fade, from the influence of the weather; though it must be re- gretted that the most beautiful are, in general, the least permanent. It may, however, for the most part be assumed, that the more simple any colour is, the less liable it Avill be to change by exposure to the air. Having thus briefly stated the general theory of colours, we shall also give some account of the dif- ferent pigments, which are most commonly employed by celour- makers. 1. Black, consists of seAreral sorts, such as lamp-black, ivory- black, blue-black, and Indian ink. The first of these is the finest of Avhat are called soot-blacks, and is more used than any other. Its preparation depends on the manu- facture of common resin. The impure juice collected from inci- sions made in pine, and fir-trees, is boiled doAvn with a small quantity of water, and strained, while hot, through a bag; the dregs and pieces of bark remaining in the strainer, are burnt in a low oven, Avhence the smoke is conveyed through a long passage into a square cham- ber, at the top of Avhich is an open- ing, with a large sack affixed, made of thin woollen stuff: the soot, or lamp-black, concretes part- ly in the chamber, Avhence it is swept out once in two or three days, and partly in the sack, Avhich is oc- casionally agitated, in order to take doAvn the soot, and to clear the in- terstices between'the threads, so as to admit a free current of air. This method of preparing lamp-black, was originally invented in Sweden, but has also been introduced into this country; and is noAv carried on to a considerable extent in the tur- pentine-houses, from the refuse of resinous matters. 180 COL COL Ivory-black is prepared from ivo- ry, or bones, burnt in a close ves- sel; and, Avhen finely ground, af- fords a deeper and more beautiful colour than lamp-black; but it is, in general, so much adulterated with charcoal, and so grossly levi- gated, as to be unfit for use. An opaque deep black, for water-co- lours, may be prepared, by grind- ing ivory-black with gum water; or with the aqueous liquid that settles from the whites of eggs, which have stood some time to sub- side. German Black, see Frankfort Blacking, \o\ i. Blue-black is said to be prepared from the burnt stalks and tendrils of vines. This is, however, seldom done by colour-makers, who gene- rally substitute a mixture of ivory- black, and the common blue used for dyeing cloths. Indian-ink is an excellent black for water-colours, and may be thus imitated. [Boil an ounce of fine lamp-black in a little water, in an earthen vessel, taking care to skirn it. Add a dram (60 grs.) of gum arabac (or cherry-tree gum), and evaporate till the mass has acquired consistence enough to be made into tablets.] 2. White, of which there are several kinds ; as flake - white, white - lead, calcined hartshorn, pearl-white, Spanish—white, egg- shell-white, and magistery of bis- muth. Flake-white and white-lead, are the produce of the same metal. [Flake-Avhite is a purer kind of white-lead, Avashed and ground over again. White-lead is thus made : Rolled or milled lead is tAvisted up in a spiral form, and placed on end, on wooden crosses in earthen ves- sels. Vinegar is put in the vessels up to the cross. The vessels are then put into a bed of horse-dung, the tops being closely covered with a flat plate of lead. The heat of the dung raises the vinegar in steam, and corrodes the plates..... The white-lead is scraped off, and ground in a mill, and well washed. In lieu of horse-dung, larger ves- sels may be used, and a gentle fire. The vinegar may be evaporated after some time for sugar of lead. White lead is adulterated Avith whiting or tobacco-pipe clay. Spi- rit of salt will dissolve the whiting : or take an oz. of pure white-lead, and flux it with charcoal, and an oz. of suspected white-lead, and do the same ; the different quantities of metal obtained will shew the amount of the adulterations. For substitutes for white paint see ar- ticle "Painting."} (See White-Lead.) These two are the only whites that can be used in oil; all the rest being transpa- rent, unless laid on Avith water. Caldned hartshorn is the most useful of the earthy whites, as it contains the least proportion of al- kali. Spanish-white is only chalk, very finely prepared. Pearl-white is made from oyster- shells, asegg-shett-white also is from those of eggs. All the6e, from their attraction for acids, necessa- rily destroy those colours Avhich are compounded with any acid or metallic salt. The magistery of bismuth is apt to turn black, as well as flake-white, and Avhite-Iead, when employed for a water-colour. 3. Red. The principal red co- lours used in painting, are carmine, rose-pink, vermillion, and red-lead. COL Carmine is the brightest and most beautiful red colour known at present. [This is prepared from cochi- neal. Into a very clean tin pot with a cover, pour 10 or 12 quarts of pure water; let it simmer but not boil: put in an ounce of finely poiv- dered and sifted cochineal, and let all boil gently for five minutes...... then add 30 grs. of finely powder- ed Roman alum, and boil again twenty minutes, remove the pot from the fire, and stand covered till it cools. Drain off the water when cool, gently, and the sedi- ment that falls from it, will be the finest carmine. This will happen in 48 hours. Pour off the water, and i¥ coloured, let it settle again in another dish. The«*rosser sedi- ment is red lake. The finer sedi- ment is carmine when collected and dried. The sediment may be again boiled and left to settle...... N. B. In my opinion a few drops of diluted solution of tin in spirit of salt added to the solution of the cochineal, (or any other colouring matter) will produce a much finer lake, T. C In the same way may be made lakes from Brazil wood, and madder, and kermes berries. For another receipt, see article " Carmink." Rose-pink is a very delicate co- lour, inclining more to purple than scarlet. It is prepared from chalk, coloured with a decoction of brasil- wood, heightened by an alkaline salt, which renders it very liable to fade, and of little value. This co- lour might be made more durable, by employing for its basis the Avhite precipitate of lead ; and by bright- ening it with a solution of tin. Vermillion consists of sulphur and quicksilver, the former of which is melted, when the quick- COL 181 silver is stirred in, and the whole is converted into a black mass. See Cinnabar, vol. 1. [If Vermillion be adulterated with red-lead, it may be discovered by fluxing it with charcoal in a crucible ; the Vermillion will eva- porate, and the lead be reduced.] Red-lead is a calx, of a lively yellowish colour, which it acquires by slow calcination. Both these colours are very durable ; the for- mer, however, is the best red for oil-painting, but does not answer Avith water ; the latter inclines to an orange ; and, like other prepara- tions of lead, frequently turns black. [Venetnm-rcd is a native red ochre, but imitated by colcothar, or the residuum of green vitriol after the old method of procuring oil of vitriol by distilling nitre with green vitriol.] 4. Orange. The genuine orange-coloured paints are, red or- piment, and orange-lake : the first of these is a sublimate formed of arsenic and sulphur; the other may be prepared from turmeric, infused in spirit of Avine, having its colour struck upon calx of tin, and brightened by a solution of that metal. The different shades of orange may, hoAvever, be prepared by mixing red and yellow colours together in due proportions. 5. Yellow. The chief colours of this kind are, Kings and Naples- yellow, Dutch-pink, and Turbith- mineral. Kings-yellow is prepared from arsenic. Its colour is very beautiful, but apt to fade, on which account, as well as from its great price, it is but seldom employed. [A'apdes-yeUow. This is a natural production found near Naples, con- sisting of a kind of lava, unchange- able by fire and by acids. The ar- 182 COL - COL tificial kind is thus made. Mix 12 ounces of white-lead, 2 ounces of diaphoretic antimony (the washed calx of antimony), A an oz. of cal- cined alum, and 1 oz. of pure sal ammoniac, pound them Avell toge- ther, put them in an earthen cru- cible, with a cover, calcine them in a sIoav fire, so that the crucible shall not be hotter than a dark red heat, continue this for three hours. If a bright golden colourbe wanted, add A oz. more of antimony, and a A oz. of sal ammoniac. Do not let iron touch this colour. Those who may wish to inform themselves more particularly con- cerning Naples-yellow, and the dif- ferent methods of preparing it, are referred to the translation of a pa- perby Prof. Beckman, inserted in Tilloch's Phil. Mag. vol. 3d.] [Turner's Patent mineral yellow. According to our late celebrated townsman and friend, Dr. John Pennington. See Chemical Essays, Philadelphia, 1790. Take 2 oz. spirits of sea salt (ma- rine acid), made according to the process laid doAvn in the '• Edinb. Dispensatory," and one pound of li- tharge, mix and put them in an iron mortar holding about a pint, and lined Avith a mixture of four parts sand and one of clay mixed up Avith Avater. Heat the mortar white in a furnace. Never stir the ingredients while in fusion, and beAvare of iron through the whole process. When the mixture is fused, it is to be poured out into proper moulds made of clay, and Avhen cold, the process is entirely finished.] Turbith-mineral is, at present, but little used in painting, though it appears to be very durable, and is therefore preferable both to Kings and Naples-yellow. [Dutch-pink. Boil A lb. of turme- ric berries in one gallon of water, and add whiting to the clear liquor : the colour will unite to the whiting which should be collected and dried.] 6. Green. The only simple green of a tolerable degree of brightness, is verdigrease, or its different preparations : though far from being durable, it may be ren- dered more so, as a water-colour, by dissolving it in the pure tarta- rous acid. A green colour may be made by compounding Prussian or other blue, with yellow ; but it is by no means fixed, and much inferior to common verdigrease. [Brunswick-green. This is a Ger- man colour, not used in England. It is said to be a tartarised cMpper made thus: Dissolve one part by Aveight of sal ammoniac in water : lay in it three parts by weight of copper plates ; Avhen a green rust forms, wash it off, and repeat this till the copper is entirely corroded. Twelve parts of copper give 17 parts of common B. green, Avhich is precipitated by boiling it Avith tartar. [Scheeles-green. This excellent colour was discovered by the Swed- ish chemist Scheeles, and is made thus. Dissolve 2 lbs. blue vitriol in about three gallons of boiling wa- ter in a vessel capable of holding at least four gallons more. In an- other A-essel boil together 2 lbs. of pearl ash, and ^ of a pound of white arsenic, in about 2 A gallons of wa- ter ; boil it till the arsenic is dis- solved, or nearly so ; then pour this last hot solution into the first while hot, it will effervesce a good deal, and, therefore, the vessel should be large. The precipitate will be a finer poAvder, in proportion to the quantity of water used. Wash and dry it. The produce will be about COL 1 of colour. Common green colour may be made by precipitating so- lutions of copper by whiting and potash. [Sap-green, is the inspissated juice of Buckthorn berries obtain- ed by expression. To make a water colour from verdi- grease, pound four ounces of ver. with 2 oz. of white tartar, and boil them in a half pint of Avater, taking care that none runs over : stir it often. Evaporate to a consistence, then pour it into a muscle shell to evaporate to dryness.] 7. Blue. The principal blue co- lours arc, Prussian and Dutch Blue, Verditer, Smalt, Bice, and Indigo. Various processes haAre been adopted for the making of Prus- sian-blue, of which we shall select the shortest. Take 3 lbs. of dried ox's blood, 4 lbs. 8 oz. of quick-lime, 2 lbs. of red tartar, and 1 lb. 8 oz. of salt- petre. Let them be calcined and lixiviated, when the ley should be poured into a solution of 4 lbs. of alum, and 1 lb. of green vitriol. This operation -will produce the finest blue; but the quantity will exceed little more than 8 oz. and 4 drams. [Prussian-blue. The following process Avas recommended by Dr. John Pennington. Mix six lbs. of powdered black bones, with one pound of potash: press these in- gredients closely into an iron pot, and cover it with an iron cover, avcII plastered Avith clay or earth. Expose the pot to a bright red heat, for three or four hours. When cool, take the ingredients out, dissolve the soluble parts in hot water, and strain through flannel. If the blue be Avished of the very first quality, pour into the liquor, either spirit of salt, or oil of vitriol, until the boil- COL 183 ing ceases on any fresh addition of the spirit. Pour the whole into a solution of half a pound of green vitriol in two gallons of water. If a lighter blue be wished, add a less quantity of the spirit of salt, or oil of vitriol, to the liquor from the bones, in which case add a quarter of a pound of alum to the solution of green vitriol : then mix a little of the tAvo liquors in a phial, and if the colour be too light, add more of the spirit: mix the whole toge- ther as before. In the instant of mixing, the two liquors, AvhichAvere before colourless and transparent, become of an opaque blue; in a few hours the blue fecula subsides, and leaves a transparent liquor on the top, Avhich may be thrown away : the sediment must be stirred up with clean hot water, and suffered again to subside : this must be re- peated seven or eight times, and then the fluid filtered through paper, and dried on a large cake of chalk. The artist will find some valuable hints respecting this and other che- mical manufactures in Dr. Pen- nington's Essay, Phil. 1790. Blue-verditer ; add lime Avell burnt, fallen and sifted, to a solu- tion of blue vitriol. It is also made from the nitrated solution of copper left by refiners of silver after the operation of parting, or separatins: the silver by means of salt, from the nitrous solution. To this solu- tion of copper, Avhiting or chalk is added. Earths coloured blue by iron ore are often found native. For the above important addi- tional articles on colours, the editor is indebted to Tho .. Cooper, Esq. of Northumberland.] Dutch-blue. See Blue, vol. i. p. 321. The preparation of verditer is 184 COL COL studiously concealed, so that the best chemists of Europe have been baffled in discovering its compo- nent parts. It is very bright, and has a considerable tinge of green. This colour is durable in water ; but, like verdigrease, dissolves in oil, and is subject to the same in- conveniences. Smalt, is glass coloured Avith zaffre; a preparation from [the calx of] cobalt. It is, in general, so grossly pulverized as to be un- fit for painting, and its texture is so hard, that it cannot easily be levi- gated. Its colour is exceedingly bright and durable ; and, if finely pulverized, is little inferior to Prus- sian-blue. Bice is prepared from the Lapis Armenus, a stone which wras for- merly brought from Armenia, but hoav from Germany. Bice bears the best body of all bright blues in common use, but it is the palest in colour. Being somewhat sandy, it is necessary to grind it very fine, and to wash it well, previously to its being used. It rs as durable, and yields nearly as good a colour as Prussian-blue. Indigo is but little employed in painting either in oil, or Avater, on account of the dullness of the co- lour. It requires no other prepa- ration than that of being washed over, before it is used. See Indigo. 8. Purple. The only simple colour of this kind at present, is colcothar of vitriol, or crocus mar- iis. A beautiful purple lake may be prepared from logwood, by means of a solution of tin. As this mode of preparing colours is but little known, Ave shall give a few hints respecting it, under the sub- joined head of Colouring Mat- te:!. 9. Broavn. The chief BroAvn colours are bistre, and brown Pink. Bistre is prepared from the most glossy, and perfectly burnt soot, [chiefly of beech wood] pulverized, passed through a fine sieve: [and boiled in water for half an hour in the proportion of 2lbs. to a gallon of water. After settling, it is poured off, dried] and then baked in a little gum-water, and formed into cakes. This is a very useful colour in Avater, being exceedingly fine and durable, and not apt to spoil any other colours with Avhich it is mixed. The brown-pink is said to consist of chalk, tinged Avith the colouring matter of fustic, heightened by fixed alkaline salts. It is, consequently, very perishable, and seldom used.....See also Cha- fer. Colouring Matter is contain- ed in almost every floAver and root of vegetables, and may be extract- ed by a very simple process. The Dutch prepare pigments of the most beautiful shades, for instance, a very fine azure blue, from the blossoms of the corn blue-bottle, Centaurea Cyanus, L......a delicate red, from the fresh leaves of roses, especially the small French rose; ....an excellent violet from the flow- ers of that name, &c. in the fol- loAving manner: Take the roots, leaves, or flowers of whatever quan ■ tity is desired, bruise them nearly to a pulp, put them into a glazed earthen vessel, pour a sufficient quantity of filtred water over them, and add a table spoonful of a strong solution of pure pot-ash to every pint ofthe former. Boil the whole over a moderate fire, till the liquor is evidently saturated with the co- lour afforded by the vegetable; than decant the fluid part, either through blotting paper, or cloth, and gradually drop into it a solu- COL COL 185 tion of alum, when the colouring matter will subside at the bottom. This powder should again be wash- ed in several fresh Avaters, till they pass away perfectly tasteless*: at length, it must be once more fil- tred through paper, and the re- maining substance perfectly dried. From this preparation are after- wards manufactured the finest pig- ments, or water-colours, of the shops, by triturating them on mar- ble stones, with the addition of a little clarified gum-water, and then forming them into cones, cakes, &c. Having already, under the diffe- rent heads of plants, mentioned the various purposes to which they may be usefully applied, in the arts of colouring, dyeing, tanning, &c. it would be superfluous to enume- rate them on this occasion....a task Ave are necessarily obliged to de- fer, on account of the great variety of vegetables which will occur in the sequel of the alphabet. To enable, hoAvever, those readers who are engaged in any particular art, or. trade, to take a comprehensive view of every useful fact connected with their respective pursuits, Ave take this opportunity of informing them, that we intend to give a co- pious and universal Index of Re- ference, at the conclusion of our la- bours. By the assistance of such an index, they will be enabled im- mediately to avail themselves of all the modern improvements, disco- veries, and inventions, relative to any subject treated of in the Do- mestic Encyclopadia; whether it be recorded under a distinct head of the alphabet, or only incidentally mentioned. COLT, the young of a mare, usually called a horse-colt, in order to distinguish it from the female, which is denominated afilly. Colts should ahvays be bred from VOL. u. a sound stud, as their future utili- ty, in a great measure, depends on that circumstance; and also on the manner in Avhich they are reared. In the first summer, they may be permitted to run with the mare till Michaelmas, or longer, if the wea- ther continue mild. They should then be weaned, and kept in a sta- ble, Avith a low rack and manger for their hay and oats; but the lat- ter should be crushed in a mill, before they are given to them, as this necessary precaution will pre- vent the distension of their lower jaw-veins; which would otherwise attract the blood and humours down into the eyes, and occasion loss of sight. We would particularly re- commend a strict attention to this circumstance; as the blindness we frequently observe in colts, is not to be attributed to the heating nature of the oats, but solely to the difficulty with Avhich they are chewed. The feeding of colts with grain is attended with another advantage, namely, that their legs do not be- come thick and ill-shaped, while they on the whole grow broader, and better knit, than if they were fed only with bran and hay; aud Avill also be more able to endure fatigue. Colts should be carefully kept from wet and cold; as they are extremely tender, and would be greatly injured by either. During fine Aveather, however, they may be allowed to pass an hour or two in the open air, when they should be conducted to the stable. By this treatment, they will acquire a habit of docility; and, when broken in, will bear the saddle quietly; which operation should not be un- dertaken till they are at least three years of age. These young aiiimals are subject Br 186 COL COL to various disorders, the most fatal of Avhich is a cough, that generally attacks them when they are about six months old, and is accompanied Avith a visible decay, arising from certain pellicles, or skins frequent- ly separated from their interior or- gans, which obstruct their breath- ing, and at length destroy them. To remedy this distemper, SAveet cow's-milk, in which a little mutton suet has been dissolved, or the beestings alone, Avould be found be- neficial. [See Horse.] COLTS-FOOT, or Tussilago, L. a genus of plants forming 21 species, of which only three are natives: 1. The Farfara, or common colts-foot, which grows in pastures, in moist, stiff, clayey soils, and al- so on lime-stone rubbish. It is mostly found in fields that are over- cropped, or exhausted, and often severely exercises the patience of the farmer. It may be eradicated by ploughing up the soil, carrying the plant away when rooted out, and laying the fields down to grass. Hog's dung has also been employ- ed Avith success for this purpose; and, if spread on the land in the proportion of 15 or 20 loads per acre, it Avill certainly extirpate this troublesome weed. Colts-foot pro- duces yelloAV floAvers that are in bloom in the month of March or April, and are soon succeeded by large roundish leaA'es, which have a bitterish, mucilaginous taste, and constitute the principal ingredient in British herb-tobacco. They are eaten by sheep, goats, and coavs, but refused by horses and hogs. For- merly they were much used in coughs and consumptive cases; and have also been found of consi- derable service in scrophulous com- plaints ; a decoction of these leaves having sometimes succeeded, where sea-water had sailed. 2. The Petasites. See Butter- Burr, 3. The Hybrida, or long-stalked colts-foot, which possesses no pecu- liar properties. COLUMBINE, the Common, or Aquilegia vulgaris, L. is a native plant, growing in hilly woods and thickets. It is perennial^ and blooms in July. The beauty of its flowers, and their uncommon di- versity, both in shape and colour, have introduced this plant into gar- dens. It is eaten by goats, but sheep are not fond of it, nor is it re- lished by cows, horses, and hogs. COLUMBO-ROOT, or Colom- ba-Root, an article lately intro- duced into medicine, chiefly by Dr. Percival. The natural history of the tree, from which we obtain it, is but imperfectly knoAvn: it grows near the town of Columbo, in the island of Ceylon. The most active part of the root is its bark, Avhich is imported in circular pieces, consisting of a cortical, Avoody, and medullary lamina, and having a rough surface. It has an aromatic odour, but a disagreeably bitter, and someAvhat pungent taste. It is possessed of antiseptic properties, has been found efficacious in cor- recting and preventing the acrimo- ny of bile. The Columbo-root is much used abroad in diseases attended Avith bilious symptoms, and in an im- paired state of digestion. It has a remarkable tendency to restrain the fermentation of alimentary mat- ter, without affecting the stomach; a property in which it resembles mustard. Nor is it attended with any heating effect, and may there- fore be advantageously taken in pulmonary consumption, and other COM hectical cases, both with a view to correct acrimony, and strengthen the digestive organs. Farther, it does not rise on the stomach, and agrees well Avith a'milk-diet, as it abates flatulence, and is totally di- vested of acidity. Hence, Ave re- gret that this valuable drug is not regularly imported; and that it is frequently found either in a very decayed, or adulterated state....... The common dose is from ten to fifteen grains, every three or four hours, for adults; and from two to six grains, for children. COMB, an instrument made of horn, iArory, or other materials, and used for separating, cleaning, and dressing flax, wool, hair, he. Combs for wool are prohibited to he imported into England. A very useful Comb-pot was in- rented, a few years since, by John Ashman, an ingenious person em- ployed by Messrs. Daniel and Thomas Dyke, of Sarum. It con- sists of an almost cylindrical fur- nace for water, which contains a smaller one, keeping the suds of the second washing of the wool, to be used Avith the next quantity of wool, the first way. The whole being a manufacturing process,Ave referthe reader to the " Letters and Papers of the Bath and West of England Society ;" or to the 7th vol. of the " Repertory ofthe Arts and Manu- factures," where he will find it des- cribed, together with an illustrative engraving. In June, 17.96, a patent Avas granted to Mr. William Bundy, of Camden-town, Middlesex, for a machine for cutting and making combs; a full description ofAvhich, together Avith a plate, is inserted in the 11th vol. of the last men- tioned work. Combination. See. Artifi- cer. COM 187 COMFREY, the Common, or Symphytum officinale, L. a native, perennial plant, Avhich grows about two feet high, is found on the banks of rivers, and wet ditches; and produces yelloAV-Avhite flowers, in the months of May and June. It is eaten by sheep and coavs, but horses, goats, and hogs refuse it. The leaves of this plant impart a grateful flavour to cakes and pana- da ; the young stems, Avhen boiled, are excellent and nutritious eating. A decoction of the stalks, with leaves and floAvers, giA-es to avooI prepared by a solution of bismuth, a fine and permanent brown colour. But the most useful part of the Comfrey, is its viscid and mucila- ginous root, which may be classed among the neglected treasures of the vegetable kingdom. These roots are, at present, chiefly em- ployed by colour-makers, who, by means of a decoction made of them, extract the beautiful crimson co- lour from gum-lac. The natives of Angora, who possess the finest breed of goats in the world, pre- pare from the comfrey-roots a kind of glue, that enables them to spin the fleece into a very fine yarn, from Avhich camblets and shawls are manufactured. The Germans haAe lately employed the same mucilage for correcting the brittle- ness of fla:;, and roughness of avooI, in spinning: this preparation nei- ther soils the fingers nor the yarn, and may be preserved in a fresh state for many days, in close Avood-i en boxes. Taberxamontan, in his Ger- man Herbal, relates a curious fact, which, if not exaggerated, Avould be of great value in the important process of tanning, and rendering leather water-proof. He boiled, in a pailful of water, ten pounds of the fresh root, dug out in No vera- 188 COM COM ber, till one half the liquor was evaporated: with this decoction, when cool, he repeatedly dressed the leather which, thus prepared, became not only more durable than by any other method, but it always remained pliable and elastic....M. Dorfi urth, an apothecary of Wittenberg, in Germany, also em- ployed these roots in his experi- ments on tanning, with considera- ble success. After drying and re- ducing them to powder, or cutting the fresh roots into small pieces, he infused tfum in a proportionate quantity of Av«ter, frequently stir- ring the mass, till it acquired the consistence of treacle. It was then alloAved to stand at rest several days, till the fibrous and woody part had subsided, when the clear fluid Avas poured off, or passed through a basket lined with straw. By dropping diluted oil of vitriol into this liquor, he precipitated the mucilagi.ious part, which Avas again filtred and rendered fit for another process of tanning, after depriving it of its acidity, by means of a ley made of common pot-ash......Ano- ther German writer, M. Reuss, mentions the root of the comfrey among those plants, from which good starch and hair-powder may be prepared. COMMERCE, the exchange of commodities, or the buying, sell- ing, or trafficking of merchandize, money, or even paper, with a vieAV to obtain profit. Commerce h at present divided into commerce by land and by sea; inland or domestic, and foreign; and by whole-sale and retail. With respect to domestic commerce, avc may observe, that it is under the King's supreme protection, as it belongs to his prerogative to estab- lish public markets and fairs; to regulate weights and measures; and to issue money, which is the universal medium of commerce, authority and currency. The greater part of the com- merce of this country is carried on by collective companies, some of which are incorporated under char- ters, with an exclusive privilege; a practice which is, perhaps, justly due to the company that first intro- duces a peculiar branch of com- merce; but, Avhen such exclusive right is continued for a kind of per- petuity, Ave venture to pronounce it to be highly detrimental to the welfare of the nation, as well as to the interests of trade in general. The history of commerce, being less connected with the object of this work than its influence on the moral and physical prosperity of a people, Ave shall add only a feAV aphorisms, Avhich appear to us ful- ly established, by the evidence of ancient history, as Avell as from the nature and complexion of some re- cent events: 1. That, though commerce doubtless tends to im- prove the intellectual faculties of man, and renders him more skil- ful in the various ornamental arts, but especially those of Avar and lux- ury, yet at the same time it cre- ates a thirst of power and riches, which by no means contribute to his moral perfection; 2. That opulence, acquired by the rapid succession of fortunate events in commercial speculation, does not stimulate the mind to humane and virtuous actions, in so beneficial a manner as the sIoav and honest ac- quisitions ofthe artist and husband- man. 3. That large fortunes arising from commercial channels, constitute a rich, but not a wealthy nation; because those individuals, Avho haA'e amassed property, by bold COM enterprizes, are more prone to ap- ply their money to the support of political and financial schemes, while the industrious cultivator of the soil, or manufacturer, will be disposed to promote the more use- ful and permanent objects of nation- al pride, namely, those of rural and domestic economy. COMPASS, is an instrument of considerable utility for surveying land, dialling, Sec. Its structure varies but little from that of the mariner's compass ; for, instead of the needle being fitted into the card and playing on a pivot, in this in- strument it plays alone ; the card being drawn on the bottom of the box, and a circle divided into 360 degrees on the limb. It is particu- larly useful to travellers, to direct them in their road ; also to miners, whom it guides in digging ; and may be applied to various other purposes. COMPLEXION, generally sig- nifies the temperament, habitude, and natural disposition of the body; but more frequently the colour of the face and skin. In the latter point of view, it has in no small degree exercised the attention of naturalists, who have attempted in vain to reconcile the specific vari- ations among mankind, which are supposed to arise from the differ- ence of colour, stature, or disposi- tion. The arguments drawn from such variations have been proved to be inconclusive, and are now generally exploded. It remains, nevertheless, a difficult matter to account for the remarkable differ- ence of colour existing among dif- ferent nations. Without entering into a minute discussion of this subject, we shall only observe, that colour and figure, like other peculiarities, are created COM 189 by continual, progressive, and al- most imperceptible degrees. Na- tions are susceptible of habits, both mental and corporeal, in the same manner as individuals ; which are transmitted to posterity, and aug- mented by inheritance. National features, like national manners, though sloAvly, become fixed after a long succession of ages ; and, if we can ascertain any effect, pro- duced by a given state of Aveather, or of climate, it will require only repetition,during a sufficient length of time, to impress them with a permanent character. The principal colours observable among mankind, are the folloAving: 1. Black ; as in the Africans under the equinoctial line, the inhabitants of NeAv-Guinea, and of NeAv-Hol- land. 2. Swarthy ; as in the Moors of the north, and the Hottentots of the south of Africa. 3. Copper-co- loured ; as the East Indians. 4. Red-coloured; as the Americans. 5. Brown-coloured ; as the Tartars, Persians, Arabs, Chinese, and the Africans on the coast of the Medi- terranean. 6. Brownish ; as the in- habitants of* the southern parts of Europe, namely, the Sicilians, Spa- niards, and Turks, and also the Samoiedes and Laplanders, ay ho border on the Northern Pole ; and the Abyssinians, avIio live in the middle and southern parts of Afri- ca. 7. White; as most of the more northern nations of Europe are, namely, the English, Swedes, Danes, Germans, and Poles; to Avhom maybe added the Circassians and Georgians in the north-Avest of Asia, and also the inhabitants ofthe islands in the Pacific Ocean. Those of our readers Avho may Avish to see these observations far- ther pursued, Ave must refer to an ingenious Essay on the Causes of tin 190 COM variety of Complexion and Figure in the Human Species, published a few years since by Dr. S. S. Smith, President of the College of NeAv- Jersey. They will also find some excellent strictures on this subject in Mi'-Clarkson's elaborate Essay on the Slavery and Commerce of the Human Species, 8vo. 3s. 1788. Having given this general vieAv of the subject, Ave cannot suppress the observation, that many un- thinking persons are more anxious to preserve and improve their com- plexion, particularly that of the countenance, than to inquire into their animal economy, and to re- gulate its different functions. The face, indeed, when not disguised by art, is often the index of health and disease; though it is absurd to con- sider it as the cause of those changes which take place in the body ; Avhereas it exhibits only the effect. Hence we may confidently assert, that all contrivances of crafty empirics, perfumers, travelling mountebanks, Sec. which are pomp- ously offered to the public in daily prints, or by means of bills and pamphlets,containing specious cer- tificates, to induce the giddy, the idle, and umvary multitude (nay, sometimes the lady of rank and fashion), to purchase those " beau- tifying compositions"....are mourn- ful instances of human folly, and morel depravity. Those superficial persons, hoAvever, who are deter- mined to cure the surface, and ne- glect the inward state of their de- caying frame, by paying little or no attention to their mode of living, we reluctantly consign to the head of Cosmetics : others on the con- trary, AVhose minds are not irre- trievably biassed in fiwour of exter- nal applications (at Avhich even the untutored negro Avould smije), Ave COM refer to the different articles con- nected with diet and regimen. [COMPOSITION, (of Forsyth.) Take one bushel of fresh cow-dung, half a bushel of lime rubbish of old buildings, (that from the ceil- ings of rooms is preferable), half a bushel of wood ashes, and a six- teenth part of a bushel of pit, or river sand. The three last articles are to be sifted fine before they are mixed ; then work them well together with a spade, and after- wards with a wooden beater, until the stuff is very smooth, like fine plaster used for the ceilings of rooms. Where lime rubbish can- not easily be procured, pounded chalk, or common lime, after hav- ing been slaked a month, may be used. If any ofthe composition after using it, be left for a future occasion, it should be kept in a tub or other vessel, and urine of any kind poured on it, so as to cover the surface. The mode of applying this com- position has been already noticed under the articles Apricot, Apple- tree, and Canker, but it may be well to state it more particularly in the present place. All dead, and injured parts must first be taken away, and the sound fresh wood laid bare, leaving the surface of the wood very smooth, and rounding off the edges of the bark with a draw knife, perfectly smooth : then lay on the plaster A of an inch thick ; and take a quan- tity of dry powder of wood ashes mixed with a sixth part ofthe same quantity of the ashes of burnt bones, put it into a tin box with holes in the top, and shake the poAvderonthe surface ofthe plas- ter, till the whole is covered over with it, letting it remain for half an hour, to absorb the moisture ; COM then apply more powder, rubbing it gently with the hand, and re- peating the application of the pow- der till the whole plaster becomes a dry smooth surface.] COMPOST, in agriculture, is a certain mixture designed to pro- mote vegetation, instead of dung. To effect this purpose, various ex- periments have been made, of which Ave shall mention the folloAV- ing. An oil-compost was invented by the ingenious Dr. Hunter, author of the Georgical Essays, who di- rects 12 pounds of North American pot-ash to be broken into small pieces, and dissolved in four gal- lons of Avater. This mixture is to stand 48 hours, Avhen 14 gallons of coarse train-oil should be added.... In a few days the alkaline salt will be liquefied, and the whole, when stirred, become nearly uniform.... Thus prepared, it should be poured on 14 bushels of sand, or 20 of dry mould, and the whole turned fre- quently over, for about 6 months, at which time it will be fit for use. When these ingredients are mix- ed with one or two hogsheads of water, they will form a fluid com- post, to be used with a water-cart. The inventor himself, however, ac- knowledges that it is much inferior to rotten dung ; yet, from various experiments, it appears to be a to- lerable substitute for that article. A compost prepared from putri- fied animal substances will, doubt- less, be preferable to any other manure : the only obstacle to then- being more generally employed, is the difficulty with which they are procured. The folloAving is recom- mended by Dr. Hunter, of York: Take a sufficient quantity of saw- dust, and incorporate it Avith the blood and offal of a slaughter-house. com im putting a layer of each, till it be- comes a moist and fetid composi- tion. Tavo loads of this compost, mixed with three ofearth, will be sufficient for an acre of wheat or spring corn, and should be laid on the soil at the time of sowing, and harrowed in Avith the grain. As it lies in a small compass, it is Avell calculated for the use of those far- mers who are obliged to carry their manure from a distance. Hence we recommend this preparation as a substitute, both for fold-yard and stable-dung,because it is extremely rich, and exerts its fertilizing influ- ence longer on the soil; which. however impoverished, will thus be restored to its pristine vigour.-. See also Manure, Compost, in gardening, is a mixture of various earths, earthv substances, and dung, either for meliorating the soil of a garden, in general, or promoting the vegeta- tion of some particular plant.-. There are few vegetables Avhich do not delight in some peculiar earth, where they thrive better than in others.....As the reader Avill find this subject discussed in the alpha- betical order of plants, or under the different botanical articles, it would be superfluous to enlarge upon it in this place. [The great value of Compost manure is now beginning to be well understood by the farmers in Penn- sylvania, particularly those near the city of Philadelphia, by whom greater crops are unques'donably produced than in almost any other part of the state, Lancaster county excepted. Mr. Wm. West, of Upper Der- by township, Delaware county, ha3 dene much towards effecting a happy change in the bad system of farming which formerly prevailed. 192 C O M com and in particular has been of infinite service in sheAving Avhat great ad- vantages the neglected Aveeds of the fields and fence sides, and the leaves of the woods may produce, if properly attended to and convert- ed into manure. Mr.WEST directs the yardA\-here the compost is to be made, to be considerably concave, and the bot- tom laid over four or five inches deep with the toughest clay, and this stratum to be coA^ered with strong gravel well pounded in, to prevent its removal Avhen the ma- nure is taken out. Into this yard he directs to hawl in the autumn, a quantity of earth taken from the top or under surface, and of the quality adapted to the land to be manured. That is, if a sandy and open soil, he takes clay, and if clayey, sandy soil. Fie cuts doAvnall the weeds about the farm before they seed, and together with the leaves from the Avoods. haAvls them into the yard, Avhere they receiA'e a sprinkling of lime, to promote their putrefaction, and are formed into a heap Avith the stable dung, and en- riched by the urine Avhich flows from the cattle stalls. If the proportion of stable ma- nure be much less than the other materials, the quantity of lime may be increased, in order to favour the decomposition of the vegetable matter. This will take place in about one year, when the manure may be haw led out to the ground requiring it. Much time may also be saved by the farmer making a compost heap on the head lands of fields intended to be manured ; for this purpose, the weeds, leaves, mud from creeks or SAvamps, and Avaste hay, may be collected in a heap, mixed Avith lime, dung from the fields, and cuth from the head lands. One faithful mixing is suf. ficieht, for as Mr. Bordley justly observes, often turning the compost may weaken it as a manure, by checking the fermentation of the mass. In this Avay a diligent farmer may greatly increase the richness of the land, at the same time that he rids his fields of noxious weeds and briars. Several heaps of com- post of different qualities, according to the nature of the soils requiring a dressing, may be made either in the field, or in the barn yard. As the Avater drains from them, it should be carefully collected and thrown on the heap. And that it may not be lost by soaking in the ground Avhile the farmer is neces- sarily occupied in attending to other matters ; wooden troughs, or gut- ters, paved Avith clay and gravel, well pounded, or with lime and gravel mixed with boiling hot lime-Avash, and spread with a trowel, may be made to convey the liquid to a tight barrel sunk in the ground ; whence it may be thrown upon the heap at a leisure time. See Manure.] Compound. See Houses. COMPRESSES, in surgery, are very useful applications, for pre- venting a Avound from bleeding, or SAvelling, as well as in the treat- ment of aneurisms, ruptures, and indolent tumours of every kind..... They generally consist of folded pieces of linen cloth, so contrived as to make a gentle pressure upon any particular part.......After the plaster and other dressings are ap- plied, surgeons frequently coA'er the Avhole with a compress, to se- cure and fix their applications, and to preserve the parts from the in- juries of external air, which Avould retard the process of healing. Compresses are likewise fre- quently used, Avhere no plasters CON CON 193 are required; and in this case, ei- ther dry, or moistened with certain liquors, which are supposed to be strengthening, emollient, cooling, Sec. For such purpose, they are dipped into decoctions of different herbs, into wine, spirits, vinegar, lime-water, solutions of Avater, sal- » ammoniac, &c* either hot or cold, according to the nature ofthe case. But the principal use of compresses appears to be that of filling up any cavity or depression ofthe parts, so that the dressings, especially in fractures, may be applied with greater security ; and to prevent the bandages from occasioning a troublesome irritation or other pain, and uneasiness on the skin. Hence they ought to be cut out in circu- lar pieces, nicely adjusted to the diseased parts, and each of them progressively increasingin diameter CONDUCTORS, are long rods made of iron or other metal, em- ployed for protecting buildings from the effects of lightning. The utility of conductors is uni- versally acknoAvledged, yet it has not been ascertained, till Avithin these few years, whether pointed or blunt ones were the most pro- per : the former, however, are hoav decidedly preferred, in consequence of seA'eral experiments, made under the inspection ofthe Royal Society. Instances, nevertheless, occur of houses provided with pointed me- tallic conductors, being stricken with lightning; so that this philo- sophical contrivance has not yet arrived at perfection. Wc, there- fore, communicate Avith satisfaction the following improvement in con- ductors, made by Mr. Robert Pa- terson, of Philadelphia, for which the American Fhilosophical Society adjudged him the prize of a gold medal. He proposes first to in- voi.. II. sert, in the top of the rod, a piece ofthe best black-lead,about 2 inches long, and terminating in a fine point which projects a little above the end of its metallic socket; so that if the black-lead point should by any accident, be broken off, that of the rod would be left sharp enough to answer the purpose of a metallic conductor. His second in- tention is, to facilitate the passage of the electric fluid from the lower part of the rod into the surround- ing earth. In many cases it is im- practicable, from the interruption of rocks and other obstacles, to sink the rod so deeply as to reach moist earth, or any other substance that is a tolerably good conductor of electricity. To remedy this de- fect, Mr. Paterson proposes to make the lower part of the rod, either of tin or copper, Avhich me- tals are far less liable to corrosion or rust, than iron, when lying un- der ground ; or, which will ansAver the purpose still better, to coat that part of the conductor, of what- ever metal it may consist, Avith a thick crust of black-lead previously formed into a paste, by being pul- verized, mixed Avith melted sul- phur, and applied to the rod while hot. By this precaution, the lower part ofthe rod will, in his opinion, retain its conducting poAvers for ages, without any diminution. In order to increase the surface of the subterraneous part of the conductor, he directs a hole, or pit, of sufficient extent, to be dug as deep as convenient; into Avhich a quantity of charcoal should be put, surrounding the loAver extremity of the rod. Thus, the surface of that part of the conductor, Avhich is in contact with the earth, may be increased with little trouble or ex- pence ; a circumstance of the first Cc 194 CON CON importance to the security against those accidents....as charcoal is an excellent conductor of electricity, and will undergo little or no change of property, by lying in the earth for a long series of years. [The experience of every year convinces us that metallic conduc- tors, or lightning rods, are not cer- tain safeguards against lightning: it is of infinite importance, there- fore, to state a certain mode by which all possible danger may be avoided ; this we are enabled to do from the directions given by the late G. C. Morgan, in his lectures upon electricity; (Norwich, 1794.) and the editor is happy in stating, that the method was highly ap- proved of by that distinguished philosopher, Dr. Priestley, and Avas the one Avhich he constantly recommended in England, Avhen consulted on the occasion. The foundation of each partition wall of the house must be laid on a strip of lead ; or the lead must be fastened to the sides of them...... These strips must be connected, and their dimensions not less than one-fourth of an inch thick, and 2 inches wide. A perpendicular strip on each side of the house, should rise from this bed of metr.liic con- ductors to the surface of the ground : there a strip should be continued around all the house, and carefully connected Avith water pipes, Sec. The strips on the sides of the house should then be con- tinued to the roof, where the me- thod of guarding the bottom must be imitated. The top is to be sur- rounded by a strip, whose connec- tion should spread over every edge and prominence, and hence must continue to the summit of each se- parate chimney. The chimnies in particular must be protected, for Mr. Morgan was witness to a case in which a house Avas guarded, in most respects, ac- • cording to the method just describ- ed : but from the chimnies having been left unprotected, the lightning consequently struck one of them, where its rage terminated ; but the tumbling of the chimney into the # roof was attended by serious con- sequences. By guarding the hou«, Ave make it of all objects, that which is the most likely to become the circuit of a cloud ; and conse- quently should be careful that io interruption divides the conductors, for the havoc will probably take place. The expence of a conductor, erected'according to the plan de- scribed, may be considerably les- sened, by making a proper use of the leaden pipes and copings Avhich belong to most houses ; no other skill being requisite, than that of fastening the strips of lead, so that they may be secure, and at the same time be connected Avith each other. Ships maybe also easily protect- ed. One strip of metal should sur- round the deck ; another should be fastened to the bottom, or the side of the keel; these strips should be connected with others which . embrace the ship in different parts. If the vessel be copper-bottomed, nothing more is necessary than to connect the metal Avhich surrounds the deck with the copper, but in both cases, a separate strip should pass from the rest of the strips to each mast; no injury can then possibly happen beloAV deck. This is a circumstance of considerable importance ; for the conductors Avhich are usually designed for the masts, are moveable, and injury has often been the consequence of CON neglecting to place them in their propir situation. The protection of the masts must be managed by extending a metallic body along the stays to as great a height as possible. Chains are frequently employed for this purpose ; but strips of lead are cheaper -y they are not separated by any interruptions ; they are not so liable to injury from the weather and salt Avater as iron is, and, might be fiu>iened without annoying any necessary movement. Conductors, of heat, seeFlEAT.] . Congelation. See Ick. . CONSTITUTION, is the par- ticular temperament of the body, which depends chiefly on the state of its humours or fluids, and some- times also on the solids, but espe- cially the nerves. It is curious, says Dr. Perci- va l, to observe the revolution that has taken place, within the last 'century, in the constitution of the inhabitants of Europe. Inflamma- tory diseases occur less frequently; and in general are less rapid and violent in their effects, than they were former!}. This advantage- ous change, however, is more than counter-balanced by the introduc- tion of debilitating articles of food and drink, several of which were utterly unknown to our ancestors, but hoav universally prevail. The bodies of men and women are equally enfeebled and enervated: nay, it is no uucommon circum- stance to meet with a very high degree of irritability under the ex- ternal apearance of great strength and robustness. Hypochondriacal complaints, palsies, dropsies, and all those diseases that originate in debility, are now generally ende- mial; and hysterics, Avhich were formerly peculiar to Avomen, attack CON 195 at present either sex indiscrimin- ately. A variety of causes must concur to effect so great and uni- versal a revolution. The first of these is the general use of Tea; to which article Ave refer. The se- cond place may, perhaps, be assign- ed to the excessive use of spiritu- ous liquors; a pernicious custom which, in too many instances, ori- ginates in the former; as, from the lowness and depression of spirits occasioned by the continual use of tea, it becomes almost indispensibly necessary to have recourse to some- think cordial and exhilarating. Hence many sagacious persons pre- tend to have discovered the grand secret of obviating the hurtful ef- fects of that favourite drug, by mix- ing a few tea-spoonfuls of brandy with each cup of tea, especially in dull or hazy weather. Thus, they gradually become tipplers; and hence proceed those odious and dis- graceful habits of intemperance, which, Ave fear, are at present with justice imputed to many females in the middle ranks of society, who, independently of this barbar- ous custom, Avould be an ornament to their sex. Indignation and hor- ror would strike our more tempe- rate ancestors, could they behold their degenerate progeny approach- ing Avith rapid steps towards that humiliating state of apathy and servitude, in which many nations of Europe, both north and south of this island, languish in deplora- ble misery......See Brandy and Spirits. CONSUMPTION, in medicine, is a very comprehensiA'e term, in- cluding all those diseases, in which the body, from a defect of nou- rishment, is gradually reduced to a state of debility and emaciation. This fatal disorder may arise from 196 CON a great variety of causes, such as a mal-conformation of the trunk; straitness of the chest; intemper- ance of whatever kind; obstruc- tions in the pulmonary vessels,sup- pression of any natural evacua- tions; as likewise in consequence of pleurisies, coughs, catarrhs, di- arrhoeas, grief, intense study, &c. More frequently, however, it ori- ginates from a neglected cold, es- pecially in constitutions Avhere a peculiar hereditary disposition pre- vails, Avithout any other discovera- ble cause. Accordingly as consumptions are accompanied with fever, or exempt from that symptom, they may be divided into three classes: 1. Such as are occasioned by the hectic fe- ver, Avhich, hoAveA-er, is not the con- sequence of exulcerated lungs: See Hectic Fever; 2. Those in which the wasting of the body, as well as the fever, arise from pul- monic ulcers: See Lungs; and 3. Where the gradual emaciation is unconnected with any febrile symp- toms. Of the last species only, which is generally called atrophy, Ave shall treat in this place. An atrophy ahvays proceeds from a want of due assimilation of the nutritious juices, so that there is obviously a defective appetite, and a vitiated digestion, from the very commencement of the disease. What share the depression of the animal spirits, or an unusual irri- tability of the nerves, may have in the production of this malady, ap- pears to be doubtful; and they may be considered as the effect, rather than the cause of the com- plaint which pervades the Avhole system. Sijmptoms of Atrophy: General languor of body and mind; an un- healthy look of the face; a light C ON i I and unsettled sleep; the appetite now voracious, now nauseatinsA but usually most desirous of cold fyod ; straitness of the breast, and uhea- siness after eating; great internal heat and dryness of the tongue; gradual Avasting of the body; Con- tinual feverishness and thirst, espe- cially during the night; at length, a fever nearly resembling a hettic, and a total privation of strengthiand spirits. I Children and young persons are very liable to this disease: thej for- mer, from the unhealthy milk of a nurse addicted to passions, parti- cularly grief and anger; the latter, from the use of improper food; heavy and feculent malt-liquors; the suppression of night sweats, es- pecially when occasioned by large draughts of cold beverage; by eat- ing voraciously of crude, thick, heavy and obstruent food; drink- ing spirituous liquors; long contin- uance of worms, &c.....Scrophulous \ adults, and those who have lost large quantities of blood, are also subject to atrophy. Although this is one ofthe least dangerous species of consumption, yet, when neglected in its com- mencement, it frequently proves fatal. Hence the evacuations by stool ought to be strictly attended to, and if the stomach be foul, a gentle emetic preAiously adminis- tered. A diluent and nourishing diet, as circumstances may re- quire; country air; but particular- ly sweet Avhey, and the mucilagin- ous bitters, such as decoctions of the eryngo-leaA'etl liverwort, and the Avood of quassia, Avill be of emi- nent service. No remedy Avhat- ever is, in this complaint, equal to the warm bath, which should be gradually reduced to a cool, and at length to a cold temperature, as soon CON CON 19? as the patient is able to bear it..... (See vol. i. p. 204 and 205)..... Among the various domestic me- dicines, Avhich have been occasion- ally employed for the cure of what is called a nervous atrophy, we are from experience convinced, that none are better calculated to re- store an emaciated frame, than the conjoined use of the Salep-root, vulgarly denominated Female fool- stones, or MeadoAV Orchis (Or- chis Morio, L.) and the jelly ob- tained from the red garden-snail (Helix Pomatia, L.): Two drams ofthe former, in poAvder, boiled in a pint of Avhey to the consistence of a thick mucilage, ought to be taken tAvice a day; and from six to eight of the latter dissolved over a slow fire, in equal quantities of milk and water, with the addition of a little cinnamon and sugar, shovild voe used every morning.... But, if the patient's appetite be considerably impaired, he may be- gin the course of these remedies in much smaller doses, which might be imperceptibly increased. All symptomatical consumptions, however, are so far incurable, as they depend upon the particular disorders from which they origin- ate ; and, if the latter can be reme- died by art, there is no danger to be apprehended from the former: hence it is of the utmost import- ance to distinguish a simple atro- phy from a confirmed hectic, or a pulmonary consumption. In the last mentioned two cases, all the symptoms are more violent, and either the lungs or the tracheal, mesenteric, and other glands, are exulcerated ; Avhereas, in an atro- phy, those glands are only indu- rated, or otherwise obstructed.... And though Ave disapprove of those over-nice distinctions, Avhich serve to perplex rather than to instruct, yet, in this case, it is essentially necessary to discriminate between an atrophy and the rickets, scro- phula, and that consumptive weak- ness of children, who pine aAvay for Avant of a due supply from the breast, or in consequence of dis- eases preying upon the constitution of the mother, or nurse. Indeed, there is but too much reason to be- lieve, that the foundation of con- sumptive diseases is often laid in the cradle, by the faulty manage- ment of nurses, and the ill-judged tenderness of parents ; by keeping children too warm ; permitting them the breast too long ; and the imprudent administration ofopiates, practices not less detrimental than common. Thus, Dr. R. Russell justly remarks, the process of con- verting aliment into chyle is injur- ed, the habit of body rendered lax, the blood becomes too serous, the glands destined to moisten the joints increase in bulk, the heads of the bones are enlarged, and the glands of the mecentery, chest, and neck, are obstructed, till at length those of the lungs become also affected. The alarming increase of con- sumptions, in this country, affords an ample field for medical specu- lators. It is no less astonishing than true, that about one-third of those who die in London, fall vic- tims to that merciless disease, if the bills of mortality be taken as the basis of that calculation. In the three years of 1796, 1797, and 1799, the number of deaths, in the British metropolis, is stated to be 52,237 ; and among these Avere, under the general head of con- sumptions, 17,559. Although the framers of these bills have proba- bly classed many other chronic dis- 198 CON CON orders under the head of decline and consumption, so that, perhaps, one-half, may be fairly deducted from their statement, and referred to other maladies, yet even the re- maining number of about 3000 annually, in London alone, is suf- ficient to serve as a Avarning to eve- ry parent, and head of a family, in order to aA-oid those causes Avhich Ave haAre before recited. [So many books have been Avrit- ten upon this common disease, that it Avould seem impossible to say any thing new on it. It may be Avell, however, for the editor to add a few general remarks which are the result of experience, and of a particular attention to this complaint. It must be observed, that the true consumption only, is alluded to : the general wasting of the bo- dy arising from a gradual decay of the powers of nature, or from a course of intemperance or debau- chery, or from other causes, more properly belongs to the article " Atrophy." By far the greater part of all true consumptions arise from neg- lected colds. A cold is therefore never to be trifled with, but should be attended to with the greatest care. If a fever, and a sense of fullness attend,small bleedings,(viz. 6 to 8 oz.) should be prescribed, free;-tent doses of nitre (10 gr. three times a day) and purges of glauber salts, or soda phosphorata taken, dissolved in gruel, together v.-i'ch diluting drinks of barley or rice w?.ter, or infusion of flaxseed in boiling water, and sweetened with honey ; and small doses of laudanum. Confinement to a room of a temperature as equal as possible, is of great consequent.'. The diet should be more sparing than usual, for the first days: after which the accustomed mode of living, (if temperate) may be resumed. By this plan of proceeding, most catarrhs which very commonly are suffered to distress a person for weeks, may be easily cured. But should it happen that a cold has been neglected, and symptoms of consumption appear, small bleed- ings must be repeated every four or five days, Ioav diet used, gentle purges of the neutral salts above mentioned taken, together with small doses of nitre, and a free use of demulcent drinks above re- ferred to, jelly of calves feet dissolv- ed in Avater: refined liquorice, or sugar candy may also be frequent- ly dissolved in the mouth and will greatly assist in allaying a teasing cough. Much benefit has been derived from two or three drops of laudanum taken three times aday in a small quantity of liquid, by allay- ing the cough without heating the system. But the great point to be attended to, is the preservation of an equal temperature in the atmosphere which the patient breathes. A fre- quent alteration of heat and cold is death to an irritable consumptive system. Hence, if convenient, the consumptive patient should remove to the state of Georgia, in the month of November, if the attack has taken place before that time ; or he may visit that mild climate any lime during the Avinter, should the symptoms make a formidable appearance, (which they sometimes do,) after the cold Aveather has commenced. It is to be regretted, that this change of climate is often delayed until a late period of the disease, when the strength is so much exhausted that sufferers can- Hot take sufficient exercise to assist C ON the climate in restoring health.... Whereas, did they remove from our variable climate early in the complaint, they would be enabled to join the important advantages of a mild climate Avith regular ex- ercise. Where a change of cli- mate cannot be effected, the uni- formity of the temperature in the sick person's room day and night, ought to be carefully preserved : for this purpose a south exposure is highly favourable. Very great mischief has been done by authors on the consump- tion, 'who have servilely copied each other and considered the com- plaint as originating in the lungs, and as always appearing with an uniformity of symptom.-. It is with an honest pride we are enabled to state that it is to the United States the world is indebted for the discove- ry of the important principles upon which the cure of this formidable complaint is to be founded. Dr. Rush of Philadelphia first asserted that the consumption Avas origin- ally a disease of the whole system and not of the lungs solely, and pointed out the great, the indis- pensible necessity of regulating the remedies by an attention to the ... form which the disease assumes, that is, whether it be accompanied by inflammatory symptoms, or by those of debility. Nay, it frequent- ly appears with great muscular debility, und at the same time the pulse is so tense and corded, and the breathing so difficult as to prove the laborious transmission of the blood through the lungs, and to render a small bleeding essential, in order to prevent the progress of inflammation, and the formation of tubercles. The treatment must be therefore varied with the symp- toms-; thus gentle tonics, and light CON 199 nourishing aliments and exercise taken Avhen the disease puts on the appearance of debility ; and mild evacuations, Ioav diet, and rest, en- joined when inflammatory symp- toms come on. A more particu- lar account of the complaint can- not be given consistently with the plan of this Avork; the reader is therefore referred to Dr. Rush's Avorks, for an original and import- ant paper on this disease, contain- ing directions of conduct, both as to medicine and diet, in the various forms Avhich this complaint puts on. The digitalis purpurea, or purple fox glove, has of late been much praised in the consumption. It has done some good, and has also done much harm, in consequence of being given without due attention to the state of the system, at the time of its exhibition. The digi- talis produces very powerful effects upon the pulse, which it diminishes both in force and frequency in a remarkable manner, and hence ought never to be given, unless in- flammatory symptoms are present. But the discussion of the points to be attended to, in the use of this powerful medicine must be deferred until we come to the article Digi- talis.] CONTAGION. [By contagion is commonly understood, a specific matter generated in persons in a diseased state, and capable of com- municating the particular disease to another person by approaching within the sphere of its influence.] In some cases it is conveyed by immediate contact or touch ; in others, by infected clothes, such as cotton, and particularly wool, which of all substances is the mo-it susceptible, because it is extreme- ly porous. Contagious matter is 200 CON C ON also, though Ave apprehend errone- ously, said to be transmitted thro' the air, at a considerable distance, by means of effluvia arising from the sick, in Avhich case the atmos- phere is said to be infected. Some authors have asserted, that the gout and consumption are like- wise contagious ; but this appears to be very doubtful. To obviate as far as possible all infection, Ave would recommend to those who are obliged to attend patients, ne- ver to approach themfasting ; and, Avhile they are in their apartment, to avoid both eating and drinking, and also the sAvallowing of their own saliva. Nor will itbe altogether Useless to cheAv myrrh, cinnamon, and similar drugs, which promote a plentiful discharge from the mouth. As soon as a person has returned from visiting an infected patient, he ought immediately to wash his mouth and hands Avith vinegar ; to change his clothes, carefully ex- posing those he has worn to the fresh air; and then to drink a warm infusion of sage, or other aromatic herbs, Avhich tends to [excite] a gentle perspiration. It Avill also be of considerable service to those Avho are employed about sick persons, frequently to smell vinegar and camphor, or to fumi- gate the apartments Avith tobacco. [Notwithstanding the able expe- riments of Sir John Pringle and of other physicians, Avho have pro- ved that alkalies, both fixed and A-olatile, are the most powerful antiseptics, or resisters of putre- faction, and although these experi- ments are confirmed by the daily experience of mankind, yet still the opinion of the alkaline nature of contagion is maintained. Hence it has been imagined that by letting Icose acid fumes in infected places, they will attach themselves to the contagious atoms and neutralize or decompose them : and as has been already mentioned, under the ar- ticle Air, (Vol. I. p. 25.) Guy- ton de Morveau recommends the fumes of the muriatic acid as a powerful corrector of the conta- gion ; and has published an octavo volume in praise of the remedy; but in all bis experiments, and in those Avhich have been lately insti- tuted at Geneva, nothing was ac- complished, which evacuation of the infected places, ventilation, careful scrubbing with soap and wa- ter, and lime-washing the Avails Avould not have effected equally well, if not better. It Avas also stated, that Dr. J. Car- michaelSmyth of London is equal- ly warm in his praises of the effica- cy of thefumes ofthe nitrous acid,'m destroying contagion. But, in the experiments which he relates to prove the efficacy of the fumes, Dr.TROTTER,physician to the fleet of England, says, " there was de- ception from first to last:" indeed it may be again repeated, that the plans ofbothMoRVEAu andSMYTH are in opposition to the daily expe- rience of every notable house-keep- er, and, of every careful ship-mas- ter, who, as far as regards external means, require nothing butfhqjre- moval of filth, and the continued attention to cleanliness to remove contagion, and to prevent its re- turn. This subject is so ably treated by Dr. Mitchell in the Medical Repository, that the editor cannot refrain from again referring the reader to that work. He Avill find the nonsense of these troublesome and inefficacious substitutes for cleanliness properly exposed. Dr. Willich has given some CON CON 201 rood directions for avoiding con- atmosphere. ? • t».... ...UU ~^~n.*A *«. i-Ua Viiorhlv nng excellent remarks: " Observ- the greater part of it down at the fog much irregularity in the stand- time the ears were setting. ing of mayz in the rows, I caused Mr. Ludloav planted in conti- the seed, after listing and crossing, nued rows, four feet asunder, and to be carefully placed close to the eight inches from stalk to stalk in the landside ol the furrows: not dropt rows, and manured Avith 200 horse- in the careless scattering manner cart loads of street dirt. His crop usual. The corn thus grew strait, was as folloAvs : and admitted the ploughs to pass "''^ Total, 182 measures of com in near the plants. COR COR 225 The following highly valuable* observations are by Joseph Cooper esq. of New-Jersey, and doubtless Will receive^erious attention ; they tend to prove what perfection may be attained by continued care and attention, while at the same time, they sheAv the absurdity of the common opinion of the necessity for changing seed. " In or about the year 1772, a friend sent me a few grains of a small kind of Indian corn, the grains of which were not larger than goose shot, which he informed me, by a note in which they Avere enclosed, were originally from Guinea, and produced from eight to ten ears on a stalk. Those grains I planted, and found the production to answer the descrip- tion, but the ears small, and lew of them ripe before frost. I saved some ofthe largest and earliest, and planted them between rows of lar- ger and earlier kinds of com, which produced a mixture to advantage, then I saved seed from stalks that produced the greatest number of the largest ears, and first ripe, which I planted the ensuing season, and was not a little gratified to find its production preferable, both in quantity and quality, to that of any corn I had ever planted. This kind of corn I ha\'e continued plant- ing ever since, selecting that de- signed for seed in the manner I would Avish others to try, viz.... When the first ears are ripe enough for seed, gather a suffici- ent quantity for early corn, or replanting, and at the time you would wish your corn to be ripe generally, gather a sufficient quan- tity for planting the next year, hav- ing particular care to take it from stalks that arc larey at bottom, of a regular taper, not over tall, the VOL. II, ears set Ioav, and containing the greatest number of good sizeable ears of the best quality ; let it dry speedily, and from the com gather- ed as last described, plant your main crop, and if any hills should be missing, replant from that first gathered which will cause the crop to ripen more regularly than is common ; this is a great benefit. The above method I have practised many years, and am satisfied it has increased the quantity and improv- ed the quality of my crops beyond the expectation of any person, Avho has not tried the experiments. 1 he distance of planting corn, and num- ber of grains in a hill, are matters many differ in ; perhaps different soils may require a difference in both' these respects ; but in every kind of soil I have tried, I find planting the rows six feet asunder each way, as near at right angles as may be, and leaving not more than four stalks in a hill, produces the best crop. The common me- thod of saving seed corn by taking the ears from the heap, or crib, i» attended with tAvo disadvantages, one is, the taking the largest ears, which have generally grown but one on a stalk. This lessens the production ; the Other is, taking ears that haAe ripened at different times Avhich causes the production to do the same." Mr. Deane says : of all soils a clayey one may justly be accounted the worst kind for this crcp. A loamy soil will not answer Avithout a plentiful dressing. But a sandy or gravelly soil is best ; or sand, if it be not destitute of vegetable food. In the northern parts of New-England, it is not worth vhile to plant this corn on clay, or on mere loam : For it requires much heu, and these soils are not so Gg 226 COR much warmed by the sun, as sandy and gravelly ones. On any soil it requires much tillage and ma- nure in this country ; if either be scanty, a good crop is not to be expected. I think it is nbt the best method to plant it on what we call green sward ground, at least in the nor- thern parts. It is apt to be too backAvard in its groAvth, and not to ripen so Avell. But if we do it on such land, the holes should be made quite through the furrows, and dung put in the holes. If this caution be not observed, the crop will be uneven, as the roots in some places where the furrows are thickest, will have but little benefit from the rotting of the sward. But if the holes be made through, the roots will be fed Avith both fixed and putrid air, supplied by the fermentation in the grass roots of the turf. In this way, I have known great crops raised on green sward ground, Avhere the soil was a sandy loam. But in the course of my experi- ence, I have found peas and po- tatoes the most suitable crops for the first year. In the second, it will be in good order for Indian corn. This, however, may be pe- culiar to the northern parts of New-England. For this crop it is certainly best to plough in the fall preceding ; and again in the spring, just before planting. If the land be flat, and inclining to cold, it should lie in narrow ridges daring the a\ inter ; and if it be naturally moist, the corn should be planted on ridges ; otherAvise it should be ploughed plain in the spring. Some recommend gathering seed corn before the time of har- COR vest, being the ears that first rip- en. But I think it would be better to mark them, and let them re- main on the stalks, till they be- come sapless. Whenever they are taken in, they should be hung up by the husks, in a dry place, secure from early frost ; and they will be so hardened as to be in no danger of injury from the frost in winter. In the choosing of seed, some regard should be had to the state of the soil on which it is intended to grow. If it be poor, or want- ing in warmth, the yelloAV sort with eight rows will be most suita- ble, as it ripens early. A better soil should have a larger kind of seed, that the crop may be greater, as it undoubtedly will. If twenty loads of good manure can be afforded for an acre, it should be spread on the land and ploughed in : If no more than half of that quantity, it will be best to put it in holes. In the former case, it usually comes up better, suffers less by drought, and worms; and the land is left in better order after the crop. In the latter case, the plants are more assisted in their groAvth, in proportion to the quan- tity of manure. If the manure be new clung, burying it under the furroAvs is by far the better me- thod. Let the ground be cut into ex- act squares, by shoal furrows made Avith a horse-plough, from three to four feet apart, according to the largeness or smallness of the sort of corn to be planted. This fur- rowing is easily done with one horse, and is by no means lost la- bour, as the more the ground is stirred, the more luxuriantly the corn will grow. If dung is to be COR COR 227 put In the angles where the fur- rows cross each other, the furrow- ing should be the deeper. The right time of seeding the ground may be from the first to the third week in May ; or a little sooner or later according to the dryness of the soil, and the for- wardness of the spring. The farmers have a rule in this case, said to be borrowed from the abori- ginals, which is, to plant corn when the leaves of Avhite oak begin to appear. But so much time is commonly taken up in planting this com, it being tedious Avork to dung it in holes, that it Avill be necessary to begin in the driest part of the field a little earlier than this rule directs. Shell the seed gently by hand, that it may not be torn or bruised at all, rejecting about an inch at each end ofthe ear. And, if any corns appear Avith black eyes, let them also be rejected, not because they will not grow at all, the con- trary being true ; but because the blackness indicates, either some de- fect in drying, or Avant of perfection in the grain. Put five corns in what is called a hill, and let them not be very near together ; for the more the roots crowd each other, the more they Avill prevent the groAvth of each other. Four corns would perhaps be a better num- ber, if it Avere certain they would all prosper. The true rea- sons for putting more than one in a place I take to be, that by means of it, the toavs may be so far apart as to admit of ploughing between them ; and that some la- bour in hand-hoeing is saved, it being no more Avork to hoe-hill with five plants, than Avith one in it. If planting a second time should become necessary, by means of thoJ destruction of the first seed, or if planting be delayed on any account till the beginning of June, then it will be proper that the seed should have boiling water poured on it. Let it not soak more than half a minute, and be cooled speed- ily, and planted before it dries. The corn will be forwarder in its growth by several days. The seed should be covered with about tAvo inches of earth. To prevent birds and vermin from pulling up the corn, steep some corn in a strong infusion of Indian poke, or refuse tobacco, and sprinkle it over the ground be- fore the corn is up.... White threads stretched over a field of corn, will prevent crows from alighting upon it. But I doubt Avhether this will deter any other birds. A handful of ashes on each hill, will nourish the plants, and have a tendency to prevent their being annoyed by worms. Some lay it on just before the first, or second hoeing. It will have a better ef- fect in preventing worms, if laid on before the corn is up. But it i9 commonly designed to ansAver chiefly as a top-dressing; and for this purpose it would ansAver bet- ter near the third hoeing ; for then the plants Avant the greatest degree of nourishment, as they begin to grow very rapidly. Two dress- ings, to answer the two purposes, Avould not be amiss. When the plants are three or four inches high, the plough must pass in the interval, making two fur roAvs in each, turned from the rows ; and then the Aveeds killed Avith the hand hoe, and a little earth draAvn about the plants.... This operation Ave call Aveeding. In about half a month after, 228 COR C OR plough again, but across the former furroAvs, and turn the furrows i0p- wiads the rows. Then with the hand-hoe, earth the corn as much as it will bear. This is called moulding or half-hilling. When the plants are about knee high, and before they send out their panicles, or spindles, give them the i third and last hoeing. The best way is to plough one furrow in an interval, both ways. The culti- vator with tAvo mould-boards Avould be better for this work, than the common horse-plough, as it would throAV the mould equally toAvards each row, and save labour in hand- hoeing. The ground Avould thus be cut into squares, and the hills almost completely formed. In finishing them, care should be tak en that they be not made too high, or steep, that they may not divert the Avater, which falls in rains, from the roots. When hills are too much raised, they also prevent the warm influence ofthe sun up- on the lowermost roots, by too great a thickness of earth ; in con- sequence of which, the plants are put to the exertion of sending out a neAv set of roots, at a suitable distance from the surface. Some think high hills are need- ful to make the com stand upright. I never could perceive the advan- tage of it. But I am confidant it is oftener broken by winds when the hills are uncommonly high, which is a greater evil than its leaning half way to the ground, if indeed that be any evil at all. The farmer who wishes for a large crop of this corn, should not annoy it Avith running beans, or pumpions ; the former, by avhid- ing round the stalks and ears, cramp them in their groAvth, and sometimes bend them down to the ground by their weight; the latter, by their luxuriant growth, rob the hills of much vegetable food, and by their thick shade, shut out the influence of the sun from the roots ofthe corn. At the second and third hoeings, all the suckers should be buried under the soil; not broken off, as is the common practice, because this Avounds the plants. If the suckers be suffered to groAv, they seldom, or never produce fair and perfect ears ; and they rob the ears on the main stalk of their nourish- ment. I mention the second and third hoeings, because the suckers will not all appear till the third; and the sooner they are destroyed the better the crop will be. Instead of the common method of planting, if your land be rich, easy to till, and free from obstacles, I should think it would be best to plant the corn in the drill method, the rows being of the same distance as in the common Avay, placing the corns about five inches asunder. I have found by experiment, that a greater quantity of corn may be produced in this method, than in hills; and the labour is but little, if at all, increased. In a small field where the dung had been evenly spread, and ploughed in, I planted one row thus, the rest being in the common Avay ; and it yielded at harvest, one eighth part more corn by measure than either of the tAvo nearest rows, the corn being equal- ly ripe and good. When there is reason to appre- hend that the ground will prove too moist for this crop, it w:ll be advisable to plough it into narroAV ridges, and seed each ridge Avith one or two toavs, as shall be found C OR COR 229 most convenient. Some of the animals, but it is com alone upon finest crops that I have known, have which Ave depend for obtaining been raised in this method. that solidity in the fat and muscle When a season is at all wet, which are so valuable in slaugh- this would be the best culture in tered animals. Experience proves almost any soil, unless the very that corn broken by a mill, will go driest be excepted. one third further in feeding beasts, There is a kind of ridging, which then when given whole. The would be very proper for this plant, stalks and blades of corn, if care- not only on account of drying the fully stacked and cut, have been soil- but that the land may have an found by a gentleman (S. B.esq.) alternate resting, or fallowing be- < a superior food to oats, for his tween the rows. In the common coach horses. By a powerful cut- method of plain ploughing, it com- ting box the stalks and blades Avere ir.only happens that a hill stands cut small, and given sometimes precisely in the place of a hill of alone,and sometimes Avith oats, and the preceding year. When this were observed to increase the spi- is the case, the plants will receive rits and flesh of the animals in a less nourishment than if the hill very sensible manner. The reason had had a neAv situation. That is evident; the stalks, especially the each hill may always have this two loAver joints abound Avith sugar, advantage, let a ridge be formed and was extracted during our revo- by two furrows, turning part of lutionaryAvar;andsugarisoneofthe a row of hills on each side, so as mostnutritiousprinciplesin nature. to meet each other, in the last Considering the importance of the year's interval : then small ridges use of the stalks, it is truly melan- will be formed on which the rows choly to see acres covered Avith them should be' planted. If dung be in winter, in some parts, instead first spread over the ground, most of having them housed for the cat- of it will buried where it should be, tie. In the Venician territory, ac- in the bottom of the ridges. At cording to the late Dr.. Scan- the time of weeding, the remainder dell a, the blades of com are pul- of the old hills may be turned to- led, dried, and given to cattle Avith- wards the new rows. With such out injury to the crops of corn, and a mode of culture, land could not Mr. Bordely says, he stripped 150 soon be exhausted, even by a sue- hills of corn, and cut off the tops cessive cropping with maize. A\ when the corn was not hard, witb- England Farmer. out any difference being observed The uses to which this Inva- between the stalks so treated, and luable plant is applied in the U. the rest ofthe field. Dr. S. also States are well knoAvn. The arti- states, that corn is sown broad cles of diet into which it enters as cast, upon highly manured places a component part, are various and near the stable, and when it readies important. Alone, it is served up its highest growth, and the tassels in several forms, all of which are begin to wither, the stalks are excellent. As a strong nourishing cut down morning and evening, food for horses and sAvine, it is and given to the cattle in the s'a- probably superior to any other b^. These facts may be useful grain. Many articles Avill fatten to those avIio want fodder, and have 230 COR COR com, but barley straAV or hay, ought to be cut with green corn, or blades and tops, to prevent the beasts from becoming hoven. It has already been said that the cobs of corn are chopped fine by mills for cattle in Lancaster county. The blades of corn make a good coarse paper, and may be a valua- ble substitute for rags, in a scarcity of that article. A more particular account of this subject will be g'iAren under the article Paper.] Corx-bkrries, or Cranberries: See Bilberry. Corn-cale. See Charlock. CORN-CHAFER, or Curculio granarius, L. a species of insects bearing a resemblance to oblong, soft Avorms. They are provided anteriorly with six scaly legs, and their head is likeAvise covered with scales. Some species of these larvae are dreaded for the mis- chief they do in granaries ; as they find means to introduce themselves, while small, into grains of corn, and there fix their abode. It is very difficult to discover them, for they lie concealed Avithin the grain, groAV sloAvly, and enlarge their ha- bitation, in proportion to their size, at the expence of the interior meal, on which they feed. Com-lcfts are frequently laid waste by these numerous insects, which'devour immense quantities of grain. When the corn-chafer, after having consumed ail the meal, has attained its full size, it remains within the grain, hides itself un- der the empty husk, and subsists alone : there it undergoes its trans- formation, and becomes a chry- salis ; nor does it leave the grain, till a perfect insect, when it makes its way through the husk. One of our foreign correspon- dents has communicated to us the following recipe for extirpating these predatory vermin, or prevent- ing their devastations in granaries: Take three or four handfuls of the purple loose-strife, or willow-herb, or grass-poly, Lythrum Salicaria^ L. six or eight handfuls of Avater- pepper, or bitten* snakeweed, Poly- gonum Hydropiper, L, and two handfuls of narrow-leaved pepper- wort or dittander, Lepidium rude- rale, L....put them together in a capacious vessel filled with water, several inches above the herbs, and boil the whole from 15 to 30 minutes, by a moderate heat. Af- ter taking it from the fire, add four or six onions, a few cloves of garlick, and half a pound of Epsom salt. When cold, sprinkle the floor and walls of the granary with this decoction ; and, if the former be constructed of clay, the sprinkling must be two or three times repeated. The herbs here employed, should not be gathered or decocted, till they are immedi- ately wanted, as they Avould lose their efficacy by long keeping : hence, the months of June and July are the most proper seasons for collecting them. Lastly, the floor ought to be previously SAA'e'pt, and completely cleared of all im- purities, so that the decoction may be applied as a preventive, in the months of August and September. CORN-COCKLE, or Agrost&n- ma Githago, L. is an indigenous, annual plant which grows in corn- fields, and bears purple flowers in the month of June or July. It is very prolific, and produces a great number of pods, each of which contains from tAventy to thirty seed, somewhat resembling those ofthe turnip ; they impart a strong taste and an unwholesome quality to the bread baked of corn mixed COR COR 231 with them: such grain ought, therefore, to be employed in dis- tilleries, or the manufacture of starch. There is a variety of this spe- cies, which produces similar, but smaller seeds than the former, and exhibits a peculiar mode of vege- tation, being found within the Avheat-ear, one side of which is filled Avith good grain, and the other with a spurious one, produced by this Aveed. Hence, husbandmen have given it the significant name of ear-tockb: It is by no means so common as the former variety, but is generally attributed to bad husbandry, by Avhich the land is exhausted of its nutritious quali- ties, and weakened to such a de- gree as to be prevented from bringing the wheat to perfection ; because this plant is never found * on lands that are Avell cultivated, and properly managed. It is eat- en by horses, goats, and sheep. CORN-FLAG, the Common, or Gladiolus communis, L. a hardy, in- digenous plant, growing in corn- fields, from one to two feet high ; producing red and Avhite, or pur- ple floAvers, in May and June, Avhich are succeeded'by abundance of roundish seeds, in August. The Common Corn-flag may be easily propagated by off-sets from the roots ; as it prospers well in any soil or situation....The small, round, tuberous root is internally yelloAV, and reputed to be an ex- cellent vulnerary ; but this neglect- ed vegetable is more important on account of its mealy nature. Pli- ny probably alludes to it, in the XXIst Book of his Natural His- tory, where he observes, that the root has a sweet taste ; and, when boiled, not only imparts to Bread an agreeable flavour, but increases its weight. The blossoms ,of this plant supply bees Avith honey. Corn-flower. See Blle-bot- tle. CORNEL-TREE, or Corvus, L. a genus of plants comprising twelve species, of which only two are indigenous. 1. The sanguinea, wild cornel- tree, or dog-wood, which is chief- ly found in woods and hedges. It produces white flowers, A\hich are in bloom in the month of June, and are succeeded by round ber- ries. The wood of this species is hard and smooth, and is chiefly employed in turnery-ware. Its leaves change to a deep blood-co- lour in autumn. The berries are bitter, and dye purple : on ac- count of their cooling and astrin- gent nature, they are said to strengthen the stomach ; stop flux- es of every kind, and to be very ser- viceable in fevers, especially if ac- companied with a diarrhoea. From one bushel of the kernels of these berries, I6ib. of lamp-oil Avere ob- tained by expression. The plant is eaten by horses, sheep, and goats, but refused by cows. 2 The suecica, or dwarf cornel, which is found in mountainous si- tuations, chiefly on the Cheviot- hills, in Northumberland'; and tin some parts of Yorkshire and Scot- land. It is perennial, produces Avhite blossoms, that appear in June or July, and are succeeded by red berries, which are eaten by the Sweden. [Six species of the C vnms grow- in Pennsylvania, and in various parts of the United States. The most useful are : 1 C. Florida, Dogwood, or Box-Avood of the New-Emrland states. This isa useful shrub growing in a!- 232 COR COR most every part of the United State s. It flowers very early in the spring, and makes a fine appearance, x he bark which possesses considerable astringency, furnishes us Avith a domestic medicine, and when used in infusion with black alder (prinos verticillatus,) or with the roots of the sasafras (laurus sasaf-as) or of tulip poplar tree (liriodendron tulijifera) forms an excellent re- medy in intermittents. 2. Cor- nus Sericea, red willow, rose wil- low, blue berried dogwood; leaves ovate, feruginous, silky under- neath ; it groAvs about six feet high, Avith an upright, round, branched, gray stem ; the shoots are of a beautiful red colour in winter, and are said to furnish our Indians Avith a red dye ; the bun- ches of Avhite flowers Avhich come out in August and September, and grow at the extremity of every branch, give to this shrub a fine appearance. It grows in wet pla- ces, and is used as a substitute for the Peruvian bark, to which it is but little inferior, if not equal in virtue....A chemical analysis should be made of this valuable native pro- duction, by the medical gentlemen in the country during their leisure hours.] Corn-rose. See Red Poppy. CORN-SALAD, or Lamb's Let- tuce, Valeriana locnsta, L. is an an- nual indigenous plant growing in ccrn-fields, and producing white- reddish floAvers from April to June. It is eaten by cattle, and its young leaves are cut and used in spring and autumn as a salad, being es- teemed little inferior to young let- tuce. Sheep and canary-birds are equally fond of this vegetable. Corns, in surgery, are hard ex- crescences, consisting of indurati- ons of the skin, which arise on the toes, and sometimes on the sides of the feet, where these are much exposed to the pressure of narrow shoes. By degrees, they extend farther doAvn between the muscular fibres on those parts, and occasion extreme pain. Various remedies have been sug- gested for the cure of corns, but their removal is always attended with considerable difficulty. A cor- respondent in the 63d vol. of the Gentleman's Magazine asserts, that after having been afflicted Avith corns for several years, he Avas perfectly relieved from them, by the application ofbroAvnpaper mois- tened Avith spittle. It has also been recommended to wrap a clove of garlic in paper, and cover it with hot ashes till it becomes soft, when it should be applied to the parts affected, as warm as they can bear it. But the best cure for these painful excrescences, in our opin- ion, is to wear constantly easy shoes, to bathe the feet frequently in lukeAvarm water, in which a lit- tle sal ammoniac and pot-ashes have been dissolved, and to apply a plaster made of equal parts of gum galbanum, saffron, and cam- phor. By persevering in this treat- ment, the complaint may in a con- siderable degree be alleviated, and at length totally eradicated. But we cannot omit to caution those Avho are troubled with corns, never to cut or pierce them Avith any sharp or pointed instrument; as such imprudent attempts have of- ten been productive of dangerous consequences. Nay, it should be remarked, that every application which is liable to occasion pain to the foot or toes, ought to be care- fully guarded against, as being im- proper and unsafe. Hence the in- efficacy of operations performed by COR COS 233 pretenders, who are unacquainted Avith the structure of the human body : and such expedients may be aptly compared to periodical blood- lettings, which benefit the opera- tor, but impoverish the constitu- tion of the biassed patient, whose fluids increase, but progressively become more Avatery. [Corns, as observed by Dr. W. universally proceed from pre- sure by tight shoes on some joint. ....The means of prevention are, therefore obvious, and within the reach of every one: but Avhen corns have appeared, they must be carefully pared Avith a sharp penknife, so as not to draAv blood, and covered with a plaster of dia- chylon.] CORPULENCY, or obesity, in physiology, is the accumulation of too great a quantity ol fat or ani- mal oil, Avhich distends the solids to an unnatural degree, by the abundance of granulated matter collected in the cellular membrane. Corpulency arises from a variety of causes, which may operate se- parately, or conjointly in the same constitution. It may, however, be principally ascribed, 1. To the in- troduction of too much oil into the habit, through the channels of nourishment, by which means it is retained in too large a quantity. 