.tf t,, W$'f^ ^'-'^''•r: ' v «. .-V.. fr ■ ' ^ «r . * sVfr « JFV>C * -< .*&i&i-/i • 7Jt "'- A L'V.,,^ SJ-.^ C-\ .P^\S i\ k-mFrFr*<\F'.FP&fZ- ' ,*■'* :'•' ■'■;■■ * *:'-v - v'. ,,i*> ;. V- tf '•> " V* 1, '•>■■•? ■ '■; V'* J- '» ^jR>* '•"• ■'•"■'■■•■ <■;•.; ■ i. ~ t*r, Y-&-> . ■•-. v - ■ ■'■• H*** s' :.&>*}: J,*?4.. .f ■;-..'■ ■''-" ■ -fi^AF- '■ ■ A*fP%»- ■*»■ v--* i' '<* -s-V .. V k-'.£*«H™lsAtJt '» • } *»:**V _-; ^4i:'f^.'.. *F4 k ? IBB: **r - V : ■ rr ■^fvl \V m; A. *KT 4 A ^ ^ ^ ■/ ho.2. NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE Bethesda, Maryland -iiFi ■ai <\ \ J /' / * ll # THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA; OR, A DICTIONARY OF FACTS, AND USEFUL KNOWLEDGE. COMPREHENDING mV concise view of the latest discoveries, inventions, and improvements. CHIEFLY APPLICABLE TO RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY. TOGETHER WITH DESCRIPTIONS OF'TIIE MOST INTERESTING OBJECTS OF NATURE AND ART J THE HISTORY OF MEN AND ANIMALS, IN A STATE OF HEALTH OR DISEASE ; AND PRACTICAL HINTS RESPECTING THE ARTS AND MANUFACTURES, BOTH FAMILIAR AND COMMERCIAL. • ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND CUTS. IN FIVE VOLUMES. VOLUME I. BY A. F. M. WILLICH, M.D. AUTHOR OF THE LECTURES ON DIET AND REGIMEN, iStc.iSfc. / FIRST AMERICAN EDITION; WITH ADDITIONS, APPLICABLE TO THE PRESENT SITUATIO*N OF THE UNITED STATES: BY JAMES MEASE, M. D. AND FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY. PHILADELPHIA: PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM YOUNG BIRCH, AND ABRAHAM SMALL, NO. 17, SOUTH SECOND-STREET; AND T. W J. SWORDS, NEW-YORK. ROBERT CARR, PRINTER. 1803. District of Pennsylvania: to viit. Be it remembered, That on the eighth day of April, in the twenty-seventh Year of the Independence of the United States of America, William Young Birch, and Abraham Small, of the said District, have deposited in this Office the Title of a Book, the Right whereof^they claim as Proprietors, in the words fol- lowing, to wit: " The Domestic Encyclopaedia; or A Dictionary of Facts, and Useful Know- " ledge. Comprehending, a concise View of the latest Discoveries, Inven- " tions, and Improvements; chiefly applicable to Rural and Domestic Eco- " nomy. Together with Descriptions of the most interesting Objects of " Nature and Art; the History of Men and Animals, in a State of Health " or Disease; and practical Hints respecting the Arts and Manufactures, both " familiar and commercial. Illustrated with numerous Engravings and Cuts. " In Five Volumes. Volume I. By A. F. M. Willich, M. D. Author of the " Lectures on Diet and Regimen, iSfc. Isfc. First American Edition; with " Additions applicable to the present Situation of the United States. By " James Mease, M. D. and Fellow of the American Philosophical Society." In Conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entituled, " An* Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies during the times therein mentioned," and also, to an Act entituled, " An Act supplementary to an Act, entituled, an Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies, during the Times therein mentioned. And extending the Benefits thereof to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical, and other prints." ( L. S. ) D. CALDWELL, Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania. PREFACE, BY THE AUTHOR. AS the nature and practical tendency of the Domestic Encyclopaedia have, in some measure, been anticipated, partly in the prefixed Title-page, a few remarks on the origin and composition of this Work, will suffice to convince the Reader, that it has not been undertaken with a view merely to increase the number of voluminous works already extant, and of a similar complexion. It has been generally supposed, that the rapid suc- cession of Cyclopaedias, and Encyclopaedias, which have appeared within the last twenty years, and which often are more distinguished by their alluring title- pages, than by their intrinsic merit, affords so many proofs of the progress of Science and Literature, as well as of the increasing spirit of inquiry. This con- jecture, however, is extremely doubtful, if not totally unfounded. When it is considered, that