2. An over-laxity, or, perhaps, too large a structure of the cells in Avhich it is deposited, so as to ad- mit,and retain an immoderate pro- portion of unctuous nutter ; 3. To a peculiar disposition of the blood, Avhich renders it liable to separate too easily from its oleaginous par- ticles, and to admit of their being strained off too plentifully by the secretory vessels ; or, lastly, to a defective evacuation or expulsion of oil already absorbed, separated VOL. II. from the blood, and deposited in its cells, instead of being discharg- ed through the different emuncto- ries of the body. Obesity is promoted by whatever tends to soften the blood, and ren- der it less sharp and saline; such as want of exercise and motion, an indolent life, indulgence in too much sleep, Sec. It may be remov- ed or prevented by the contrary causes, and particularly by the use of saline and acid food, and drink. Castile soap has often been em- ployed with success, and is strong- ly recommended in a discourse, " On the Causes, Nature, and Cure of Corpulency," by Dr. Flemyng, (8vo. Is. 1760); Avho directs from one to four drams to be dissolved in a gill or more of soft water, and to be taken every night previously to going to repose. [A disposition in the system to grow corpulent, is frequently ob- served to be unconnected Avith the quantity or quality of the aliment, or the proportion of exercise taken. The cause of this disposition is by no means understood : the female sex in the United States, are fre- quently distressed by their increase in size, and are too apt to take a variety of remedies to prevent the disagreeable circumstance. But the practice cannot be reprobated in too severe terms. All that can be done with propriety, is to dimin- ish the quantity of animal food, confine the drink to water, and to take much exercise.] COSMETI'J, any medicine, or preparation, that renders the skin soft and Avhite, or contributes to beautify the complexion. Various articles have been obtru- ded on the public attention, by ig- norant and speculative persons, as possessing every propertv that may H H 234 COS COS tend to improve the surface of the body, but which have generally been found to consist of the most hurtful metallic ingredients, such as the various preparations of lead, mercury, arsenic, Sec. To those, however, Avhose decayed counte- nances seem to justify them in the use of cosmetics, or, Avho are de- termined to employ them, instead of attending to the more effectual means of preserving the bloom of their skin, it( may perhaps be of service to point out two or three harmless external applications, chiefly with a view to preArent them from using dangerous and pernicious specifics. According to the late Dr. Wi- thering, an infusion of horse- radish in milk, makes one of the safest and best cosmetics. Another preparation for clearing the skin of pimples and recent eruptions, if assisted by gentle aperient medicines, is the fresh ex- pressed juice of house-leek, mix- ed with an equal quantity of SAveet milk, or cream. Professor Pallas recommends the water distilled from floAvers of the Nymphaa Arelumbo, [Nelumbi- um Speciosum, which see,] a plant indigenous in the Asiatic part of Russia, on the banks ofthe Volga ; and Avhich, by his account, im- parts an agreeable softness and de- licacy to the skin of the face and hands. Frequent bathing will also con- tribute to the prolongation of youth, and preservation of the external in- teguments. To these remedies, we venture to add honey-Avater made to the consistence of cream, so that it may form a kind of varnish on the skin, Avhich, especially when chapped by frost, Avill be much benefited by this application: and if it occasion any irritation or uneasiness, a little fine wheaten flour, or pure hair-powder, should be scattered on the hands or face. Without exception, the best cos- metic, in our opinion, is temper- ance ; as, by avoiding excesses of every kind, the body will retain its natural tone, the uniform circula- tion of all the fluids will be facili- tated, and those disgraceful erup- tions, we too frequently observe on the features of the younger part of the present generation, will be ut- terly effaced. COSTIVENESS, in medicine, a retention of the excrements, ac- companied Avith an unusual hard- ness and dryness, so as to render the evacuations difficult and some- times painful. Sedentary persons are peculiarly liable to this complaint, especially those of sanguineous and choleric temperaments ; or who are subject to hypochondriac affections, the gout, acute fevers, and bilious dis- orders. Costiveness is frequently occa- sioned by neglecting the usual time of going to stool, and checking the natural tendency to those salu- tary excretions ; by an extraordi- nary heat of the body, and copious sweats ; by taking into the stomach a larger proportion of solid food, than is proper for the quantity of fluids SAvallowed ; and, lastly, by too frequent use of such nutriment as is dry, heating, and difficult of digestion....To those Avho are af- flicted with this complaint, Ave Avould recommend to visit the cus- tomary retreat every morning, at a stated hour, and thus endeavour to promote the natural evacuation by moderate efforts; even though they may not perhaps be much in- clined, and should not at first suc- ceed ; for experience has proved, that Nature will in this respect, by COS perseverance, acquire a habit of regularity. The most proper time for that purpose, is either early in the morning, or late in the evening. In many families costiveness is hereditary. It may also arise from a debilitated state of the intestinal canal, occasioned by diseases, but more frequently from the habitual use of lean meat, game, red port wine, strong malt liquors, and simi- lar articles of food and drink. From whatever cause it may originate, continual exercise in the open air, and abstinence from heating or in- toxicating liquors, will be found very beneficial. In those cases, however, Avhere inveterate costiveness has once taken place, and the usual simple remedies have proved abortive, carbon, or charcoal (divested of its oxygen by heat), has been admi- nistered with uncommon success. [By the late Dr. E.H.Smith of New-York], who recommends tAvo drams of carbon finely levigated, to be mixed with four ounces of leni- tive electuary, and two drams of carbonat of soda. Of this mixture, from half an ounce to one, and even two ounces, may be taken twice, thrice, or oftener, in the course of the day, as circumstances may re- quire. [Persons subject to costiveness, should avoid drinking red wines, and eating/resA bread, which great- ly disposes to costiveness, besides being highly uneconomical. The food ought to be well chewed, and soups abounding with vegetables should compose a part of every day's dinner. Bread composed of one-third Indian corn meal, and two- thirds wheat flour, and eaten the day after being baked, ought to be used. Rye bread is more laxative than wheat, and may be occasion- C O T 235 ally used. Stewed prunes and roast- ed apples are also gently laxative. Spinnach when properly dressed is a very pleasant vegetable, and gen- tly laxative, and should be frequent- ly eaten by costive persons. Those who ride much on horse-back, are disposed to costiveness, for Avhich a draught of cold Avater in the morning is a good remedy. Mo- lasses diluted with water, is a pro- per drink for costive habits. For medicine, the following may be taken occasionally. Flowers of sul- phur, cream of tartar, each one oz. mix, and take a heaped tea-spoon- ful Avith molasses at night, when going to bed, and another in the morning. Persons have been known to be habitually costive, to have a quick pulse, loose their appetite, and the complexion to turn yellow in consequence of drinking water which flowed through leaden tubes, and even from the piston of a pump being made of lead. A case from the last cause occurred to the late Dr. Withering, of Birmingham; the person (a Avoman) ahvays found herself better if she left her own house for any length of time, and was cured by changing her water.] COTTAGE, properly signifies a small dwelling-house, independ- ently of any lands attached to it.... According to William Mor- ton Pitt, Esq. the ingenious au- thor of an Address to the Landed Interest; there are feAv parishes without several rough, encumber- ed, and uncultivated tracts, Avhich might be com'erted into large gar- dens, and on which cottages might be built, either by the poor them- selves, to be held on lives, or at the expence of the parish. If such ha- bitations were more attainable by the poor, frugality would revive amongst them, and young people 236 COT COT Avould strive to lay up a sum of money for this purpose. The hope of improving their lot is the main- spring of industry, in all stations of life. The prosperity of this coun- try has been attributed, not only to the spirit of enterprize of cur mer- chants and manufacturers, but like- Avise to the effect, which the pos- session and security of property have on the minds of men. The produce of a garden dimi- nishes the consumption of bread, which is the most considerable ar- ticle of a poor man's expenditure : it is an advantage Avholly created by the cultivator's industry, at times Avhen not otherwise engaged, as Avell as by that of his Av-fe and chil- dren ; consequently there is so much labour gained to the commu- nity. Every man who is averse to in- crease the Avages of labour in hus- bandry, should at least encourage the culture of gardens. The quan- tity of land to be attached to such a cottage, might be half an acre, of inferior A'alue, namely, about 10s. per acre. The corn in the gardens should be raised by dibbling ; a method already practised with suc- cess, in many parts of the king- dom. Where 10*. per acre is the value of the land, 5s. per annum might consequently be added as quit-rent: the fine on putting in a life, shoulci not exceed one y ear's purchase com pi .ten on the real va- lue. The cnu..gcr Avho builds a house upon this principle, acquires the follov i.1.;; advantages : 1. A permanent property,as all improve- ments ere for the benefit of himself and fondly ; 2. Respectability of situation ; 3. A diminution of an- nual expenditure ; and 4. That he cennot be dispossessed under any circumstances. Mr. W. M. Pitt farther ob- serves, that this arrangement w ill answer in all instances, where a labourer has money sufficient to enable him to build a cottage. But as this is not the case with many, the landlord may, Avithout any risk, advance to any such industrious man 10/. or 15/. to enable him to erect a cottage, which would of it- self be a security for the loan ; the money to be issued, in proportion only as the work advances. The cottager should pay interest at 5 per cent, and part of the principal, at least 10 per cent, every year. If he fail in making these payments, his effects should be liable. Thus, he Avould anticipate, with impa- tience, the time of discharging the Avhole debt, that he might enjoy the fruits of Ids labour, and a com- fortable situation. The landlord would also be benefited, by being relieved from the expence of re- pairs, and especially by the reduc- tion of the poor-rates ; he would receive his quit-rent annually, and a fine also, upon a renewal, in ad- dition to the full rent of his land, as well as 5 per cent, interest on the money lent; the whole debt being liquidated in ten years at far- thest. The utility of letting lands to the poor, at an easy rate, is still far- ther evinced in a letter from the Fail of Winchelsea to the Board of Agriculture, in 1796, from Avhich Ave extract the following particu- lars......By the advantages arising from lands thus employed, the la- bourers and their families live bet- ter, and are consequently more able to endure fatigue. They are more comfortable, contented, and attached to their situation, Avhile they acquire habits of industry artd cleanliness, as well as a kind of in- COT COT 237 dependence, so that they set a higher value upon their character. The possession of a little property excites their industry : of this the noble Earl gives instances in the labourers on his estates in Rutland- shire ; whose first thought, after they have obtained a cow, and land sufficient to maintain her, has been how to save money enough to pur- chase another, in consequence of which, application Avas made for an additional quantity of land. Such facts afford a complete refutation of the friA'olous objections urged against this salutary measure ; and we are happy to state from our own information, that when offers of this nature were made to indus- trious labourers, they have been unanimously accepted. We, there- fore, sincerely recommend to the landholders of this country, to pur- sue a similar spirited conduct; and are of opinion, that it would act as an additional stimulus to the indus- try of the poor, if on the comple- tion of any inclosure, a certain space of ground were allotted, for the grazing of their cows, during certain seasons of the year. With respect to the most pro- per method of building cottages, and adapting them to different si- tuations, for more wealthy families, Ave again recommend Mr. Soane's u Sketches in Architecture" (vol. i. p. 100) ; and, for erecting the more humble habitations of the indigent and industrious, we believe Mr. Malton's " Essay on Cottage Ar- chitecture" (large 4to. 1/. \\s.6d.) will be found an useful guide. [See also Farm-House.] COTTON, a soft downy sub- stance ; the production ol the gos- typium, L. or cotton tree, a genus of plants comprising twelve spe- cies, all of Avhich are natives of warm climates, though four only are cultivated in fields to a very considerable extent. This plant is propagated by seeds, and when reared in Britain, requires to be kept in a hot-house, where it will produce both seeds and its peculiar down. [In Georgia and South Carolina two kinds of cotton are planted, one of which grows upon the upland, is of a short staple, and has green seed. Another kind of a long staple and silky fineness, h?vingblack seed, is cultivated upon the islands on the coast of Georgia and South Caro- lina, the value of which has in- creased from tAvo dollars per acre in a state of nature, to thirty, and in many instances, to 40 dollars per acre, within the ias; seven years. The salt air, and certain latitudes, (from 29 to 30 deg.) appear to be the chief cause of the great supe- riority of the Island Cotton oA-er the upland, for the same soil a feAv miles oft* on the fast land, yet Avith- out saline air, cannot be made to produce cotton of equal quality. The folloAving mode of cultivat- ing cotton is recommended by Pierce Butler, Esq. who suc- cessfully plants that article on the island of St. Simons, state of Georgia. " If the land has been recently cleared, or has long remained fal- low, turn it up deep in winter ; and in the first week in March bed it up in the following manner. Form 25 beds in 105 square feet of land, (be- ing the space allotted to each able labourer for a day's work) ; this leaves about four feet, two and one half inches from the centre of one bed, to the centre of the next. The beds should be 3 feet a\ ide, and flat in the middle. About the 15th of March, in the lat.of from 29 to 32°, 238 COT COT the cultivator should commence sowing, or as it is generally term- ed, planting. The seed should be well scattered in open trenches, made in the centre of the beds, and covered : the proportion of seed is one bushel to one acre ; this allows for accidents occasioned by worms, or night chills. The cotton should be well Aveeded by hoes once every twelve days till blown, and even longer, if there is grass, observing to hoe up, that is to the cotton till it pods ; and hoe doAvn when the cotton is blown, in order to check the growth of the plant. From the proportion of seed mentioned, the cotton plants will come up plenti- fully, too much so, to suffer all to remain. They should be thinned moderately at each hoeing. When the plants have got strength and growth, Avhich may be about the third hoeing, to disregard Avorms and bear drought; they should be thinned according to the fertility of the soil, from six inches to near two feet between the stocks or plants. In rich riAer grounds the beds should be from 5 to 6 feet apart, measuring from centre to centre ; and the cotton plants, when out of the Avay of Avorms, from two to three feet apart. It is advisable to top cotton once or twice in rich Ioav grounds, and also to remove the suckers. The latter end of July is generally considered a proper time for topping. Gypsum (plaster of Paris) may be used with success on cotton lands not near the sea. In river grounds, draining is proper ; yet these lands should not be kept too dry. In tide lands, it is bene- ficial to let the water flow over the land, without retaining it. In river lands a change of crops is- neces- sary. From actual experiment, it has been proved that river tide lands having, the preceding year had rice sown in them, yielded much more cotton the succeeding year than they would have afford- ed by a continuation of cotton. The mere growing of cotton is but a part ofthe care ofthe planter; very much depends on classing and cleansing it for market, after it has been housed ; sorting before it goes to the jennies, moating and remov- ing any yelloAV particles are essen- tial to assure a preference at a common market of competition." The month of August in South Carolina and Georgia, is the season for commencing the business of picking cotton. The quantity of black seed cot- ton produced on an acre of Georgia sea island is about 200 lbs.; in Ca- rolina from 130 to 150 lbs.; an acre of upland will commonly produce 300 lbs. of green seed cotton. The preparation of the ground for cotton is almost entirely effect- ed by the hoe. The plough is scarcely used. This circumstance is the more to be Avondered at, con- sidering that the southern planters could not fail to see the great di- minution of labour effected by that machine in the northern states; and that on land which has been long cultivated, it could be easily used. After cotton land has been work- ed two or three years, it is permit- ted to rest one year, or more, to recruit. During this time, if a crop ofthe Cassia Chamacrista,L,.(Aquo- mac bean) already mentioned, were taken, much benefit to the soil Avould be produced: and it is re- commended to the planters to try a comparative experiment upon a small scale to ascertain the point. The cotton of the island of Bour- bon ranks first in price at the Lon- COT COT 239 don market; that of the Georgia sea-island is the second; the cot- ton of Pemambucco third, and after these come that of the W.India and Levant, according to the attention given in preparing the article for a market. The Bombay, the green . seed or upland cotton ofthe United States, and the Mississippi cotton are considered in the last class. It is to be regretted that an abo- minable spirit of avarice has occa- sioned many instances of the most shameful deceptions in shipping our cotton to Europe. In some instances a bushel of seed has been found in the middle of a bale, and in other cases the fine cotton has been put oA-er that of an inferior quality. This disgraceful conduct has occasioned loud and just com- plaints on the part of the British manufacturers, and has produced a general distrust Avith respect to most of the cotton shipped, Avhich is highly injurious as well to the honest planter, as to the national character. A knowledge of these circumstances has induced some respectable planters, to mark their bales of cotton with their names, and by taking great pains to sort the various qualities, a degree- of confidence has been annexed to their names, which is highly gra- tifying : so that Avhen a # mple of a particular bale is sheAVn, a pur- chase is made with the greatest certainty of finding the Avhole ofthe same quality. Every planter Avho feels a pride in having a good cha- racter attached to his name ought to folloAv the example above given ; and to prevent the bad effects aris- ing from the Avant of principle of dishonest men, inspectors should be appointed, who might have per- mission to examine every suspect- ed bale, and to mark the quality of the article. The good effects of an inspection have been long since felt in Philadelphia, with regard to the articles flour, beef, pork, and to- bacco. Cotton has accomplished for the southern states, what clover and gypsum has for Pennsylvania..... 'The riches of both these have been greatly increased by these particu- lar articles of culture ; but with dif- ferent degrees of rapidity. In 1794, cotton was of so little consequence, that it was not thought of by our negociator in the treaty with Eng- land ! And yet, twenty-seven mil- lions of pounds weight of Ameri- can cotton, were exported from the United States to Europe, during the past year, 1802. It appears, from a great number of facts, that a capacity to produce cotton, really exists in a very ex- tensive portion of the United States. It begins in the southern counties of New-Jersey, and in the north- em counties of DelaAvare, Mary- land, and Virginia, and continues through the Carolinas, Georgia, Kentucky, and the Mississippi and Ohio territories. The southern line of Pennsylvania continued east- ward and westAvard, seems to be the northern boundary of Avhat may Tie called, the cotton district of the United States. The facts, which prove the cot- ton to be easily prodwceable in the DelaAvare and Maryland counties of New-Castle, and Cxcil, are nu- merous, and it is Avell ascertained, that during the revolutionary Avar, cotton Avas cultivated by several families in Kent, on DelaAvare, in sufficient quantities to supply them Avith clothing. It has been raised also, Avithout any uncommon care, in the borough of Wilmington, where it thrived, blossomed, and 240 C O T COT yellowed in perfection. These facts prove, that much of Dela- Avare is capable of producing cot- ton. The places, in every loAvn- ship and hundred, best adapted to it, are those where the effects of frost are usually the most moderate. This point merits particular atten- tion in South-Jersey, Delaware and Maryland. It is understood, that frosts are less severe near to the At- lantic, and to our salt bays and riv- ers. It Avill of course groAv equal- ly Avell in the Jersey counties of Cape May, Cumberland, Salem, and part of Gloucester, and in the Maryland Harford county. The inducements to raise this clean, excellent and useful raw material in every part of our country, are manifest and great. By raising it on Delaware and Chesapeake bays, munufactures Avill soonest take place, soonest become extensive; and, it is by manufactures that cotton must be supported in price. It is our policy to wear all kinds of cotton goods, in preference to those imported of avooI, silk, flax, hemp, and leather. In relation to this object, one measure is earnestly, but respect- fully recommended to the govern- ments of the union, and of the states. It is the introduction of the use of cotton blankets, by pro- viding them for the military, by land and sea. It is also recom- mended to the planters and farmers from DelaAvare and Maryland to Georgia, and the Mississippi, to introduce the use of cotton blan- kets, rugs, coverlets, and carpets. It is in those large and heavy manu- factures, that Ave can consume our cotton, and we see that the con- sumption of our cotton is an ob- ject ofthe utmost importance, even to our grain and grass farmers.... Let our planters order from the English, French, Dutch, or Ger- man merchants, cotton blankets, rugs, coverlets, and carpets, and other cotton goods, for the use of their families. Let specimens of these neAv cotton fabrics be placed before our eyes, by daily use, in order that Ave may learn to imitate them. Let the American cotton sacks be as famous, as the Avoollen sacks of Britain, at least in our eight southern states, and the Mis- sissippi territory, and let the eight northern states consider well the vast advantages, which a certain and abundant supply of American cotton, Avith foreign and American capital, joined to foreign machine- ry and artists, seem to promise them. It is certainly a fact of im- mense and unobserved importance, that Ave haA'e reached a production of cotton, manifold greater than all the British West-India colo- nies. The effects upon our inter- nal industry and manufactures are the most promising possible, be- cause it is the raw material, in the world, most capable of being Avork- ed by water mills and other labour- saving machinery, in this scarcely peopled, and Avell employed coun- try.] In June 1796, a patent Avas granted '# Mr. Robert Miller, calico - printer, Dumbartonshire, Scotland, for a method of weaving all kinds of cotton, linen, and Avorsted-cloths, by means of looms Avorked by Avater ; and Avhich may be farther facilitated by steam-en- gines, horses, or any other power: the weaving is performed at consi- derably less expence, and more ex- peditiously, .than it can be accom- plished by the hands of weavers ; the cloth thus woven is of a more regular texture, and superior to COT COT 241 that wrought by the hand. But, as this patent relates purely to a me- chanical operation, solely calculat- ed for manafacturers, we refer the reader to the 8th vol. of the Reper- tory of Arts and Manufactures. Another patent was granted in April, 1790, to Mr. W. Nichol- son, for his invention of a machine for printing on cotton, woollen, and other articles, in a more neat, cheap and accurate manner than is ef- fected by the contrivances now in use. The leading principles of this invention, appear to consist of three particulars. I. The manner of pre- paring the original models, casts, types, engravings, carvings, or sculptures from which the impres- sion is to be made ; 2. In applying the ink, or colouring matter to such models, 8cc ; 3. In taking off the impression, or transferring the ink, or colouring matter from those models, &c. to the paper, cloth, or other materials, upon which it is intended to remain. Those of our readers, aa ho may wish farther to investigate this subject, will find an accurate and minute account in the 8th volume of the work last mentioned. In July, 180l,a patent Avas grant- ed to Mr. Anthony Bowden, for a new machine or engine designed to bat, or beat, and clean cotton. A mere description being inade- quate to convey a distinct idea of Mr. B's contrivance, the inquisitive reader will consult the 16th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts," Src. where his specification is illustrated b)r an engraving......At present, we shall only remark, that the principle of this invention corresponds with that on Avhich the other improved machinery of cotton-AVorks is con- structed : its chief merit consists in giving a neAV distribution of me- vol. II. chanical power, calculated to per- form an operation, in preparing cotton for the manufacturer, which has hitherto been executed solely by human labour; and, as two- thirds of the number of labourers, consisting of children, instead of women or men in full strength, Avill thus be enabled to perform the same portion of work pt formerly required a full complement of hands, such essential improvement deservedly claims attention. The utility of cotton is not mere- ly confined to the manufacture of different cloths : it is also capable of being converted into hats and pa- per. Experiments have shewn, that, if raw cotton be beaten to a sufficient degree, and then reduced to a proper pulp, it will produce a smooth, strong, white paper, little inferior in texture to that common- ly made of linen rags. See Paper. [Cotton Manufactory. When these United States Avere colonies of Great-Britain, it was the policy of that country to prevent us from manufacturing our OAvn clothing ; and the only thing that reconciled the ministry to a peace, Avas, the prospect of our becoming one of their best customers. The preju- dices pi Americans, who thought the country too young for manu- facturing ; and, that the arts, by introducing luxury, would also in- troduce vice, and Avean them from that simplicity of manners Avhich Avas believed, exclusively, to belong to the agricultural life ; the pre- dilection Avhich nearly half the community, especicdiythe rich, had for the mother country: and the influence, Avhich the merchants have had in our councils : all con- tinued to prevent the introduction of clothing manufactures Uito these States. I I U$ COT C OT Time, however, and experience, have demonstrated, that luxury and vice may find their way into a coun- try where manufacturing is discou- raged ; that, by a spirit of traffic, foreign luxuries are introduced; and a restless, migratory life, robs a nation of its innocence and sim- plicity. Years haA'e Aveaned many from their attachment to England, and the intelligent part of the mer- chants perceive, that commerce Would increase by multiplying and diA-ersifying the objects of our in- dustry. And, Avhat is more, the ge- neral government, which has hi- therto thought of nothing but reve- nue, are convinced that clothing and other useful manufacturies may be protected, as they are in Eng- land, without throwing down their idol revenue* Under these impressions the edi- tor thinks it his duty to lay before his readers such a view of the cot- ton manufactory, as is consistent With the plan of this work, and for Which he is indebted to a friend Avho has a practical knoAvledge of the subject on which he writes. Since the introduction of machi- nery into this manufactory, the power of establishing it, in any country, rests entirely Avith the go- vernment : and, in this country, Avith the general government; be- cause it, alone, has the controul over the duties on importation. This Will be made evident from the fol- loAving considerations. First, by reflecting on the ad- vantages a nation must possess which has already established the cotton manufactory. There skilful workmen are collected together.... such as mill-Avrights to erect the great gears ; machine-makers.... turners,' smiths, brass-founders, card-makers, spinners, weavers, looim-makers, reed-makers, bleech- ers, dyers, dressers, &c. all excel- lent in their kind....and the* whole business being organized with so much system, they are enabled to work Ioav, and still have goodAvages. For these trades are of a sociable disposition, and flourish best near each other. The capitalist can cal- culate to a fraction Avhat will be the expence of his undertaking, and within a small trifle of the pro- fits resulting therefrom. But, secondly, if Ave reflect on the disadvantages a nation labours under where all those trades, and all that skill and organization, are to be created, and collected toge- ther ; at Avhat immense expence this is to be done; and how uncer- tain and precarious the result; it will naturally lead us to this ob- vious conclusion, That, in order to balance the situations of both coun- tries, the government must lay pro- tecting duties ; and, where fashion is to be combated, a total prohibi- tion is absolutely necessary. It is true, that an objection has been made, by some people, to pro- hibitory duties, as being illibe- ral, and unworthy the generous maxims of republicanism, Avith- out perceiving, that this is exactly the universal practice of mankind, and of those also who make this objection. *You have been long accustomed to deal at a certain dry good store a few squares off, for many years, and have been uni- formly treated well: but your own" son sets up, in the same line of business, next door to yourself; will you say that it is ungenerous or illiberal to order your servant to purchase no longer at the old place? and will you not consider that, al- though your son charges a little higher, it is all in the family ; and will ansAver the same end as en- larging his fortune I COT COT 243 The connection betwixt Great- Britain and the manufacturing part of India, has been very intimate for more than a hundred years.... Money, in that country, being very scarce, the inhabitants perform a great deal of labour for a small sum : hence the cotton muslins, chintzes, calicoes, Sec. might have been imported into Great-Britain, and sold to the inhabitants much cheaper than it was possible to ma- nufacture them there. Add to this that the Germans and French could always undersell the English in their OAvn markets, by the difference in the value of specie, if the latter had not, by express statutes, pro- tected their own manufactures..... And so far back as the reign of Edward the 4th, avc find the Eng- lish government giving encourage- ment to her manufacturics; for, by the statute 3. Edav. 4. c. 4.it is enacted that " no person shall bring "into the kingdom any of the goods, " wares, or things herein after men- " tioned, upon pain to forfeit the " same, as often as they may be " found in the hands of any person; " to be sold, half to the King and " half to the seizer, (viz.) woollen " cloths, laces, ribbands, fringes, " purses, gloves, Sec. Sec." and by the 1. Richard 3. c. 12. no mer- chant stranger shall bring or im- port into the realm any of the Avares made and wrought pertaining to the crafts following, i. c. girdlers, point-makers, glovers, Aveavers, Sec. At a time when there Avas no thought of spinning by the poAver of Avater, or by any kind of machi- nery ; and Avhen very little cotton avus manufactured in England: in the reign of James I. a duty of 10 per cent, was laid on all cotton goods, over and above Avhat Avas paid by ancient statutes and cus- toms ; and in the reign of Wil- liam and Mary,20 per cent, more; and afterwards an addition of 5 per cent. Avhich, altogether was found hardly sufficient to keep out the East India cottons ; a farther duty, therefore, was laid on, in the 12th. William 3. and by a subsequent statute in the same reign, it was enacted, that " For the better em- ploying the poor, by encouraging the manufacturies of this kingdom, all wrought silks, bengals, and stuffs of the manufacture of Persia, Chi- na, or E. India, and all calicoes painted, printed, dyed, or stained there, which shall be imported, shall not beAvorn here; but shall be enter- ed and carried to warehouses, ap- pointed by the commissioners ofthe customs, in order for exportation, end not taken thence, but on security that they shall be exported, which securityis to be discharged upon cer- tificates, or proof of their beingland- ed abroad, Sec. And any such goods mixed Avith others, or made up for sale, found in any place, (except the said warehouses) shall be for- feited and seized as prohibited and unaccustomed goods, and carried to the next custom-house, and sold for exportation only, whereof one- third part of the monies to go to the king, and the other tAvo-third parts to the seizer, Sec. Besides a forfeiture of 200/, on the person having, or selling the same." It was thus, that free scope Avas giA'en to the inventive genius and enterprizing spirit of Englishmen. It Avas thus, that a foundation for commerce Avas laid,by encouraging the arts. Before the invention of machi- nery in the cotton manufactory, not more than a million pounds of cotton wool Avas imported annually into England: but, since that period 244 COT COT it has been every year increasing, so that according to Grellier's View of the Manufactures of Great-Britain, it amounted in the year 1799 to 35,689,000 lbs. and we are assured from other authentic sources of in- formation that itnow( 1803)amounts to 40 millions. Although Ave have no reason to doubt the statement of Mr. Grellier as to the amount of the quantity imported, every person that understands the manu- factory, must be convinced that he has greatly erred, both as to the average price of the raw material, and also as to the value of the goods when manufactured. First, he states the cost of the cotton avooI at 2s. 6d. sterling per pound, which is about 54 cents..... This is a great deal too high for the average price. The very best East-India, Brasil, or Sea-Island cotton, has not averaged more than that sum : and, it is Avell knoAvn, that large quantities of inferior kinds are used, the average price of which is not more than 25 cents per lb.; the average price, there- fore, will be full high if it be stated at 33 cents. This would make the total va!ue of cotton avooI imported into England 13 millions, two hun- dred thousand dollars. Mr. G. is equally erroneous in his calculations respecting the va- lue of cotton in a manufactured state ; he makes it only about 3 | times the value cf the raw material; whereas, if he had only been at the trouble to weigh the different kinds of cctton fabrics, from the fine mus- lin to the strong corderoys, he would have found that 6lb of cotton would hard'y purchase one pound of the heaviest manufactured arti- cle, even from the manufacturer, and before the profits are laid on by the merchant and retailer. And, in some of the fine muslins, fifty pounds of the raw material would not purchase one pound of the fi- nished goods. We shall, therefore, be justified in stating the average multiple of the raAV material at 8, and this makes a product of 265 million 600 thousand dollars, as the value of cotton goods manufactured in Great-Britain annually. All the muehinery used in the cotton manufactory have been in- vented in England, if Ave except the gin for cleaning the wool, which has been a long time used by the French in the West-India islands. Of late years it has been introduced Avith some alterations into the U. States, and claimed as a new in- vention. Another kind of gin has indeed been invented in the United States by Mr. Miller, of Geor- gia, called the saAv-gin, for gin- ning the green seed or upland cot- ton, which will not pass through the common roller gin. See Gin. We believe it is not knoAvn who was the inventor of the cylindrical cards ; but every subsequent im- prover on the art of spinning is indebted to him ; for a\ ithout this invention none of the other pro- cesses would have been practicable. The first carding engines con- sisted of three cylinders about tAvo feet long each, supported by the axis on a wooden frame on which they lay parallel, and almost touch- ing each other. These Avere cov- ered round with pieces of leather, full of card teeth. The first cylinder, about a foot in diameter, received the cotton, previously picked and cleaned ; and turning sloAvly round, Avas received on the middle one, 3 feet in diameter, Avhich moved with great velocity. On this cy- COT COT 245 linder it was carded by the rollers turned round, the flat edges of the A, B, and C, cloalbed also with projecting tins brushed off the cot- cards, turning.slowly round. The ton from the cards, in long and cotton thus carded was stripped broad fleabs, exactly the size of the from the middle cylinder by the pieces of leather-carding, nailed on doffing cylinder, 2 feet in diame- the cylinder. These fleaks fell ter, and carried slowly round till it into the hollow demi-cylinder, met Avith the wooden roller D, 3 whose end is represented at E, inches in diameter, Avhich instead and Avas by another roller, rolled of cards, had 9 or 10 pieces of tin, into a long, round, soft, roving, projecting edgewise from the roller, about the thickness of the finger one edge of the tins being fixed in and at the same time pushed over a sawgate made along the whole the edge a. length of the rollers ; as this roller This Engine was put in motion 3 inches apart, standing upright in by a Avinch fixed upon the centre a frame of wood, with sockets of of the main cylinder, and the mo- brass for the bottom of the spin- tion communicated to the others by dies to run in ; each spindle had a bands, which also regulated the separate band which went round a relative velocity. This was the broad rimmedwheel that reclined on construction of the first carding one side of the machine, at an an- engines ; since which, several im- gle of 45 degrees. This position portant improvements have been of the wheel was best adapted for made, and sometimes alterations turning with the right hand, while without any improvement what- the woman drew out the threads ever. with her left. The rovings from The roving as it fell from the which the threads Avere spun, were cards, dropt into a basket, by Avhich held between two pieces of Avood it was carried, without being in- of the same length with the frame commoded, to the spinning ma- which held the spindles. These chine, called a Jeanie. These jea- pieces or bar of Avood were sup- nies were at first only constructed ported at the ends upon carriages, with from 10 to 20 spindles, about with small trucks, which ran upon 246 COT COT tAvo other bars of wood placed at right anghs Avith the two ends of the spindle frame. When the avo- man turned the wheel with the right hand, she took hold of the centre of the two pieces which held the roATings Avith her left, and drawing towards herself, and from the points of the spindles, drew out a thread of between three and four feet in length, from three inches of the roving. When the roving Avas well made from the cards, a beautiful and even thread was made in this Avay, and as fine as 30 hanks to the pound; or seven dozen cuts, reckoning by the Irish reel. This machine Avas invented about the year, 1768, in Lancashire, and soon after introduced into Notting- hamshire, for the purpose of spin- ning stocking yarn. No improvements Avere made on this machine, until about the year 1775. The manner of conducting the business of spinning at that period Avas thus : the man of capi- tal, had a building suitable for his carding engines, which were dri- ven by horses. He likewise had a number of Jeanies in propoi tion to the quanity of avooI delivered from the cards. These Jeanies were let out to industrious women of the neighbourhood, who took them to their own homes ; paid about A a guinea for learning to spin, and Avere supplied Avilh v. ork from the same person, Avho had furnished the Jeanie, at so much per pound. The yarn ay us then sold to another manufactory capitalist, Avho em- ployed Aveavers to work it up into Junes, fustians, corduroys, Sec. As yet no fine muslin could be made in England, neither was the print- ing or dyeing of cotton, Avell un- derstood. It is believed, that at this period, a good red upon cotton could not be made, either in print- ing, or dyeing in all England. The improvements that have since been made upon the Jeanie, have taken that machine altogether from the women, who worked on them at home. When the machine Avas increased in size, by adding a num- ber of spindles, even so many as 100, it became too large to be ad- mitted into the houses of the work- ing class. The machine became more complex; for instead of a Avheel, as above described, a long tin, or wooden cylinder, about five inches diameter, was contrived to run in a parallel line with the row of spindles, around which the bands were placed. A large wheel (at the side or end of the machine) whose axis Avas now horizontal was still necessary ; and as the operator could not stretch out the left hand to the centre of the machine, and turn the Avheel at the same time, contrivances Avere necessary to bring the handle which turned the wheel, nearer the centre. When the number of spindles were increased, another improve- ment presented itself, or rather be- came necessary. The shortness of the rovings which could not be more than between two or three feet, viz. the length of the cylin- ders belonging to the carding en- gine, rendered it necessary, that the Jeanie should stand still half the time, while the operator join- ed the rovings. This lost time was not so much perceived, when there Avere not more than tAventy spin- dles. Another machine was, there- fore, invented, Avhich Avas called a Billy, by Avhich a young boy or girl could join the roving. And, to preserve them from breaking, COT they received on this machine, a slight tAvist to enable them to be wound on a cop. A frame must noAV be attached to the Jeanie, to hold these cops. The whole machinery at last be- came so complex, and being carri- ed on in manufacturing buildings, that it was necessary for men and boys, to perform the whole opera- tion, and women were in a great measure driven from the employ- ment. In the mean Avhile, the atten- tion of practical mechanics Avas turned to still greater improve- ments. It Avas evident, that in or- der to make the thread of a closer texture, stronger, and still more equal in its size, it Avould be ne- cessary to lay the fibres of the cot- ton avooI longitudinally, or to lie along the length of the yarn; whereas, by the Jeanie spinning, the fibre necessarily goes round the roving, and consequently, can- not be laid even, in spinning. This, hoAvever,had been the mode of spin- ning in England, even when a single thread only Avas spun from time im- memorial. It seems to have been taken from the mode of spinning short sheep's wool, Avhich cotton very much resembles: but the same reason which induces the manufacturer to spin sheep's wool in that manner, does not hold good with respect to cotton. In the for- mer, it is done Avith an intention of entangling and confusing the fibres, that it may full more rea- dily ; but as cotton will not full, every confusion or derangement of the fibres, Aveakens the thread, and consequently, the fabric of which it is made. Richard Arkwright, there- fore, for this and other reasons, which shall be noticed in course, COT 247 invented the method of taking the roving from the cards, so as that all the fibres should lie in parallel lines along the length of the rov- ing. This he accomplished, by an alteration in the manner of put-' ting on the cards upon the dffing cylinder. Previous to his inven- tion, the cards, with which the cylinders were covered, Avere in pieces of an oblong form, about six inches in breadth, and nearly as long as the cylinder. There Avas necessarily, a space between each piece,Avhere there were no wires or teeth, and this made a separation in the roving. To avoid this, Mr. Arkwright cloathed the doffing cylinder Avith one long piece of card, about two inches in Avidth, and wound it round,spiral-wise, the whole length of the cylinder, fas- tening it firmly at the ends with small tacks. These are noAV call- ed fillet cards. It is not umvorthy of observation, that Avhen he ob- tained a patent for his inventions, he never specified this contrivance, and it was on that account, that hte patent was laid open, after hav- ing gained several trials, in Avhich this error had not been noticed. Besides this fault of not laying the fibres parallel, there is another fundamental error, in Jeanie spin- ning, which will always prevent the equality of the yarn. It is this, three or four inches of the roving is submitted to the draught at one time, whereby, some parts will be draAvn finer than others ; and it universally holds good, that if there be an inequality in the roving, that inequality will be al- ways increased by this mode of spinning. For, Avherever the rov- ing is finest, by being of course Aveaker, it Avill draw finer; and wherever it is coarsest, there it 248 COT COT will be drawn least, and, conse- quently, remain coarser. But this was entirely obviated, by making the roving pass through two pair of rollers. The front pair mov7- ing faster than the back pair, draws the roving finer in propor- tion to the difference of velocity; and, as the rollers are not much farther distant than the length of the fibres ofthe cotton, the draught must he perfectly equal on every part of the roving, and produce a thread as perfect as wire, that is well drawn. Another advantage gained by Mr. Arkwright, by these two inventions, was, that the whole process of spinning was capable of being put in motion by the power of horses, water, steam, Sec. but for this purpose, he found it ne- cessary, to use a fly, or heck (as it is called in some places) upon the spindle, after the manner of Max or combed avooI spinning ; a contrivance, which twists and takes up the thread upon the bobbin (or spool) at the same time. Before Mr. Arkwright had produced to the world a single thread spun in this manner, he had borrowed and expended up- wards of 20,0001. sterling. Fie was himself a man of no property. We have heard it often repeated at Nottingham, the tOAvn where he erected his first machinery, that when he had drawn 18,0001. from Wright, the banker, and still re- quested more, Mr. Wright seem- ed impatient and doubtful of his success, wishing, at the same time, tliat he had nothing to do with it, and hoped he would get somebody else to take it off his hands. Ark- wright, who was, by that time, perfectly certain, took him at his word, entered into a partnership with Mr. Needs, a reputable ho- sier of that tOAvn, who gave him a check upon Wright's bank for the money. In a few years after, Mr. Needs reared from business with a princely fortune; for over and above the great profits derived from spinning, he had a monopoly of the yarn to supply his stocking manufactory, which so far excelled in quality the fabrics of any other person, that he could sell more than he could make. Before we proceed to give an account of further improvements or inventions, we shall enumerate the different processes through which the cotton passes upon Ark- AVRiGHT'splan. The first moving power of the machinery, is either steam or water. Horses are gene- rally laid aside. The buildings are made to contain from 500 to 1000 spindles. As Mr. Arkwright purchased none but good, clean cotton, there was no necessity for gins, or any machinery to clean the cotton. It Avas given out to women, to bat and pick out what little dirt was in it, preparatory to its going to the cards. He used tAvo sets of cards, a coarser kind to open it well, and from which it was taken without the trouble of putting it into a roving. The second cards are each attended by a boy to feed, and remove the slivers. These are carried in tin cans to the draw- ing frame. Three of these slivers being united are passed through rollers, which not only unite them in one, but draw them, perhaps, six times finer or smaller, than they were before ; these are again united by threes and passed through another pair of rollers, and drawn in like manner as before : this ope- DOT COT' 249 ration is performed three or four times, doubling the slivers and drawing them, till at last it comes through the rollers like a fine cob-web (the fibres all lying straight and parallel) about an inch broad : it then receives a gentle twist, to^nable it to be wound up- on a stick about 8 inches long, and £ an inch diameter. It is then called a roving. By these repeated drawings and doublings, it is impossible but it must be perfectly even. The man- ner of giving the sliver a gentle twist Avithout breaking, or in the least incommoding it, avc are told, was the most difficult part of Mr. Arkavkight's invention....Indeed, it would be impossible to discover the method of doing it by reflect- ing a priori on the nature of the thing : it must have been discover- ed only by patience and numerous experiments. The difficulties that he found, hoAvever, are evident from the complexity of his apparatus for that purpose. The roving Can (as it is called) is now much simplifi- ed. It is a tin box, about a foot in length, and six or seven inches di- ameter fixed on an upright spin- dle. As the sliver comes through the rollers, in the thin cobAveblike manner above described, it falls in- to the can, Avli'.r.h whirling rapid- ly round, gives it a gentle twist, and coils it neatly up in the inside, until the can is nearly full, when it is taken out by a door on the side, made to open and shut for the purpose. Such a coil may be pressed together and packed up in boxes, Avithout being injured. A boy then Avinds them on the bob- bins or sticks before mentioned, as they arc a\anted for the spinning frames. Each spinning frame upon Aitix- voi.. II. wright's plan, contains about 42 spindles on each side, Avhicha:e about as many as a steady girl can attend. Her business is to piece the threads as they break ; to take off the spools as they are full, and put on empty ones ; to take the roving bobbins when emptv, and supply their place Avith full ones ; to keep the frame clean and Aveil oiled. If the yarn is to be doubled for stockings, there is ge- nerally a doubling and tAvisting machinery in the same building; but if it be intended for the weaver, then it is reeled, and is then fit for sale, or for dyeing, or bleaching.... Mr. Eltenhead charges for one frame of 84 spindles, to go by Ava- ter, 500 dollars. "When the manufacturers speak of yarn spun in this manner, it is generally called water twist,or wnter spinning, in contradistinction to Jea- nie spinning,Avhichhas been already mentioned, or Mule spinning, which yet remains to be described. Mr. Arkwright brought this mode of spinning to perfection in the year 1774, and it is easy to be sheAvn, that the nation gained more by it, than was lo~t' by the contest Avith America. It was to England a mine of Avcaltii, a rich harvest which she was reaping Avithout the knowledge of her ene- mies or friends ; nay, the govern- ment itself Avas ignorant for seve- ral yen-i ofthe cause of the nation- al prosperity. When it was found out, about twelve years afterwards, Richard Arkavright wasmadea knight and tiv-ri.Tof the county of Derby. Just before that, the Sco s discovered the mine also ; and f om that peri ed, Scotle.nd has displayed more cnterpri:■■?. than ever she did before. Ireland, it is believed, war? last in this race of weahh. The 1L k 250 COT COT wretched government of that coun- try, has prevented the people from attending to their true interests. Such Avere the fortunes gained in a short time by Arkwright's new mode of spinning, that every man of genius bent his mind to new im- provements and inventions. And when strength and evenness of tex- ture Avas already attained, the next thing Avanted was fineness. Peo- ple Avere no longer contented Avith 50 or 60 hanks to the lb. a thing once thought almost impossible. It must be still finer. But it Avas found, that upon Arkwright's principle, viz. (Avith a fly upon the spindle) it Avas very difficult to spin finer than 50 hanks. The thread was liable to break by the rapid motion of the fly Avhen such yarn was attempted. Some genius, whose name has not been trans- mitted to us, hit upon the happy expedient of uniting in one ma- chine the advantages of the Jeanie spinning, which draws out the thread from the end of the spin- dle.. ..twists it, and then winds it upon the spindle, Avithout a fly.... with the two most excellent pro- perties of Arkavright's invention, the continued sliver with the fibres longitudinally, and the rollers. This machine, as partaking of the na- ture or principles of two ma- chines, was called a mule. It is probable, that it Avas invented by several ingenious mechanics, Avho communicated to each other their ideas, freely, on the subject; since no patent Avas ever taken out for it, though the inventor or inventors certainly deserved if more than hundreds to whom pa- tents have been granted. It has answered the most sanguine ex- pectations, as upAvards of 300 hanks of yam have been spun on it from one pound of cotton. At first, the number of spindles were eighty or an hundred: they are now made to carry 250 ; and, to compleat the whole, they have been made, within these few years, to be turned by water. When this is intended, two mules are set face to face : when the wheel of one mule is turned to draw out the threads, the person who attends them, is putting up, or winding up the threads on the other; and so on, alternately....So that, one skill- ful person, Avith the assistance of a girl, to piece the threads as they break, may attend 500 spindles, and each spindle will spin one hank per day. Although this machine will not altogether supersede those with a fly on the spindle • they are never- theless, the machines best adapt- ed for America, in the present state of things. We have mill- seats in abundance upon all our wa- ters. If the proprietor of a mill- seat would give a long lease of it, say fifty years, at a very low rent, to a person well skilled in the ma- chinery, the rest of his land would increase in value by the population which would soon groAV round it. In the southern states, the farmers might grow their own cotton, send it to the mill to be prepared, that is to say, carded, dravjn, and roved, upon machinery constructed on Arkwright's principles. It might then be spun at home upon small mules of about fifty spindles, which Avould stand in a space of eight feet square : on such a mule, 50 hanks might easily be spun in one day. The proper size of yarn for domestic purposes, is that from 13 to 24 hanks in the pound. If COT COT 251 we suppose the price of preparing equal to the price of the cotton-wool, and the price of spinning the same, it is evident that the raw material is trebled in value. If it be wove into janes, corduroys, Sec. for com- mon household Avear, the value will again be doubled, which then makes the manufactured goods six times the value of the cotton. In this calculation, we have only in view the coarsest articles: but, if the wool be of an excellent quality, the labour employed upon it, to bring it to cloathing, will be much more valuable. We may estimate the expence upon the smallest scale, nearly as follows : Two carding engines, 400 dols. each,.......800 00 One drawing frame, with wooden rolleis,.....50 00 One roving frame, do. . . 60 00 g 910 00 This machinery to go by Avater, would produce as much roving, as would supply 20 mules of 50 spin- dles each ; Avhich, if made with wooden rollers would cost from 75 to 100 dols. each. Mr. Eltenhead, of Philadel- phia, has offered to make the above machinery at the following pri- ces, viz. Dols. A carding engine, compleat, for............ 400 A drawing and roving frame, (supposed to be Avith iron rollers)..........200 And a mule of 144 spindles, for............ 300 This last is also supposed to be with iron rollers, Avhich, though no better than Avood, would be cer- tainly a greater expence. His cal- culation is also made on mules of a large size, fit only to be placed in large buildings, erected for the purpose : our calculation is on small mules, to spin for family use : nevertheless, in a short time, when habits of industry were ac- quired, a surplus would be produc- ed, Avhich it would be necessary to convey to the seaports for sale, and this also Avould require a mercan- tile capital, difficult in the present state of things to be created ; and if it were, it is evident that this surplus of home manufactured goods, equal no doubt in strength and durability, to any imported ; yet inferior as to shew, colouring, and finish, might as well be taken to the middle of a wilderness, and exposed to bears and avoIacs, as to the fashionable beaux and belles of the city, accustomed as they are, to the high finished goods of Eu- rope and the East-Indies. It will be therefore time enough for the capitalist, to engage in an extensive manufactory of goods, fit for the consumption of the ci- ties and large sea-port toAvns of America, when the legislature shall think proper to protect him in his undertaking, by imitating the ex- ample of England, already men- tioned. Such a person Avill also know, that he ought to choose for his situation, one of the largest in- land towns : and that habits of in- dustry and a steady price for labour are not to be met Avith in seaports. He will also avoid haAdng his work performed by slaves : they seldom give their minds so much to reflec- tion, as to become men of genius : and some genius is absolutely ne- cessary to understand, and, keep in order, such a complication of machinery. This extensive plan 252 COT COT will best suit the middle and NeAV- England states. Without a great number of ex- pensive engravings, it Avould be impossible to give a much better description of the machinery, than is here given. It would, however, be a desirable thing, that a work of that kind should be published, illus- trated Avith engravings, and the ac- curate dimensions given of the dif- ferent parts of the machinery. But the learned, who have leisure to attend to such pursuits, are (how- ever paradoxical it may appear) totally! ignorant of these things.... They have been almost always too much taken up Avith the invisible world, to attend to things substan- tial. The properties of an invisi- ble gas, is much more diverting, than carding or roving-engines. For this reason, it is not probable, that any such work will be undertaken ; and our only consolation is, that the feAv artists in that line, Avhich remain in the country, will very soon be employed to advantage.] Alney and Brown's prices of cot- ton yarn. ''Hank. . Cents per Pejund 10 88 11 91 12 94 13 98 14 102 15 106 16 110 17 114 18 118 19 122 20 126 21 130 22 134 23 133 24 142 25 146 30 166 COTTON-GRASS, or Eriopto- rum, L. is a perennial, native ge- nus of plants, consisting of five species, the principal of which arc the folloAving: 1. The angustifolium, or common cotton-grass, moor-grass, moss- crops, or many-headed cotton-grass. It is found chiefly on marshes and bogs in the county of Stafford, on Birmingham-heath, and near New- port, Shropshire....In the Island of Skye, in Scotland, this plant is use- ful to support cattle in the earlier part of the spring, before the other grasses are sufficiently grown. The poorer class of people stuff their pil- lows Avith the woolly down of this plant, and also employ it in making Avicks for candles. 2. The Polystachion, or broad- leaved cotton-grass, which groAvs in the marshy parts of the counties of Northampton; Bedford, near Dunstable; York, Cumberland; and very common in Scotland. Large tracts of ground are some- times covered with the white dow- ny fibres of this plant, Avhich flow- ers from April to June; and subse- quently represents the snowy field of winter: its presence, however, indicates a soil productive of turf, or peat. Neither cattle nor sheep relish this vegetable, the hairy seed- vessels of which vitiate the hay, insomuch that large conglobate masses have often been found in the stomachs of animals, that died in consequence of feeding on such provender. Hence the necessity of collect- ing the doAvn of the. broad-leaved cotton-grass, both for preventing the injurious consequences, to cat- tle, and converting it to the follow- ing useful purposes. The late Dr. Gleditsch, of Berlin, made a va- riety of curious experiments with c o u this woolly substance; and found, that in combination with either sheep's wool, or cotton, it could be spun into a very strong and uni- form yam, from which Avere pro- duced durable gloves, stockings, Btuil's, and excellent cloth. He ad- mits, however, that this downy ma- terial is more brittle than the fi- brous integuments in Avhich the seeds of the sweet, or bay-leaved' willoAv, are enveloped. Neverthe- less, we have recently had an op- portunity of ascertaining, and think it our duty to announce it to the public, as a. fact worthy the atten- tion of manufacturers, that both substances before-mentioned, may be prepared by a simple chemical process, in such a manner as to render them eminently fit for being mixed Avith improved animal wool, as Avell as cotton and silk, nay, even the refuse of flax and hemp. Clothiers, serge and stocking ma- kers, hatters, and all other artisans employed in this branch of staple manufactures, may perhaps find it their interest to obtain farther in- formation on this important subject. Couch-grass, or Couch-wheat: See Dog-grass. COUGH, a violent, often invo- luntary, and sonorous expiration, suddenly expelling the air through the contracted glottis. It is excit- ed by any acrid substance, either chemically or mechanically applied to those passages through Avhich the air enters. These are lined with a membrane so exceedingly sensible, that it cannot bear the mildest stimulus, such as a drop of cold water, Avithout throwing the muscles serving for respiration, in- to a violent convulsion. Hence the air is expelled Avith a force sufficient to carry along with it the irritating substance; and thus a cough be- C O U 253 comes not only useful, but indis- pensably necessary for the preser- vation of life, as this effort frees the lungs from every kind of stimu- lating matter, or foulness, which might otherwise be attended Avith suffocation. A cough is, therefore, an almost inseparable companion of every inflammation of the lungs, as Avell as every difficulty of breath- ing; nay, it frequently takes place, when the purest air enters an ex- coriated, sore, or too sensible windpipe, and its tender branches. It may arise from too great an ir- ritability of the nervous system, or even of some particular part, such as the ear; from worms and impurities in the first passages; obstructions ofthe abdominal visce- ra; acrimony clogging the glands, and originating frequently from a catarrhal and scrophulous disposi- tion; hysteric weakness; accumu- lation of sharp humours in the lungs, Sec. From this view of the causes which produce coughs, it will not be expected that Ave should expa- tiate on the treatment of the com-1 plaint, under every form and vari- ety of circumstances; Ave shall, therefore, consider it under the fol- lowing head.*. I. The convulsive cough of in- fante, in general, proceeds from a foul and disordered stomach, in consequence of too viscid'and su- perfluous food, such as porridge, puddings, cakes, gingerbread, con- fectionary, Sec. It is accompanied either with a voracious appetite, or a total Avant of it; difficulty of breathing, a tumefied hard belly: nausea, and often vomiting. The breath and excrements of such children are unusually fetid; they seldom cough from the breast, but make efforts to vomit, and throw up 254 C O U C O U a viscid phlegm; in consequence of which, they remain easy for a longer time than usual. Their tongue is ahvays impure, and the cough increases in violence, after meals. For the cure of this troublesome complaint, there are no better re- medies than gentle emetics, and laxatives. A child under one year old, may occasionally take a large tea-spoonful, of this mixture name- ly, syrup of squills and rose-water, of each one ounce ; powdered rhu- barb, four grains; and ipecacuan- ha, two grains. The dose may be repeated every half hour, for three or four times, till it produces vo- miting; and, in children tAvo or three years of age, it may be some- what increased, but never to exceed a dessert-spoonful. After the me- dicine has operated, a clyster, com- posed of milk and water, with a lit- tle oil and sugar, ought to be giv- en, and repeated every other, or third day, while a sparing diet should be strictly observed. II. The convulsive cough of adults, likewise arises from the dis- ordered organs of digestion, and is frequently the constant lot of tip- plers in spirituous liquors, and hab- itual drunkards. At its commence- ment there is little or no expectora- tion; and an inclination to A'omit generally precedes a fit of cough- ing.....The treatment of this mala- dy is similar to that of the same species in children; but, if the pa- roxysms should be so severe as to threaten suffocation, we advise, from experience, small doses of calcined zinc, from half a grain to one grain at a time, to be taken in a spoonful of luke-Avarm Avater, and to be repeated, if necessary, eA'ery five or ten minutes. III. The catarrhal cough, which is the most common, and very fre- quent, especially in the winter sea- son: See Catarrh. Its immedi- ate cause is a defluxion of humours from the salival glands, chiefly on the trachea or Avindpipe; thus irri- tating the throat, and producing fits of coughing. The continuance of such efforts to expel superfluous matter, generates another cause of the complaint; for, when this hu- mour glides down into the air-ves- sels of the lungs, it fills many of their cavities, and becomes, in a manner, inspissated, by the contin- ual exhalation of its minutest parts in respiration. The salival hu- mour, thus thickened, by the joint action of the lungs and the air in breathing, is occasionally raised and brought into the mouth, so that in its passages it excites a fit of coughing. In this situation, espe- cially after catching cold, and, with a vieAV to prevent, rather than to cure, a catarrhal cough, the late Dr. Lobb suggested a remedy, Avhich simply consists in chewing any kind of dry aliment. As the action of the muscles, in mastica- tion, excites the salival glands, and all other adjacent glandules, to dis- charge their contained humour, and to mix it Avith dry food, before it is conveyed to the stomach, where it cannot fail to promote digestion, he concludes that, in this manner, a much smaller quantity of the sa- lival humour will fall into the air- vessels of the lungs, and thus the proximate cause of the cough be gradually counteracted. Hence Dr. Lobb advised his patients to use biscuits of all sorts, though hard bread or crust will answer the same purpose: 1. To eat some mouthfuls of dry food previously to cou C O U 255 going to bed, which often prevents those fits of coughing that other- Avise Avould disturb their sleep..... 2. To resort to the same remedy in the morning, when it will con- vey the salival humour into the stomach. 3. To repeat it every time during the day, when, by a tickling in the throat, they appre- hend the approach of a fit of cough- ing. By such practices, he ob- serves great benefit has been deriv- ed by himself and others. We are, hoAvever, inclined to think, that it will be useful only at the com- mencement of the complaint. And the Doctor likeAvise adds, that to a patient long afflicted with it, to- tally deprived of his appetite, and perhaps sunk down into a con- sump'ion, it is not so effectual, though always of some service. Those avIio cannot possibly swalloAv any kind of solid food, he advises, at least, to chew dry aliment, at the times before specified,and again to part with it: this expedient will considerably lessen the quantity of salival humour, and thus pre- vent, or shorten, many fits of cough- ing. It is a common error, that all coughs may be cured by the usual mode of administering oily, diluent, and demulcent remedies. At first, indeed, such medicines may be serviceable, to SAveeten the acrid humours then secreted, and to al- lay the irritation. But, as the com- pounds of oil, spermaceti, Sec. easi- ly turn rancid, and even in a fresh state impair the appetite, and affect the breast, we consider them as extremely precarious: hence Ave would prefer the chewing of the extract of liquorice, gum arabic, and similar substances, to all liquid preparations. If, hoAvever, the cough has made such progress, as not to yield to the treatment here alluded to, in this case Ave can con- fidently recommend the use of the folloAving acid julep: Three ounces of sweet olive oil, tAvo ounces of syrup of capillaire, one ounce of conserve of roses, and thirty drops of strong oil of vitriol; mix them properly, and take a tea-spoonful or two, frequently. These ingre- dients form an excellent medicine for adults; but, for children, Ave would prefer a julep prepared of eight ounces of rose-Avater, four ounces of syrup of dry roses, and six drops of vitriolic acid; to be taken by spoonfuls, as often as oc- casion may require, especially if the cough be accompanied Avitii thirst and febrile heat. In the lat- ter cases, the julep should be di- luted Avith SAveet whey, which of itself is an incomparable beverage in catarrhal affections. Lastly, we cannot omit to insert in this place, a remedy Avhich is highly praised by the late Dr. Un- zer, of Hamburgh, and the phy- sicians of that city, as being of in- estimable value in all obstinate ca- tarrhs, stagnations, and accumula- tions of humours injfche breast; dry coughs; and severe bruises near the pectoral vessels, from which suppurations and ulcers may be ap- prehended. This medicine is a simple decoction of the Calagua- la, a root lately imported from South America, and now univer- sally preferred to the seneka or ra'- tle-snakcroot, which were formerly- used for similar purposes. Dr. Unzer directs tAvo drams of the calaguala to be boiled in a quart of Avater, till the fourth part is evapo- rated, and to drink several cups of ihe strained decoction, instead of tea. When taken sufficiently strong, and for a proper length of 256 C O U time, it eA idently acts on the skin and kidnies, by determining the humours to those outlets. He cau- tions, hoAvever, against a spurious species of that root, which is fre- quently sold by druggists, instead of the genuine ; and an account of which is •given by M. Galmetti, an Italian Avriter. We have thus enlarged on the subject, because long-continued coughs generally lay the foundation of consumptive and other disorders, which annually deprive the com- munity of thousands, whose lives might be easily preserved, if they had not neglected theirs* attack. Cough, in farriery, a disease to which horses are very subject. When injudiciously treated, it is sometimes of long duration-, occa- sions loss of appetite, wasting ofthe flesh, and, ultimately, consumption. Of this malady there are two prin- cipal species: the one is loose, al- most continual, and increases to a violent degree, upon the least mo- tion ; the other is short and dry, be- ing preceded by a husky, hollow kind of Avheezing, apparently aris- ing from obstructed breathing, by the retention o£fragments of hay, or corn, in the passage. The la'tter is usually called an asthma, for. which mercurial purges are recom- mended;....the animal should first be bled repeatedly, and in sm;.il quantities, till the inflammation and irritability of the glands are allay- ed ; and the blood so attenuated by the constant use of nitre, as to fa- cilitate the circulation through the finer vessels of the lung?. This operation being performed, a ball consisting ofthe following ingredi- ents should be given, according to Mr. Tapi.in, every morning, for a fortnight or three aw eke;. c ou Detergent pectoral balls: Take of castile soap, aniseed, and liquo- rice powder, each 5 oz. Barbadoes tar 6 oz. gum ammoniacum 3 oz. balsam of Tolu 1 oz. and honey sufficient to make a mass; which must be divided into twelve balls. ....Should the animal not recover from this course, he must be again bled, and treated with mercurials. With respect to the long, loud, incessant, hollow cough, Avhich in- creases on the least hurry in ex- ercise, the first step is blood-letting; then a mash should be given, con- sisting of equal parts of bran and oats, into Avhich, Avhile hot, 4 oz. of honey and 2 oz. of nitre, must be stirred and dissolved. This mash must be repeated, Avithout inter- mission, every night and mnrning, and a ball prepared of Turkey figs, Spanish liquorice, aniseed, and li- quorice-poAvder, each 4 oz.; carra- Avay-seeds, elecampane and anisi- tated balsam, each 2 oz. ; saffron, ground ginger, and oil of aniseed, each 6 drams; and the requisite proportion of honey to form the whole into a paste, which should be divided into twelve balls, one of Avhich is to be given every morning. These balls, says Mr. Taplin, are powerful, cordial, and restora- tive ; they promote glandular ex- cretion, warm and stimulate the stomach to an expulsion of wind: enliven the circulation, and invigo- rate the whole frame. It Avilf. per- haps, be useful to observe, that some young horses are subject to coughs, when cutting their teeth ; in such case, it is necessary to bleed and give them warm mashes, which in general, will effectually remove the disorder. Cough, in cattle, a disease called the husk, to which young bullocks cou COU 257 are liable. In this dangerous af- fection, the Avind-pipe and its bran- ches are obstructed with small ta- per worms. It is by farmers gene- rally considered as incurable, though we are of opinion, that fu- migations with cinnabar, or Avith fetid substances, such as tobacco, hartshorn shavings, feathers, &c. might occasionally prove of service, especially if they be cautiously ad- ministered by means of clysters. Calves are liable to take fre- quent colds, especially if they be exposed to the vicissitudes of the weather, before they acquire suffi- cient strength to undergo the chan- ges of this climate: the consequence is a crjugh, that frequently proves fatal, if it be neglected. For curing this malady, the following recipe is given in the " Cardiganshire Landlord's Aelvice to his Tenants ;" Bristol, 1800 : Let half a table- spoonful of spirit of turpentine be poured into the animal's nostrils, which must be held upAvards, in order that the liquor may Aoav into the throat: at the same time, the nose ought to be smeared with tar, and the calf be kept in the house for a feAv hours : this treatment should be repeated as often as the cough is troublesome. COUHAGE, or coAv-itch, as it is erroneously called, Dolickos pru- riens, L. is an exotic plant, groAv- ing in Avarm climates, especially in the West - Indies. It produces crooked, leguminous, coriaceous pods, thickly set Avith spicule, or sharp hairs, Avhich penetrate the skin, and cause a violent itchiiv;. These spicule are used in South America [and West Indies] in rases of worms, and have lately been employed in Britain for the same purpose : all the hairy part of one pod, mixed Avtih syrup, or VOL. II. treacle, and taken in the morning fasting, is prescribed as a dose for an adult. The Avorms are said to appear after taking the second or third dose ; and, by means of a brisk laxative, the stools are re- ported, in some cases, to have con- sisted almost entirely of worms. Although no inconvenience appears to arise from the internal use of this medicine, Ave doubt its virtues as a vermifuge. [The vermifuge powers of the Dolichospruriens, couhage, or horse- eye bean; cannot be doubted. A decoction of the roots is esteemed a poAverful diuretic, and a vinous infusion of the pods (tAvelve to a quart) is said to be a certain reme- dy for the dropsy : the dose half a pint, when made into beer.] COUNTRY - FIOUSES, are those erected in the country, for the use and convenience of private individuals, as opposed to the splen- did villas and mansions of the no- bility, and more opulent gentry. It generally happens that most of the houses burnt in country places, take fire in the roofs, Avhile the family is from home, on a vi- sit, or gone to church. On such occasions, children or servants be- gin to examine with lights the closets and lofts, Avhich are usually filled Avith combustibles ; or flakes of burning soot not unfrequently fall on the shingled roof. Country- houses are in most instances de- tached from the immediate assis- tance of neighbours ; hence, in erecting them, security against fire is a point deserving particular at- tention. In order to promote this truly desirable object, Ave have an- nexed a cut of a country-house, founded upon certain principles, adopted by Mr. Bordlky, of Phila- delphia. L !. 258 - C O U COU The floor of the basement story should be of brick, or flag-stone, raised about a foot above the sur- face ofthe ground, but by no means laid on joists over cellars ; as these confine the damp air under them, render it pernicious, and there pro- duce a mouldiness and smell, which are communicated to the air of the rooms above, so as to become per- ceptible. The floor of the second or best story, should be laid with rough strong boards, or planks, not more than three or four inches wide, nailed down across solid stiff joists, and covered with a thick bed of strong cement. The whole may be spread over Avith carpets, and the weFFoards and surbase be of cut stone, or marble. Thefloorof the 3d story ought to be laid with thick narrow boards and cement, and the Avash-boards of ce- ment rounded off. The cellars should be under a detached build- ing, or under the stair-case of the principal house. It Arill also be ne- cessary to strengthen the joists of the floors, by inserting pieces of plank between them, which will prevent their being shaken. The utmost care ought to be taken to ovoid the use of wood as much as possible. For this purpose, the door and window-frames may be of stone or iron, and the doors faced or lined with the se.ee. The joists and boards for the platform-roof and floors, and also for the stair- case, if the same be of wood, should be protected from the contact of fire by cements. No outside cornice is requisite for a platform-roof, which may be constructed in the folloAving man- ner : Joists, 12 or 13 inches deep at the big end, are to rest on the mid die wall, and to be tioped thence 2-10ths of an inch per foot, to the smaller end on the exterior walL.., These joists should likewise be from 2 to 3 inches thick, and from 12 to 14 distant from centre to centre ; or they may be through- out of an equal depth, and sloping battens affixed to them, in order to give the platform-roof an oblique direction. At every 5 or 6 feet be- tween the joists, pieces of plank nearly of the same depth with the latter, should be inserted at right angles, which will' augment their strength. Stout, rough, narroAV boards, 3 or 4 inches in breadth, and one inch thick, are next to be nailed doAA-n across the joists, with large rugged nails; Avhich ought to be covered over Avith the folloAv- ing cement, 1 or 2 inches deep: Take one part of burnt, puherized lime-stone, to Avhich add tAvo of clean sand and brick-dust; let the whole be well mixed together, and only such a quantity slaked, as can be worked up with the troAvels, and laid on while it is hot. When the cement is dry, it should be coated with a mixture of three parts of tar and one olflsh-oil, by means of a brush, on a hot sun-shine day. After this, a composition of tar and fish-oil, boiled down to a consist- ence between tar and pitch, should be laid on. and coarse sand, or small pebbles, sifted over the whole. Then another layer of tar only, of a similar consistence, should be ap- plied, adding likewise small peb- bles, but without any mixture of sand. By this process, the roof will acquire such a degree of hardness as to be impermeable to water. In the annexed design, is a main partition wall across the place avhere the chimney is erected, and Avhence the jr-isls extend 21 feet to the ex- terior Avail. The stair-cases will be most conveniently placed in the cou C O U 259 comer rooms, or passages. These hered to, the size may be propor- principles, and the form of the tioned to the ability and intention house here represented, being ad- of the proprietor. ' ,giii!iia«iili:ti f!i 'f\fFk*J£\t:-ii F]<~FF'i.\ . ■f-"« II.: lt£ H»SliffiSplt'l¥w3fl ^Jjl|"'i;SiB&5ffi?^L|i4'; In this design there are Feet. Feet 2 Passages, in the clear 21 by 9 J^ each 200, both 400 4 Rooms, the comers 12 by 12 144, 576 2 Ditto,.......... 20 by 21 420, 840 Whole area ... 1816 260 C O U COW The cut consists of an elevation and plan, fronting the south. The entrance is either on the east or v. est sides, which require but little light. Between the ceiling of the uppermost story, and the platform roof, there should be a clear space 2 or 3 feet deep, with holes through the opposite Avails. The hot air will thus be carried off, and a void space left for inspecting the state of the loAver part of the platform. These air-holes may be 8 or 10 inches in diameter, Avith lattices of wire or twine, well soaked in the composition of tar and oil, in order to exclude birds ; and, during the winter, they should have close shutters on the inside, to keep out the snoAV. Dimensions of the Height. Basement elevation of the walls .... 9 -|- 1 = 10 feet. Second story..........12-4-1=13 Third story...........9+1=10 Vent space...........2+1= 3 The thickness and strength of the Avails should be proportioned to their height. A three-storehouse would have a Avail 36 feet above the ground ; one of two stories, 26 feet ; and that of one at ory, 15 feet: so that if one story require a Avail one brick thick, tAvo stories may have the basement one and a half, and three stories two bricks thick. The foundation-wall should be 3 feet deep in the ground, that it may acquire stability, and be out ofthe reach of severe frosts. For some families, it may be sufficient, and perhaps more convenient, to have only one or two stories of rooms. The lower the Avalis are, the great- er will be their strength and dura- bility. The basement and second sto- ries may be divided according to the A'iews of the builder, rather than the annexed plan. The third story, haA'ing the four square re- cesses at the comers of the design thrown into closets about 2 5- 10th feet deep, will leave an area, that may be divided into four roomy bed chambers. The middle Avail, which crosses the passages, and 36 divides the large rooms, will sup- port the greatest part of the weight on the roof, and should, therefore, be particularly strong. The joists of the platform extend from this Avail, in both directions, north and south, to the exterior Avails. The recesses should be as shalloAv as possible ; 1 and -^ of a foot, if clear of wall, will be fully sufficient; for, if they be deeper, they will retain or concentrate heat, and harbour vermin. The last, and most important point to be considered in the build- ing of a house, is the structure of the chimnies ; but as we have al- ready discussed it, and pointed out the best and most improved mode of building them, we refer our readers to that article. [For additional remarks on build- ing houses, See article House.] COW, in zoology, an animal too Avell known to require any des- cription. A perfect cow ought to have a broad forehead, black eyes, large clean horns, a long thin skin, a large deep belly ; strong muscular cow COW 261 thighs, round legs, broad feet, short joints, and a white large ud- der with four teats. The use of this animal is equally important for the dairy, and the propagation of its species. For the former pur- pose, the Aldcmey breed of red cows is generally preferred, as they are supposed to yield the best milk; though the quantity they produce greatly depends upon the nature and quality of their food. Grass growing spontaneously on good, sound, meadow land, is in general, deemed the most proper nutriment for those cows which are kept for the supply of the dai- ry. When, however, other green food cannot be procured, the tops and tenderest parts of furze may be chopped, bruised, and given to them. It is affirmed, that this ve- getable is greatly superior to fod- der ; as it increases their milk, Avithout imparting any unpleasant flavour. Carrots, oil-cake, cabba- ges, turnips, potatoes, and bumet, are excellent provision, and Avell calculated to afford beneficial win- ter-food for this useful animal. The proper periods for milking coavs, during the summer season, if they are well fed, are three every day, at the least, and at intervals as nearly equi-distant as possible, namely, in the morning, at noon, and in the evening, just before the approach of night. We are well aware that such practice is not ge- nerally followed in England, the coavs being milked twice only in 24 hours : this method, hoAvever, is against all the rules of good econo- my ; for experience has amply evinced, that if a coav be milked three times a day, she Avill yield a greater quantity, and as good, if not better milk, than by draAving her teats only twice, namely, in the morning and evening. We are, therefore, induced to recom- mend this circumstance to the at- tention of our agricultural readers ; for, if by the bad milking of their cows, they lose only half a pint in quantity, they in fact are deprived of as much cream as six or eight pints would produce at the begin- ning of the operation, together with that part of the cream, which alone can impart a rich and agree- able flavour to butter. Every precaution ought to be taken in the choice of milkers.... When this manual Avork is rough- ly performed, it becomes painful to the cow; but if a soft hand be gently applied, the animal seems rather to receive pleasure, and al- Ioavs the milk to flow plentifully; as she possesses the singular facul- ty of retaining or parting with her milk. Indeed, instances have fre- quently occurred, in which one dai- ry-maid could not obtain a single drop, but another drew the milk in abundance, and Avithout the least difficulty. For the same reason, Avhen coavs are ticklish (as farmers express it,) they should be treat- ed Avith the most soothing gentle- ness, and never Avith harshness or severity. If the udder be hard and painful, it should be tenderly fomented with luke-Avarm water, and gently rubbed, in order to bring the creature into a good tem- per. Thus, she will suffer the milk to flow without restraint; where- as, if she retain, and not allow it to be drawn off" freely, it will pre- vent her from yielding the accumu- lated quantity, and eventually dry up her udder. When a cow has been milked for a series of years, and begins to groAV old, the most advantageous mode that can be adopted, Avill be that of making her 262 COW COW dry. To effect this purpose, a cor- respondent, in the 21st vol. of Annals of Agriculture, directs six ounces of white resin to be Avell pulverized, and dissolved in the evening in a quart of Avater ; and at the same time to house the cow. ....On the folloAving morning, she should be bled and milked, Avhen the liquid is to be administered, and the animal turned out into the best grass. After these preparatory measures, she ought no longer to be milked, but may be fattened with any of the vegetables already pointed out, under the articles Black Cattle, Bullocks, and Cattle. With regard to the cows intend- ed for breeding, care should be taken to select t'^ose Avhich give abundance of milk. For about three months previously to calving, if in the spring, they should be turned into SAveet grass; or, if it happen in the Avinter, they ought to be well fed with the best hay. The day and night after they have calved, they should be kept in the house, and no cold, but luke-warm water allowed for their drink. On the next day, about noon, they may be turned out, yet regularly taken in, during the night, for three or four successive days ; after which, they may be left to themselves. Every night, the cows thus housed should be kept till the morning cold is dissipated, and a draught of warm water given them previ- ously to their going to the field. W ithout this precaution,they Avould be apt to slip their carves ; an acci- den twhich, independently of the loss it occasions, cannot fail to Aveaken them considerably. Where this is the case, and a coav begins to grow old, the most experienced farmers generally cause her to be spayed; and after keeping her two or three weeks from the cold, turn her into pasture. Such prac- tice, if properly attended to, may be of considerable advantage, as the cows thus treated -will thrive exceedingly, and soon be fit for sale. Having already mentioned the advantages of soiling and sweat- ing [cattle] (see page 36.) Ave shall only add here, that in the management of cows, a warm sta- ble is highly necessary; and if they be curried in the same man- ner as horses, they not only receive pleasure, but will give their milk more freely. Farther, coavs should always be kept clean, laid dry, and have plenty of good water to drink; in consequence of Avhich, they Avill produce both more milk, and af- ford a quantity of rich dung, that will amply repay the trouble and attention bestowed upon them. [In the management of milk- cows, it is essential that they be kept at all times in high health and good condition. If they are allow* ed to fall in flesh during winter, an abundant supply of milk need not be expected by bringing them into high condition in summer. So well convinced of this are the Germans, whoattendPhiladelphiamarketAvith milk, that they regularly feed their coavs at midnight with short feed, during the winter. If cows are lean when'calving, no management afterwards, will ever bring them to yield, for that season, any thing like the quantity of milk they Avould have furnished, had they been kept all winter in high con- dition. Cows ought to be kept to their fullest stretch of milk, from the time of their calving, till grass can be had in abundance. Warm stables are equally necessary. The COW Germans in Lancaster county, find it economical to have warm sta- bles, as beasts will not eat so much when kept warm, as when shiver- ing Avith cold. Dr. Anderson speaks highly of the bruised twigs of the common furze, gorse, or whins, ( Ulex Europaus) as winter food for coavs. The directions to curry and keep coavs clean, given above, are of great importance. Baron D' Al- ton, in a letter to the British Board of Agriculture, says, that in Hanover " it has been found, that currying cows fed wit/iin doors, and keeping them as cleanly as horses in a stable, are attended with the best consequences, both in regard to the milk they yield, and the rapid improvement of the coavs themselves." Pure water is an es- sential article for coavs. Dr. An- derson says, he kneAV a man who acquired great Avealth by attending to things of this nature, and one of his principal discoveries was, the importance of having a con- tinued supply of the purest water that could be obtained for his coavs, and he would on no account per- mit a single animal to set a foot into it, nor allow it to be tainted, even by the breath of animals. Cows in the United States are generally pastured : but the waste attending this practice has already been fully pointed out under the head Cattle. It would be avcII to try Avhether coavs might not be made to thrive as Avell by being kept continually in the stall, and at the same time, yield as much or more milk, as when permitted to feed at pleasure in a field. Ba- ron D' Alton says, they must be trained early to it, otherwise, they do not thrive ; and yet a friend in- forms us, that during the time the COW 263 British troops Avere in Philadel- phia, he confined his cow upwards of a year to the stable, and by feeding her on good hay and occa- sional messes of short wet feed, with the usual attention to clean- liness, preserved her health, and obtained abundance of milk. It may happen, hoAvever, that all cows Avill not thrive equally well, if pen- ned up ; but the great advantages attending the practice of soiling and stall feeding, as respects the expenditure of the product of the ground, the making manure, and the preservation of the good con- dition of the land, are so incon- testibly obvious, that the trial of the plan ought to be made by eve- ry one : where it is intended to keep calves of a particular breed, there can be no difficulty in the execution of it, for they may be easily reconciled to the confine- ment. An acre of middling soil, should produce 20,000 lbs. Aveight of green clover, or 5,000 of dry clover, A large coav requires 110 lbs. of green, or 27 lbs. of dry clover per day ; consequently, in 36 days, 40,150 lbs. or a trifle more than the produce of two acres. Where- as, the same cow, fed entirely out of doors, summer and Avinter, would require a pasture of four acres. A ivriter, in the survey of the WestRiding of Yorkshire, says, he kept thirteen cows one winter, on turnips, and oaten straw, Avithout a mouthful of hay. They yielded thirty quarts of milk per day. To destroy the turnip taste in milk, Seethe article Buttei. The editor has heard, that in the neighbourhood of Bethlehem, in Pennsylvania, there is a breed of cows, remarkable for the great £64 COW COW abundance of milk they afford : and he has been assured, they yield from twenty to thirty quarts per day. But it ought to be re- marked, that the owners are noted for a regular system of full feeding, winter and summer. An observing English officer, Col. P. remarked, two years since, the breed of cows near Lancas- ter, Avhich have " a fine small head, smooth and delicate hair, full eye, round rib, and straight back; and said, that the breed would be an ac- quisition to England, if introduced there." It is said by the author of the Agricultural Survey of Middlesex, that an uncommon quantity of rich milk Avas yielded by the produce of a cross breed between an English coav and a buffalo obtained by the late John Hunter, of London, Avhile the creature retained an un- common propensity to fatten. The peculiar anatomy ofthe cow, together Avith an account of the mode of relieving that useful ani- mal in cases of, difficult calving, by Dr. Eberhard, was published in 1793, by the Agricultural Society of Amsterdam, and is Avell Avorthy of an English dress.] Coavs are liable, in common Avith other cattle, to the Distemper, (which see) and various other dis- eases (see Cattle) but more par- ticularly to a stoppage, that oc- casions the feces to dry up in the intestine, vulgarly called farthing- bound ; or, perhaps, with more pro- priety, knit : for, by the motion of the intestines, one of them, or part of it, is surrounded with a strong ligament, Avhich totally impedes the passage, and adheres to the in- side of the loin. Animals affected with thh; malady, kx.ih their food, and frequently move their hind- legs imvardly, and up towards their bellies. The only remedy at pre- sent knoAvn is, to throAV them on the ground, and make an incision in the flank, wide enough to admit the hand : thus the operator will immediately find the ligament, Avhich must be separated Avith the thumb-nail ; when the intestine Avill be released, and return to its proper position. The incision mav then be seAvn up ; and the aninv.1 will in a short time completely re- cover. Although the disorder here described, is at present chiefly pre- valent in the weald of Kent, and in the adjacent parts of Sussex ; yet Ave apprehend it is not confined solely to those places, and have therefore discussed it Avith some attention; Avhich may, perhaps, tend to restore to health many useful animals. s External injuries done to the ud- der of a cow, by blows, falls, fric- tion, wounds inflicted Avith sharp or pointed instruments, by the vio- lent sucking of calves, or the rough treatment of milkers, are frequent- ly of serious consequence, and oc- casion the milk to be tainted with blood. While the inflammation continues in an indolent state, the parts affected should be anointed several times a day Avith fresh but- ter, or a salve prepared of one or.. of Castile soap dissolved in a pint and a half of fresh cow's-milk over a moderate fire,stirring it constantly, to form a complete mixture. But, if the udder and teats be consider- ably inflamed, it will be necessary to make use of internal remedies. For this purpose, take one pound of common salt, and four ounces of salt-petre, mix them carefully, and rive 2 table-spoonfuls ofthe pow- cow der, every three hours, in a gallon of water mixed up with a little oat- meal. [An ointment made of the juice of the leaves of the Datura Stramo- nium, (Jimson weed), and hog's-lard, is an excellent application for a swelled udder.] Should, howeAer, from neglect, the disorder have made such pro- gress as to exhibit hard tumours, in this case fomentations, made ofthe folloAving herbs, ought to be used : Take of common hemlock, or co- nium maculatum ; dwarf, or small- flowered mallow, or malva rotundi- folia ; common melilot, or trifolium melilot offic.; of each one handful; boil them in a sufficient quantity of water ; apply them diligently, not warmer than the animal can bear it; and, as soon as a tumour opens, the sore should be properly cleansed, and then covered with a plaster of basilicon ointment, or Turner's cerate. To promote the cure of such ulcerated parts, especially in very obstinate cases, we recommend another remedy, which has often been attended Avith success. Take Castile soap, gum ammoniac, gum galbanum, and extract of hemlock, one ounce of each ; form them into eight bolusses, and administer one of them every morning and even- ing. Lastly, to prevent coavs from sucking their own milk, Ave are informed, that rubbing the teats frequently with the most fetid cheese that can be procured, has proved an effectual remedy. COW-PARSNIP,or Hog-weed, the Heracleum, I., a native genus of plants, producing two species. 1. The Sphondylium, or Com- mon Cow-parsnip, which is found in hedges, meadows and pastures. VOL. n. COW 265 It is biennial, and bears whitish floAvers, Avhich blow in the month of July : its stalks grow from three to four feet high. In Poland and Lithuania, the peasants prepare a liquor from the leaves of this plant, which, after undergoing fermenta- tion, is brewed, and drank instead of beer. As this beverage is per- fectly harmless, it might with ad- vantage be substituted for some kinds of ale, in which the most pernicious substances are infused, with a view to give it a head..... The inhabitants of Kamtschatka peel the roots, which afford a nu- tritious and wholesome food. An ardent spirit is also distilled by the Russians and Poles from the me- dullary substance of the stalks, and sometimes from the Avhole bran- ches, which are first fermented in water Avith the great bilberries (see vol. i. p. 255), from which they obtain a liquor of considerable strength. It is more agreeable to the palate than the ardent spirits distilled from corn; though we must observe, on the authority of Dr. Bohmer, that it is a still more intoxicating and pernicious liquor than w/iiskey. Hogs, rabbits, and asses, are extremely fond of the leaves, which are also eaten by coavs, goats, and sheep, but not re- lished by horses. 2. The Angustifolium, or Nar- roAV-leaved Cow-parsnip, which is found in Avoods, and floAvers in July. It has no peculiar properties. Cow-Parsley, or Cow-weed. See Chervil. [COW-POCK, Vaccine, an erup- tive disease, which attacks the ud- ders of coavs, and which, when transferred to the human system, effectually secures it from the small-pox. This disease, Avhich may be just- M M 266 COW COW Iy considered as one of the great- est temporal blessings conferred by Proiudence upon mankind, was known forty years ago in Germa- ny, and also the fact of its being a preventive of the small-pox. The same fact was likewise known in the dairy counties of England for- nearly the same period, but in both countries the evident application of the important principle connected with it, was unattended to, until Dr. Edward Jenner brought it fairly before the public a few years since in England. The disease is now found in NeAv-England, among coavs. The power of the disease to prevent the small-pox, is at length proved beyond all doubt by many thousand experiments in Eu- rope and the United States. The distance, as communicated by inoculation, in its commence- ment much resembles the small- pox. Towards the close of the second day, when the operation takes effect, (that is 36 to 48 hours, from the period of inserting the virus) a light speck of inflamma- tion is perceived. On the fourth day a minute pimple may be felt rising above the skin, surrounded by a circular imflammation at its base. It now gradually increases in size, and by the close ofthe fifth day, begins to assume (especially if viewed Avith a magnifying glass), that appearance which so much dis- tinguishes it from the small-pox. This consists in the perfect regu- larity, and beautifully circumscrib- ed form of the pock, Avhich has a surface flattened, a\ ith a depressed centre, of a darker colour, so as to give an appearance of elevated edges. In the small-pox, on the contrary, by the sixth day, the in- oculated part begins to assume an irregular, or angulated appearance, and its surface is not so flattened in proportion to its diameter. This circumscribed appearance is retain- ed by the coiv-pock (vaccine) dur- ing its whole progress, even during the process of its scabbing, while the small-pox becomes daily more irregular, in consequence of the confluence of the adjoining pus- tules. About the fifth day, the pock begins tochange from the red pimple to a vesicle containing a fluid, Avhich through the cuticle much resembles the colour of whey. This fluid is at its first formation, in its most active state,and probably will be less liable to fail, if taken at this early period, than if delayed to a later day...... From the sixth to the tenth is men- tioned as the proper period for col- lecting it. About the eighth or ninth day, the pock having arrived to maturity, the constitutional symptoms begin to shew them- selves : the general indisposition being preceded by swelling and pain ofthe pustule shooting up to- Avards the socket of the arm.... Languor,droAvsiness,paleness, chil- liness, and flushes of heat, head- ach, pain and fulness of the eyes, loss of appetite, and frequency of pulse follow. The marginal inflam- mation continues to extend one or two inches in diameter, forming a beautiful efflorescence, or areola, which has been regarded as a proof that the general affection of the system had taken place. This ar- eola, hoAvever, does not always exist, and yet the preventive pro- perty ofthe disease is perfect. The febrile symptoms vary con- siderably : and sometimes ugly sores are induced by rubbing off the scab in its forming state, or by the friction of clothes. Care must therefore be taken to avoid these causes. For the above observations, cow COW 267 we are chiefly indebted to the late excellent publication on the vaccine disease by Dr. Coxe, Avhich should be in the hands of every practi- tioner, and master of a family re- mote from medical aid. The following concise directions for vaccinating may be found useful. 1. The vaccine pock matter be- ing generally, when first taken from the vesicle, a thin limpid fluid, it becomes, Avhen dried, scarcely visible, either on glass, or on the end of a lancet, even on a quite new one. If the matter be taken on thread, it will be perceived by ihe stiffness of it when dried. 2. If the matter is not used im- mediately on its being taken from the vaccine pock, it will of course be dry ; and when employed, it should be softened by the smallest particle of hot water ; and, to avoid too great dilution, it should be done by a particle of hot water, hanging on the extremity of a nee- dle. 3. The inoculation must be per- formed in the same manner as for the small-pox; but it m^iy be useful to recommend, that, 4. Matter be inserted in one place only in each arm, by a very small scratch or puncture of the skin. 5. One aimed lancet should be used for only one, or at most two punctures. 6. If the infection take, there will be seen in the inoculated part, in four days, or less, a red spot, like a small gnat bite. In six days, there will be generally a very small vesicle. In nine days, a circular vesicle appears, as large as a pea, often surrounded by a red areola. In twelve days, the red areola Avill generally surround the vesicle, which then begins to dry, and turn black in the middle. Between the eighth and eleventh day, a slight fever often takes place. By the fourteenth day, the vesi- cle usually changed into a circular dark brown scab, which should by no means be removed, but left to fall off, which it will do in two or three weeks, leaving a pit. If in four days the gnat-bite ap- pearance be not manifest, the ino- culation should be repeated. 7. For inoculation, matter may be taken between the sixth and tenth days, generally. 8. A considerable redness, like Erysipelas, sometimes comes on, and spreads over the arm, about the eleventh or twelfth day, which goes off of itself commonly in a day or two ; but cooling applica- tions Avill often be of service, and never do harm. An emollient poul- tice should not be applied, except in particular cases of phlegmonous inflammation. 9. The medical treatment is the same as that ofthe inoculated small- pox. 10. As the vaccine inoculation, as well as the small-pox inocula- tion, produces sometimes a local affection only, Avithout any perceiv- able disorder of the constitution, it Avill be safest, in doubtful cases, to re-inoculate the subject; and if no local disease be produced, or only an imperfect vesicle of a feAv day's duration, sufficient security Avill have been obtained by the first in- oculation. How to vacrinate several hundred persons with the matter of a single ordinary vaccine pock......From Tilloch's Phil. Mag. vol. \ 3. A member of the Vaccine Insti- tution mixed the fluid of a single 268 COW COT coAv-pock Avith a dram measure of water of about the temperature of 70 deg. of Fahrenheit. Of three subjects inoculated Avith this dilut- ed matter, tAvo took the disease in the usual Avay. The remaining third wras inoculated in each arm with one puncture with this diluted matter, and also in each arm, in like manner, Avith undiluted cow- pock matter ; but all these four punctures failed to produce the vaccine disease, the subject being an adult, and probably had had the small-pox. Though in the above directions the treatment is said to be the same as for the small-pox, yet in many 'cases, not a particle of medicine has been giA'en, nor has the patient lost an hour. // cannot be commu- nicated by a near approach to a vacci- nated subject, neither has death oc- curred from it in a single instance. A gentle dose of medicine, toge- ther with abstinence from animal food are nevertheless proper. Great care ought to be taken to distinguish betAveen a true and spu- rious cow-pock. The difference betAveen them, may be easily as- certained by any one who has seen the regular progress of the true pustule. To those who have not seen it, the description above given of it will be sufficient. JBut if any anxiety remain as to the certain- ty of having passed through the true disease, Mr. Bryce of Edin- burgh, has assured us that all doubts may be dispelled by the following experiment. On the sixth day after vaccination, let the patient be vac- cinated again. If the first pock has succeeded, the second pustule will run its course so rapidly as to have its areola, and to terminate about the same period as the first. In a mere local affection, this is not the case. The editor can confirm the truth of this test. It must be remarked, that in order to derive security from the small-pox by vaccination, the system must have suffered the latter disease, or at least have experienced the consti- tutional symptoms, which probably cannot be the case before the tenth day after vaccination. The small-pox and vaccine will sometimes go through their regular courses at the same time. Mr. Brace, surgeon of the Vac- cine Institution in Edinburgh, late- ly announced to the world, that the scab, or crusts formed upon the vaccinated part, if partly dissolved in water, will produce the affection with as great certainty, and regu- larity as Avith virus neA\ly taken and used in the common Avay..... The editor has lately tried the ex- periment in four cases Avith suc- cess, and Drs. Coxe and De Wees of Philadelphia, have also repeat- edly succeeded in communicating the disease Avith the crust. It may be proper to observe that Mr. B. considers the crust of the vaccine pock, "as the real extrac- tive matter, if it may be so called, of the most pure and active virus secreted in the cells of the vesicle." This important discovery will en- able us to preserve the infection of the cow-pock more easily, than by the limpid fluid on glass ; great at- tention should therefore be paid to the preservation of the crust...... Should anyneAv and important facts be made known on this disease, in the course ofthe present year, they Avill be given under the article Vaccine.] CoAv-quAKKs. See Quaking- grass. COWSLIP, the Common, or Paigle, or CoAvslip-primrose, Pri- cow C R A 269 mula veris, L. a native perennial plant, growing in meadows and pastures, on a loamy or clayey soil. It produces sweet-scented yellow- flowers, Avhich appear in April, and are used for making cowslip- wine, or balsamic tea. Its roots have a fine odour, similar to that of anise ; and give additional strength to ale or beer, when im- mersed in the cask. The leaves and flowers of this plant are excel- lent food for silk-worms, Avhich are extremely fond of them ; they are also eaten as a pot-herb, and in salads. Cattle eagerly feed on the leaves. COW-WHEAT, or Melampy- rum, S. a genus of native, annual plants, comprising four species, of which the following are the prin- cipal : l.The arvense, or Purple Coav- wheat, which grows in corn-fields, and is chiefly found in the county of Norfolk. It bears floAvers of a yelloAV dusky-purple, Avhich bloAV in the month of July, and are suc- ceeded by yelloAvish seeds. These, when ground with corn, impart a dusky, greyish cast, and a bitter flavour to the bread ; but do not render it unwholesome. A decoc- tion of the floAver-spikes produces a tolerably durable blue colour, and, with the addition of the fixed vegetable alkali, a purplish red. Cronstedt, the SAvedish minera- logist, obtained a fine blueish co- lour, from the stalks alone ; but none from the leaves and flowers. The plant is eaten by cows and goats, but refused by sheep. 2. The pratense, or Common yellow CoAV-wheat, which groAvs in Avoods and thickets, especially on clayey soils. Its blossoms are of a deep yellow colour, with Avhite tubes, and appear in July or Au- gust. Hogs eagerly eat the seeds, but reject the plant, Avhich is also refused by horses. It is, however, eaten by sheep and goats, and par- ticularly by cows, which are ex- tremely fond of it. AVhere this plant abounds, the butter is yelloAV, and uncommonly good. 3. The Sylvaticum, or Wood CoAV-Avheat, which is very rare, be- ing found only in some woody, sha- dy places, in the hilly parts of Scot- land. Its blossoms are entirely yellow, and flourish from June to August; but have not the white tube of the preceding species, with which it is frequently confounded. It is eaten by cows, sheep, and goats : if it be given them in abun- dance, they will thrive remarkably, and soon grow fat. Cox-comb: See Yellow Rat- tle. CRAB, in fruit-trees, a disease which attacks the bark, especially after transplanting them from the nursery : it destroys particularly the inner bark, by reducing it to a blackish powder, not unlike the smut in Avheat. Various conjectures have been formed, as to the origin of this for- midable disorder, Avhich is often very destructive, especially to ap- ple and pear-trees ; but none ap- pears to us satisfactory. It is, hoAv- ever very probable, that it arises from the inattention of gardeners, Avhen transplanting young trees, so as to change their situation to a dif- ferent point of the compass; for instance, by placing the northern side ofthe trunk towards the south; where the powerful rays ofthe sun parch and in a manner burn, the tender bark. This supposition is confirmed by the circumstance, that the disease generally makes its first appearance on the south 270 C R A C R A sides of the bark; though, we be- lieve, it also frequently originates from external injuries done to the tree, such as blows, scratches, &c. The most expeditious method of relieving a tree thus affected, is that ofimmediately cuttingout the whole diseased part, with a very sharp gardener's knife, and not to leave the smallest trace of its discolora- tion on the trunk; for an imperfect excision is attended with inevitable ruin to the tree. As soon as the operation is performed, the Avound- ed places must be carefully cover- ed with a plaster, made of equal parts of fresh clay, garden-mould, and cow-dung; or with the medi- cation mentioned in our first ao- lume, under the article Canker. CRAB-FISH, the Common, or Cancer-major, L. is a species of shell-fish, that inhabits our shores, and lurks or burrrows under the sand: it is sold almost exclusively to the poorer class of people. As crabs, hoAvever, generally are in a state nearly approaching to putri- faction, before they arrive at the markets of inland towns, the eating of them is attended with considera- ble danger. The claws of crabs form an arti- cle ofthe apothecaries' shop. The tips or ends of them only are used; after being broken down and Avell washed in boiling water, they are levigated, and yield a Avhitish poAv- der, Avhich is employed as an ab- sorbent, especially Avhere acidity abounds in the stomach and boAvels. Formerly, this preparation was much employed in diarrhoeas, and especially in the Heart-burn, to Avhich Ave refer. CRAB-TREE, or Pyrus malus, L. is an indigenous plant, growing in Avoods and hedges; it flourishes better on declivities and in shady places, than in open, exposed situ- ations, or on boggy soils. Its blos- soms are white, and appear in the month of May. This is the parent-stock, from which the numerous varieties ofthe apple are obtained, and on Avhich the better sorts of them are grafted; because its roots are neither killed by frost, nor eaten by field-mice. Grass, and even corn, will grow be- neath it. The Avood ofthe crab-tree is tolerably hard, turns clean on the lathe; and, when made into cogs for wheels, acquires a polish, which renders it very durable. The acid juice ofthe fruit is commonly term- ed verjuice, and is much employed in recent sprains, and in other ca- ses, as an astringent or repellent. This fruit is eaten by horses, coavs, sheep, goats, and particularly by hogs, which are extremely fond of it. Crab-trees abound especially in our forests, and their fruit fur- nishes abundance of food for deer, in the latter part of autumn, when grass begins to fail; and in Avinter they brouze on its branches, which are cut doAvn for that purpose. As this species quickly attains its groAvth, it deserves to form a part of every plantation; and Ave have only to regret, that it is not more generally cultivated, as it will in a short time amply compensate the trouble and expence bestowed on setting it. In dyeing, the bark of the crab- tree has been employed for extract- ing a yelloAV, and especially a ci- tron colour: Dambourney relates, that the dry shavings of this wood imparted a fine chesnut-broAvn to avooI prepared by a solution of bis- muth. See Article Fruit. [CRADLE, a frame joined to a scythe, useful in harvesting, by the CR A help of which, three times the quantity of grain may be cut doAvn in a given time that can be with a sickle, and laid tolerably even for binding in bundles. This ma- chine shall be particularly describ- ed and represented under the Ar- ticle Scythe.] CRAG, a species of manure, con- sisting ofthe fragments of various marine shells, which abound on the greatest part of the cliffs, contigu- ous to the British coast. They are often found 40 or 50 feet higher than the level ofthe sea, and some- times at a considerable distance from the shore. This kind of manure has but lately been introduced into rural economy, and is not yet sufficiently known. The husbandman, indeed, avIio is so fortunate as to discover it near bis farm, finds a treasure of which he cannot avail himself too soon ; as it will not only Avarm and meliorate a cold, wet, clayey soil, but also restore exhausted land, and render it equal to any, in richness and fertility.....See Ma- nure. Crake-berry: See Black-ber- ried Heath. Crake-needle: See Common Shepherd's Needle. Cranberry: See Bilberry. CRAMP, a kind of numbness, or involuntary contraction ofthe mus- cles, attended with a convuls'iA'e ef- fort of the neck, arms, legs, Sec. as likeAvise with a violent but transi- tory pain. Aged, sedentary, and infirm persons, are peculiarly liable to this complaint, for which a vari- ety of remedies has been tried, Avith occasional success. Sometimes a garter applied tightly round the limb affected, will speedily remove the complaint. When it is more obstinate, a brick should be heated, C R A 271 wrapped in a flannel bag, and plac- ed at the foot of the bed, against which the person troubled with the cramp may place his feet. The brick will remain warm the whole night, and thus prevent any return. No remedy, hoAvever, is equal to that of diligent and long continued friction, which will restore the free circulation of the blood in the con- tracted part, while it is more sim- ple, expeditious, and more safe in its effects. If the cramp attack the interior organs, such as the stomach and bowels, it is always attended with danger; as frequent returns of it may terminate in death. Medi- cines may relieve, but cannot cure, organic affections of this nature; hence we seriously advise such pa- tients to adopt, betimes, a more temperate and regular mode of life; to abstain from spirituous mixtures and all fermented liquors; to aban- don the practice of inundating their stomach two or three times a-day with hot tea; to shun smoked, salt- ed, and pickled provision of every kind, as Avell as fat, rancid, flatulent, and such dishes as require a vigo- rous digestion; in short, to avoid both the predisposing and exciting causes; the latter of which will be generally found in their own irrita- ble temper, by indulging in fits of anger; or other depressing pas- sion : thus, the animal fibre becomes suddenly relaxed, and again con- tracted, so that a paroxysm of the cramp isthe inevitable consequence. On such distressing occasions, if they value a precarious life, Ave con- jure them never to fly to the bran- dy-bottle, nor to take any stimulant medicines, such as laudanum, vitri- olic jcther, he. Avhich only prepare the stomach for sustaining a new attack, and accelerate the destruc- 272 CR A CR A of the patient. On the contrary, the mildest emollient drink, for instance, gruel, barley-water, cha- momile tea, ought to be instantly procured, and small draughts of half a tea-cupful at a time be given, luke-warm, Avith 10 or 15 drops of deliquated salt of tartar in each, to be repeated every half hour, or oftener, as may be found neces- sary.......See Convulsions and Spasms. CRANE, a machine used for raising large stones and other pon- derous bodies. From the numerous accidents which attend the common cranes, several skilful machinists have attempted to contrive such as Avould be more safe, and at the same time more easy in their ope- rations. The first, in point of time, is that invented by the late ingenious Mr. James Ferguson; which has three trundles, Avith different numbers of staves, that may be applied to the cogs of a horizontal wheel with an upright axle; round which is coil- ed the rope that draws up the Aveight. This Avheel has 96 cogs, the largest trundle 24 staves; the next 12, and the smallest 6; so that the largest revolves 4 times for one revolution of the wheel; the next 8; and the smallest 16. A winch is occasionally fixed on the axis of either of these trundles, for turning it, in proportion to the weight intended to be drawn up. While this is raising, the ratch- teeth of a wheel slip round beloAV a catch, that falls into them, prevents the crane from turning backwards, and detains the Aveight in any part of its ascent, if the man who Avorks at the winch, should accidentally quit his hold, or wish to rest him- self, before the weight is complete- ly raised. The second, is that invented by Mr. Abraham Andrews, of Hig- ham Ferrers, Northamptonshire. This machine weighs the body suspended, while it is raising; an improvement for which the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, he. in 1791, granted him a premium of 15 guineas. The proportion of the beam in the annexed plate (F"ig. 1.) is as 1 to 20, the large weight being five pounds, and the smaller i of a pound. The latter, when fixed on the beam-end, will equi-poise the former, if hung on the pulley at the end of the gib-beam, Avhich should be placed in a right line with the crane, at the time the weight is adjusted ; otherwise it Avill occasion a friction that may- prevent the moveable beam from playing freely. Description of Mr. A. Andrews's Crane in the annexed Engraving. Fig. 1. The gib of the crane stands on a horizontal beam, moveable on a centre, at A; and the distance of the centre, A, from the bearing of the upright, being to the distance B, in the proportion of 1 to 20, the weight placed at B, determines that ofthe body suspended in the same proportion. C is a stub, or piece of wood, Avhich projects from the weight hanging at the end of the gib, and serves to prevent the beam from rising to too great a height. One of the latest improATements in this useful machine, is that pro- posed by the ReA\ E. C. in the 2d. vol. of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures. It consists simply in introducing the action of a worm that communicates the first mo- tion to the crane, upon the axis of CRA C R A 273 the wheel in which the man walks. The axis of this Avheel, and that of the Avorm, are proposed to be in se- parate parts, and occasionally unit- ed by a coupling-box. When goods are to be raised, the two axes should be connected; Avhen lowered, they may be disunited, and the worm turned by a winch. Thus, the ascent, or descent, ofthe weight may be accelerated, or stop- ped, at pleasure, by the person walking on the axis of the wheel, or turning the Avinch; Avithout the remotest possibility of being overpowered by the descending weight. Explanation ofthe annexed Engrav- ing, Fig. 2. A, The wheel in which the man walks. B, The coupling-box. C, The worm. D, The Avheel in which it works, E, A Avheel upon the same axis, giving motion to F. F, A Avheel upon the axis of the windlass. G, The winch. This machinery (the ingenious projector adds) may be applied to a crane already erected upon the common principle. He proposes to put a Avheel on any coiiA'enient axis in the machine, in its present state; and, on this, a worm that may be thrown in or out of gear, at pleasure; and to let the lever, by which it is effected, lie within the reach of the man's hand in the wheel. The goods being fastened to the crane, and raised from the floor of the warehouse, in order to be let down, the man puts the worm into gear, leaves the wheel, and causes them to descend by the winch. vol.ii. These contrivances are alike eminent for their ingenuity; and though we do not venture to pre- fer either, yet we seriously recom- mend the adoption of some one of these improvements, as we are fully persuaded, that many fatal acci- dents may thus be easily avoided. CRANES-BILL, or Geranium, L. a genus of plants comprising 145 species ; of Avhich Dr. SmitiC states only 13, but Dr. Wither- ing 17, to be indigenous. None of these, hoAvever, are cultivated. The only species reared in this country, are those brought from Africa, and other southern parts of the globe, which, from their ex- treme tenderness, can only be rai- sed in green-houses. These may be propagated by the roots, but more abundantly by seed, Avhich should be sown toAvards the end of March, in beds of light earth, be- ing carefully shaded from the sun, and frequently, though gently, av a- tered, till they are Avell rooted. It is, however, necessary to cover them with mats, which should be removed in mild shoAvers, and also during the hot summer nights, that the plants may have the benefit of the dew. In the course of two months, they should be carefully transplanted into pots, about seven inches Avide, and filled with light earth. They are then to be kept in a shady place, being frequently watered, till they have again taken proper roots, when it will be ne- cessary to expose them more to the air, till the month of October, in order that they may become vigorous and hardy. As soon as the cold frosty mornings approach, they should be removed into the green-house, and placed near the window, which may be open till N n 274 C R A the cold become intense. During the winter, also, they should be oc- casionally watered, and their de- cayed leaves carefully separated. They must not, however, stand under the shade of any other plants, as their vegetation would thus be obstructed ; nor will they require any artificial heat. Cranes-bill is recommended as one of the greatest vulneraries and abstergents of the vegetable crea- tion ; and is highly extolled for its styptic power, in hemorrhages of every description. These proper- ties have been sufficiently ascer- tained by experience ; and it is therefore to be Avished, that this plant were brought into more ge- neral esteem in the shops, where, at present, it is totally disregarded. [See Geranium.] CRAPE, a light, transparent stuff, somewhat similar to gauze : it is made of raw silk, gummed, twisted on the mill, and woven without crossing. It is mostly used for mourning. Crape is either crispedov smooth: the former is double, and expresses a deeper mourning ; the latter single, and is Avoin in ordinary cases, or for more distant relations. The silk destined for the first, is more closely twisted than that for the second; as the greater or less de- gree of twisting, especially of the warp, produces the crisping giAren it, when taken out of the loom, immersed in clear Avater, and rub- bed with a piece of wax. Crapes are either black or Avhite: the latter are used chiefly in the dress of young persons, or such as are devoted to celibacy. The former sort is always dyed in a raw state, that it may more deeply imbibe the colour. CRE CREAM, the most oily part of milk : it is specifically lighter than the other constituents, collects and floats on the surface, whence it is. generally skimmed, in order to se- parate effectually the caseous and serous parts employed for the mak- ing of Butter and Cheese, to which we refer. Cream is an agreeable and very nourishing article of food, when fresh ; but too fat and difficult t& be digested by persons of a seden- tary life, or possessed of a Aveak stomach. It is nevertheless of con- siderable service in medicine, as a lenient (though palliative) appli- cation to tetters and erysipelas, which are attended Avith pain, and proceed from acrid humours. A method of preserving cream : Take 12 ounces of Avhite sugar, and dissolve them in the smallest possible quantity of water, over a moderate fire. After the solution has taken place, the sugar ought to be boiled for about two minutes in an earthen vessel j when 12 ounces of new cream should be im- mediately added, and the whole uniformly mixed, while hot. Let it then gradually cool, and pour it into a bottle, which must be care- fully corked. If kept in a cool place, and not exposed to the air, it may be preserved in a sweet state for several weeks, and even months. Corsterphin Cream, is a pe- culiar form of curd, much esteemed in the vicinity of Edinburgh, where it is prepared in the folloAving man- ner : A vessel, the bottom of which must be perforated and stop- ped with a peg, is filled with skim- med milk, and placed Avithin a tub or pail nearly full of boiling Avater : here it is suffered to remain for 24- C RE C R E 275 r>r48 hours, till the milk coagu- lates, and the watery part has sub- sided. The latter is then allowed to drain, by withdraAving the peg ; when the hole is again closed for 24 hours ; at the end of which, an additional quantity of Avater is drawn off, and the curd generally acquires a due consistence : it is then briskly agitated with a wooden tbtick, and thus becomes fit for use. In the summer season, this pre- paration affords an agreeably acid and cooling repast, Avhich is in a certain degree nutritive ; though it should not be eaten by those whose digestion is weak or im- paired. See Dairy. Cream of Tartar. See Tar- tar. CREDIT, in commerce, a mu- tual trust, or loan of merchandize, or money, on the' reputation of the property or solvency of a dealer. Credit is either public or private. Every trader ought to possess some estate, stock, or portion of his own property, sufficient .to car- ry on the traffic in Avhich he is en- gaged : his dealings should also never exceed his capital, so that no disappointment in his returns may incapacitate him from supporting his credit. Yet traders of worth and judgment, may sometimes be obliged to borrow money, in order to carry on their business to the best advantage. We cannot, however, avoid observing, that the almost unlimited credit given to Avholesale, as Avell as retail traders, is by no means a prudential, or even justifiable practice ; for it not only tends to encourage the most shameful monopoly carried on, at present, with many articles, both of subsistence and convenience (for instance, those of brepd, one is annual, as in the subsequent ta- ble, and two are biennial, then six fields are requisite. With fewer fields, the system Avould be defec- tive, and the round of crops could not be continued. For instance, if these articles annual and bien- nial, as above, were cultivated in only three fields, in the seArenth and eighth years, there would be CRO CRO 281 no clover. If of two articles of crop, one is annual, and the other tri- ennial, then four fields are requisite. The first six years of the above design, are rather preparative to the intended round of crops. (See the tabic.) It is the seventh year, Which enters upon the designed and proper recurring rotation of crops, manuring, and work. A re- gular system of recurring crops and business in husbandry exists on the principles of the spiral line, as Avell as on the circle. This is il- lustrated by reading the plan diago- nally, from A field in the seventh year, doAvnward through B field 8, C field 9, he. to F field in the twelfth year inclusive ; being in all 6 fields, and 6 years ; all where- of direct to " mow timothy, plough in timothy, dung, soav rye." The like of the other articles. By wrapping the paper plan or table round a cylinder, the spiral line of crops is clearly understood. The plan is also advantageously read directly dowmvard, taking any one field at a time ; and also laterally through all the fields of either year. Though the first six years in the system exhibited in the table, give crops except the first year, yet they are not according to the designed variety ; as they are mostly in rye- hay, instead cl' tAvo fields of rye, tAvo of clover, and two of timothy. But the proper course being once entered on, the intended crops will regularly recur as long as you please to continue it. Manurings also recur in rotation and spiral order ; and being fre- quent are applied in less quantities at a time than would be requisite after the usual lengthy delays in reneAving them : and also applying them frequently in moderate quail- vol. II. tities, approaches nearer to the economy of nature, which con- stantly commits to the earth the food of plants, or the means of obtaining that food in moderate portions : not iii gluts to surfeit, nor at distant intervals of time Avhich might starve the plants. Not only the crops and manur- ings, but the ploughings and the Avork in general, recur orderly and of course, Avithout the hazard of a wrong bias or fallible reasoning leading you into error, confusion, or ill-judged and irregular practices and courses. Such are the import- ant advantages, which systematic husbandry has ov-errandom or com- mon practices. Your livestock will give the dung requisite.after the third year: and beeves bought and soiled on cut green grass, -will add to the dung- hill. Rye is sown in September or October. Clover in Maryland, in March, by strewing the seeds on the ground which is already sown Avith small corn ; or in July on buck- Avheat, without any attempt to cover them. The dilated state of the ground, and the motion given to its particles by the alternate light frosts and thaws of March, and winds or dews of July, suffice for the groAving of the seeds ; and the sun is too feeble to injure them, sheltered as they are by the buck- Avheat or other corn plants ; yet in some places it may be Avell to run a light roller over it: some far- mers in Pennsylvania of late, prefer strewing clover-seed on their wheat fields in April. Fur the climate of Maryland, about the 20th of March seems the best time. Timothy soAvn in the spring, would sometimes be injured by drought, and heat of the mid-£un> 2S2 CRO CRO mer sun, whilst in its feeble state, on the loss of its grain shelter. On the other hand, though timothy is more perfect from being sown on grain in autumn, yet it sometimes overgroAvs and injures the crop of winter grain. But Avhen the grain is soAvn for the purpose of hay and shelter only, the objection is avoid- ed : and autumn is generally the preferable season for sowing timo- thy seed. On rye being soAvn in September, and harroAved in, im- mediately before the soil can be settled doAvn by time or rain, strew the timothy seed over it, and either roll it in or leave it to the crumbling ol the soil in its settling with the aid of wind and rain ; which by ex- perience, is found to be generally sufficient. Clover and timothy groAV admira- bly well Avhen soAvn in July, on buck-Avheat. The seedling plants are thus Avell sheltered against the scorching sun, and aa ill have a good length of time for growing strong for Avithstanding the winter frosts. Tavo years are the most that clo- vrer ought ever to be continued in the ground. Timothy would con- tinue good several years longer.... But this is of no consideration in a rotation course, which does not well admit of any grass or clover being continued two years on the ground: and it is of great advantage to turn up the ground, shift its surface, and bury the sods of grass. The expence of seed for renewing grass is thought too much of by farmers. It is a trifle, when opposed by the advantages gained. The following rotations further illustrate the aforementioned prin- ciples, and shew other varieties of crops. Clover viith Rye, --------v--------- ^ fRCC 1st round J pnp of crops. |CCR 2. fRCC 4CRC LCCR Timothy with rye. V--------- i RTTT 1st round I TRTT of crops. fTTRT J TTTR 2. "] RTTT TRTT TTRT TTTR Clam. & Tim'y ivitht. sheltr. ^---------]y_________J ~) CTCT 1st round I CTCT rfcro/is. (TCTC J TCTC }CTCT CTCT TCTC TCTC The Avant of a sheltering crop to the young clover and timothy in most years might prove very ma- terial. In the instances where timothy is proposed, orchard grass may be substituted. In some particulars they have a similarity of character: in others they materially differ. Both are blade or spire grasses, tufty and fibrous rooted. Their principal difference is in the for- wardness of their spring growth, the time.of their arrival to maturi- ty, and their continuance towards Avinter. Orchard grass comes early, is matured soon, and continues green late in the season; just as clover does. Timothy is late in its coming in the spring, and late in ripening. It is net uncommon in the ordi- CRO CRO 283 nary husbandry, to sow lots of ground with clover and timothy seed mixed. But a better com- panion for clover is orchard grass. Yet in a rotation system, clover ought not to admit any kind of grass seeds to be mixed with it. When clover is grown, it must be cut sooner than is usual. Timo- thy groAving with clover, is cut Avith it, in a young and Aery im- perfect state. In this case the clo- ver gives matured hay : the timo- thy a crude food containing little nourishment. Horses prefer ripe, full grown timothy in hay. A system of recurring c rops ; in which one field is in meadow whilst the others are interchanging crops; By Mr. Bordley. To farmers approvingof the new methods of cultivation, but Avho contend that the arable grounds ought to lay out a number of years at perfect rest from being broken up or yielding any thing else than grass, the following design is sub- mitted ; the rather, as a permanent meadow of spireleaved grasses, cer- tainly, is very advantageous ; espe- cially if it be only cut for hay and never trod close in pasturing, ex- cept it may be, discreetly, the af- ter math, and also that it be sup- ported by manures. Any sound land may be brought to yield crops of grass: but clover, requiring re- newal every second year, is insuf- ficient for a standing or permanent meadow. The present design allows a se- venth of time in grass ; and is ac- companied as well with the system of recurring rotations of crops, as Avith estimates and observations which may afford useful intima- tions. Fds. 30 acres timothy, in standing meadow, during the years in which the other fields are under a change of crops. 30 Maize. About the last of July, buckAvheat and clover seeds are sown on it; the maize having been previously manured, plough- ed, harroAved, occasionally rolled, and left quite level without the least hill or ridge*. 30. Clover. 30. Wheat. 30. Clover. Gypsumed in the spring; if not before on the clover sown on the maize. 30. Rye and barley. A top dress- ing with raw lime stone,or shells pulverized: 6 or 8 bushels an acre. 30. Turnips and potatoes, 18 acres. Beans or peas 12 acres. 30. BuckAvheat ploughed in: and in July, sown for crop. Timothy seed on it. 240. 20. Homestead; including man- sion, farm yard, stack yard, or- chard, &c 260. Acres, arable and meadow. * NeAv mode of cultivating maize. 284 CRO CRO Illustration ofthe whole round of crops during 7 years; with one field continually in meadow, during the time of the rotation. ABC DEFGH 5 i im'v. | Maiz | Clov. | Whea | Clov 1 Rye | Porat | B vv't lim \ Tim'y. C W C R p B M w c R P B M C Tim'y. c R P B M C W Tim'y. R P B M C w c i'im'y. P B M C W C R Tim'y. B M C W ti R P The crops of the first year of and moreover that there are not this table are particularly treated more nor less in the number of of above, Avhere it is seen that the each sort in a year, any where in rye field contains some barley; the the table, than are in the first year potatoe field, some turnips, and among all the seven fields, or are beans or peas: the maize field also in B field, during the seven years' gives buckAvheat. The buckAvheat rotation. The table ansAvering in field, Avhich is next after the pota- these particulars warrants a true, toe field, is soAvn Avith timothy seed, orderly course of crops and employ- forgiving a neAv meadow next year, ment, which will recur forever; Avhich like the former is to stand but as the farmer may, in future out the new rotation of crops. This choose to alter it." neAv meadow will be on field B. The folloAving is the produce of the next on field C. and so on. thirty-fi\'e acres of ground, 14 acres In designing a recurring round of which was ploughed ground, of crops, their succession is to be farmed by Mr. Wm. Johnson tried on a plan or table, draAvn for near Frankford, some years since. the purpose, by reading the table The crop was measured by a com- and slightly marking it Avith a pen mittee appointed by the Farmer's diagonally downward, and seeing Society of Frankfort, which exist- that they run the same throughout; ed at the time. CRO CRO 285 170 £ bushels barley. 139 do. rye. 56 do. Avheat. 25 6 £ do. buckwheat. 180 do. Indian com. 50 tons of hay. 20 do. pumpkins. 250 bushels potatoes. 100 do. turnips. | acre flax. It will no doubt be unniversally admitted that the above crop is not exceeded for variety, or abundance by any on record. Mr. J. was quot- ed above under the article "Corn : this able farmer p.oav resides in Abingdon, Fhil. county.] cross-Wort, or Mugwced, Galium cruciatum, v. Valantia cruciata, L. an indigenous peren- nial plant, growing' on hedge- banks, and in meadows. It pro- duces yellow floAvers which blow from May to July, and are suc- ceeded by seeds. A decoction of this plant in wine has been recom- mended as an excellent vulnerary and detergent, and is said to be of great efficacy in attenuating and expectorating tough humours...- The bones of animals, fed on the roots of the cross-wort, acquire a red tinge; and avooI may be died of a similar colour, both by the roots and leaves. CROUP, or Hives, a violent inflammation of the throat in chil- dren under twelve years of age, prevalent chiefly on the sea-coast, in cold and wet seasons. It is at- tended with a peculiar croaking sound of the voice; a sense of straitness about the throat, difficult breathing, and fever. If the croup be not speedily re- lieved, it obstmcts the passage of the air, and suffocates the patient. Hence the legs ought to be im- mersed in Avarm water, and after- wards mustard with vinegar, or horse-radish, applied to the soles of the feet, the neck, or between the shoulders. Laxative clysters should also be administered, Avithout de- lay,and the child be kept cool rather than warm, and receive no other than vegetable food and diluent, slightly acidulated, drink. No me- dicines can Avith safety be given internally, Avithout medical advice ; but a dram of asafoetida, camphor, or a feAv spoonfuls of the express- ed juice of garlic, may be dissolved in each injection, Avhich should be repeated every four or six hours. [The croup is a very common and often fatal disease in the U. States. Where, however, it is early attended to, a cure may be fre- quently effected. Children under twelve years are most subject to it: but instances occur of grown persons being attacked by it, upon the translation of a disease from some other part of the body to the throat. In children the disease comes on, like a common cold, which frequently occasions an un- fortunate delay on the part of the parent: the cough is dry, and hoarse; the peculiar croaking noise mentioned by Dr.. Willich cha- racterises the disease. It frequent- ly also comes on, in the night time, suddenly, and sometimes termi- nates its career in twenty four hours from the first hour of indis- position. Dissections prove that the cause of the disease is a preterna- tural membrane in the trachea or windpipe commencing from above, and extending doAvn several inches. The most certain remedy for the complaint is an emetic joined with a smart dose of calomel, which may be repeated every four hours during the first day, should the dis- ease be violent. It ought to be 286 CRO noted, that a larger dose of the me- dicine will be required to produce an effect, than in common cases. A child of two years old has taken nine grains of tartar emetic, before a A'omitingcame on, which brought up the membrane almost entire, having nearly the circular form of the windpipe. Calomel should also be freely given, during the conti- nuance of the symptoms. A child will take greater doses of this me- dicine, Avithout injury, than many groAvn persons. Bleeding is often highly beneficial, and Avhere there is a sudden attack, ought not to be omitted. Blisters applied to the throat are also useful auxiliaries in Aiolentcoses : on the removal of the blister, the part may be dressed Avith mercurial ointment made Avithout turpentine. Dr. Archer, of Mary- land, discovered the great utility of the Polygala Seneka, or Seneka snake root, in this disease, and speaks with confidence as to the general good effects produced by it. The decoction of the root, is the manner in Avhich he generally gives it; the strength must be de- termined by the physican ; it must be so strong, as to act sensibly on his OAvn mouth and throat in ex- citing coughing, he. for in this dis- ease the larynx (mouth of the Avindpipe) in a great measure loses its natural sensibility. Half an ounce of the root of seneka, bruised, and i.in.rr.ered in a close Aressel, in half a pint of water, until reduced to four ounces, will probably in most cases be sufficiently strong. A tea-spoonful of this to be given every half hour, or hour, as the urgency of the symptoms may de- mand, and during these intervals a few drops occasionally, to keep up a sensible action of the medicine CRO in the mouth and throat, until it act as an emetic, or cathartic; then repeated in small quantities, and so frequently as to keep up a con- stant stimulus in the same. By these means, in the course of two, four, six, or eight hours, a mem- brane is oftentimes discharged by the mouth, one, twor and three inches in length; sometimes it is swallowed and voided by stool. Pa- tients who use the medicine should not be permitted to drink any thing whatever, for some minutes after each dose. The reason must be ob- vious to all. The powder has lately been used by Doctors Archer and Son, in doses of fourbr five grains, mixed in a little Avater, with effects equally pleasing as the decoction, and more so, unless the latter have been carefully prepared.] CROUT, Sour Croute, or Kroute, a preparation of cabbage, originally invented by the Ger- mans. See Sauer Kraut. CROW, the Common, or Car- rion-croAV, Corvus corone, L. a bird sufficiently known: it bears a strong resemblance to the raven, both in its nourishment and other habi- tudes. The food of crows is carrion, or similar refuse, and also insects. They are sometimes very destruc- tive in corn-fields, by devouring vast quantities of grain ; and were formerly so numerous, and their devastations so great, as to be con- sidered an object worthy of parlia- mentary redress. An act was, therefore, passed for their destruc- tion, in the 24th of Henry VIII. by Avhich every hamlet was enjoin. ed to provide croAV-nets for ten years, and all the inhabitants were obliged to convene and consult, at stated times during that period, concerning the proper means of CRO CRO 287 exterminating these birds. The most successful method of destroy- ing them appears to be the follow- ing : A kind of table is to be form- ed between the branches of a large pollard oak ; on Avhich may be laid carrion, or any other meat, pre- pared with pulverized nux vomica, a pojsonous drug brought from the East Indies. By previously accus- toming the croAvs to resort to the place and food, Avithout any addi- tion, they will be induced to take it readily when thus poisoned, and consequently be destroyed. But, though crows occasionally commit depredations in corn-fields, they also devour a multitude of locusts, caterpillars, and other insects (see Chakfer). Farther, they may in another respect, be considered as the natural planters of many trees ; the kernels of which they disseminate upon the earth ; and thus, clearly evince that providen- tial wisdom, Avhich has endowed them with an instinct equally bene- ficial to themselves, by securing a future supply, and by rendering them conducive to the welfare of mankind. CROW-FOOT, or Ranunculus, L. a genus of plants consisting of 53 species; but only 15 are indi- genous, of which the following are the principal: 1. The flammula : See Lesser Spearwort. 2. The lingua: See Great Spear- wort. 3. The flcaria, or Lesser Celan- dine : See Pilewort. 4. The auricomus, or SAveet Wood Crow-foot, or Goldilocks, which groAvs in Avoods, groves, and hedges ; produces yelloAV floAvers in April and May ; and is so inof- fensive that the Avhole plant may be eaten as spinach ; the blossoms are much frequented by bee",. 5. The sederatus, or round-leav- ed Water Crow -foot; thrives in shalloAv Avaters; and produces small yellow floAvers from June to August. The whole plant is so very corro- sive, that beggars are said to em- ploy it for ulcerating their feet, which they expose in that state to excite compassion. Internally taken, this vegetable, especially the seed-bud, is extremely poisonous to man and cattle; hence it ought to be carefully extirpated from meadoAvs. It is, however, eaten by goats ; but refused by coavs, horses, and sheep. 6. The b ulbosus, or BulbousCrow- foot, also called Butter-flower, But- ter-cups, &c. It grows on meadoAvs and pastures, produces yellow flow- ers in May, and turnip-shaped bul- bous roots, Avhich like the blossoms and leaves, are so corrosive, that they speedily blister the skin : on this account they deserve, for ma- ny reasons, to be substituted fop the Spanish fly. [This is a common and veiy troublesome weed in our meadows, and should be carefully extirpated. It propagates itself Avith great ra- pidity.] 7. The acris, or Upright Mea- doAV CroAv-foot: See Butter- cup. 8. The arvensin, or Corn Crow- foot, is an annual plant growing in corn-fields ; and bearing small pale yelloAV flowers, Avhich blow in the month of June, and are succeed- ed by flat prickly seeds. This nox- ious weed is particularly luxuriant on damp soils, and most severely exercises the patience of the farm- er. The only effectual method of extirpating it is, to fallow the soil infested with it. In Italy, coavs, horses, and sheep, are said to eat 288 CRO CRY it greedily, though it is so acrid as to poison the latter : 3 ounces of its juice killed a dog in four mi- nutes. As it thrives chiefly in corn- fields, where cattle are excluded, its deleterious qualities are from this circumstance less known in this country. Bechstein informs us, that in Germany the milk of coavs becomes tinged a\ ith blood, Avhen feeding on the fresh leaA'es of this plant. 9. The aquatilis, or Water CroAV- foot, which grows in ponds and ditches, where it produces white flowers, with yellow spots at the base, from May to July. In the 5th vol of" Transactions ofthe Lin- naan Society," we are informed by Dr. Pultney, that the cottagers in the vicinity of RingAvocd, on the banks of the Avon, support their cattle almost entirely with this plant, which is devoured with such avidity, that it is deemed unsafe to alloAV them more than a certain portion. The cows thus fed, con- tinue in excellent condition, and yield a sufficient quantity of good milk. These animals are so par- tial to the Water CroAv-foot, that, excepting the scanty pittance they procured on the adjoining heath, five coavs and one horse had not consumed more than half a ton of hay in one year. Hogs likewise eat this vegetable, on which they remarkably improve: according to Dr. P. it is not necessary to allow them any other food, till they are put up to fatten. CROW-NF.T, a contrivance that may be used in the day time, for catching wild foAvl in the win- ter season. This net is made of double thread, or of fine pack-thread ; its meshes should be two inches wide, its length ten yards, and its breadth three; it should also be verged on the side with strong cord, and stretched out very stiffly on long poles prepared for that purpose. When a person arrives at the place Avhere the net is to be laid, he should open and spread it out at its full length and breadth. The lower end should next be fastened along the ground, so that it can only be moved up and doAvn : the upper end must be extended on the long cord, the extremity of it being pre- viously staked to the earth, by an- other at the distance of about five yards from the net, which must be placed in a straight line Avith the loAver edge of the latter. The otherend must be at least 25 yards distant, so as to extend to some na- tural or artificial shelter, by means of Avhich a person should conceal himself from the fowl ; otherwise no success can be expected. The net mnst, likeAvise, be placed in such an exact order that it may ad- mit of being played on the birds, by the least agitation of the cord, which must be expeditiously pulled, lest the latter escape. This net may be advantageously employed for taking pigeons, crows, or other foAvl, on corn-fields neAvly sown, as in also stubble-fields, provided the straAV be long enough to hide the apparatus from the acute sight of the feathered tribe. CRYING, the act of weeping, usually accompanied with tears ; but this term is more generally ap- plied to the squalling of infants. It is remarkable, that the first symptoms of human life are uni- formly those of loud cries : hence, superstitious persons are apt to imagine that such are the prognos- tiscs of future misery. Those who reflect upon the previous situation of the new-born, Avho is now sur* CRY rounded by a different element, and placed in a much colder tem- perature, may easily account for this natural phenomenon. Instead, therefore, of being alarmed by those plaintive expressions, we ought to rejoice ; because they in- dicate expanded lungs, and vital action. In a similar manner, ju- dicious persons will consider the frequent and almost instinctive cries of children, as they advance in age, unless arising from acci- dental and obvious causes. The conduct of those mothers, who from an excess of tenderness, and of those nurses, who from too much offieiousness, exert their ut- most endeavours to relieve the cla- morous noise of infants (often by the most absurd and pernicious means), equally deserve to be cen- sured. Admitting that in some, nay, in many cases, it proceeds from a concealed pain, yet expe- rience has sufficiently evinced, that these very cries alleviate, and often totally remove, such painful sen- sations as are produced by flatu- lency, gripes, See. Nevertheless, when children continue in an un- easy state for a considerable time, violently drawing their legs to- wards their belly, Ave may con- clude that they are afflicted with co- lic pains; or, if they suddenly move their hands and arms to their face, while crying, we may attribute it to difficult teething ; and, if other morbid symptoms accompany these loud complaints, especially if re- peated at certain periods ofthe day, we ought, in such cases, by no means to neglect them, but en- deavour to ascertain the efficient causes. Hunger is frequently assigned as a motive for crying, but it is not always really so ; the latter is the VOL. II. CRY 289 sole language of infants, by which they manifest all their sensations and wants. If they cry without intermission, it may be considered as an indication of the return of appetite, and they ought to be sa- tisfied either by the breast, or other means ; but, if they vociferate quickly and abruptly, it may bo reasonably supposed to proceed from a sense of pain. Circum- stances of this nature claim the most diligent attention of mothers and nurses. We therefore ear- nestly enjoin them, particularly the former, to study the exact distinc- tion of the different sounds ex- pressed by their infants ; as the re- sultof such enquiries would greatly enable the medical assistant to ascertain, with more precision, the true cause of infantine diseases. CRYSTAL, a species of stone, of A-arious colours, of which that most generally known is the peb- ble-crystal, or sprig or rock-cmetal, as it is usually called. It is com- mon in this country, and is fre- quently cut into chandeliers, vases, lustres, and other ornamental ar- ticles. [Some beautiful specimens of crystal have been found in the U. S. One which the editor saAv, came from near Bethlehem, in North- ampton county, Pennsylvania.] CRYSTALIZATION, a kind of congelation of essential, fixed, and volatile salts, which, after eva- porating the greatest part of their humidity, are left to dry, concrete, and shoot into crystals. Opaque stones, pyrites, and mi- nerals, Avhen regularly formed, are said to be crystalized, as Avell as transparent salts and stones. Ice is a true crystalization, consisting of long masses flattened on one side, and joined together in such a P p 290 CRY cue manner, thnt the smaller are in- serted into the sides of the greater, making uniformly the same angle. Melted metals, and other bodies,1 such a? wax and starch, which be- come solidAvhencongeale.1; assume a regular arrangement, if gradually cooled. In order to perform this process inperfection, the eAraporation should be gentle, and not continued longer than till some drops of the liquor, poured on a glass plate, discover filaments of crystal. As soon as this appears, the vessel is to be im- mediately removed from the fire into a cooler place, and covered with a cloth, to prevent the access of cold air, which would form pel- licles. From a variety of experi- ments, we have observed that crys- talization may be remarkably pro- moted, by throwing into the vessel a few small crystals of the same nature. Another method of crystalizing salts, is, by adding to a solution of salt a substance which does not act upon the latter, but which has a greater affinity with the Avater, and will serve to deprive the salt of a portion of that liquid which holds it in a state of solution. Spirit of wine will effect this purpose in many salts; and, if judiciously added, will cause them to separate freely from the menstruum,or fluid, and form large and beautiful crys- tals. Salts have this peculiar property, that, hoAveArer minutely they may be divided, when formed into crys- tals, they will reassume their proper figures; so that they may, Avith equal facility, be divested of their saltness and their figure. Crystal- ization, therefore, is one of the most important agents in chemis- try, as it enables us to discover compound solutions of salts; t» ascertain their purity or imperity ; and, lastly, to separate different salts from each other. CUCKOW, the Common, or Cuculus canorus, L. is a native of Africa, whence it visits this coun- try about the middle of April, and continues here till the end of June, or beginning of July. It is about 14 inches in length, 25 in breadth, and Aveighs generally about 5 ounces. This is, perhaps, the most re- markable of the feathered tribe ; as it never pairs, nor hatches its OAvn young, but drops one of its eggs in the nests of different birds, especially those of the hedge-spar- row. As soon as the eggs are hatched, the young cuckow, with his broad hollow back, turns out the other eggs, as Avell as the young sparrows. This inimical conduct is analogous to what daily happens in human life ; but it is now ascer- tained, that the cuckoAV does not ungratefully destroy its foster pa- rent ; on the contrary, it soon leaves the nest, as its groAvth is uncommonly rapid, and its appe- tite extremely AoracioUs, its food consisting almost entirely of ani- mal substances, such as flies, bee- tles, snails, grasshoppers, cater- pillars, &c. This bird may be, and frequently is, brought up tame, so as to become domesticated. In this state, it will eat bread, milk, fruit, insects, eggs, and flesh, whe- ther dressed or raw. When fat, it is esteemed by epicures as a de- licious morsel, being little inferior to the land-rail. Although naturalists have form- ed various conjectures, to account for the peculiar habit of the' cue- kow,in abandoning its OAvn eggs, yet, we think, such practice is far from cue CUC 291 being as unnatural as it has been commonly stigmatized. This sa- gacious creature lays her eggs at intervals of six or eight days ; and, therefore instinctively depo- sits them in the nests of other birds, because no foAvl could support itself for so many Aveeks, while brooding, nor Avould it be possible for the cuckow to maintain her voracious offspring. Cuckow-bread. See Common Wood Sorrel. Clckow-pint. See Wake Robin. CUCUMBER, or Cucumis, L. a genus of exotic plants, consisting of fourteen species, of which the following are the principal: 1. The Sativa, or common Cu- cumber, Avhich is reared in this country, at three different seasons ofthe year : 1. On hot-beds, for early fruit ; 2. Beneath bell, or hand-glasses, for the middle crop ; and 3. On the common ground, when designed for a late crop, or for pickling. The Cucumbers ga- thered before April are unwhole- some, on account of their being raised entirely by the heat of dung, Avithout the aid of the sun : those growing after that month, are more salubrious, and are cultivated in the following manner: ToAvards the latter end of .January, a quan- tity of fresh horse-dung should be procured, with the litter among it, to which a snia'l portion of sea- coal ashes should be added. In the course of four or five days, the dung begins to heat, when a little of it m.iy be drawn flat on the out- side, and covered two inches thick with good earth ; over which a bell-glass ought to be placed ; and, tAvo (.ays after, when the soil is warm, the seeds should be sown, covered with fresh mould; one- fourth of an inch thick, and the glass again set over it. This must be screened with a mat during the night, and in four days the young plants will germinate. As soon as they appear, the rest of the dung must be beaten close together into a bed for one or more lights, which should be three feet thick, and cov- ered three inches deep with fine fresh earth ; the frame is then to be put on ; r.nd, during the night, or in bad weather, sheltered Avith mats. When the soil is hot enough, the young plants must be removed into it, and set at two inches dis- tance, the glasses being occasion- ally raised, to admit fresh air, and also frequently turned, to prevent the wet steam of the dung from drop- ping down on the plants. These ought to be Avatered at stated times, Avith tepid, or hike-warm water; and, as they increase in size, should be earthed up; an operation which will considerably augment their strength. If the bed be not hot enough, fresh lit- ter should be laid round its sides ; but, if it be too warm, they should be perforated with a stake, to give vent to the heat ; and, as soon as the bed acquires a proper temper- ature, the holes are to be closed up Avith fresh earth. "When the plants begin to shoot their third, or rough leaf, another bed should be prepared for them, similar to the first ; and, Avhen the soil is tho- roughly Avarmcd, they should be transplanted into it, in holes about a foot deep, and nine incnes broad, filled Avith light, fine, fresh mould, laid in a hollow, circular form. In each of these holes four plants should be set, and shaded for two or three days from the heat of the sun, that they may strike root ; after Avhich time it will be useful 0 292 CUC cue to expose them to the sun, and the air, as often as the weather will permit. When they have attained the height of four or five inches, they should be gently fastened down to the soil, in different direc- tions ; and the branches afterwards produced, ought to be treated in a similar manner, as it Avill much contribute to forward their matu- rity. In the course of a month, the floAvers will appear, and, shortly after, the rudiments of the fruit. The glasses should now be care- fully covered during the night, and the plants gently sprinkled with water, in the day time. These will produce fruit till Midsummer ; and may be succeeded by a second crop, Avhich is to be raised nearly in the same manner as the earlier cucumbers ; Avith this only differ- ence, that the former should be sown toAvard the end of March, or the beginning of April, and that it requires less care and attention. The proper season for sowing cucumbers ofthe last crop, or those destined for pickling, is toAvards the latter end of May, Avhen the weather is settled : they should be set to the number of eight or nine, in shalloAV holes, end filled up A\ith fine earth. - After appearing above ground, they need only be kept clear from Aveeds, and occasionally watered. Five plants are to be left, at first, in each hole ; and, as soon as they have grown a little larger, the Avorst of them is to be pulled up,so that their number may be reduced to four : this crop will begin to produce fruit in July. A Aery ingenious method (Ave learn from a Foreign Journal) of propagating cucumbers for several crops in succession, without sow- ing them, has been lately disco- vered by Mr. Burton, of Staines- head, Sussex. As soon as there appear several flower-buds on a plant, he bends the second or third joint of a branch below the blos- som, fastens it firmly into the ground, and cuts off the capillary point of the plant. The new ve- getable speedily takes root, when he separates it from the parent stock. Thus he proceeds with the most vigorous of his plants; and as each root has to supply only a feAv fruits with nourishment, he saves both room, labour, and time, while this process enables him to procure a constant succession of cucumbers for eight, twelve, and more months, from one sort, which is not so liable to degenerate, aa if they were raised from a variety of seeds. Cucumbers are a salubrious cool- ing fruit, and may be safely allow- ed to consumptive patients; as they SAveeten acrid humours, at the same time are gently laxative; but, being in a considerable degree aces- cent, and sometimes attended Avith flatulency and diarrhoea, such ef- fects may be prevented, by eating them in great moderation; or with the addition of Arin egar and pepper, Avhich counteract their natural cold- ness. If properly pickled (with- out colouring them with that poi- sonous metal, copper; or render- ing them too acrid with stimulant spices), they are an excellent anti- septic ; yet we consider them high- ly improper, either for children or wet-nurses, [The fly Avhich is often very des- tructive to cucumbers, melons, and pumpkins, may be killed by sprink- ling a mixture of tobacco-water and red pepper over the vines. A friend E. B. Esq. informed the Editor, that some years since, nearly all the cucumbers and me- cue CUC 293 Ion vines in New Jersey were des- troyed by a fly or bug; one day he had occasion to ride past a misera- ble hut in the woods, and, perceiv- ing a very flourishing patch of cu- cumbers; he was induced to dis- mount and to examine it, upon approaching the spot he found it had formerly been a charcoal heap. He took the hint, and by streAving powdered charcoal round about the vines when they first come up, pre- serves his cucumbers effectually. Mr. J. W. of Philadelphia, in- formed the Editor that be enriched the ground near the trunk of a peach tree, and sowed some cucum- ber seed, which came up very abun- dantly. Fie pulled up all the plants but one, and permitted the vine to run up the tree. It bore 150 cu- cumbers. The nuriere s creepers with Avhich the cucumber aboun is and the result of this experi- ment would seem to point run the climbing nature of the plant, and the great advantage arising from permitting it to attach itself to a frame or tree, instead of con- fining it to the ground. The seeds of melons and cucum- bers are liable to run too vigorous- ly to vine before they emit a sin- gle fruit. To prevent this, Dr. Darwin advises to wash the seeds clean from their pulp before they are put away for preservation, and to keep them three or four years before they are soaaii. The experienced Abercrombie (Mawes' Gardener) confirms the advice to plant seeds tAvo, three, or four years old. CUCUMBER ROOT. See me- DEOLA.] 2. The Colocynthis, Coloquin- tida, or Bitter Apple, Avhich grows in Syria, and also in the island of Crete. It produces a yellow fruit, of the size of an orange, and re- sembling a gourd, the shell or out- side of which contains a very light, white, spongy pulp, interspersed Avith flattish seeds. This pulp, Avhen dried and pulverized, is one of the most violent purgatives: and though it is frequently employed for that purpose, we cannot but caution the reader against its use, which is sometimes attended with bloody stools, colics, convulsions, and ulcers in the boAvels. As we are possessed of numerous na- tive plants of similar and much mil- der virtues, there appears to be no necessity for employing this ex- otic. Cudbear: See Orchal. CUDWEED, or Gnaphalium,^. a genus of plants, comprising 72 s iccies, of which the following are th- principal: 1. The Germanicum, or Common Cudweed, an annual indigenous plant, which grows in barren meaj dows, pas-nres, and road-sides; and produces yelloAvish flowers, which blow in the month of July or Au- gust.....This plant is desiccative, and astringent; it is said to be of great service in dysenteries and hemorrhages of every kind. A de- coction of it in small beer, is fre- quently given by the lower class of people for quinsies, in the cure of Avhich complaint it has been found very efficacious. 2. The Dioicum, or Mountain Cudweed, or Catsfoot, grows on dry mountainous pastures in the North of England, Wales, and Cornwall; also on the Newmarket, Canham, Swaffham, and Stratton heaths, &c. Its white and pur- plish flowers blow in June and July. The late Dr. Gleditsch enumerates it among those plants, which he found useful in currying leather. 294 C U L C OU 3. The Arenarium, or Sandy Cudweed, a native of Germany, which grows on sandy fields and banks; and produces fine yelloAV floAvers through the whole summer. It deserves to be propagated in Bri- tain, as the Japanese, according to Prof. Thunberg, occasionally pre- pare their moxa from the down with Avhich the whole plant is cov- ered, and smoke its leaves for common tobacco. [CULMIFEROUS PLANTS in Botany, such as have a smooth jointed stalk, usually holloAv, and at each joint, Avrapped about with single narroAv, sharp pointed leaA-es. In some species hoAvever, the culm is entirely naked, that is, destitute of leaves.] CULTIVATOR, is an imple- ment of husbandry, lately invented by Mr. William Lester, of Northampton ; for the contrivance of Avhich, the Society for the Encou- ragement of Arts Sec. in 1801, re- warded him with their silver medal. As this instrument promises to be of essential utility to agriculturists, Ave haAre given an engraved view of its construction. Description of Mr. Lester's Cul- tivator. A, is the beam. B B, the handles. C C, is a semi-circular cross-bar, containing seA'eral holes, by means of which the two bars D D may be placed at a greater or less distance from each other, as occasion may require. D D, represents two strong bars, that are moveable at one end upon a pivot marked E; and extend thence, in a triangular form, to the cross-bar C C. With the for- mer are connected the shares F', the upper ends of which are in- serted through square holes, and may thus be fixed at any requisite height. F, represents those seven shares, the loAver extremities of which are shaped like small trowels, while the upper parts consist of square iron bars. G, G, G, are three iron wheels, serving to move the machine, and which may be raised, or lowered, at pleasure. H, an iron hook, to which the swingle-tree and horses are to be linked. When the machine is first em- ployed on land, the bars D D, are expanded as widely as possible: in proportion as the clods are broken, and the soil becomes loosened, they are brought closer to the centre, so that the shares occupy a smaller space, and consequently the land will be more easily reduced to pow- der. The object of Mr. Lester's in- vention is, to shorten the labour at present required for breaking up stiff' soils ; and, as these are most effectually' pulverized in dry Avea- ther, his implement is peculiarly adapted for such purpose : accord- ing to his account, he is confident that one man, a boy, and six horses, will break up as much fallow-land in one day, and with the same effect, as six ploughs. In some states of the soil, it a\ ill be necessary to al- ter the breadth of the shares; but this circumstancemust be regulated by the judgment of the husband- man ; and, though the points of the shares, in consequence of such expansion and contraction of the cultivator, are slightly moved out of the direct line, yet this irregularity does not impede the progress of the implement. Mr. Lester's communication is accompanied by the certificate of a farmer, in the vicinity of CUR Northampton, who states, that he employed the cultivator, in the summer of 1800, on a turnip-fal- low ; and believes to it be very use- ful for cultivating such land; that from its alternate contraction and expansion, it is calculated to Avork the same soil, in a rough or fine state; by Avhich means it unites the principles of tAvo implements in one ; and he is of opinion, that it may be Avorked at any depth re- quired, for the purposes of general tillage. CURB, a chain of iron fastened to the lower part of the branches of the bridle, in a hole called the eye, and running over the horse's chin or beard. It consists of three parts ; namely, the hook fixed to the eye of the branch ; a chain of links; and two rings or mailes..... Large round curbs are the best and most easy; but clue care should be taken to fix them in their pro- per place, a little above the beard, and neither too tight nor too slack, otherwise the bit will be of little utility. Curb, in farriery, is a hard, cal- lous swelling on the hinder part of the hock, attended with stiffness, and sometimes with lameness. It generally arises from hard riding, strains, bloAvs, or kicks; and may at first be easily cured, by three or four times blfttering the animal af- fected. If the tumor continue to indurate, the most expeditious and effectual cure will be, to fire with a thin iron, drawing several deep lines down the middle, from the top to the bottom, and then to ap- ply a mild blistering plaster, which will certainly remove the defect. CUMMIN, or Cuminum Cymi- num, L. is an exotic annual plant, propagated in the Isle of Malta, for the sake of its seeds ; which, 'on CUR 295 importation, pay the duty of 8*. O^d. per cAvt....They have a bitter- ish warm taste, accompanied with an aromatic, but not agreeable, fla- vour ; and, though esteemed good carminatives, are seldom employed in medicine. An essential oil is obtained from them by distillation, possessing all the virtues of the seeds, and reputed to be a sove- reign remedy in rheumatic cases. They are likewise employed exter- nally, both in the form of a plaster and cataplasm.....Lastly, being ex- ceedingly grateful to pigeons, ava- ricious proprietors of dove-cotes sometimes incorporate the seec"s with a saline earth (see Pigeo:<- House,) in order to allure these birds; and thus stock their pigeon- houses, at the expence of their neighbours. CURD, is the coagulated part of milk, after the whey is sepa- rated. As curd contains the most sub- stantial particles of milk, it affords a rich nourishment; and especially when produced by an artificial co- agulation of this liquor, while in a fresh state. Many nations live on curds: thus, in France and Swit- zerland, the inhabitants almost ex- clusively use this preparation as their only solid food; employing the whey for drink. Among the Laplanders, curd is used to cor- rect the alkaline nature of their aliment, and likewise to serve them as a substitute for an acescent con- diment. CURDLING, the coagulation of any particular fluid, such as milk. In Tuscany, it is effected by means of artichoke flowers, in- stead of the rennet employed in Britain. There are, besides, a va- riety of substances which may be advantageously substituted for ci- 296 CUR CUR ther, especially when the whey is intendedto be acooling and antisep- tic beverage ; for instance, a small quantity of cream of tartar; a few drops of oil of vitriol, or spirit of salt, previously diluted in a spoon- ful of Avater, -will easily coagulate the milk; after which it should be strained....See Cheese. CURING, a term used for pre- serving fish, flesh, and other ani- mal substances, by adding certain ingredients, to prevent putrefaction. It is also effected by drying the bodies with the smoke of Avood, or by rubbing them with salt, nitre, he. See Beef, and Preserva- tion. Curl in potatoes. See Pota- toes. CURLEW, or Scolopax arqua- ta, L. an aquatic bird, large flocks of which visit the sea-coasts and marshes, feeding on shells, frogs, crabs, and other marine insects.... In summer, they retire to the mountainous and unfrequented parts of the country, where they pair and breed. CurleAvs differ much in weight and size, some weighing 37 ounces, others not 22 ; the largest seldom exceed 25 inches in length, and are generally from 3 to 4 feet broad, Avith their Avings expanded. Their flesh is extremely rank and fishy, though some have highly commended it for its flavour and delicacy. CURRANT-TREE, or Ribes,L. is an indigenous plant, comprising 6 or 7 species, of which the follow- ing are the principal: 1. The Rubrum, or common Red Currant, which is found in woods in the northern counties. It bears greenish white flowers, which blow in the month of May, and are ■ueceeded by red berries. Its leaves are eaten by cows, goats, and sheep, but with reluctance by horses....This plant is very liable to be infested by a species of plant- louse, the Aphis tribes, the depre- dations of which change the fine green colour of the leaves, that become red, pitted, and shrivelled. The best method of exterminating these vermin is, by smoking the bushes with half-burnt wood, or sprinkling them early with decoc- tions of tobacco, or solutions of lime and pot-ash, or simple soap- water. 2. The Alpinum, or Sweet Mountain Currant, which grows wild chiefly in the county of York, and flowers in the month of May. Its fruit has a flat sAveetish taste, and is only relished by children. The Avood is so hard and tough, that it makes strong teeth for rakes; the leaves are eaten by sheep, goats, and horses. 3. The Nigrum, or Black Cur- rant, Avhich has Avoolly flowers that blow in the month of May....Its leaves are eaten by goats and horses. The different species of currants avill thrive on almost any soil; but their fruit is more savoury, Avhen produced in a dry and open ground. They are very easily propagated, by planting slips, or cuttings, in March, upon fresh earth, Avhich should be carefully cleared from all Aveeds during the spring; and, in dry Aveather, the young plants ought to be frequently watered. After standing about two years, they will be fit to be removed to those places Avhere they are intend- ed to remain; an operation which should be performed when the leaves are just decayed, so that the plants may haA7e time to strike root before the winter-frosts. If CUR CUR 297 they are designed for standards, they should be planted in rows 8 or 10 feet apart, and the trees in each row 4 feet distant from each other; but the more eligible Avay is to train them in espaliers, where they take up less room, and their fruit acquires a finer flavour. In this state, they should be placed from 6 to 8 feet apart, and all their branches trained horizontally : the same distance is also to be alloAved them, when set against walls or pales. [The folloAving directions for the cultivation of the currant are taken from the Amer. Phil. Trans. vol. 1. Plant them round the quarters in the garden, that they may have the benefit of the manure and culture annually bestowed thereon, which will consequently make the berries large, and the juice rich. The red currant is preferable to the white, as yielding richer juice, and in much greater quantity. 'Fake the most luxuriant slips or shoots of a year's growth, set them in the ground about eight inches deep, and not less than 24 distant from each other; these never fail of taking root, and gene- rally begin to bear in two years. For the rest, let them, from time to time, be treated as espaliers, (but not against a Avail) observing to keep the roots from suckers and grass. The goodness of the currant depends upon their having the full benefit of the sun and air, to ma- turate and give the berries a 'pro- per balsamic quality, by exhaling a due proportion of their acid wa- tery particles.] The fruit of the red and white currants is greatly esteemed for the table. They are nutritive, but VOL. II. should not be too frequently nor abundantly eaten, as they tend to produce flatulency, in persons of relaxed habits and sedentary life: hence they ought to be consumed together with other food, in Avhich case they are emollient, gently laxative, and, in some instances, anodyne. In fevers, the juice of currants, when mixed Avith an equal quantity of sugar, and made into a jelly, is cooling and grateful to the stomach ; being in a slight degree astringent and antiseptic. . Currant-Wine is an excellent drink during the heat of summer, especially Aviih the addition of wa- ter. Different receipts have been given for making this pleasant be- verage. We select the following, [from the Amer. Phil. Trans, vol. 1.] Gather the currants Avhen they are fully ripe; break them into a tub, or vat; then press and mea- sure the juice, to which add two- thirds of wr.ter, and to each gallon of that mixture put 3lbs. of soft sugar ; agitate the whole properly till the sugar is dissolved, Avhen it may be barrelled. The juice should not be left to stand during the night, as the fermentation ought not take place, till all the ingredi- ents arc compounded. [Observe that the cask be SAveet and clean, and such as never had either beer or cyder in them; and ifneAv, let them be well seasoned. Do not fill the casks too full, otherwise they will work out at the bung, Avhich will injure the Avine ; rather make a proportional quanti- ty over and above, that after draAv- ing off* the wine, a sufficient quan- tity may be left to fill up the casks. Lay the bung lightly on the hole, to prevent flies, &c. from creeping in. In three weeks or a month after making, the bung hole may 298 CUR CUR be stopped up, leaving only the Arent hole open till it has fully done working, Avhich generally is about the latter end of October. It may then be racked off into other clear clean casks, but experience seems to favour the letting the wine stand on the lees till spring, as it thereby attains a stronger body, and is by that means in a great measure di- vested of that sAveet, luscious taste, peculiar to all madeAvines: nay, if it be not Avanted for present consump- tion, it may without damage stand two years on the lees. When you draw off the Avine; bore a hole an inch at least above the tap hole, a little to the side of it, that it may run clear off the lees. The lees may either be dis- tilled, which will yield a fine spirit, or filtered through flannel or sand, and returned again into the cask. In regard to the quantity of Avine intended to be made, take this ex- ample, remembering that twelve pounds of sugar are equal to a gal- lon of liquid. For instance, suppose you in- tend to make thirty gallons ; then there must be 8 gallons juice, 16 of water, 24 galls, mixture, 6 galls, prod, by sugar, 30 gallons. 24 gallons mixture, 3 multiplied by, 12 } 72 6lbs. sugar, Equal to 6 galls, of liquid. A common cyder press, if tho- roughly clean, will do well in ma- king large quantities; the smr.ll hand screw press is most conveni- ent for such as make less. An extraordinary good spirit may be distilled from currant juice, by adding a quart of molasses to a gal- lon of juice, to give it a proper fer- mentation. The folkrwing receipt was for- warded to me by a friend in whose family it has been used successful- ly for many years. Take 14lbs. currants when folly ripe, 3 gallons cold water, break the currants into water and let them be therein two or three days, and stir once each day. Strain the liquor from the fruit and stalks, and add 14lbs. sugar, which being well mixed with the currant liquor, the Avhole may then be barrelled and left 14 days without the bung: after Avhich bung it close and bot- tle at Christmas, previously add- ing to every 10 gallons one quart of brandy. In procuring the currants care should be taken, not to per- mit any unripe fruit to go amongst the liquor. The sugar should be of a good quality, or if Havanna honey was used it would be equally as well, adding about one third more in weight. If the flavour of orange peel (which is grateful in most wines of this description) is desired, a small quantity of the outer rind of the orange peel Avill give it a grateful flavour. From the quantity of currants Avhich made one barrel of wine, another friend, J. P. Esq. of Derby, calculated that one acre planted in currant bushes would produce fifty barrels of wine.] Elack Currants have a peculiar flavour, Avhich many persons dis- like : they are, however, reputed to be very wholesome, and their juice is frequently boiled doAvn in- to an extract or syrup, with the addition of a small quantity of su- gar ; in Avhich state it is called rob, and much esteemed in sore-throats CUR CUR 299 and quinsies. Some persons put black currants into brandy, for the same purpose as others do cher- ries ; compositions that are less adapted to the benefit of health, than to stimulate the corrupted pa- late of dram-drinkers. An infu- sion of the young roots of the former, is said to be useful in erup- tive fevers of the human species ; and in those dysenteric distempers with which cattle are sometimes affected. CURRYING, the art of dress- ing coAV-hides, calves-skins, he. The principal object in this process, is to soften and supple cow and calf-skins, Avhich are usually em- ployed in making upper-leathers and quarters of shoes, the covers of saddles, coaches, Sec. As soon as these skins are brought from the tanner's yard, the currier first soaks them for some time in com- mon water, when he takes them out, stretches them on a smooth wooden horse, scrapes off with a paring-knife all the superfluous flesh, and immerses them again. They are next put on a wet hur- dle, and trampled with the heels, till they become soft and pliant, when they are steeped in train oil, and afterwards spread out on large tables, and their ends tightly se- cured. There, by means of a pummel (an instrument consisting of a thick piece of wood, the lower side of Avhich is full of furrows, or teeth, crossing each other), the currier folds, squares, and moves the skins in various directions, to render them supple. This opera- tion is properly called currying; and with a lew immaterial exceptions, is that now generally followed. After the skins are thus dressed, they are coloured, black, white, led, green, F. Avhich process is performed either on the fiesh or grain side ; that on the former, by skinners, and that "on the grain or hair side, by curriers : these, Avhen a skin is to be made Avhite, rub it with chalk, or Avhite-lead, and af- terwards with pumice-stone. But, when a black colour is wanted, the skin must be first oiled and dried, then passed over a puff, dipped in water impregnated with iron, when it is immersed in another water prepared with soot, vinegar, and gum-arabic. Thus it gradually ac- quires a deep dye, and the opera- tions are repeated til it becomes of a shining black. The grain and wrinkles, Avhich contribute to the pliancy of calves and cows-leather, are made by the reiterated folds given to the sltin in every direc- tion, and by the great care taken to scrape off CA-ery e-:cresence and hard place on the grain, or colour- side.....See Comfrey and Tan- ning. Currying, a manual operation, performed on horses, with an in- strument called a curry-comb; it may also be applied to cows, and indeed to all black cuttle, that are much confined to the stall or yard, especially during the winter. In- dependently of the circumstance, that so useful a practice essentially contributes to the health and kind- liness of animals, it also in a re- markable degree promotes their thriving and becoming fat.....See Bullock. CURTAIN, an article of domes- tic furniture, consisting generally of calico, dimity, or prirrcd cotton ; which may be contracted or ex- panded at pleasure, and is usually appended to a bedstead, or to win- dows. Curtains are at present consider- ed more as an ornament, than as 300 C U T CUT an article of conveniency, to beds ; though, in many instances, they might be easily dispensed with ; especially Avhere one person only sleeps in an apartment. These appendages certainly occasion nu- merous accidents happening from fire ; and Avhich often originate from the absurd and reprehensible practice of reading in bed. Those fanciful persons Avho can- not sleep Avithout curtains, ought to suspend them across chairs, so that they may not exclude the ac- cess of air, by becoming in contact with the bed, but that side, which is next the Avail, may be Avholly co- vered Avith the curtain. CUTTINGS, or slips in garden- ing, are those branches or sprigs of trees, which are cut or slipped off, in order to be transplanted ; an operation that may be effected in any moist, fine earth. The most proper seasons for this pur- pose are the months of September, October. March, and April ; but great care ought to be taken that the sap be not too abundant in the top, lest the cut decay, before that part which is in the ground, has taken sufficient root to support it; nor should it be too dry or scanty, as the sap in the branches pro- motes the growth of the root, es- pecially if it be not planted too deep. See Transplantation. In selecting the cuttings, those branches which have joints, knots, or burrs, ought to be cut off two or three inches below the latter, and the leaves stripped so far as they are set in the earth. Small top- branches, of two or three years groAvth, are the most proper for this purpose. CUTTLE-FISH, or Sepia, L. a remarkable genus of the finny tribe : the bones of a particular species, called the Officinal Cuttle, are frequently throAvn out by the sea on the British shore, but the fish itself very rarely. This curious fish, when fright- ened or pursued, emits a black liquor, which is supposed to have been used by the ancients, instead of writing-ink. It was also esteem- ed by them as a delicacy, but at present is relished only by the Ita- lians. Its porous and laminated bones were formerly employed in medicine as an absorbent ; and are still kept in the druggist-shops. They are hard on one side, but soft and yielding on the other, so that very neat impressions from medals, Sec. may be easily made upon them, and then serve as moulds for casting metallic figures repre- senting the original. These bones, in a calcined state, are further use- ful, not only for cleaning and po- lishing silver, but chiefly for ab- sorbing the acidity and tartness of wines, which, if not completely spoiled, may thus be restored to their former briskness. [CUTLERY. The art of the cnt- ler does not come properly within the plan of this work, but the import- ance of the information about to be detailed, which probably would not otherwise obtain much circulation in the U. S. has induced the editor to abridge an excellent paper by the very useful Mr. Nicholson, from the information of a celebrated Avorkman, Mr. Stoddart, of the Strand, London. The following is an abridgment of the paper: Cut steel is used for all Avorks which do not require Avelding, and particularly for fine cutlery. Huntsman's is used, but it is infe- rior to that formerly sold under that name. The best rule is to CUT CUT 301 harden as little as possible abovre the state intended to be produced by tempering. Work overheated has a crumbly edge, and will not afford the Avire, hereafter to be de- scribed. The proper heat is a cherry red, visible by day light. No advantage is obtained from the use of salt in the water, or cooling that fluid, or from using mercury instead of water ; but it may be remarked that questions respecting the fluid are, properly speaking, applicable only to files, gravers, and such tools as are intended to be left at the extreme of hardness. \ et though Mr. Stoddart, did not seem to attach much value to peculiari- ties in the process of hardening, he mentioned it as the observation and practice of one of his workmen, that the charcoal fire should be made up Avith shavings of leather : and upon being asked what good he supposed the leather could do, this Avorkman replied, that he could take upon himself to say, that he never had a razor crack in the hardening since he had used this method, though it was a very com- mon accident before. To heat thicker parts hefore the slighterare burned aAvay, plunge the piece intopurelcad, containing little or no tin, ignited to a moderate red- ness for a few seconds, that is to say, until when brought near the surface that part does not appear less luminous than the rest. The piece is then stirred about in the bath, suddenly drawn out, and plunged into a large mass of wa- ter. In this manner a plate of steel may be hardened so as to be perfectly brittle, and yet continue so sound as to ring like a bell. The letting doAvn, or tempering of hard steel, is considered as abso- lutely necessary for the production of a fine and durable edge. It has been usual to do this by heating the hardened steel, till its bright surface exhibits some known co- lour by oxidation. The first colour is a very faint straw colour, be- coming deeper and deeper by in- crease of heat, to a fine deep golden yellow, which changes irregularly to purple, then to an uniform blue, succeeded by Avhite and several faint repetitions of these series. It is well known that the hardest state of tempered instruments, such as razors and surgeon's instru- ments, is indicated by this straAV colour, that a deeper colour is re- quired for leather cutters' knives, and other tools that require the edge to be turned on one side ; that the blue which indicates a good temper for springs, is almost too soft for any cutting instrument ex- cept saAvs, and such tools as are sharpened with a file, and that the lower states of hardness are not at all adapted to this use. But it is of considerable importance, that the letting doAvn or tempering, as well as hardening, should be effect- ed by heat equally applied, and that the temperature, especially at the loAverheatsAvhere greater hardness is to be left, should be more pre- cisely ascertained than can be done by the different states of oxidation. Mr. Hartley first practised the method of immersing hard steel in heated oil, or, the fusible compound of lead five parts, tin three, and bismuth eight; oil is preferable to the fusible mixture for several rea- sons. Mr. Nicholson giA-es an account of the temperatures at which the several colours make their appearance upon hardened steel, Avhile floating at the surface ofthe fusible mixture. The cutting instrument being 302 C U T CUT forged, hardened, and let down or tempered; it is ground upon a grindstone of a fine close grit, called a Bilson grindstone, and sold at the tool shops of London at a moderate price. The cutlers use water, the face of the work is rendered finer by subsequent grinding upon ma- hogany cylinders, with emery of different fineness, or upon cylin- ders faced with hard peAvter, called laps, which are preferable to those with a wooden face. The last po- lish is given upon a cylinder faced with buff'leather, to which crocus, or the red oxide of iron is applied with water. This last operation is attended Avith considerable danger of heating the Avork, and almost in- scantlyreducingits temper along the thin edge, Avhich at the same time acquires the colours of oxidation. The setting now remains to be performed, which is a Avork of much delicacy and skill ; the tool is first whetted upon a hone with oil, by rubbing it backwards and forwards. In all the processes of grinding or wearing doAvn the eFjcc, but more especially in the setting, the artist appears to prefer that stroke which leads the edge ac- cording to the action of cutting, instead of making the back run first along the stone. This proceed- ing is very judicious ; for if there be any lump or particle of stone, or other substance lying upon the face of the grinder, and the back of the tool be first run over it, it will proceed beneath the edge, and lift it up, at the same time pro- ducing a notch. But on the other hand if the edge be made to move foremost, and meet such a particle, it will slide beneath it and suffer no injury. Another condition in whetting is, that the hand should not bear heavy ; because it is evi- dent, that the same stone must produce a more uniform edge if the steel be worn away by many, than by feAv strokes. It is also of essential importance, that the hone itself should be of a fine tex- ture, or that its siliceous particles should be very minute. Mr. Stod- dart informs me, that there are no certain criterions by Avhich an ex- cellent hone can be distinguished, from one of ordinary value, except- ing those derived from the actual use of both : that the Turkey stone cuts fast, but is never found with a very fine grit: that the yellow hone is most generally useful, and that any stone of this kind requires to be soaked in oil, and kept Avet with that fluid, or otherwise its effect will be the same as that of a coar- ser stone under the better treat- ment : and lastly, that there is a green hone found in the old pave- ment of the streets of London, which is the best material yet known for finishing a fine edge. The grind stone leaAres a ragged edge, which, it is the first effect of whetting to reduce so thin, that it may be bended backwards and for- wards. This flexible part is called the Avire, and if the whetting were to be continued too long, it would break off in pieces without regu- larity, leaving a finer, though, still very imperfect edge, and tending to produce accidents Avhile lying on the face ofthe stone. The Avire is taken off by raising the face of the knife to an angle of about 50 degrees with the surface of the s:one, and giving a light stroke, edge foremost alternately towards each end of the stone. These strokes produce an edge, the faces of which are inclined to each other in an angle of about 100 de- grees, and to Avhich the wire is so CUT slightly adherent, that it may often be taken away entire, and is easily removed, by lightly drawing the edge along the finger nail. The edge thus cleared, is generally very even ; but it is too thick, and must again be reduced by whetting. A finer wire is by this means produ- ced, which will require to be again taken off, if for want of judg- ment, or delicacy of band, the artist should have carried it too far. Hut we Avill suppose the obtuse edge to be very even, and the second wire to be scarcely perceptible. In this case the last edge will be very acute, but neither so even nor so strong as to be durably useful. The finish is given by two or more alternate light strokes Avith the edge slanting foremost, and the blade ofthe knife raised, so that its plane forms an angle of about 28 degrees Avith the face of the stone. This is .the angle Avhich by careful observation and measurement, I find Mr. Stoddart habitually uses for the finest surgeons' instruments, and which he considers as the best for razors, and other keen cutting to. Is. The angle of the edge is therefore about 56 degrees. The excellence and uniformity of a fine edge may be ascertained, by its mode of operation when lightly drawn along the surface of the skin, or leather, or any organ- ized soft subst.uicc. Lancets are tried by suffering the point to drop gently through a piece of thin soft leather. If the edge be exquisite, it will notoi.lv pass with facility, but there v. ill not be the least noise pro- duced, any more, than if it had dropped into water. This kind of edge cannot be produced, but by performing the last two or more strokes on the green hone. The operation of strapping is si- C Y D 503 milar to that of grinding or whet- ting, and is performed by means of the angular particles of fine cro- cus, or other material, bedded in the face of the strap. It requires less skill than the operation of set- ting, and. is very apt, from the elasticity of the strap, to enlarge the angle of the edge, or round it too much.] CYDER, or Cider, a sharp, cool, and vinous beverage, made by fermenting the juice of apples- Some connoisseurs in this liquor are of opinion, that the juice ofthe more delicate table-fruit is gene- rally more cordial and pleasant than that of the wild or harsh kinds; though others assert the latter to be in many respects preferable. The apples should remain on the tree till they are thoroughly .ripe, when they ought to be gathered with the hand in dry weather, that they may be protected both from bruises and from moisture. They are then to be sorted, according to their various degrees of maturity, and laid in separate heaps, in or- der to sweat; in consequence of which they greatly improve. This practice, however, appears to be useful only for such fruit as is not perfectly ripe, though some re- commend it as being proper for ad apples. The duration of the time of sAveating may be determined by the flavour ofthe fruit, as different kinds require various lengths .of time ; namely, from eight or ten days to six Aveeks. The harsher and more crude the apples are, the longer it is necessary tliat they should remain in a sweating state, and not only be well dried, but the rotten parts carefully pared, before they are exposed. The utility ofthe sweating prac- tice is acknowledged in all the c>- 304 C Y D der countries, though various me- thods have been adopted in follow- ing it; as the apples are piled up either in the open air, or under co- ver in houses. In the South-hams, a middle Avay has been adopted, to avoid the fermentation occasioned by piling them up in rooms, and Avhich Ave recommend as the best, and most rational. Heaps of fruit are raised in an open part of the orchard, where, by means of a free air and less heat, the desired ma- turity is gradually effected, Avith an inconsiderable Avaste of the juice and decay of the fruit, which thus becomes almost totally dh-est- ed of rancidity. And though a few apples will rot even in this man- ner, they are still fit for use : all of them continue plump and full of juice, and heighten in a consider- able degree the colour of the liquor, without imparting to it any disa- greeable smell or taste. The fruit is then to be ground till the rind and kernels are Avell bruised ; a process Avhich will con- siderably improve the flavour and strength of the liquor, when it should be allowed to stand for a day or two, in a large open Aressel. It is next pressed betAveen several hair-cloths, and the liquor received in aA-at, Avhence it is removed into casks, which ought to be placed in a cool situation, or in the free air, with their bung-holes open. These casks are to be sedulously watch- ed, till the cyder drops fine, Avhen it is to be immediately racked off from the lees into other A-essels. The first racking is a most im- portant operation ; as cyder, Avhich is suffered to become foul again, by missing the first opportunity of racking it when fine, will never become what is called a prime liquor. After the clear part has C YD been racked off, a quantity of lees or dregs remains, Avhich, when filtered through coarse linen bags, yields a bright, strong, but ex- tremely flat liquid : if this be add- ed to the former portion, it will greatly contribute to prevent fer- mentation, an excess of Avhich will make the cyder thin and acid. To avoid such an accident, the casks should neither be entirely filled, nor stopped down too close ; and, if the whole incline to ferment, it ought again to be racked. This latter operation, hoAvever, should on no account be repeated, unless from absolute necessity ; as every racking diminishes its strength. When there are no signs of any farther fermentation, the casks should be filled up Avith cyder of the best quality, and the bung- hole firmly closed Avith resin. This method of making cyder is that chiefly followed in Flereford- shire. Considerable quantities of this liquor are also made in Devon- shire, where the process varies but little from that pursued in the county before-mentioned. Se- veral farmers, hoAvever, instead of racking, fine it Avith isinglass, steeped in white-Avine, dissolved over the fire, and then boiled in a quantity of the liquor intended to be fined : in this state, it is added to that in the cask. Others, in- stead of dissolving the isinglass over the fire, digest it in white wine for the space of four or five Aveeks, during which time it acquires the consistence of a jelly ; a quantity of this being beaten up Avith some of the liquor, the Avhole is worked into a froth, and mingled Avith the rest. As soon as the cyder becomes clear, it is drawn, or bottled off, as occasion may require. Those who are anxious to pre- C YD pare good cyder, ought diligently to watch every change of the wea- ther, however slight; as the least neglect, at such times, is often de- trimental to many hogsheads. In summer, the danger is much greater than in Avinter. There is, hoAvever, scarcely any distemper incident to this liquor, which may not, by a timely application, be easily reme- died. If it become somewhat tart, about half a peck of good wheat, boiled and hulled in a manner si- milar to rice, may be pflt into each hogshead, which will effectually restore it; and also contribute to preserve it, when drawn out of one cask into another. Such a re- medy is doubtless far preferable to that odious custom practised by too many cyder merchants, Avho put animal substances into their liquors, namely, veal, pork, beef, mutton, and even horse-flesh, for the purpose of fining them. This singular expedient, though sanc- tioned by the usage of ancestors, we think it our duty to reprobate ; because it is fraught with mis- chievous effects on the constitu- tion of those, avIio are doomed to drink the cyder thus adulterated. By allowing a small quantity to stand, in an open vessel, for two or three days in a Avarm room, the fetid exhalation of the liquor will easily discover its ingredients. Thebest cyder is that made from a red-streak apple, grafted upon a gennet-moil stock. These two varieties of the apple-tree agree Avell together, and their trunks sel- dom canker, as others are apt to do, especially when the former is grafted on crab-trees. The fruit of the red-streak obtained from the former combination, is always larger and milder ; and, when ripe, not only most delicious eating, but VOL. II. C Y D 305 also affords a mellower liquor than the same fruit produced by the latter mixture. Many estates where the soil is not proper for com, might be great- ly improved in value, by cultivat- ing the different sorts of apples that are used in making cyder, which finds at all times a ready market, and requires no fuel in brewing it; besides that the labour occurs only once every year. The greater the quantities of cyder made together, the better it usually succeeds ; but it will be necessary that the vessels in which the liquor is to be kept, be capacious and well seasoned. In this case, it will not only remain sound for a great number of years, but also progres- sively improve. An ingenious Treatise on Cyder, in 4to. Avas published about the year 1754, in Avhich the reader will find several pertinent instruc- tions relative to this subject. [It has already been said that apples thrive Avell in all the states of United America, except in the Ioav lands of the maritime parts of Carolina and Georgia. In such a variety of soils and climates, apples of great diversity of taste and fla- vour must necessarily grow. The cyder made from these apples ac- cordingly differs very much ; but in a general v.ay it may be safely as- serted, that the cyder of the United States equals that of any part ofthe world. There have been numerous re- ceipts published to make cyder, some of which have occasioned con- siderable losses. A feAv general and important rules will be given, for insuring good cyder, and afterwards some particular directions founded on experience. 