the Editors of these bulky Compilations have directed their chief attention to the quantity of materials, rather than to a critical se- lection offacts; that, with a few exceptions, such works have been conducted by persons better qualified to su- perintend a printing-office, or a bookseller's shop, than iv PREFACE. to arrange or explain the immense circle of the Sci- ences ; and that the auri sacra fames has almost uni- formly been the principal object of these Speculators, it will then be readily allowed, that their productions afford only negative advantages to the social world. Farther, the plurality of readers have conceived an opinion, that, by the possession of an Encyclopse- dia, or what is pre-eminently termed, " A Dictionary of the Arts and Sciences," their library, however de- ficient, at length becomes complete. But those who are only in a slight degree acquainted with the gradual, though daily, advancement both of the abstruse and practical Sciences, will not be disposed to harbour a notion alike contracted, and fraught with consequen- ces highly detrimental to the acquisition of knowledge. Nay, it may with equal truth be asserted, that the ear- lier impressions of books, which have progressively received additions and improvements, will answer the purpose as well as the latest publications; because they are comparatively cheaper, and fill a similar space on the shelves—Such arguments may satisfy the An- tiquarian Collector, but they are inconsistent with the conviction of intelligent minds. On the other hand, it cannot be denied, that many attempts have been made to supply the Public with works professedly commenced on a more economical plan; by abridging the labours of others. Without presuming to decide on their merits, we shall quote a passage occurring in the Preface to the illustrious Johnson's Dictionary, when he compressed his bulky folios, or quartos, into an octavo form...." For these PREFACE. v purposes (says that energetic writer), many dictiona- ries have been written by different authors, and with different degrees of skill; but none of them have yet fallen into my hands, by which even the lowest ex- pectations could be satisfied. Some of their authors wanted industry, and others literature: some knew not their own defects, and others were too idle to sup- ply them." In regard to the composition, and arrangement of the Domestic Encyclopaedia, many circumstan- ces might be pleaded, by way of apology, for occa- sional inaccuracies and omissions; but, in a work, consisting chiefly of practical information, and con- taining, perhaps, a greater number of usefulfacts than have ever appeared in the compass of four moderate volumes, it is to be hoped, the discreet reader will na- turally be inclined to qualify his strictures, by a large share of candour and impartiality. Conformably to his original plan, the Editor has spared no pains, trou- ble, or expence, to render this Economical Dictionary as complete as the present advancement of Agricul- ture, Gardening, of the Familiar Arts and Manufac- tures, as well as the imperfect state of Medical Science., would respectively admit. Many subjects, indeed, might have been extended to greater length, and others considerably abridged, had these volumes been pecu- liarly calculated for the use of either town or country readers. Such, however, was not his design; as the Work now submitted to the Public, includes almost every object, more or less connected with Rural, Do- mestic, and Animal, Economy. Hence, the inq>isi vi PREFACE. tive Reader will find numerous experiments related, many hundreds of which have not hitherto been pub- lished in the English language. To facilitate the mode of consulting this Work, a Table of Contents, and an Index to the correspond- ing Synonyms, or inversions of terms, have been pre- fixed to each volume ; though a few provincial or ver- nacular names, which are now obsolete, have purposely been omitted, in order to avoid unnecessary repeti- tion . It will not, however, be expected that the Editor should be responsible for the accuracy of the result of those Experiments, which he has faithfully reported on the authority of others, whose names