1. The first and indispensible re- Rr 306 C Y D quisite for making good cyder, is to chuse perfectly ripe and sound fruit. Farmers," in general, are very inattentive to these points, but it is utterly impossible to make good cyder unless they be attend- ed to. 2. The apples ought to be hand picked, or caught in a sheet, Avhen the tree is shook. When they fall on the ground they become bruis- ed, and as it frequently happens that they remain for some hours before pressing : the apples are apt to communicate a bad taste to the liquor from the bruised part. 3. After having sweated, and be- fore beingground,the apples should be wiped, in order to remove a clammy moisture Avhich covers them, and which, if permitted to re- main, would impoverish the cyder. 4. The practice above noted to press the pumice in hair cloths is certainly much preferable to the common American custom of inclos- ing it in bands of straAV, because the straAV, when heated in the mow or stack, gives the cyder a bad taste. 5. After cyder has run from the press, it has been directed to strain it through hair sieves into a large open vat, which will contain a whole making, or as much as can be pressed in one day. When the cy- der has remained in this vat a day, or sometimes less, according to the ripeness of the fruit of Avhich it has been made, and the state of the weather, the pumice, or grosser parts ofthe pulp,Avill rise to the top, and in a feAv hours, or after a day or two at furthest, will groAv very thick, and Avhen little white bub- bles break through it, draAv it off' through a cock or faucet hole, with- in three inches from the bottom, that the lees may quietly remain m C YD behind. This operation is of great importance, as the sinking of the feculent matter would greatly in- jure the liquor. 6. On drawing off the cyder from the vat, it must be tunned into clean casks, and closely watched, to pre- vent the fermentation ; when there- fore white bubbles, as mentioned above, are perceived at the bung hole, rack it again, immediately after which it will probably not ferment until March, when it must be rack- ed off as before, and if possible in clear Aveather. 7. It is of great consequence to prevent the escape of the carbonic acid, or fixed air, from cyder, as on this principle all its briskness de- pends. To effect this, various ex- pedients have been contrived. In the state of Connecticut, where much cyder is made, it is a common practice to pour a tumbler of olive oil in the bung-hole of every cask. Upon the same principle Ave have lately heard of a man, who boasted that he had drank brisk beer out of the same cask lor five years, and that his secret Avas to cover the surface ofthe liquor Avith ofive oil. Dr.DAuv/iN also sayshe wastold by a gentleman who made a considera- ble quantity of cyder on his estate, that he procured vessels of stronger construction than usual, and that he directed the apple juice, as soon as it had settled, to be bunged up tiose, and that though he had had one vessel or tAvo occasionally burst by the expansion ofthe fermenting liquor, yet that this rarely occurred, and that his cyder never failed to be of the most excellent quality, and Avas sold at a great price. To prevent a succeeding fer- mentation, put in a handful of pow- dered clay, and to preserve it, add C Y D C Y D 307 one quart of apple brandy to each barrel: every cask must be filled up, and closely bunged. 8. When care has been taken to prevent the precipitation of the fe- culent matter which rises in the cyder,good liquorAvill generally fine without artificial means, but some- times it is necessary to fine after the last racking, when the above mentioned article has been found to answer very effectually if used in the following way. For a bar- rel : cut one ounce of isinglass fine, put it into a pint of Avater, stir it ^frequently, and make a thick jelly. Dilute this with cyder, strain and mix it well with the liquor in the cask, by means of a long clean stick. The editor has known an ounce of orris root, in powder, give a pleasant flavour to cyder. A friend directs cyder to be bot- tled in July, to fill the bottles with- in two inches of the top, letting them stand twelve hours open be- fore corking.....Use strong porter bottles, and the best velvet corks. The bottling should be done in clear weather. For the following communica- tion on the making and fining of cyder, the editor is indebted to Jo- seph Cooper, Esq. of New-Jer- sey.... " Cyder is an article of domestic manufacture, which is in my opin- ion, worse managed than any in our country: perhaps the better way to correct errors, is to point out some of the principal ones, and then to recommend better plans. "Apples are commonly collected when Avet, and thrown in a heap, exposed to sun and rain, until a sour- ness pervades the whole mass, then ground, and for Avant of a trough or other -essels sufficient to hold a cheese at atime,the pumice is puton the press as fast as ground ; and a large cheese is made, which requires so much time to finish and press off, that a fermentation comes on in the cheese before all the juice' is out; and certain it is, that a small quan- tity of the juice pressed out after fermentation comes on, will spoil the product of a whole cheese, if mixed therewith. When either of the above errors will spoil cy- der, Ave need not wonder at the ef- fect of a combination of the whole, as frequently happens. As I have very often exported cyder to the W. Indies, and to Europe, and also sold it to others for the same pur- pose, Avithout even hearing of any spoiling; and as it is my Avish to make the productions of our coun- try as useful as possible, I Avill give an account of my method of making this valuable liquor. " I gather the apples when dry, put them on a floor under cover, and have a trough large enough to hold a cheese at once, and when the weather is Avarm, I grind them late in the evening, spreading the pumice over the trough to air it, as the cyder will thereby be en- riched, and a fine amber colour in it produced : and here it may be remarked, that the longer a cheese lies after bring ground, before press- ing, the better for the cyder, provi- ded it esca/ies fermentation until the pressing is completed. The fol- lowing experiment will render this evident....Bruise a tart apple on one side, and let it lie until brown ; then taste the juice of each part, and it Avill be found, that the juice ofthe bruised part is sweet and rich : so if sweet and tart apples are ground together, and put immediately on the press, the liquor which they produce will have the taste of both S08 C Y D C YD kinds of fruit; but if permitted to lie until the pumice become broAvn, the cyder will be greatly improved. '-1 tak.3 great care to put cyder in clean SAveet casks, and the only Avay to effect this, is to rinse or scald them well, as soon as the cy- der is out, and not to permit them to stand with the lees, Avhich will certainly ■ cause them to become sour, or musty, or to smell. When my casks are filled, I place them in the shade, exposed to the nor- thern air; and when fermentation takes place, I fill them up once or more, to cause as much of the fe- culent matter as possible, to dis- charge from the bung ; when a clear Avhite froth comes out, I put in the bung loosely, or bore a hole in it, and put in a spile, thereby checking the fermentation gradu- ally. After this has subsided, I take the first opportunity of clear, cool weather, and rack it off in- to clean casks, which I prepare thus. When I draw cyder out of a cask in Avhich it has fermented, I rinse it with cold water, and put in tAvo or three quarts of fine gra- vel, and three or four gallons of water ; the cask is well shaken or rolled to scour off the sediment al- ways adhering to the cask, and which, if not removed, Avill act as a ferment to the liquor when return- ed to the cask, and spoil, or greatly injure the liquor. After scouring the casks, I again rinse them, and I find advantage from burning a match of sulphur suspended in the cask by a wire, af- ter putting in tAvo or three buckets ofcyder. A convenient Avay to per- form this process is to have a long tapering bung, so as that betAveen the two ends it Avill fit any hole ; to the small end of this bungdirve in a wire with a hooked end to hold the match. If the cyder stands .-» week or more after racking, previ- ously to being put away in the cellar, I rack it again, rinsing the casks,but not with gravel, and remove them to the cellar. The late made cyder, I put in the cellar immediately af- ter, or before the first racking, ac- cording as the weather may hap- pen to be. The cyder intended to be kept till summer, I rack in cool, clear Aveather, in the latter end of February, or beginning of March ; the casks must be kept full, and bunged as tight as possible." Mr. Cooper fines with the isin- glass jelly mentioned above, but in case the liquor should not fine in ten days, he directs to rack it again, and repeat the fining as before, but says, it is best to rack it, whether fine or not, in ten or twelve days, lest the sediment should rise, which often happens. Mr. Cooper adds, " The foregoing operation should be performed previously to the ap- ples being in bloom, but I have succeeded best in the winter during steady cool weather. I have like- Avise had good success in fining cyder directly from the press; when this is done, I set the casks with one head out, but covered, put in taps, and let them remain in a cool place properly fixed for draw- ing ; Avhen the fermentation ceases, and the scum begins to crack. I take it off carefully Avith a skim- mer, and draw it from the sediment. If not sufficiently fine before the middle of winter, I fine it again as above. The settlings of my improved cyder spirit, (see article Brandy) in the proportion of two or three gallons to a hogshead ofcyder, an- swers as well for fining as the isin- glass jelly." The editor will, only add one ob- C YD C Y D 309 servation with regard to keeping the pumice some hours before pres- sing it. In the winter of 1797, he had the pleasure to drink some very fine cyder at his friend Dr. Seaman's, in New-York ; and on inquiring into the circumstances of its manufacture, was informed by the Doctor's father, who made it, that he ahvays kept his pumice 12 hours before pressing it. The prac- tice has since been mentioned to many Pennsylvania farmers, but they did not approve of it. Mr. Cooper, however, explains the pro- priety of this important improve- ment in making cyder., For an account of the best cyder apples, see article Fruit.] Cyder is a cooling, pleasant, and wholesome liquor during the heat of summer, if it has been prepared without foreign ingredients, and properly fermented. On the con- trary, when it is too new, or tart, or has perhaps been kept in leaden vessels ; or the apples and pears have, after grinding them, passed through leaden tubes, we can by no means recommend it as a salu- brious beverage ; because that poi- sonous metal is easily dissolved by the acid, and thus gradually intro- duced into the body. However agreeably such cycler,or perry, may stimulate the palate, it cannot fail, sooner or later, to produce painful and dangerous colics, as it not un- frequently generates the most des- perate and incurable obstipations, among those who accustom them- selves to the free use of these li- quors. Cyderkin, Purre, or Perkin, is a liquor made of the murk, or lees remaining after the cyder is pressed : these are put into a large vat, with half the quantity of cold water, which has been previously boiled : if that proportion be ex- ceeded, the cyderkin will be small. The whole is left to digest for 48 hours, when it should be well ex- pressed : the liquor thus obtained is to be immediately barrelled, and closely stopped; it Avill be fit for use in a few days. Cyderkin easily clarifies, and is used in many families instead of small beer : if boiled after pressure, with a proper quantity of hops, it may be kept for any length of time. Cyder-Spirit, an ardent li- quor drawn from cyder by distil- lation, in the same manner as bran- dy is from Avine. The flavour pe- culiar to this spirit is by no means agreeable ; but it may, with care, be totally divested of it (see Char- coal), and become an excellent substitute for those deleterious pre- parations, sold under the name of spirituous compounds and cordials. Wholesale-dealers have lately avail- ed themselves of this liquor, and, after imparting to it various fla- vours, they vend it as a substitute for others, but especially by mix- ing large quantities of it with fo- reign brandy, rum, and arrack, without the remotest apprehension of such fraud being detected. [See Brandy.] Cyder-Wine is a liquor made by boiling the fresh juice of apples : after being kept three or four years it is said to acquire the flavour and colour of Rhenish wine. The me- thod of preparing it consists in evaporating the juice in a brewing- copper, till one half be dissipated ; the remainder is then immediately conveyed to a wooden cooler, whence it is barrelled, with the ad- dition of a due proportion of yeast, and fermented in the usual man- ner. 310 C Y P C Y P This American process has of late years been imitated in the cy- der-countries, and particularly in the West of England, where seve- ral hundred hogsheads of cyder- wine are annually prepared ; and being supposed to contain no par- ticles of copper from the vessels in Avhich it is boiled, the country peo- ple consider it as perfectly whole- some, and accordingly drink it without apprehension. In order to ascertain the truth, various experi- ments were instituted by the late Dr. Fothergill ; from the result of Avhich he proved, that cyder- Avine does contain a minute portion of copper, Avhich, though not very considerable, is sufficient to cau- tion the public against a liquor, that " comes in so very question- able a shape*" Independently, however, of the danger arising from any metallic impregnation, we doubt whether the process of preparing boiled wines be useful, or reconcileable to economy. The evaporation of the apple-juice, by leng boiling, not only occasions an unnecessary consumption of fuel, but also vo- latilizes the most essential parti- cles, without which the liquor can- not undergo a complete fermenta- tion, so that there can be no per- fect wine. Hence this liquor is, like all other boiled wines, crude, heavy, and flat: it generally causes indigestion, flatulency, and diar- rhoea. Those amateurs, however, who are determined to prepare it, ought at least to banish all brass and copper vessels, from this as well as from every other culinary process. CYPER-GRASS, orCyperus,!,. a genus of plants producing se- venty-nine species, of which the following are the principal: 1. The rotundus, or Round Cy- perus, a native of the East-Indies: its imported root is knotty, sur- rounded Avith tough, fibrous strings, of a broAvn colour externally, but grey internally; and of a pleasant odour, especially when fresh and well dried. 2. The esculentus, or Eatable Cyperus (earth-almonds), groAving wild in the East, in Italy, and the South of France. Its pulpy and mealy root is agreeably sweet, not unlike chesnuts, and might be ad- vantageously cultivated in this coun- try, as an occasional substitute for bread. 3. The papyrus, or Paper Cy- perus, a native of Calabria, Sicily, Syria, and especially of Egypt, on the banks of the Nile. F rom this noble plant, the ancients manufac- tured most of their paper, their sail-cloth, mattresses, ropes, nay, even their apparel. Perhaps, we may soon be enabled to import an abundant supply of this valuable vegetable, in British vessels. 4. The longus, or Sweet Cyperus, or English Galingale, a native plant, which is chiefly found on the isle of Purbeck, where it flowers in July. Its root is of the size of an olive, ful1 of little knots or specks, of an oblong figure and grey co- lour ; of a warm, somewhat bitter taste ; and almost destitute of smell when newly taken out of the ground. In medicine, the roots of the first, or round cyperus, as well as those of the English galingale, are esteemed cordial, diuretic, and ce- phalic ; they occasionally have af- forded relief in nephritic disorders, as also in colics ; and may be tak- en either in powders, or in a decoc- tion. The production ofthe latter, or native species, however, is at C YP C Y P 311 present seldom used; though we presume it is in no respect inferior to some of the more costly medi- cines imported into this country. Cyphel. See Common House- leek. CYPRESS, the Common, or Cupressus sempervirens, L. is a native of the islands of Candia and Crete, but may be easily propagat- ed in Britain, from seeds as Avell as cuttings. The proper season for sowing the former, is the month of March, when the ground should be dug, Avell broken, raked smooth, and an inch of the earth draAvn evenly off the surface into an alley : the seeds should then be scattered moderately thick, and the soil sift- ed immediately over them, half an inch deep. During the summer, they should be kept clear of weeds, and, in dry weather, gently water- ed : in winter, they must be occa- sionally sheltered from the frost, with mats ; and, in the course of two years, they will be fit for transplanting, when they should be set in nursery-roAvs, two feet asun- der ; and, in three or four years, they may be removed to the shrubbery. The cypress-tree, though found in most of our old gardens, is at present much neglected: it de- serves, hoAvever, to be more dili- gently cultivated, as it not only adds considerable beauty to wilder- nesses and groves, but also affords a valuable wood, which is aroma- tic, very compact, and heavy; is neither liable to decay or putrify, nor to the devastations ofthe worm, so that it is admirably calculated for chests, drawers, musical instru- ments, and other utensils. This tree is eminently recom- mended for purifying the air, and for the benefit of weak lungs: hence, the ancient physicians sent their consumptive patients to the island of Crete, Avhere the cypress is very abundant. Its nuts, or fruit, is a very powerful astringent and balsamic, and is, perhaps, inferior to none ofthe simples employed in diarrhoeas and dysenteries. [Deciduous Cypress-tree, or Cu- pressus disticha, stands, according to Mr.Wii. Bartram, in the first order of American trees. It abounds in the southern states, where it measures from eight to tAvelve feet diameter, and from forty to fifty feet straight shaft. Shingles are made of the cy- press-tree, and sell from 8 to 10 dols. per thousand : they are commonly 2 feet 9 inches long for home con- sumption, but for the West-India market, those of 18 inches in length are preferred. The cypress is grow- ing in Bartram's garden on the Schuylkill. Cypress shingles are equally du- rable as those made of Avhite cedar, but the nature of the wood does not permit them to be cut of a greater breadth than about five and an half inches, and about the length above mentioned. If attempts be made to cut a Avider shingle the Avood splits. In driving nails through cypress shingles, they are very apt to split, unless holes are first bored for nails : hence roofs covered Avith such shingles sometimes leak..... Upon out-houses, they answer as well as the cedar shingles. For directions to shingle houses in the best manner, see House.] D. D AC DAB, or Pleuronectes limanda, L. a fish that frequents the English seas, Avhere it is caught in consi- derable numbers. It is in general of an uniform brown colour on the upper side, though sometimes of a darker shade. The scales are small and rough, and the lower part of the body is Avhite. These fish are in season from February to April: they spawn in May and June, and become watery and flab- by during the remainder of the summer. They are flat; and, though inferior in size to the com- mon plaise, the dab is preferred in point of delicacy and flavour. DACE, or Leuciscus cyprinus, L. a fish found in most of the still deep rivers of this country, Avhere itis very prolific. It seldom exceeds 10 inches in length,or weighs more than a pound and a half. Dace spawn in the month of February, and are in the highest perfection in April and May ; but they are at no season a well-tasted fish, or much esteemed. They af- ford, however, considerable amuse- ment to the expert angler, as they will bite at any fly, but are parti- cularly fond of the stone-caddis, or May-fly,which abounds towards the latter end of April, and the whole of May. After that month, re- D AF course must be had to the ant-fly, the best of which are those black insects found in large ant or mole- hills. In warm weather, these fish seldom refuse a fly on the surface of the water; but, at other times, the bait should be immersed to within three inches of the bottom. The winter angling for dace requires a very different bait: this is a white maggot with a red head, being the produce of the eggs of the beetle, and which is turned up by the plough in great abundance. A number of such grubs, if kept in any vessel Avith the soil in Avhich they Avere taken, may be preserved for several months, and -will prove an excellent bait....Small dace may be put into a glass or jar Avith fresh Avater, Avhich should be frequently changed: in this element, they live a long time, and gradually become tame. [Dactylis, glomerata, Ameri- can cocks foot, or orchard grass, See Grasses.] DAFFODIL, the Common, or Ararcissus pseudo-narcissus, L. an indigenous, perennial plant, grow- ing in woods, meadows, and the sides of hedges, which is found chiefly in the north and west of England. It produces large yel- low, ill-scented flowers, which ap- DAI D A I 313 pear in March....BF.cHSTEiN ob- serves, that two drams of the root afford a gentle laxative. DAIRY-HOUSE, in rural eco- nomy, a place .appropriated to the managementofmilk,butter,cheese, 8cc....See Mile, Butter,Cheese, C;:jrn, and Cows. A dairy ought to be so situated, that the windoAvs, or lattices, may never front the south, south-east, or south-Avest ; and it should at all times be kept in the neatest order. Lattices are also far preferable to glazed lights, as they admit a free circulation of the air. It has, how- ever, been objected, that the former affords access to the cold air of win- ter, and to the sun in summer ; but either may be easily remedied, by making the frame somewhat larger than the lattice, and constructing it so as to slide backward and for- Wiird at ileisure. Across this frame, peck-thread may be stretch- ed, and oiled paper pasted on it, which will thus admit the Sigh', and effectually keep out the sun and wind. During the summer,dairy-houses cannot be kept too cool: they ought therefore to be erected, if possi- ble, near a cold spring, or running Avater; and where it is practica- ble, to conduct a small stream through the premises, it will much contribute to the coiiA-enience and utility of the place....Dr. Ander- son observes, in his practical es- say on the management of thedahy (published in the 3d and 4th vols. of his ingenious u Recreations in Agriculture" he.) that if the Avar ter can be introduced by means of a pipe, so as to fall from some height on the floor, it Avill be pro- ductive of many advantages, parti- cularly by preserving a continual freshness, and purity of the air.... » OL. II. Dairy.houses should therefore be neatly pared, either with redbrick, or smooth hard stone, and laid with a proper descent, so that no water may stagnate. This pavement should be well washed every day during the summer, and all the utensils, here employed, be kept Avith unremitting attention tociean- liness. Nor should the churns be at any time, scalded in the dairy , as the steam arising from hot Avater, tends greatly to injure the milk.... For similar reasons, neither the cheese and rennet, nor the cheese- press, must be suffered to taint the atmosphere; as the whey and curd Avill diffuse their acidity over the Avhole building. All the utensils of the dairy should be made of Avood, in pre- ference to either lead, copper, or cast iron; for these metals are easily soluble in acids , the solu- tions of the two first are in a high degree poisonous ; and, though the latter is in itself harmless, the taste of it renders the productions of the dairy A-ery disagrceabi.'. The tream-dishes, Avhen perfectly clean and cool, ought to be filled with the milk, as soon r.s it is draAvn from the coav, and has been carefully strained through a cloth, or cloth- sieve made of hair or silver-wire'; the latter of which, as Dr. Ander- son justly revnarks, is more whole- some then those of other neutis. These dishes should never exceed three inches in depth, but mav be so wide as to contain a gallon, or a gallon and a half of milk : when filled, they ought to be placed on shelves, to remain there tills the cream be completely seperaU-d.... Now it is to be u.ke.j off with nice- ty, by a skimming-dish, (without lifting or removing the ntiik, or shedding any of it on the floor, S s 314 DAI DAM which Avould soon corrupt the air of the room), and then deposited in a separate vessel, till a proper quantity be collected for churning. A firm, neat Avooden barrel, Avhich is open at one end, and has a lid closely fitted to it, appears to be AA-ell calculated for this purpose ; a cock, or spigot, ought also to be fixed near the bottom, to draw off the thin, or serous part, that may drain from the cream ; and the inner side of the opening should be co- vered with a piece of fine sih-er wire-gauze, in order to prevent the latter from escaping, while the for- mer is allowed to pass. But, if notwithstanding the fatal consequences arising from the use of metallic utensils, or of earthen vessels glazed Avith lead, farmers still persist in employing them, it ought to be a constant and indispen- sable rule, to scald and scour them properly Avith salt and water, every day, and to dry them thoroughly, before the milk is deposited in them. Lastly, it is sincerely to be wished, that all the utensils em- ployed in the dairy, of whatever materials they may consist, should be cleaned with similar care, pre- viously to their being used; and, as long as the least acid smell is per- ceptible, they ought to undergo repeated scourings, till they are completely sweetened....SeeMilk- House. DAISY, the Common*, or Belli* perennie., L. a perennial, indige- nous plant, Avhich abounds in me:i- dows and pastures, and is in flower from March to September. The leaves ofthe daisy, though slightly acrid, may be eaten as eatiy spring salad, or boiled like spinach ; its roots have a pungent taste, and are in high repute abroad as an excellent vulnerary, attenu- ant, cooling, and astringent medi- cine : yet no attention is paid to it in this country, except what it claims from the beauty of its flow- ers ; on account of which it has been introduced into gardens....It is refused by horses, sheep, and cows. M. Bechstein, a respectable German naturalist, mentions a cu- rious fact relative to the virtues of the comon daisy. In the 2d vol. of his Concise Natural History of Plants, both foreign and indigenous (printed atLeipzig in 1797) he says in a note...." I am acquainted with a very skilful and experienced phy- sician, who has completely cured several consumptive persons Avith the flower buds of the bellis peren- nis, by stuffing young chickens with these buds, Avithout any other in- gredients ; then stewing them in unsalted beef-tea or broth, add- ing a little fresh butter, and al- IoAving the patient for three Aveeks no other food but the medicated dishes thus prepared. At first, it affords a delicious repast." "We candidly confess, we have had no opportunities of ascertaining the efficacy of this preparation, by the test of experience ; but neverthe- less we believe, that in so despe- rate a situation as that ol pulmona- ry consumption, or other species of atrophy (unattended with violent febrile symptoms), it well deserves to be opportunely and fairly tried. D \MAscus-Steel. See Steel. DAME-WORT, or Dame's Violet, the Scant: se, or i'esperis inodora, L. is an indigenous peren- nial plant, which grows in pastures and hedges, and flowers in the month of May or June. Afford- ing to Boerhaave, it is antiscor- butic and diaphoretic, and of great service in asthmas, coughs, and convulsions. It has also been re- DAN DAN 315 commended, externally, in inflam- mations, cancers, gangrenes, and in contagious disorders. Damp. See Linen. DANCING, is the art of moving the body, agreeably to certain rules, and adjusted to the measures of music, either sung or played. It is generally the effect or indication of joy among most nations; though there are tribes in South-America who dance to shew their soitoav ; and it also formed a part of the funeral solemnities of the ancients. In the heavy days of autumn and Avinter, Avhen the atmosphere is loaded with humid particles, when a sedentary life disposes the human body to hypochondriacal af- fections, dancing is an admirable amusement. Independently of the beneficial effects which music and a cheerful company display on a susceptible mind, moderate dances possess every advantage of gentle exercise. But those maniacal turn- ings and gesticulations, Avhich have lately become fashionable in this country, under the appellation of German Vaults (or rather Walzcn, i. e. performing a circular motion, like that of a man on the eve of intoxication) are attended with very different effects. It Avould be su- perfluous to enumerate the perni- cious consequences resulting from that frantic inclination to distort the human frame ; Ave may confident- ly assert, that Walzen is at present almost universally exploded in the cultivated circles of society among the Germans, who consider it as a dangerous and vulgar dance. In confirmation of this statement, we meet Avith a treatise, expressly pub- lished, On the Moral and Physical Consee/uences of Dancing ; address- ed to the guardians of youth, by Dr. Sponitzer (Berlin, 1795); an enlightened physician, whose satire and judgment are equally conspi- cuous. Violent dancing, especially in the heated atmosphere of a crowded assembly, produces a temporary fever, even in the bye-standers, who inspire an air exceedingly vi- tiated by the breath of persons ap- parently in a semi-delirious trance, and by the suffocating vapour of candles. The blood is unnaturally propelled to the breast and head.... hence arise frequent colds, coughs, and periodical head-achs ; perspi- ration is Avantonly checked ; the lungs are forcibly expanded, and the foundation is laid for that aveng- ing disease, consumption, which spares neither rank, age, nor sex, and often exterminates whole fa- milies. On the other hand, we do not presume to discourage the shorter and less fatiguing dances, such as minuets and poloigneses, Avhichare not only modest and becoming, but contribute to the graceful form and motion ofthe body. Every provi- dent parent, who feels the value of sound and healthy children, will readily concur with us in opinion, that so precarious a public amuse- ment ought to be regulated by the State, or at least, controlled by the superior sense of the aged ; and not to be absolutely intrusted to the choice or caprice of youth, the gay, and the giddy....See Balls. Dane-wort. See Dwarf El- der. DANDELION, the Common, or Leontodon Taraxacum^ L. is an indigenous, perennial plant, grow- ing in meadows and pastures, on road-sides, ditch-banks, S-.c. It pro- duces yelloAV flowers, which blow from April to September, and have the remarkable property of ex- 316 DAN panding early in the morning, and closing in the evating. In tne spring, Avhile the leaves are Avhi'e, and scarcely unfolded, thev are an excellent ingredient in salads. In France, the roots and leaves are eaten Avith bread and butter. This plant is also relished by goats, and especially by hogs, who devour it eagerly ; but sheep and coavs dislike it, and horses to- tally refuse it: the seeds also sup- port the smaller birds, which are extremely fond of them. The root, leaves, and stalk, contain a large proportion of bitter milky juice, which possesses considerable ac- tivity. Its more immediate ope- ration is to remove visceral obstruc- tions, and promote the urinary.dis- charge. The dose prescribed by Boerhaave, fortius purpose, is 4 ounces, to be taken three or four times a day ; and avc can, from ex- perience, corroborate its great ef- ficacy in dropsical, and those com- plaints which are connected with a disordered state of the first passa- ges ; though Ave have directed it to be taken in much smaller doses. The ancientGreek physicians were better acquainted with the proper- ties of this excellent vegetable, than the modern practitioners, who ap- pear to be more anxious to intro- duce exotics imported from distant countries, than to ascertain the qualities of thosenumerous medici- nal plants which grow in their own climate. In short, Ave are induced to believe, that if the Great Fre- deric of Prussia had complied with the excellent prescription of the late Dr. Zimmerman, avIio di- rected the extract of dandelion to be taken in moderate portions of two table-spoonsful each time, that extraordinary hero and philosopher D AR would have survived his last attack of dropsy, for many years; because his constitution was unimpaired, and his mind uncommonly vigor- ous ; though he had from his in- fancy imbibed an invincible preju- dice against all physic and its ad- ministr-..tors. DA.P..NEL, or Lolium, L. a na- tive genus of plants producing four species, namely : 1. The parenne, or Red Darnel, or Ray-grass, Avhich grows on road sides and dry pastures ; it attains the height of two feet, and floAvers in June. As it makes good hay upon dry, chalky, or sandy soils, it deserves to be cultivated, especi- ally with clover : It springs earlier than the other grasses; thus sup- plying food for cattle, at a season when it is most difficult to be ob- tained. But, though it is eagerly eaten when young, it is too dry and hard when converted into hay, by itself. Mr. Savayne hints in his " Gramina Pascua" (a most valuable publication for practical farmers, who wish to obtain a com- plete knowledge of the different pasture-grasses ;) that the common cultivated ray-grass had probably, by frequent sowing, degenerated from its natural qualities, and that it was in many respects inferior to that growing naturally in our best meadoAvs and pastures. dr. Pa- cey, an enlightened agriculturist, has lately rtised a variety of ray- grass from seeds collected in old pastures, and has now multiplied it to such extent, as to sell annu- ally a considerable quantity at the price of 10s. 6d. per bushel. It has, by the most competent judges, been proved to be infinitely supe- rior to the cultivated rnv-grass, and he has sufficient dum.nri for his DAY whole produce....The red darnel is eaten by cows, horses, and sheep; but goats do not relish it. 2. The lemvlcntum, or Bearded Darnel, a poisonous plant, which grows in ploughed lands among wheat, rye, oats, but chiefly among barley and :ti.x. It flowers in July in id August. ...LixNiEus observes, th..t the seeds of this plant, when mixed Avith bread-corn, produce but little effect, unless the bread be eaten hot; but if malted Avith barley, the beer becomes more in- toxicating, and . we may add, the drnkiug of it is attended with tem- porary blindness. According to the corresponding account of vari- ous authors, the bread made of corn abounding with these seeds, and eaten frequently, produces giddiness, anxiety, vomiting, purg- ing, violent colics, convulsions, palsy, delirium, and death. Hence this plant ought to he carefully ex- tirpated, by Aveeding, before it runs to seed....Sheep are not fond of it. 3. The cri>n/.sr,or V, bite Darnel, or annual Beardless Darnel, which flowers in July, and is not frequent in fields ; it is, however, sometimes very injurious to a Avheat crop, but may be easily avoided, by previ- ously separating it from the seed. 4. The bruinoides, or Drank; wild Oat-grass ; or Sea Darnel. It grows on loose sands, near the sea coasts, and flowers in May or June. Both the last mentioned species are not possessed of any peculiar properties. Date: See Palm-trek. DAY, in general, signifies that space of time during which it con- tinues to be light, in contradistinc- tion to night, or the period of dark- ness, while the sun is illumining the other hemisphere. Hence, the rising and setting of Ihs sun are DAY 317 usually considered as the extent of the day, and the time that elap- ses from its setting to its rising again, as the night. In consequence of the unequal length of days, resulting from the peculiar revolution of the planets producing the different seasons, Ave are inclined to think that many persons, especially in the higher Avalksof life, avail themselves of this irregularity ; insomuch, that by the laAv of fashion, in Avinter they convert the night into day ; and in summer exchange the most agreeable mornings and forenoons, for damp, umvholesome evenings and nights. It would be a vain attempt to reprobate this unnatu- ral custom, in those circles where it is fancied to be equally vulgar to repair to bed in good time, and to rise early.....a practice instinc- tively followed even by the loAver animals. To the industrious and more domestic members of society, Ave venture to recommend, while in a good state of health, the folloAving division of the day : namely, in spring and autumn to rise with the first raysof the sun ; in summer,one hour after ; and in winter, one hour before that luminary appears ; to allot every day (Sundays excepted,) from 10 to 12 hours to useful oc- cupations ; from 6 to 7 hours to the various purposes of dressing, taking provisions, exercise, or amusements ; ;md also from 6 to 7, or 8 hours, to repose, accordingly as they have been more or less fa- tigued the preceding day, either by mental or bodily exertions..„. Such Avould be both a natural and judicious arraugnncnt of the day; and avc make no doubt that those av'o are disposed to devote their time end laleur to the welfare of 318 D E A DE A the community, will neither have reason to compl-tin that the days are too long, or the nights too short, for useful purposes. "See Bed-time. DEAD-NETTLE, or I.amium, L. an indigenous plant consisting of three species, of Avhich the fol- kming are the principal: 1. The allum, or White Dead- nettle, or White Archangel, which is perennial, groAvs on rubbish, corn-fields, and ditch-banks, blooms in the month of May or June, and also in September. The flowers cf this species have been much celebrated for their efficacy in pul- monary disorders, and in those incident to females ; but their vir- tues appear to be precarious. Ear- ly in the spring the young plant is eaten by the country people of Germany and Sweden, among their sanative, culinary, herbs. 2. The purpureum, or Red Dead-nettle, Red Archangel, or Dee-nettle which is an annual plant, grows in rubbish, cornfields, and kitchen-gardens, and flowers in the month of May....The leaA'es of both plants may be boiled and eaten as greens: the latter is relished by sheep, goats, and hor- ses, but refused by cows. DEAD-TOPS, a disease inci- dent to young trees, which may be cured, by cutting off the dead parts close to the nearest sound twig or shoot, and claying them over in the same manner as is practised in Grafting, to which we refer. DEAFNESS, the state of a per- son who is deprived of the sense of hearing ; it is also used to signify a disease of the ear, Avhich pre- vents the due perception of sounds. Deafness is frequently the effect of old age, and is incident to most persons in the decline of life. It is, hoAA-eA'er, sometimes owing to an original defect in the organic structure ofthe ear ; in which case the unhappy individual not only continues deaf, but frequently also speechless. See Dumb. This complaint may indeed arise from a variety of causes : such as injuries sustained by the ear from wounds, ulcers, excessive noise, violent colds in the head ; fevers, hard wax adhering to the cavity of the ear ; or, too great a degree of either moisture or dryness in that organ. When it is the effect of old age, or of wounds and ulcers in the ears, it is not easily remedied. If it proceed from a catarrh af- fecting the head, especially after cold-bathing, the patient must be careful to preserve that part con- stantly warm, particularly during the night: he should likeAvise take some gentle laxatives, keep his feet warm, and bathe them fre- quently in tepid or hike-warm Ava- ter, at bed-time. Mercurial fric- tions haA'e, in this case, been ap- plied with success. But, if the complaint originate from fevers, it will generally disappear when the patient recovers his health ; or if it arise from dry Avax clogging the ears, this may be softened, by drop- ping a little sweet oil, or oil of rosemary, into them ; after Avhich they sould be syringed with warm milk and water. If deafness be occasioned by too great a dryness in the ears (which may be easily ascertained by in- specting them,) half an ounce of the oil of sweet almonds, and the same quantity of camphorated spi- rit of Avine, or tincture of asafcetida, may be mixed together, and a few drops poured into the ear every night, previously to going to bed ; care being taken to close them af- DE A D EA 319 tcrwards with a little wool, or cot- ton. When the ears abound with moisture, the superfluous humour may be drained by an issue, or seton, Avhich should be made as near as possible to the part af- fected. Various other remedies have been employed for the cure of deaf- ness ; such as the gall of an eel mixed with spirit of wine ; or equal parts of Hungary water, and spirit of lavender, to be dropped into the ear. Etmuller highly extols amber and musk; and Brooks af- firms, that hardness of hearing has often been cured by putting a grain or iavo of musk into the ear Avith cotton avooI. Where, hoAvever, a poAverful stimulant becomes abso- lutely necessary, camphorated oil, with the addition of a few drops of volatile alkaline spirit, may be con- sidered as one ofthe most poAverful applications. It Avill be proper, in suchcase, tobegin with a very small quantity ofthe alkali, and to increase it progressively, as the ear is ena- bled to bear it. In several instances, where the disease depended on a state of insensibility in the nerves, both the shower-bath and electri- city have been successfully resorted to....We can from experience re- commend a few drops of onion juice on cotton, to be Avorn in the car for several Aveeks, and daily renewed. Dr. Sims judiciously advises deaf persons to expire forci- bly, with their mouth and nose closely stopped ; a simple but rati- onal expedient, which ought to be frequently repeated, though it has sometimes afforded instant relief. These various remedies, how- ever, should be judiciously adapted to different states ofthe disorder ; for, though real benefit has occa- sionally been derived from them, yet they also often fail, and, not un- frequently, are productive of injury. The organs of hearing, as Avell as those of sight, being extremely ten- der, require the most cautious treatment, and ought not on any account to be tampered with, nor submitted to the experiments of ignorant pretenders. Flence, in- stead of having recourse to nos- trums, we recommend those per- sons, who are afflicted Avith deaf- ness, 'to keep the head warn:.... From Avhatever cause the disorder may originate, this will ahvays be found the safest and most proper practice ;....morc real benefit has often been derived from it, in the most obstinate cases, than froih any medicines Avhatever. [A case of deafness that ensued from plunging suddenly into water, Avas cured by a salivation. AT. Feed Commentaries......This complaint frequently proceeds from hardened Avax in the ears ; the remedy in this case, is, to syringe the ears repeatedly Avith Avarm milk and water. When it proceeds from a violent cold, bleeding with leeches, and blistering behind the ears are highly useful. When the com- pk.i-.it arises clearly from too great relaxation of the tympanum or drum of the ear, the fine powder of cantharides (Spanish flies) has been directed to be blown into the car to stimulate the parts ; but as some difficulty must occur in re- gulating the proper quantity ; Ave suggest the propriety of conveying the vapour of rctlier into the ear, in preference.] DEAL, aAvtil known wood, be- ing the production of the fir-tree, and of great utility for building, and other purposes. An excellent method of season- ing planks of de.d and fir is, to im- 320 D E A D E A merse them into salt-water, as soon as they are saAved, for three or four days ; care being taken to turn them frequently during that time. They should then be exposed to the sun and air, which will, in a considerable degree, harden them, though it will not prevent them from shrinking. See Timber. Fir-Tree. DEATH, a term more easily understood, than defined. Al- though it may generally be said, that death consists in the separa- tion of the soul from the body, yet this explanation is so far imperfect, as avc possess but a distant idea of the connexion subsisting betAveen the mind and the animal frame : nor does the definition here stated express any more than the effect, but leaves us compieU iy ignorant of the cause of that great event, or the physical process by which dis- solution is accomplished. In order to prepare the reader for more clearly understanding the symptoms of actual dissolution, Ave shall briefly relate the gradual de- cay preceding this catastrophe. The human body is, from its birth, liable to continual changes, in consequence of the different vi- tal, animal, and other functions, it performs, till it attains a certain age, let us suppose that of thirty- five years, in a state of perfect health, there changes tend to im- proA-e its solidity, strength, and sprightliness, Avithout detracting from its organic vigour. Afar that period, which avc may venture to call the meridian of life, it gradu- ally declines. The smallest fibres become rigid ; the minute capil- lary vessels corrugate, eidrr.it no fluids to pass through them, and at length change into fibres ; the larger blood-vessels groAv hard and narrow ; in short, all the outlets of the body become contracted, and in a manner close ; whence the dry, shrivelled, and inflexible state of old age. Thus, the interior organs every day become more inert in performing their functions; the humours stagnate, thicken, and at length are partly converted into solids: hence the skull and other bones are much thicker in the aged than in other adults. Digestion is Aveakened; assimilation is prevent- ed; and all the animal functions are gradually impaired: the skin, that wonderful contrivance in the animal economy, ceases to perform the important offices of absorption and perspiration.....the myriads of pores are closed....theblood-\essels no longer impel the vital fluid, and are become inert as the time-piece, the spring of which has been ne- glected by the artist. At length, reduced to a state bordering on ve- getable life, in the same ratio as plants are linked to minerals, the connection that hitherto subsisted betAveen our mental and physical nature, is totally dissolved; or, in other words, death is the necessary consequence. Few persons, however, arrive at the .stage of life we have just de- scribed: by far the greater pro- portions of human beings die in their infancy, or are cut off in the bloom of life, by a long and horrid train of diseases. Besides, there are numberless accidents to which avc are daily liable; nay, all the elements Avhich surrround us, may prove, according to the use Ave make of them, either salutary or fatal....In this pLce, therefore, we shall give a concise view of the most unerring signs of death, if taken collectively ; and explain the treatment to be adopted in the dif- D E A D E A 321 ferent casualties, such as Drown- ing, &c. in the order ofthe alpha- bet. Symptoms of Death: 1. Ces- sation of the pulse ; 2. Total sup- pression of breathing; 3. Loss of animal heat; 4. Rigidity of the body, and inflexibility ofthe limbs; 5. Relaxation of the lower jaAV; 6. Inability of the eye-balls to return to their sockets, when pressed by the finger; 7. Dimness, fainlness, and sinking of the cornea, or the uppermost homy coat of the eye; 8. Foam in the cavity ofthe mouth; 9. Blue spots of various sizes, and on different parts of the body ; 10. A cadaverous smell; and, 11. Insensibility to all external stimu- lants. All these symptoms, hoAvever, if individually considered, are far from being conclusive: they then only afford a certain criterion of death, when most or all those appearances concur at the same time, especially if the 6th, 7th, and 10th of the signs be strongly marked. One of the most infallible me- thods of distinguishing apparent from real death, is that lately sug- gested by Professor Creve, of which we shall give a short ac- count, under the head of Galva- nism. Apparent Death, is that state in which life is suspended, either because the body is not susceptible of external stimuli, or the interior organs are in a state similar to that of palsy. Dr. Struve, in his Practical Es- say on the Art of recovering Sus- pended Animation," lately translated from the German (12mo. London, 1801, 3s. 6d.), exhibits the follow- ing view of all the Symptoms of Life: A slight de- VOI.. II. gree of Avarmth in the region ofthe heart, accompanied with contrac- tions and dilatations; a vibrating motion of the whole body, especi- ally after being sprinkled with cold Avater; and a convulsive tension of some muscles. Doubtful Signs : Rigidity of the limbs, gradual smoothness of the skin, Avarmth and redness in par- ticular parts ofthe body,hiccough, contraction and hissing of the nos- trils, a tremulous motion of the whole body, mucus issuing from the nose during the artificial infla- tion of the lungs, a slight conA-ul- sive motion of the mouth, and a firm compression of the teeth. More certain signs: Gentle throb- bing ofthe heart; pulsation ofthe temporal arteries; a slight convul- sive motion of the inner corner of the eye; vibration ofthe eye-ball; and almost imperceptible convul- sions of the muscles surrounding the neck. Distinct signs of Life: A gentle motion ofthe jaw; gradual redness of the lips and cheeks; contraction ofthe different muscles in the face; convulsive motions of the toes; sneezing; tremor of the whole body ; vomiting; respiration in- terrupted by coughing, and groan- ing. DEATFI-WATCH, or Termes pulsatorium, L. a small insect that harbours chiefly in old wood. It is produced from a very minute white egg, Avhich is hatched in the month of March. When these vermin first leave their shells, they are scarcely per- ceptible, Avithout the aid of a mi- croscope : from this diminutive size, they gradually acquire their perfect state, Avhen they are about 5-16ths of an inch in length, and of a dark brown, spotted colour.... T t 522 D EB DEB They are remarkable for the tick- ing noise, similar to that of a Avatch, which is made by the male and fe- male, Avhen Avooing each other. This expression of mutual affec- tion Avas formerly considered, by the superstitious, as a presage of death in the family Avhere it Avas heard; from Avhich circumstance the insect has received its name. DEBILITY, is that feeble state of life in which the vital functions are languidly performed; Avhenthe mind loses its cheerfulness and vi- vacity ; when the limbs are totter- ing Avith Aveakness, and the diges- tive faculty is impaired. This complaint, which at pre- sent is so preA'alent, even in the bloom of life, and among those who ought to form the most A-igor- <»us and robust part of a nation, may arise from a great variety of causes, of Avhich the following are the principal: 1. Descent from enfeebled parents ; 2. Changes in the admixture, and component parts of the surrounding atmos- phere ; 3. A sedentary and indo- lent mode of life ; 4. Immoderate sleep ; or, in a still more hurtful decree, Avnntof the necessary por- tion of sleep and repose; 5. Too great exertions either of mind or body ; 6. The unnccissctry and im- prudent use of medicines ; lastly, the almost total disuse, and exclu- sion of gymnastic exercise, and the general introduction of scde.n- tary games, the effect of which creates an almost universal apathy to every pursuit that requires exer- tion. Deiiiity is the source of num- erous disorders, such as spasms, palsy, violent evacuations, hemor- rhages, putrid and nervous fe- vers, fainting fits, and apparent death. The means employed for the preserving and maintaining feeble life (says Dr. Struve, in his Asthenology ; or, the Art of pre- serving Feeble Life, 8vo. 8s. 1801), are as various as the causes on which it depends, and the disor- ders with which it is generally ac- companied. The first object that claims the attention of persons in this state, is warmth ; the external application of which ought to be proportioned to the temperature of the body, and gradually augment- ed, accordingly as the natural Avarmthof the individual increases. If duly applied, gentle heat pos- sesses both stimulating* and strengthening properties, by which the activity of the vital principle is excited and supported. The com- munication of Avarmth may be con- siderably facilitated by the use of the tepid or Avarm bath, of which we haA-e already spoken. See Bath. The next, and one of the most important objects to debilitated persons, is diet; in Avhich respect much depends on their previous habits and modes of life. If they carefully attend to the peculiarities of their constitution, and observe whatever is to them salutary or hurtful, they may prolong their lives for a considerable time; pro- vided their conduct be guided by the necessary knoAvledge and ex- perience. In short,to guard against excess, and pursue a middle course, will be the best means of accom- plishing the most salutary end. Debilitated persons ought to be imperceptibly hardened ; the trans- ition to a severer and more invi- gorating course of life must be so progressive, thnt tie convalescent be not subjected to any disagree- able restraint; and this method DEB DEC 323 should likewise be continued for a sufficient length of time, during Avhich he ought never to return to his former debilitating habits. Such invalids should eat only a very small proportion of animal food, namely, Avhite meat, Avhich is least stimulating, together Avith a due quantity of the most nutri- tious vegetables. They may also partake of small portions of flesh- broth, thickened Avith sufficient bread, rice, he. to render it more nourishing and less flatulent; but they ought to abstain from fat, and milk, unless the latter be given immediately after it is drawn from the cow. If solid food cannot be allowed, or if it irritate the stomach, recourse must be had to gelatinous aliment, such as eggs, nourishing soups, Sa- lop, barley broth, shell-fish, he. which, if taken in small quantities, are exceedingly strengthening.... Persons of this description ought to accommodate their whole dress to the climate, and changes of the weather ; they should at all times endeavour to procure a middle temperature between cold and heat; for instance, from 60 to 65° of Fahrenheit's scale. Woollen clothing is, in this respect, far pre- ferable to fur; as the latter heats the body, and increases perspira- tion. Flannel, if worn next the skin, Avill preserve the human frame in a more equal temperature than is attainable by any other substance; and at the same time protect it from the hurtful influence of the two extremes. Individuals, in this state, require longer and less disturbed rest than those in perfect health and vigour. Labour and exercise, adapted to their habits and strength, will great- ly promote that desirable object; likewise the tepid bath ; a clean, and not too soft couch ; an airy, healthy, and capacious apartment; but particularly a calm and com- posed mind; Avhich last possesses a most powerful influence in'pre- serving health and life ; for, Avith- out tranquillity, -J.\ other means Avill be ineffectual. For a more particular account of the causes, symptoms, and cure of debility, Ave must refer to Dr. Struve's ela- borate work, before mentioned, in which this subject is minutely dis- cussed. Decanter : See Bottle. DECIPHERING, or Deci- phering, the art, or act of disco- A'ering the alphabet of a cypher, or of explaining a letter written in cy- phers, or secret characters. Every language has peculiar rules of deciphering, Avhich depend not only on the form of its characters, but also on the place, order, fre- quency, combination, and number of the letters. The importance of this science to politicians has long been acknoAvledged, and several ingenious philosophers of the 17th century, published profound trea- tises on this subject; but, as it would be deviating too widely from the avowed plan of this work, to enter into the theory of decipher- ing, avc can only refer the curious, who desire farther information on this head, to the 12th volume of the Gentleman's Magazine for 1742, where they will find the art of de- ciphering deduced from principles, and explained by examples in se- veral languages. It deserves to be remarked, that there is extant, in the library of Oxford, a collection of letters written in cypher, about the time of Charles the Second, and decyphered by Dr. Wallis, the most eminent scholar this conn- 224 DEE DEE trv ever produced, in that branch of mystical grammar. ? r. W. Wal- lis, a descendant of that learned divine (whose " Life and Sermons" he has lately published), is in the possession of another \oiume of Deciphered Letters, Avith their keys in various cyphers and characters ; the Avhole of a\ hich contains much information relative to the transac- tions of those times ; as the Doctor held the appointment of decypherer to that suspicious king. DEED, an instrument written on paper or parchment, which re- lates principally to the conveyance, or transferring of property, and the validity of Avhich consists in. the following essential particulars: 1. Proper parties to contract with one another, and a proper subject matter to be contracted for; 2. A good aid sufficient considera- tion; 3. Writing on parchment, or paper, duly stamped ; 4. Sufficient and legal words, properly disposed; 5. Reading (if it be desired) before execution ; 6. By stat. 29 Car. II. c. 3. in many cases signing also ; and, lastly, delivery, which must be done either by the party him- self, or by his attorney, laAvfully authorised, and expressed in the attestation. If any of these requi- sites be wanting, the deed is abso- lutely A-oid, from the beginning. The preservation of deeds is an object that has ever engaged the attention of the laAvyer and the an- tiquary : it is of still greater im- portance to those who hold estates or other tenements, in order to enable them to peruse such papers as have been kept for a series of years, and Avhich, from moisture, or other causes, are almost illegible. To facilitate this desirable object, we select the following, as being the most simple of the many re- cipes which have been recom- mended : Immerse the parchment obliterated by time, into a vessel of cold Avater, fresh draAvn from a well: in the space of a minute, it should be taken out, and pressed between two blotting papers, to prevent it from shrivelling, Avhile it is drying. As soon as it is mo- derately dry (if the characters be not legible), the operation should be repeated two or three times. Thus, the skin will resume its pris- tine colour, and appear through- out alike. DEER, the Fallow, Buck and Doe, or Cervus Dama, L. a well- known animal abounding "in the forests and parks of this country. Deer are of various colours ; be- ing reddish, deep broAvn, white, or spotted: they are easily tamed; and their flesh, which is called ve- nison, is in high esteem among epicures. It is an excellent ali- ment; but, to the Aery great detri- ment of health, venison is seldom eaten till it is half putrified, or (as connoisseurs in this important article express themselves) till it has a proper fumet; though the flesh of this animal is naturally in- clined to putrescency. When pro- perly dressed, it affords a melloAv food, and is easily assimilated to the human fluids: it ought always to be roasted or steAved, as it is otherAvise apt to become dry and fibrous, from the constant motion of the deer, while ali\Te. Hence such food is of a heating nature ; and persons who are pre-disposed to the scurvy, or to other cuta- neous diseases, ought to abstain from it, especially during the sum- mer. Deer-skins have been long cele- brated for their softness and plia- bility ; and the manufacturing of DE F them into breeches and gloves, af- fords subsistence to a very numer- ous and industrious class of people. Beside their utility, as an article of food and clothing, several parts of the deer were, in superstitious times, often employed in medicine. Their blood, if drunk immediately from the vein, (according to Doctor James, the inventor of the fever- powders), completely relieves gid- diness in the head: their gall is said to be detergent, to cure dimness of sight, and to remove films from the eyes; the liver is recommended against diarrhoeas; and their horns and suet are applied to the same purposes as those of the Stag, to which Ave refer. DEFORMITY generally signi- fies the Avant of that symmetry, and uniformity, which are necessary to constitute the beauty of an object; it is more particularly applied to the human frame. The chief cause of the personal deformity so frequent at present, is the neglect of paying proper atten- tion to the clothing of infants, by which they are deprived of the free use of their limbs ; and thus, in a great measure, rendered unservice- able to society. But, though de- formity may apparently be preju- dicial to health, it is ultimately a real advantage. Deformed persons, it is true, possess a less share of strength than others ; they should therefore be naturally more careful to preserve it, as well as their health ; which can be effected only by a strict adherence to temper- ance. This object will likeAvise be considerably facilitated by mode- rate exeroise, which feAv, in such a situation, can want strength to perform; and, as they are not cal- culated for violent exercise, they are consequently exempt from all DEW 325 the disorders arising from that source; and may thus attain a mature old age. For a further in- vestigation of this subject, Ave re- fer the reader to an ingenious es- say, intitled " Deformity," by Mr. FIay, in 8vo. published in the year 1753, and of Avhich a new edition appeared a feAv years since, col- lectively Avith his other works, in 2 volumes, 4to. where it is amply discussed. DEW is a light, thin, and trans- parent vapour, slowly exhaling and ascending from the earth, in spring and summer mornings, while the sun is below the horizon, and then deposited on vegetables, in the form of small globules. Naturalists rank elew, in general, among the numbers of watery me- teors ; some, however, term it a liquefied vapour, precipitated in drops; others, a vapour having a similar relation to frost, as rain has to siioav, Sec....It is admited, that dew cannot fall before it rises; and that its origin and matter, no doubt, is from the vapours and ex- halations of the earth and water, as will be briefly stated under the article Evaporation. That dews are more copious in spring than in any other season, arises from the greater stock of vapour collected on the surfiice of the earth, and the previous small dissipation of it during the cold and frost of the winter. Hence the truth of Pliny's remark is evi- dent, that Egypt abounds in deAVS throughout the hot part of sum- mer ; for, as the air during the day is too hot to condense the vapours, they never form clouds, and con- sequently produce no rain : thus, in climates Avhere the days are ex- cessively hot, and the nights re- markably cold, the vapours, risiwg 326 DEW before or after sunset, are readily converted into dew....In the more temperate climates, they ascend and fall in greater abundance after rain than after dry Aveather. There are some places in which deAv is observed only to rise, but never to fall; and again others, in which it is carried upward in a more consi- derable proportion than downward, on account of the prevalence of Avinds by which it is dispersed. Many whimsical properties and effects have, by the chemist, been attributed to common dew; but Ave conceive that, in its physical nature, it differs very little from rain; except, hoAvever, that the former is more subtle or penetrat- ing than the latter. Hence it will be found that the leather of shoes and boots is more thoroughly soak- ed by Avalking one hour in a dewy meadoAV, than by exposing them double that length of time to rain- water....See Leather. It is farther remarkable, that plants continually exhale dew through the orifices of their ves- sels, and that this moisture is not a vapour collected by their leaves, as has often been erroneously be- Iieved. Each plant exhales this dew, according to the peculiar structure of its organs, and the situation of their orifices. Even shut up in vessels, and covered un- der glasses, plants have collected a greater quantity of dew during the night, than those standing in the open air. Of this nature, like- wise, is the oily or honey-deAV, which is sometimes exhaled by trees, as well as herbs, during the summer, and Avhich has been found to settle on the oak, ash, &c. May-dew, is that Avhich falls in the beginning of summer, but especially in the month of May. D I A It is of a yellowish colour, and many virtues are attributed to this liquid. It is principally used for whitening linen and wax; Avhich, if exposed to it, will gradually ac- quire a beautiful white. DEW-BORN, in animal eco- nomy, a distemper to which cattle are subject: it is a swelling, or dis- tension of the body, to such a de- gree, that the creatures affected are in danger of bursting. This malady is occasioned by turning them into rank pasture, or feeding them Avith watery grasses. When they are thus distended, they ought first to be driven, or moved about briskly, and then properly purged. Should this treatment not relieve them, blood-letting in the tail Avill be necessary ; after which, the top of an egg should be broken off, and a sufficient quantity of white poured out to admit the powder of a nutmeg. These ingredients are to be well mixed, and the Avhole, together Avith the shell, forced doAvn the throat of the ani- mal, which should then be gently Avalked about; and thus it Avill speedily recover. [DIABETES, a distressing dis- ease, and very difficult of cure.... The chief symptom, is a discharge of a very great quantity of limpid sweet urine. The thirst is great, skin parched, tongue white, and moist on its exterior surface, but reddish on the external edges, sali- va Avhite, and viscid. This disease is sometimes at- tended with fever of the inflamma- tory kind, in which case the usual remedies will be proper, as small bleedings, and Ioav diet. But in general, it proceeds from a diseas- ed state of the stomach, and of the natural powers of digestion and assimilation. The cure is perform- DIA D I A 327 ed by a regimen, and medicines preventing the formation of sugar, and diminishing the increased ac- tion of the stomach. Confinement and entire abstinence,from any spe- cies of vegetable matter, a diet solely of animal food, Avith emetics, hepa- tised ammonia, narcotics, and occa- sionally the use of sulphur and cas- tor oil, when rcquisite,comprehend, the principal means employed by Dr. Rollo, the latest Avriter en the disease. Dr. Richter says, he cured an alarming case, by emetics. As- tringents, as alum, and sugar of lead, (2 gr. three times a day) have been used with success in some cases proceeding from general de- bility.] Diabetes, in farriery, denotes a profuse staling of horses : it is generally occasioned by too violent exercise, or by over-straining, Sec. When this malady attacks old hor- ses, or those of a Aveak constitu- tion, it is seldom curable ; because they rapidly lose their flesh and appetite, groAv feeble, exhibit a staring coat, and ultimately perish. On the contrary, young horses, subject to this disease, may most- ly be cured by frequent blood-let- ting, in small quantities ; and the following decoction has often been administered Avith success. Take of Peruvian bark, 4 oz.; Bistort and Totmcntil-root, of each 2 oz.; boil th.ese ingredients in two gal- lons of lime-water, till one half be evaporated : a pint of this liquor should be given three times a day ; care being taken not to indulge the horse, either with too much water, or moist food. [This disease in horses may easi- ly be distinguished from others of the kidneys, by attention to the fol- lowing symptoms : the surface of the body is cold ; the coat rough ; loss of appetite ; a constant thirst ; the animal often craving for Avater; a frequent and copious discharge from the bladder, which is not truly urinous, but of a pale colour, and an insipid, or sweetish taste ; the pulse is Aveak and quick, attended Avith a gradual wasting of the flesh. If toe disease be of a long standing, it i3 very difficult to cure. Warm mashes and clothing will be found of great service ; to which may be joined the folloAving course of me- dicine : Take Peruvian bark in fine poAv- der, 12 oz. ; gentian in powder, 3 oz. ; honey sufficient to form 16 ba'tis. One of these balls may be given every morning; and if required, the whole may be repeated. The horse should be gently exercised every cuv....Ryding.] DIAMOND, a genus of silice- ous earths, and the hardest of all the stones hitherto discovered; it is in general transparent, but is sometimes found of a rose-colour, or inclined to green, blue, yellow, or black. The most valuable diamonds are those of a complexion similar tothat of a drop of ivater : their price also increases in proportion to the re- gularity of their form, and accord- ingly as they are free from spot?, stains, flaws, specks, and cross veins. Diamonds are found chiefly in India and South America, whence they are brought to Europe in a rough state, in the form of round- ish pebbles Avith shining surfaces. There is, hoAvever, a kind of dia- monds, Avhich are but little esteem- ed, found in various parts of Eu- rope, and also in this country, in the county of Cornwall, where they are called Cornish diamonds. These 328 D I A may, with more propriety, be term- ed crystals ; they are found in dig- ging the tin-mines of Cornwall, and are, in general, bright and clear, except towards the root, where they are coarse, and assume a whitish colour. It is remarkable that genidne dia- monds, Avhen exposed to the rays of the sun, attract light, which they again emit, and appear lumin- ous in the dark. The largest jeAV- el of this description, in the Avorld, is at present in the royal treasury of Portugal: it is of an oval figure, measures about 4 inches by 3, Aveighs 1680 carats, or 12-1 ounces, and is valued at 224 millions ster- ling. Independently ofthe purposes to which the diamond is subservient as an ornament, especially in the dress of females, the smaller par- ticles of it have, since the 16th century, been employed for cutting glass ; and when reduced to an im- palpable powder, are very useful for polishing other precious stones, as well as for engraving on those which possess an inferior degree of hardness. For the valuation of diamonds of all weights, Mr. D. Jefferies, an ingenious jeweller, who published a treatise on diamonds and pearls, several years since, lays doAvn the following rule : He first supposes the value of a rough diamond to be settled at 21. per carat, at a medi- um ; then, to find the value of dia- monds of greater Aveight, he directs to multiply the square of their weight by 2, and the product is the value required. On this principle, Mr. Jefferies has constructed ta- bles of the price of diamonds from 1 to 1000 carats, which the curi- ous reader will find in the work be- DI A fore mentioned, of which a new edition appeared a few years since, in 8vo. price 12.?. DIARRHOEA, or Looseness, is a frequent and copious evacua- tion of liquid excrement by stool. This malady is very common, being either a primary disease, or onlyasymptom or effect of another. In many cases it is a salutary effort of nature, and therefore should nev- er be stopped, unless it continue too long, or evidently Aveaken the pa- tient. Infants, adults of tender and delicate constitutions, and those Avho are of a choleric, or a sanguine habit, are peculiarly liable to this disorder, which may be occasion- ed by too great a quantity of ali- ment being taken into the stomach; by the acrid or flatulent nature of the food ; by an impaired state of digestion ; by various passions of the mind ; by diseases of other parts, or of the general system.... Many other causes might be enu- merated, but these -will be sufficient to shew the propriety of not at- tempting to adopt, in this instance, an uniform mode of treatment. Where looseness is occasioned by excess, or repletion, or from improper food, a gentle emetic may be safely administered, as it will not only cleanse the stomach, but promote all the secretions. The patient ought then chiefly to live on light vegetable dishes, and to drink Avhey, thin gruel, or barley- Avater. If a diarrhoea be the con- sequence of violent passions, or affections of the mind, it requires to be treated Avith the utmost cau- tion. Very mild laxatives, some- times gentle opiates, and other an- tispasmodics, are in such cases the most proper; particular care ought to be taken, to restore cheerfulness, DIB DIB 329 and tranquillity of mind; as, Avith- out this, medicines will be of little or no service. Those persons, who, from pecu- liar weakness, or too great an ir- ritability of the bowels, are liable to periodical or frequent returns of this disease, ought to live with a constant regard to temperance, and avoid all crude summer fruit, and provision of difficult digestion..... They should, likewise, strictly guard against cold, moisture, or whatever may tend to obstruct per- spiration ; Avear flannel next their skin ; and carefully avoid every inducement to the depressing pas- sions of fear, anger, &c. Nutritive drinks, such as broths, gruel, &c. with an addition of rice, or toasted bread, may be taken freely; but, beyond these, the patient should not venture Avithout medical aid, unless he be able clearly to ascer- tain the cause on ivhich his com- plaint depends....See Bile. DIBBLE, or Dibber, a simple but useful implement in gardening, for the purpose of setting out young plants, Sec. Within these few years, it has been employed for dibbling wh-at, and the whole process con- sists in making perpendicular holes an inch and a half or two inches deep, in the same manner as is usually done in planting potatoe- roots. These holes are made by a man who has a proper staff, shod Avith iron, in each hand; and, as he Avalks backwards, is able, by looking at the part of the toav al- ready formed, to keep nearly in a strait line, and to make two holes at once, about four inches distant from set to set in the rows. Two VOL. II. or more children attend him, and drop, two, three, or four seeds into every hole, which ,are afterwards covered by drawing over them what is called a bush-harrow. This method is deservedly con- sidered one of the greatest im- provements in agriculture. It ap- pears to have originated from the planting of grain in a garden, from mere curiosity, by persons whoneU ther designed, nor had any oppor- tunity of extending it to a lucra- tive purpose. Nor Avas it attempt- ed on a larger scale, till an indus- trious farmer, in the vicinity of Norwich, began to dibble on less than an acre of land. The success .of this experiment induced others to follow this example, and not- withstanding the ridicule they in- curred for adopting so singular a practice, their crops were not only larger, but likewise so much su- perior to those of others, that dib- bling has become the practice of every intelligent agriculturist in Norfolk, whence it has spread into several other counties. From a conclusive experiment made by the Rev. H. J. Close, of Trimley, near IpsAvichtin the years 1783-4, it appears, that drilling, or dibbling, greatly exceeds the broad- cast husbandry, on the best cultivat- ed soils; and, besides the increased produce of grain, many other ad- vantages arise from the former me- thod. For instance, it employs a greater number of labourers, espe- cially women and children that cannot be serviceable in the com- mon mode of culture. Mr. Close employed the following frame fop setting Avheat: U u 230 DIB DIE This implement is two feet tAvo inches Avide, and provided with se- ven tines; but Mr. C. has since experienced that a frame of similar Avidth, with five tines only, is pre- ferable to one of seven. The lands on which this method may be practised with the greatest adA-antage, are either those after a clover stubble, or where trefoil and grass-seed were soAvn in the spring before the last. These, after the usual manuring, are once turned over by the plough in an extended flag or turf, at ten inches Avide, and the Avheat is set in the manner already described. By this mode, three pecks of grain are sufficient for an acre ; Avhich, being imme- diately buried, is equally secured against the depredations of vermin, or the poAver of frost. The regu- lar manner in Avhich it rises, af- fords the best opportunity of keep- ing it clear from noxious plants, by Aveeding cr hand-hoeing. Dibbling is peculiarly beneficial Avhen corn is dear; and, if the season be favourable, may be prac- tised with great benefit, both to the public and the farmer : as it saves •F.x pecks of seed-Avheat per acre ; uixl, if generally adopted, v. ould of itself aiTord bread for more than half a million of people. It should, hoAvever, be observed, that in sea- sons Avhen com is sold at a low price, or the autumn unfavorable to the practice, it cannot be prac- tised with, advantage. Thus, in light lands, a very dry season pre- vents dibbling, because the holes Avill be filled up as soon as the in- strument is withdrawn. In like manner, on strong and stiff clays, if it be very wet, the seeds in the holes cannot be properly covered by the bush-harroAV. These two extremes, hoAvever, seldom hap- pen ; nor do they affect lands of a moderately consistent texture, or both light and heavy soils at the same time ; so that they never pre- clude the general adoption of this useful and rational mode of saving seed-corn. DIET, in animal economy, a re- gimen or course of living, adapted both for the preservation of health, and its recovery, especially from chronical diseases. The dietetic treatment ought to be conformable to the different consti- tutions of individuals. Those whose solids are relaxed and Aveak, should avoid all tough or viscid food, and such as is difficult to be digest- ed. Their nutriment, however, ought to be substantial; and they should take frequent exercise in the open air. The plethoric, or those Avho abound with blood, can- not more effectually consult their health, than by a sparing use of whatever is in a high degree nou- rishing, as fat-meat, rich wines, strong ale, Sec. Their aliment should consist chiefly of bread, or other vegetables, and their drink of Avater, Avhey, or small beer.... See Corpulency. Persons of a lean habit ought to follow a course directly opposite to D IE that before suggested. Those who are troubled with acidity, should live chiefly on solid meat ; and those afflicted with hot alkaline eructations, should principally use acid vegetables. Invalids subject to the gout, to low spirits, to hy- pochondriac, or hysteric disorders, should avoid all flatulent food, as also all salted, or smoke-dried pro- visions, and whatever is difficult of digestion, or apt to turn sour and rancid on the stomach. Their food should be light, spare, cool, and of an opening nature. Another important object to be considered, is the manner of life and age, together with the Season and constitution. Those whose incli- nation, business, or profession lead them to a sedentary life, ought to be more sparing as to the e/uantity, and more attentive to the quality of their aliment, than others whose pursuits are Avidely different, or who are accustomed to take much exercise : the former ought parti- cularly to avoid the use of every thing that is sour, flatulent, rancid, and oppressive to the digestive or- gans. Persons liable to particular dis- eases, should be cautious in eating whatever tends to aggravate them. The gouty, for instance, should avoid drinking rich wines, strong soups, or acids. Those Avho are subject to the gravel, ought to shun all austere and astringent aliments: nor should the scorbutic indulge in animal food. The aliment in early life ought to be light, nourishing, and ta- ken frequently, but in moderation : that of adults should be solid, and sufficiently tenacious ; the diet pro- per for those advanced in life, should resemble that of infancy.... At every period of life, gluttony DIE 331 ought to be sedulously avoided; for, not unlike too great abstinence, it destroys the powers of digestion ; but the moderate repetition cf ali- ment is necessary for restoring the continual waste of the body. Diet ought also to be regulated according to the different seasons of the year; because variations in the atmosphere produce corres- ponding changes in animal bodies. In consequence of the increased elasticity of the air, in the winter, the fibres are stronger, and better qualified for performing their vari- ous functions, and for digesting the stronger kinds of food. If there be no paticular reason for the con- trary, generous wines, and whole- some ale, together -with warm broths and infusions, may be then taken, to promote the insensible perspiration, which ii in some de- gree checked; as the cold air re- markably contracts the cutaneous pores. Some attention should also be paid to this circumstance, that the perspiration bear a due propor- tion to the liquid and solid nutri- ment consumed. In the spring, the quantity of food ought to be somewhat dimi- nished, and an additional alloAvance of the liquor usually drunk, might be granted. In autumn, similar regulations are to be observed, as in the spring; because the mois- ture and density ofthe air are near- ly the same, and the Aveather is equally variable; so that perspira- tion is easily obstructed. During the summer, health may be most effectually preserved by vegetables, and diluent liquors. Considerable care should be taken to abstain from provisions that are heavy and diffi- cult to be digested, but especially from wine and brandy. The Teeble and convalescent 332 DIE D IE ought to eat frequently, and but little at a time: the number of meals should be proportioned to the weakness of their frame:....for it is far less hurtful to a debilitat- ed person, to eat a few mouthfuls every hour, than to make two or three hearty meals in one day : an exception, however, ought to be made Avith respect to those who are naturally of a delicate and irri- table constitution.....See Food and Drink. Family-Diet. After the vari- ous and successful experiments made by Count Rumford, and others, Avho have Avritten on do- mestic economy, little novelty can be expected in this article; but as the present work might be consi- dered as incomplete, without some information on this important sub- ject, we have selected a few prac- tical hints Avhich appear to merit particular attention. Dr. Lettsom lias observed...... (" Hints designed to promote Bene- ficence, Temperance, and M dical Science," 8\o. \7>7), that pies are more advantageous than either rna.?leti or boiled meat. Ttiis he illustrates by an account of a din- ner, where eigh' persons Avere com- pletely dined off a pye. consisti^.g of 2ioz. of wheaten flour, 64 of mutton, and eaten wnh 8A o,z. of bread; weighing in the whole 961 oz. while 60 oz. of mutton roast- ed, and eaten with 33 oz. of bread, weighing in the Avhoie J2 oun- ces, dined only five of the same persons. Milk pottage is far more Avhole- some than tea with bread and but- ter; and, if made after the follow- ing manner, is in many respects preferable to milk alone: Let equal qualities of milk r.nd water be boiled up Avith a little o itmeal, which will break the viscidity of the milk, and be at the same time more easily digested than the latter in an undiluted state. Besides, oatmeal is a much warmer nourish- ment than wheaten flour, and agrees better with weak stomachs. Potatoes, if properly boiled, are an excellent and nutritious food. Particular care ought to be taken that they be good, and nearly all of the same size; the larger and small- er ones should, therefore, be boiled separately. They must be washed clean, Avithout paring or scraping, and put into a pot with cold water, but not sufficient to cover them; for their oavii juice will supply the apparent aeficiency. If the roots be of a larger size, as soon as they begin to boil, some cold water should be poured in, and occasion- ally repeated, till they are boiled through to the centre: otherwise they will crack and burst on the outside, while the inside will re- main half ra\y. During the time of boiling, a little salt should be ad- ded, and the sIoaa er they are cooked, the better will be their flavour. As soon as potatoes are done, the Wi ter should be poured off, and the roots re-placed over the fire, in or- der that their moisture may evapo- rate, and they I tccme dry and mealy; in which state they may be served up, v.hfo.ut being pre- viously peeled. This method of boiling or stewing potatoes, is in every re.-pect superior to that of steaming, as by the former pro- cess they may be dressed in a shor- ter time, and -will retain no mois- ture. Potatoes may be made into pud- dings, which will both prove an agreeable chenge of food, and he at the same time uncommonly nu- triticus. Dr. Lettsom directs 12 oz. of potatoes, boiled, skimmed, and mashed; one oz. of suet, and D IE DIG 333 an equal quantity of milk and cheese, to be mixed together Avith boiling Avater to a due consistence, and baked. An ounce of red-her- ring may be occasionally substituted for the cheese, and will give the pudding a flavour which is relished by many....See Potator.c. Barley-broth is an Avholesome and nourishing dish; which, as it may be made with almost every kind of garden vegetable, is never out of season. Onions, leeks, and parsley, generally constitute pin-: of the ingredients, to which may be added cabba ,e, or greens, tur- nips, carrots, and pen s. These are to be mixed with 4 quarts of water, 4 pounds of beef with the bones, 4 oz. of common barley-meal, and stcAved together for tAvo hours, i* when the herbs may be added, be- ing previously cut small, and like- Avise a small quantity of sah. The v. hole should then boil till it be ten- der, and the fat skimmed off or not, at pleasure. Onions or leeks should never be om.Ued. There is another article of do- mestic economy Avhich is usually classed under the name of Pot '-ige, for the making of which we have subjoined one or two recipes: 1. Take 3lbs. of the sticking piece of beef, a part of the skin, or any coarse piece. Boil it in eleven quarts of water for two hours; then add a pound of Scotch barky, and boil it four hours longer, Avhen 6lbs. of potatoes may be added, and half a pound of onions, together with a small proportion of thyme, pep- per, and salt. With these may be mixed other vegetables, and l.tif a pound of bacon cut into small pieces. The whole should be boil- ed over a slow fire, that it mre- acquire a proper consistence. It will yield three gallons of excel- lent and nutritious pottage, and has been found amply sulleient for twenty soldiers, w'nnout bread; the nature of the food not requiring any. The expence of this Avas a feAv years ago about 2d. per. head; but, at the present advanced price of provisions, Avould at Last be dou- ble. 2. Take of beef 1 pound, pota- toes 2!bs. Scotch barley, one-third ib. a similar quantity of onions, to- gether Avitb a small proportion of salt and pepper, and 3 oz. of bacon. rj he whole expence of these ingre- dients will be about ISd. Let them be wed boiled in a due quantity of Avater, and they will afford nutri- ment sufficient to dine and sup' three persons, without requiring ei- ther bread or beer. Messes, or pottages like these, are doubtless far preferable to the common dishes, consisting of fat bacon and cabbage, Avith Avhich a considerable quantity of bread and beer are always consumed. We, therefore, seriously recommend the adoption of such or similar mea- sures of prudent frugality, to all chi.ises of society, especially at the present period, when all the neces- saries of life have, partly from real, and partly from artificial scarcity, been raised to an exorbitant price. Those benevolent minds who feel an interest in this useful enquiry, Ave are obliged to refer to the " Reports of the Soci> ty for increas- ing the comforts, end bettering ihe con.eli ion of the Poor," where they will find the subject minutely dis- cussed, and many g-o'.s, though common, errors in domestic eco- nomy ably exposed. Die ESTER, an instrument serving to dissoh'e solid rnimal sub- stances, in a manner similar to that performed by the slouuicIi. This 334 DIG D IG Vessel was invented by Papin : after putting meat into it, together with a sufficient quantity of Avater, a lid is closely screwed on, so as to admit no external air. By a mo- derate fire, the meat will, in the course of six or eight minutes, be reduced to a perfect pulp : by aug- menting the heat ofthe fire, or ex- tending the time of digestion, the hardest bones may be converted into a pulp or jelly. This effect is produced by the most perfect clo- sure of the vessel, Avhich prevents the access or escape of air, so that the reverberations occasioned by the expansion of the aerial fluid, dissolve the whole into an uniform body, and mix the aqueous, saline, oleaginous, and other particles so strongly together, that they can- not be easily separated ; but, while hot, appear one liquor, and, when cold, form a jelly, of a strength proportionate to the quantity of flesh or bones dissolved in the Avater. This useful instrument has not been hitherto applied to culinary purposes ; though within the last two years an imperfect imitation of it has been vended in the shops ; and we state with satisfaction, that even the latter is incomparably more economical than the various kinds of steAv-pans formerly em- ployed. Cast-iron digesters are now manufactured, of various sizes and prices. We understand that the most complete articles of this description may be had of Messrs. Jackson andMosER, Dean-street, Sobo ; or of Mr. Downer, Fleet- street, London; both of Avhom have, Ave believe, obtained patents for their improvements in this va- luable culinary utensil. DIGESTION, in animal eco- nomy, signifies the dissolution of food taken into the stomach, in order to supply the continual Joss sustained by perspiration, the dif- ferent functions, or by exercise. As soon as the food is taken into the mouth, it is first broken and divided by the teeth, being at the same time moistened with a liquor supplied by the salival glands, and consequently formed into a kind of paste. Thus prepared, it passes into the stomach to ferment; a process which is effected, 1. By the salival and gastric juices, Avhich have an effect on aliment similar to that of leaven, or yeast, on dough ; 2. By the vital heat of the stomach and viscera of the abdo- men ; 3. By the remains of food, Avhich adhere to the folds of the stomach, and there become acid and acrimonious ; 4. By the agita- tion arising from the pressure of the abdomen, and the continual pulsation of the contiguous blood- vessels ; 5. By the liquor which the repeated compression of those muscles causes to be discharged from the glands of the stomach : and, lastly, by air itself, which be- ing mixed with alimentary matter, dilates by the heat of the stomach, and separates the particles of food, which, from the concurrence of these causes, are converted into chyle. From the stomach, the chyle descends into the intestines, where it incorporates with the blood; which, by its volatile nature, toge- ther Avith the saline and nitrous parts of the air, subtilizes the ali- ment, and perfects its digestion. These poAvers, however, are fre- quently impeded, or Aveakencd, from a variety of causes, too mi- nute to be specified here, but Avhich Avill be occasionally mentioned in DIN their alphabetical series. See In- digestion. [Digitalis. See Fox-glove.] DIMNESS of sight, in far- riery, a disorder in horses proceed- ing from blood-shotten eyes. If the eye-ball be sound, a cure may be effected by keeping the horse warm, Avith a linen hood fitted to his head, and by anointing his eyes twice a-day with a composition of sugar-candy, honey, andAvhite rose- water. In tAvo or three days, the eyes will be Avell; after which the creature should be blooded. In the progress of this malady, blis- ters generally rise on the eye, which it would be dangerous to touch, as they will gradually dis- appear on the recovery of the ani- mal. See Sight. DINNER, a very significant term in domestic economy, as it ex- presses the principal meal, or that Avhich should be eaten about the middle of the day. Although most nations which aspire to civilization, have adopted the custom of taking meals at cer- tain hours of the day, and espe- cially the dinner, yet such practice does not appear to be consonant with the just principles of animal economy, or w ith a critical regard to health. In the present artif^ial state of society, however, it would probably be attended Avith many inconveniences, to infringe upon the established order ; and to resort to the table, only when Ave are in- duced to take food, in consequence ofthe cravings ol anatured appetite. But those who are in any degree acquainted Avith the structure ofthe digestive organs, will readily agree with us, that the activity of the stomach, in healthy individuals, is never totally suspended, either du- ring profound sleep, or the most DIR 335 intense application to study. And as the whole process of digestion and assimilation is, according to the most attentive observers, per- formed in about four hours, if the stomach has not been unnaturally distended by superfluous food, it follows that it is contrary to the order of nature, to SAvalloAv a larger cmantity of provisions, at one meal, than Ave are able to digest during that time. On the other hand, it will be objected, that the plan, of a more regular division of meals could not, without difficulty, be adopted by those who have been insensibly ac- customed to take such portions of food as serves them for the support of the whole, or greater part of the day. This frivolous argument, however, will not influence the de- termination of judicious persons, who value their health, and abhor gluttony. Hence we venture to recommend to those Avho are dis- posed to habits of temperance and frugality, but especially to the in- valid and convalescent, instead of eating one hearty dinner in tAventy- four hours, to divide the Avhole into three or four moderate meals, to be taken at intervals of four or five hours :....this arrangement will be more consistent w ith the rules of Nature and of Reason. [DIRCA PALUSTRIS, Lea- ther Avood. This is a Ioav shrub, and native of the United States, growing in moist shady places, seldom rising more than four feet high, spreading into a head, with many small and very flexible branches. The flow- ers are produced at the extreme ends of the former years' shoots; they are of an herbaceous colcur, and make a tolerable appearerce. The Hewers, which appear the 336 D I S DIS latter end cf March, before any perfect leaves, are of a yellow co- lour. The bark is uncommonly tough, yet the enclosed wood is very brittle. It was highly valued by the Native Indians, and used in the ple.ce of cords. This plant, accord- ing to the information of Mr. W. Bartham, occupies an extensive range of territory, from Canada to Georgia,] DISCOUNT, in commerce, a term employed by traders, mer- chants, and bankers; especially by the two former, when they pur- chase commodities on the usual time of credit, and on condition that the seller allow the buyer a certain discount at the rate of so much per cent, per annum, for the time dur- ing which credit is generally given; provided the buyer pay ready mo- ney for such commodities, instead of taking the usual time of credit. Traders and merchants, also, who frequently take promissory notes for money due and payable to them or to their order at a cer- tain date, and who sometimes have occasion for the money before the time elapses, procure these notes to be discounted by bankers before the time of payment, so that the latter deduct the interest which will become due by the time such notes are payable. Bills of exchange are discounted by bankers on similar terms; which indeed constitute a considerable article ofthe profits of bankin; ....See Interest. DISEASE, is that condition of the body, in which it has declined from a state of health, so that its different functions are either great- ly impeded, or performed with dif- ficulty. Of all organized creatures, man is subject to the greatest diversity of diseases : some impairing only the use of the part immediately affected; for instance, the palsy, gout, rheumatism, &c. ; others dis- ordering the Avhole body, such as fever, apoplexy, Sec; again,others disturbing the mind, as delirium, melancholy, and the like ; and last- ly, some attack both mind and bo- dy, such as frenzy, accompanied Avith fever. Without perplexing the reader with conjectures on the origin and propagation Qf diseases, Ave may observe, that in proportion as men associate together in large and po- pulous places, their manners and habits become more refined; Avhile they gradually degenerate in bodily strength, and energy of mind, so that they are less capable of resist- ing the noxious agency of the ele- ments, and other external powers. This progress toAvards refinement is ahvays attended Avith an increase of luxury, the painful effects of which are sooner or later expe- rienced by its votaries. Luxury, indeed, has also afforded the means of lessening the sudden influence of cold, heat, rain, moisture, and other external causes ; for we can occasionally guard against their se- verity ; but, on their next return, we are liable to be acted upon Avith additional vehemence. To this state of things we OAve the intro- duction of many articles, both of food and dress, the consequences of which too frequently prove to be injurious to our bodily welfare. Thus it may be safely affirmed, that the number and variety of diseases, in a great measure depend upon the prevailing refinements in the extensive department of luxury. The passions are another fruitful source of disorders. Man is per- haps more violently attacked, and more obstinately governed, by D I S D I S 337 them than any other creature. These emotions variously affect the human body: the most hurtful and oppressive of them, hoAvever, are terror and grief; the former in particular is often attended Avith the most fatal effects. The reme- dies to Avhich we resort during the prevalence of passion, too fre- quently lay the foundation of lin- gering disorders, both mental and corporeal, in Avhich medicine can afford but precarious relief. The last source of diseases to Avhich we shall allude, is a variety of specific contagions; the greater part of which is probably generated in the atmosphere. Such is parti- cularly the case with respect to air that is vitiated by putrid, marshy, or noxious vapours, and by the un- wholesome effluvia of various ma- nufacturing processes, especially those of combustion, fermentation, and putrefaction. Lastly, there is another and very numerous class of contagious maladies, that per- petually migrate from one indivi- dual to another, such as the small- pox, measles, hooping-cough, in- fluenza, putrid fevers, he. of which Ave shall treat in their alphabetical places....See also Contagion and Ixfection. EvTery disease Aveakens the di- gestive poAvers. The diet ought therefore in all cases to be light and easy of digestion. Paying due attention to this circumstance alone, Avithout having recourse to those pernicious nostrums and pretended specifics, now in general circula- tion, will in a very great measure contribute to the recovery of the patient. Medicines are doubtless of considerable utility, when pro- perly and opportunely administer- ed ; but an indiscriminate use of vol. ii. drugs (such as prevails among the ignorant and fanciful), cannot fail to be productive of the worst con- sequences....See Chronical Dis- eases. Diseases of Plants are di- vided by Tournefort into the following classes : 1. Those Avhich arise from too great an abundance of sap ; 2. From having too little ; 3. From its bad qualities; 1. From its unequal distribution ; and 5. From external accidents. An abundance of sap causes plants to vegetate so luxuriantly, that they seldom arrive at the re- quisite degree of perfection. Wheat is in some climates subject to a dis- ease of this nature, in consequence of excessive vegetation, Avithout producing ripe grain. Such a de- fect .ay likewise be artificially in- duced, by planting any species of corn in too rich a soil :....too much rain will be attended with a similar effect. When a vegetable is sup- plied too abundantly with juices, it is very apt to rot; one part of it overshadowing the other, so as to prevent the access of fresh air, for Avant of which it prematurely un- dergoes putrefaction. In grasses, however, (fescue excepted), or in any herbaceous plant, too great luxuriance, so far from being a dis- ease, is a very desirable property. According to Dr. Home (" Prin- ciples of Agriculture and Vegeta- tion") dung is a great preventive of diseases, arising from abundant moisture. The want of nourish- ment in plants may be easily ascer- tained by their decay ; in which case the only remedy is, to remove from theii Aicinity such vegetables (and particularly Aveeds), as im- pede the growth of those we are desirous to cultivate. X X 338 D I S DI S The bad qualities, or unequal distribution of the juices of plants, occasion but feAV diseases Avhich affect vegetables in this country, so that they are principally liable to external accidents, especially to the depredations of insects, such as snails, caterpillars, grubs and flies, to which we refer. See also Bee- tle, Chafer, Crab, and Corn- Butterely. The diseases which our garden- ers chiefly observe, are : 1. Barrenness ; when the tree, though apparently fresh and heal- thy, bears no blossoms; or, if it produce any, they soon fall; or, should they set, the fruit drops, be- fore it arrives at maturity. 2. Blasting of the budHfii/ti <■ '■ F.,i/ji.„,y/, 4tfr DRI D R I 373 acres in a day ; the rows being at the distance of 20 inches. The next contrivance, is that of the ingenious Mr. Arthur Young, whose indefatigable labours iu pro- moting agriculture, are too Avell known to require our encomium. In the common drill-ploughs, there are generally tAvo or three barrels, with corresponding hoppers, or re- ceptacles for seed, through which it is committed to the ground. Such an arrangement renders them ne- cessarily complex ; and to obviate the defect resulting from it, Mr. Young has two divisions in the bar- rel, and tAvo corresponding ones in the hopper, which are more sim- ple, and doubtless preferable to moveable boards. In his drill- plough the Avhole machinery is fix- ed, yet he soavs with it single toavs at any distance, double ones at tAvo feet, or three rows at one foot; relinquishing the other powers of mechanism, to render the plough in all its parts stronger, and more steady. It is likewise calculated for the stiffest soil; and Mr. Young adds, that it will even deposit seed in drills cut through a clay field, without any previous ploughing.... For a more detailed account of this excellent machine, Ave refer our readers to, the 3d vol. of " Annals of Agriculture," p. 240, w here it is fully described and illustrated with an engraving. The expence of this implement, when complete, is about seven guineas and a half, if made of iron ; if of Avood, it may be es- timated at four. [Dr. Willich describes and represents the Rev. Mr. Cooke's drill machinery, but acknowledges that it is too complicated. It was intended to soav wheat, but the edi- tor has been informed that it is but little used, eA'en in England, Avhere it Avas inventc !. In this country, it certainly Avould not be used. A model of the ponderous machine, was imported some years since, by • the Agricultural Sonet / of Phila- e'riph-a, and no doubt, is still to be found. Under the article Turnip, acon- vtnient and very simple drill will be described, which may be used for any kind of seeds, by merely changing the seed box.] Description of the Plates represent- ing Dr. Darwin's improvement of the Drill-pluiiPh. Plate I. Fig. I, a, a, are the shafts for the horse, fixed to the centre of the axle tree, by a sim- ple universal joint at z, from which, if the horse move in an oblique course, either spontaneously, or designedly, to avoid trampling the rows of corn, in hoeing, the per- son guiding the plough behind, may keep the coulters in any di- rection at pleasure : b, b, are shafts or handles behind, for the man who attends the drill coulters or hoes: these handles are applied to the axle-tree before, and have a trans- verse piece about 6 inches from the latter at 5-, g, in order to sup- port the seed-box (Fig. 2.)....At the distance of about one foot be- hind this, there is another cross piece at c, c, called the coulter- beam, which is about 4 feet 2 inches long, 6 inches wide, and 2 inches thick : it is perforated with 2 sets of square holes, each set consist- ing of six, to receive the coulters in drill ploughing, and the hoes in horse hoeing. The light square holes are 9 inches distant, and are designed to receive the coulters, or hoes in the cultivation of wheat, the rows of 374 D R I which are to.be 9 inches apart: the six dark square holes are 7 in- ches from each other, for the re- ception of the coulters or hoes in the cultivation of barley, the rows of Avhich are to be at'the distance of only 7 inches. This coulter- beam has likewise 6 circular holes at one end, and 6 round iron sta- ples fixed into the edge of the other part of it: into these are in- serted the ends of the tin flues, Avhich intersect each other, and con- vey the seed from the bottom of the box into the drills or furrows, when the coulters are properly ar- ranged in the square holer.. The person guiding the machine can raise these coulters, or hoes, out of the ground, Avhen passing to or from the field, or in turning at the end of the land ; and may thus sus- pend them on the iron springs d, d, whir;;, at the same time fix the shafts to the a>:letree, so that the Avheels will foiloAV in a similar di- rection Avith the horse....', e, are wheels, four feet in diameter ; up- on the nave of one of which is a cast-iron wheel at/./, to turn the axis of the seed-box, v/hich has a similar Avheel, but only one-fourth of its diameter, so that the axis of the seed-box revolves four times to one revolution of the wheel. Fig. 2, is the seed-box, consist- ing of boards about 1 inch thick, 48 inches in length within,- 12 in depth, of a similar Avidth at the top, and 6 inches wide at the bottom. It is divided into six compartments for the reception of grain, and ought to have a cover with hinges, to exclude the rain. This box is to be placed partly over, and paitiy before the axle-tree ofthe machine, as delineated at g, g, in Fig. 1. Beneath the seed-box passes a wooden cylinder at h, h, the cir- D RI cumference of which, is excavated for the reception of grain from the six cells marked /, m, n, o, p, q ; and for conveying it to the six oblique tin flues, i, i, which inter- sect each other, as represented in Plate I. Fig. 2. By this reciprocal crossing, the seed-flues are design- ed to increase the length of the inclined surface on which the seed descends, in order that, if six or eight grains be delivered at the same time, they may so separate by their friction, when descending, that they cannot be sown together on the same spot, Avhich might occasion tussocks of corn. As these seed-flues intersect each other before they pass through the coulter-beam at c, c, (Plate I. Fig. 1), it became necessary to make 3 of the circular holes, at one end of the coulter-beam, more backward than those at the other ; and, there- fore to use iron staples or rings at one end, instead of perforations, as at w, w, (Fig. 1.) These tin flues deliver the seed into the small furrows, or drilb, which are made by the coulters before them. The seed-flues have a joint at z, z, where one part of the tin tubes slides into the other part, by which means the former can be occasion- ally shortened'or lengthened, in or- der to adapt them to the coulters, Avhen placed 7 inches apart, for sowing barley ; or, at the distance of 9 inches, for sowing Avheat. In the bottom of tiiis seed-box are 6 holes, one in each compartment, for conveying the corn into the ex- cavations of the cylinder, revolving beneath them. These holes are provided, on the descending side, as the cylinder revolves, with a strong brush of bristles, about \ of an inch in length, which press hard on the tin cylinder. The holes D RI D R I 375 in the bottom of the seed-box, on the ascending side of the revolving cylinder, are furnished Avith apiece of strong leather (such as is used for the soles of shoes,) Avhich rubs' upon that side of the cylinder ; by which means the corn, of whatever kind, is exactly delivered, while the axis is revolving, Avithout a single grain being cut, or bruised. Fig. 3, is the iron axis, and wooden cylinder beneath the seed- box. An iron bar is first made, about 4 feet 6 inches long, and I inch square, the weight of which ought to be about 15lbs. it is cover- ed with Avood, so as to form a cy- linder 4 feet in length, and 2 inches in diameter, represented at r, r, in this figure. The use of the iron bar in the centre of the wood, is to prevent it from warpim-, a circum- stance of great importance. This wooden cylinder passes beneath the seed-box, and has a cast-iron cog-' Avheel at one end of its axis, as at r, r, which is one-fourth of the dia- meter of the correspondent cast- iron wheel, fixed on the nave ofthe carriage-Avheel, as in Fig. 1,/,/, so that the axis of the seed-box re- volves 4 times during one revolu- tion ofthe carriage Avheels. In the circumference of this wooden cylinder are excavated four lines of holes, consisting of six in each line, as at n, n, n,n, n, n. A similar line of excaA'ations is made opposite to these, on the other side of the cylinder, and between these are two other roAvs of holes, amounting in the whole to tAventy- four excavations in the wooden part of the axis beneath the seed-box, for the purpose of receiving and conveying the corn from the seed- cells into the flues e, o, i, i, (Fig. 2), while the axis is revolving: in which respect this improvement of Dr. Daravin bears some analogy to the original desrgn of the cele- brated Mr* Tull.' These excavations are one inch in length, half an inch in width, and three-eighths of an inch in depth, which dimensions are too large for any seeds employed at present in large quantities, except beans; but but Avhich may be contracted to any dimensions required, by mov- ing the cylinder over the Avooden one, as will be immediately ex- plained. Fig. 4, A, B, represents a tin cy- linder one inch longer Avithin, than the Avooden cylinder on the iron axis at Fig. 3 : it is 2 inches in dia- meter Avithin, so as exactly to fit the Wooden cylinder, which may slide within it about an inch back- wards or forwards....C, D, are tAvo square sockets of tin, fixed on the ends ofthe tin cylinder to fit on the "square part of the iron axis, pass'mg through the Avooden cylinder at/,/, Fig. 3, on which they slide one inch, as before. The following directions for per- forating the holes, both in the tin and Avooden cylinders, Avhich are mutually to correspond, Dr. Dar- avin recommends to be strictly at- tended to. 1. When the tin cylinder is sol- dered longitudinally, aid one end of it is thus fixed, as at A, six holes ought to be made through it, length- wise, on its four opposite sides ; each bole must be exactly one half of an inch in Avidth, and 5-8ths of an inch in length, Avhich should be parallel to that of the cylinder. The centre of the first of these holes ought to be five inches dis- tant from the closed end A; and that ofthe second hole, eight inches t apart from the centre of the first; and the others in the same propor- 376 D R I DRI tion, till six holes are made longi- tudinally along the cylinder. Ano- ther line of six similarJrioles is then to be made on the opposite side of the cylinder ; and after that, two other such lines between the former; the number of holes amounting in the Avhole to 24, the dimensions of all which should be exactly observed, as Avell as their distances. 2. The wooden cylinder, fixed on the axis, is now to be introduced into that of tin, so as to leave the exact space of one inch void, at the closed end A; when the size of all these apertures through the tin cylinder (each of Avhich is exactly half an inch in width, and 5-eighths of an inch in length,) should be carefully marked with a fine point on the Avooden cylinder, which ought not to be previously exca- vated. 3. The 24 holes, thus marked on the wooden cylinder, are hoav to be excavated precisely 3-eighths of an inch in depth, to Avhich are to be added 3-eighths of an inch at that end of each them Avhich is nearest to A ; so that, Avhen the wooden cylinder is again replaced in the tin cylinder as before, with one inch of void space at its closed extremity, the excavations in the former will be 3-eighths of an inch longer than the perforations over them in the latter. There excava- tions in the Avooden cylinder should, likewise, be someAvhat narrow- er at the bottom, effectually to prevent any of the grain from sticking in them, while revolving 4. An iron screw, about three inches in length, Avith a square head for the reception of a screw- driver, should be passed through the end A, ofthe tin cylinder on one side of the axis, as at C, in Fig. 4. The screw i»g part of this must lie in a hollow groove of the wooden cylinder, and be received into a nut, or female screw-, fixed to the same cylinder. The head of the screw, passing through the end A, of the tin cylinder at C, should have a shoulder within the tin cy- linder, to prevent it from penetrat- ing through the end of it. A brasss ring should also be put over the square end of the screw, on the outside of the tin cylinder, through Avhich end a pin ought to pass, in order to keep the ring steady. Thus, Avhen the square head is turned by the screw-driver, it gradually removes the tin cylin- der one inch backwards and for- Avards on that of Avood; so as either to press the end A of the tin cylinder into contact Avith that of the wooden cylinder within it, or to remove it to the distance of one inch, and leave a void space at the end A. 5. The endsof all the holes ofthe tin cylinder are next to be enlarg- ed, by slitting the tin 3-eighths of an inch towards A, on each side of the hole ; that part, hoAvever, of the tin included betAveen these tAvo slits (which will be half an inch Avide, and three-eighths of an inch in length, with respect to the cylin- der,) is not to be cut out, but bent down into the excavations of the wooden cylinder beneath, so as to lie against that end Avhich is near- est to it....Hut, before these pieces of tin are bent doAvn, as just de- scribed, they should be filed some- what smaller at the projecting than at the other end ; because the ex- cavations ofthe Avooden cylinder are to be rather narrower at the bot- tom than at the top; and these pieces of tin, Avhen bent down, ought to fit them exactly. D-RM DRI 377 Lastly, Avhen all these holes are thus enlarged, and the bits of tin filed somewhat nam>AT at their projecting ends, and then bent doAvn into the excavations of the wooden cylinder, the other end of the tin cylinder, with its square socket, may be soldered on. Thus, when the end of the tin cylinder at A, is pressed forwards upon the Avooden one toAvards B, by turning the screw at C, above described, all the excavations of the wooden cv- linder will be gradually lessened, and at length entirely closed ; by which means they may be adapted for the reception and delivering of seeds of any size, from horse-beans and peas to wheat, barley, and turnip- seed, Avith the utmost accuracy, so as to sow 4, 5, or 6 pecks per acre, or more or less at the pleasure of the cultivator, merely by turning the screw a feAv revolutions, in ei- ther direction. In farther illustration of these principles, or directions, Dr. Dar- avin observes : 1. That in constructing tin and wooden cylinders beneath the seed- box, another small improvement may become necessary in sowing- very small seeds, namely, Avhen the screw at the end A, is turned so as to contract all the excavations of the Avooden cylinder, its surface will become bare for the space of one inch from the end of each ex- cavation towards the end B, (Plate I. Fig. 4,) Avithout being covered by the tin cylinder. On these ex- posed parts, Avhich will be one inch long, and half an inch wide, some seeds may accidentally stick, and evade the brushes which, are to preA-ent them from passing, while the cylinders revolve. To remedy this inconvenience, Avhen the wood- en cylinder is placed within the tin one, in such a direction that all the VOL. II. holes are completely open, Dr. Darwin recommends a piece of the tin cylinder, about an inch and an half in length, and half an inch in width, to be cut out from the ex- tremity of each hole next to the end B, and such piece to be fixed by a feAv sprigs on the Avooden cy- linder, exactly in the same place it covered.previously to \u being cut out of the tin one; by Avhich means, Avhtn the tin cylinder is afterwards pushed forwards, by turning the screw at its end, so ?s to contract the excavations of the wooden cylinder beneath, its bare parts will be an inch and a half dis- tant from the extremities of the excavations next to the end B ; and thus will not pass under the brushes: consequently- no small seeds can be lor'ged in them. 2. Some kind of iron staple ought to be fixed on the outside, at each end of the seed-box, to catch hold of the two springs at d, d, (Plate I. Fig. 1) Avhen the hinder part of the carriage is elevated by the man guiding it, in order to suspend the coulters out of the ground, and to connect the hinder part of the machine with the shafts before : so that, when turning at the ends of the lands, or passing to or from the field, the wheels may not deviate from the joint z, at the cen- tre of the axle-tree, but may folloAv in the same line as the shafts. 3. The seed-box should likewise be supported on erect iron pins, passing through staples of that ma- terial ; Avith a lever under the end of it, next to the wheel r, r, (Plata I. Fig. 3,) in order to lift eatily that end of the seed-box, about an inch high, and to raise the teeth of the iron cog-vvheel on its axis out of the te/eth of the correspon- dent iron one, on the nave of the carriage-wheel. 3 C 378 D R I DRI 4. The construction of the coul- ters which make the drills, and of the rakes, by which they are filled after the seed is deposited, and also of the hoes, are not delineated ; as they resemble those employed by persons practising the drill hus- bandry, and Avhich we have already described, when treating of Mr. Cooke's patent machine. 5. When the loAver ends ofthe seed-flues are placed through the holes in the coulter-beam (Plate I. Itig. 1,) at the distance of 9 inches from each other, the toavs of wheat or beans will be 9 inches apart: hence, as the wheels of the carriage are 4 feet in diameter, and therefore move about 12 feet at every revolution : and, as there are 4 excavations round the axis of the seed-box, Avhich reA'olve 4 times to one revolution of the car- riage- av heels, consequently the seeds contained in the excavations of the cylinder beneath the seed- box, will be sown at 9 inches dis- tance in each drill or furroAV, while the plough is proceeding. 6. By Mr. Cooke's drill-plough, the quantity of seed sown on an acre is 6 or 7 pecks, that is, about half the quantity used in broad-cast soAving. If the wheat be exactly deposited in the drill, Dr. Darwin is of opinion that one bushel Avill be fully sufficient for an acre, as the rows are nine inches apart from each other: for then 8 or 9 grains would be dispersed in every nine inches of the drill furrow; namely, in every square of 9 inches surface of the land so cultivated....This may be more clearly ascertained by the following data: Mr. Charles Miller, in the " Philosophical Transactions," vol. lviii. has calcu- lated the number of grains in a bushel of Avheat to amount to 620,000; Mr. Swanwick, of Der- by, has lately computed them at 645,000; Dr. Daravin, therefore, concludes that a bushel, on an ave- rage, contains 635,000 grains of wheat. A statute acre comprises 4,840 square yards, each of which contains 16 squares of 9 inches: if 4,840 be multiplied by 16, the produce will be 77,440, which is the number of squares of 9 inches in such an acre. If 635,000 grains in a bushel be divided by 77,440, (the number of squares of 9 inches in an acre), the quotient will shew, that someAvhat more than 8 grains of wheat will thus be deposited in every 9 inches of the drills. 7. If 8 or 9 grains be dropped at the same time in one inch of ground, they will, if they all should groAv together, be too numerous, and form a tussock ; but, by mak- ing them slide down an inclined plane, from the seed-box to the coulters, as in the tin flues, Avhich are crossed in order to lengthen them (Plate I. Fig. 2), some ofthe seeds will, by their friction while descending, be retarded more than others; and the 8 or 9 seeds will thus be scattered over the Avhole 9 inches of the drill; which renders this method of sowing far superior to that of dibbling; because, in the latter, all the seeds are dropped together. 8. When the holes in the wooden cylinder are entirely open, they are of a proper size for the sowing of horse-beans, or peas : when they are perfectly closed, there will re- main a small niche at the end of the excavation in the Avooden cy- linder, nearestto B (Plate I. Fig. 4), for turnip, or other small seeds. For wheat, barley, and oats, a Avooden Avedge ought to be made exactly of the same shape as the DRI D R I 379 area of the hole, which the director of the* plough requires, who will insert it occasionally in the holes, ! • when he turns the screw at the end of the cylinder, in order to en- large, or reduce them, according to those dimensions. On these wedges ought to be written, with white paint, wheat, barley, cats, he. Avhich will considerably faci- .1 litate the accommodation of the size of the excavations to each kind ol grain; and Avhich may be al- tered, if requisite, to suit larger or smaller seeds of the t/ame species. 9. In some drill-ploughs, for in- stance in Mr. Cooke's, there is •some additional machinery for drawing a line, while the plough proceeds, in which the Avheel that is ne-.-t to the last-soAvn furrow, m. be directed to pass at a prp> per distance from, and parallel to i . This, however, may be effected, ay hen sowing wheat, or peas and beans, by making the wheels, 1 Avhile they run on the ground), at the exact distance of 54 inches from each other; and, at the time i -of so\ving, by guiding the wheel nearest to the part last sown ex- actly in the rut last formed ; by which means every row Avill be ac- curately made, at the distance of 9 inches. To these observations, Dr. Dar- win hay. subjoined some remarks, tending to evince, by comparison, the essential improvements he has made on this complicated machi- nery, and from which we extract the following: 1. The simplicity of his drill- plough consists, first, in its having a seed-box only, and not a seed- box and hopper, as is the case -with Mr. Cooke's patent drill- plough. 2. The flues, conducting the seed from the bottom of the box into the drill furrows, are not dis- joined in the middle, to permit the loAver part to move either to the right or left, when the horse de- viates from the line in which the coulters pass, as in Mr. Cooke's plough : this defect may be reme- died by the simple universal joint at z, (Plate I. Fig. 1). 3. In this machine, the shafts behind, between Avhich the maa guiding the coulters Avalks, are fixed to the coulter-beam, as well as to the axle-tree; whereas, in Mr. Cooke's patent drill-plough, all these are moveable joints, simi- lar to a parallel rule, in order to counteract the swerving of the horse; which, in this machine, is effected by the simple universal joint at z, (Plate I. Fig. 1), already described. 4. The dimensions of the holes in the axis of the seed-box, are here likewise altered, merely by turning a screw, so as to accom- modate them to every kind of seeds which are usually sown on fields, or arable lands. 5. The strong brush of bristles, which sweep over the excavations of the cylinders beneath the seed- box, and strickle them so exactly, that no supernumerary seeds es- cape ; and yet none are either bruised or broken, which some- times happens in Mr. 'Full's ori- ginal machine. Lastly, Dr. Darwin justly ob- serves, that the cheaper and more simple the machine is in its con- struction, the less liable will it be to accidents, which occasion ex- pellees in its repair; and, Avith the greater facility will its manage- ment be understood; all which circumstances correspond Avith its greeter simplicity : and, we coin 380 D R I D R I dially hope Avith the Doctor, that the practice of the drill-husbandry will thus be more generally dif- fused. Plate II. Fig. l,isa seed-box, invented by IF: Swanavick, of Derby, Avho has liberally offered to sheAV the working models of the seed boxes, or to ass|$t any person Avho may Avish to construct either this drill machine, or the preced- ing one, invented by Dr. Dar- win. Mr. Swanwick's seed-box is 48 inches in length within, and is divided into C cells, for the pur- pose of sowing 6 rows of seeds at the same time, similar to that above specified. At the bottom of each cell is a hole a, a, a, a, a, a, (Fie;. 1), through which the seed passes into the seed-flues, as in the machine before described; but this has no revolving axis, there being only a Avooden or iron . bar, B, B, (Fig. 3), about 2 inches broad, 4 feet 8 inches long, and exactly 3- eights of an inch th'ck. Through this bar 6 holes are perforated, marked e, e, e, he. each of Avhich is exactly one inch in length, half an inch in width, and 3-eighths of an inch in depth, Avhich is the same as the thickness of the bar. The centres of these holes are exactly 8 inches distant from each other, corresponding to the holes at the bottom ofthe seed-box, over which it is made to slide backwards and forwards in a groove. By this sliding motion,it passes under stiff brushes which are placed over it on each end of the holes, at the bottom of the seed-box, and strickle off the grain, as the holes in the slidiug- bar pass under them, which thus distribute the quantity Avith con- siderable accuracy. In order to increase or diminish the proportion ofograin to be deli- vered, the slider is covered with a tin-case, C, C, (Fig. 4), which is perforated with six holes, corres- ponding with those in the slider: instead, however, of the bit of tin being cut out the full length of the hole, part of it is left at the end equal to the thickness ofthe slider: * and is bent down, after the slider •£ is put into the case, in the same .t manner as tlwjitin cylinder in the preceding machine. This case is moveable about one inch, backward * and forward, by turning the finger- * screAV * (hig. 4 and 5), by which the holes are enlarged, or dimi- nished, for the purpose of adapting them to various sorts of grain, or different quantities of the same • sort, exactly as in the tin and Avooden cylinders in Flate I....The slider is moved forwards, by a bent iron pin, h, attached to it, which passes into a serpentine groove, Y, (Fig. 5), fixed to the nave of the wheel: it is likewise moved back- v aids by a steel spring at the other end of the seed-box, but which is not delineated in the Flate. Fig. 5. is a bird's-eye view of the parts before described :....E, E, the seed-box divided into cells or compartments, by the partitions d, c', d.....r, c, c, the slider, with part of the apertures seen just ap- pearing from under the brushes.... X is the axis of the wheel. Fig. 2, represents a side view of one of the six bridges lying over the holes at the bottom of the seed- box, on each side of which the brushes arc fixed, which strickle the holes Avhen full of corn, while the bar slides backwards and for- Avards. The simplicity of this slider at the bottom of the seed- boxj Dr. D. observes, may be, in Jfrfjfi/t'it'titer's Dr/iin flc/u^A v- 89 �72079 1100040908081007101104090309070510050310070811020001010201020001000000111002010100480109111000020201000102010101020100 F DRI DRI 381 some instances, greater than that of wooden and tin cylinders in his machine, as Mr. Swanwick's has only six holes for distributing the quantity of corn, whereas the for- mer has twenty-four. In other respects,- it is, perhaps, more com- plicated; as twelve brushes are used, one on each side of the six holes, whereas there are only six brushes rubbing on the tin cylinder in the former machine. The re- ciprocating motion of this slider must be quick, as it necessarily acts once eAery time the circum- ference of the carriage-wheel passes nine inches forward, which may not be so easy to execute as the cog-wheel, Avith the uninter- rupted movement of the axis and cylinder in the preceding machine. Eastly, Dr. Darwin concludes Avith remarking, that the facility of adapting the holes to the dimensions required in both machines, and the circumstance, that they neither bruise nor break the grain, and are not encumbered with an additional hopper, which must deliver the quantity of seed with great inac- curacy, from the unequal skaking of the machine, considerably add to the excellence and simplicity of both. Another implement upon a e.cav principle, vvas invented by Mr. John Horn, of Dover, and by him denominated an " Universal sowing machine, for drilling or broad-cast- ing ;" for which he obtained a pa- tent, about the year 1785. It is so constructed that, Avhether Avorked by the hand, drawn by a horse, or fixed to and used Avith a plough, it is not liable to be put out of order; there being but one movement to direct the Avhole. It sows every kind of grain with equal ease and regularity, so 'that the quantity sown may be varied at pleasure, and in any degree. A correspondent in the 12th vol. of » Annals of Agri- culture," p. 481, states, that Mr. Horn's invention possesses the peculiar advantage of cultivating turnips, so as to ensure the crop against the ravages of the fly. By- sowing the usual quantity of tur- nip-seed broadcast, by the machine, end at the same time, striking fur- rows at proper distances in the land, part is deposited in the drills, and the rest sown broad-cast be- • tween them ; so that, if the#sea-* son be dry, it will be favourable to the drills, and, if wet, to that which is broad-cast. And if it hap- pen that the latter be injured by the depredations of the fly, the for- mer, by coming at a later pe- riod, is saved ; or, if the former be destroyed, the latter is preserv- ed. If the whole thrive, the far- mer has the choice of selecting the most vigorous plants from both. The price of this valuable implement, if constructed so as to be used with a>ingle furrow plough, is, Ave understand, 31, guineas: if in- tended for a double iurroAv plough, 41 guineas : that of the large ma- chine, consisting of a seven-furrow plough, with Mr. Horn's addition?, the whole made by himself, is 7| guincas. For a more particular account, we refer the reader to a treatise on the subject, published by the inventor (8vo7 6rf. Johnscn, 1786), entitled " Description jinel Use of the Universal Sowing Ma- cbine for Drilling and Broail-cast- ing." In the 12th a-o1. of Annals of Agriculture, p. 17, Ave also meet with a communication from a Mr. J. Harvi'.v, of Elmley, in Avhich he announces his invention of an engine that plants every kind of. 382 DRI DRI grain, in a manner, he conceives, never before attempted. It is a common wheel-plough, to which is fixed a simple piece of machin- ery, for conveying, by means of an engine fixed to the plough, imme- diately behind the mould-board any quantity of grain into an incision in the heart of a furrow, of what- ever depth: the seed is effectually and instantly covered by an instru- ment suspended to the engine.... The whole machinery consists of iron, yet does not exceed 20 lbs. in Aveight. The engine may be Avorked -without a handle (unless at the end) which does not retard the sowing, or add much to the labour of the horser.. Ihe inven- tor observes, that it may be em- ployed on any soil, and in all sea- sons ; the seed being covered to protect it from the effects of the weather....The price of Mr. Har- vey's implement, exclusively of the plough to which it is fixed does not exceed three guineas. The last of these various con- trivances, of which we shall take notice, is the Drill and Hoc-Plough, invented a few years since, by a Mr. Ridce, of Avhich an engrav- ing is given in the 60th vol. of the Gentleman's Magazine, for 1790, where its principles and mechan- ism are described. This machine is so constructed, that by means of a handle, the man employed has power to hold or guide it in a strait direction, Avithout any attention to the goinp of the horse being requi- site, farther than is rendered ne- cessary in a common plough : and, Avhether the implement be drawn up, or down a hill, or horizontally, it deposits the corn Avith equal re- gularity, and at any given depth ; so that none of the seed will be bu- ried too deeply in the earth, or ex- posed to perish on the surface.... Thus, it is asserted, one .third of the usual quantity of seed may, in general, be saved; and, in some cases, more than one half. TheAvheels onwhichMr.RiDGE's plough moves, are half a rod in circumference ; and, by computing their revolutions, when they have once passed over the field, the por- tion of seed sown may be ascer- tained, if the machine be supplied with a certain quantity. The num- ber of acres that can thus be drill- ed in one day, depends on the dis- tance at Avhich the rcw:j of corn are set. Stones, it is said, are no ob- struction to the drilling of corn, by means of this implement; provid- ed they be not too large to pass be- tween the tines, or tubes, which deliver the seed to the ground. The plough here alluded to, may be used for soAving every kind of grain, or seeds, not only Avith fa- cility and regularity, but also with- out bruising them; and, as soon as the crop groAvs up, it may be employed w ith equal advantage as a horse-hoe. Its construction is stated to be so simple, that in half an hour a common ploughman may be made to comprehend its move- ments, sufficiently to be entrusted with it for the whole season. On level soils, one horse, in general, Avill be fully competent to draw it; but, in ascending steep hills, or on very stiff land, two will become necessary. The price of this ex- pensive implement, we understand, is about 14 guineas. For a more particular account of the drilling system, Ave must refer our readers to Mr. Amos's " Theo- ry and Practice of Drill-Husband- ry," (4to. 18s.) published a few years since, in Avhich the matter is fully investigated, and the ad- DRI DRI 383 vantages and disadvantages are fairly appreciated. But those, Avho wish to acquire only a general knowledge of this important prac- tice, Ave advise to peruse the Rev. Mr. Cooke's pamphlet, (12mo. pr. 6d.) entitled, " Drill-Husbandry perfected." Before we conclude this highly important subject, it will be useful to state the extraordinary national saving that Avould arise from a ge- neral introduction of the drill-hus- bandry. Indeed, the patriotic Lord Somerville, late President of the Board of Agriculture, whose ex- ertions in promoting that benefi- cial science, must endear him to every friend of his country, has al- ready anticipated our calculations. Though bred to the broad-cast me- thod, which he till lately folloAved, tliat enlightened nobleman, has, in the appendix to his interesting work, entitled, " The System fol- lowed during the two last years by the Board of Agriculture," he. (Svo. pp. 300, Miller, 1800), impartially exhibited the great advantages that might result from the national adoption of the drill-husbandry.... We regret that our limits will per- mit us only to extract a few leading circumstances from his Lordship's publication. In ord'rr to ascertain, beyond the possibility of doubt, the infinite superiority of the drilling, over that of the broad-cast method of sowing, he applied to three gentlemen alike eminent for their agricultural skill,and each of Avhom made use of different drill-ploughs. From an accurate statement it ap- pears, that the expences attendant on the old and new practices, are as follow : Expence of seed-corn on 133 acres of land, sovvn in the usual broad-cast husbandry in 1799, Avas.......L. 134 10 6 The expence of seed-corn for the same number of acres, according to the present improved system of drilling, . In the year 1800, the expence of 140 acres broad-cast, Avas Ditto,............ditto, . . . drilled, .... Which allords a saving of not less than.......... in seed-corn on 140 acres of land. 100 4 6 216 10 0 92 0 O 124 10 O Both estimates were made from actual experience, by the industri- ous Mr. Budden, and communica- ted to Lord Sommervillk, by the Rev. FI. J. Close, of Hordle, near Lymington ; from Avhose letter we insert the following computation of an annual saving that may be ef- fected by the uniform practice of the drill-husbandry ; and Avhich, at a moderate calculation, will amount to not less than, eight millions of bushels of wheat, one million of bushels of rye, three millions of bushels of barley, four millions of bushels of oats, and one million of bushels of beans and peas! Having, however, in the course of attentive observation, 'during the last twenty years, Avitnessed many disappointments, both in statistical and political schemes, Ave are not so sanguine in our expectations, as to place implicit confidence on any- general statement, especially when it is exemplified by round numbers. Nevertheless, in justice to the zeal- ous supporters of the drill-plough, Ave fully admit its superiority over the clumsy and irregular practice 384 DRI ofthe wasteful broad-cast husband- ry ; and posterity will ever grate- fully remember the names of Tu l l, Cooke, Young, and Darwin, if, by their joint labours, one half of the above stated quantity of grain and seeds, that is, together eight or nine millions of bushels, could be annually saved to the nation, before one half of the present eventful century is expired. DRINKING, is one of the ani- mal functions, essential to the pro- per solution and digestion of food. Although the proportion of liquid to that of dry, or solid food, can- not be precisely ascertained ; yet, if the constant secretion of fluids be laid down as the basis of this computation, Ave should, perhaps, drink double the quantity of the solid provisions avc daily consume. Nevertheless, even this proportion is but too often exceeded, merely to please the artificial cravings of a corrupted palate. Thus, we no longer drink with a vieAV to quench thirst only; but at certain hours of the day, Avhether Ave are naturally inclined, or not. May, Ave fre- quently meet with sots in beer, ale, spirits, wine, punch, and even tea......Excessive drink, however, though it distend and oppress the stomach, and thus impede diges- tion, is not nearly so pernicious as gluttony, unless the former be at- tended Avith intoxication. It how- ever impoverishes the whole mass of the blood, by rendering it too thin and watery ; so that relaxa- tion of the urinary and other ca- nals, at length, general debility of the system, are its necessary con- comitants. On the contrary, too little drink disposes persons of a sedentary life to indigestion ; because many par- ticles of solid food are, for want DRI of dilution, passed unassimilated through the alimentary canal; and the blood becomes viscid, and in- ert in its circulation. The active and laborious should, therefore, drink more than the idle or phleg- matic ; and either of these more in summer than in Avinter, to sup- ply the great loss of humours ex- haled by insensible perspiration. Persons, whose natural appetite is not depraved in consequence of irregular living, may easily regu- late the due proportion of their drink to that of dry aliment; as, to them, thirst will be the safest guide. But those individuals who have be- come slaves to the libations of Bacchus, are unfortunately depri- ved of this beneficent instinct, Avhich is the privilege even of irra- tional animals. If the moral turpitude of com- mitting excess in drinking, affords no argument to induce the habitual votary to abstain from such perni- cious practice, we shall only add, that he will sooner or later feel the effects of it in painful and lin- gering sickness. To a reflecting mind, it affords matter of just sur- prize, how so many persons of worth and character, wldle sober, can devote themselves to a custom Avhich they cannot but abhor in their friends. For the sake of a momentary gratification of the pa- late, wines and spirits are indiscri- minately swalloAved, and especially by those whose age, labours, and merit in society, often entitle them to neither. Immense quantities of valuable grain, by nature designed for the support of the poor and in- digent, are annually converted into liquid fire, or more properly, poi- son I Where is the philanthropist, in our imperial senate, who pos- sesses virtue and influence sufficient DRO D R O 385 to stem the torrent of so extensive a system of mischief? After this involuntary digression, we shall only observe, that large potations are, .at all times, and in every constitution, improper ; that they are particularly injurious when indulged in previously to the taking of food, and especially before din- ner ; that all beverage is more per- nicious to the healthy in a warm, than in a cold state; that the hu- man stomach should never be inun- dated with immoderate quantities of drink at one time ; and that the most natural drink, and the most conducive to health, without ex- ception, is pure water. DRONE, in natural history, a species of bee, which is nearly double the size of the common working insect. The head of drones is round, the eyes full, the tongue short, and the belly broader than in the other classes ; they are like- Avise of a darker colour, and more thickly clothed....See Bee. DROPSY, a soft, un elastic swel- ling of the whole or part of the body : in other Avords, a collection of water under the whole skin, or in the brain, chest, abdomen, &c. This complaint may originate from various causes, of which the following are the principal: 1. Ob- struction , in the intestines of the lower belly, especially after agues. 2. Suppressions of natural and pe- riodical fluxes ; polypus and other concretions in the blood vessels. 3. Obstipations of the lymphatics, arising chiefly from a free use of spirituous liquors. 4. Great relax- ation of the vascular parts, in con- sequence of poor, watery, and vis- cid nutriment, impure, damp air, he. 5. A general acrimony of the fluids, after repelled eruptions, or from an accumulation of acrid, gon- voi. II' ty, bilious, and other humours. 6. General debility, consequent to copious evacuations, or convulsive diseases, which have reduced the whole nervous system : the opera- tion of all these causes is often promoted by an hereditary dispo- sition of the individual. _Rfg7me«....DrinkingAvas former- ly considered as very injurious to dropsical patients, so that physi- cians often prohibited the use of all liquid food.' Later experience, however, has evinced the fallacy of this rule ; for, in many cases, the disease has been cured merely by abundant dilution; especially in those constitutions Avhich are not naturally phlegmatic. Hence it has been found, that the copious use of mineral waters (see Diure- tics) has frequently been attend- ed with the best effects....Vegeta- ble acids, such as vinegar, the juice of lemons, oranges, he. di- luted Avith water, should be drunk in preference to wines or spirits, either of which are generally hurt- ful. The aged and emaciated, however, may occasionally take a glass of wine, or, with equal ad- vantage, mustard, Avhey, or ginger- tea. Their diet ought to consist of nourishing and stimulating dish- es, but of easy digestion, and to be taken in moderation. White meat, fowls, and even game pro- perly roasted or stewed, may be eaten Avith toasted bread and bis- cuits. Horse-raddish, onions, and garlic, may be used instead of fo- reign spicies, and in large propor- tions. But tea, coffee, and punch, are alike improper for irritable and nervous habits. Muscular exercise and gentle, but often repeated friction of the parts affected, are two primary ohlects Avhich deserve attention..- 3 D 386 D R O The patient ought to live in a warm, dry place, not expose him- self to cold or damp air, and Avear flannel next the skin, to promote perspiration. The tepid bath has often procured considerable relief. Medicine. In the beginning of the disease, brisk laxatives, consist- ing of rhubarb and cream of tartar, may be of immediate service to the young and robust, but to aged or debilitated patients, we cannot Avith safety recommend either pur- gatives or emetics ; as the latter in particular,' may be attended with serious consequences. In such cases, medical advice should not be neglected. In general, hoA\rever, small doses of cream of tartar, namely, half a dram, six or eight times a-day ; and from six to ten grains of salt-petre, with three or four grains of poAvdered squill, every morning and evening, may be taken without risk, if pro- fessional assistance cannot be easily obtained. All other drugs, for in- stance, bark, tartar emetic, cam- phor, opium, he. are powerful re- medies, Avhich ought to be pre- scribed by those only Avho possess the ability of ascertaining the na- ture and cause of the disease. For similar reasons, Ave cannot impli- citly approve of the external appli- cation of oil, nor the SAvalloAving of a table spoonful of common sand every day : this is a curious, but cheap remedy, which has lately been announced by Dr. Guthrie, of St. Petersburgh, who informs us that it was found " to purge the patient pretty briskly, and to pro- cure a relief of all the symptoms." [The dropsy is commonly sup- posed to proceed in every case from great debility: and hence strength- ening remedies are given almost indiscriminately. But there is no DRO truth better ascertained than, that dropsies are frequently accompa- nied by a tense full pulse, and other symptoms which denote too much action in the system. We ought not, therefore, to be alarmed when a judicious physician prescribes bleeaing, low diet, and purgatives, for a dropsical patient. Those Avho Avish to satisfy themselves of the propriety of occasional evacuations in this disease, are referred to Dr. Rush's works, in Avhich they will find a valuable paper on the subject, which indeed ought to be read by every sufferer from the complaint. The digitalis purpurea, or Fox- glove, has been much celebrated as a remedy for this complaint, and has certainly done good. See Fox- glove. A Avatery decoction ofthe Dwarf elder, Ebulus, is said to have cured very desperate cases of dropsy..... Dr. Foavi.er relates several cases of the successful use ofthe infusion of tobacco in various species of drop- sy, and Dr. Garnett has record- ed the history of an Anasarca cured by giving 30 drops of it morning and evening, in a cordial aromatic mixture ; and by employing tonics after the swelling Avas removed. Mercury, when given in small doses, so as to excite a gentle sa- livation, has frequently cured the dropsy. Artichokes are consider- ably diuretic, and have been pro- perly proposed as part of the diet of dropsical patients.] DROP WORT, or Oenanthe, L. a genus of perennial plants, con- sisting of seven species, five of Avhich are indigenous; among these the folloAving only deserve notice : 1. The fistulosa, or Common WaterDkopwort, which thrives in meadows, ponds, and ditches ; and flowers in July. Its naked DRO D R G 387 stalk grows only 12 inches high. The plant is refused by cows and horses ; though, from experiments made in this country, it does not appear to be noxious to the former. Bechstein, however, affirms, that in Germany this species of the drop- Avort is a poisonous vegetable^ and has been found to produce danger- ous effects on man and dogs; its root, therefore, which spreads ex- tensively in a' sAvampy soil, ought to be carefully extirpated. 2. The crocata, or Hemlock Water - Dropwort, or Dead- tongue, which groAvs in Avatery places, on the banks of rivers, and in ditches. Its reddish thick stalk attains a height from 3 to 5 feet. According to Dr. Withering, the whole of this plant is deleterious ; and Dr. Pulteney remarks, that the root is the most virulent of all the vegetable poisons that Great Britains produces ; many instances of its fatal effects being recorded. Unless the contents of the stomach, after eating any small portion of this root (Avhich is sometimes mis- taken for wild celery, or parsnip) be immediately emptied by briskly operating emetics, there is no other chance of saving the patient's life ; because it speedily produces con- vulsions, madness, and death. As a medicine, hoAvever, an in- fusion of the leaves, or three tea- spoonfuls of the juice of the root, taken every morning, has in one instance cured a very obstinate cu- taneous disease : though we advise such trials to be made only Avith animals. According to Mr. Gough, the country people in Westmore- land apply a poultice ofthe herb to the ulcer, which is sometimes formed in the fore part of the cleft ofthe hoof in horned cattle, and is termed the foul. The inhabitants of Pembrokeshire call this plant, the five-fingered root: it is much used by them in cataplasms for the felon, or the worst kind of whit- low. Sheep eat the leaves of this vegetable, but they are refused by cows and horses. DROWNING is the act of suffocating, or being suffocated, by a total immersion in water. The length of time during which a per- son may remain in this element, without being drowned, is very un- equal, in different individuals ; and depends as much on the tempera- ture of the water as on the parti- cular constitution of the subject: in general, however, there is less prospect of recovery, after having continued fifteen minutes in a Ava- tery grave. In such cases, death ensues from impeded respiration, and the consequent ceasing of the circulation of the blood, by which the body loses it heat, and, with that, the activity of the vital prin- ciple. Dr. Goodwin justly ob- serves, that the Avater produces all the changes which take place in drowning, only indirectly, by ex- cluding the atmospheric air from the lungs, as they admit but a A-ery inconsiderable quantity of fluid to pass into them, during immersion. Hence Ave shall find, in the progress of this enquiry, that inflation of the lungs is one of the principal means of restoring life. Before we describe the various methods and instruments that have been successfully adopted, for re- covering drowned persons, it will be useful to advert (on the plan of Dr.STRuvE)to those circumstances which deserve to be duly Aveighed, previously to any active measures being taken on such unfortunate occasions : 1. The season and wea- ther ; 2. Length of time the person 388 D R O has continued under water; 3. The state of his mind when the accident happened : whether he was intoxi- cated, frightened, &c ; 4. Consti- tution of the body, and Avhether he was in a state of perspiration ; 5. The height from which he fell, and whether his head plunged foremost; 6. Depth of the water ; whether it was cold or warm, sea, or river wa- ter, and Iioav he was dressed...... Lastly, 7. The manner in which he was taken out, whether by the legs, and without receiving any in- jury, or by instruments; and whe- ther he Avas rolled about in a tub, or Avhat other methods were pur- sued for his restoration. Few improvements appear to have been made in the treatment of the droAvned, since this impor- tant branch of medical science was first discussed," in a popular man- ner, by the late Dr. Tissot ; yet the names of Cullen, Goodwyn, Cogan, Haaves, and Coleman, in Britain, as well as those of Unzer, Reimarus, and Struve, in Ger- many, deserAre to be respectfully mentioned: from their various pub- lications, and especially of the two last mentioned: we shall briefly state the principal rules of conduct to be observed, with respect to persons in that deplorable situation. Symptoms of Apparent Death by Drowning.....Coldness ; paleness of the whole body ; the lips of a livid hue; the mouth either open or firm- ly closed ; the tongue blue, swelled and protruded ; the eye-lids closed, the eyes turned, and their pupils dilated ; the face swelled and blue ; the lower belly hard and inflated. The first signs of returning anima- tion are, convulsive starting of the muscles of the face, or feet; mo- tion of the eye-lids, a spasmodic shivering of the body. DRO Treatment. 1. After having been carefully taken out of the Avater by the arms, so as to prevent the least injury to the head and breast, the body ought to be carried to the nearest house (if possible, in a bier, as represented in the plate which is described p. 392), Avith the head somewhat raised ; or, in fine Avarm weather, the resuscita- tive process may with more advan- tage be performed in the open air, especially in sun-shine. 2. When the subject is deposit- ed, the upper part of the body should be supported half-sitting, with the head inclining towards the right side. 3. The clothes are to be taken off Avithout delay, but Avith the greatest precaution; as violent shaking of the body might extin- guish the latent spark of life. 4. The mouth and nose must be cleansed from the mucus and froth, by means of a feather dipped in oil. 5. The whole body should now be gently wiped and dried Avith warm flannel cloths, then covered with blankets, feather-beds, hay, straAV, &c. In cold or moist wea- ther, the patient is to be laid on a mattress or bed, at a proper dis- tance from the fire, or in a room moderately heated; but in the Avarm days of summer, a simple couch is sufficient. 6. If the patient be very young, or a child, it may be placed in bed betAveen two persons, to promote natural warmth. (See also the Warming Machine, delineated in the second plate and described p.39 3. 7. In situations where the bath cannot be conveniently procured, bladders filled with lukewarm wa- er should be applied to different parts of the body, particularly to DRO the pit of the stomach; or a warm- ing-pan Avrapped in flannel gently moved along the spine ; or aroma- tic fomentations frequently and cau- tiously repeated. 8. As the breathing of many per- sons in an apartment Avould render the air mephitic, and thus retard, or even prevent the restoration of life, not more than five or six as- sistants should be suffered to re- main in the room Avhere the body is deposited. Stimulants generally employed: 1. Moderate friction Avith soft, warm flannel, at the beginning, and gradually increased by means of brushes dipped in oil, till pulsations of the heart are perceptible. 2. Inflation of the lungs, which may be more conveniently effected by blowing into one ofthe nostrils, than by introducing air into the mouth. For the former purpose, it is necessary to be provided with a wooden pipe, fitted at one extre- mity for filling the nostril, and at the other for being bloAvn into by a healthy person's mouth, or for receiving the muzzle of a pair of common bellows, by which the operation may be longer continued. At first, however, it will always be more proper to introduce the Avarm breath from the lungs of a living person, than to commence Avith cold atmospheric air. During this operation, the other nostril and the mouth should be closed by an as- sistant, while a third person gently presses the chest Avith his hands, as soon as the lungs are observed to be inflated.....For a more effec- tual method of alternately intro- ducing fresh air into the lungs, and expelling that which is rendered mephitic, or unfit for respiration, we refer the reader to the second plate Fig. 1. 3. Stimulating clysters, consist- DRO 389 ing of warm water and common salt; or a strong solution of tartar emetic; or decoctions of aromatic herbs; or six ounces of brandy, should be speedily administered.... We do not consider injections of the smoke of tobacco, or even clys- ters of that narcotic plant, in all instances safe or proper. 4. Let the body be gently rub- bed Avith common salt, or with flannels dipped in spirits: the pit of the stomach fomented with hot brandy; the temples stimulat- ed with spirit of hartshorn; and the nostrils occasionally tickled with a feather. 5. Persons of a very robust frame, and whose skin after being dried, assumes a rigid and contract- ed surface, may be put. into the sub-tepid bath, of about 65 deg. which must be gradually raised to 75 or 80 cleg, of Fahrenheit's scale, according to circumstances; or the body carried to a breAvhouse, and covered Avith Avarm grains for three or four hours: but these ex- pedients generally require medical assistance. 6. Violent shaking and agitation of the body by the legs, and arms, though strongly recommended, and supposed to have often forwarded the recovery of children and boys, appears to us a doubtful remedy, which can be practised only in cer- tain cases. 7. Springling the naked body of a droAvned person Avith cold water; submitting it to the operation of a shower-bath, or the sudden shocks of the electric fluid; as Avell as whipping it Avith nettles, adminis- tering emetics, and blood-letting, ....are desperate expedients, which should be resorted to only after the more lenient means have been un- successfully employed. It is, however, a vulgar and dan- 390 D R O DRO gerous error^to suppose that per- sons apparently dead by immer- sion under water, are irrecovera- ble, because life does not soon re- appear : hence we seriously entreat those Avho are thus employed in the service of humanity, to perse- vere for three or four hours at least, in the application of the most ap- propriate remedies above describ- ed; for there are many instances re- corded, of patients, who recovered, after they had been relinquished by all their medical and other as- sistants. Treatment on the return of life: As soon as the first symptoms of that happy change become dis- cernible, additional care must be taken to cherish the vital action, by the most soothing means. All violent proceedings should, there- fore, be immediately abandoned, no farther stimulants applied, nor even the ears ofthe patients be an- noyed by loud speaking, shouting, Sic. At that important crisis, mo- derate friction only is requisite. And, if the reviving person happen to be in the bath, he may either remain there, provided his sensa- tions be easy and agreeable, or be removed to a comfortable bed, after being expeditiously dried with warm flannels: fomentations of aromatic plants may then be ap- plied to the pit of the stomach; bladders filled Avith warm water, placed to the left side; the soles of the feet rubbed with salt; the mouth cleared of froth ;jnd mucus, and a little Avhite wine, or a solution of salt and water, dropped. on the tongue. But all strong stimulants, such as powerful electric shocks, strong odours of volatile salts, &x. are at this period-particularly in- jurious. Lastly, the patient, after resuscitation, ought to be for a short interval resigned to the ef- forts of Nature, and left in a com- posed and quiescent state: as soon as he is able to swallow, Avithout compulsion or persuasion, warm wine, or tea, with a few drops of vinegar, instead of milk, or gruel, warm beer, and the like, should be given in small doses frequently re- peated. FlaA'ing stated the '.leading parti- culars to be attended to, in the practical treatment of persons AVho are on the eve of suffering from aquatic suffocation^ we shall ac- company them with a few direc- tions, addressed to those humane assistants who often fall victims, for want of clue precaution in the execution of their benevolent de- sign. As many fatal accidents happen to individuals who wish to rescue others in danger of being drowned, especially Avhen the former are un- skilful in the useful art of swim- ming, which ought to be learnt at an early period of life, we think it our duty to remind the reader of the two excellent) contrivances al- ready described in our first volume, under the articles Air-jacket, and Bamboe Habit. Every fami- ly dwelling on the banks of lakes or rh'ers, or near ponds, ought to be ahvays provided Avith tAvo or three such useful articles, to serve in cases of emergency ; as it will generally be too late to procure them on the spur of the occasion. ■, EXPLANATION. I. Of the Plate representing the " Instruments for recovering the " Drownpd." Fig. 1, A forked instrument with blunt points, for making a superficial search after the droAvn- xw* FiW ./ >'' Fig. 2 Fi/ Ifpi'/f'/f/ta //ic__' ity/'/iPt DRO DRO 391 ed body, and sounding the particu- lar situation in Avhich «: lies. Fig. 2, A ladder with a long, jointed handle, and which we have already mentioned, when treating of the Ice-boats : a model of these boats may be inspected in the Repository of the " Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Ma- nufactures," he. Adelphi, London. Fig. 3. An extractor, or a linked pair of tongs, which in the plate appears closed ; but, on immersing it into water, opens by its OAvn weight, as well as by the sliding down of the iron ring o from the part marked x, to that of u. It may again be closed, by pulling the double rope fastened to the ring o, which is thus shifted upward from utox: by means of expanding the iron arms n n, which are likewise connected Avith this ring, the mouth or flaps of the instrument rr, may be shut: and to prevent their opening till required, the two ropes are firmly tied round the iron bolt s s; in Avhich situation they re- main till the body is extracted.... This instrument, together with that represented, Fig. 1, cost about 21. at Flamburg. Great attention is required in preserving them from the effects of rust; and, indepen- dently of the Aveight of iron-work, Fig. 3, is perhaps the most com- plete piece of machinery that can be contrived for this purpose. II. Of the Engraving in which the " Implements of restoration from drowning," are represented. Fig. 1, A pair of bellows with two separate bags, so contrived that by opening them, when applied to the nostrils or mouth of a patient, one bag av'iII be filled with common air, and the other with the mephitic air extracted from the lungs; and, by shutting them again, pure at- mospheric air will be introduced into those organs, and that drawn out, consequently discharged into the room. Thus, the artificial breathing may be continued, while the other operations on the surface of the body are carried on; which could not be conveniently done, if the muzzle of a common pair of belloAvs Avere introduced into the nostril. a, Is an intermediate board, but which admits of no communication between the two bags. In the ex- ternal board of each side, there is the usual hole, marked b, provided with a valve; and the cylindrical part through which the air is ex- pelled in common bellows, is here soldered to a copper box, within which two other valves are applied to the tubes conducting the air.... The cover d of this box, which may be unscrewed by means of an interposed leather ring, is almost of the shape of a funnel, to the neck of which is fastened a flexible tube e, made of varnished silk cloth, and a spiral Avire that forms the cavity. To the extremity of this tube is at- tached a small ivory pipe f, the front of Avhich may be either tubu- lar and round, for introducing it into the nostril: or flat like the top-piece of a clarionet, if it be in- tended for the mouth. The valves (Avhich cannot be represented in a plate), consist of stiffened taffety, and are so arranged, that the cor- responding ones stand in an invert- ed order. If, therefore, both bags of tlr.. belloAvs are expanded, two of the valves open themselves to- wards the internal part of the ma- chine : one of these is fixed to one of the side-boards, but the other is within the box, in the mouth of the conducting tube belonging to 392 DRO DRO the opposite bag of the bellows. By this contrivance, the air enters both bars of the bellows at the same time, and is, on compression, again expelled by means of two other valves^ which open from within towards the external parts. Both bags of the bellows terminate below the valve in one particular tube of communication; because, though the action of both bellows is simultaneous, the stream of air, conformably to the arrangement before pointed out, can only enter, and escape, alternately....In using this machine, the small ivory pipe is applied either to one of the nos- trils, or put into the mouth: in the former case, the other nostril and the mouth must be closed; in the latter,' both nostrils. When the bellows are set in action, one ofthe bags receives a column of atmo- spheric air through its valve ; while the other, by means of its flexible tube and its valve, extracts a por- tion of air from the lungs. But, if the belloAvs are again shut, one of the bags parts Avith the impure gas drawn out of the pulmonary ves- sels; and the second conveys pure atmospheric air to the organs of respiration. By properly repeating this alternate process, the patient may again be enabled to exercise the important function of breathing. As, hoAvever, a precipitate and ir- regular method of proceeding might be productive of injury, this delicate operation ought to be per- formed by persons Avho are ac- quainted Avith the mechanism of respiration....In some cases, Avhere the patient has, for a considerable time, lain under Avater, or was af- terwards neglected for want of due assistance, it Avould be desirable to introduce into his lungs oxygen, or pure vital, dephlogisticated air, in- stead of that ofthe common atmos- sphere; as the latter is generally more or less corrupted on such oc- casions by the breath of many per- sons in the same room. For this purpose may be used a bladder, marked g, Avhich is provided with a cock and pipe fitted or screwed to the board of the inspiring valve and bag of the bellow s. If, there- fore, after opening the cock, the machine is set in motion, it will extract the pure air contained in the bladder, and, on the subsequent compression of the belloAvs, force it into the lungs ofthe patient. Fig. 2, A machine for injecting the smoke of tobacco by way of clyster, in those desperate cases which require the application of this remedy. It consists of a pair of bellows, to the muzzle of wdiich is fitted a metal box, a, provided with a ring, in the middle of Avhich it may be unscrewed, and again closed, after being filled with tobac- co, and set on fire: thepipe c, which should be perfectly round and blunt at the top of the flexible tube b, is introduced into the fundament; and thus, by means of the bellows d, the smoke is forced into the rectum. Fig. 3, A bier of Avicker work, in the form of a slanting, oblong basket, for conveying the body of the drowned, in a posture some- what raised. This simple contriv- ance has the advantage, that the Avater may easily run off, while the patient is carried: and, as many unfortunate persons are materially injured by rough treatment, before they arrive at a house of reception, so that their recovery is thus often frustrated, we recommend the uni- versal adoption of this useful im- 7 ■ /t>//S _ 7 c &/„.u.« .«,.| D RO plement. It costs at Hamburgh only ten marks currency, or about 15s. Fig. 4, The Warming Machine of block tin, or other metal, was originally invented by Mr. Har- vey, of London, who suggested it to our Royal Humane Society, and it was subsequently improved by M. Braasch, an ingenious me- chanic, of Hamburgh. Its object is to procure an uniform degree of Avarmth, throughout the apparatus, in the most expeditious manner, by filling the holloAV or double bottom and sides of the whole implement with boiling water....a is the body of the machine, seven feet long, and made of solid pieces of block- tin, to prevent the necessity of sol- dering them, and consequently the formation of iron-rust: it rests on two Avooden legs ff, and may be easily carried by the handles g g. The water is poured in through both funnels d, d, in order to Avarm it more speedily; and each of these is provided Avith a stopper (as re- presented in the Plate, suspended on a chain), Avith a view to prevent, if necessary, too sudden evapora- tion and cooling of the Avater:.... h is the intermediate space between the tAvo metallic plates, producing a vacuum of 2 \ inches, in which the fluid is diffused over the Avhole machine ;....b is a Avooden desk to support the head of the patient, and to prevent it from the inimedi- Fr contact Avith the heated parts; 1>-;L on the opposite end of the machine, there is an enlarged in- termediate space c, for holding such a quantity of Avater and va- pours as Avill procure an additional, or at least a more permanent, de- yree of heat toAvards the lower ex- tremities than to the trunk ofthe bcH.v. For discharging the water, when it is not Avantcd, or changing vol • n. D R O 393 it Avhen too cold, there is a cock at ■•. The holloAV sides of this machine are about twelve inches high ; and in order to ensure an uniform warmth, the body apparently dead, should be placed on a straw mat- tress, and tucked in Avith blankets. A pail-full of Avater is required to fill the Avhole machine, as a smaller quantity Avould Avarm the sides only for a short time, by means of the vapour. It deserves to be remarked, that this ingenious contrivance may also be used for a warm bath; for Avhich purpose, the inner space in Avhich the body lies, should be sup- plied Avith Avater. The Avhole ap- paratus, in its present improved state, made of copper, costs at Flam- burgh about 200 marks, or from 14 to 15/. Lastly, Ave cannot conclude this subject, Avithout affording the rea- der a vieAV ofthe different articles belonging to a complete chest of instruments, and other materials, employed in the various processes for recovering suspended animation from droAvning. The merit of these institutions in England, is due to Drs. Cogan and Hawes, the foun- ders of the Royal Flu mane Society at London; but the improved ar- rangement of the chest now to be described, together with the choice of internal and external remedies, A\ere made by one of our most esteemed surgeons, Mr. Kite, in 1788, though considerably extend- ed in 1790, by Mr. Redlich, a respectable medic.d practitioner at Hamburgh. This gentleman is likewise one of the most active members of the Humane Society in that city, and has offered the folloAving articles for sixty-five marks, or about four guineas and a half....His complete chest con- tains : 3 11 394 D R J DRU A small bottle of rectified spirit of Avine. Ditto, white wine vinegar. Ditto, sweet oil. Ditto, white French brandy. Ditto, Arolatile sal ammoniac. Ditto, vitriolic aether. Ditto, mustard-seed. A machine for injecting the smoke of tobacco. A leather tube, together with a pair of belloAvs,for inflating the lungs. Another tube of leather, for introducing medicines into the stomach. A small syringe for clearing the throat of mucus. Three woollen covers, or blankets. Four brushes and six woollen cloths, for performing friction. Several emetics. Two lancets for blood-letting. One pound of tobacco. A roller and cushion, to be used in venesection. Two quills, a sponge, and some lint. A pocket-knife. An apparatus for striking fire. Chamomile and elder-floAvers. Common salt....and a printed copy (in German) of rules and direc- tions for treating the droAvned. Conceiving that a chest contain- Drunkenness may be consider- ing all these articles could not be ed as a breach of the laAV of na- purchased in London for less than ture, which directs us to preserve double the price above stated, be- the use of our reason. By the law side the additional trouble of pro- of this country, it cannot be plead- curing them, Ave have inserted this ed as an excuse for committing account; especially as the com- trespasses and crimes ; nay, any mercial intercourse between Ham- person who is found intoxicated, burgh and this country, is daily in- incurs a penalty of five shillings, creasing. or, in case of non-payment, is to DRUNKENNESS, is that state be set in the stocks. Those who in which, from the intemperate are guilty of it a second time, may drinking of liquors, reason has lost be bound in a certain sum for their its powers, and the person intoxi- good behaviour ; and, if any ale- cated is unable to govern himself, house keeper be convicted of the This odious vice is but too pre- offence, he is liable to be deprived valent among the lower order of of his license for the term of three people, who, under the erroneous years. These are wholesome re- idea of drowning care, indulge gulations, and it is sincerely to be themselves in strong liquors; and wished, that they were more fre- by gradually acquiring habits of quently enforced, as Avell for the .intemperance, not only undermine benefit of individuals, as on account their constitution, but also become of the national character. See In- a disgrace to society. toxication. DRY DRY-ROT, a disease incident to timber, used for building, such as flooring-boards, joists, wainscot- ing, he. Dr. Darwin is of opinion, that the dry-rot may be entirely pre- vented, by soaking the timber first in lime-water, till it has absorbed as much of it as possible, and, after it has become dry, immersing it in a Aveak solution of vitriolic acid in Avater, Avhich he supposes will not only preserve it from decay for many centuries (if it be kept dry), but also render it less inflamma- ble ; a circumstance that merits considerable attention in construct- ing houses. In the Transactions of the So- ciety for the Encouragement of Arts, we meet Avith the folloAving account of the cause of the dry-rot in timber, and the method of pre- venting it, communicated by Ro- bert Batson, of Limehouse, Esq. He observes, that the dry-rot hav- ing taken place in one of his par- lours, to such a degree as to re- quire the pulling down part of the wainscot, every third year; and perceiving that it arose from a damp stagnated air, and from the moisture ©f the earth, he deter- mined, in the month of June, 1783, to build a narrow closet, next the wall through which the moisture came to the parlour: this expe- dient had the desired effect. But, though the rot in the parlour Avas totally stopped, the evil soon ap- peared in the closet, Avhere fungi of a yelloAV colour arose in various parts. In the autumn of the year 1786, the closet Avas locked up about ten Aveeks : on opening it, numerous excrescences Avere ob- served about the lower part; a white mould Avas spread by a plant resembling a vine, or sea-A\eed; DRY 395 and the whole of the inside, china, &c. was covered with a fine pow- der of the colour of brick dust. On cleaning out the closet, it Avas discovered that the disease had af- fected the wood so far as to extend through every shelf, and the brack- ets that supported them. In the beginning ofthe year 1787, he de- termined to strip the whole closet of lining and floor, not to leave a particle of the wood behind, and also to dig, and take aAvay, about two feet of the earth in depth, and leave the Avails to dry, so as to de- stroy the roots or seeds of the evil. When, by time, the admission of air, and good brushing, it had be- come properly dry and cleansed, he filled it of sufficient height for the joists, Avith anchor-smith's ashes; because no vegetable will grow in them. The joists being saAved off to their proper lengths, and fully prepared, they and the plates were avcII charred, and laid upon the ashes ; particular directions being given, that no scantling or board might be cut or planed in the place, lest any dust or shavings might drop among the ashes. The flooring-boards being very dry, he caused them to be laid close, to prevent the dust getting doAvn, which, perhaps, in the course of time, might bring on vegetation. The framing of the closet was then fixed up, having all the loAverpan- nels let in, to be fastened Avith but- tons only, so that, if any vegeta- tion should arise, the pannels might with ease be taken out, and exa- mined. In some situations, it might be expedient and necessary to take out a greater depth of earth ; and where ashes can be had from a foundery, they may be substituted for those of anchor-smiths; but 396 D U C D U C house-ashes are by no means to be depended upon. At the expiration of seven years from the period of making this experiment, the wainscot was re- moved, and the flooring - boards also taken up, Avhen they were found entirely free from any ap- pearance of the rot: two pieces of wood (yelloiv fir) which had been driven into the Avail as plugs, Avith- out being previously charred, were alone affected with this disease. DUCK, the Common Wild, or Anas bosckas, L. an aquatic fowl, from Avhich the common tame sorts derive their origin. This bird frequents the lakes of different countries, and feeds upon frogs and several sorts of insects. The wild-ducks pair in the spring; build their nests among rushes near the water, and lay from ten to six- teen eggs. The mallard, or drake, though it varies in colours, ahvays retains the curled feathers of the tail, and both sexes the form ofthe bill. Wild-ducks abound particularly in Lincolnshire, Avhere great num- bers are taken annually in the de- coys, which, in that county, are commonly set at a certain rent, from 5 to 20/. a year ; and there is a decoy in Somersetshire, which is rented at 30/. The birds of the former county principally contribute to the supply of the London mar- kets ; as surprizing numbers of ducks, Avidgeons, he. are annually taken. The situation proper for a decoy, should be chosen Avhere there is a large pond surrounded with Avood, in a maid.y and uncultivated coun- try. As soon as the evening sets in, the decoy rises, as it is termed, and the wild-fowl feed during the night. This rising is, in Somer- setshire, called roading. The de- coy-ducks are fed with hemp-seed, which is throAvn over the screens, in small quantities, to bring them forwards into the pip's or canals, and to allure the Avild-foAvl to fol- low ; this seed being so light as to float. There are several pipes that lead up a narroAV ditch, at the extre- mity of which is a funnel-net.... Over these pipes (which are nar- roAver from their first entrance), is a continued arch of netting sus- pended on hoops. It is necessary to have a pipe or ditch for almost every wind that may bloAV ; as it depends upon this circumstance to Avhich pipe the birds will resort; and the decoy-man always keeps on the leeAvard side of the ducks, to prevent his effluvia reaching their sagacious nostrils. Along each pipe, at certain intervals, are placed skreens constructed of reeds, which are so arranged, that it is impos- sible the wild-fowl should see the decoy-man, before they have pass- ed towards the end of the pipe, Avhere the purse-net is placed. The Avild-foAvl are induced to go up one of these pipes, because the decoy- ducks, trained to this, lead the Avay, either after hearing the Avhistle of the decoy-man, or be- ing enticed by the hemp-seed ; they v. ill then dive under water, Avhile the wild-foAvl fly on, and are taken in the purse. It often happens, however, that the wild birds are in such a lethar- gic state, that they will not folloAv the decoy-ducks. Recourse is then generally had to a dog trained for the purpose : he passes backwards and forwards between the reed- skreens ; this attracts the eye of the wild-fowl, and they advance towards the animal to drive him DUC D U C 397 aAvay. At length, the decoy-man appears behind a skreen, and the wild-birds not daring to pass by him in return, nor being able to effect their escape upwards, on ac- count of the net-covering, rush on into the purse-net. Tame ducks are very useful for destroying the black caterpillars, snails, or slugs, which infest tur- nip fields: hence, if they are turn- ed into such fields, they will de- vour all the insects, and do no in- jury to the crop. It is remarkable, that ducks are extremely fond of the entrails of other animals, and almost every kind of filth. Hence their flesh, though much relished by the epi- cure, is of a strong alkaline flavour, and not easy of digestion. Those who are afflicted with ulcers, or cu- taneous eruptions, as Avell as inva- lids and convalescentswbo are liable to eructations, ought carefully to abstain from this enticing, but hurt- ful food. If a small quantity of a roasted duck must nevertheless be eaten, it ought to be mixed, during mastication, with a considerable proportion of toasted bread, or bis- cuits, to absorb and sheath the acri- mony Avhich it contains. It is, hoAv- ever, equally absurd and injurious to take drams of spirituous liquors after eating such meat; for, instead of assisting the digestive organs, this momentary stimulus cannot fail ultimately to relax them ; hence drinking should for a feAv minutes be delayed, and afterwards, water or beer may be used, in very small draughts, which will not inundate and weaken the stomach. [Thewhite back, or canvass-back duck, is more extolled for the deli- cious flavour of its flesh, than any other of'the whole order of water foAvl. It breeds in the north and north-west regions of the United States ; and arrives on the Atlan- tic coast, toAvards the end of au- tumn. There they remain until the approach of warm Aveather..... They are not found north of the Chesapeak bay : and are chiefly confined to the waters of the Sus- quehannah and Potomac. Former- ly they were common on James's River, in Virginia, but lately they have deserted it altogether. This abandonment of residence, is sup- posed to be OAving to a failure of the particular food which formerly invited them there. This consists of the roots of a coarse long grass, Avhich grows in the before mention- ed rivers, higher toAvard their sources, than the saltwater extends. And these roots which are large, suc- culent, and resemble those of celle- ry, are procured by diving. So poAverful an effect has this food upon them, that one week before they begin to feed on this grass, their flesh is not in the least differ- ent from that of common ducks. And whenever ice covers the fresh Avater of the Susquehannah, and Potowmac, and forces the canvass- backs to leave their feeding place, and go down to the salt Avater of the Chesapeak, they soon become lean, and their fiesh loses all the excellence of relish for which it is so highly prized. Med. Rep. Method of fattening ducks in France. The ducks are of that kind called in patois Mule Ducks, which do not generate, and are produced by the great Indian drake and the com- mon duck. In the autumn when tolerably fat, they are shut up eight by eight in a dark place, and cram- med with boiled corn. They some- times are suffocated, but if they are 398 D U C DUE soon bled, they are not the worse for it. They pass fifteen clays in a state of oppression and suffocation, whichmakes their livers grow large: when the tail spreads out like a fan, they are fat enough : they are then turned out to bathe, after Avhich they are killed. Two days after killing, they are opened beloAv, and their wings and legs taken off, and the flesh cover- ing the rump and stomach. The whole is put into a salting tub, with the neck and end of the rump, and left covered Avith salt for fifteen days ; after which they are cut into four quarters and put into the pot. They are first seasoned with cloves and other spices put in them..... Some leaves of Spanish laurel and a little salt-petre having been put in the brine to give the meat a red colour. The salt of Salice is much better than common sea salt; and it is OAving to this salt that the hams of Bigorre and Beam have acquired their reputation.] DUCK's-MEAT, or Lemna, L. a genus of plants consisting of four species, all of which are natives of this country, and grow abundantly in ponds, ditches, and stagnant waters. They are in flower from June to September, and afford a grateful food to ducks and geese, from Avhich circumstance this vege- table has received its name. In Germany, it is, on account of its various economical uses, of- ten cultivated, by removing the Avhole plant in pails, and putting it in stagnant waters. When min- gled with bran, it affords excellent food for geese and other poultry. In Thuringia, hogs are reared and fattened Avith a mixture of duck's- meat, bran, and ground barley.... But the most profitable employ- ment of this vegetable, we learn from Bechstein, who informs us, that « from these apparently use- less fibrous roots, a yam may be spun, which is equal to that ob- tained from flax." Duck's-meat is of a coolingemol- lient nature, and has therefore been applied to inflammations, erysipe- las, or the shingles; and also to the gout, either alone or mixed with barley-meal. Country people some- times employ it for removing the jaundice : hence they infuse it in white wine, to the quantity of six ounces, to be taken nine days suc- cessively, at the end of which pe- riod, it is said to have effected a cure. DUEL, a single combat,on some private occasion or quarrel, in con- sequence of a challenge. Taking aAvay the life of a per- son, by deliberate duelling, is, by the law of this country, a species of murder ; and consequently, it charges the crime and inflicts the punishment of homicide on the prin- cipals, and likewise, according to the nature of the case, on their seconds. It has also been enacted, that challenges to fight, whether by word or letter, as well as the car- rying of such messages, are pun- ishable by fine and imprisonment. And, if they arise from gambling, the offender, by the 9 Anne, c. 14, incurs the forfeiture of all his goods to the Crown, and an imprison- ment for five years. Such, however, has been the prevalence of fashion, that neither the terror of severe penalties, nor any other consideration, have been able to abolish a practice so unjus- tifiable, and, at the same time, so unbecoming every person who as- pires to the character of a rational agent. It must, nevertheless, be acknoAvledged, that neither duel- DUM DUN 399 ling with weapons, nor boxing, is in such repute at present as it was a few years since ; and Ave trust, that from the good sense of indi- viduals, and the Aigilance of the law, it Avill in a short time be com- pletely abolished. DUMBNESS, is the privation, or want, of the faculty of speech. This unfortunate defect proceeds chiefly from total and native deaf- ness ; if it arise from a deficiency in the organs necessary for utter- ing sounds, it is always incurable. Several instances, however, have occurred of persons born deaf, Avho have been taught to speak distinct- ly ; to read, write, understand arithmetic, kc. The most eminent teachers of the dumb in this country, were, 1. Dr. Wallis, who, in the 61st number of the Philosophical Transactions, gives an account of two persons he had taught to speak ; and, in the 25th number of the same work, his method is explained. 