have been quo- ted on almost every occasion; but, in various instan- ces where no vouchers have been adduced, the facts are either self-evident, or the account of the subject is given with a degree of diffidence, to induce attentive readers to farther investigation. Although the Editor has, in the commencement of this arduous task, inserted the Latin names of subjects in alphabetical order, and referred thence to the appro- priate English terms; yet, as such a troublesome me- thod promised no real advantage, he was induced to re- linquish it, and to subjoin to the Fourth Volume a complete Index to the Latin Names of Plants, Animals, Minerals, Diseases, and other subjects occurring through- out this Work, Lastly, as numerous useful and valuable sugges- tions, connected with particular subjects, are scattered in different parts of this alphabetical Manual, it has PREFACE. vii been deemed expedient to conclude with a General In- dex of Reference, both for Economical and Medical purposes; which is accordingly subjoined to the Fourth Volume: thus, the Reader will be enabled to find, at one view, whatever relates to the article under con- sideration ; an advantage which few works of a similar nature afford, and which cannot fail to be attended with good effects. " Ne tabulis fc? picturis domum tuam circumda, sed temperan- tiam ipsam depinge. Jlludenim alienum est, et oculorum modo jucunda prcestigiatio: hoc vero indelibilis, ceternusque domus ornatus existit." PREFACE BY THE EDITOR. IN presenting to the public, the First American Edition •f the Domestic Encyclopadia, the Editor has great pleasure in think- ings that it will diffuse a large portion of highly useful information among his fellow-citizens. In the impressive language of Lord Bacon, the subjects treated of in the work, " come home to every " man's business and bosom;" and it will, no doubt, meet with a re- ception justly proportioned to its extensive utility. $ The original work contained a variety of articles relating to the local customs, laws, police-regulations, mineral waters, Ifc. of England, from which the people of this country could derive no practical or useful information ; all these have been omitted in the present edition, and other matter substituted, which it is hoped will be found nearly connected with the interests, or domestic comforts of the citizens of the United States. Consistently with the original design of the author, the Editor en- deavouring to keep in view the practical tendency of the work, has avoided all theoretical discussions, except when they appeared necessary to place facts in such a light as would tend to point out relations and connections ttyat might otherwise have escaped notice ; and thus as Dr. Anderson justly observes " by forming habits of attention, call forth the discriminative powers, on the due exercise of which all true knowledge, must ultimately depend." It has been a principal object to direct the attention of the reader to the native resources of .our country, whether they refer to medi- cine, the arts, or to the general purposes of life; that by employing them we may become less dependant on foreign nations. vol. i. A PREFACE. In one respect the original arrangement of the author has been partially departed from. Dr. Willich treats of plants under their trivial names, referring to the Botanical names; and as whim, or false judgment give rise to the former, which are not only vari- ous in different countries, but in different parts of the same country, it was thought better in all the additional articles to give the Latin name first, referring to the numerous trivial ones. If this plan were generally adopted, an universal language might soon take place, and much confusion and embarrassment be avoided. The common objec- tion to this plan, that it is difficult for those who are unacquainted with the Latin language, to remember the names imposed by Botanists, will be found unimportant, when we advert to the ease with which many of those names are remembered by persons who are entirely . ignorant of the language. Thus Anemone, Ranunculus, Convolvulus, Daphne Indicum, isfc. are common, and others surely may be remem- bered with as