2. Mr. Thomas Braidwood, late of Edinburgh, who is perhaps the first person that ever brought the surprizing art of imparting speech to dumb persons to any de- gree of perfection. He first com- menced bis useful labours in 1764, and, in the course of a feAv years, enabled many to speak, Asrite, &c. We regret that Ave cannot commu- nicate a clear idea of his method, which indeed will not admit of be- ing so fully explained in Avriting, as to enable any person to teach it....Mr. B. used to pronounce first the sound of a, sloAvly, at the same time pointing out the figure of that letter, and making his pupil watch the motion of his mouth and throat; he then put his finger into the pu- pil's mouth, depressing or elevat- ing his tongue, and making him keep the parts in that position. Next, he laid hold of the outside of the wind-pipe, and squeezed it in a certain direction, Avhich Ave confess ourselves utterly unable to describe. While he was pronounc- ing the letter a, his pupil was anx- iously imitating him, uncertain of, or rather not comprehending, the nature of the sound he was requir- ed to utter. In this manner, Mr. Braidavood proceeded, till his ty- ro learned to pronounce the sounds of the different letters of the al- phabet. Mr. B. then continued in the same order to join A-owels and consonants, till at length his pupil was enabled both to speak and read. It would be injustice to omit mentioning the labours of the very ingenious Abbe L'Epee, of Ber- lin, Avho has deservedly acquired great celebrity by his method of" teaching dumb persons to speak, by signs or characters. For an account of his plan, we must refer our readers to the "New Memoirs of the Royal Academy of Sciences," he. of Berlin for the year 1795, (" Nouveaux Memoires de L'Acaele- mie Roy ale," he.) in which they Avill find a short account confirmed by facts. DUNG, properly signifies the excrements of animals, together with the litter. It likeAvise com- prehends Avhatever Avill ferment with soil, such as the green stalks of leaves and plants, Avhen buried in the earth, Sec. The value and use of the dung of most animals, are sufficiently proved by experience. Much, however, depends on adapting the various kinds of dung to different soils, the defects of Avhich are as unlike as the dung employed to 4-00 DUN DUN improve them : some lands are too cold, moist, and heavy ; others are too light and dry ; to ameliorate which, there is hot and light dung, such as that of horses, sheep, pige- ons, S;c. as also fat and cooling, viz. that of oxen, hogs, and the like. The quality of the clung of dif- ferent animals depends in a great measure on the richness, or pover- ty, of their food. Thus, if cattle be fed on lint, rape, or other oily seeds, it will be of the most ferti- lizing nature : the dung obtained from those kept on oil-cake, is next in value ; then succeeds the ma- nure produced from animals sub- sisting on turnips, carrots, pars- nips, potatoes, or other succulent roots ; next in effect, is that result- ing from the best hay ; after which follows that of cattle supplied with ordinary hay ; and the poorest is that obtained from straw....It de- serves to be remarked, that the dung olfat animals is unquestion- ably richer, and consequently con- tributes more to fertilization, than that of lean creatures; Avhich, if worked hard, and fed on straAV, " is poor indeed." In the county of Middlesex, where all the produce of land is sold at very high prices in the markets ofthe metropolis, the soil is kept in good heart, by the im- mense quantities of dung which are brought in the carts on their return ; because no cattle, though fed in home-stalls, can produce fo large a supply. But, in counties that are more remote from Lon- don, the most effectual mode of manuring, in the opinion of Mr. Middleton, consists in raising green crops, for the purpose of feeding sheep and bullocks on the land. This, says he, is the only method, by Avhich the loss of near- ly all their urine can be prevented : for there is a great waste, equal perhaps to one half, in the stables, cow-houses, sheds, fold-yards, and dung-hills of farms, even though conducted in the most careful man- ner ; but, in those Avhich are under ordinary management, such loss amounts to three-fourths; whereas no waste can possibly arise, Avhen cattle are soiled on tares, clover, Sec. in the field; the whole being immediately applied to the amelio- ration of the land, without incur- ring the expence of conveyance... We do not pretend to decide on the practicability of this plan ; which, in many situations, may be applicable to a considerable extent, and attended Avith great advanta- ges : on the other hand, we are firmly persuaded, nay convinced from the experience of able and successful farmers on the Conti- nent, that stall-feeding, with cut hay and straw, is the greatest of all improvements made in modern hus- bandi~y. Dung possesses tAvo remarkable properties, one of which is to pro- duce a sensible heat, greatly pro- moting vegetation ; the other is, to fatten and render the soil more fer- tile. The first of these is seldom to be found, unless in the dung of horses, or mules ; the great ef- fects of Avhich, when newly made, and somewhat moist, are conspicu- ous in our kitchen gardens, where it invigorates and gives neAv life to every plant, supplying the absence of the sun, and affording us all the vegetable delicacies of the spring. Horse-dung, however, is equal- ly excellent for steril and poor lands ; but, if it be used Avhen too new, or be laid on alone, it is to some soils very pernicious ; or, if DUN DUN 401 it be spread too thinly on dry lands during the summer, it proves of very little service ; its fertilizing properties being absorbed by the sun, Avhich renders it little more than a heap of stubble, or dry thatch. Hence, horse-dung is best calcu- lated for cold ground, while that of coavs is adapted solely to a hot one : when mixed together, or with mud, both form an excellent manure for either of those soils. The dung of deer, and sheep, differs but little as to its properties, and is in the estimation of some agriculturists, the most proper for cold clays : with this intention it should be pulverized, and spread thinly over the autumnal or spring crops, in the proportion of four or five loads per acre, in the same manner as ashes, malt-dust, &c. are strewed. Hog's-dung is supposed to be fatter and richer than that of any other animal; and has been found to be the most serviceable to ap- ple, pear, and other fruit-trees. It is also particularly excellent for grass, one load of it being said to be more beneficial than two of any other manure. The dung of pigeons and hens contributes greatly to improve mea- dow and corn-lands. The former is, Avithout exception, the richest that can be laid on arable soils ; but previously to being used, it ought to be' exposed to the air for a short space of time, in order to exhale part of its fiery ingredients. It is, in general, very proper for cold clay-lands, but should be care- fully dried before it is spread : be- ing apt, during wet Aveather, to clod together in lumps....Thedung of poultry, is of a heating nature, abounds with salts, and greatly VOL. 11, tends to promote vegetation ; it is more speedy in its operations, than that of animals, feeding on the leaves ofplants. Goose-dung is a very valuable and useful manure to the husband- man. Besides its fertilizing pro- perties, when laid on land, the dung of these birds contributes to the fattening of sheep ; and it is a circumstance deserving notice, that cattle, and sheep in particular, are most partial to, and fatten best, on those pastures on which the largest quantity of goose-dung has been dropped. However excellent dung is from its own nature, it acquires additi- onal vigour, if mixed with lime, in the proportion of one-fourth of the latter to three-fourths of the former. By this means a smal- ler quantity of manure is consum- ed ; the seeds of weeds, where this composition is laid on, are effectu- ally destroyed ; and the fermenta- tion of the dung promoted, which consequently heightens its fertiliz- ing properties....See Manure. [>' The sorts of dung which are, or may be used, are that of black cattle, sheep, horses, sAvine, goats, hens, pigeons, ducks, geese and rabbits, besides human ordure. The dung of sheep is more hot and fiery than that of black cattle; it ferments quicker; it is fitter therefore for cold, heavy lands. Perhaps the best way of applying the dung of sheep to land is by fold- ing, in countries especially which are not infested by wolves. For in this method their urine is all saved, as well as their dung. But it ought to be turned in Avith the plough as soon as possible, that the sun and air may not deprive the land of it. 3 F 402 DUN In Flanders it is the practice to house their sheep at night, under slight sheds, the ground being spread with dry sand, about four or five inches thick, laying on a little more fresh every night. This is cleared out once a week, and car- ried to a dung-hill, or applied to the soil. This mixture of sand and hot dung, makes a very excellent dressing for cold and stiff land. For there is scarcely a richer ma- nure than the dung and urine of sheep. M. Quintinie thinks it the greatest promoter of fruitfulness, in all sorts of ground. This me- thod of folding sheep in a covered fold, and of mixing their dung with earth or sand, according to the na- ture of the soil it is intended for, is also, with much reason, recom- mended by Mr. Mortimer; who says, " that he has known vast crops of rye upon barren lands, that have been old warrens, well dunged by rabbits, and large oak and ash trees upon the same, though the soil was very shallow." Too much can hardly be said in praise of the Flanders method of using sheep's dung. A prodigi- ous quantity of good manure maybe thus obtained from a flock of sheep. If a light soil is intended to be manured with this compost, instead of sand, clay, pond-mud, or the mud of flats may be used, these sub- stances having been first mellowed by the frosts of winter. Horse-dung is a still hotter ma- nure, as appears by its quick fer- mentation in heaps, even in cool Weather. It is consequently fittest for hot beds, when it is new, and for nourishing those plants which require the greatest degrees of heat. The dung of horses that are fed on grain, is a richer ma- nure than those fed on only grass and hay. DUN Great care should be taken that horse-dung be not spoiled, by being over heated, or burnt in the heaps, before it is used. For in this coun- try it is very commonly the case. When it has been so heated as to give it a white and mouldy appear- ance, the virtue of it is gone. It is difficult to give it age, Avithout mixing it with other substances. A mixture of horse and cow-dung is very proper for land that is nei- ther too light nor too stiff. Mr. Miller says, he has frequent- ly seen new horse-dung buried as it came from the stable, in very cold, moist land, and always observed that the crops have succeeded bet- ter than where the ground was dressed with very rotten dung. The dung of swine is a very rich and fat manure, and so cool as to ferment very slowly. It is so rich and oily, as to be double in value to neats' dung. It will ren- der the most dry and hungry soils exceedingly fruitful in a wettish season, as I have found by experi- ence. It resists the ill effects of drought, and does most service in a hot country. By its steady and gradual supply of a rich nourish- ment, it is peculiarly adapted for the growing of hops, pumpions, running beans, and every plant which has long vines. Nothing can equal it for the growing of po- tatoes. This is so strong a manure, that it ansAvers well, when mixed with a large proportion of earth, weeds, straw, or other bibulous sub- stances. It is almost incredible hoAv great a quantity of good ma- nure may be obtained, by supplying a hog-sty with rubbish to mix with the dung. I have heard of 40 loads of manure being made a year by one hog-sty. " The dung of ducks and gee^e is deemed too hot and burning. DUN DUN 403 But if the farmer would gather it in a heap, and mix it with the dung of cattle, he would bring it to a temperate heat, and draw from it such advantage as would indemnify him for the pains he should take. The virtue of this method is knoAvn by experience. A farmer having abandoned a piece of ground to his geese for twelve years, afterwards turned them out to let the grass grow, and it rose so thick and strong that a scythe would scarcely pass through it. Hen-dung is scattered in small quantities upon land in- tended to be sown, but on account of its heat it is never used, unless when rain is foreseen. It is an excellent manure for meadows..... Pigeon's dung is much the same with that of poultry, the only dif- ference being its superior heat." Scots Farmer. I should think it better to mix the dung of poultry and pigeons with other substances, to allay their heat, before they are applied to the soil. And thus qualified, they would be an excellent top-dressing for corn, especially in cold and wet lands. Human ordure is a very fat and hot manure, full of fertilizing salts; and therefore extremely pro- per for all cold, sour soils; especial- ly if it be mixed with other dung, straw or earth, to give it a ferment- ation, and render it convenient for carriage. Some do not like the use of it, on account of its bad smell; and others imagine, that it gives a fetid taste to plants. But in this they seem to carry their delicacy too far. Mr. Bradley says, " it is kept in pits made on purpose, in foreign countries, till it he one, tAvo, three, or four years old: That of'four years old is accounted the best, that of three years tolerable. Perhaps it may owe great part of its richness to the urine Avith which it is mixed; for though the human urine be destructive to vegetables, whilst it is neAv, by reason of its burning sal-ammoniacal spirit, as Glauber terms it, yet time will di- gest the urine, and render it an ex- traordinary fetilizer of every kind of soil." Complete Farmer. As dung in general is so import- ant a manure, every possible me- thod should be taken to prevent its being wasted, as indeed a great proportion of it is by the common management of our farmers. In no way is it more wasted, than by its being too much exposed to the sun, air, and rains. Mixing of dry earth, or oth er absorbent substances, with heaps of dung, will do much towards preventing this loss. Or slight sheds may be made over them, to prevent their strength be- ing too much wasted by heavy rains; and at the same time, to pre- vent a too great exhalation from them. Some cover them with turfs, when they choose to keep dung till it be old. This is not a bad prac- tice ; for the turfs in that situation -will become good manure. I would hope farmers need not be told, that the grassy side should be laid on the dung. Some build cellars under their barns, and throw the dung through scuttles down into them, to keep it from the Aveather. This is a far more expensive method than Avhat I have recommended. For it is necessary in order to save the ma- nure, that the cellar wall be Avell pointed; and also that a hard under stratum form the floor, cr that a tight artificial floor be made. The dung in this situation Avill mellow the faster, for not being exposed to any severe frost. And a cellar may be so contrived, that a cart may be driven in at one end, and out at the 404 DUN DUN other, Avhich may render the re- moving it easy. I Avish not to dis- courage any who are willing to put themselves to the expense that at- tends this method. Some caution should be observ- ed, that the strength of dung may not be diminished by shoveling and carting it in weather that is hot, dry and Avindy. If it be performed when the Aveather is calm and cloudy, its volatile parts will not evaporate, in any considerable de- gree. When it needs fermenting in the field before spreading, or put- ting into holes, which is the case of neAv dung carted from large heaps, the small heaps in the field should be thinly covered with a lit- tle earth. It will not hinder the fermentation, but will prevent its evaporation. When the farmer has carted his dung-heaps away from the sides of his barn, he should take up an inch or two ofthe surface of the ground beneath; because much of the strength ofthe dung and stale has passed into it, and made it a good manure. When dung is applied to tillage- land by folding, it should be mixed Avith the soil, by the plough or the harrow, every tAvo or three days, if the weather be dry. Or it may be done with the hoe or shovel. In cloudy or rainy weather, it will not need mixing so often. If this me- thod be observed, much -will be saved : And half the time that \ ards are commonly folded, v ill, if I mistake not,be sufficient to lit them to produce a gcod cro.3. Our farmers seem to think it a matter of great importance to put dung in holes under the seed, es- pecially to produce a crop of In- dian-corn. Nothing makes this te- dious and laborious method need- ful, unless it be a scarcity of ma- nure, as less will answer for one single crop, than is required in the other way. The corn does not commonly come up so well, and it is more in danger of being destroy- ed by Avorms. If six or eight loads of dung will cause an acre to ' produce more corn when put in holes, than if it were ploughed in, as it undoubtedly will; yet it should be remembered, the land will not be in so good heart the year following; will not produce so good a crop of grain, nor be in so good order to lay down to grass. So that per- haps, in a course of crops, it may be found that the labour of dung- ing in the holes may be spared, excepting, perhaps, in green sward ground. If so, the farmer might redeem time by it, and at a sea- son when his hurry of business is greatest. I may add that new dung is not so suitable to put in holes, as that which has lain a year in heaps. Bit it has more virtue, and will add more strength to the soil; for it is next to impossible to keep clung till it is old without some waste. And this may afford another good reason for laying aside the practice of dunging in holes. N.E. Farn.er.'] Dung-hills, or Dung-meers, in husbandry, are places, Avhere soil or dung is collected, mixed with other putrefactive ingredients, and left to digest together. For this purpose, the usual practice is, to dig a pit of sufficient depth to contain the stock of soil which the husbandman maybe able to collect. Into this pit are throAvn the refuse of fodder, litter, dung, Aveeds, he. Avhich lie there, and rot, till the farmer may have occasion to make use of the compost. Dr. Dar- win, however, proposes to placeN the heap of manure or dung on a DUN DUN 405 gently-rising eminence, with a ba- son beneath, in order that the su- perfluous water, which Avould other- wise prevent the fermentation of the straw, may drain off, and be collected. He adds, that some earth, Aveeds, leaves, saw-dust, or other vegetable or animal recre- ment, should be thrown into the bason, which will thus promote the fermentation and putrefaction of the substances it contains, while the draining from the dung-heap will not be dissipated. This, doubtless, is a more ra- tional plan of constructing dung- hills, as the alkaline liquor thus collected, may farther be advanta- geously employed, for steeping Avheat, or other seed-corn ; which, in consequence of such saturation, Avill vegetate more luxuriantly, and yield a more abundant harvest. The following judicious method of raising dung-hills, is practised in the county of Middlesex: it justly claims the attention of those farmers, who find it necessary to collect dung, for the use of their lands....First, all the scrapings of roads, the mud of ponds and ditch- es, and the top-mould from gravel- pits, are spread in the most con- venient places, as bottoms for dung- hills. On these strata is carted the whole of the dung, produced on their own farms, together with all that can be procured from the metropolis, and the different inns on the road; to which are some- times added chalk, ashes, soap- boilers' Avaste, brick-layer's rub- bish, he. In this state, the heap remains till within a month of the time for spreading manure on the land; when the whole is turned, and in- timately mixed; the larger/dods are then broken into small pieces, while such as may be too dry, are throAvn into the middle. Thus treated, the mass unites more per- fectly ; and the putrefaction will be completed, while the matters continue in a heap. By this mode of forming the basis of dung-hills, the fertilizing liquor (that distills from the clung during the fermen- tation and heat which necessarily take place) is effectually preserved, and contributes greatly to the ame- lioration of the soil. [Dunghills may be tended, and augmented at odd times, when no other business stands in the Avay. That at the back-door especially may be very easily made up, of a variety of rich and fertilizing in- gredients, besides dung ; such as the scrapings of the yard after rain ; soot and ashes ; shells, lime and bones ; the sweepings of the kitchen; oil dregs, and any fat things; woollen rags; bloody water, in which meat or fish has been washed ; greasy water ; suds ; ash- es, although the ley has been drawn from them; old useless brine; urine ; and in short, any animal or even vegetable substance that has not too much acid. Or even acids, if they be over balanced by plenty of alkaline substances. To prevent the heaps being too much torn and spread about by swine, or by the scratching of dung-hill fowls, the heaps may.be included in pens made with Avide boards; or some rocks may be laid round them, to prevent their eva- porating; as well as under them, to prevent their soaking into the earth. The heaps should have such a degree of moisture as best pro- motes fermentation and corrup- tion. A cavity may be made close to the loAver side of the heap, to receive the superfluous moisture as 406 D W A it runs from it, after rain; and this liquid, highly impregnated Avith the strength of the manure, should be thrown from time to time, on the top of the heaps Avith a scooping shovel. In a Avet season, the heaps will need some slight sheds over them. Heaps about the bam or cow- yard, may be augmented with some of the nearest earth, swamp-mud, straw, w eeds, &c. those of the hog- sty with the same, together with the dung of foAvls, or other hot manures, as the dung of swine is naturally cold.....But the farmer should acquaint himself with the nature of the different manures ; and ahvays let that ingredient in his heaps be predominant, which is best adapted to correct and melior- ate the soil on which it is to be laid. If it be destined for a sandy soil, clay will be an excellent ingredi- ent in the composition ofthe heaps. If it be designed to lay on a clayey soil, sand is proper. The heaps will not ferment so fast as they ought, unless they be shoveled over once or twice in a summer. By such operations they Avill be more thoroughly mix- ed and mellowed, and the sooner be fit for use. The seeds of weeds in them will vegetate, and be des- troyed...•A'". E. Farmer."] Dwale : See Deadly Night- shade. DWARF-TREES, a kind of diminutive fruit-trees, frequently planted in the borders of gardens, and so denominated from their Ioav stature. Dwarf-trees were formerly in great request, but have been much neglected since the introduction of espaliers. The method of propa- gating dwarf-pears, which have been found to succeed better than DYE any other dwarfs, is as follows: They are to be grafted on a quince- stock, about six inches abov7e the ground; and, as soon as the bud has sprouted so far as to have four eyes, it is to be stopped, in order that lateral branches may shoot forth. Two years after budding, the trees will be ready to be trans- planted to the spot where they are to remain. They should be set at the distance of 25 or 30 feet square, and the intermediate space may be soAvn or planted Avith culinary herbs, while the trees are young ; but such herbs are not to be placed too near their roots, Avhich Avould thus be obstructed in their groAvth. Stakes are next to be driA'en around the tree, to which the branches of it are to be nailed Avith list, while young: being trained in an hori- zontal direction, and no branches being afterwards permitted to in- tersect each other : in shortening the roots, the uppermost eye should ahvays be left outwards. The sum- mer and autumn pears thrive most luxuriantly, when planted in this manner, but the winter pears do not succeed. Apples are also sometimes culti- vated as dwarfs ; for which pur- pose they are generally grafted on paradise stocks. These do not spread their branches so widely as pears, and therefore require to be set only 8 feet apart. Some gar- deners also rear dwarf-apricots and plums, which, hoAvever, being less handy than either apples or pears, seldom thrive when set ac- cording to this method. Dwarf-bay : See Mezereon. Dway-berries : See Deadly Nightshade. DYEING, generally signifies, the art of tinging cloth, stuff, or other matter, with a permanent DYE colour, by penetrating its sub- stance. It is, however, usually confined to the art of imparting different colours to wool, silk, linen, and cloth. The materials for dyeing are so various and numerous, that our li- mits oblige us to be concise. The same difference, indeed, prevails among the dyeing, as among the colouring matters. Some ingredi- ents produce durable colours, which cannot be discharged, either by ex- posure to air, or by washing with soap. Others, though they may Avithstand the action of soap, can- % not resist that of the air. These are distinguished by the different appellations of true and false, per- manent and fading, he. ; nor has any method been hitherto disco- vered, of imparting to false colours a durability, equal to that of the true ones. This object has often been at- tempted, by combining a perma- nent with a fading colour, in the expectation that the former would communicate some portion of its durability to the latter ; which ne- vertheless uniformly faded, leav- ing the cloth dyed with the perma- nent colour. In some cases, how- ever, which have been already ex- plained, the volatile colour imparts its property to that which would otherAvise continue in a fixed state. A solution of tin in aqua regia will, it is affirmed, give to many of the fading colours a high degree of beauty, and some portion of du- rability, though much inferior to the others. The most permanent dyes we have, are cochineal and gum-lac, for fine red and scarlet colours; indigo and woad, for blue ; and, .when mixed with different propor- tions of cochineal, or gum-lac, for DYE 407 purple and violet colours. Dyers- Aveed, and some other vegetables, for yelloAV ; and madder for coarse reds, purples, and blacks. The fading colours are far more numer- ous, and include Brazil-Avood, log- wood, red-wood, fustic, turmeric- root, anotto, archil, he. The whole of the operative part of dyeing depends on the applica- tion of certain colours, which the Avorkmen call primitive, and which are five in number, namely, blue, red, yellow, fawn, or root-colour, and black. Each of these furnishes a variety of intermediate shades, both according to the nature of the ingredients, and the acid or alka- line substances Avith which they are mixed. Tavo only of these five colours, should be prepared with ingredients producing no colour of themselves; but which, by their peculiar acidity, and the fineness of the earth they contain, dispose the pores of the substance to re- ceive the dye. The colours which more particularly require such auxiliary process, are red and yel- Ioav, together with those derived from them. Black is obtained by a particular preparation; but blue and fivwn colour require none, at least for avooI ; it being only ne- cessary to scour and soak this sub- stance Avell; then to immerse it in the dyeing vat, stirring it Avell about, and permitting it to remain for a longer or shorter time, in pro- portion as the colour is intended to be more or less deep....The ingre- dients used in dyeing blue consist of pastel, woad, and indigo. 1. Pastel (Latis tinctoria), ig prepared by gathering it when ripe, suffering it to rot, and then Avork- ing it up into balls for drying ; which weigh in general from 150 to 200 pounds, aud resemble a 408 DYE DYE collection of small dry lumps of earth, intermixed with the fibres of plants. In order to extract the colour, it is necessary to provide large wooden vats, from 12 to 16 feet in diameter, and 6 or 7 feet high, or of a magnitude propor- tioned to the quantity intended to be used. The preparation of the blue-vat is the most difficult pro- cess in the art of dyeing; and the practical directions given by those who understand it, are either de- fective, or mis-stated. The copper- cauldron should be placed as near to the vat as possible, and filled with pond-Avater; to which if it be not sufficiently putrid, may be add- ed 2 or 3 pounds of hay, together Avith 8 pounds of brown madder, or of the bark of the root. The fire should be lighted about three o'clock in the morning, and the mixture boil for an hour and a half, or tAvo hours, when the li- quor is, by means of a spout, con- veyed into the vat, in which a peck of Avheaten bran is previously in- fused. The pastel-balls are next to be put in, separately, while the liquor is running into the vat, in order that they may be the more easily broken and stirred v. ith the rake, Avhich is a semi-circular Avooden instrument, having a long handle. The mixture is occasi- onally agitated, till the vat has re- ceived all the hot liquor; and, as soon as the vessel is nearly half full, it should be covered with a lid, somewhat larger than its OAvn cir- cumference. A cloth should be likeAvise thrown over it, in order to confine the heat; alter Avhich the whole should be suffered to sub- side for four hours ; Avhen it ought to be uncovered, in order to give it stir, and to mix it thoroughly. No lime, as is generally, though falsely directed by dyers, should be put into the vat, but a small air-hole left on the top: the stirring and agitation may once more be re- peated, at the expiration of three or four hours. If the ingredients, after these operations, be not yet ready and come to, that is, if the blue does not rise to the surface, but conti- nues to foam, it will then be neces- sary, after working the mixture well, to let it stand an hour and a half longer; care being taken dur- ing that time to observe it minute- ly, in case it should cast blue. The vat is then to be filled up Avith Ava- ter, and a sufficient quantity of in- digo, dissolved in a ley of pot-ash, pure Avater, bran and madder. The vat being again covered, at the end of three hours a pattern is to be immersed in the liquor for a similar space of time, when it is to be taken out, to inspect the state of the vat. This pattern, when first taken out, should be of a green co- lour, but instantly turn blue; if the green be bright and good, the vat is to be stirred again, and then covered up, with the addition of a feAv handfuls of bran. Three hours after, the same operation is to be repeated, Avith the addition of moi e bran, if necessary, Avhen it is to be covered up for an hour and a half longer ; and, as soon as it subsides, another specimen is tobe immersed in it for an hour, Avhen it must be examined, to ascertain the state of the pastel. If the former be of a good green, when taken out, and turn suddenly to a deep blue, on being exposed to the air, another pattern is to be put in, to discover the effect of the vat; which, if the colour be sufficiently high, is to be DYE DYE 409 filled with hot water, or (which is preferable, if it can be procured), with the liquor of an old madder- vat, and then stirred again. Now the vat is to be once more covered for an hour; after which the stuffs to be dyed should be immersed. Woad is the next article in the making of a blue colour : the mode of preparing it differs in no respect from the preceding one, just de- scribed, excepting that it is weaker, and yields less colour. Indigo is the last ingredient in dyeing blues. The vat is about 5 feet high, two inches in diameter, and somewhat narrower towards the bottom, being surrounded by a wall, and having a vacancy for the embers. A vat of this size requires from 2 to 5,or even 6lbs. of indigo; and this operation is conducted as follows: 1. About 15 gallons of ri- ver water are put into a copper to boil for about half an hour, together with 21bs. of pot-ash, 2 oz. of mad- der, and a handful of bran. 2. Im- merse 21bs. of indigo in a pail of cold water, in order to separate the solid from the volatile particles, which will immediately rise to the surface. The watery liquor is then poured off, and the indigo, settled at the bottom of the pail, should be triturated in an iron mortar, with the addition of a small quantity of hot water, that ought to be shaken from side to side; and the floating particles of indigo, which are those most finely pounded, must be pour- ed into another vessel. In this manner, the indigo remaining in the mortar is continually reduced, fresh water being repeatedly added, till the whole is pulverized so fine- ly as to rise to the surface. The liquor which had, during the above stated preparation, been boiling in the copper, is iioav pour- VOL. II. ed into the vat, together with the indigo, Avhen the whole is well stirred Avith a rake, the Vat closely cohered, and surrounded with em- bers. If this operation commence in the afternoon, the embers must be renewed in the evening, and also in the morning and evening of the following day, in the course of which it should be twice gently stirred. Similar measures ought to be pursued on the third day, in order to preserve an uniform heat, and intimately mix the ingredients. A brassy scum will then be per- ceived to rise to the surface, in several detached parts: by conti- nuing the heat on the fourth day, the scum becomes more coherent; and the froth, occasioned by stir- ring the liquor, appears blue, Avhile the latter is of a deep green. As soon as it assumes this appearance, the vat should be filled ; for which purpose a fresh liquor must be pre- pared, by putting five gallons of water into a copper, together with a pound of pot-ash, and half an oz. of madder. When these ingre- dients have boiled half an hour, the decoction is poured into the vat, the whole well stirred, and, if it produce much froth, it will be in a proper state for working the next day. This may likewise be ascertained by the brassy or scaly crust, Avhich floats on the surface of the liquor; and, farther, if on blowing, or stirring, the latter with the hand, it assume a deep green colour, while the surface appears of a brownish blue. After the vats have been thus prepared, the dyeing of woollen or silken stuffs is very easy; no other process being required, than im- mersing them in warm water, Avringing, and then steeping them in the vat for a longer or shorter 3 G 410 DYE time, according to the deepness of the colour intended to be imparted. The stuffs should be occasionally opened, that is, taken out of the vat, Avrung over it, and exposed to the air for a minute or two, till it become blue: for it must be ob- served, that, in all the solutions of indigo, or other dyeing materials above described, the blue colour is produced only by exposure to the air, and the stuff, on being first drawn out of the liquor, always appears green, and will retain that tinge, unless it be exposed" to the air. In dyeing blue, therefore, it is necessary to let the colour thus change previously to a s.cond im- mersion, that the shade may be the better distinguished, as dark blues require to be repeatedly dipped.... The method of dyeing cotton or linen blue, varies so little from that already described, as to render any farther directions unnecessary. A beautiful Saxon-blue, for silk and woollen cloths, may be prepar- ed by gradually pouring from five to eight parts of sulphuric acid on one part of finely pulverized indigo. The mixture must be suffered to stand for 24 hours; at the expira- tion of which, the effervescence will subside ; the solution is then to be diluted Avith water, when it will be fit for dyeing. 2. The next'of the primitive co- lours to be considered is red, of which there are many shades and varieties; but the principal are scarlet, crimson, and madder red. The process to be adopted for ob- taining these colours, essentially differs from that of blues; as the former require a peculiar prepara- tion of the stuffs to be dyed, on the exactness of Avhich, the good- ness of the colour in a great mea- sure depends. These preparatory DYE ingredients consist of alum, tartar, aqua-fortis, or a solution of tin in this acid. Galls and alkaline salts are also sometimes added, though they do not materially contribute to the colour. A fine ejrange-yellow tinge may be imparted to silk or cotton, by grinding anotta on a moistened slab, and boiling it in double its weight of pearl-ash and water: the liquor is then suffered to settle for about half an hour; Avhen it is drawn off, Avhile hot, into a proper vat; and the stuff' immersed, till it acquire the requisite shade. In orderto heighten and fix the colour, it will be proper to dissolve some cream of tartar in hot water, and to add the solution to the liquor, so as to render it slightly acid: af- ter which, the stuff may be rinsed, and dried in the usual manner. There are three kinds of scarlet, namely, that dyed Avith kermes, with cochineal, and a\ ith gum-lac. The first of these, called Vene- tian scarlet, is the most permanent, but the least bright: it is also apt to be less spotted than the others ; but, on account of the difficulty of procuring the insects which afford the colour, it is very seldom, if ever, used in this country. The second kind of scarlet, namely, that dyed Avitli cocluneal, is less permanent than the Vene- tian scarlet, though the drug is procured at a more reasonable price. It is, hoAvever, very difficult to dye the true cochineal scarlet: the success of this operation equally depends upon the choice of the material, the water employed, and the method of preparing a solution of tin, which is the only ingredient by which that delicate colour can be produced. To eight ounces of spirit of nitre, an equal quantity of DYE river-water is to be added; in this mixture are to be gradually dis- solved, half an ounce of the purest and whitest sal-ammoniac, and two drams of purified salt-petre. An ounce of tin, reduced to grains, by being dropped into cold water while melting, is next to be added drop by drop to the liquor thus prepared; the first being perfectly dissolved before a second is intro- duced. The solutfon resembles that of gold, and, if fine tin be em- ployed, willbe perfectly transparent, without any dust or sediment. Wtith this liquor are to be mixed fcuch proportions of cochineal as may be thought proper, and the stuff's dyed in the colour will ac- quire a most beautiful scarkt. 1 he scarlet produced by gum-lac though not so bright as cochineal, is more permanent; the best lac is that which is of a blackish brown colour on the outside, and white Avithin. The process of preparing this colour is very difficult; but the best method, Ave believe, is that of previously mixing the gum with comfrey, or other mucilagi- nous roots. These should be dried, finely pulverized, afterwards boiled for fifteen minutes in the propor- tion of half a dram to a quart of water, then strained through a li- nen cloth while hot, poured upon levigated gum-lac, and passed through a hair-sieve. The whole is then digested in a moderate heat for tAvelve hours ; and the gum re- maining at the bottom should be stirred seven or eight times. The liquor thu3 impregnated Avith a fine crimson colour, is afterwards poui> ed into a vessel, sufficiently capa- cious to hold four times the quanti- ty, and filled up with cold water. C,w adding a small proportion of a k.'.r.'U"; solution of alum, the co- DYE 411 loured mucilage subsides; and, should any tinge remain in the li- quor, it may be precipitated by gradual additions of alum, till it become perfectly colourless. As soon as the crimson mucilage has entirely subsided, the clear AAater must be carefully decanted, the re- mainder filtered, and the fluid parts suffered to evaporate. If the whole of the colour should not be extract- ed by the first operation, it ought to be repeated, till the residuum changes to a pale straw-colour. In order to dye scarlet with this extract of gum-lac, the requisite proportion of the latter dried and pulverized, is to be put into an earthen or block-tin vessel; a little hot water poured upon it; and, when it is well moistened, a proper quantity ofthe composition added; the whole being stirred Avith a glass pestle. By this means the poAvder, which before was of a dark, dusky purple, acquires an exceeding! ■ bright scarlet colour. A solution of the crystals of tartar is then to be poured into the liquor, and as soon as it begins to boil, the cloth is to be repeatedly immersed in i//ow....Alum with argol: then for a fast yellow weld, or querci- tron bark (quercus tinctoria of mi- chaud.) For a false yellow, fustic. Orange and Nankeen....Tiissolve annatto in caustic alkali, and add of this solution to hot water ac- cording to the required tinge : or, For a faster colour, take iron in the nitrous acid, as much as may be sufficient to produce the re- quired tint, and then run the goods through lime water : or, Take the alum liquor with ar- gol, then dye Avith a decoction of mahogany: then run the goods through the tin liquor, and again through the mahogany liquor. The precipitate of platina from AR by sal-ammoniac gives a beauti- ful nankeen, but too dear to be used. Blue.....The fast colours are made by means of the blue vat Avith indigo : the false colours by means ofthe vat of pastel or woad : or by means of vitriolated copper and logwood. The blue vat is made in differ- ent Avays; by caustic alkali; by urine, or by lime alone, and it may be hot or cold. A vat with caustic alkali may be made thus : to a pound of in- digo Avell washed, add 1-A lb. of pearl-ash, and 2 lbs. of lime, fresh- slacked, Avith about 2 glls. of water; boil them for tAvo hours, then add them to about 20 galls, of hot Ava- ter, to which add A lb. of green vitriol, (vitr. iron) and as much red arsenic ; stir it frequently ; when a green froth has risen, it is ready: or, Grind a pound of indigo in urine, fresh or stale; add it to about forty galls, of urine ; stir it with a rake, VOL. II. till the green scum rises, and the indigo appears dissolved. The vat, with lime alone, is not so good. Dip the cloth in this, till the vat be exhausted. The attempts to dye with Prus- sian blue, have not succeeded in point of expence. Saxon blue....Tak.e indigo and grind it Avell, wash it in hot-Avater, till there be no more foulness in the water: to each pound of indigo, add 1 lb. of oil of vitriol, Avhich will not answer the purpose, unless it weighs 29A oz. to the wine pint. This should be made in a glass re- tort, and in a warm place, but not with heat. Green....First dye a yellow, and then a blue. Olive....Take equal parts of alum liquor and iron liquor, and then dye Avith the yellow drugs. Black....lron liquor, with a small quantity of verdigrease; then a dye liquor of about lib. of the drugs, to lib. of avooI ; the drugs being a mixture of madder A, and log-wood -|. The colour is mend- ed, by adding a small quantity of nitrated iron to the mordant, and a small quantity of galls to the drugs: the verdigrease with the log-wood, gives a blue tinge. Lessen the mor- dant in strength, and you get all the shades, approaching to black. dyeing of cotton. Drab....Mordant; alum and cop- peras, in equal parts....Drugs ; fus- tic and sumach. Olive....Mordant,blue vitriol, with copperas, for a greenish olive.... Drugs ; fustic and log-Avood : for a brown or reddish olive,add sumach. Alud....Mordant, alum, and cop- peras....Drag ; sumach. Bloom...Mordant; alum and cop- peras ; or, instead of alum, tin in 3 H 418 DYE DYE spirit of salt....Drugs ; log-wood, and sumach. Purple....Mordant; tin in spir. salt, or aqua regia : drugs; log- wood, if not a blue purple, add bra- ziletto. Chocolate and 2?row»....Vitriolat- ed iron, and fustic ; then vitriolated copper and logwood : or if a bright chocolate is av anted, brazil and the tin mordant. Buffs and Nankeens.....Annatto and fustic : Or for a good and tole- rable fast nankeen, take equal parts of alum and argol, and dissolve them : this will produce a tartarite of alumine, and sulphite of pot-ash. They should be dissolved in as small a quantity of water as may suffice, in 2lbs. of alum and 2lbs. argol to 1A gallon of hot water ; of this solution add a quart to a gallon of hot Avater ; immerse the cotton for an hour; take it out ; immerse it in a hot decoction of mahogany shavings, lib. to the lib. of cotton ; let it simmer till the dye is exhausted ; finish by run- ning it through the tin mordant about A a pint to the gallon of Ava- ter ; then wash off. Fast Buffs....Tinned iron plates dissolved in aquafortis, then raised in lime. Fe//ow....Alum liquor, and a small quantity of verdigrease, with weld or fustic. Grmi....Blue vitriol (vitriolated copper) with fustic and logAvood. Crimson and scarlet....Tin in aqua regia. Then Brazil. Brazil- letto or Nicaragua will not give the required colour. Pink....Sec the process with safflower, above given. Turkey Red....Boil the grey cot- ton for 3 hours in pearl-ash and fish-oil, about an ounce of each, to each pound of cotton, and Ava- ter enough to cover it ; wash it and dry it. Immerse it during ten days in fish-oil. Squeeze or rince it well, and hang it up to dry. Run it through a hot solution of alum, in the proportion of alum, one part; water, forty parts by weight. Then run it through a mixture of coAv-dung and hot Avater. Again through the alum liquor. Then through a decoction of galls or su- mach ; an ounce of galls to the pound of cotton. Then through a dilute solution of glue. Alum it again after washing. Madder it with A a pound of madder to the pound of cotton. Alum it again and madder it again, Avith from A to \ pound of madder more to the pound of cotton. Brighten it by boiling it for half an hour, in a ve- ry Aveak solution of white soap. This colour may be imitated, thus : Boil the grey cotton in pearl-ash and oil, as above. Wash it and dry it. Alum it as above, and then run it through the cow-dung liquor. Wash it. Take the com- mon printers mordant, of alum lib. sugar of lead 2 lbs. water one gal- lon. Dissolve. Add another gal- lon of Avater. Immerse the cotton for a day in this hot solution. Then madder it Avith \ of a pound of madder and one ounce of galls, to the pound of cotton. The above may be relied on." Observations on maddering, tbgc- ther with a simple and certain pro- cess for obtaining with great beau- ty and fixity, that colour, known under the name ofthe Turkey, or Adrianople red: By J.M. Hauss- mann*. Trans, for Tillock's Phil. Mag. I haA'e already indicated in the * From the Annates de Chimie, No. 122, DYE Annates de Chimie*, and the Jour- nal de Phisique, that earths and me- tallic oxides have more or less the property of attracting and retain- ing the colouring parts of vegeta- ble and animal substances; alu- mine and the oxide of iron possess it in a greater degree, than the oxide of tin ; but the attractive force of the latter, far surpasses that of the other earths and metal- lic oxides, in regard to the colour- ing parts of the said substances. Alumine and metallic oxides do not retain, with the same force of adhesion, the colouring parts of all animal and and vegetable sub- stances indiscriminately; that of madder adheres much stronger than those of the other colouring substances, which may be classed in the following order; kermes, cochineal, logwood, yellow India- wood, woad, quercitron, brazil- Avood, red India wood, yeHow ber- ries, he.; the gall-nut, sumach, and other astringent colouring sub- stances, act principally, by means of the gallic acid; and, in regard to their degree of fixity, may be placed immediately after madder : the case is not the same with the Prussic acid, Avhich communicates * We must here mention, that C. Chaptal, minister of the interior, a good judge in matters of this kind, when he communicated these observations.wrote as follows: " C. Haussmann, manufac- turer of printed cotton, at Laglebach, near Colmar, in the department of the Upper Rhine, well known among those chemists, who apply the discoveries of science to improvements in the arts, transmitted to me the annexed Memoir. In my opinion, it will be of utility to make it known in your Annals; and the author, on my re- quest, has consented to its being publish- ed.". ...Note tf the mlitor* tftke Annates de Chimie-. DYE 419 a colour to different metallicoxides, from which it can be separated cold, by alkaline leys. To judge of the fixity of colours arising from animal and vegetable substances, the best method is to employ a ley of oxygenated muri- ate of potash, or soda, with excess of alkaline carbonate. The longer or shorter resistance Avhich the co- lours make in this ley, will indi- cate what they will make, when acid, alkaline, saponaceous, and other re-agents are employed. In the art of dyeing, and that of cotton printing, the name of mad- dering is given to that process by which the colouring parts of mad- der are transferred, by means of water with the aid of heat, to alum- ine, or to the oxide of iron fixed in any kind of stuff. The brightness and fixity of the colours obtained from maddering, depend not only on the process, but also on the state and purity of the Avater, as well as of the madder.... It is, therefore, absolutely necessary to avoid, or to render inactive every acid, alkaline, or saline substance that may be contained in the water, or in the madder itself. I haA'e shewn that, by adding carbonate of lime (pounded chalk,) madder, which I suspected to contain gallic acid, was corrected: but, that my friend, Charles Bertholdi,pro- fessor in the central school of the Upper Rhine, afterwards found, that it was sulphuric acid, united to magnesia. The important discovery of this addition of chalk, which I made 25 years ago, has given birth to many manufactories, and improv- ed aU those established near Avaters which do not run over, or hold in solution this earthly salt, without which, it is absolutely impossible 420 DYE DYE to obtain beautiful and fixed mad- der colours. This chalk since that time has become a new object of commerce ; and as the price is very moderate, I have not yet determined the just proportion to be employed : in ge- neral, I take one part for four, five, or six of madder. In order to obtain the bright- est madder colours, it is not suf- ficient to attend to the quality of the water and of the madder ; it is necessary, also,to observe the de- gree of the heat of the bath : a Ioav temperature will check the attrac- tion of the colouring parts, and prevent them from being extract- ed, while one too high will favour this adhesion of the yellow parti- cles of the madder, which obscure and tarnish the shades intended to be produced. The only colour Avhich gains by increasing the heat is black. I have ahvays observed, that on withdraAving the fire from below the boilers, when the hand can no longer be held in the aque- ous vehicle Avhich they contain, if the maddering be then continued for tAvo or three hours, the most satisfactory results will be obtain- ed, as the furnace still retains a sufficient quantity of heat to main- tain the vehicle at the same tem- perature, especially when, accord- ing to custom, large boilers are employed. Besides, it would be very difficult to fix a determin- ate degree of heat by the ther- mometer, Avhen the furnaces are Lrgc. The yellow parts of the mad- der, as well as of other colouring substances are, it is probable, no- thing else, than the colouring parts themselves, combined with oxy- gen. The product of this combi- nation, by acquiring solubility, suf- feis itself with more difficulty, to be taken aAvay by clearing, if the heat has not been properly regula- ted during the process of dyeing. I have often observed, that mad- der and other colouring substances, when long exposed to the atmos- pheric air, do not give colours of the same intensity, and the same brightness as before, either be- cause these substances absorb the oxygen of the atmosphere, or that they procure this radical from the water which they attract, or Avhich they naturally contain as a constituent principle, and which is decomposed by a slow and in- sensible fermentation. The expo- sure, on the grass, of cotton or linen dyed a dark madder red, might support the idea of a change' to a reddish yellow ; for this dark colour becomes clearer, but faint- er, by the exposure, and then as- sumes a more agreeable shade of crimson. I have sheivn in a Me- moir on indigo, inserted in the Journal de Phisique, for the year 1788, that nitric acid changes this blue fecula into a yelloAvish sub- stance : a similar change takes place by exposing, on the meadow, the same fecula fixed on any stuff Avhatever; and the yellow result- ing in these two ways is more so- luble in warm Avater, than in the same liquid when cold. It however appears, that the combination of oxygen is not the only cause of the change of colours, since curtains of any stuff dyed or coloured any shade whatever by vegetable or animal substances, and exposed to the light, lose their colour entire- ly in the course of time on the side exposed to the solar rays, while the opposite side retains it for a consi- derable time. If the rays of the, sun then give more Aigour to liv- ing bodies of the animal and vege- table kingdom by disengaging from DYE the latter oxygen gaz, it appears, that they act with destructive influ- ence on the same bodies deprived of life, by decomposing their con- stituent principles. In all cases, it will be proper to preserve the colouring ingreaients in dry places, sheltered from the light, which acts upon these bodies, perhaps, only by decomposing the constitu- ent aqueous part, the oxygen of which may join the carbon to form carbonic acid....resinous and oily substances should be preserved in the same way. These conjectures prove at least, that the action of the sun's rays, or of light on these bodies in general, presents a vast field for interesting experiments to be undertaken. If in maddering, brighter colours are obtained, by carefully regulat- ing the heat, a sacrifice is made at the same time of a small portion of the colouring parts of the mad- der, which cannot be entirely ex- hausted, except by then increasing the heat to ebullition ; but, as the colours thus obtained, are degraded more or less in the ratio of the quantity of the madder, the gall- nut or sumach used : this method must be employed with caution, and principally for common effects, either in regard to cotton or linen. To avoid as much as possible, the loss of madder after the maddering of good articles has been termi- nated ; andbeforethe common ones are put into the boiler, poAvdered gall-nut or sumach must be added, with a neAv but small portion of madder : the process must be ma- naged also in such a manner, that the ebullition shall not take place, till two hours after. I several times tried to exhaust the madder by simple ebullition, and without adding any thing else DYE 421 than chalk; but I found that this was unfavourable to all colours, black excepted: it even appeared, that the effect of the madder was much less, than when the heat was mo- derately applied, and Avhen the ac- cumulated caloric easily decom- posed the colouring substance. It is this tendency to be decomposed, and particuhirly by fermentation, however it be moistened or diluted with water, which has hitherto pre- vented me from obtaining a sub- stantial colour, pretty dark and sufi* ficiently fixed to be applied on any- kind of stuff. I observed also, that if the heat was carried too far the first time, in circumstances when it was proposed to madder a second and third time, it prevented me not only from obtaining bright and agreeable shades, but also, of the requisite intensity. The aque- ous vehicle of the madder, at too high a temperature, never fails to weaken the adhes'iATe force of the alumine and the oxide of iron to the stuff", and to take from it a por- tion, Avhich an experienced eye may easily remark, on examining the bath. I shall here repeat, that for com- mon and low-priced articles, it is indispensibly necessary to employ gall-nuts or sumach, which will save one half, and even tAvo thirds of the madder; but the colours obtained, are neither so fixed nor so bright. The addition of chalk, however, must not be. omitted ; otherAvise, the gallic acid will carry aAvay a portion of the alumine and coloured oxide of iron, which will Aveaken the shades, and by tar- nishing the stuffs, Avill also attack the Avhite, which may have been preserved in them. Without the addition of gall-nuts or sumach, it seemed to me impossible to exhaust 422 DYE DYE the madder entirely of its colour- ing parts, Avhich made me presume that their adhesion is favoured by the viscid nature of the tanning principle of these astringent sub- stances, which carry away and com- bine with themselves the colouring parts. I shall observe, also, that gall-nuts, as well as sumach, lose the property of dyeing black ; and acquire on the other hand, that of dyeing or colouring alumine yel- low, oxide of iron, olive-green, by the addition of chalk, the calcare- ous base of which unites itself to the gallic acid. Do these yellow and olive-green colours arise from any peculiar substance contained in the gall-nuts and sumach, or are they indebted for their origin to the tan- ning principle ? This remains to be examined. The quantity of madder to be employed in dyeing, ought not only to be proportioned to the extent of the surfaces to be maddered, but also to the concentration of the acetitc of alumine and iron, impro- perly called mordants; that is to say, to the greater or less quanti- ty of alumine and oxide of iron, which these saline liquors, either insulated or mixed together, when they dry on the articles to be dyed, may have left or deposited there by the evaporation of the acetic acid. If the objects to be dyed are not numerous, and in particu- lar, when bright shades only are to be produced, they may be maddered only once ; but Avhen they are nu- merous, and intended to have dark shades, the maddering must be re- peated twice, and eA'en thrice.... Three quarters of a pound of mad- der of a good quality,-are sufficient for dyeing a piece of white Indian cloth, of ten ells in length, and three quarters broad, intended to exhibit only a few coloured objects: the quantity of the colouring sub- stance must be increased in the ratio of the mass of alumine and oxide of iron, fixed on a piece of stuff of the above dimensions. It may be extended to 6, 8, 10, and even 12 lbs. for a ground Avell co- vered with a lively and Aery intense colour. Intelligence and practice in the management of a dye-hause, will not fail to indicate nearly the proper proportions. Whatever care may be employ- ed in maddering, to avoid the ad- hesion of the yelloAV parts, the co- lours obtained will be far from hav- ing all the beauty and fixity which they might acquire by clearing, preceded by very large ebullition in exceedingly pure water. This ebullition alone, by the addition of bran, will serve to brighten the co- lour : more rosy reds will be ob- tained, by employing soap with or without the addition of bran ; car- bonate of pot-ash, or of soda, sub- stituted for bran, will make the reds incline to crimson ; but I must observe,unless the workman choos- es to run the risk of making the reds entirely brown, and in such a manner, that it will not be possi- ble to restore them, it will be ne- cessary before soap and alkalies are applied to the stuffs, to expose them to the action of the stronR-- est heat that can be communicated to water. This operation will be attended with success, if as little passage as possible be afforded to the steam, and if the boilers em- ployed be converted into a sort of digesters. The fixity of the co- lours will be proportioned to the time employed in exposing them to the action of the boiling water. It is needless to observe, that there is no danger of spoiling the co- DYE DYE 423 Lours by soap and alkaline corbo- nates, when the maddering, in- stead of being directed with a mo- derate heat, has been carried to ebullition, as is practised in many dye-houses ; but, in this case, the colours obtained are more difficult to be cleared. As water charged with oxygina- ted muriatic acid, easily carries aAvay the colouring parts of mad- der, as Avell as other vegetable and animal substances, by decompos- ing them ; and as acids more con- centrated may, in their turn, take from the stuffs, the colourless alu- mine and the oxide of iron ; it is impossible for me to adopt the idea of a chemical combination of the colouring parts with alumine and metallic oxides, which, in my opin- ion, when fixed and coloured on my stuff, form only compound ag- gregates. The clearing of objects printed on a white ground requires modifi- cations, which I shall detail on a future occasion, Avhen I find lei- sure. It will therefore be sufficient at present to state, that after con- tinuing for some time my experi- ments on the Turkey red, inserted in the Annates de Chimie, for the year 1792, I at last found a red much more beautiful and durable, than that of the Levant, by fixing alumine on cotton, thread, and lin- en, by an alkaline solution of this earth mixed with linseed oil....The following is the process I employed: THE PROCESS. After making a caustic ley, of one part of good common pot-ash, dissolved in four parts of boiling water, and half a part of quick- lime, Avhich I afterwards slaked U it, I dissolved one prut of pow- dered alum in two parts of boiling water ; and while this solution of sulphate of alumine Avas still warm, to avoid re-crystallization, I speed- ily poured into it successively, al- ways stiring it without interrupti- on, the above mentioned caustic ley, till the alumine it had at first precipitated after saturation to ex- cess with sulphuric acid, had been re-dissolved. I left at rest this so- lution of alumine, which exhaled ammonia, and which, on cooling,. formed a precipitate of sulphate of pot-ash in very small crystals, I then mixed a thirty-third part of linseed oil, with which the alka- line solution of alumine formed a kind of milky liquid.* As the oil gradually separates itself from this mixture under the appearance of cream, it must not be employed till it is again shaken. The skains of cotton, or linen ought to be successively immersed in it, and equally pressed, that they may be then exposed to dry on a pole, in the order in Avhich they haA-e been taken from the mixture. They must be dried under shelter from rain in summer, and in a warm place in winter, and be left in that state for 24 hours : they must then be Avashed in very pure running Ava- ter, and be again dried ; after which, they are to be immersed in an alkaline ley, pressed and dried a second time in the same manner as the first, taking care, hoAvever, to recommence the immersion in the ley, Avith those skains which have been last in the oily mixture. because the first never fail to carry aAvay a larger portion than the last ; it will be proper, also, to * In fact, a saponacious liquor is form/ ed, containing alumine.....A. Tiutoc^. 424 DYE DYE consume the mixture each time, that it may not have leisure to at- tract the carbonic acid, Avith which the lower region ofthe atmosphere is always charged, especially in manufactories ; for the alkali, by passing to the state of carbonate, suffers the alumine to be precipi- tated, and loses the property of mixing with the oil. Two immersions in the alkaline solution of alumine, mixed with linseed oil, will be sufficient to ob- tain a beautiful red ; but by conti- nuing to impregnate the skains a third, and even a fourth time, with the same circumstances as the first, colours exceedingly brilliant Avill be produced. The intensity of the red, pro- posed to be obtained, will be in proportion to the quantity of the madder employed. By taking a quantity of madder equal in weight to that of the skains, the result will be a red, Avhich, by clearing, will be changed to a rosy shade ; on the other hand, shades of crim- son, more or less bright, will be obtained by employing two, three, and even four times the weight of madder, without ever forgetting the addition of chalk, if the Avater employed does not contain some of it. Four parts of this colouring substance will produce a red too intense and beautiful to be employ- ed in commerce, as it Avould be too dear to find purchasers. By making an oily alkaline so- lution of alumine, with two or three parts of water, and impregnating the skains twice, and even four times, in the manner above men- tioned, bright shades will be pro- duced Avithout the use of much madder ; but they will not have the same intensity, as those pro- cured with even as little madder by- means of the same solution con- centrated. The best method of obtaining shades, lively as well as bright, is to expose the dark reds for a con- siderable time, when they have been cleared, to the action of a ley of oxiginated muriate of pot-ash, or of soda, with excess of alkaline carbonate, in order to have such a degree of shade as may be requir- ed : but it may readily be con- ceived that this method would be expensive. To have the oily alkaline solution of alum, nearly in the same state of concentration, it will be necessa- ry to employ an hydrometer, to de- termine the degree of strength of the caustic ley, before it is employ- ed for the solution of the alumine. This caustic ley must be made with the best common pot-ash that can be procured, and the degree it gives by the hydrometer must be noted, in order that if pot-ash of an inferior quality be afterwards employed, the ley obtained may be carried to the fixed degree of eva- poration . Caustic ley, made with four parts of good common pot-ash,* cannot contain a large quantity of foreign salts. By making it on a large scale, when the limpid part has been decanted, it will be ne- cessary to shake the deposit, for some time, twice every day, that the rest of the alkaline liquor may be decanted ; and that none of what , still remains in the deposit may be lost, it ought to be diluted with more water, which may be afterwards employed to lixiviate * I have no doubt that, where pot-ash cannot be procured, soda might be em- ployed. The- Author. * DYE DYE 425 the cotton, Avhich must be Avell purified and cleaned before it is dyed ; Avhich may be done by lix- iviating and soaping, or merely boiling it in water and then rinsing and drying it. As Avringing with the hands may derange the fila- ments of the skains of cotton and linen, and consequently weaken the thread, it Avill be proper, in operating on a large scale, to squeeze them by means of a press. In regard to thread or linen, to be dyed of a beautiful dark and fixed red, it must be well bleached, and impregnated, at least four times successively, with the oily alkaline solution ; because not on- ly alumine and metallic oxides ad- here with more difficulty to linen than to cotton, but because these mineral substances, when coloured, abandon linen much easier than cotton Avhen clearing. It still re- mains to examine Avhether, be- tween each impregnation with the oily alkaline solution of alumine, cotton or linen thread requires to be left at rest for a greater or short- er time, before it is rinsed and dried. All fat oils may be employed in the mixture, with proper precau- tions ; but linseed oil mixes bet- ter, and remains longer suspend- ed in the alkaline solution of alu- mine : I never tried fish-oil, which perhaps, Avould be preferable. It is probable also, that in operating on a large scale, it would be best to diminish the quantity of linseed- oil, in the mixtures Avith the alka- line solution of alumine ; for I have had reason often to observe, that too much oil hurts the attraction of the colouring parts of the mad- der : a thirty-third part of linseed- oil, always produced the best effect, in my trials on a small scale. VOL. II. In regard to the process of dye- ing cotton and linen thread, suffi- ciently charged with alumine, by the oily alkaiire solution of that earth, the skains must first be dis- engaged from every saline sub- stance, as Avell as from the super- fluous oil, by rinsing them a long time in very pure running w ater ; after which they must be arranged, without drying them, on an appara- tus Avhich the operator may con- struct according to the form of the boiler, in which it is to be placed, in such a manner, that during the pro- cess of dyeing, the skains may be continually shaken and tc.rned ; in order to catch eA'ery Avhere, and in an uniform manner, the colouring particles. The bath must be com- posed Avith madder, mixed with a sixth of pounded chalk, and diluted with about 30 or 40 parts of Avater. ....The heat must be carried only to such a degree that the hand can be held in the bath for an hour Avithout being scalded; and it is to be maintained, at this degree, for two hours, either by diminishing or increasing the fuel. Three hours dyeing av ill be sufficient to exhaust the madder: the skains when ta- ken from the bath, must be washed in a large quantity of water to cleanse them : they are then to be cleared by boiling them a pretty longtime, in water containing bran, inclosed in a bag, adding soap and alkaline carbonate, to give the red a rosy or carmine shade. As I never had occasion to dye cotton or linen thread, on a large scale, I employed a small boiler, Avhich served me at the same time, for the process of clearing ; in the latter operation, I confined myself to boiling the skains, properly ar- ranged, in water containing a bag filled with brim, for eight hours 3 I 426 D Y E DYE successively ; and, that I might not interrupt the ebullition, I re- placed the evaporated part by the addition of more boiling water. In this clearing, I employed nei- ther soap nor alkali ; yet I obtain- ed a red, superior in beauty and fixity to that of the Levant, and and Avhich, in every respect, will bear a comparison with the colours dyed in Trance. For dyeing my red, I employed three parts ofthe best madder for one part in weight of dry cotton thread. With the precaution I took to obtain an uniform shade, I could have dyed at one time, but I should ahvays recommend performing this operation at tAvo different times, taking each time, half a portion of madder and of chalk, if the skains cannot be continually turned in the boiler, it may serve also for clearing, by adapting to it a cover, so as to suffer very little of . the vapours to escape, because it would be too expensive to replace the part evaporated by more boil- ing water. By operating on a large scale, and concentrating the heat in the boilers, keeping them almost close,there, perhaps, Avould be no need of employing eight hours ebullition, to dear and fix the colour. I haA-e every reason to belieA'e, that this clearing ofthe Turkey red. gave rise to the idea of bleachingwith steam: it must have been seen that colours, by being cleared, lose considerably in re- gard to their intensity; and per- haps it has been observed at the same time, that the pack-threads, empioyed for arranging the skains, were bleached during tie clear- ing, especially when alkalies were added. A great variety of colours, and of different shades, may be obtain- ed, by foiloAving the process here described for obtaining beautiful and durable reds. In this case the oily alkaline solution of alumine, must not be employed till the re- quired shade ol" oxide of iron, or in- digo blue, has been piven, but Avhatever may be the colour, or shade, Avhich you Avish to give, be- fore ycu fix the alumine on the skains of cotton or lir.cn, these skains must ahvays be first Avell boiled, by Avhich means the adhe- sion ofthe indigo fecula, as v\Tell as that of the oxide of iron, a\ ill be increased in the same manner as that of alumine, coloured by the colouring parts of madder, when subjected to the action of the heat of boiling Avater before they are im- pregnated Avith the oily alkaline solution of alumine. As the me- thod of dyeing indigo blue, in all its •I.F.ls, is well knoAvn, it is needless to detail it ; and as to giving a rusty yellow colour, which may be done at little expence, nothing is nreessary but to moisten the skains well Avith the solution of sulphate of iron, to press them equally, and then to immerse them in a caustic ley of pot-ash, which -w 111 precipitate and fix the oxide of iron of a disagreeable colour, but Avhich will not fail to assume a rusty yellow shade, by attracting and becoming saturated with the oxygen of the atmosphere : thus yellow will become more or less dark according to the quantity of the sulphate of iron in solution. More intend ty, and even more equality, may be given to the rus- ty yelloAv, by moistening the skains a second time in the ferruginous solution, and immersing them in the caustic ley. Care, hoAvever, must be taken not to use soda for this operation, because it general- DYE DYE 427 ly contains sulphur, Avhich black- ens oxide of iron by mineraliz- ing it. The skains coloured blue and rusty yellow, treated with oily al- kaline solution of alumine, will produce by maddering, dark pur- ple and chamois colours, violet, li- lac, puce, mordore, he. It may be easily conceived, that if, instead of maddering, the same skains prepared for maddering, be dyed Avith kermes, cochineal, and Bra- zil-Avood, log-AVOod, Avood of St. Martha, Avoad, yellow-wood, quer- citron, yellow berries, he. a great variety of colours will be obtained : the shades may even be varied ad infinitum, by mixing the colouring ingredients with each other in dif- ferent proportions. The affinity of adhesion of the colouring parts of all these ingredients, varies also, to such a degree, that the shades aris- ing from a yelloAv or olive green, will be changed, or totally meta- morphosed, by a second dyeing with madder, kermes, cochineal, or Brazil wood ; and will furnish orange shades, capucine, Carme- lite, burnt bread, bronze, he. As the preliminary preparation of the skains by the oily alkaline soluti- on of alumine, might be too expen- sive for some of these colours, the process I described in the Annates de Chienie, for the year 1792, p 250, may be substituted in its stead. The process consists in treating the skains, alternately, with soap and sulphate of alumine, the excess of the acid of which has been satu- rated Avith one of the alkaline car- bonates, or Avith lime : this method is verv expeditious. In the course of a day, especially in summer, the skains may be prepared and dved red as Avell as other colours ; which, for the most part, may be subjected to ebullition, and will bear clearing with bran for a quar- ter or half an hour, and even some of them for a whole hour. It is also to be observed, that there are none but madder colours, the alumine and oxide of iron, bases ofi Avhich haA-e been fixed on the stuifs. by means of the oily alkaline solution, that can acquire perfect fixity by the action of heat of boiling wa- ter ; and that the fixity is very in- ferior in all madder colours, the earthy and ferruginous bases of which, have been applied to stuffs by means of acid solvents. Alumine fixed in abundance on cotton or linen stuff", by uiciu.s of a highly concentrated alkaline so- lution attracts very easily the co- louring parts in the process of mad- dering. The case is not the same when the same earth is applied, by the most highly concentrated acetic solution of alumine ; and it is absolutely impossible to finish maddering at one time, even when a profuson of madder is employed, and the operation is repeated three and even four times*. This cir- cumstance will give rise to new and interesting experiments ; but my observations prove in the mean time, that maddering, in general, requires to be managed with the nicest attention. Process for dying wool, in the grease, a permanent blue colour. Erom the " Annates des Arts et Manu- factures." " Mr. Favieux, chemist, of Tou- louse, has communicated a very • Concentrated acetic solution of cx- ide of iron, is attended with nearly the kame difficulties. 428 DYE DYE economical process for dyeing wool, in the grease, a blue colour, from the darkest to the lightest tint: this process is of the greater utility, as the colour is more per- manent, and stands any trials to which it may be subjected, better than if the avooI had been washed previous to the operation. Take four ounces best indigo, re- duce it to a very fine powder, and pass it through a silk sieve. For every 4 oz. of indigo, take 12 lbs. of avooI in the grease ; put the whole into a copper, large enough to contain all the avooI to be dyed. Commence the operation by cover- ing the bottom with a thin layer of indigo powder, on which put one of wool, then a second of indigo, and thus alternately, one of each, till the boiler is full ; taking care that the first and last layer be of indigo, and the wool be well separated in layers of equal quantity. A ley should be previously prepared, of wood-ashes or pot- ash, marking Iavo degrees on the hydrometer, and in sufficient quantity to fill the boiler, and co- ver the materials entirely ; before the ley is poured on them it should be Avarmed, but not made so hot as to prevent the manipulations. As soon ar. the boiler is filled, the wool is pressed down equally all over, and worked avith the hand, that it may imbibe the liquid in an uniform manner. A gentle heat is kept up till the next day, with small coal, or only hot ashes thrown underneath the boiler ; attention must be paid to raise the degree of heat, before and during the mani- pulation, and to work the wool eve- ry day for about a week ; the more labour is bestoAved on mani- pulation, the greater uniformity and intensity it acquires. As soon as the requisite colour is obtained, the operation is termi- nated by Avashing and drying the wool ; a light blue may be produ- ced by diminishing the quantity of indigo, and proceeding in the same manner. The liquor remaining from dyeing mouRNEY observes, that linen may be dyed of a brown colour AA'ith the juice of these berries; and that avooI, pre- viously managed with bismuth, ac- quires a beautiful blueish grey, Avhich is very permanent....In Ger- many, a very pure and strong spirit isdisulled from this fruit, especially after it has been SAveetened by night-frosts. On the trunk of the common elder frequently appears a fungous excrescence, wrinkled, and turned up like an ear, whitish on the out- side, black Avithin, and intersected with several smail veins....These are commonly called Jew's ears, and are reputed to be serviceable for inflammations and SAvellings of the tonsils; for sore throats, and quinsies. [The following receipt to make elder-wine was forwarded by a friend, S. W. J. Esq. Avho has followed it for many years: Take twelve and a half galls, of the juice ofthe ripe elder-berry, and 37 £ gallons of water that has been recently boiled, and to every gallon of Avater add 3 Albs, sugar, or 4 ^lbs. Havannah honey, which will in- corporate while warm. Add of ginger -£ oz. and pimento -| oz. to every four gallons of the mixture, and when the whole is cooled to about 60Q of Fahrenheit, add about i pint breAA'er's yeast, and let it ferment very slowly for about 14 days, the bung being out, and letting it stand six months; then bottle it off. This Avine is a most excellent cordial.] ELECAMPANE, or Inula, L. a genus of plants, consisting of thirty species, of which four only are in- digenous, and the principal.of these is the He/enium, or Common Ele- campane ; which is perennial, abounds in moist meadows and pastures, and floAvers in July or August. It is eaten by horses and goats, but refused by hogs:....its roots, Avhen bruised and macerated in urine with bails of ashes and whoi tie-berries, dye a blue colour: Avhen dry they possess an aromatic smell, and, on chewing them, be- come acrid and pungent: they are likewise in some repute for pro- moting expectorations in asthmas and coughs. If liberally taken, they are diuretic, and said to be of great service in removing visceral obstructions....A decoction of this plant has been employed by farm- ers for the cure of the scab in sheep; and, externally applied, for removing disorders of the skin.... Prof. KNAcxsTAEDT,of St. Peters- burgh, has lately prescribed the elecampane both ways, and found it a remedy of singular efficacy, in curing the scald head, itch, Sec. ELECTRICITY, is the power of attracting light substances, Sec. when excited by heat, or friction; and which may be communicated ELE E L E 445 to other bodies. This term also im- plies that branch of natural philo- sophy which investigates the na- ture and effects of this power, and of other elementary agents con- nected with it. The science of electricity has made a most rapid progress within the last fifty years ; it was little at- tended to previous to the year 1600, since which period it has been car- ried to a considerable degree of perfection....It would be transgress- ing our limits to enter into the his- tory of this subject, as few can be ignorant of the names of Neavton, Grey, De Fay, Priestley, Franklin, and Cavallo : far- ther, as the theory is too diffuse, and requires the aid of too many experiments and analytical expla- nations, we shall confine our ac- count to medical electricity. This has often been successfully em- ployed for relieving the human frame from painful maladies, though it has till lately been treat- ed as an empirical process. Being one of the most powerful stimu- lants, its effects may be considered both as general and local. When the vital principle is in a manner extinguished by too violent shocks, it may again be kindled or excited by such as are less powerful.... Hence electricity promotes a free circulation of the fluids, and parti. cularly the blood; increases animal heat, perspiration, as Avell as all the secretions and excretions ofthe body. As manv professional electricians are little concerned about the pro- priety or safety of this potent re- medy, when patients apply to them as candidates for the operation, we think it our duty to give the follow- ing practical hints : 1. Electricity is always improper in active, inflam- matory, or sthenic diseases : 2. It is also hurtful when a high degree of excitement is felt in the organs of sense, as well as in those of vo- luntary motion, and when both are accompanied with relaxation or de- bility : 3. If any local irritation prevail in the body, such as ulcers, inflammatory tumors, eruptions of the skin, he. In these cases, the electric stimulus has a direct ten- dency to produce congestions, or a local accumulation of humours. It has, hoAvever, sometimes been found highly beneficial in re- moving the periodical obstructions of females, though its applica- tion requires great precaution. In passive, chronical, or asthenic disorders, it has likeAvise been of considerable service; but the mode of imparting the electric fluid de- serves more attention than has, in general, hitherto been bestoAved upon it ; and violent shocks, for the sake of experiment, ought ne- ver to be communicated, Avhere less powerful ones might be suffi- cient. Thus, the electric bath, and the gentle application of sparks to any particular part of the body, under the conditions before stated, are equally safe, and advantageous. On the contrary, the more violent methods of electrifying have so of- ten been attended with mischie- vous effects, that they ought to be applied to those persons only,Avhose capacity of receiving external im- pressions is diminished, and whose excitability is in a languid state. Deafness, paralysis, head, and tooth-achs,hoAvever obstinate, have frequently yielded to the powerful effects of electricity. Similar suc- cess has attended its application to parts affected Avith the cramp, gouty and rheumatic pains, palsy, and sometimes even epilepsy ; be- 446 E L E ELE sides which, moderate electric shocks have, in various instances, contributed to the resuscitation of persons whose vital functions were destroyed by drowning: it ought nevertheless, to be resorted to only in particular cases, and under the immediate inspection of a medical practitioner. For an account of the different medical apparatus employed, and the various mcdes of electrifying, Ave refer the curious reader to the late Mr. Adam's " Essays on Elec- tricity and Magnetism," (8vo. 9s.) He will also find much valua- ble information in Dr. Priest- ley's " History of Electricity," (4to. 1775, or 2 vols. 8vo. 1/. 1*.) and in Mr. Cavallo's " Treatise on Electricity," 3 vols. 8vo. 1 Ss. ELECTUARY, a form of me- dicine, consisting of poAvders, or other ingredients, incorporated with honey, conserve, or syrup : it is divided into doses, to be taken as circumstances may require. Electuaries are composed prin- cipally of the milder medicines, Avhich are more pleasing to the palate. The more powerful drugs, as emetics, opiates, he. are seldom administered in this form, on ac- count of the uncertainty of the dose. Acid, bitter, and fetid sub- stances, should never be given as electuaries ; nor is this form well calculated for mercurial, and other ponderous matters, which are apt to subside. The lighter powders require thrice their weight of honey, or syrup boiled to the consistency of that drug, in order to convert them into an electuary....If syrups of the common consistence be employed, double their weight to that of the powder will be sufficient. A very cheap and excellent substitute for either sugar or syrup in making electuaries, might be obtained by baking unripe pears in close ves- sels, Avith the addition of a little soft sugar, by which means a con- siderable portion of saccharine juice may be readily obtained. The quantity of an electuary, to be administered at one dose, va- ries according to its component parts ; but it seldom exceeds a large tea-spoonful, or two drams. ELEPHANT, a well known animal, which is a native of India, and the southern parts of Africa. It is the largest of all quadrupeds, and generally about 16 feet in length from the front to the tail; 25 feet from the end of the trunk, and about 14 feet high. It has no fore-teeth in either jaw ; but its dog-teeth are very long, and afford the beautiful ivory, which is con- verted into combs and other useful articles. It is also provided with a long pliable proboscis, or snout, Avith which it can seize any objects, and also convey its liquid nutri- ment to the mouth. Elephants are remarkable for their uncommon sagacity, as well as their social disposition. When tamed they are the most friendly of all animals, and can easily dis- tinguish their master's or driver's voice. They are sensible of the language of anger, of command, and of satisfaction, so that they act accordingly. They receive or- ders with attention, and execute them with precision and alacrity, boAving themselves for the conveni- ence of those who wish to mount them ; raising burthens Avith their trunk; and laying them on their back. These animals delight in shining harness and trappings ; though when yoked in a cart or waggon, they draw cheerfully, un- ELM ELM 447 less abused by unjust chastisement, in which case they seldom fail to take vengeance on their tyranni- cal master. If the elephant be properly ma- naged, he attains a very considera- ble age ; even though employed in servitude and labour. Several in- stances have occurred, in which these creatures have reached the age of 130 years in captivity ; and in a natural state, they often ex- ceed 200 years : their full growth is said to require not less than 30 years....The flesh, gall, skin, and bones of elephants, are used medically by the Chinese....See also Ivory. Elixir : See Tincture. ELM-TREE, the Common, or Ulmus Campestris, L. an indigenous tree, groAving chiefly in a loose soil of hedge-rows, and abounding in the more southern parts of this country....its flowers have a plea- sant smell, similar to that of violets, and blow in the month of April. This wood may be propagated by the seed, and by layers or suck- ers taken from the roots of old trees : those raised from layers, al- Avays strike better roots, thrive more quickly than the other, and do not shoot forth so many suck- ers ; for which reason this method deserves to be more generally practised. The elm naturally delights in a stiff, strong soil, where it groAvs comparatively slow ; but if it be planted in rich, light land, it vege- tates most luxuriantly. In the latter case, hoAvever, its wood is light, porous, and of but little value compared with that produced on richer soils : the latter is of a closer and stronger texture, and possesses near the heart, the colour and al- most the weight and hardness of iron. On such lands, therefore, tfi£ elm becomes very profitable, and is one of those deciduous trees which ought to be industriously cultivated. This beautiful tree is of great value ; and Avell adapted for plant- ing shady walks, as it does not de- stroy the grass, and its leaves are relished by horses, coavs, goats, hogs, and sheep, all of which eat them eagerly. Its Avood,being hard and tough, is used for making axle- trees, mill-wheels, keels of boats, chairs, and coffins : it is also fre- quently changed by art, so as com- pletely to resemble mahogany ; for this purpose it is sawed into thick planks, stained Avith aqua-fortis, and rubbed over with a tincture, of which alkanet, aloes, and spirit of wine, are the principle ingredients. This plant affords subsistence to a variety of insects that prey upon it, but more particularly to the aphis of the elm, Avhich generally causes the leaves to curl, so as to make them a secure shelter against the weather. No effectual me- thod of extirpating them has hi- therto been devised. Silk-Avorms devour the leaves with great avidi- ty ; and though Ave doubt Avhether they afford Avholesome food to these insects, yet Athen alternately given or mixed with lettuce, elm-leaves may become an useful substitute, in situations Avhere the mulberry- tree is scarce. A decoction of the inner bark of the elm-tree, if drunk freely, has sometimes procured relief in inveterate dropsies. It has a bit- terish taste, and abounds Avith a slimy juice, which is recommend- ed in nephritic cases, and also ex- ternally as an useful application to burnr. The outer bark is bitter, contains but little mucilage, and is 448 ELM ELM totally destitute both of smell and taste. The internal bark of the branches is more bitter than that of the trunk, and is, probably on that account, more efficacious....it is chiefly used for cutaneous com- plaints, such as the herpes, or shingles, and the leprosy. [We have two species of the ulmus, or elm, in the United States, viz. the red, or slippery elm ; the Ulmus Americana, or American roughed leaved elm of Marshall, [Ulmus Rubra of Muhlenburg;] 2d, Ulmus Molifolia, American soft- leaved elm. The first mentioned species, on account of its many valuable pro- perties, deseiwes particular men- tion. It rises to the height of 30 feet, with a pretty strong trunk, dividing into many branches, and covered with a light coloured rough bark. The leaves are ob- long, oval, and sharp pointed, un- equally sawed on their edges, un- equal at the base, very rough on their upper surface, and hairy un- derneath. The floAvers are pro- duced thick upon the branches, upon short, collected footstalks, and are succeeded by oval, com- pressed, membranaceous seed-ves- sels, Avith entire margins, contain- ing one oval compressed seed. The inner bark, by infusion or gentle boiling in water, affords a great quantity of insipid mucous substance, that is applicable to a variety of important uses. Dr. Mitchell says he has eaten it repeatedly, and found it to agree with him perfectly well; and when mixed Avith sugar or lemon juice, it became very palatable. This fact may be of service to traA-ellers Avho may lose their Avay in our wilds. Dr. M. says it has been beneficially administered in ca- tarrhs, pleurisies, and quinsies ; it has been applied as a poultice to tumours, and as a liniment to chaps and festers....Letter to Dr. A'orth, Amer. Museum, vol. 7. Dr. Joseph Strong, of Phila- delphia, communicated to the Edi- tor some facts respecting the me- dicinal qualities of this mucilage, Avhich deserve serious attention from the physicians of the United States. He states that, during the time he served as surgeon in the western army, he experienced the most happy effects from the appli- cation of poultices of the elm bark to gun-shot wounds, which Avere soon brought to a good sup- puration, and to a disposition to heal. It was applied as the first remedy. When tendency to mor- tification was evident, this bark bruised, and boiled in water, pro- duced the most surprising good ef- fects. After repeated comparative experiments with other emollient applications, as milk and bread, and linseed poultice, its superiori- ty was firmly established. He thinks that the mucilage is slightly sweet. He particularly stated the cases of the wounded in the ac- tion in which general Wayne de- feated the Indians-in August 1794, as proving, in the most evident manner, the beneficial effects of the poultice. In old ill-conditioned ulcers, in fresh burns, equal bene- fit was derived from it. In diar- rheas and dysenteries, the infu- sion of the bark was used with ad- vantage as a diet drink. A soldier, who lost his Avay, supported him- self for ten days upon this muci- lage and sassafras. The red elm tree maybe considered as a highly valuable addition to our stock of medicines, exclusively American, and ought to be carefully searched ELO E M B 449 for by the medical gentlemen in the country, and preserved from the indiscriminate axe. No farmer should permit this tree to be cut off his plantation, and the young trees should be transplanted from the woods to the vicinity of the house. W hen the inner bark is taken away for medicinal purposes, it avouiu be well to try to renew the external bark by means of the application of cow-dung, sand, and lime, as direct- ed and practised by Forsyth on fruit-trees, with so much success. It is highly probable that, by keep- ing out the weather, the bark Avould be renewed, and thus the tree saved.] Dambourney obtained from the bark of this tree, a yellow-brownish colour in dyeing ; and De Vi- lette manufactured of it a strong broAvn paper. ELOCUTION, generally speak- ing, signifies the selecting and adapting of words and sentences, to the tbings or sentiments intend- ed to be expressed. It is also used to denote the just and graceful management of the voice, counte- nance, and gesture, when speak- ing : in which sense it is synoni- mous with what is variously called a good delivery, eloquence, or the art of speaking and writing with accuracy, elegance, and perspi- cuity. True eloquence depends princi- pally on the vivacity of the imagi- nation ; for it not only communi- cates grace and ornament, but also life and motion to discourse. It would be deviating from our plan, to specify the various component parts of elocution, viz. emphasis, pauses, tones, &c. Ave must, there- fore, refer the reader to Mr. She- ridan's "• Lectures on Elocution," (8vo. 7s.) and to Mr. Walker's vol. II- " Elements of Elocution," (8vo. 2 vols. 12*.) in the latter of Avhich, in particular, he wili find excellent and perspicuous rules concerning this subject.....Many pertinent ob- servations on the elocution or elo- quence of the bar, are contained in the elegant w ork entitled, " The Study and the Practice of the Law conFieiered in their various relations to Society," (8a'o. 6s.)....Some ju- dicious remarks on the eloquence of the pulpit, in this country, occur in a-i essay on this subject, prefixed to " S'iect Sermons," translated from the i rench of Bossuet (12mo. 3s.) and which, it is sup- posed, come from the elegant pen of Mr. Jehmngham. Embanv.ment : vid. Sea. EMBROIDERY, a work in gold, silver, orsilk-thread, wrought by the needle upon cloth, stuffs, or muslin, into various figures. In the embroidery of stuffs, the work is performed in a frame, as the easy manner of a\ orking them depends upon the proper expansion ofthe piece. Muslin is spread upon a pattern, on which the figures in- tended to be wrought, are delineat- ed. Embroidery on the loom is less tedious than the other me- thod, in which, while the flowers are working, it becomes necessary to count all the threads of the muslin ; this latter mode, Iioav- ever, is much richer in points, and is likewise susceptible of greater variety. Cloths which are milled too much, Avill not easily admit of such ornament. The thinnest and finest muslins only are left for this purpose, and are embroidered to the greatest perfection in Saxony. Of late years, this work has been attempted in England and Scot- land ; but it has not yet arrived at that decree of perfection to which 3 M 450 E M E EME it has been carried in France and Germany. There are various kinds of em- broidery, namely, 1. Embroidery on the stamp ; where the figures are raised and rounded, cotton or parchment being placed beneath, in order to support them. 2. Low embroidery ; in which the silver or gold lies low upon the sketch or pattern, and is stitched Avith silk of the same colour. Guimped embroidery, which is performed either in gold or silver : a design is first made upon ithe cloth, and then placed on cut vellum ; after Avhich the gold or silver is sown on with silk-thread. 4. Embroidery on both sides ; which is thus deno- minated, from its appearing on both sides of the stuff. 5. Plain embroidery ; where the figures are flat and even, being totally desti- tute of ornaments. By the statute 22 Geo. II. c. 36, no foreign embroidery, or gold or silver brocade, shall be import- ed, on pain of being forfeited and burnt, and a fine of 100/. for every piece. Nor shall any person sell or expose to sale, any foreign em- broidery, gold, or silver thread, lace, fringe, brocade, he. or make the same up into any garment, on pain of having it forfeited and burnt, and of paying a penalty of 100/. : the mercer, or other per- son in whose custody it may be found, incurs a similar fine. EMERALD, a genus of preci- ous stones belonging to the order of siliceous earth. This is perhaps the most beautiful of all the gems : Avhen heated in fire, it changes its colours to a deep blue, and be- comes phosphorescent; it resumes its natural green on growing cold. Emeralds are divided by jewel- lers into tAvo classes or kinds, namely, the oriental and the occi- dental. The former is at present extremely scarce, being found only in the kingdom of Cambay, in In- dia. The occidental emeralds are chiefly imported from Peru, in South America. A very inferior sort is also obtained from Silesia, which, however, is little esteem- ed. Genuine emeralds being seldom to be met with, several experiments have been made, and directions given for imitating them ; from which we select the following: Take of natural crystal and of red lead, each 4 ounces ; verdigrease 48 grains ; and of crocus martis, prepared with vinegar, 8 grains. The whole is to be finely pulver- ised, sifted, and put into a crucible, the space of one inch being left empty. It is then to be well luted, set in a potter's furnace, and left for the same space of time as earthen ware. When cool, the crucible is to be broken, and these ingredients Avill be found convert- ed into a mass of a fine emerald colour; which, after being proper- ly cut and set in gold, will at least be equal, if not superior, to genu- ine oriental emeralds. EMERV, a kind of metallic stone, found in several mines, but chiefly in those of iron, being a species of rich ore. It is usually of a dusky broAvnish red on the surface ; but, when broken, is of v. fine bright reddish iron-grey, spangled with glittering specks ; which are in a considerable degree impregnated with that metal. It is also sometimes red, when it usually contains veins of gold. This stone, or ore, is divided into three sorts, namely, the Spa- nish, the red, and the common eme- ry. The first is found in the gold EME EME 451 mines of Peru, and is interspersed with small veins and specksof gold; whence it is conjectured to be a kind of ore of that rich metal, and is prohibited to be exported. From the experiments made by natural- ists, it appears to be the metal call- ed Platina, to which we refer.... The red emery is discovered in cop- per-mines, chiefly in Denmark and Sweden; whence a small quantity is imported. The common emery is dug up in great abundance in the island of Guernsey. It is also obtained from some iron-mines in England, and is the only sort which is consumed in very considerable quantities, by locksmiths, glaziers, lapidaries, masons, cutlers, and others, who employ it for cutting and polishing glass, marble, and precious stones; as Avell as for the polishing and burnishing of articles made of iron and steel. This spe- cies of emery is of a brownish co- lour, inclining to red; is extremely hard, and consequently, very dif- ficult to be reduced to poAvder ; an art which has been discovered in this country, and is effected by means of certain mills, invented for the purpose : when pulverized, it forms a considerable article of ex- portation. This native ore, Avhen fused with lead or iron, possesses the property of hardening those metals. It is also said to increase the Avrdght, and heighten the colour of gold....It deserves no notice ei- ther as an internal medicine, or as a dentrifice. EMETICS are those medicines which are either given Avith a view to discharge the foul or poisoned contents of the stomach, or to a el- licate the coats of that organ, and thus to produce certain changes in other parts of the animal economy, not immediately connected with the process of digestion. With the latter intention, small nauseat- ing doses are generally adminis- tered, especially in catarrhal and other diseases of the breast. In this place, however, Ave shall but briefly enumerate the cases in which vomiting may be excited, Avith a probability of success; and also, those instances in which this re- medy cannot be safely adopted. Emetics may be of great ser- vice: 1. Immediately after swal- loAving narcotic and other poisons (see Antidotes, vol. i.); 2. For the purpose of evacuating viscid, bilious, and putrid matters, or un- digested food from the stomach ; 3. To assist nature, when there is a spontaneous effort to vomit; 4. To expel substances fallen into and obstructing the passage of the gul- let; 5. To promote the expectora- tion of mucus and purulent mat- ter, collected in the lungs and wind-pipe; as well as on many other occasions. On the contrary, the greatest precaution is required in the fol- lowing cases, where a precipitate use of emetics may be attended with fatal effects, from bursting a blood vessel, Sec. 1. In all plethoric persons, but especially such as per- ceive a strong propulsion of the blood to the head, breast, stomach, or liver; 2. In actualinflammation ofthe intestines ; 3. In states of ex- treme languor and debility ; 4. hi every species of ruptures, and pro- lapses ; 5. In violent pain proceed- ing from stones confined in the bil- ious or urinary passages ; 6. In obstructions of the bowels, and other abdominal parts ; 7. In per- sons of very rigid fibres, for in- stance, the aged and emaciated; 8. In a very Aveak or affected state of the lungs, liver and stomach . 452 E M O 9. In a deformed structure of the body, or some particular parts ; for Avhich reason emetics might prove dangerous to persons trou- bled with a hump-back, a very short neck, narroAV chest, Sec. Having stated the principal cir- cumstances, Avhich either indicate or prohibit the taking of emetics, we trust the reader will agree Avith us, that they are potent remedies, and that it requires the judgment of an expert and medical practi- tioner to determine their utility. With respect to the different substances employed to induce vo- miting, Ave refer to those heads of the alphabet, under which they are treated, such as Ipecacuanha, Tartar Emetic, Sec....One ofthe mildest emetics n.uy be made, ac- cording to Dr. Ln. n, by plunging red-hot pebbles into Aveak Avine, or flint-glass thus heated into cold Avater; a tea-spoonful of either may be taken every five oi ten minutes, till it produces the desired effect. Another ea y Avay to induce vomit- ing, is, a strong infusion of green tea, drunk lukewarm, without milk or sugar, and assisted by the occa- sional irritation of the fauces-and larynx, by means of a soft feather. S^ Vo.MITINC. EMOLLIENTS are those me- dicines, Avhich are supposed to soften and relax the fibres of the body, either by metiianically dis- tending such ;..> before were too cfoaclv; that is,preternuturally com- bined ; or, by penetrating into tie interstices of tr.v. e'einentdry fibre=, and supplying those particles, fr< m a de; ci .ncy of w hicii they Avere too intimately united. Among the remc- ciieF of he former class, are chiefly heat, and all unctuous applications; such as lard, wax, fat of venison, he. to the latter be otig all juicy, EN A mucilaginous, and saccharine sub- stances, serving both as nutriment and medicines. Of this descrip- tion are the expressed vegetable oils, fresh butter, decoctions of the marsh-mallows, infusions of lin- seed, Sec. Emollients are indicated: 1. When the fibres are in too rigid a state ; 2. When they are spasmo- dically contracted ; 3. In all active inflammations ; and 4. In obstinate costiveness, or accumulations of feces in the intestines. EMULSION, a form of medi- cine resembling milk, and which is often prescribed with a vieAV to sheath and neutralize acrid hu- mours, especially in heat of urine and stranguarles, as well as for ner- vous and irritable habits in gene- ral. Emulsions are frequently made, by boiling the oily and farinaceous seeds contained in kernels ; in which case they are soon decom- posed, on standing. In short, we cannot even approve of almond- milk, as it soon becomes rancid in summer, and is, upon the Avhole, inferior to emulsions made of gum- arabic, or merely of decoctions of pearl-barley, blanched oats, Avheat, rice, Sec....If these simple medi- cines are expected to be produc- t'iA7e of any advantage, they ought to be taken in draughts, amount- ing at ieist to half a-pint every hour, rat ler cool than lukeAvarm, (to save the stomach from relaxa- tion) and to be continued for seA'e- ral days, Avithout eating animal food. In hot Aveather, or Avhere no objection to acids prevails, a table-spoonful of lemon-juice, or good vinegar, may be added to every draught of the emulsion. EX A MEL, in general, signi- fies a vitrefied matter, interspersed EN A E N C 453 with some solid substance; and possessing all the properties of glass, excepting that of transpa- rency. The basis of enamels is a pure crystal glass or frit, ground toge- ther with a fine calx of lead and tin, prepared for that purpose, with the addition of a small proportion of the white salt of tartar. These form the principal ingredients of all enamels, which are made by adding various pulverized colours, and thoroughly incorporating the whole in a furnace. For white enamel, it is sufficient to add man- ganese to the matter Avhich consti- tutes the basis ; for azure, safl're mixed with calx of brass; for green, calx of brass Avith scales of iron, or crocus martis ; for black, zaffre with manganese or crocus martis, or manganese with tartar ; for red, manganese, or calx of copper with red tartar ; for purple, manganese with calx of brass; for yellow, tar- tar and manganese ; lastly, for vio- let coloured enamel, manganese with brass, that has been three times calcined. Enamels are used either for the counterfeiting or imitating of pre- cious stones, and for painting ; or by enamellers and artists working in gold, silver, and other metals. That species of enamel which jeAv- ellers employ, is imported from Holland, or Venice, in small cakes of Aarious sizes, which are in ge- neral, about four inches in diame- ter, and have the mark of the ma- ker indented on them. [The artist Avho is desirous to see the latest improvements in this art detailed, is referred to Til- loch's Phil. Magazine, (vol. xi.) and Nicholson's Journal, (8vo. 3 vol.) In the latter, all the pro- cesses of the Sevre China manu- factory, are detailed by the prin- cipal of the establishment.] Enamelling, is the art of lay- ing enamel upon metals, such as gold, silver, copper, he. whether plain or painted. The latter pro- cess is performed on plates of gold or silver, but generally on those of copper, prepared with the white enamel ; on which certain objects are delineated with the colours, and afterwards burnt in the fire, where they acquire a brightness and lustre resembling glass. Painting in enamel is held in greater estimation than any other branch of that art; on account of its peculiar and permanent vivaci- * ty, the strength of its colours not being effaced by time, but always retaining their pristine splendour. It is chiefly employed in miniature, as it cannot be easily peformed on a large- scale ; the enamel being very liable to crack on a plain sur- face, so that even the smallest plates must be someAvhat of a con- vex form. ENCYCLOPEDIA, or Cyclo- paedia, signifies the circle, or chain, which connects the differ- ent arts and sciences. In the present work, Ave have preferably adopted the term " En- cyclopaedia," for reasons which the philological reader will easily discover. But upon the motives which have induced us to combine this word with the epithet " Do- mestic," Ave cannot in this place expatiate ; as such an account will appear Avith more propriety in a future preface. Many attempts ba\-c been made by writers, to reduce the Avhole circle of the arts and science > to a systematic order, and exhibit a con- nected view of them, by represent- ing Avhat has emphai'r.dly been 454 E N C called " The Tree of Knowledge ;w but avc confess our disappointment on such occasions, as we never have met with a satisfactory ar- rangement. Nor can it be expect- ed that Ave should succeed in this arduous attempt, so long as there is no accurate and established meaning attached to the very Avords, Avhich it would be indispen- sibly necessary to adopt, in order to distinguish the phxysical from the metaphysical sciences. The lat- ter, indeed, are, at this uncritical period, in a manner exiled from the studies of the inquisitiAre ; tho' they appear to be so closely ce- mented to the human mind, that they will constantly intrude on our attention, engage the faculties of speculation, and absorb the powers of reflection, oA'enwhenin a manner proscribed. Conceiving, therefore, that it Avould be a fruitless, innova- tion to introduce any neAv terms in the present state of philosophical nomenclature, we shall content ourselves with simply enumerating the heads of the different branches of the arts and sciences. I. Divinity; comprehending Church History, Criticism, and Exegesis; Polemical and Dogma- tical Essays; Theological Morali- ty ; Sermons and Homilies ; Cate- chetical works; Liturgy and books on DeA-otion; Translations and Edi- tions of the Bible. II. Jurisprudence or Law: Avhich may be divided into English, Scotch, and peculiar private LaAv ; into Ec- clesiastical, Political, and Crimi- nal LaAV ; theoretical and practi- cal Jurisprudence ; its literary His- tory, Sec. III. Medicine; comprising Ana- tomy ; Physiology ; Pathology ; Symptomatology, or the doctrine of !>i'agnostics; Therapeutics, Sur- ENC gery ; Midwifery ; Pharmacy ; the Veterinary Art; Medical Police and Jurisprudence; domestic or popular Medicine, he. IV. Philosophy : viz. Logic and Metaphysics, or Speculative Philo- sophy ; Psychology, or the prac- tical study of the human mind; Ethics or Moral Philosophy; The- ory of Education; LaAv of Nature; and Political Economv. V. Mathematics; comprizing Arithmetic ; Geometry; Astrono- my ; Architecture ; Fortification ; and pure Mechanics. VI. Natural History ; including Meteorology ; Geology ; Hydrol- ogy ; Mineralogy ; Botany; and Zoology. VII. Universal History ; name- ly, Geography ; Statistics; Diplo- matic Transactions; Heraldry ; Chronology ; Genealogy; Numis- matology, or the knoAvledge of Medals and Coins ; Antiquities ; Mythology ; Archaeology; Biogra- phy, and Topography. VIII. Belles Lcttres, or Polite Literature....See vol. i. IX. Philology ; Grammars, Dic- tionaries, Editions and Translations of Greek and Roman Classics, as Avell as of Modern Languages, such as the French, Italian, Spa- nish, German, he....Study of the English language, which ought to precede all other pursuits; as without a thorough knoAvledge of the native tongue (of which very few of our modern scholars can boast), it is impossible to make great progress in foreign langua- ges, or to become intimate with any complicated art or science. X. Economical Sciences, includ- ing all the Mechanical Arts and Manufactures; as well as Trade, Commerce, and Navigation : but principally Agriculture and Gav- EPI E P I 455 dening ; the Arts of rearing Cattle, cultivating Trees, and managing Bees } Hunting ; Fishing ; Cook- ing, &c. XL Physics; namely, Natural Philosophy, Chemistry, Mineralo- gy, Sec. XII. Miscellaneous Literature; for instance, Encyclopxdias ; scien- tific works on a variety of sub- jects ; treatises on Freemasonry ; Literary Quarrels; Books with obscure titles, critical journals, monthly magazines, and news-pa. pers. Endive : See Succory. Engine : See Fire. ENGRAFTING: See Graft- ing. ENRICHING PLANTS, a term employed by gardeners to de- note such plants as ameliorate land, in consequence of which the same soil will produce a good crop of corn ; as, Avithout attending to the culture of such plants, a very in- different one would have folloAved. ....See Crops. The necessity of sowing such vegetables has, however, been in a great measure superseded by the general adoption of the drill, and horse-hoeing husbandry, by Avhich all weeds are totally eradicated, and consequently they will not ob- struct the growth of the corn or other grain that may be soAvn.... See Drilling. EPIDEMIC, in general, denotes a spreading disorder which, as is supposed, arises from some cor- ruption or malignity in the air, and attacks great numbers of people at certain seasons. Mankind have ahvays been more inclined to search for the most dis- tant causes, in order to explain physical events, rather than to avail themselves of those which are >\iihin their reach. [The inhabitants of every country believe that their OAvn is the favour- ed spot by heaven, which alone is to be exempted from the disgrace of producing epidemic diseases, and uniformly trace them, with great clearness, to importation. It is only necessary to read the account of any epidemic, to be convinced of this. But Providence does not interfere with the affairs of men, so as to de- stroy the rule of philosophising, es- tablished by the great Newton, viz. the tendency of the same causes to produce the same effects, in similar circumstances. Hence Ave act un- justly in ascribing diseases to our neighbours, when it is more than probable the " sin lieth at our own door." Much irritation has un- happily been caused by the dis- cussion of the question, whether the feArer, which has of late vears ravaged the U. States, was im- ported or of local origin. This is not the place to discuss the point. Those who wish to see it fully and ably canvassed.may consult Rush's works, Caldwell's Med. and Phys. Memoirs, and the Med. Rep. of New-York. Dr. Heberden's late work on the "Increase and Decrease of Diseases," and Webster's his- tory of epidemic diseases, ought also to be read w ith attention, as a greater number of facts are collect- ed on the subject, than ever before appeared in one work, and are elu- cidated by much perspicuous rea- soning. Dr. Benjamin Mosely, of Lon- don, in his late publication, (Medi- cal Tracts, 1800,) has also ablv treated the subject of pestilential diseases. His obserA'ations are highly worthy of corsideraticn, be- ing the result of original thinking, and extensive research.] The plague, which formerly de- stroyed great numbers in London, 456 E P I was not ahvays imported, but pro- bably originated at home, where, in those ages, cleanliness Avas not so generally attended to as it is at present. Hencethis domestic vir- tue has guarded us against many epidemics, to Avhich other less cleanly nations have been subject. But there is still great occasion for improA-ements, especially in the houses of the narrow courts and allies of the metropolis, where the progress of a contagious ma- lignant fever has lately excited considerable alarm. The Society for bettering the condition of the poor, (according to the printed Report ofthe philanthropic T.Ber- nard, Esq.) have proposed another benevolent institution, to check the ravages of contagious distem- pers among that class of persons, Avho are most liable and exposed to their influence. Farther parti- culars relative to this interesting subject Ave propose to give under the head of Infection : See, also, Contagiok. EPILEPSY, or Falling-Sick- ness, though hitherto considered an incurable disease, has often been relieved by the conjoint poAver of medicines and an appropriate diet. Hence, a pure and fresh air, light but nutrith e food ; chearful com- pany, and moderate exercise, will be here of greater service than the most celebrated nostrums, which are daily imposed upon the credu- lous. On the other hand, epilep- tic patients should carefully avoid all strong and heating-, as well as hot liquors, which equally relax the stomach ; abstain from SAvine's flesh, very fat meat, [and all articles of food Avhich they find difficult of digestion.] In a disease of so formidable a nature as the epilepsy, no medi- EPS cines can be taken with the least probability of success, without having previously ascertained the cause, which may be extremely various : for this obvious reason, medical advice cannot be dispensed Avith unless it be superseded by the pretensions of quack medi- cines. Among the numberless means and expedients contrived for the purpose of checking epileptic at- tacks, we shall only mention two : Dr. Lysons, in his " Practical Essays," relates the case of a suc- cessful application of ligatures to the legs, on the first approach of the fits, which were always ob- served to commence their course from the lower extremities. EPSOM SALT, was formerly obtained by boiling down the mine- ral Avater found in the vicinity of I psom. It is at present prepared from sea-water, which after being boiled down, deposits an uncrys- talized brine, that consists chiefly of muriated magnesia, and is sold in the shops, under the name of bitter purging &a't....It is of consi- derable service in colics, scurvy, rheumatism, and other chronical complaints. Epsom water is that saline spring, Avhich rises at the distance of about half a mile from the tOAvn of Epsom, in the county of Surrey. It is transparent, and colourless, at first almost insipid, but a short time after it has been drunk, it leaves a bitter, saline taste on the tongue. It does not suffer any material al- teration by being exposed to the air: and, if closely corked in clean vessels, it may be preserved, for several months in a fresh and po- table state. As this water contains only a small portion of the salt, namely, ER Y ESC 457 from one to tAvo scruples, in the quantity of half a pint, the patient ought to drink from two to three pints successively, Avithin a short space of time, in order to produce the full purgative effect. If taken in this dose, it will operate in a mild and efficacious manner, but if in a smaller, its action is determin- ed to the kidnies. Epsom Avater is of considerable service in a variety of disorders, namely, hypochondriasis, an im- paired state of health accompanied with cedematous tumours in the ex- tremities, and a depraved digestion; to which sedentary persons are peculiarly liable. Those who are afflicted Avith hemorrhoidal and scorbutic complaints, will be bene- fited by the liberal use of this sa- line water, which likewise affords considerable relief in obstructions of the viscera. This mineral water is easily imi- tated, by dissolving half an ounce of Epsom salt in a quart of pure water, rendered someAvhat acid, by the infusion of a feAv drops of spi- rit of vitriol, and oil of tartar. Erhines. See Sneezing. Eruption. See Skin. ERYNGO, or Sea-holly, Eryngium, L. a genus of plants, cons;sting of eleven species, two of Avhich are natives of this coun- try, viz. 1. The maritimum, or Sea-eryn- go, which is perennial, groAvs on the sea-shore, strikes its roots 20 feet deep into the soil, and flow- ers in the month of July or Au- gust. 2. The Campestre, or Field- eryngo, which is also perennial, groAvs chiefly near the sea-side, and likewise flowers in the month of July or August. Both species possess the same VOL. II. properties; the leaves being some- what sweet, and having an aroma- tic Avarmth or pungency. The sea-eryngo, however, is much stronger than the latter species.... The young, floAvering shoots, when boiled, have the flavour of aspara- gus, and are an wholesome and nutritious summer food. The roots of the first species are princi- pally directed for medical use: they possess no remarkable smell; but, when cheAved, haAre a pleasing, and somewhat aromatic sweetness. Boer ha ave considered this plant as one of the principal aperients, and be usually prescribed it as a diuretic and antiscorbutic: at pre- sent, hoAvever, the roots only are candied, and preserved as sweet- meats: those of the second spe- cies are thick, pulpy, svreet and nourishing, on which account the Germans boil and eat them as a culinary vegetable....See Hectic. In dyeing, these plants afford but an indifferent yellowish brown colour: hence they are, according to M. Mi yer, of Prague, more advantageously employed in that city for extracting soda, or mineral alkali. Erysipelas. See Rose. ESCHALLOT, or Shallot, Allium Ascalonicum, L. is a native of Palestine, Avhence it has been introduced into our kitchen gar- dens. It is raised from suckers, Avhich are set about the end of February, in beds or furrows, at the distance of about three inches from each other. Towards the end of June, the stems are tied up; and, in the course of another month, the plants are pulled out of the earth; Avhen they are exposed to the air to dry, and afterwards pre- served in some dry airy place. The roots ofthe eschallot are very 3 N 458 ESP ESS pungent; have a strong but pleas- ing smell, and are preferred to onions, as ingredients in highly-fla- voured soups and gravies. They are also pickled, in Avhich state con- siderable quantities are consumed in the East Indies. This plant, when mixed with vinegar, rice, and honey, is said to be serviceable against the bite of a mad dog; we doubt, hoAvever, the efficacy and propriety of such an application. It is also recommend- ed as an excellent cephalic, especi- ally Avhen inhaled through the nostrils; but its most beneficial pro- perties are those of creating an ap- petite, and expelling foul air. ESPALIERS, in horticulture, are toavs of trees, planted in gar- dens or hedges, in such a manner as to inclose distinct lots of ground; hence they are trained up regularly to a lattice of wood-work, in a close hedge, for defending tender plants against the injuries ofthe Avind and Aveather. The trees chiefly planted for espaliers, are apples, pears, and plums. While they are young, it ■will be sufficient to drive a few stakes into the ground on both sides; the branches being fastened to th em in an horizontal direction, as soon as they appear. At the ex- piration of three years, an espalier is to be made of ash-poles, of which two sizes, large and small ones, should be employed; the former are to be driven upright into the ground, about a foot distant; the latter or smaller poles, are to be nailed across these, at the distance ef nine inches. There is another kind of espa- liers, made of square pieces of tim- ber cut to any size; and which are certainly more handsome and regu- lar, but on account of the extrava- gant price of wood, less economi- cal than those constructed with ash-poles. As soon as the espalier is thus framed, the branches are to be affixed to it by means of ozier tw igs; being trained in an horizontal di- rection, and at equal distances. Fruit-trees managed in this manner are preferable to all others, because they not only bear more delicious fruit, but also require less room in a garden; and consequently do not retard the growth of such plants as may be cultivated in their vici- nity. ESSENCE; or Essential Oil, as it is variously termed, in medi- cine, denotes the purest, most sub- tle, and balsamic part of a body, extracted by distillation. There are a variety of essences drawn from flowers, fruits, &c. Avhich are used on account of their agreeable flavour by apothecaries, perfumers, and others: the princi- pal of these are the essence of rose- mary, of turpentine, of anise, of cloves, of cinnamon, and of lemons. The essences sold by perfumers, chiefly consist of the oil of bitter- almonds, to which they impart the odour of jessamine, roses, cinna- mon, and other flowers and spices. When essential oils have been dis- tilled, they should be suffered to subside for some days, in vessels loosely covered with paper, till they have lost their disagreeable, ardent odour, and have become limpid; they should be put into small bot- tles, Avhich ought to be completely filled, closely stopped, and kept in a cool place: by observing these precautions, they will retain their virtue for several years. But, if essential oils be carelessly manag- ed, they gradually lose their fla- vour, and become thick: in this ETC E T H 459 case, they should be put into a still, Avith fresh ingredients for dis- tilling the same oil; by Avhich means they will saturate them- selves with the odoriferous par- ticles, and regain their former strength and purity. Essential oils, medicinally consi- dered, agree in the general quali- ties of pungency and heat: with respect to their particular virtues, they vary as much as the vegetables. from Avhich they are extracted. Thus, the carminative properties of aromatic seeds, the diuretic effects of juniper-berries, the stomachic virtues of mint, and the antiscor- butic powers of scurvy-grass, are in a great measure concentrated in their oils. These oils are never given in a pure state, on account of their ex- treme pungency, Avhich in some is so great, that if a single drop be deposited on the tongue, it will oc- casion a gangrenous eschar, or scab. They are readily imbibed by pure, dry sugar, being the most conve- nient form in which they can be administered. The more mild and grateful oils are frequently used as ingredients Avith other medicines, to render them less nauseous. The more pungent ones are externally employed in paralytic complaints, numbness, colds, aches, and in other cases, where particular parts require &> be heated or stimulated. [ETCHING,Mr. Fred. Accum has lately shewn, that the art of etching Avas known in Germany in the beginning of the last century ; but it appears to have been forgotten, or lost. Scheele dis- covered the fluoric acid, and re- invented the art of etching on glass, in 1771. " A mode of etching, wherein the ground appears in very minute • chrystals, first brought into vogue in England,' by Paul Sandby, andnoAv much used, from its soft- ness, almost equal to Indian ink draAvings, is the following: Dissolve rosin inspirit of A'tine ; pour it on your plate, then pour it off again: as the spirit evaporates, the rosin chrystallizes, leaving a ground to be eaten byaqua-fortis.... For rosin, sandarac or mastic may be substituted. Or, sift lightly some finely-pow- dered rosin, through a small laAvn sieve, upon the plate. Hold the plate over the hot charcoal, at such a distance as the bottom part of the rosin will just melt suffici- ently to adhere to the plate, without one particle running into the other. If melted, the ground will be uni- form, which is to be aA'oidcd; for interstices are to be left between the particles, whereon the aqua- fortis is to bite." The above Avere communicated by T. Cooper, Esq. of Northumberland; and may be considered as most important infor- mation for American artists.] ETHER, or dulcified spirit of vitriol, is a very subtle penetrating fluid, prepared by distilling equal proportions of rectified spirit of Avine, and vitriolic acid. This spirit is the lightest, most volatile, and most inflammable yet knoAvn ; it floats on the surface of the most highly rectified spirit of wine, as oil floats on water : and, if it be dropped on a Avarm hand, it exhales immediately, diffusing a penetrating fragrance, and leaving no trace of any moisture. Ether is often successfully em- ployed in medicine. It sometimes affords immediate relief in violent head-achs, by being externally ap- plied to the painful part; and sup- presses the tooth-ach, when laid 460 E U P EUP on the affected jaAv.^ It has also been given internally, Avith consi- derable success, in hooping-coughs; in hysterical cases; in asthmas; and, indeed, in almost every spas- modic affection, from a few drops, to the quantity of half an ounce, taken in a glass of cold Avater, which should be expeditiously SAvalloAved, to prevent the exhala- tion of this A'olatile liquor. There is another preparation of a similar nature, but more power- ful in its effects, called naphtha uceti, or acetous ether, which is sel- dom kept in the shops of this coun- try. Its flavour is more pleasant than that ofthe former, being pre- pared by mixing six ounces of concentrated vitriolic acid, with 10 ounces of rectified spirit of wine, and pouring this mixture gradually on 16 ounces of regenerated tartar, in a glass retort; and then drawing off about ten ounces, over a very moderate fire. This affords an ex- cellent, but expensive remedy in all the cases where the vitriolic ether is generally used. [EUPATORIUM, a genus of plants, of which several are natiAres ofthe United States. The species most used, is the E. perfofiatum, commonly called thorough-wort. This plant is annual, and rises from 2 to 3 feet high, is hairy, and the leaves at each joint rough, from three to four inches long, and about one inch broad at their base, gra- dually lessening to a very acute point, of a dark green, and covered with short hairs. This plant cer- tainly possesses active properties, and deserves the attention of Ame- rican physicians. A strong infu- sion in water will vomit and purge. A Aveaker dose will sweat poAver- fully. A still Aveaker infusion, drank for some Aveeks, has done good in cases of deranged circula- tion, producing scabby and other eruptions, which are commonly said to proceed from " bad blood."] EUPHORBIUM, a gummy- resinous substance, which exudes from a tree of the same name, growing in Africa; whence it is imported in drops of an irregular form. These are externally of a pale yellowish colour; but, when broken, appear to be white inter- nally. If applied to the tongue, they affect it with a very pungent taste ; and, if held for some time in the mouth, they become ex- ceedingly acrimonious, inflaming and exulcerating the jaAvs to a vio- lent degree. Hence this substance is unfit for internal use, though it is sometimes employed as a ster- nutatory....See Hellebore. Externally, this gum is the prin- cipal ingredient in various resolvent plasters, and has been found ser- viceable in cleansing foul ulcers, and also in exfoliating carious or rotten bones. At present, it is employed chiefly by farriers, for curing the farcin, or the scab in horses. Formerly, the tincture of euphorbium, mixed Avith the oil of myrrh, Avas much used for discuss- ing scrophulous tumours, as well as for effacing spots and srnoothen- ing inequalities of the skin, pro- ceeding from the small-pox. [EUPHORBIA, Iptmacuanha, Linn. Thisplant is peculiarto light, dry, sandy soils, and grows abun- dantly in New-Jersey, and the ma- ritime districts of the southern states. It is a pretty plant, the stems rather procumbent and dif- fusive in their manner of growth, leaves remarkably variable in their figure, but generally oblong or broad lanceolate, AA-hilst others are long and narroAv, some almost li- EVA EVA 461 niar, like grass; but all are of a full, dark, crimson colour, except such as groAV in shade, which are of a livid green, elegantly reticu- lated Avith crimson veins. In me- dicine it is a sure and poAverful emetic, but perhaps too drastic, and ought to be administered with caution, and by such as have in- vestigated its properties. It is an Indian medicine, yet commonly used by country people. We have several other species of this genus, two of which are very handsome plants, viz. E. Co- rollata,^.Pieta. Wm.Bartram.] EVACUATION, in animal eco- nomy, is the act of diminishing, attenuating, or discharging the hu- mours. The due evacuations ofthe body, and its proper nourishment, are equally necessary; and it is an ob- ject ofthe utmost importance, that nothing remain in the constitution which should be discharged; and that whatever is conducive to its preservation, may not be uselessly wasted. If the evacuations be dis- ordered, the most rigid adherence to dietetic rules will not contribute to the continuance, or restoration of health ; these rules, however, may often be dispensed with, pro- vided the evacuations be regular. It is not only the noxious, or corrupt matter, which is removed by this process, but also the useful fluids, if they abound, such as the milk, blood, &c. to which subjects ■we refer, and likeAvise to the arti- cles Ear, Nose, Urine, Sec. EVAPORATION, is the con- version of fluids, chiefly of Avater, into vapour Avhich is specifically lighter than the atmosphere. There is no subject that has oc- casioned a greater variety of opi- nions than the theory of evapora- tion; but, consistently with our plan, we shall recite only a few established facts. Evaporation is one of the great chemical processes, by means of which Nature supplies the whole vegetable kingdom with the dew and rain necessary for its sup- port. Hence, it takes place at all times, not only from the surface ofthe ocean, but also from that of the earth. Nor is it confined to these: it is even carried on from the leaves of trees, grass, Sec. with which the earth is covered. Great part of the water which is thus raised, descends again during the night, in the form of deAV, being absorbed by those vegetables Avhich yielded it before. One ofthe most beneficial effects of evaporation is, to cool the earth, and prevent it from being too much heated by the sun. This property of producing cold, by eva- poration, has but lately been ob- served by chemists, who have accordingly availed themselves of it in its fullest extent; though their mode of procuring cold, by means of those expensive fluids, ether and spirit of Avine, can only be em- ployed by Avay of experiment. The most simple method, hoAvever, of producing cold by the evaporation of water, may be applied to various useful purposes, especially in warm countries: thus sailors are ac- customed to cool their casks of liquors, by sprinkling them with sea-Avater....See also Ice. Dr. Daravin justly observes, that the evaporation of moisture from the surface ofthe earth, pro- duces so much cold as to injure those terrestrial plants which are too long covered Avith it. Hence 462 EVE EVE such parts of wall-trees as are shel- tered from the descending deAvs, by a coping stone on the Avail, are not so liable to be injured by frosty nights; because they are not made colder by the evaporation of the dew, and also haAre less Avater to be congealed in their vessels, and to burst them by its consequent expansion. EVENING, is that part of the night which commences Avith sun- set, and properly terminates Avhen the prudent and industrious repair to their couch....long .before mid- night. In countries surrounded by the ocean, the evenings are generally damp and chilly, so that the tem- perature of the air is many degrees colder than in the preceding day. Hence the necessity of adopting a warmer dress than usually worn, if we are obliged to expose our- selves to the evening-air: invalids and convalescents ought not to leave their apartments after sun- set, even though the sky be ever so.serene, and the weather uncom- monly mild. Nor is it proper for the healthy to pursue those occupations in the evening, Avhich are attended with proportionally greater fatigue of mind or body : such pursuits ought to be folloAved in the morning, and the easiest purposely deferred to the latter part of the clay ; an ar- rangement by which a more com- posed and refreshing night's rest Avill be ensured. Beside this in- convenience, the eyes necessarily suffer from candle-light....See also Bed-time. EVERGREENS, in gardening, are those perennial plants which continue their verdure, leaves, Sec. throughout the year, such as bays, < hollies, pines, firs, cedars of Le- banon, he. In the evergreen shrubs and trees of this climate, such as heath, rue, box, laurel, he. the leaf does not die in the autumn, but continues to supply nourishment to the bud in its bosom during the fine days of winter, and in the spring, and survives till near midsummer, or till the neAv bud has expanded a leaf of its own. Hence Dr. Dar- avin supposes, that these ever- greens lay up in summer no store of nutriment in their roots, or al- burnum, for the sustenance of their ensuing vernal buds; and thus have probably no bleeding season, like deciduous trees. Mr. Milne, in his Botanical Dictionary, under the article De- foliatio, observes, that " an ever- green tree, grafted on a deciduous one, determines the latter to re- tain its leaves. This observation is confirmed by repeated experiments, particularly by grafting the laurel (Laurocerasus) an evergreen, on the common cherry (Cerasus); or the Ilex, an ever-green oak, on the common oak." All these, adds Dr. Darwin, want further expe- riments, to authenticate the facts so delivered on the authority of ingenious men. Evergreens are not only very great ornaments to a garden, at all seasons, but they also contribute to the purity of the air, when planted at a proper distance from dwelling-houses. Although their verdure, especially that of the pine and fir-trees, when scattered in rooms, exhales a narcotic and in- toxicating effluvium, not unlike that of hops, yet the boughs of all evergreens may be usefully em- ployed, particularly in winter, for EXC E X C 463 correcting the stagnant air in a room : with this intention, the branches are plunged Avith their root-ends into vessels filled with fresh water, and exposed to the rays of the sun ; but not suffered to remain in the apartment during the night, or in the shade. Everlasting. SeeCuDAVEED. Ewe. See Sheep. Excess. See Drunkenness. EXCHANGE, in commerce, implies the receiving or paying of money in one country for a similar sum in another, by means of bills of exchange....See Bill. The laAvs of all commercial na- tions have conferred great privile- ges on bills of exchange ; punctu- ality in liquidating them, is essen- tial to commerce : as soon, there- fore, as a merchant's accepted bill is protested, on account of his in- solvency, he is considered a bank- rupt. A regular bill of this description is a mercantile contract, in which four persons are concerned, viz. 1. The drawer, who receives the value. 2. The drawee, his debtor, in a distant place, upon Avhom the bill is drawn, and Avho must accept and pay it. 3. The person avIio gives a valuable consideration for the bill, and to whom, or to whose order it is to be paid : and 4. The person to whom payment is to be made, and Avho is creditor to the third. By this operation, recipro- cal debts, which are due in two distant places, are paid by a kind of transfer, or permutation of debt- ors and creditors. Beside those merchants, who cir- culate among themselves their re- ciprocal debts and credits, arising from their importation and expor- tation of goods, there is another class of men who deal in exchange; that is, in the importation and ex- portation of money and bills. When, hoAvever, balances are to be made, exchange becomes intricate ; and merchants, being engaged in their particular branches of trade, com- monly intrust these complicated calculations to certain agents, who are thence called exchange brokers, and have made this a most lucrative employment. The Course of Exchange, is the current price between tAvo places, which is always fluctuating and un- settled, being sometimes above, and at others below par, according to the circumstances of trade.... When the course of exchange rises above par, the balance of trade is said to run against that country where it rises. But, though the course of exchange be in a per- petual fluctuation, and rise or fall, accordingto various circumstances, yet the exchanges of London, Ham- burgh, Amsterdam, and Venice, regulate those of all the other trad- ing places of Europe....Such read- ers as are desirous to make them- selves acquainted with the laws of this country, as they relate to cash bills, and bills of exchange, will find ample information in Mr. Chitty's " Trea'ite on Bills of Exchange," he. (8vo. 7s.), Avhere the subject is perspicuously and ac- curately treated. 464 E X C EXC [The following very useful table of calculations, shewing the value cf 1001. sterling, in Pennsylvania currency, accord- ing to different rates of exchange, above and below par, has been published by the brokers of Philadelphia. Above par. Pounds Pennsylvania Dolls. Cts. sterling. currency. 8 per cent. 108 180 0 0 480 0 n 107^ 179 3 4 477 77 7 107 178 6 8 475 55 H' 106f 177 10 0 473 33 6 106 176 13 4 471 11 5-1 105| 175 16 8 468 89 5 105 175 0 0 466 67 2 104f 174 3 4 464 44 4 104 173 6 8 462 22 ^2 103| 172 10 0 460 0 3 103 171 13 4 457 77 2A a 102| 170 16 8 455 55 2 102 170 0 0 453 33 H 101^ 169 3 4 451 11 1 101 168 6 8 448 89 2 100f 167 10 0 446 67 PAR, 100 166 13 4 444 44 Under par. | per cent. 99f 165 16 8 442 22 1 99 165 0 0 440 0 H 98| 164 3 4 437 77 2 98 163 6 8 435 55 H 97^ 162 10 0 433 33 3 97 161 13 4 431 11 3I 96f 160 16 8 428 89 4 96 160 0 0 426 67 4i 2 95^ 159 3 4 424 47 5 95 158 6 8 422 22 94| 157 10 0 420 0 6 94 156 13 4 417 77 H 93f 155 16 8 415 55 7 93 155 0 0 413 33 71 92^ 154 3 4 411 ir 8 92 153 6 8 408 89 H 9lf 152 10 0 406 67 9 91 151 13 4 404 44 91 2 90* 150 16 8 402 22 10 90 150 0 0 400 0] EXC EXCORIATION, or fretting of the skin, is a complaint sometimes arising from want of due atten- tion to infants, or in persons unac- customed to ride on horseback, or those who are unfortunately bed- ridden. If the excoriation be only of a superficial kind, the application of a little hot flour, or covering the part affected with fine silken oil- cloth, will generally heal it in a few days: but, if these simple means do not succeed, an ointment consisting of one ounce ofthe finest mutton suet, and a dozen drops of the common oil of turpentine, gra- dually added, while the former is melting, has generally been found of service. In those cases, however, Avhere the true skin is affected, so that the excoriation is attended with considerable pain, it will be useful immediately to apply the plant call- ed self-heal (prunella vulgaris), finely pounded in a marble mortar, with the addition of a few grains of alum. Thus, the inflammation of the contagious parts may be pre- vented ; but, if this have already taken place, it should be previous- ly reduced by a timely application of emollient Poultices, to Avhich we refer. Excrescence. See Wart. EXCRETION, in animal eco- nomy, is the discharge of foul or noxious humours, by stool. As the food and drink daily con- sumed must necessarily deposit fe- culent and useless matter, mode- rate evacuations by stool, are both necessary and beneficial, especially to those Avho are troubled with costiveness, head-achs, flatulency, spasms, and the numberless un- pleasant disorders thence arising.... See Costiveness. VOL. II. EXE 465 Persons in a good state of health ought to have one evacuation at least, and sometimes two, in the course of tAventy-four hours....Mo- derate exercise and a tranquil mind, equally tend to promote these salu- tary excretions, Avhich should be in a state neither too fluid, nor too concrete. Hard and continued la- bour, ardent spirits, or heating li- quors, as Avell as long abstinence, render them extremely tenacious in the strongest and most healthy individuals. When such a habit prevails, it at length generates costiveness, with all its attendant evils. Those avIio indulge either in ex- cessive eating or drinking, are ge- nerally troubled with loose and frequent stools; because their ali- mentary matter is expelled, with- out being properly assimilated. Indeed, thin and copious discharg- es are a certain evidence of indi- gestion. Regular and daily evacuations, therefore, essentially contribute to the preservation of health. This desirable object m ly be attained, by taking sufficient, but moderate, exercise; by adapting the food to the nature of the constitution, and using a proportionate quantity of drink; by observing strict temper- ance in both; and lastly, by not in- dulging in too much sleep, which is in a peculiar degree hurtful after dinner, to those Avhose digestive powers are impaired, and whose evacuations are uncommonly lan- guid......By attending to these few practical suggestions, a due excre- tion ofthe noxious and superabun- dant fluids will be promoted, and the greatest of blessings, health, consequently ensured. EXERCISE, in general, is such an agitation of the body, as pro- S O 466 EXE EXE duces salutary -effects in the animal economy. Exercise may be divided into two classes, active and passive: the former includes walking, hunt- ing, dancing, running, leaping, SAvimming, 1 tiling on horseback, fencing, the military exercise, and, in short, all such gcimes as require muscular exertions. Passive exer- cise comprehends riding in a coach, sailing, swinging, he. all v.ti ich Ave shall notice in their alphabetical order. Exercise in the open air is, in every respect, preferable to that in houses, and close apartments. It ought, however, to be commenced and concluded in a gradual man- ner, and by no means abruptly. It should be continued only Avhile avc enjoy it without fatigue, and ought to be relinquished as soon as it be- comes a task. The best time for this purpose is the forenoon, or some time before dinner, Avhen the stomach is not too much dis- tended: thus it increases the circu- lation of the blcod; attenuates and divides the fluids; and promotes a regular perspiration, as well as a due secretion of all the humours. It likewise raises the animal spi- rits, strengthens the muscular parts, creates appetite, and aids di- gestion. Hence those aaIio take proper daily exercise, are in gene- ral robust, and afflicted Avith few diseases. On the other hand, violent exer- cise, or even fust Avalking, immedi- ately before or after meals, is ex- tremely pernicious; for it imp odes digestion, and impels to the surface of the body those fluids Avhich are intended to promote the solution of aliment....Immoderate exercise weakens the body, destroys the elasticity of the fibres, and necessa- rily accelerates both respiration, and the circulation of the blood; which may cause a variety of acci- dents, namely, the bursting of small blood-vessels, inflammations, and collections of blood towards certain parts ofthe body, such as the heart and brain. The saline acrimony of the fluids being thus more disen- gaged, the fot liquefies; and ardent feA'eis, p.. Lies, he. are the melan- choly consequences. Of still greater importance is the exercise of children; for, on its pro- per regulation, their future health and straitness, in a great measure, depend. This subject having very lately been perspicuously treated by Dr. Strlve, Ave shall subjoin only a feAv elementary principles from his work on Physical Educa- tion: 1. Children ought to enjoy perfect liberty to move, leap, and take exercise at pleasure. 2. They should not be taught to rely on the assistance of others; but endeavour to- make every effort consistent with their c wn strength. 3. When in the act of falling, they ought not to be seized by the arm; and, after a foil, should not be too much pi- tied. 4. Every kind of spontaneous exercise is preferable to that taken by compulsion. 5. Exercise, though at an early period of infancy, must be uniform, that is, not confined to particular limbs ofthe body, nor at any time carried to excess..... V. e sincerely recommended these rules to the serious consideration of those avIio are engaged in the arduous and important task of rear- ing children; as we are fully per- suaded that, by a timely attention to those circumstances, many acci- dents, and much deformity, may be effectually prevented. Many persons, being prevented from walking, riding, he. in the EXE •pen air, either by the inclemency of the weather, or from want of leisure, Ave have subjoined the fol- lowing figure, representing a con- trivance, that may serve as a sub- stitute for dumb-bells. The engine consists of a wooden cylinder a, which turns on two central pivots, e, e, inserted in the upright posts.....b, b, are two rods, that may be made either of iron or of strong AA'ood. These bars in- tersect each other at riglit angles, and are furnished Avith leaden Aveights at their extremities, c, c, c; which turn the cylinder Avith great velocity, when the rope d, attached to and passing round it, is pulled doAvnAvards. i arther, such Aveights draAv the rope up again Avith con- siderable force, while it is wound backAvards and forwards over the cylinder....As this machinery may be fixed in a garret, or other spare- room at the top of a house, the rope may be conducted through the ced- ing into a lower chamber; so that sedentary persons, or invalids. m.'V take sufficient exercise, without quitting their habitation, or expos- ing themselves to the Aicissitudes of the weather. E X H 467 EXHALATION, generally speaking, denotes effluvia or steams which arise from the surface of the earth, or other bodies, in the form of vapour. Plants and floAvers afford a grate- ful exhalation, provided their fra- grance be not too strong : hence they should never be placed in ccniincd apartments, as instances have occurred of persons being al- most suffocated, 'by sleeping in rooms where quantities of fresh flowers were exposed. In serene weather, however, fresh plants or ever-greens (but by no means flowers) may be strewed Avith ad- vantage, during the day, in the apartments of valetudinarians; as such vegetables, especially in sun- shine, generate a vital air, Avhich produces salutary effects on the lures. The exhalations aviting from vast numbers of burning candles, as also from the breath of many persons respiring in the same room, are peculiarly unwholesome to weak and consumptive habits. This inconvenience may, hoAvever, be re- medied by means of conical tubes, the funnels or broad ends of which should be placed so as to commu- nicate in or above the windoAvs, with the open air: thus, the latter will be impelled into the rooms Avith considerable force, and ven- tilate them more effectually, and at much less expence than is ac- complished by 11,migations, or other methods. The vapour anting from char- coal is particularly hurtful; and, in close apartments, often produc- tive of fatal accidents : the greatest precaution is therefore requisite, when charcoal is employed for cu- linary or domestic purposes. In a similar manner, humid air of tv.ry kind is very detrimental to health ; 468 E X O EXP and Ave seriously reprobate the keeping of damp linen, wet clothes, and even Avet umbrellas in dwel- ling-rooms ; as, by paying due at- tention to this circumstance,' many serious accidents might easily be prevented. EXOTIC, an appellation given to plants, Avhich are not natives of Britain. The generality of exotic plants do not thrive in this country, Avith- out particular care and culture ; they require the warmth of their own climates : hence hot-beds, green-houses, he. become neces- sary....See Green-house, and Stove. The best method of packing exotic plants for a voyage, especi- ally if they be such as will perish above ground, is to set their roots as clos. !v as possible in vrooden boxes, filled Avith proper soil, and provided with hancdes : this oper- ation may be pei formed three weeks before they are shipped. During fair weather, they should be exposed upon the deck, but in wet or unfavourable seasons, they ought to be removed, or covered Avith a tarpawlin. If exotics are conveyed to a cold- er climate, they require very little moisture ; but, if they are sent from a cold to a warmer, country, it Avill be necessary to water them li- berally ; and, if they be sheltered from the scorching rays ofthe sun, thev will safely arrive at the place of their destination. There are, hoAvever, seA'eral plants that will live for a consider- able time Avithout earth, such as the Eschallot (to which we re- fer), and other succulent exotics. These vegetables require only to be carefully packed in boxes, Avith some moss : a little hay should likeAvise be added, to prevent the different roots from rubbing against or bruising each other ; the boxes should also be perforated with holes, an expedient by which the plants Avill be preserved from heating, and consequent putrefaction. With these precautions, they will not be materially injured by a voyage of two or three, or even four or five months. Several trees will like- Avise arrive in safety, if packed up in this manner, after they have ceased to grow ; such as oranges, olives, capers, and pomegranate- trees, of Avhich great numbers arft annually imported from Italy : and, though they are generally three or four months in their pas- sage, yet they seldom receive any damage. EXPECTORANTS, are such medicines as promote expectora- tion, that is, the discharge of mu- cus, or other matters from the breast, lungs, and wind-pipe, by coughing, bringing up phlegm,' he. Expectorants operate in differ- ent Avays ; for, if the humour se- creted, be acrid and thin, and the pores of the glands be too much constricted, these medicines gene- rally relax, soften and widen the passages; diminish the acrimony of the animal fluids ; and coagulate those parts Avhich are too thin and watery : for Avhich purpose, the li- quorice-root, honey, spermaceti, saffron, mallows, and oil of al- monds, are very frequently used. But, if a considerable quantity of thick, viscid matter be lodged in the lungs, so as to obstruct breath- ing, it Avill be necessary to aid ex- pectoration by means of such sub- stances as may dissolve the tough and glutinous humours. This ob- ject may be affected by taking de- E X T EYE 469 coctions ofthe Greater Celandine, Scabious, Elecampane, and other pectoral herbs....See also Cough, and Catarrh. Great caution, hoAvever, is ne- cessary in administering expecto- rants of Avhatever kind. Hence Ave cannot but censure the injudicious practice of those mothers and nurses, who often load the tender stomachs of infants with a variety of preparations, both of sweet and oily substances, with the view of relieving coughs ; but as children have not sufficient strength to pro- mote the evacuation of matter from the vessels of the breast, such po- tions, far from being of any real service, must necessarily occasion no small injury. Indeed, this prac- tice is the more dangerous, as the cough, and consequent stricture of the chest, may arise from a variety of causes, too numerous to be here recited. EXTRACTS, are those medici- nal preparations obtained by boil- ing vegetable substances in water, and evaporating the strained de- coction in broad, shallow vessels, to a thick consistence. Thus the most active parts of the plants are separated from the useless insolu- ble earthy matter. As extraction is a chemical pro- cess, generally performed by the apothecary, we shall only observe that the following extracts are di- rected to be kept in the shops by the London College : viz. extract of broom-tops ; of cascarilla ; of chamomile; of Peruvian bark, with and Avithout, its resin; of colocynth compounded Avith aloes, scammony, he ; of gentian ; of liquorice ; of black hellebore ; of jalap ; of log- wood ; of white poppy; of rue; of sa- vin; ofsenna; of wild cucumbers,&c. EXTRAVASATION arises from the bursting or breaking of one or more of the blood vessels, after contusions, fractures, and other injuries ofthe head, as Avell as other parts of the body : this ac- cident is attended Avith such a co- pious discharge of blood, as fre- quently occasions the most vio- lent pain, and death itself, unless the patient be timely relieved. As soon as the seat of the in- jury is discovered, the extravasated blood should first be discharged ; after which the wound is to be cleansed, and all splinters or foreign bodies extracted. The assistance of a surgeon is, on this occasion, immediately required, because a vein must be opened, and as much blood taken away as the patient's strength will permit; by which the extravasation of more blood is prevented. A brisk laxative is next to be given, to lessen the quantity of the fluids ; the head is to be fomented with medicated bags ; and a plaster of melilot ap- plied to it; Avhile volatile salts, or spirit of hartshorn, may be held to the patient's nostrils ; and decoc- tions of betony, laAender-flowers,or other attenuating liquids are admi- nistered, in order to support his strength. These applications will not, probably, be effectual at first; but they should be continued, espe- cially if the more alarming symp- toms appear to abate. And if the patient seem to have received be- nefit from the bleeding, it will be proper to repeat it a second or even a third time, particularly if he be of a robust and plethoric constitu- tion. Meanwhile, no animal food, nor any stimulating liquors should be used, and every degree of men- tal and bodily irritation should be carefully avoided. EYE, the organ of sight, by means of which visible objects are represented to the mind. 470 EYE EYE It Avould be deviating from our plan, to give a minute anatomical description of this most useful or- gan ; we shall, therefore, confine our attention to the necessary treat- ment of the eye, in a diseased as Avell as healthy state ; in order to ensure a sound sight, t.o the latest period of life. The eye is extremely tender, and liable to a variety of diseases, the most common of which are the following: l.The eye-lids are sometimes infested with tumours of diticient kinds, and more particularly the stye, Avhich groAvs on the edge oi the eye-lid;- is attended with heat, stiffness, pain ; and unless proper means be taken, Avith suppuration. It is a kind of abscess, Avhich in general, may be removed by dis- cutient applications ; but, should these prove ineffectual, a small emollient poultice ought to be ap- plied to induce a suppuration, af- ter which the tumourwill spontane- ously heal. In case, hoAvever, it should not have the desired effect, a surgeon must open the stye Avith the point of a lancet ; Avhen the matter will be discharged. 2. Warts, and other tumors, which require the same treatment as Avhen they arise on other parts ofthe body. But if in extirpating such excrescences, part of the eye- lid should be corroded, the lips of the sere must be laid as nearly to- gether as possible, and the matter hardening on it, frequently remo- ved, Avithout the application of any dressings : for these, hoAvever mild, Avill only irritate and inflame the ball ofthe eye. 3. The eye-lashes are, in some cases, so much inverted as to rub upon the eye, and thus produce pain and inflammation. This com- plaint arises from a variety of causes, without a complete know- ledge of Avhich it Avould be danger- ous to attempt any application. Persons afflicted Avith this, or any ether disease in the eye, ought, Avithout loss of time, to avail them- selves of professional advice or to consult an experienced oculist, who is able to ascertain the true source fro in which the disorder -pro- ceeds. 4. A protrusion of the eye, if it amount to a considerable degree, is attended Avith much deformity and uneasiness, arising not only from a large portion of the lining of the eye-lid being turned outwards, but also from too great an exposure of the pupil. If this defect proceed from an enlargement of the eye- ball, or in consequence of a drop- sical SAvelling, the affection of the whole system must be attended to, without applying any local reme- dies ; but, if it originate from the cicatrix of an old wound, or an ab- scess, it may be relieved by care- fully dividing the skin, and taking the utmost precaution to guard against the effects of inflammation : such operations, hoAvever, should be performed only by skilful hands. ....Lastly, if it be originally produ- ced by the small-pox, scrophula, &c. or arise from old age, the eyes should be bathed daily Avith cold Avater, or with some astringent, and saturnine solution. 5. Specks are sometimes formed upon the white part ofthe eye, but more frequently upon the cornea, or the transparent horny coat, which covers the sight. In the for- mer case, they are seldom attended with much inconvenience ; but in the latter, they frequently cause either a partial or total blindness. Such specks are generally conse- quent to inflammation ; and, if vi- sion be materially impaired, it will EYE be requisite to resort immediately to surgical assistance. 6. A membranous excrescence, called pterygiwn, frequently ap- pears upon the white part of the eye, and often spreads over the cornea, in such a manner as entire- ly to destroy vision. It is either occasioned by external injuries, or arises from a general disease of the Avhole system, as in the schro- phula, or scurvy, he; but inflamma- tion is always the immediate cause. In this, as in the preceding com- plaint, the patient should not tam- per with the delicate organ of sight; as, by one injudicious application, tliat sense may be lost, beyond the possibility of recovery. 7. The eye is sometimes enlarg- ed by an accumulation ofthe aque- ous humour; which occasions a sensation of fulness in the eye-ball, gradually impedes the motions of the eye-lids, renders vision progres- sively more imperfect, till the un- fortunate patient can at length only discriminate light from darkness. As the disorder increases, the ball of the eye becomes greatly enlarg- ed, and the cornea begins to pro- trude ; so that if a puncture be not made, the eye will burst, and discharge itself. In the early stages of this disease, the sight may per- haps be preserved by proper treat- ment ; but Ave earnestly exhort all patients, if they feel the value of their eyes, to avoid those pernicious nostrums, vended under the name of collyria, eye-Avaters, he. 8. Inflammation of the eye. See Inflammation. 9. Blindness. See vol. i. 10. Blood-shot eyes. See vol. i. 11. Cataract. See Gutta Se- rena. 12. Short sight, though it can- not be strictly considered as a dis- w EYE 471 order of the eye, is nevertheless a serious evil. Those Avho are natu- rally near-sighted, are seldom re- lieved from that defect till they at- tain a certain age, when that un- common rotundity Avhich occasi- ons it, gradually decreases. In order to remedy this inconvenience, they have recourse to eye-glasses, Avhich, on certain occasions, are of real utility ; but instead of using both eyes at the same time, or at least alternately,they abvurdly close one, while they view an object through the glass with the other ; by a\ hich means they can only in- spect it sideways ; a practice that deserves severe censure, inasmuch as the eye which is not exercised, must necessarily become useless.... See Spectacles. These remarks are equally ap- plicable to these persons who can distinguish object'-, only at a dis- tance ; for eye-glasses to them al- so bcccr.e necessary, to enable them to behold mere minute ob- jects Avith greater precision. Weak eyes are chiefly occasion- ed ly residing in confined situa- tions ; hence so many perrons, liv- ing in toAvns, complain of this mis- fortune, which can only be attribu- ted to the want of a pure atmos- phere, as well as to the confined circle of vision :....the rays of light being reflected from smooth Avails which de.r:z!e the eyes, cannot fail to injure those organs in a very material degree. Those parents, consequently, who have a just regard for the health of their children, cannot testify it more effectually, than by exposing them daily and frequently to the bracing influence of the fresh air; and, if it become necessary, to confine them in nurseries, instead of selecting the smallest and loivcst 472 EYE EYE apartment, the loftiest and most airy should be appropriated to that purpose. For a similar reason, in- fants ought to spend a considerable part of their time near the win- dows, Avhere distant objects may attract their attention; a practice which is highly conducive to the improvement of sight. Those adults who are afflicted Avith Aveak eyes, should always burn twq candles, placed in such a direction that their flame be neither too high nor too low; or rather make use of proper lamps: See vol. i. and also, the article Lamps. Persons of this description should never approach strong fires, nor live in hot rooms; for heat dissi- pates the natural moisture still re- maining in debilitated eyes, so that it materially tends to Aveaken that organ, and at length induces total blindness. Rest, after long exer- tions, is very necessary and useful to the eyes, buc the lids should never be too closely shut, as a conti- nuance of that practice is very per- nicious. Similar effects arise from a rude and frequent friction of these tender parts. Few remedies for preserving the eyes are more refreshing and invi- gorating, than cautiously bathing them in cold water, three or four times in the day; the eye not be- ing abruptly immersed, and the washing expeditiously managed. The drying of the eyes should like- wise be carefully performed, lest that organ be too much stimulated, and at length inflamed. [In common inflammations ofthe eyes, a very cheap and efficacious remedy is a solution often grains of sugar of lead, in half a pint of rain, river, or snow Avater. Scarifying the Avhites of the eyes with the point of a sharp lancet, (a simple operation), affords immediate re- lief. Leeches are also highly useful in this complaint. Eyes naturally weak may be strengthened, by frequently washing them with weak brandy and water, and by Avearing a white hat, with black underneath, in summer. In chro- nic sore eyes, the folloAving oint- ment has been used with great suc- cess:....Fresh butter three oz. red precipitate of mercury one drachm, (60 grains): a small quantity is to be put in at the corner of the eye, Avhen retiring to bed, and washed out the next morning Avith cold Avater. Dr. Cutbush, ofthe Ame- rican navy, informed the Editor, that he learned, Avhile in the Me- diterranean, that the Egyptian sore eyes, Avhich proved so troublesome to the troops lately employed by France and England in that coun- try, were speedily cured, by the application of a blister to the fore- head.] Eyes of Horses....These are liable to a variety of diseases, which proceed either from a detiuxion or rheum, or from some internal in- jury. If a defiuxion be the cause of the malady, it will previously be necessary to ascertain, whether it arises from the eye itself, or from some other injured part, as, in the latter case, the healing of that part will generally cure the eye. In the former, it will be requisite to administer remedies which cool the animal's blood; with this intention, two ounces of Glauber's salts, and two drams of nitre, may be mixed, and given every day with his bran ; but if he should loathe his food, an equal quantity of the liver of antimony may be substituted, till his appetite returns. When the eye has received ex- E Y E tcrnal injury, the following appli- cation is recommended: Take of hog's lard; the oil of roses; and of elder, equal parts; and as soon as those ingredients are incorporat- ed over the fire, anoint the eye af- fected, which will soon recover its former energy....Some horses have naturally weeping eyes, which emit a sharp, acrid humour. These, hoAvever, may be easily cured, by Avashing or bathing them every day Avith brandy. [Inflammation in the eyes of horses, must be treated by general as Avell as local bleeding, purging, short allowance, and darkness ; the eyes may be washed with weak lead-Avater, three times a day. Haws, or warty excrescences in the eyes of horses, may be remov- ed by the following operation :.... Pass a thread, armed with a needle, through the upper eye-lid, and top ofthe ear, and draAv them together, until the eye opens sufficiently: then pass another thread through the upper edge of the Avasher of the eye, until the haw is exposed, and can be fairly laid hold of; it must then be carefully dissected out with a scalpel. This was the mode practised by a farrier from Europe, in the American army, during the revolutionary war.] EYE-BRIGHT, or Euphrasia EYE 473 officinalis, L. an annual indigenous plant, growing on heaths, dry, bar- ren meadoAvs, and in pastures; it floAvers from July to September. This vegetable is remarkable for not thriving in any situation, unless it be surrounded by plants that are taller than itself. It is eaten by cows, goats, horses, andsheep,but is refused by hogs. Eye-bright is someAvhat astrin- gent and bitter; it imparts a black colour to a solution of vitriolated iron. Its reputed efficacy in cur- ing various disorders of the eyes, appears to us doubtful: several au- thors, hoAvever, strongly praise its virtues, and maintain that it is par- ticularly useful to eyes impaired by long-continued application, and also to those which are dim and watery, in consequence of old age. For this purpose, Mr. Bradley advises the poAvder of the dried leaves to be frequently taken inter- nally, after mixing it with the yolk of an egg, and likeAvise to make daily use of this herb among culi- nary vegetables, or to apply a de- coction of it in simple water exter- nally.....In common with many other plants, the eye»bright has also been recommended in the jaundice. We confess our inexperience of its salutary effects. VOL. II. 3 P F. F AC FACE, generally signifies the visage of any animal: it is more particularly applied to the human countenance; being the only con- spicuous part of the body. The human face is called the image of the soul, because it is the seat of the principal organs of sense, and the place Avhere the ideas and emotions ofthe mind are most obviously displayed. It has ahvays been considered the most comely and expressive part of the frame, so that various lotions, poAv- ders, he. have been invented for beautifying and restoring ugly or decayed countenances. Such prac- tice, hoAvever, though sanctioned by the folly and caprice of fashion, cannot be too severely censured. Having already pointed out this absurdity, and mentioned such pre- parations as may be safely used by those who are determined to em- ploy them, Ave refer the reader to the head Cosmetics. FACE-x\CH, or lie douloureux, is an acute pain in the face, which is sometimes accompanied by sup- purating tumors: it mostly at- tacks persons of delicate habits, and those Avho are uncommonly sus- ceptible of cold. To remove this distressing affec- tion, the use of A-olatile salts, and other cepbalics, is generally insuf- ficient. Hence the tincture of va- lerian, with vitriolic a;lher, may with more advantage be resorted to, both externally and internally. Relief has, in some instances, been derived from the compound tinc- tures of castor and of asafcetida; but, if these various remedies prove FAG ineffectual, the feet should be bath- ed in warm Avater, a foetid clyster be administered, and recourse had to electricity. A'draught of vine- gar or warm Avater, has occasional- ly procuied ease; but, in very vio- lent cases, opium only, under pro- per medical guidance, is capable of suppressing the pain. Lastly, a new and efficacious cure for the face-ach, has been discovered by Dr. Haighton :....He directs the nerve proceeding from the infra- orbital hole, to be divided; but this operation ought to be perform- ed by a skilful surgeon; as, other- Avise, irreparable injury might be committed on the eye....[See Med. Records and Researches.] With a vieiv to prevent a return of this malady, the patient should undergo a course of tonic medi- cines, namely: Take a copious draught of spring-Avater, early in the morning; repair to the tepid, or, if his strength admit, to the shower-bath; and use the Peru- vian bark. FAGGOT, a bundle of pieces of wood, tied together for fuel, or other purposes. In making up faggots, the work- men trim or cut off the superfluous branches, from the sides and end, Avhich they insert in the middle of the bundle, where they can be of little service. Instead of continu- ing this wasteful method, such su- perfluous leaves and boughs ought to be scattered on the ground, Avhich will, in consequence, he considerably ameliorated; for this kind of manure is particularly be- neficial to bad and exhausted land, F AL F A L 475 which may thus be converted into an excellent garden mould; and the growth of young trees -will be remarkably promoted. Fainting....See Savooning. FAIR, a public place, where merchants, traders, and other per- sons, from remote parts, assemble on some fixed day in the year, to buy and sell commodities^ and to partake of the diversions usually to be met with on such occasions.... See Market. Fairs are of a very ancient origin, and, though in former times, when the commercial intercourse of dis- tant towns and countries Avas more difficult than it is at present, such establishments were useful, and perhaps necessary; yet, we are of opinion, that their gradual abolition would be attended with real benefit to the community....Many scenes of idleness and profligacy might thus be obviated, and an additional number of valuable house and shop- keepers might be maintained in country towns and villages, in order to furnish the necessary commodi- ties....instead of those unsettled dealers who spend one half of their time in travelling from fair to fair, and thus consume the profits of their trades, Avithout materially contributing to support the bur- thens of society. FALCON, a formidable bird of prey, of which there are two spe- cies, namely: 1. The Jer-Falcon, Falco Gyr- falco, L. Avhich is but seldom found in Scotland and the Orkneys: next to the eagle, it is the most in- trepid and voracious ofthe feather- ed tribe, and likewise the most valuable species for the purposesof falconry. The stork, the heron, and the crane, fall easy victims to its bold attacks; and it kills hares, by darting upon them in a direct line....It is remarkable that in this, as in all other birds of prey, the females are much larger and stronger than the males, Avhich last are employed in falconry to catch only the smaller birds, such as the crow, the heron, and the kite. 2. The Gentil-Falcon, which is less ferocious, and also rarely met with in Britain. FALL, or the act of tumbling from an erect posture, or, from a higher place, is sometimes attended with serious consequences; espe- cially if it should be neglected in the beginning. Hence the neces- sity of examining the whole body, Avhether the fall has been produc- tive, of violent bruises, dislocations, or fractures; in which cases sur- gical aid should be immediately procured. But, if the person fallen, remain motionless, and in a swoon- ing state; or in order to prevent him from fainting, it may be use* fill to administer a Avine-glass full of SAveet oil of olives, which will greatly tend to calm and compose the Avhole body. After a fall from a precipice, or high place, it Avill perhaps be ne- cessary to open a vein; but avc cannot approve of that superstitious remedy, on this occasion, advised by the late Prof. Bradley; ac cording to whom, the blood issuing from the comb of a large cock, and gradually drunk, after every clip- ping with a pair of scissars, gives so much vigour and strength to the wounded, as to enable him to be dressed. Falling-sickness. See Epi- lepsy. FALLOWING, in agriculture, 476 FAL F AL is the mode of preparing land, by ploughing it a considerable time before it is ploughed for seed. Lands are laid fallow either dur- ing the summer, or during the Avinter, according to the nature of the soil, and the judgment of the cultivator. It is not our intention to enter into the dispute relative to the necessity or inutility of summer folloAvs ; as very able arguments have been alledged as well for, as against it, by skilful agriculturists. Both summer and winter falloAvs, however, are occasionally useful on different soils. The advantages to be derived from fallowing are: 1. By repeat- edly turning soils over, much car- bonic acid, or fixed air, is produced in a fluid state, which remains united with the vegetable recre- ments, or Avith volatile alkali, or calcareous earth. 2. The parts of the soil becomebetter incorporated, and thus reciprocally ameliorated ; t|o that they may afford more uni- form nourishment to the roots of plants. 3. The pulverized soil is more easily penetrable, and thus exposes a greater surface, of its ca- vities to the vegetable absorbents. 4. All unprofitable plants,or Aveeds, being thus eradicated, or continu- ally ploughed under the soil, Avhile yet young, a considerable propor- tion of vegetable nutriment will be reserved, and farther increased, by the saccharine and mucilagi- nous matter of the young vegeta- bles buried by the plough. Lastly, some plants, during their herba- ceous state, do not exhaust the ground on which they grow, before the seed-stems arise; as turnips, for instance, when pulled up, and carried away for the purpose of feeding cattle, or sheep, on other grounds. This benefit appears to arise from the soil being shaded by the thick foliage of those vegeta- ble?.,and consequently ameliorated; for its nutritious properties cannot have suffered by evaporation so much, as if the land had been ex- posed to the scorching influence of the sun. Dr. Daravin, when treating on this subject, justly observes, that, though a summer fallow may be of advantage to a poor soil, Avhich has nothing to lose, yet it must be injurious to a rich one, Avhich has nothing to gain. A Fallow-cleansing Machine was invented by a Mr. Aaron Ogden, a smith, at Ashton-under-Line, near Manchester. It consists of tAvo large rollers, armed with iron spikes, to which the inventor pre- fixed an harrow so constructed, that it may be set to go to any depth in a furrow, Avithout weighting; and will pulverize the soil, raise the roots, or weeds, to the surface, and at the same time not be obstructed by their accumulation, though it should raise as many weeds as Avould load a cart within the short space of five yards. There are se- veral other pieces of machinery be- longing to this implement; but as they are intricate, we refer the reader to the third vol. of the work, entitled, " Museum Rusticum et Commerciale," Avhere its parts are minutely described, and illustrated Avith a plate....The design of this machine is to clear falloAved land from quick and all other weeds, in a better and more expeditious man- ner than is effected by manual la- bour; and Mr. Ogden is of opinion, that two men, Avith three horses and his implement, may perform as much work as forty men in the ordinary way, beside saving one fallowing season; an object of the FAR FAR 477 utmost importance to the specula- tive farmer. Family Diet. See Diet. Family-Mill. See Mill. FAN, a Avell knoAvn contrivance employed chiefly by females to raise Avind ; cool the air by agita- ting it, and defending their com- plexion. This kind of toy was introduced into Britain from the East, where it is very generally used for shading the face from the sun, and guard- ing it against troublesome insects. Although the practice of fanning be sanctioned by fashion, it does not appear to be cdhducive to health, nor consistent Avith the ope- rations of nature ; because the eva- poration of perspirable matter on the human skin has a greater ten- dency to cool the body, than the incessant fanning, wiping, and rub- bing of the face. Nevertheless, fans may be useful for affording protection against the rays of the sun, for which purpose, however, parasols will be more convenient. Fan is also an implement of husbandry, employed for winnoAV- ing corn....See Winnow. FARCY, a disorder peculiar to horses, but Avhich sometimes also affects oxen, and other cattle. The farcy is infectious, and spreads among horses, in a man- ner similar to the distemper. This malady is generally occa- sioned by sudden changes of ex- cessive heat and cold ; it may also take place when the animal is gall- ed by rusty spurs, snuffle-bits, he. or after being bitten by an in- fected hone. [The farcy is a disease ofthe lym- phatic system. It is commonly, but erroneously supposed to be adisease ofthe bloodvessels. The cordqd tu- mors which appear, arc called biids, and generally are on the inside of the thigh, neck, and shoulders.... They are very painful at first, but nearly insensible after they have suppurated. On opening them, an ulcer, very difficult to heal, is formed. The causes are principally pu- trid matter, coming in contact Avith the skin, changes from heat to cold, or the contrary, want of ex- ercise, and of cleanliness. To cure the disease, blood must be taken away, smart purges of aloes and calomel, mixed with honey or mo- lasses given, and I oz. of mercu- real ointment, joined with cam- phor, rubbed every clay below the tumors, until a salivation is pro- duced. Applications of sal-am- moniac dissolved in Avater, (one oz. to a pint of Avater) will also be highly useful. By the above treat- ment, the editor had the satisfac- tion to cure a very fine horse, be- longing to a friend, last year, which had been given up as lost. If the tumors cannot be dispers- ed, they may be opened with a lancet, after being fully maturated, and then dressed A\ith bees-wax and ofl. Proud flesh must be kept doAvn, by red precipitate; and pow- dered antimony, freely given. If the horse become emaciated, the diet should be generous; but if in high flesh, the allowance should be short. The common practice of firing these tumors, is highly cruel and absurd. There can be no reason, Avhy lvmphatic swellings should be treated differently, when they oc- cur in horses and in human crea- tures, in the latter case, firing would not be thought of.] Farina. See Flour and Pol- lex. FARM, a small district of land, !X~ 473 FAR on which is erected a house, with other conveniences; hired or taken on lease, or otherwise, for the pur- pose of cultivation. Having already, in the course of this work, discussed various sub- jects of rural economy, Ave shall at present confine oursehes to expe- rimental farms, as the articles ne- cessarily connected with farming, appear in their alphabetical order. The national importance of agri- culture appears to be universally admitted : and though much has been said by others on this subject, Ave cannot but consider the engross- ing, or concentrating of several farms into one, as a principal cause of the poverty discernible among the lower class of husbandmen, and the late exorbitant price of provisions. Population thus neces- sarily becomes checked; for many industrious persons Avho, Avhile in a state of senitude, Avould be stor- ing up their little earnings against a future period, are deterred from Acres. 20 Pulse and roots, fallow crop. 20 Barley. 20 Clover. 20 Wheat. 20 Clover. 20 Lye. 120 acres in six fields. The first course requires one of the fields to be continued in clover for two years, unless it be cultiva- ted with buck-wheat, potatoes, or other roots ; when the first year's clover is turned in, after the spring FAR settling, by the dismal prospect of being unable either to support themselves us day-labourers, or to take a farm consisting of several hundred acres. Hence such indi- viduals as are better provided with pecuniary means,enjoy Avhat would otherAvise maintain, perhaps, ten small farmers and their families, together with such assistants as it Avould be requisite for them to em- ploy. In reflecting on this topic, it is matter of just astonishment, that no experimental farm, though fre- quently proposed, has been hither- to undertaken, in a country where agriculture is peculiarly valued ; as, in the western hemisphere, where the arts and sciences are still in their infancy, various insti- tutions of this nature have lately been established. The folloAving plan of a grain-farm, is extracted from the observations of Mr. Bord- ley, an intelligent American, w horn we have repeatedly mentioned. Acres. 17^ Maize, fallow crop. 17^- Ditto, for which may occa- sionally be substituted buck- Avheat. 171 Barley or rye. 174 Clover. 17.1 Wheat, which maybe sown with buck-wheat and clover, if the soil be rich. 171 Clover. 17| Roots- 120 acres in seven fields. mowing. The potatoes (in Ame- rica) should be planted in June; for in that late season the roots, while bulbing, will receive little injury from the scorching heat of midsummer. Mr.Bordley recom- FAR FAR 479 mends them in preference to buck- Avheat , as this, by running to seed, is apt to impoverish the soil : on the contrary, potatoes, turnips, and other roots, do not materially ex- haust the soil; and, if properly cultivated, are, in his opinion, even meliorating. If, according to this plan, one field be manured in each year, the six fields, consisting cf 20 acres each, will be all manured in rota- tion; and those containing 17 acres each, in seven years : an object of the utmost importance, as, in- dependently of the abundant crops raised in consequence of this ope- ration, the soil will thus renew its fertilizing properties.....The net produce of the different sorts of grain and pulse, as Avell as their respective quality and specific gra- vity, ought, in each experiment, to be minutely recorded. Mr. B. pro- poses to continue the annual ma- nuring of each field in rotation ; and particularly recommends the saving of the dung in compact masses, sheltered from the sun ; and also, in some measure, from the rain : though he allows, that the manure is not materially in- jured by the dropping of the rain on the area of the dung-heap, as some portion of moisture is abso- lutely necessary for promoting its fermentation. He farther advises the making of experinunts on de- tached parts of the soil with lime, gypsum, clay, he. in order to as- certain with precision their effects on different soils. In the 4th volume of Annals of Agriculture (1785), Mr. Arthur Young bitterly and justly com- plains of the unpardonable neglect and indifference shewn to the in- terests of agriculture, by the sove- reigns and courtiers of all ages and countries. Since that period, how- ever, an exception prevails in Bri- tain ; a Board of Agriculture has been established ; arid though Ave cannot boast of many evident ad- vantages which have resulted from that excellent institution, yet there is every prospect that a national or experimental farm will, at length, be adopted, in order " to hold out as an example to the nation, the most vigorous system of modern substantial improvements in hus- bandry." As the late President, Lord Somervilt.e, has proposed such an establishment to take place only after the expiration of four or five years, we devoutly hope the first President of that Board, Sir John Sinclair, will be enabled to carry this desirable measure into effect, by private subscription, at a much earlier period. With respect to the expences and profits of farming, we cannot enter into any detail, as such par- ticulars necessarily depend on pe- culiar circumstances. The com- mon alloAvance on a farm, was, in Mr. Tull's time, three rents or assessments ; one for the landlord, a second for the expences, and the third for the tenant's subsistence, and for other purposes. There are, however, feAv forms, even in the present improved state of agricul- ture, that will constantly afford this increase, or Avhich can be car- ried on, and maintained at such a charge. For instance, in a farm Avorth 1001. per annum, if the land be Avorth 20s. per acre, 100/. will perhaps be sufficient to defray the expences necessarily incurred..... But, if the soil of a farm, whicfh is let at the same total amount of rent, be Avorth only 10*. per acre, an alloAvance must be made of 120/. or 130/. per annum, at the 480 FAR FAR least for charges ; and 250 acres of land must be computed to be the extent of the farm, in order to make up the rent, otherAvise con- siderable loss Avill necessarily be incurred, unless the land be ca- pable of great improvements. It should, however, be remarked, that these proportions subsisted in Eng- land about 80 years since, but are now greatly altered; for instance, an acre of land then rented at 20s. per annum, pays at present from 21. to 3/.; and the price of manual labour is- raised nearly in a similar proportion. According to the modern im- proved state of agriculture, the ex- pence of cultivating a farm of 1000 acres, consisting partly of pasture, arable, meadow, and other land, (the annual rent of which is, by Mr. Macro, of Barrow, Suffolk, stated to be 415/.) amounted in the year 1786, to 2208/. 2s. and Gd.... In order to balance this expendi- ture, the profits of a farm should be aboutfive times the annual rent: and if the combinations of engros- sers be suffered to proceed Avith impunity, they will, no doubt, in a short time, amount to six or seven times the value of the rent actu- ally paid. FARM-HOUSE, in rural eco- nomy, is applied particularly to the dwelling occupied by a- farmer. The principal objects to be at- tended to in erecting farm-houses are, convenience, and a salubrious situation ; points highly important to every inhabitant ofthe country, as the health and welfare of all, in a great measure, depend on the choice of the latter. Beside the general salubrity of the spot Avhere dwellings are to be erected, the air, water, and soil, also require to be particularly at- tended to ; the first should be pure and temperate ; the second, whole- some, and easily obtained ; and the soil, rich. The most healthy place of the farm ought to be selected for build- ing the house, which should be ex- posed neither to the summer heats, nor to the rage of winds and storms during winter. Many parts of this country abound Avith rhrulets and streams, which, however, are sel- dom attended to, though a judi- cious choice, in this respect, is of the utmost consequence. A quick flowing stream, that has a clean channel and dry banks, will con- siderably add to the beauty and healthiness of the place; but, if the water be over-run with Aveeds, or other strong grass, such a situa- tion should be carefully avoided ; for, as it affords a secure shelter to every kind of putrid filth, noxious vapours Avill arise, and produce ef- fects A*ery injurious to health. If, nevertheless, such places must un- avoidably be chosen, a northern as- pect is preferable to a southerly one ; for, as the north Avinds bloAV more briskly than those from the south, the air is in general cool, putrefaction is checked, and there will not only rise feAver vapours, but in consequence of the greater density of the air, they will be speedily dissipated. Respecting the construction of farm-houses, Ave have little to add ....Instead, hoAvever, of thatching them, it Avould be highly desirable that they should be uniformly co- vered Avith slate, or tiles, in all situations where these materials can be procured. But, Avhere nei- ther slate nor tilos can be had, Ave recommend the covering, both of farm and out-houses, with heath or ling ; either, when well laid on, is FAR preferable to straw; and at the same time so cheap, that in any country adjoining to heath-moors, it may be procured for the mere la- bour of cutting and carrying it to the premises. Having already, in former parts of this work, communicated a va- riety of practical directions, rela- tive to the construction of houses, in general, Ave refer the reader to the articles Building, Cement, and Country-House. [FARM-YARD. To give the plan of a complete farm-yard, is not to be expected. Farmers differ so much in their situations, pur- suits, resources as to capital, and in their opinions of the necessary arrangements, that it is next to impossible to lay down the plan of one that would be deemed perfect. All that can be done in a work like the present, is to give the general outlines, with proper refer- ences to works in Avhich various plans may be seen. " The whole yard and its build- ings should be in view from the mansion, and at a proper distance therefrom. The food near the housed live-stock. The yard com- pact, and the doors of the buildings, and the gates of the yard seen from the mansion. The yard contain- ing cattle to be housed, is never to be littered with straw, but all litter carelessly dropped on it, is to be raked off, for security against fire. When the beasts are let out to be watered, they are instantly to be returned to their stalls, regularly in detachments. The home-stead includes this yard ; together with its stack-yard, the garden, orchard, and a few acres, for occasionally letting mares, or sick beasts run in, at liberty. The mansion ought to be airy VOL. II. FAR 481 on every side. Offices on the north- east and north-west angles, leave the mansion open to the south, the east, and the Avest, in a clean lawn ; and from the-north rooms, there should be a view of the farm-yard, and its business. No stairs ought to proceed from the kitchen, as they would open a passage to dust and doAvn from the bed-rooms. An arch of brick is to be laid over the ash-hole and oven, as a barrier against fire ; the stairs may be over the arch, from with- out. The poultry-house and yard to be roomy, and frequently swept out: fresh sand and gravel to be strewed in the yard. [To fatten them, see article Poultry.] The Laboratory will be treated of and figured, under that article. The milk-house may be joined to the laboratory, which may be a scalding house to it ; or it may be detached from the laboratory, and sunk two feet under ground. The offal-milk may be conveyed to the pigs in wheel-barrows, or through a [grated] tube, under ground, to the pig-stye....Water from the pump to be admitted through pipes to an upper shelf, and passing round the room, may fall on the under shelves, and run off. The ice-house will be best de- tached from the milk-house, that it may be clear of all moisture, and receive air on all sides. The ice-house at Gloucester point, be- low Philadelphia, strongly recom- mends that it be half above ground. Pigeon-house. Pigeons feed expensively on com alone, but they also feed on many Avild seeds. They make an agreeable variety on the table, [and form an important article in that (Economical dish, a pve. See article Diet.] They 3 Q 482 FAR FAR ought not to be suffered to become too numerous. [See article Pige- on-house.] The Family-yard, is a barrier against farm-yard intrusions. It is covered with a clean, close sward. Its margin only may be admitted to groAv flowers. To be fenced by a sunk fence, on the top Avhereof maybe a low light palisade; which with the bank may be hid by rose trees, planted in the ditch, which may slope gently up towards the mansion. The white rose-bush or tree is the tallest, most hardy, and .handsomest sort; but the damask is best for yielding the fine distil- led water. The pump may serve both fami- ly and farm-yard purposes, and may be worked by a brake or han- dle on either side of the palisade. This large expence of water is ad- vantageous to its quality. The pump nozzle delivers the Avater five or six feet abovre the surface : and and at every time of being worked, a portion of the Avater is delivered into a vessel, whence proceeds a tube three feet under ground, to the kitchen, where some of it is deposited in a cistern ; the rest may proceed also under ground, to the milk-house, only leaving on the way a small part, in a recep- tacle of the mansion, for wash bason uses. For the boiling house, which takes much water, either the water must be conveyed through the pipes, or in casks on barrows, or a pump must be placed near the boil- ing house." The arrangement for the distri- bution of the water in Mr. J. Coo- per's yard, is excellent, for by the disposition of his spout and fences, he waters four kinds of beasts at the same time, Thus, Tump Water Troup?) " The Sow and Pigsties. The of- fal milk may be conveyed to the troughs in the styes, from the milk- house. Sticks in a frame may be fixed over the troughs, rack like, to prevent the hogs from getting into the troughs. Swine must be kept clean, and littered in their shelters. [If the house be situated near a creek, the stye may be fen- ced on each side down to the edge of the creek, and thus the ani- mals afforded an opportunity of washing themselves in clean water, at will. Such a stye the editor saw on State Island, south of Philadel- phia.] Stercories may be four feet under ground, two or three feet above, and walled. Over them may be supported by short standards, a co- vering of brush Avood or straw. One of these should be near the stable, to receive the urine from the FAR FAR 483 animals, which is of immense be- nefit to the manure." [The bottom and sides of the stercories ought to be covered with Mr. Hunn's cement,formerly men- tioned, to prevent the loss of urine by soaking into the ground.] " The sheep-house and yards ought to be roomy and airy, in di- visions. The granary should be long and narrow, with partitions across it, without any communication be- tween the rooms ; by which the different grains will be kept from mixing, and a general access to the rooms will not happen, when only one sort is to be carried in or ta- ken out. Each outer door should have a lock. WindoAvs facilitate thefts. None are required to the loAver rooms, if an air hole be made between every two joists, close un- der the second floor, the vapour and heat, naturally ascending, will pass off at the air holes."....Afr. Bord- ley. For other plans of farm-yards, the Annals of Agriculture, by A. Young : the county reports drawn up for the British Board of Agricul- ture ; and the works of Mr. Mar- shall, may be consulted. The Barn is a most important building in a farm-yard. Under this article, some account ofthe English barns was given by Dr. Willich ; what is noAV to be said will refer exclusively to those of Pennsylvania. The barns in Pennsylvania are certainly superior to any in the world. This assertion is made with reference to those which are repre- sented in books of agriculture. Our barns are in general, models of neatness, durability, and conve- nience. In Lancaster county espe- cially, they form one of the most prominent and attracting objects, Avhich arrest the attention,and force an expression of admiration from the passing stranger. When a hill can be had, it is cut down seven or eight feet perpendi- cularly, and one end built close up to the bank. The ground sto- ry for cattle is, therefore, seven or eight feet high, the next may be thirteen feet. If the bank be not so high as the second floor, it must be raised up to it. But this is so expensive that, if possible, it ought to be avoided. Under the. bank is a vault, proof against frost, and opening into the stable. The joists of the threshing floor, are ve- ry effectually and conveniently sup- ported by pillars or 3tauncheons, so disposed, as to serve for dividing the stalls for the cattle, and, there- by, answer a double purpose. The roof is invariably supported by posts and braces resting on the in- terties Avhich lay at right angles with the purlins, and divide the threshing floor from the mows. The braces and posts receive the purlins, and discharge the weights of the roof, and as they may be multiplied at pleasure, the roof may consequently be extended to almost any span, without increas- ing the size ofthe timbers. The second floor with the roof contains the sheaves of grain, to be here threshed. On the other side, part of the hay is stored. Loaded carts and Avaggons are driven in on this setond floor : and in some large buildings, aAvaggon may easi- ly turn, but if the waggon be driven directly into the bam, it may be as directly backed out again : and thus much room and expence sa- ved. Besides, if the lively, briskly 484 FAR f AR going one horse carts, be prefer- red (as they ought) to the tedious heavy loaded waggons, there will be no necessity for much width of floor. Air is commonly admitted either by loop holes or windows, but lat- tices moving on a centre at each end, with louffers (which see) are certainly preferable ; because they Avill keep out the driving snow, Avhich frequently finds entrance into the barn, and occasions much trou- ble. By means of louffers, also, light may be excluded or admitted in an instant, and rain or snow effectual- ly preA-ented from entering. The first barn built in the north- ern townships of Philadelphia coun- The advantage of this plan is, that if the hook breaks, it is much more easily supplied by a new one when welded to the hinge, than when the hook is in the wall and the eye in the hinge. The threshing floor is let into a rabbet, in the cross girder. The rabbet is about five inches deep. The partition betAveen the moAvs are scribed doAvn to the floor, and nailed to the rabbet, and thus the leaking of the grain, which is so seriously complained of by most farmers, is prevented. The floor is of white oak plank, well seasoned, and the boards broad ; both edges are grooved, and put together with tongues. The sill of the threshing floor, is along stone, and the upright post ty, upon the very excellent Ger- man plan, was by Edward Duf- field, Esq. in the year 1789, and since that period his model has been copied by many in the neigh- bourhood. The following particulars re- specting it, deserve notice from all oeconomical farmers. There are no door frames, ex- cept to the main door opening on the threshing floor. They are hung upon hooks and eyes, but in a dif- ferent manner from the common mode, the hooks being welded to the hinge, and inserted into the eye, which is let in betAveen two stones in the jamb of the door-way, Thus, f'gM»M -w of the frame rests upon two stones which join the one forming the sill. By this arrangement there is little inequality in the rise from the bank, and the Avheels of the cart or wag- gon go over easily. The joists are of saplin hicory trees, cut and barked in the spring. Mr. D. says, such joists are more durable and stronger than any other which can be put in a barn : and that trees cut and barked in the spring, escape attacks from the Avood worm, Avhereas if the bark be permitted to remain on a felled tree, it will inevitably be attacked in the course ofthe season. Mr. D's barn is 61 by 37 feet : but he observed that the nearer a barn approached to a square, the more economically it might be built. -i----r—«----r- -r~ i^t —i----1 _ l. *. 3. 4. <5. /. ■ 7 - 8 • J>- Tern.*: ( franxfton cf a Ffaff . i'F?avuiverhjc .-Jrc//r/t . Ft/Fri fe ^i 29 FAR FAR 485 The racks of Mr. Wm. West's stalls are upright, and the perpen- dicular falls on the inner edge of the trough below, which has a shelv- ing leaf, as represented in the plate. When a beast pulls out the hay, some, will fall on the leaf, and thus slide down into the trough, where it is secured from the breath ofthe animal. The distance between the bottom of the rack and the trough is sufficiently great to permit the heads of the animals to enter, in order to get at the dropped hay. The racks are 11 feet deep, and two feet at top from the edge of the rack : they are planed within, and thus the hay Falls to the bot- tom of the rack, as it lessens in quantity ; and the cattle saved the pain of a long reach, which they are obliged to make in the common stables. Mr. W. feeds from the entry, which is six feet wide. The hay is dropped through a trap door from the mow above. The construction of Mr. J. Coo- per's stalls may be easily under- stood from the plate. The up- right slats prevent the horses from wasting the hay, or from blowing on it. For the animals cannot look round, which they are very apt to do, when a person en- ters the stable; neither can they run their heads over the whole trough ; the slats oblige them to feed directly before them. Mr. Morgan's " stalls have a fixed iron chain, by way of a hal- ter, to prevent the cattle from turn- ing round and dunging in their mangers. This chain is fixed by a staple to the front sill ofthe man- ger, and consists of two parts: One has 16 links, and is two ifeet long, measuring from the staple : The other, containing 26 links, •V measures about 39 inches, and serves as a collar. This collar-chain has, at one end, a ring about one inch in diameter , and at the other end, a key three or 4 inches long, having a hole at its middle, by which it is joined to, and freelt plays in the last link. The first chain, which, by one end,-is fixed to the manger, is, by the other, linked into a middle link of the collar-chain ; and thus forms iavo arms ; which, being.throAvn round the neck of the beast, and the key thmst through the ring, and placed at a bar across it, make a very se- cure fastening....The collar-chain for a horse is like that just describ- ed ; but the chain linked to its mid- dle must be 3 feet long, and may be fixed to a standard, mortised into the sill ofthe manger, and the joist above." Columb. Mag. ] 786. A very convenient barn, coach- house, and stable, under one roof, Avas built a few years since, by D. Peterson, Esq. on Mount Pros- pect, Bristol road, upon the gene- ral plan of Mr.DuFFiELD's, though improved. It is of the just pro- portions of 36 by 45 feet, and 13 feet to the eves. The bridge is in the middie of the building on the longest front, and was raised to the threshing floor, the building hav- ing been erected on a level. The door is 12 feet wide and 12 high. The depth from the topof the brhi ge to the ground is seven feet: on one side the bridge, and below, is a Avindow ; on the other side is al- so a windoAv, but opens into a latticed crib, which answers to keep corn, and extends to the level of the top of the bridge: below it, is a poultry cage Avith roosts and proper divisions, and extending to nearly three feet of the ground : in the lower divisiojj ducks are 486 FAR FAR kept : this poultry cage is conti- nued round against the side of the bridge. The coach-house A, (See the Plate), is 18 by 20 feet, and is on the same front as the stables ; next to the coach-house, is a shed C 10 feet Avide ; under this shed, Avhich is the whole length of the barn; carts, Avaggons, and the farming' utensils are protected from the weather ; the top of this shed ought to be on a line with the roof of the barn, to prevent chaff and dust from remaining on the shed, and thereby rotting the shingles. The upper part of the shed and on the level Avith the threshing floor, over Cc are the bins for grains on the one side, and a corn crib, or store room on the other over C The entry betAveen the stable and coach-house is 4 feet Avide. EE are coav stalls : over these, on one side of the threshing floor is a hay-mow : on the other side of the threshing floor, over the coach- house and stalls, is another mow, which is divided by the stairs at D. In the annexed Plate is repre- sented the plan of a substantial and convenient bam and stables, built by Mr. John Miller, stone-cutter, of Philadelphia, at his farm in the Valley, Chester county, Penns.... For this the Editor is indebted to his friend Mr. A. Traquair Jun. The following particulars respect- ing the construction of this barn, deserve attention :....A11 the Avood- en sills of the internal doors or hatches, are raised above the com- mon floor, to prevent their decay. •The external doors have sills, jambs, and lintels of stone. The divisions- are by stone walls, and are covered with tAvo-inch plank..... The intention of this is to pre- serve the walls, for commonly they are left uncovered, and the top stones are frequently displaced. A staunchion rises from the middle of the coping, and is con- nected with the timbers of the floor above, thereby throwing some of its pressure upon the partition Avalls....thus, Mr. Miller suggests the pro- priety of placing two staunchions at each edge of the wall, to fix the coping more firmly....thus, Slabs of stone, three or four feet long, would be more durable, and Avhen used, the staunchions will be unnecessary, stone being sufficient- ly Aveighty to resist a common im- pulse, which might displace a F-rcHtsnd. /iFa» o/yf Pf IsJ&erppHpnb ^F^JtPtrt *c ^F/Ptft □ ^ □ □ c a <2/eeF. A t^AFexujc ■ / ti 1 K PZ,#/L. □= ri——a, <^t^rfPfJr_Ff_---r 1 --1 )h£2 sFFc 1 i'P/'iaiyuat/i. d*i* to. **>■ 30. to. J=C f=C /Sow. r . >^/„. /U/. • FAR FAR 487 plank. The range of stalls, ten accommodate large and small cat- in number, are contrived so as to tie, by a descending floor, thus, Two white-oak girders divide injurious to grain in bams, as well the bam into three parts longitudi- as to ice-houses, and dwellings. An nally, which sustain the weight of effectual mode of securing all the joists and floor, and of the im- buildings against them, shall be mense quantity of hay and grain fully described under the article which this bam is capable of hold- Rats.] ing. Each girder is composed of Farm-Yard Manure. two pieces in length, and 14 by 10 u For conducting the business of inches square, to prevent them ft farm tQ fuU advanta^e, the farm_ from swagging....thus, er is to pursue objects which sys- tematically embrace such a regular ■jq course of particulars, as shall best folloAv and depend on each other, for obtaining the one whole of the design of farming. It is not imme- diate product alone that we aim at; for, whilst we wish to obtain re- peated full crops,our reason assures us,that it is indispensibly necessary to that end, that the soilbe preserved in full vigour. The mind then is employed, principally, on the ob- jects of preservation and improve- ment of the productive powers of the Thp threshing floor is double, earth. Observations on the state of the lower floor is' of white pine, the common farming fix the opinion, upper of heart pine. This method, that no unconnected, random pur- though more expensive than Mr. suits,tend to ensure a succession of Duffield's, effectually prevents advantageous husbandry, for any any grain from being lost, as the length of time. upper floor covers the joints of the Well chosen rotations of crops, lower floor. together Avith due culture, are be- The whole bam is plastered, and lieved to be so favourable to the there are Venetian blinds to all ground as to need but little manure the Avindows. in comparison of Avhat the com- K ats are well known to be highly mon or ill chosen crops absolutely 488 FAR FAR require. Still the steady and atten- tive application of manures, is held to be an essential duty in farming, a great link of the chain, in every insiuice. If rich soils require, com- paratively, but a moderate quantity, in a rotation Avhere ameliorating crops are prevalent, yet middling and poor soils Avant all that can be obtained ; and, under the old Ma- ryland courses especially, all soils eagerly demand more manure than can be readily procured. These ex- hausting courses Ave see continually impoverish the soil. Too many farmers, therefore, incline to move to fresh lands ; where they would precisely act the same murderous part over again. The principal links in good farming, are, due tillage, proper rotations of crops, which are treat- ed of above, and manures, of which it is wished the occasion Avould ad- mit of more than the few obsen'a- tions which folloAv. In the American practice, hay and fodder are stacked in the fields ; and the cattle are fed round the stacks and fodder-houses: the dis- advantages whereof are, 1. A Avasteful use ofthe proven- der. 2. The dung lying as it is dropt without straw, or other vegetable substance brought to it, the manure is little in epiantity ; and, 3. That little not lying in heaps, is reduced abundantly by exhalation and rain; without leaving any thing to the soil. In the English and Flemish practice (feebly observed by a few of our husbandmen), cattle are carefully housed, or otherAvise con- fined to a fold-yard, in which are shelters against cold rains, during the whole winter, and as far through the spring as food will last: the advantages of which, arc, I. A fair expenditure of the provender, without waste. 2. Less exhaustion ofthe juices ; because of the dung lying together in large heaps. 3. The dung being mixed with the straw, and other vegetable sub- stances brought to the beasts as litter, the whole is trod together, and forms a large quantity of very valuable manure. It may be no exaggeration to affirm, that the difference in the quantities of manures obtained from an equal stock of cattle by those several methods, may be as three to one. If six acres may be annually manured by the inferior method, then may eighteen by the superior. Now, on a supposition, that manured land is kept in heart five years, Avithout repeating, in the one case but thirty acres will al- Avays remain in good order; in the other, ninety acres: a very im- portant difference. Indeed it is all the difference betAveen an husband- man's poverty and his riches. Do cattle, when foddered round hay-stacks and fodder-houses, or ricks, give twelve loads of manure each? Do they yield one such load ? It is a fact stated, I think by Mr. Young, that, in the course of a Avinter, cattle kept up and littered in a ijard, have yielded full tAvelve such loads, each beast; and if soil- ed or fed well during the summer, Avith cut green grass, or clover, they may be expected to yield more and richer manure; especially when they are kept up, on a full quantity of litter. Here, by the Avay, it may be noted, that a por- tion of grass only sufficient to keep one beast in pasturing, has sufficed five in soiling: and what is of im- mense importance to the state of FAR FAR 489 the ground and of future crops, the ground being untrod, in soiling, is left light and mellow. Another favourable circumstance attends soiling: the beasts are kept in shade, and considerably protected from flies; especially when the house is kept dark during the heat of the dav, with only air-holes near the ground and above their heads. " It w ill be said, the ground round the stacks receives the dung dropt, as a dressing to so much of the field, tint we know this extends to a very small distance, and the effect is in no part considerable. The place chosen is some eminence; the rains and winds of half the year, wash away and evaporate from the frozen ground most of the rich substance of the dung so dropt about; and the ground, whilst unfrozen, is trod close, and poached to a degree that untills it nearly equal to the value ofthe dung left on it uninjured. This is illustrated, a fodder-house,(a hollow rick made of maize tops in the way of thatch), was set up in a field, as is usual; it was fenced in. At the south front, maize was husked, and the husks were sheltered in the fodder- house. In the course of the winter they were given out to cattle, in front of the rick. In April, the fod- der-house being then empty was pulled doAvn, and the covering of maize tops was given to the cattle. The ground thus sheltered by the fodder-house for six months, Oc- tober to April, sheAved marks of richness greatly superior to the ground on Avhich the cattle Avere foddering during the same time: grass, Aveeds and crops, during the four or five folloAving years of my remaining on the farm, shewed this in their great growth. Where vol. n. the fodder-house, three hundred feet long and tAventy broad, stood and sheltered the ground, the rich- ness ofthe soil Avas strongly mark- ed; when but a faint superiority over tbe common field appeared on the part where the cattle Avere foddered. Litter is an essential, to cattle Avhen let into yards, Avithout which yard manure is of small account; and, unless it be in full proportion to the number of cattle in the yard, it is not thought highly of; but is as a half done thing. Good farmers in England deem full littering of cattle, when in yards, of such im- portance, that, after reaping with sickles and inning their wheat, they cut the stubble and stack it for lit- ter. Besides straw and stubble for litter, they apply to the same use, fern, and such other vegetable sub- stances as they can procure: and they buy straw from common farmers who are not in the prac- tice of littering. In all countries, common farmers are indifferent to improvements: they look not beyond old habits; and it is pmdent that they venture not on extensive new projects, Avithout first making experiment. A full littering is three loads of 12 or 13001b. of straAV to each grown beast. Maize stalks may be carried from the field in great quantities, in a ske- leton frame cart, if not cut up and fed when fresh, they are more nou- rishing, owing to the saccharine juice with which they abound.''.... Mr. Bordley. Many farmers feed in their yards in racks, and suppose that they gain every possible advantage from the practice, by the saving of the dung dropped, trampled and Avatered by the cattle; and though this practice is certainly preferable 3 R 490 FAR FAR to wasteful pasturing, or to feeding in racks in the fields, yet it ought to be recollected, that the manure will be much inferior to that made and preserved under cover. Mr. Young justly observes, Annals 14. p. 161. That" a great deal of tramp- ling in a large surface, giAres a very fallacious appearance of rottenness, for it arises only from rains, which should, if possible, be kept away: it is not water but urine that is the proper ferment fordung: the tread- ing of dung as fast as it is made impedes fermentation. It ought, on the contrary, to lay loose and un- trodden for the air to penetrate it. But there are otherobjectionswhich may be offered against the prac- tice of yaid feeding, viz. Danger from a vicious beast injuring ano- ther; the irritation arising from their contentions for food, and wor- rying by flies, all of Avhich are avoided by feeding in stalls under cover. Where cattle are yard fed, or stall fed in yards, under sheds ; it is of great consequence to defend the beasts against the cold and damp N. E. winds, and the cold blasts from the N. West. Mr. E. Dufiteld, therefore, advised a friend Avho wished to have a com- plete farm-yard, to erect a range of buildings in a S. E. direction, to have double stalls beloAv, leaving the S. W. and S. E. sides open, to admit the sun in the winter, and give free entrance to the prevalent Avinds in the summer.] FARRIERY, the art of prevent- ing, curing, or alleviating the dis- orders of horses. The practice of this useful pro- fession has, till within the last 15 or 20 years, been almost entirely confined to a class of men, Avho were utterly igsorant of the anato- my of the horse, and the general principles of the art of healing. Their prescriptions Avere as absurd as the reasons they assigned for administering their draughts, bo- lusses, drenches, he. An institu- tion has at length been established Avhere the diseases of that noble animal, the horse, are the subject of peculiar attention ; we mean the Veterinary College, Avhich Ave are happy to state, is patronized by the most respectable of the no- bility and gentry. As, however, in this work, we treat of the principal diseases, as well as the shoeing and general management of the horse, in their alphabetical order, we shall here only mention a few of the most es- teemed works published on farrie- ry ; namely, Mr. Clark's " Trea- tise on the Diseases of Horses" (8vo. 8s. 6d.) ; his " Observations on the Shoring of Horses" (8vo. 4*.) ; Mr. Taplin's " Gentleman's Stable Di- rectory" (2 vols. 8vo. 15.?.) ; Mr. Lawrance's " Philosoplucal and Practical Treatise on Horses" (2 vols. 8vo. 17s. 1797); [and likeAvise, Riding's Veterinary Pathology, just published ;] from which the inqui- sitive reader may collect the latest and most essential improvements. Concerning the propriety of ad- ministering Horse-balls indiscri- minately, on the suggestion of ig- norant blacksmiths ; or of resort- ing to the most absurd external ap- plications, such as Bags for reco- vering a lost appetite, while the proper internal remedies are ne- glected, we shall briefly remark, that such conduct is equally injudi- cious, as the blind reliance on quack-medicines ; though it Avere to be Avished, that the latter may be exclusively given to horses and other cattle. FAS FAS 491 Farthing-bound. See Cow. FASELNUT, or Areca catechu, L. one ofthe most curious Indian plants, which attains its greatest perfection in the island of Cey- lon. It grows to the height of 25 or 35 feet, without any branches, but has very beautiful leaves ; the trunk is remarkably straight, and the leaves form a round tuft at the top. Its fruit is contained in a yel- lowish shell, externally smooth, but rough and hairy within, resembling that of a cocoa-nut, though in size not exceeding a large walnut; its kernel is not unlike a nutmeg, and contains in its centre, while soft, a greyish and almostliquid substance. The ripe fruit is astringent, and its consumption in the East Indies is perhaps more general than that of tobacco in Europe ; as every person chews it, together with the leaves of betel, after mixing with it lime made of sea-shells. This mastication occasions much spit- ting, cools the mouth, and fastens the teeth and gums ; it is likewise said to sAveeten a. fetid breath, and to strengthen the stomach : for these conjoint purposes, it may, even in our colder climate, be ad- vantageously employed ; and as we possess perhaps no plant of a simi- lar efficacy, it might be easily im- ported. FASHION, in general signifies the prevailing mode of taste, and is particularly applied to dress. In this respect, it frequently supplies the place of reason ; especially Avhen the tAvo principal rules, namely, propriety and conveniency, are neglected. We cannot enlarge on this ar- ticle, which, though it frequently undermines the health of bloom- ing youth, and frustrates the fond- est hopes of parents, yet is suppo- sed essentially to contribute to the flourishing state of trades and ma- nufactures ; hence Ave doubt, Avhe- ther the most appropriate censure of that tyrant, whose shrine is re- vered by all the young, the gay, and the frivolous, would be productive of any good effects. This much, however, avc venture to say, that fashion, when trespassing either on the rules of health, propriety or conA'enience, ought to be univer- sally exploded ; and treated Avith a similar degree of silent contempt which moral and political innova- tions generally experience, when they are not supported by a just and solid basis. FASTS, or Fasting, denotes abstinence from food, particularly for religious reasons. Fasting has been transmitted to us from the earliest ages, as a duty necessary to be performed at cer- tain periods, in order to deprecate those calamities, with which the innate depravity of man is said to be justly punished. Having already considered the effects ol fasting, under the head of Abstinence, Ave shall only add, that it is particularly injurious to tender and debilitated habits in the early part of the day ; because the fluids of the human body, after circulating for several hours Avith- out any alimentary refreshment, at length acquire a putrid tendency, which is obvious from the strong alkaline breath ofthe most healthy person, after rising from his noc- turnal couch. There are, how- ever, instances of fanatics, Avho haAre subsisted for many days, and eAren Aveeks, Avithout any susten- ance ; but, though such persons may occasionally survive these un- natural attemps, yet their health 492 FAT FE A is, in consequence, miserably im- paired.....Similar effects often arise from a total abstinence from animal food, Avhether on account of religi- ous or other motives....Thus a late Professor in the University of Glasgow, shortened his life, by abandoning the use of flesh meat at an age exceeding 60 years ; and, after living upon vegetable aliment about six months, he was reluc- tantly obliged to resort to his for- mer mode of diet; but these chang- es had so unfavourably affected his constitution, that he died in a very short time after making the expe- riment. FAT, an unctuous, solid sub- stance, deposited in little mem- branous cells, in yarious parts of animal bodies : it serves to defend the muscles and bones against cold, to temper the acids of aliments, and probably to the support of the whole frame. The fat of several animals was formerly kept in the druggist's shops, as hog's-lard, the fat of deer, geese, and also human fat....With respect to their real virtues, much depends on the manner in Avhich they have been purified and preserved. The method of preparing fat for medicinal purposes is, to remove all veins, skins, fibres, &c. ; when it is to be washed, till the Avater comes from it perfectly insi^ti 1 and colourless. After this preparation, the fat is to be melted by a gentle heat, Avith a small quantity of water, till the latter be evaporated ; it is then to be strained off into an ear- then vessel Avhere it will settle, and be preserved from the air. When thus purified, fat is almost totally divested of taste, and smell. With regard to the properties of fat, and marrow, when used as food, they produce a solid and nourish- ing juice, increase the blood and fluids in general; but are difficult to be dissolved, and apt to become rancid on the stomach of many persons, Avhose digestive powers are Aveak, and who are not accus- tomed to take much exercise. Hence, if fat be not duly assimila- ted to the fluids, it impairs the stomach and boAvels, occasions di- arrhoeas, heart-burns, head-achs, and spasms, especially in those whose habits are easily irritated. Fat-hen. See WildOrache. Fatness. See Corpulency. Fattening of Animals. See Bullock and Cattle. FATTENING of Colours, is a term employed by painters, and signifies a coagulation of the oil, which is occasioned by mixing it with several kinds of pigments.... hence, when it has been kept for a considerable time, it becomes so viscid and glutinous, as to be whol- ly incapable of being worked either with the brush or pencil. In this state, a due proportion of fresh oil should be added. Colours will also fatten, after they have been laid on the proper ground ; so that one part of the oil will run off in small streams or drops, while the other adheres to the canvas with the colours, but without drying....This defect, Ave conceive, may be remedied by eva- porating the watery parts ofthe oil, and grinding the colours more carefully, so as to prevent their precipitation. Oils will likewise fatten, when they have been too long kept, or exposed to the sun and air. Fea-berry. See Rough Goose- berry. FEATHER, a general name, expressing the covering and wing1. FFL FEN 493 of birds, by which they are enabled to fly. The feathers chiefly used in this country are those of geese, from which animals they are plucked three, four, and even five times in the course of one year : thus, in cold seasons, many of these birds fall victims to that barbarous cus- tom....The feathers obtained from the county of Somerset are esteem- ed to be the best, as those brought from Ireland are reputed to be the worst. Great quantities of goose and other feathers are annually import- ed from the North of Europe; which, however, are insufficient for the demand : hence poulterers dispose of vast numbers of the fea- thers of cocks and hens, and also of ducks and turkies ; all of which are much inferior to those of geese. The best method of curing fea- thers is, to expose them to the sun in a room ; and as soon as they are thoroughly dry, to put them loosely in bags, in which they should be well beaten, in order to cleanse them from all dust and filth. Feathers are chiefly used for the stuffing of beds, which are certain- ly less wholesome than wool or horse-hair matresses, and tend greatly to relax and enervate the human body. Within the last two or three years, they have been ma- nufactured into hats ; a mode of employing them far preferable to that Ave have just mentioned....See Plume. FELT, a kind of stuff, Avhich derives its consistence merely from being fulled or wrought with lees and size, without being either spun or woven. The mechanism of felt- ing is equally simple and curious ; though its theory is little under- stood, even by professional hatters:. ...As the surface of hair and wool, is by no means smooth, but form- ed cither of plates resembling the scales of fish, or of zones placed over each other, as we find in the structure of homs, it follows that hair or wool, when promiscuously entangled, cannot be easily disen- gaged, on account of its rough sides, which may be readily per- ceived, by drawing a hair betAveen the fingers against the root-end. Thus, each inequality of surface accommodates itself to that of ano- ther hair, and forms at length a na- tural texture. Felt is made either of avooI alone, or of a mixture of that article with camel's or other hair, and is used principally in the manufacturing of Hats, to which we refer. FEN, a place overflowed Avith water, or abounding Avith hog;.... See Bog and Draining. The most extensive fens in this island, are those of Lincolnshire, which afford considerable advan- tages to the inhabitants, who take large quantities of fish, and Avild fowl: the latter are even sent to the London market. Fens generally abound Avith sa- line plants, which are very nourish- ing to cattle, and exceedingly fat- tening to sheep and horses. Oats Avill also thrive Avell in several fen districts ; and, in prosperous sea- sons, yield abundant crops. Coleseed is likewise cult'iA'ated to a very considerable extent on the fens, Avhich indeed might be made more fertile, if the practice of pa- ring and burning them, to the depth of an inch and a half, Avere more generally adopted. Fen, the name of a very perni- cious disorder, to which hops are subject. It consists of a kind of 494 FEN FEN moss, or mould, which grows ra- pidly, and does considerable injury to the hop-grounds, unless it be eradicated immediately on its first appearance. FENCE, in rural economy, is a hedge, wall, ditch, bank, or other inclosure, made round gardens, woods, fields, Sec. The fences employed for parks, and sometimes for gardens, are ge- nerally of paling; Avhich, if made of winter-fallen oak, will continue sound for many years. For this purpose, the pales should be cleft thin, and the rails cut triangular, in order to prevent the wet from being deposited on them. In parks where falloAV-deer are kept, it will be sufficient if they be 6^ feet high; but Avhere there are red deer, it Avill be requisite to make them at least one foot higher. Various kinds ol plants have been recommended for constructing the common fences, of Avhich we shall point out the principal: 1. The White-Thorn is the most pro- per for fences, as it grows quickly, is very durable, and makes a very handsome appearance. It thrives on any soil, where a ditch and a neAv bank are prepared for its re- ception, unless the soil consist en- tirely of sand or gravel: it -will ne- vertheless grow even in such situ- ations, if the planting be succeeded by heavy rains. 2. Black-Thorn is another excellent shrub for a fence : it is, however, much infe- rior to the white-thom, asitsgrowth is not so certain; and, where it lh tires, its roots spread, and are apt to run in too much upon the land. For dead hedges and mend- ing open places, the bushes of this plant are superior even to the Avhite-thorn ; they are likewise less liable to be cropped by cattle. 3. Furze, to Ayhich Ave refer. 4. To these may be added, the Holly, which is indeed preferable to either of the plants, aboAre-mentioned; for, though its groAvth is slower, and more uncertain, yet Avhere it succeeds, it amply compensates for the delay and expence incur- red, by its thickness, height, and strength. The best mode of making a fence with these trees is, to plant them with the quick or white-thorn, in the proportion of one of the former to four of the latter. Both will flourish; and, as the hollies increase in size, the white-thorns may be pulled up : so that when the trees have attained their full growth, they will require the whole of the space occupied by the thorns, and will make a most durable fence.... If any vacancies should intervene, they may be easily closed, by bend- ing down, and covering the lower branches with earth: thus, they will shoot forth in the ensuing year, and form a barrier impene- trable to cattle. Beside these, alder, and even elder, make, in certain situations, excellent fences. If sticks or trun- cheons of the latter, from ten to twelve feet in length, be set in a sloping direction each way, so as to form a kind of chequer-work, they will grow speedily, and con- tinue for several years. This plant is excellently adapted to watery places, as its lowest roots are con- tinually spreading, and thus pre- vent the banks on Avhich they stand, from being undermined, or washed aAvay by the current. The last tree Avhich Ave shall mention, is the Houn-ueam. It is chiefly used in Germany for the purpose of fencing lands ; and is propagated from sets or slips, which FEN FEN 495 are planted on a parapet of earth, with a ditch on each side, in such a direction, that every tAvo plants may intersect each other. The bark is then scraped off the place where they meet, and Avhich is co- vered with bands of straA,-: in con- sequence of this operation, the tAvo plants become conjoined, and put forth horizontal slanting shoots, forming a kind of palisade ; which, if lopped annually, will render eve- ry part of the fence equally impe- netrable to men and cattle....See Hedges. [The daily growing scarcity of wood in the United States, renders the inclosure of a farm, very ex- pensive. It behoves the farmer, therefore, to adopt every means to preserve his fences. It is well known, that the decay of posts al- most universally commences at the surface of the ground, and pro- ceeding gradually to the centre, eats through the post. To prevent this, many farmers are in the practice of charring the post a feAv inches above and below this part. This practice is highly proper.... Charcoal is known to be indestruc- tible by the common causes of de- cay, by which Avood is destroyed.... It has been suggested, also, by a writer in the Philadelphia Magazine, June, 1798, to charr the ends of the posts, and even the whole fence ; to place the broad part of the rail uppermost, and the an- gle downwards; to prevent the lodgment of rain. The cedar rails brought to Phi- ladelphia, generally come from the immense swamps of Delaware and NeAV-Jersey ; and are made in so slight a maimer, as greatly to di- minish their natural tendency to durability. In a grazing farm, where cattle pasture at large, it is of the greatest consequence, to have strong rails, in order to resist the violent attempts to level them, which are frequently made by un- ruly beasts. Mr. Wm. West, of Delaware county, therefore, who does every thing about his farm in the best manner, procured his rails from Jersey, eleven feet long, and had them split in the manner of square rails, strong and thick, in preference to broad-rail fashion.... The mortices in his posts, are 2* inches Avide. These directions are worth at- tention by the farmer, in whatever plenty he may have wood for fence, because the time which will be sa- ved to him, by not being obliged to renew his fence every seven years, is a great object: but to persons living near the great toAvns, Avood is a serious expence : and we ought to begin in time to plant hedges, to inclose our grounds.... The most proper mode of plant- ing these shall be fully disclosed under the article Hedge. See also Inclosure.] FENNEL, the Common, or Fen- nel Dill, Anethum faniculum, L. a native perennial plant growing on chalk cliffs, and common on the western coasts. Its yellow floAvers appear in July or August. The tender buds of this aromatic plant are useful in salads ; its leaves are boiled and used in sauces for several kinds of fish, and also eaten raw with pickled salmon, &c... The seeds yield an excellent aror matic oil, which is carminative, re- solvent, and diuretic, Avithout heat- ing the body : on account of these valuable properties, as Avell as for its strong, pulpy, and esculent root," this plant is industriously cultivated on the continent: it de- lights in a rich, but not too moist 496 F E R FER soil ; and the seed is put in the ground soon after it becomes ripe. There are two varieties of this excellent vegetable reared in Italy, both of which might be cultivated in Britain ; namely, 1. The dulce, or SAveet fennel; and 2. The azo- nicum, or Italian fennel. The for- mer easily degenerates, and re- quires a frequent supply of seeds produced on its native soil; the latter is a delicious plant, the stalks of which according to Bechstein, are thick, pulpy, and from four to five inches broad : they are high- ly esteemed by the Italians, who blanch and eat them as salad, pre- pared Avith flour, vinegar, and pep- per. Hence the popular adage in that country, according to which " fennel and bread are the Italians' repast." Fennel, the Water : See Wa- ter Starwort. FENUGREEK, or Trigonella fanumgracum, L. is a native of the southern parts of France, Ger- many and Italy, Avhence its yellow- ish seeds are annually imported.... They possess a strong, disagreea- ble smell, and an unctuous, farin- aceous, and someAvhat bitter taste. These seeds are chiefly employed in cataplasms, and fomentations, for softening, maturating, and dis- cussing tumors: they are also occa- sionally used in emollient and car- minatiA-e clysters. FERMENTATION is, strictly speaking, a chemical process, and one of the most obscure pheno- mena in nature, Avhich all the in- genuity of philosopHers has hither- to been unable to explain. Instead, therefore, of perplexing the reader Avith different theories on the sub- ject, Ave shall briefly relate* the putctical part cf this interesting process, together with the circum- stances attending it. Fermentation may be defined to consist in a visible internal com- motion qf different bodies, reduc- ed to a fluid state ; emitting bub- bles of air, and a sparkling pun- gent vapour. But, more properly speaking, it is a gradual and spon- taneous change of a body, consist- ing of different ingredients vari- ously mixed, and which are now decomposed and converted into a vinous liquor. Thus we obtain, according to the methods after- Avards pursued, wine, ardent spi- rits, beer, or vinegar....Hence fer- mentation is confined to the vegeta- ble and animal kingdoms ; and is divided into three regular stages ; namely, the vinous, acetous, and putrefactive. Vegetables only are susceptible of the first; the flesh of young animals in a slight degree undergoes the second ; and all ani- mal substances are peculiarly sub- ject to the last stage, or putrefac- tion. The most essential requisites in every process of fermentation, are : 1. That the substances be in a fluid state ; 2. That there be a proper degree of uniform warmth, that is, in general between the 70°. and 80°. of Fahrenheit's thermome- ter : and 3. That the atmosphere be not entirely excluded from the fermenting bodies, nor that they • be exposed to a current of air. If, in the elementary mixture, or component parts of a vegetable body, there exist a portion of in- flammable air, this spirituous in- gredient will be disengaged at the very commencement of fermenta- tion : hence we obtain wine, bran- dy, eider, beer, he. from grapes, apples, pears, and other fruit, from F ER every species of com, as well as from saccharine and mealy roots. Their productions, hoAvever, so far differ from each other, that wine contains a greater proportion of spirituous, and less of mucilagi- nous particles, than beer; and that distilled spirits are deprived of all earthy and viscous ingredients. But, as all fermentable bodies, be- side the inflammable spirit, possess ti portion of acid and saline parti- cles, which are not disengaged dur- ing the first, or vinous stage of fer- mentation, another separation of constituent parts takes place, im- mediately after the former is ef- fected, Avithout any farther dis- charge of air-bubbles, or intestine commotion ofthe fluid; though a volatile elastic vapour is observed to escape: thus, the spirituous parts, unless they have been pre- viously draAvn off by distillation, are communicated to the atmos- phere, and this stage is termed the acetous fermentation; because its productions are the different sorts of vinegar obtained from wine, beer, fruit, corn, See...Although, in most of the fermentable substarices, these two stages naturally succeed each other: yet, by improper treat- ment, the acetous fermentation sometimes appears before the vin- ous can possibly commence, espe- cially Avhere the process is mis- managed by too great a heat; or, in those bodies which possess little or no inflammable matter in their elements. On the contrary, such vegetables as originally contain a sufficient proportion of aerial and fiery constituents, -will easily fer- ment, by the simple means of Avarmth and water. But, if those elementary ingredients be in a manner deprived of their activity, by too many crude and viscid par- VOL. II. F E R 497 tides being combined with them, it will then be necessaiy to make certain additions, partly natural, and partly artificial, in order to dispose them more readily to fer- ment. These means, or additions, are such as have either already un- dergone fermentation; or are ea- sily disposed to ferment: of the former kind are yeast and leaven; of the latter, honey, sugar, especi- ally in a state of molasses, and other sweet substances, Avhich, however, but slowly promote fer- mentation; nay, if they be previ- ously diluted or dissoh'ed in too hot water, and in that state added to the fermentable materials, they will entirely check that process. There are, besides, other means of pro- moting it; for instance, the dried leaves of the vine in a state of pow- der; cream of tartar, especially af- ter it has been repeatedly moist- ened Avith strong vinegar, and after- wards dried; the crumb of bread prepared in a similar manner, and reduced to poAvder, he. If fluidity, Avarmth, and fresh air, forward the fermentative pro- cess, the contrary of these, name- ly, dryness, cold, and exclusion of air, inevitably tend to prevent it.... There are, however,-cases in which it may become necessary to impede its progress; and Ave may then safe- ly resort to the means above allud- ed to....But a certain degree of heat, such as we have before stated, ap- pears to be indispensibly necessary to conduct that process with suc- cess : an undue continuance, or the least increase of heat, proves detri- mental, Avhile an appropriate tem- perature, in a remarkable degree promotes fermentation. These different points of heat should be accurately noted and settled by the thermometer, or other certain me- 3 S 498 F E R FER thods; though, for common, or all economical purposes, they may be limited to what is in general term- ed a tepid and a. fervid heat: the former is the bane of all vinous fer- mentation ; the latter, or impercep- tible Avarmth, is the great promoter of it. And if, notwithstanding a due attention to a proper tempera- ture and all other circumstances, the liquor will not work of itself, it should then be assisted by such sub- stances as are called ferments, and of Avhich Ave have already given some account. In the Memoirs of the Philoso- phical Society at Manchester, Mr. Henry states the result of some experiments, in which he produced a fermentation both in bread and wort, and even in punch and whey. Conjecturing, therefore, yeast to be simply a quantity of fixed air detained among the mucilaginous parts of the fermenting liquor, he boiled some wheaten flour and wa- ter to the consistence of a thin jelly, Avhich he put in the middle of Dr. Nooth's machine for communi- cating fixed air to water. A con- siderable portion of gas was ab- sorbed ; and the next day the mass Avas in a state of fermentation.... The third day it bore so great a re- semblance to yeast, that an experi- ment Avas made on some paste for bread; for which purpose it an- swered tolerably Avell, after being baked four or five hours. Mr. Henry made another ex- periment with some wort only; part of Avhich Avas impregnated with air in the same manner as the flour and water, and when poured into the remainder, a brisk fermen- tation ensued in 24 hours; a strong head of yeast began to collect on the surface, which on the third day was fit for tunning. In the course of the experiment, good bread was made with the yeast taken off the surface. The dispute which has arisen concerning Mr. Henry's mode of producing fermentation, may be easily decided by a comparative trial. Let two gallons of wort be put into a separate vessel, and kept in a moderate heat for a certain time: let also two other gallons be impregnated, either wholly or in part, according to Mr. Henry's method, be put into a similar ves- sel and deposited in the same place. If the fermentation commence in the liquor impregnated with fixed air sooner than in the other, the air may be rationally conjectured to in- duce such fermentation. At all events, Mr. Henry's experiments, with respect to bread, are certainly decisive, and those relative to li- quors may thus be easily ascertain- ed ; an object of the utmost impor- tance to the public. [A true theory of fermentation is not yet settled : and it is foreign to the nature of this work to enter upon the subject. The reader is referred to an admirable paper on it, by Mr. J. Collier, in the fifth vo- lume of the Manchester Transac- tions, and to Fabbroni's Treatise on the Arte di Pari it Vino, published in Florence, in 1788, and translated into French by Cit. F. R. Baud, (1801). Fabbroni denies, that al- cohol is the product of the vinous fermentation, and asserts, that it is formed in distillation. See his note on the subject, Annates de Chimie, A'ol. 30, and Nicholson's Journal, vol. 4, p. 46 : Also, some judicious remarks en the theory of Fabbroni, in a late volume of the Journal de Physique of Paris, by Chaptall, extracted from an admirable trea- tise on the Vine, in the 10th vol. FER F E R 499 of the Cours d' Agriculture, pub- lished as a continuation ofthe same work, formerly edited by the abbe Rosier. In the paper alluded to, the singular theory of Fabbroni is ably controverted by Chaptall. The Chemical Essays of the late Dr. Pennington, of Philadelphia, may also be consulted.] FERMENTED LIQUORS, are those obtained by the process de- scribed in the preceding article. See also Beer, Brewing, Cyder, Wine, &c. All liquors which have under- gone the vinous fermentation, are considered as great antidotes to pu- trefaction: hence the total absti- nence from them is assigned as one of the chief causes why the Turks are more liable to the plague, and other contagious diseases,than those nations among whom beer or wine is the common beverage. It has farther been remarked, and perhaps with justice, that since the custom of brewing and distilling liquors has prevailed in Europe, many of those cutaneous as well as putrid diseases, with which our forefathers ■were afflicted, have been less se- vere, and less frequent than they occurred in former ages. On the other hand, it is certain that all fermented liquors contain a considerable portion of air, which appears to combine the spirituous Avith the viscous parts, and which must necessarily be disengaged, before they are carried through the different organs of secretion. The developement and discharge of these aerial particles, however, is not effected without considerable efforts: hence it may be safely as- serted, that fermented liquors are less conducive to a sound and vi- gorous digestion of food than plain w aver. Yet, with respect to their influence on the human mind, it cannot be denied that such liquors in general have the effect of enli- vening and exhilarating the spirits, especially of those who are natural- ly deficient in mental energy, or possess a weak and debilitated frame. Some writers, hoAvever, are of opinion, that they also have a strong tendency to corrupt the morals of mankind; an effect which they evidently produce, even in temperate climates, Avhen taken to excess. On the Avhole, Ave think a moderate use of malt liquors and. Avine, is less injurious to the body than the daily drinking of tea, cof- fee, and other hot liquors, which threaten to emasculate the present and future generations. FERN, the Female, or Pteris aquilina, L. an indigenous plant, growing on heaths, in Avoods, and dry barren places, and flowering in the month of August. This Aveed is extremely difficult to be eradicated, as its roots, in soft and deep soils, have been found at the depth of eight feet. One ofthe most effectual methods of extirpating the fern is, to mow the grass frequently; and if the field be ploughed up, and well dunged, this plant will not thrive: ....urine is said to be of considera- ble efficacy in checking its vege- tation. It may also be easily de- stroyed, by means of an instru- ment consisting of a stick, in which is inserted a blade, with blunt edg- es, and Avith which the stems ofthe plant are to be bruised. Several acres may thus be cleared, even by a woman, in the course of one day : the next morning a gummy matter Avill exude from the in- jured stalk, and the fern will gra- dually disappear. But, however troublesome this 500 F E R vegetable may prove to the indus- trious husbandman, it is not alto- gether useless, and might well de- serve to be regularly cultivated in those places where few other vegetables will groAv. For covering the roofs of houses, fern affords a valuable substitute for straAV: in order to apply it to this useful purpose, it should be pulled up together with its roots, in the beginning of October, when it is perfectly pliant, and not liable to break: if these precautions be attended to, the thatch will conti- nue sound for thirty years. It also produces excellent litter for horses and cows; and when dry, is eaten by cattle, for which purpose it should be cut from the middle of August to thatof September. Hogs are particularly fond of its roots, which render them exceedingly fat; and, it has been found by ex- perience, that if the stalks be scald- ed for a feAv minutes, and mixed Avith bran, for store hogs, half the quantity of bran will be saved; so that from February to June these animals may be kept at one half of the expense, by a Aveed growing abundantly on waste lands. It ought, however, to be remarked, that young pigs should not be fed Avith this plant, as it is naturally too heating for them, and might be productive of dangerous conse- quences. Fern may also be employed as an excellent manure for potatoes; for, if it be buried beneath the roots of the latter, it seldom fails to produce a good crop....It is like- wise a proper substitute for coal, where the latter is scarce, for the va- rious purposes of breAving, baking, heating ovens, and burning lime- stone, as it emits a poAverful heat. FER The ashes of fern, when burnt, are frequently used by the manu- facturers of glass, especially in France, because they afford a tole- rable pure alkali....In several parts of Britain, the poorer class of peo- ple mix these ashes with water, and form them into round masses, which they call fern-balls: these are next heated in a fire, before they are made into a ley for scow- ering linen. Mr. Frieavald ob- serves, in the 4th volume of the Transactions of the Swedish Aca- demy, that his countrymen mix the fern ashes with a strong ley, previously to forming them into balls, and afterwards dry them: thus, a very cheap substitute is prepared for soap; and the linen washed with it, not only becomes perfectly white, but is at the same time free from that disagreeable smell, frequently contracted by linen imperfectly washed with the common soap....According to Prof. Beckman, fern produces the 9th part of its original weight, when burnt to ashes ; and Sheffer, in his Chemical Lectures, published in German, remarks, that it yields the largest proportion of ashes among all known vegetables. M. Gmelin even affirms, that it af- fords no less than the third part of its own weight in vegetable alkali. Beside the multifarious use to Avhich the fern is subservient, it may be applied to a purpose still more important. In the " Memoirs d'Agriculture," for 1786, we find that this vegetable furnishes the inhabitants of Palma, one of the Canary isles, with their daily bread: in digging for its roots, they first taste them, and reject those Avhich are bitter, as useless. Such facts require no commentary. F ER F E R 501 FERN, the Male, or Male Po- lypody, Polypodium Felix-mas, L. is an indigenous plant growing in woods, heaths, and stony places, and flowering from June to October. This vegetable has nearly the same qualities, and is used for the same purposes as the female fern. In Nosway, the dried leaves are infused in hot water, in which state they afford a wholesome food to goats, sheep, and other cattle, which eat them eagerly, and some- times grow fat by their constant use....The inhabitants of Siberia boil the male fern in their ale, on account of the flavour which it imparts to that liquor. The roots, when pulverized, are an excellent vermifuge, and have been given with great success, in the propor- tion of two or three drams, for the expulsion of the tania, or tape- worm. [The vermifuge powers of fern are well known. It appears to be particularly active in expelling the tape-worm, which is very trouble- some. Dr. G. Jones relates;the case of a lady in N. York, who after taking many worm medicines with partial good effects, drank a decoction of fern in water, (a pint a clay) until some gallons were taken, when a dose of Castor-oil brought away the remnant of the worm, measuring 45 feet! The fern is the famous remedy of Mad. Nouffer, of Switzerland, for the tape-worm. She acquired the knowledge ofthe remedy from her husband, who was a surgeon, and obtained a great price for the secret from Louis XVI.of France, by AA'hose order it was published. The powdered plant was generally preferred by Mad, N. and may be given in doses of from 60 grs. to two drachms.] FERRET, or Mustek. Faro, L. an useful animal, which is origi- nally a native of Africa, whence it was introduced into Spain, and subsequently into this country. It has red, fiery eyes ; the colour of its whole body is of a pale yellow; and its length, from the tip of the nose to the end of the tail, is about 19 inches. The ferret requires to be kept carefully within doors, as, unlike other wild animals, it is incapable of procuring its own subsistence. The female is of a smaller size than the male, and produces twice annually from five to six, and some- times even eight or nine young ones, after a gestation of six weeks. These animals are employed for the purpose of hunting rabbits, to which they are mortal enemies..... They are always muzzled previ- ously to being admitted .into the burrows, in order that they may not kill the rabbits, but only drive them out of their holes into nets, spread out for the purpose of tak- ing them. In the west of England, they are frequently kept in farm- yards and barns, for the purpose of destroying the mice and rats in- festing corn-stacks.....Ferrets are reared in casks or boxes, where they are provided with beds of hemp or flax. They sleep almost continually, and, on Avaking, very eagerly search for food, which con- sists chiefly of bread, milk, 8cc. They are easily tamed, and ren- dered docile, but arc extremely irascible; and as they at all times emit a disagreeable odour, it in- creases and becomes extremely of- fensive when they are irritated.... Their motions are nimble; and they are at the same time so vi- gorous, that they can easily con- quer a rabbit, which is at least four 502 FES FES times larger than its adversary. FESCUE-GRASS, or Festuca, L. a genus of plants consisting of 39 species; though only 12 or 14 are indigenous, of which the fol- lowing are the principal: 1. The ovina, or Sheep's Fescue- grass, Avhich is perennial, grows in dry, sandy soils, and flowers in the month of June. This plant is eat- en by cows, horses, goats, and es- pecially by sheep, which are very partial to it, and soon become fat from its use. 2. The rubra, Creeping or Pur- ple Fescue-grass, Avhich is peren- nial, grows on elevated heaths and dry barren pastures, and flowers in the month of June. This grass is of great value in the fattening of cattle, as its succulent leaves, which continue to vegetate during the whole summer, at all times furnish abundance of wholesome food. It also possesses the ad- vantage of retaining its verdure throughout the winter, when al- most eA'ery other vegetable is de- cayed. 3. The duriuscula, or Hard Fes- cue-grass, which is also perennial, grows as well in dry places, as in low and flat meadows ; and flowers in the month of June. It has not hitherto been cultivated, though it claims the attention of the intelli- gent farmer; for it frequently at- • tains the height of three or four feet, shoots forth very early in the spring, is very luxuriant} and af- fords a wholesome and grateful food to all kinds of cattle. 4. The elatior, or Tall-Fescue- grass, which grows in boggy mea- dows, and at the sides of Avet ditch- es, Avhere it often attains the height of four or five feet. It is perenni- al, floAvers in the month of June er July (sometimes twice in the year), and makes excellent pas- ture, but requires a rich soil....It is eaten by horses, cows, sheep, and goats. There is a variety of this grass, called by Mr. Curtis, the Festuca pratensis, or meadow fescue-grass, which Avill thrive not only in very wet, but also in dry soils. This variety possesses a property, on account of which it deserves to be more generally cultivated, name- ly, that of producing abundance of seeds, which speedily grow, and are easily collected. It bears a close resemblance to ray-grass, though it is in many respects greatly su- perior to the latter, at least, for the purpose of making and improving meadoAvs; as it is perennial, larger, more productive of foliage, and very hardy. 5. The fiuitans, or Flote-fescue grass, which is common in wet ditches, ponds, and marshy places; it floAvers from June to September. This plant is remarkable for its small but very sweet and nutritious seeds: they are collected in seve- ral parts of Germany and Poland, under the name of manna seeds ; and used in soups, gruels and pud- dings, both for their excellent ali- ment,and agreeable flavour. When ground into meal, the seeds may be converted into bread, Avhich is little inferior to that made of wheat. The bran, separated in preparing the meal, is given to horses troubled with worms ; but no water should be allowed these animals for seve- ral hours afterAvards. Beside the useful purposes before mentioned, the flote-fescue is a valuable grass for cattle; being so remarkably grateful, especially to horses and hogs, that they will endanger their lives in obtaining it; but as it grows only in waters which have a miry FE V bottom, it cannot be cultivated. .....The Cottenham and Chedder cheese, in a great measure, derive their celebrity from this grass. 6. The myurus, or Wall Fescue- grass, or Capons-tail grass, which grows on walls, dry, barren places, and road sides ; it produces violet stalks from 16 to 24 inches high, and affords a sweet, nourishing pasture : hence it might be culti- vated with advantage, on the poor- est soil where few other grasses will thrive. FEVER, a general term for a numerous and diversified class of diseases; in which, after shivering, succeed increased heat and a quick, irregular pulse; while several of the animal functions are impaired, and the muscular strength, parti- cularly that of the joints, is re- markably diminished. In most of the febrile actions taking place in the human body, nature endeavours to remove some noxious foreign matter; and the evacuations Avhich take place in fevers, are principally those by the pores of the skin, and the urinary passages, sometimes, also, by vo- miting and diarrhoeas, less fre- quently by hemorrhages or fluxes of blood, and very seldom by cu- taneous eruptions....In the small- pox and bilious fevers, especially of scorbutic patients, a discharge of saliva occasionally intervenes, which, though it cannot be called critical, ought never to be sup- pressed. In all fevers, there is either an in- creased, progressive motion of the blood, Avhich is manifest from the quickness of the pulse ; or an ac- celerated internal commotion of the fluids, which is obvious from the unusual degree of heat accom- panying them; in most instances, F E V 503 however, both symptoms occur in the same individual. Hence, the proximate cause of these com- plaints appears to be morbid mat- ter, contained in the fluids, and thence stimulating the nerves.... Frequently, indeed, an irritability of the nervous system alone seems sufficiently to account for the pro- duction of a febrile disease, yet in these cases, also, the material cause has probably pre-existed, and been only excited by the additional stimulus. On the other hand, a fever may arise from any debilitat- ing or exciting cause ; for instance, Avounds, passions, acrid purgatives, &c. without any pre-disposition of the individual. Thus it may, in some measure, be explained, why rude and uncivilized nations are but seldom afflicted with febrile disorders ; because these affections are peculiar only to persons of a nervous and relaxed habit. The following facts render it highly probable, that the morbid matter of fevers is much disposed to putrefaction : 1. All remedies which are successfully administer- ed in fevers, are of the antiseptic class; such as salts, acids, cam- phor, Peruvian bark, &c. 2. Ani- mal food is in almost every febrile case detrimental to the recovery of health. 3. The excrements are uniformly of a putrid nature. 4. All foul matters easily produce fe- vers ; for instance, putrid exhala- tions and ulcers. 5. The genera- tion of heat is most remarkable in putrid fevers, and continues even for some time after death....It is, nevertheless, rational to suppose, that no fever can arise,even though a disposition should pre-exist in the solid parts of the body, till the ner- vous system becomes affected by the stimulus of acrid or morbid 504 F E V FE V particles ; and till a certain degree of acrimony has been generated in the fluids. The remote or pre-disposing causes of fever may be ascribed either to an improper mode of liv- ing, Avith regard to the six non-na- turals, namely, Air; Aliment; Ex- ercise and Rest; the Passions and Affections of the Mind; Wakeful- ness and Sleep; Repletion, and Evacuation: or they are to be at- tributed to a certain general influ- ence ; such as famine, unwhole- some provisions, an unusual and irregular temperature of the air, &c. For the treatment and cure of fever, in general, it is impossible to lay down any precepts which are applicable to every individual: Ave shall, therefore, confine our obser- vations to the folloAving points : 1. The nature of the fever ought to be ascertained by professional men, Avho, will accordingly endea- vour to remove, if possible, the proximate cause. Thus, where bilious impurities abound, they are often most effectually evacuated by emetics ; Avhere a plethora or ful- ness of blood prevails in the con- stitution, bleeding is occasionally useful; where the humours appear to be in an acrid state, it Avill be necessary to take diluent liquors, such as ptisan, grurt, he. a tea- cupful eA'ery half hour, and to ab- stain from all solid food, eggs, and even broth. 2. To promote the crisis, or as- sist the efforts of nature by all pro- per means: thus, if the pulse be- come softer and fuller, diaphoretic or sweating remedies will then be necessary ; but nothing ought to be more guarded against in fevers, than a precipitate and excessive use of medicines. This caution is so Avell founded, that the ancients cured the most obstinate and ma- lignant fevers almost entirely by a strict attention to diet and regimen. Hence, the air in the patient's room ought to be pure, and never to exceed 70°. of Fahrenheit ; during the cold fit, additional co- vering may be allowed, but Avhich should be instantly removed, as well as all feather-beds, when heat and perspiration commence. Both food and drink must be of a cool- ing and diluting nature ; the lat- ter, in particular, should be plen- tifully given, without over-loading the stomach. All subacid, ripe fruit, particularly cherries, rasp- berries, strawberries, Sec. are there- fore of singular benefit in all inflam- matory and putrid fevers ; apples, pears, and plums being less juicy, are inferior to the fruit before men- tioned, though some kinds of mel- low and saccharine pears are equal- ly proper. The juice of lemons and oranges, mixed with water, also affords a cooling and salutary beverage. In short, all those rules Avhich Ave have stated under the head of Chronical Diseases, are a feAv modifications, also ap- plicable to febrile complaints. Al- though fevers are divided, by au- thors, into inflammatory, putrid, bilious, pituitous, hectic, and con- sumptive, eruptive, sporadic, epi- demic, infectious, endemic, topi- cal, vernal, autumnal, complicat- ed, original and symptomatic, re- gular and irregular; yet the fol- lowing division is better calculated to ansAver practical purposes. I. Intermittent s, or Agues, which see. II. Inflammatory fevers, ov those Avhich are attended with an inflam- mation of any internal part of the body ; such as the breast, lungs, FE V F E V 505 throat, 8cc. or some external part, for instance, the Hose. For a de- scription of the former kind, see Pleurisy, and Inflammation.... Sometimer., however, there is no local affection discoverable, though all the symptoms of an inflamma- tory disposition of the blood are evident, in which case, the disor- der is termed asimple inflammato- ry fever. III. Putrid fevers, which are ac- companied with certain symptoms of putridity, either in the first pas- sages, or in the mass of the blood, or in both....These malignant fe- vers are highly infectious and de- structive ; though tiiey have lately been most successfully treated by large doses ol fresh yeast, diluted with Avater ; a cheap and easy re- medy, of which we propose to give a farther account, under its alpha- betical head. IV. Bilious fevers, are thus de- nominated from an undue secretion of the Bjle, to which article Ave refer : no time should be lost here in applying for proper advice, as they frequently terminate in putrid fevers, if mismanaged in the be- ginning....See also Y'elloav Fe- ver. V. Nervous fevers, in which the whole nervous system is originally affected; these maladies are chiefly of modern origin, and have fre- quently been relieved by the pro- per use of the tepid bath. We can- not in this place expatiate upon their treatment, as they appear in a thousand different forms, and re- quire the assistance of professional men, more than any other class of diseases. VI. Hectic fevers are those which emaciate the body, and arise in consequence of the corruption of any particular organ or vise us in VOL. II. the system: for instance, obstruc- tion, suppuration, or ulceration of the breast, lungs, liver, Sec. See Hectic....These fevers, however, are to be distinguished from the slow, consumptive, and cachectic febrile affections, which are fol- lowed by a general decline of the constitution, though there appears to be no organic injury, or local disorder, in any part of the sys- tem. VII. Eruptive fevers are term- ed those, in which the skin or sur- face of the body discovers an erup- tion which consists either in vesi- cles, and pustules, such as the small- pox, scarlet fever, kc. or in spots somewhat elevated above the skin, and uneven to the touch, such as the measles ; or in mere stains or spots, marked only by a discolour- ed surface; for example, in the petechial fever. It Avould be superfluous to giA'e farther explanations on the differ- ent kinds of fever, a subject which is but imperfectly understood in theory, though the generality of these maladies has, in consequence of many important discoveries in chemistry, been lately treated with greater success, than our medical predecessors were entitled to ex- pect, from their deficient know- ledge of natural philosophy. Thus, an attempt has been made to re- duce all fevers, to one generic source, and to ascribe their origin to an undue proportion of azote, and a deficiency of oxygen, in the human system. Although Ave can- not approve of that uncommon fondness for generalization, which has been productive of incalculable mischief in medical practice, yet there appears to be some founda- tion for those eccentric opinions maintained by a foreign professor, 3 T 506 F E V FE V Dr. Reich, of Erlang, in a treatise " On Fever ;" a translation of which has just been published in English. This ingenious practitioner has cured the most malignant putrid fevers, by the liberal use of mine- ral acids, and particularly the mu- riatic, or spirit of sea-salt. He acknoAvledges that acids have long been employed in fevers, though only in very small quantities, and chiefly as auxiliaries, especially the vitriolic, and those of the vegeta- ble kind ; but the muriatic acid has seldom been used. In the year 1773, indeed, Sir W. Fordyce highly recommended this acid to be given internally, in putrid and malignant fevers, and to be applied externally in the form of a lini- ment, or gargle, to the sloughs in the throat, frequently accompany- ing such fevers ; but his liniment consisted only of tAventy drops of the concentrated acid to one ounce of honey of roses; and his antisep- tic febrifuge contained five drops of the acid mixed Avith two ounces of a strong decoction of Peruvian bark. In a subsequent pamphlet, concerning the virtues of the mu- riatic acid, which appeared in 1790, Sir William recommends it as the best remedy in all putrid dis- eases of the worst kind; in pete- chial, camp, and jail-distempers, as well as the malignant sore- throat, so frequently fatal in this country; and afterwards in the small-pox and plague. The origi- nal discoATery of this invaluable me- dicine appears to belong to Con- STANTINE RHODOCANACIDES, who in 1664, published a treatise on the internal and external use of this acid, the extraordinary power of which he derived from the univer- sality and approA'ed value of com- mon salt. Hence he recommended it to be mixed with food and drink, to the amount, if necessary, of 100 drops in 24 hours, both as a pre- ventive and remedy for the plague, and as a general antiseptic. Dr. Reich observes, that the quantity of acids necessary to effect a cure of fevers, depends on cir- cumstances, and can only be de- termined by experience. It is, however, more advisable to begin with small doses, and to repeat them frequently; for instance, if a mixture be made of from one dram to half an ounce of the acid, eight ounces of Avater, and two of syrup, let the patient take a table- spoonful or more every hour, or two hours. But, in time of danger, from forty to an hundred drops, properly diluted, may be given at once, and such doses often repeat- ed.... As Ave propose to insert a few additional remarks on the use and efficacy of this acid, under the head of Typhus, we shall conclude with observing, that Ave have pre- scribed large doses of this powerful remedy only in two cases of com- plicated bilious and nervous fevers, in Avhich it at first produced alarm- ing symptoms, such as diarrhoea, vomiting, &c. though it was even- tually attended with success. In short, it is one of those medicines Avhich niay be safely administered by the experienced hand of the practitioner, but Avhich is apt to be misapplied by dabblers and em- pirics. Fever in horses, a disorder to which these creatures are subject from various causes. The symp- toms are : great restlessness ; the animal's flanks beat; his eyes are red and inflamed ; his breath is hot, and smells strong; his appe- tite is lost; he dungs little, but frequently ; his urine is of a very FE V F E V 507 high colour, is discharged seldom, and with great difficulty ; he ap- pears to be thirsty, yet drinks lit- tle, though frequently; and his pulse is uncommonly high. The first remedy to be applied is bleeding, when two or three quarts of blood may be taken from the animal, if it be large, strong, and in good conditio.'. A pint of the following drink is then to be given four times in the course of the day: Take of baum, sage, and chamomile flowers, each a hand- ful ; of sliced liquorice-root half an ounce ; nitre, 3 ounces : the whole is to be infused in 2 quarts of boil- ing water, and, as soon as it is cold, it is to be strained, the juice of two or three lemons squeezed in, and sweetened with honey; or, instead of the infusion above di- rected, an ounce of nitre, mixed with honey, may be given in the form of a ball, three times a day, and washed doAvn Avith any small liquor. The animal's diet ought to con- sist of scalded bran, allowed in small quantities ; or, if he refuse this, a little dry bran sprinkled with water may be substituted. It Avill also be necessary to put some picked hay into the rack, as horses will frequently eat it, when they relish no other food : their water should be scarcely luke- warm, and given them frequently, but in small quantities. Their clothing ought to be moderate, for too much weight on a horse is highly improper in fevers. If, in the course of two days after this treatment, the animal's appe- tite begin to return, and he eat a little bran or hay, careful nursing will be sufficient to complete the cure ; but, if he continue to loathe his food, it Avill be necessary to take away more blood, and to re- peat the drenches....The following clyster, consisting of two quarts of water gruel, fat-broth, pot-li- quor, a handful of common salt, 4 ounces of treacle, and a pint of lin- seed-oil, should be administered every day, while his excrements continue dry or knotty. Such clys- ters are more proper than those consisting of marsh-mallows, cha- momile flowers, fennel-seed, and other purging ingredients. An opening drink prepared of 4 ounces of Glauber's salts, or cream of tartar, and an equal quantity of lenitive electuary, dissolved in bar- ley Avater, or any ether liquor, should likeAvise be given every se- cond day, when the clysters may be omitted; the nitre balls, or the drink above mentioned, being con- tinued every day as usual, unless the clysters be administered. In the course of four or five clays, the horse will begin to pick his food, if he be not beyond the power of medicine; and, though his flanks will continue to heave for a fort- night, yet this may be effectually removed by walking him in the fresh air, and allowing him plenty of clean litter in the stable. FEVERFEW, or Matricaria, L. a genus of plants consisting of six species, three of which are indige- nous. The principal of the^e are: 1. The pertbenium, or Common Feverfew, which groAvs in Avaste grounds, hedges, and Avails, and flowers in June or July. This plant is refused by horses; the w hole has a strong, disagreeable smell, a bit- ter taste, and yields an essential oil by distillation....It Avas formerly celebrated for its efficacy in hys- teric, and other affections of the nerves; as Avell as for its tonic, stomachic, and resolvent proper- 508 F E V FE V ties. Dr. Leavis, however, thinks it much inferior to chamomile, with which it agrees in all its sen- sible qualities, excepting that the common feverfew is much weaker. But its odour, taste, and other con- stituents, prove that it is a medi- cine of considerable activity....In Germany, it has been usefully em- ployed in tanning and currying leather. 2. The chamomilla, or Chamo- mile Feverfew, which groAvs in corn-fields,' dung-hills, as well as on road-sides, and is in floAver from May to August. Its proper- ties are similar to those of the common chamomile: it is eaten by cows, goats, and sheep,- but not relished by horses; and hogs to- tally refuse it....According to Por- ner, the flowers of this species of feverfew afford a fine yellow pig- ment, which may be rendered more permanent by the addition of alum, cream of tartar, and gypsum.... Scheffer, another German che- mist, informs us, that a decoction of these flowers imparts a beautiful yellovv colour to silk, if a solution of tin, saturated with cream of tar- tar, be gradually dropped into the liquor, till it acquires a deep yellow tinge. Berthollet, hoAvever, on this occasion, remarks, that pure water must be employed, Avhich does not precipitate the solution of tin, and that the dyeing bath should be kept in a hot, though not boil- ing state. 'FEVER-POWDERS are gene- rally understood to be those origi- nally prepared by the late Dr. Ro- be»t James, and by many still believed to be a certain remedy for fevers of every description. Ac- cording to the recipe deposited in the records of Chancery (when Dr. James took out a patent for the sale of his poAvders), they consist of antimony calcined Avith a continued protracted heat, in a flat, unglazed earthen vessel, adding to it from time to time a sufficient quantity of any animal oil and salt, well ^ephlegmated; then boiling it in melted nitre for a considerable time, and separating the poAvder from the nitre, by dissolving it in Avater....The chief intention in this process, is to divest the antimony of its sulphur, by mixing it Avith some animal substance, to prevent its running into glass during the calcination. When this once celebrated em- piric first administered those pow- ders, he usually added a small pro- portion of the red precipitate of mercury to each dose; but he soon relinquished this practice, after ob- serving that some patients were salivated by the use oF his nos- trum. Hence we find that he has conscientiously annexed the fol- loAving clause at the end of his specification given into Chancery : " The dose of this medicine is un- certain ; but, in general, thirty grains of the antimonial, and one grain of the mercurial, is a mode- rate dose." Signed and sworn to by Robert James. It is to be lamented that regular practitioners have sometimes de- viated from the more rational path of medical science, and degraded themselves by following the nu- merous herd of quacks: nay, it is still more surprising, that even in- telligent physicians have often hu- moured their prejudiced patients, by prescribing those fever powders, of which the inventor himself had but an indifferent opinion. For it is a well-attested fact, that the Peru- vian bark, and not the antimonial poAvder, was the remedy to which FIE FIE 509 the late Dr. James generally trust- ed in the cure of fevers. He gave his powders only to clear the sto- mach and bowels ; after effecting that purpose, he poured in the bark as freely as the patient was able to swallow it; for he has re- peatedly declared to Dr. Monro, (see his Medical and Pharmaceu- tical Chemistry, vol. 1. p. 366, and foil.), that if there was a possibility of curing a fever, the bark was the remedy to be relied upon ; and, if the disease did not yield to the latter, he was convinced that it could not be removed by any other medicine....HoAvever empirical this declaration must appear to every professional man possessing a mo- derate share of medical knowledge, yet it is amply sufficient to evince the fallacy of Dr. James's Fever- poAvders, which, from the nature of their ingredients, are so violent in their operation, that Ave trust no prudent person will in future pur- chase, or use them, without sub- mitting his case to the discretion of an unbiassed and competent judge. FIELD, in agriculture, a piece of land inclosed, either for the pur- pose of tillage, or for pasture. The best season for laying land down to grass, is the latter end of August, or the beginning of Sep- tember, Avhen the roots of the young plants will have time to strike deeply, before the frost sets in. Mopt weather is the most pro- per for this purpose, as the earth will then be sufficiently warm, and the seeds quickly vegetate: but, if that season prove unfavourable, they may be soaati in the middle of the month of March following. In order to obtain a fine pasture, the soil should be thoroughly clear- ed from all noxious weeds, by re- peated ploughing; for, if any of them are suffered to remain, they will speedily outgrow, and destroy the young grass. These weeds ought next to be raked up into heaps, burnt on the land, and their ashes spread as a manure; but, if the soil be clayey and wet, it will be necessary to make some drains to carry off the water; which, if suffered to stagnate, will both chill and sour the grass. Previously to sowing, the land ought to be laid as level and as fine as possible: thus, if the grass-seeds be clean, three bushels will be sufficient for an acre. After sowing, they should be gently harrowed, and smoothen- ed over Avith a wooden roller.... When the grass comes up, all the vacant spots are to be provided with fresh seed ; which, if it be properly rolled in, will in a short time attain the height of that first sown. Few circumstances are of great- er importance in rural economy, especially to graziers,than to ascer- tain the most valuable field for pasture. For this purpose, Mr. David Young (" Agriculture, the primary Interest of Britain," 8vo. 1788, 6s.) proposes to weigh all cattle previous to their going into each field, and to alloAV them nei- their food nor water for 12 hours before. After the whole pasture is consumed, they should stand for a similar length of time, without food and drink,and then again be Aveigh- ed. Thus, the increase of weight in each animal, may be easily de- termined. Fields ought not to be kept too long in pasture. When land is first laid doAvn, with a vieAV to ameliorate the soil, the common practice is to leave it in that state for many years: for it is the gene- 510 FIG ral opinion, that the longer it is thus suffered to lie, the richer it will become for bearing corn. But, though the truth of this position be evident, the most important object of inquiry is, to ascertain the most beneficial rotation of crops.... (See Crop.)....The best criterion, perhaps, is to take up pasture for corn, as soon as the grass begins to be deficient both in quantity and quality ; and, after a few crops, to lay it down again with grass-seeds: by this method the land may be kept in good heart, and considera- ble expence saved, while in the end, the soil will produce larger crops, and consequently afford greater profit. FIG-TREE, or Ficus, L. a ge- nus of plants, comprising forty- three species, of which one only is cultivated in this country, namely, the carica, or common fig-tree. It is propagated either by suckers arising from the roots; by layers; or by cuttings. The first are to be taken off as low doAvn as possible ; all ragged and superfluous parts being removed, and the tops left entire, especially if intended for standards. These are to be planted in nursery-rows, two or three inches apart; or, they may be set in the spot where they are intended to remain. They are then suffered to branch out and form a head, care being taken that the branches never be shortened ; for, as the figs are always produced on the upper part ofthe young shoots, if these be be cut off, no fruit can be expected. The best season for raising fig- trees by layer*, is in autumn; the voung pliable lower shoots are first to be selected from the moist fruit- ful branches, Avhich are to be laid in the usual way ; the body of the laveis being covered with soil to F IG the depth of three or four inches, and the top kept as upright and entire as possible. In the succeed- ing autumn, they will be fit to be separated from the parent-stock, when they may be planted either in the nursery, or in the place of their ultimate destination. The time for propagating by cuttings, is either in autumn, or at any time during the month of March. The shoots to be selected for this purpose, ought to be those of the preceding summer ; short, and strong; from 12 to 15 inches in length; and to have at least an inch of the two years Avood at their base ; the tops being left entire. These cuttings are to be set 6 or 8 inches deep, in a bed of good soil, in rows 2 feet apart : and, if they be planted in autumn, it will be requisite to protect the tops from the severity of the winter, with any kind of loose, long litter. Fig-trees require a free exposure to the rays of the sun, at the side of an espalier: they ought to be frequently watered; and, accord- ing to Bechstein, wood-ashes are for them a more proper manure than dung. ToAvards the Avinter of our colder climate, the root of the fig-tree ought to be someAvhat loosened, and the trunk bent clown in the form of a bow, and covered Avith straAV to protect it from the se- verity of the frost. There is a mode of increasing and ripening the fruit of $he do- mestic fig-tree, by means of in- sects : it is practised in the Levant, and known by the name of caprifl- cati'pn. The principal of those in- sects appears to be the cynipa peenes that deposits its eggs in the figs ; from these arise small worms which, when covered with the pol- len or flower-dust," migrate from FIG FIG 511 the male flowers, take shelter in the female ones, and thus effect fructification. In consequence of this natural process, the figs not on- ly ripen more speedily, but also become much larger : so that a fig-tree which formerly produced about 25lb. of ripe fruit, now yields nearly 3001b.....Later experience has proved that caprification may be successfully imitated in gardens, by wounding the buds of the figs with a straw or feather dipped in sweet oil....Bechstein advises a drop of olive oil to be introduced into the calyx of the figs when half ripe, and to repeat this unc- tion every four or five days : as it will remarkably promote the growth and maturing of the fruit. Plums and pears also, Avhen Avound- ed by insects, have been observed to ripen at a more early period, and the pulp about the wounded part to acquire a more delicious flavour. The principal varieties of the common fig are, the brown, or chesnut coloured Ischia fig, the murrey, or brown Naples fig ; the common blue or purple fig ; and lastly, the Turkey fig, which is in the greatest estimation, and is im- ported in considerable quantities into this country. Figs contain a large portion of mucilage, and a small quantity of oil. They are grateful to the sto- mach, and more easy of digestion than any other sweet fruit; they abound with saccharine matter, and are very nutritious, though they are apt to occasion flatulency, when eaten without bread or other mealy substances.... A decoction of figs af- fords excellent gargles to cleanse the throat and mouth : this fruit also forms an ingredient in lenitive electuaries, and pectoral draughts; it is likewise applied externally to soften, digest, and promote matu- ration. When in an unripe state, figs, as well as the whole tree, yield an acrid milky liquor, Avhich, if taken as a medicine, proves both purgative and emetic ; but exter- nally affords a mild caustic : hence it is frequently employed for the removal of warts. This juice has also been substituted for sympathe- tic ink ; as the characters Avritten with it, do not appear visible till they are exposed to a fire. In dyeing, a decoction of the green branches and leaves of the fig-tree imparts, according to Suc- koav and Dambourney, a deep gold colour, of a brown-reddish shade. The latter observes, that the young branches communicated a delicate brown to cloth prepa- red with a solution of bismuth ; but the leaves alone yielded a very deep yellow colour. It is remarkable, that the substances dyed with any part of the fig-tree, retained a very agreeable fragrance, resembling that of the tuberos, even after be- ing washed and kept for five months. Hence they might be usefully employed as ingredients in other dyeing drugs, which pos- sess a less agreeable, and some- times offensive, smell....The Avood of the fig-tree is almost indestructi- ble, and was formerly much em- ployed in the East, for the preser- vation of embalmed bodies. [Figs ripen very well by the mid-' die of September, in Philadelphia, when enjoying a free exposure to the sun. In the southern states they flourish luxuriantly,and might become an article of extensive ex- port and home consumption, if pains were taken to introduce the large Levant fig.] FIGWORT, or Scrophularia, L. 512 F I L FIL a genus of plants consisting of tAVenty-one species, four of which are natives of Britain : the princi- pal of these is the nodosa, or great figwort, Avhich is perennial, grows in woods and moist hedges, and floAvers in the month of July. It is eaten by goats, but refused by horses, cows, sheep, and swine.... The animals last mentioned, when diseased w ith the scab, may be cu- red by washing them in a decoc- tion of these leaves. Bechstein remarks, that the fibrous root, when overgrown with small knobs, is said to a'ford a good remedy for the worms in hogs. Filberds. See Hazlenut- tree. FILE, a tool employed by smiths and others, for the purpose of smoothing, polishing, or cutting metals. This instrument is composed ei- ther of iron or forged steel, cut by means of a chisel and mallet, in small furrows of various depths, and in different directions, accord- ing to the grain or touch required. After being thus cut, it is tempered with a very hard and dry soot, which is diluted and worked up with urine, vinegar, and salt, to the consistence of mustard. The process of tempering consists in rubbing the files over with this pre- paration, covering them with loam, and then placing them in a char- coal fire, whence they are remo- ved as soon as they become red-hot. Immediately after being taken out, they are immersed into cold spring water ; and, when cold, cleaned with charcoal and a rag; after which operation, they are laid up in bran to prevent them from be- coming rusty. Files are of different forms, si- zes, cuts, and degrees of fineness, in proportion to the various uses and occasions for Avhich they are designed ; such are the common square, flat, triangular, or round files ; the rough-toothed files, which are intended to cut more speedily than any other; and the fine-tooth- ed file, which cuts more slowly, and is appropriated to finer work- manship....The best snd most du- rable instruments of this descrip- tion are manufactured at Sheffield. FILM, in farriery, is a thick pellicle or skin, that is formed on the eyes of horses ; in consequence of which their sight is impaired. In order to disperse the film, it has been recommended to reduce common salt and sugar of lead, to a fine powder, and put a little into the eye, so as to corrode the film. Another remedy consists in ap- plying a small quantity of finely pulverized sal ammoniac daily to the part affected, till the obstruc- tion be removed. FILTRATION, in chemistry, as Avell as in domestic economy, is the process of straining or filtering li- quors by means of Avoollen cloth, cotton, linen, paper, or other mate- rhds....It deserves to be previously remarked, that in every attempt at purifying fluids in the manner here alluded to, we can divest them only of those foreign ingredients which are mixed with them, and not of such as they hold in solution. The former may be separated from them, by proper filtration ; but the latter must be disengaged, either by precipitation or distillation. Al- though the utility of filtration is thus limited to the noxious parti- cles mixed Avith liquid bodies, such as foul water, yet it is sufficiently important to deser\Te some atten- tion. The common filters are of two FIL •orts ; namely, simple pieces of paper, or cloth through which the fluid is passed ; or similar materi- als twisted up in the same manner as skeins or wicks ; they are first wetted, then squeezed, and one end put into the vessel, which contains the liquor to be filtrated ; the other end is to be suspended beneath the surface of the liquor, the purest parts of Avhich drop gradually out of the vessel, leaving behind the coarser particles. These filters, however, are not calculated for domestic use : hence different machines have been in- vented for the purpose of purify- ing turbid water. But among these various contrivances, few appear to possess the advantage of sim- plicity, combined with that of af- fording an ample supply of a fluid so essentially necessary to the pre- servation of health....A patent has lately been granted to Mr. James Peacock, of Finsbury-square, for a filtering machine,.which is stated to be superior to any hitherto in- vented. It completely accomplishes the purpose of filtration, by caus- ing the turbid fluid to ascend through a medium of fine gravel, of progressive degrees of fineness, by which means the foulest water or other fluid becomes perfectly freed from all (mixed) impurities, without any noxious mineral qua- lity, Avhich pumice or other com- mon filtering stones are suspected to communicate. Should, from continual use, its operation become in any degree impeded, it may be completely cleansed Avith the great- est facility in the short space of one minute ; an advantage posses- sed by none of the common ma- chines that operate by descent. Be- side these useful properties, Mr. Peacock's filtering machine does VOL. II. FIL 513 not occupy more room than a large drip-stone with its apparatus, and yields a constant and pure stream of more than 300 gallons in 24 hours....A specimen of this ma- chine is deposited for inspection at Guildhall, London. As we are, from a principle of justice to the public, no advocates for patent inventions, that upon the whole arise from the same merce- nary and contracted source as pa- tent quack medicines : we shall re- commend a very simple and effec- tual apparatus, by which the pur- est water may be easily procured. This contrivance is calculated on the plan of the celebrated filtering machine erected at Paris, in the vicinity of the Samarataine, and by means of which the foul water of the river Seine is so completely pu- rified, as to be divested of its laxa- tive properties. Besides, this ma- chinery, if constructed on a large scale, is well adapted to supply the largest breAveries, or dyeing works, with any quantity of pure Avater at a trifling expence, and is attended with very little additional trouble. When we reflect on the method which Nature pursues in the fil- tration of water, we find that such waters as descend from hills, tho' passing through sand and rocks, are seldom perfectly pure ; but that those are the most limpid, Avhich by ascending, ooze out near the foot of a mountain. The cause of this difference appears to be ow- ing to the circumstance, that if the Avater only descends through sand, the finest and most weighty fo- reign particles gradually penetrate through the sandy strata; on the contrary, Avhen it is forced to rise through sand, all such ponderous ingredients settle at the bottom ; because, from their greater speci- 3 T 514 FIL fie gravity, they cannot ascend to the top. The lighter particles of fluids, consequently, in both cases remain in the upper strata of the earth or sand. From these considerations, Pro- fessor Parrot, jun. of Paris, Avas induced to give his filtering ma- chine the form represented in the following cut: The principal part of the ma- chinery consists of a square vessel, bent in the form of an inverted syphon. The curve may be circu- lar, eliptic, or in any other direc- tion. This vessel is filled with fine, pure sand, till nearly the height of the dotted line x, y, which denotes the ascent of the water to D, whence it flows into the receiver. The part marked A, B, should always project above this line, according to the size of the filtering machine. To A, B, there is attached a woollen bag, which is open at the top, and the lower part of which touches the sand. It serves the purpose of col- lecting the coarsest impurities, and thus preserves the sand for a longer rime from becoming foul. The FIL bag, therefore, may occasionally be removed, and rinsed in clean water....It is evident, that the wa- ter flows at A, through the bag into the filtre, and rises at the place marked D, which is considerably lower than.the former. It affords a very agreeable sight to observe the most limpid fluid penetrating the uppermost stratum of sand, perfectly similar to that oozing from the purest natural spring. Prof. Parrot remarks, that he procured a filtering machine made of block-tin, for ascertaining by experiments the purity and quality of Avater, that may thus be obtain- ed in a given time. It consisted of the. following dimensions : the small diameter B, E, was eight Pa- ris inches ; the large of the whole machine, eleven inches; conse- quently the thickness of the ves- sel A, B, was one inch and a half; the breadth of it, two inches and seven-eighths. The perpendicu- lar height of the loAver side, from C, its basis, to the rim D, Avhence the water issues, was four inches and one-twelfth; the opposite height of the mouth A, B, eight inches and three-fourths; and the height of the sand on the side marked D, was three inches and one sixth. Although, in experiments of this nature, much depends on the re- lative- size and purity of the sand, which necessarily afford different results, yet Prof. Parrot has, af- ter repeated trials, deduced the following conclusions, which ap- pear to be well-founded. 1. That the difference of the ni- veau, or water-level, has an essen- tial influence on the quantity of the purified water thus obtained. 2. That a prolongation of the stra- tum of sand does not considerably diminish the product of the filtre, FIL FIL 515 but remarkably contributes to the purity of the fluid. 3. That if the water be forced to pass through the sand with increased velocity, it will be less pure than by alloAving it a proper time for its passage ; and, 4. That a machine of the dimen- sions above described, will furnish about three quarts of water in an hour, or eighteen gallons in twen- ty-four hours. This quantity, how- ever, being too large in proportion to the size of the machine, it is advisable, either to lessen the dif- ference of the water-fall; or, which is still better, to prolong the stra- tum of sand, in order to reduce the filtration of the water to half the quantity above stated, and to obtain it in greater purity. Thus, a fil- tering apparatus, eighteen inches long from A to D, two inches thick, and four broad, would afford every hour six pints of very pure Avater. If, therefore, so small a machine, containing a very moderate stratum of sand, and requiring only a dif- ference of tAvo or three inches in the height of the Avater, furnishes a clear and pure fluid, it follows, that an apparatus on a larger scale, provided Avith a bed of sand from five to six feet long, and admitting of a difference from tAvelve to eighteen inches in the fall of the water, might be usefully employed in public wells,hydraulic machines, and even in camps, for the supply of an army. In the construction of large fil- tering machines, Prof. Parrot justly observes, that they should not be extended in the direction A, C, D, to a greater length than is absolutely necessary; as, in this case, they will not require any con- siderable difference in the fall and rise of the water: on the other hand, their breadth and thickness may be accordingly increased.... Thus, the diameter of such a ma- chine would still more resemble that of a syphon, as is represented in the annexed cut. This form might be also adopt- ed for smaller machines, especially such as are designed for travellers, two of whom might be amply pro- vided Avith pure water, and in a very short time, by a vessel of the following dimensions: from P, toQ, eight inches long; from P, to R, twelve inches high; and the Avhole four inches in breadth. If the form last delineated be employed on an extensive scale, there should be a trap door in the lowermost part marked R, so con- structed, that it may fit exactly, and admit no passage to the Avater: this aperture would serve only for the removal of the sand, when it is rendered foul by long use. In the smaller machines, intended for travelling, such a door is unneces- sary, as they may be easily emp- tied of their contents through either of the orifices P, or Q. Instead of this addition to the latter, the upper room (which in the first of these cuts is circumscribed Avith the let- ters B, F, E), might serve as a re- servoir of pure water, that could either be decanted, or drawn off by means of a cock applied to the centre of the machine, marked F. We think, hoAvever, this latter arrangement, which is proposed 516 FIL FIL by M. Parrot, in many respects objectionable, and therefore advise the reader to make use of the more simplified construction. Hence Ave shall only add, that every filtering machine ought to be provided with a cloth cover, to prevent the dust from rising with the water, with- out impeding its filtration. It is needless to expatiate on the great advantages of filtering ma- chines in the different processes of dyeing, baking, breAving, distilling, and all the domestic arts. As no particle of real nutriment can be assimilated to the human fluids, Avithout being previously macerated and reduced by water (Avhether this fluid be introduced into the sto- mach, .in the form of beer, wine, spirits, tea, he.) it will be easily un- derstood that impure water cannot fail to produce, hoAvever slowly, many dangerous, and often incur- able diseases....the source of which is seldom suspected...See Water. [A filtering machine Avas invent- ed a feAv years since in Paris, by Mr. Smith, which purified a great quantity of water: it would con- tain about eight gallons of water, and being wickered, was rendered very portable: the Avhole machine not taking up more space than half a barrel. It is understood, that the process consists of passing the water, first through spunge, and then through alternate layers of chalk, sand, and charcoal. The editor was present at an experiment last year with the ma- chine, which was highly satisfac- tory. Water Avas taken from the gutter in the street, and drank per- fectly pure, in twenty minutes af- ter having passed through the ma- chine. These experiments were repeated at the editor's house, in the preseiiceofDr.JosEPHPaiEST- ley, last spring; and demonstrate the great utility of the machine. Mr. Raphael Peale* of Phila- delphia, some months since, made the folloAving experiments before the Amer. Phil. Soc. and afterwards at the coffee-house, before a num- ber of mercantile gentlemen, Avhich shew a cheap and easy mode of filtering water by means of the above agents...." He used 3 eight- penny floAverpots; one of which was half full of charcoal, and the hole in the bottom loosely closed with a piece of spunge, to prevent the coal from passing through; the se- cond half filled with fine river, pit, or beach sand, its hole likewise stopped with spunge; the third was empty, Avith the hole in the bottom tightly corked; the one containing sand was placed in that which held the powdered moisten- ed charcoal; and the empty one within that which held the sand ; one end of a long spunge was fas- tened to the inside bottom of the upper empty vessel, by means of a stick, crossing from side to side, the other end hanging below its outside, bottom ; the upper pot being filled Avith the bad water, and the spunge wetted, acted as a drawing syphon carrying the water thro' the spunge into the sand, leaving the grosser filth behind; then through the sand, which deprived it of the remaining colouring matter; and lastly, the charcoal completed the defecation : the watersused were of three kinds: first, from a stagnant pond, of a bright green colour, and offensive smell; the second was putridity itself, a mass of watery matter from the macerating tub of an ana- tomical theatre ; and lastly, dish- Avater".....Most of the gentlemen present drank of these waters after passing through the pots." FIR FIR 517 The editor was present, at the above experiments at the coffee- house, and tasted the water perfectly pure, after having passed the filtre. " On board of a ship, a barrel, keg, or bucket may be used, by boring a hole in its bottom, and instead of spunge, a piece of loose oakum may prevent the coal from escap- ing with the water; one third of the vessel is then to be charged with powdered charcoal, or com- mon coals extinguished by water ; another third with sand, or, if not to be had, pounded crockery, or bricks from the camboose; the up- per space left for the water desired to be purified ; the Avater, though ever so obnoxious, will pass thro', cleared from all foreign matter, as sweet and pellucid, as the finest pump-Avater." The reader may expect some ad- ditional observations on the means of preserving water at sea, under the article Water.] FINCH, or Fringilla, L. a ge- nus of birds, comprising one hun- dred and eight species, of which ten only are natives of this coun- try ; the principal of these are mentioned in their alphabetical or- der.....See Canary Bird, Gold- Finch, Linnet, Sparrow, he. Fining: See Clarification. FIR-TREE, the name of seve- ral species of the Pinus, or pine- tree, of Avhich the following are the principal.: 1. The sylvestris, or Scotch fir, which is a native of Scotland, and flourishes best, in a poor sandy soil, especially, if it be mixed Avith foam: on rocks or bogs, it seldom attains a large size ; if planted in a black soil, it becomes diseased ; and, on chalk-lands, it perjshes. This species of fir thrives most luxuriantly on the north and east sides of hills, where it not onlf grows more rapidly, and attains a greater height, but the grain of its wood is also more compact, and the trees are fuller of sap than if they had been planted in another direction. The Scotch fir is propagated from seeds, which are obtained from the cones or fruit it produces. The proper time of sowing, is in the latter end of March, or begin- ning of April: if the seeds be set in a grove, the tree becomes tall and naked ; if in open situations, exposed to the sun, it becomes branched. At the age of four years, it is to be transplanted to the place where it is intended to re- main ; during Avhich operation the utmost caution should be taken, that the central or tap-root be not broken off, or in any manner im- peded in its growth ; as, in that case, the stem would cease to shoot upwards, and the tree remain a dwarf. But, notwithstanding every care taken by the industrious plan- ter, his hopes are often frustrated by predatory animals, such as squir- rels, that strip the Avhole bark off the young tree, in consequence of Avhich it dies, and is broken by the first high wind. The hare is ano- ther enemy to young firs, though less dangerous : it is affirmed that hares may be drawn away from them, by sowing in their vicinity the Cytisus Laburnum, a species of the Bane-trefoil, the young shoots of which they prefer to firs. This species of the fir, is one of the most useful plants in the Avhole vegetable creation : it furnishes us with the best red or yellow deal, which is employed in the making of masts, floors, wainscots, tables, box- es, and for numberless other pur- poses. The trunk and branch of this species, in common with the 513 FIR rest of the pine-tribe, afford ex- cellent pitch and tar....The tops, or young tender shoots, are an use- ful substitute for fodder, especially during the Avinter season: see vol. i. The roots, when divided into small splinters, are employed by the poor as a substitute for candles....The outer bark is of considerable use in tanning leather ; the inner rind is, by the inhabitants of Loch-Broom, in the county of Ross, converted into ropes. In the more northern parts of Europe, it is, in times of scarcity, made into bread : for this purpose, the inhabitants select a tree, the trunk of which is smooth, and contains the least portion of resin: they strip off the bark in the spring, dry it gently, then re- duce it to powder, and knead it with a small quantity of corn-meal and water, in which state it is bak- ed into bread....The young cones, when distilled, afford an essential diuretic oil, someAA'hat resembling that of turpentine : a resinous ex- tract is likeAvise prepared from them, and believed to possess vir- tues similar to those of the balsam of Peru. An infusion of the buds is highly recommended as an anti- scorbutic. [An experiment is now making Avith the fir, as a hedge, by Mr. Coxe, near York-ToAvn, in Penn- sylvania, Avhose experience of the tree in Europe, has induced him to import them, and attempt their propagation.] 2. The Abies, or Spruce-fir, which is a native of the northern parts of Europe, whence it has been introduced into this country. It is propagated in the same man- ner as the Scotch-fir, and delights in a dry, gravelly situation, though it will thrive in almost every soil. It also succeeds on a loam, and FIR eAen on a hard, dry rock; but fre- quently decays at the end of 18 or 20 years, if planted on a stiff, Avet clay. The same precautions as are to be observed in transplanting the Scotch-fir, ought to be more care- fully attended to with respect to the Spruce-fir, which should be set exactly in the same direction in Avhich it stood before ; as, by turn- ing the bark to another quarter of the compass, the tree generally pe- rishes. There are two varieties of this species, namely, the Avhite and black spruce; the Avood of both is very light, and decays when ex- posed to the air for a considera- ble length of time : it is chiefly em- ployed for packing-cases, musical instruments, and the like. Its branches form the principal ingre- dient in preparing the essence of spruce, from which spruce beer is breAved. A fine clear turpentine oozes from these trees: the In- dians of North-America are said to employ it in curing green wounds, as well as certain internal disorders: the resin which distils from the White Spruce-fir, in particular, is supposed to be a sovereign remedy in fevers, and in pains of the breast and stomach. In Britain, this re- sinous juice is boiled in Avater, and strained through a linen cloth, by Avhich process, it acquires a solid consistence, a reddish broAvn co- lour, and an odour- by no means disagreeable; whence it is call- ed Burgundy pitch. In obstinate coughs, affections ofthe lungs, and other internal complaints, plasters of this resin, by acting as a topi- cal stimulus, are frequently found of considerable service. 3. The piceay or Yeav-leaved Fir ; which is a tall ever-green, and a native of Scotland, Sweden. FIR FIR 519 and Germany. This species also produces two varieties, viz. the Silver Fir, and the Balm of Gilead Fir. The former grows to a great height (in Germany sometimes rising to 180 feet), and has receiv- ed that name from the white ap- pearance of its leaves. It is very hardy, and will thrive in any situ- ation ; but prospers remarkably in a rich, loamy soil. The balm of Gilead fir is eminently calculated for ornamental gardening, on ac- count of the beauty of its form, and the fragrance of its foliage.... It ought to be planted in a rich, good earth, as it grows best in a deep, black, sandy mould, Avhere its roots have sufficient room to strike freely. From this variety exudes the resinous juice, errone- ously called Balm of Gilead, on ac- count of its possessing the same properties as that which is produc- ed from the Pinus balsamea, or Hemlock-fir, a native of Virginia and Canada, but seldom cultivated in England. In common Avith the other turpentines obtained from the pine tribe, thatof the balm of Gilead fir is a hot, stimulating, and deter- gentmedicine: small dosesofithave sometimes been successfully used in chronic rheumatisms and palsy. The different species of fir are infested by a variety of insects : the most formidable of these, is a broAvn grub, about -^ of an inch in length, which changes into a brownish moth, resembling those producing the grubs which infest apple and pear-trees. These moths deposit their eggs in the heads or tops of the firs, where they are hatched in the month of May, when the young grubs eat their Avay into the leading branches, and consume the pith in their course. They con- tinue their depredations till the be- ginning of June, when they assume the form of chrysalis, and lie in a torpid state till mid-summer, at which period they become perfect moths. As these insects multiply most rapidly,the greatest caution is necessary in planting firs, that they may not be propagated from an in- fected nursery ; in which case, it will be extremely difficult to extir- pate the vermin. The only effec- tual method of destroying them is, to lop off, in the month of May, the branches thus infested; for, after the trees have attained a height exceeding ten or fifteen feet, there is no remedy. END OF VOLUME SECOND. PRINTED BY ROBERT CARR, NO. 10, CHDRCH-ALLEV. VSO i