much ease as the absurd trivial names which are at , present used. The " Sweet flag" of England is universally known in Pennsylvania, by its proper name Calamus : indeed it only requires a little Trouble by learning the botanical names at first, to render thera as familiar as. the common appellations. ERRATA. Page 127, column 1, the additional article on Artichoke ought to have come in at the conclusion of the first species mentioned. ——----.col. 1, line 25, for " to" read in. ---- 131, col. 1, line 26, dele" also wild ginger." line 27,for " catsfoot" read . coltsfoot, wild ginger. "-«— 135, col. 2, line 36, for " 29'.' read S2. ---- 1?1, col. 1, line 38, for these read banks. ---- 246, colt 1, line ^4, after dwarf chesnut tree read chinquapin. -------------------- 15, dele chinquapin. • ■—'•------- 17, for Sutog read Aiton. —— 248, col. 2, line 25, for Memorable read Memoirs. • ---- 302, col. 2,'line 34, for 178116. 4oz. read 1781b. 14oz* ---- 303, tol. 1, line 40, for detached read detailed. ---- 305, col. 2, lines 2h3,for "pulp of paper on .this last process. See &c." read " pulp of paper.' On this last process*, see &c." ------------------43, for Philadelphia read Philosophical. • ---- 358, col. 1, line 19, for " be" read is. ---- 388, col. 2, line 38, dele the "crotchet. ---- 406, coL 2, line 41, after " appetite" addend. • ---- 416, col. 1, line 31, in some of the copiesj^/o? " Probing" read Probang. ---- 485, col. 1, lihe 21, for Pennsylvania read Peruvian. ---- 495, col. 1, line 3 from bottom, for Linnaeus, read Linnxi. *. ---- 500, col. 1, line 8 from bottom, for " or by" reafl ^rom. CONTENTS OF THE FIRST VOLUME. PAGE ABDOMEN, . . 1 Ablution, . . 3 Abortion, . . . 4 Abraum, . . ,6 Abridgment, . . ib. Abscess, . . 7 Abstinence, , . .8 Acacia, . . 9 Acids, . .. .11 Acorns, . . ,12 Acre, . . .14 Actea Spicata, . , ib. Acute Diseases . . ib. Adder . . .15 Adulteration . . ib. Advertisement . . ib. Aether . . 16 Affliction . . . ib. Agaric . . . 17 Age ... . ib. Agitation . . . ib. Agony .... 18 Agriculture . . ib. » Agrimony, Common . 20 Ague . . . .21 Air .... 23 Ait-Bath ... 25 AiivJacket .... 26 Alabaster . . . , ib. Alarum .... 27 AJbumcn . . . .ib. Alcarrazas . . . * 28 Alchemy '. .. . ib. Alcohol . . . •. . 29 Alder-Tree . . . ib. Ale .... 30 , Alc-Aouse . . . .31 Aliment . . . ' *■ * //;. • Alkalies .... 32 Alkanet..... 33 All-Hcal .- . • . - . 34 PAr.f Allspice . . . . ib. Almanack . . 35 Almond .... ib. Aims-Houses ... 36 Aloe.....37 , Alum .... 39 Amber . . . 41 Ambergrise ... 42 Ambury . . . .43 Ammonia . . . . ib. Ammoniac . ., *. 45 Amphibious Animals. . ". ib. Amputation . . . * 48 Amusements . • . . ib. Annagallis Arvensis 49 Anchovy .... 50 Ancient Languages- . . 51 Ancient Learning ... ib. Ancient Times ... 52 Andromeda ... ib. Anemonfeter . . . .53 Anemone . . i f ib. Anemoscope (with a Cut) . • 55 Aneurism . . . *. 57 Angelica.....58 Anger .... 59 Angling . . F . .60 Animalcule . . . . 61 Animal Flower . . .62 Animal food . . ib. Animal Kingdom . . .63 Animal Life . . . . 64 Animal Magnetism . . . "65 Animal Motion . . . ' ib. Animal Economy . . 65 Animal Spirits . . ib. Animation . . . . Jib Anis . . . . ' . ' *68 Annealing .' 70 Annuity ..... ii. . Ariodyne» . 73 xii CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE Anotta . 77 Assimilation . • 143 Ant ib. Asthma ib. Ant-Hills . 79 Astringents . • 146 Anthrax . 80 Astrology 147 Antidotes . ib. Astronomy ib. Antimony 82 Atamasco Lily 148 Antipathy . . . 84 Athletic Habit ". 149 Antiquities . . . 85 Atmosphere . ib. Antiscorbutics . 86 Auction • 150 Antiseptics . . ib. Autumn . • ib. Antispasmodics 87 Avarice • • 151 Anxiety . ib. Avens 152 Ape . 88 Aya pana 153 Aperients . ib. Avoirdupois ib. Aphorism . 89 Apoplexy . ib. Baccharis Halimifolia 154 Appetite 91 Bachelor ib. Apple-tree . 93 Bacon 155 Application 102 Badger 156 Apprenticeship . ib. Bag, in commerce 157 Apricot-Tree ib. Bag, in farriery ib. Aqua Fortis . 105 Bagnio ib. Aqua Regia 106 Baiting 158 Arable Lands . ib. Baker ib. Aralia . . 108 Baking ib. Archery . ib. Balance . 160 Architecture 109 Bladness 164 Argument 111 Ball 165 Arithmetic . . 112 Balls ib. Aromatic 113 Horse Balls ib. Arquebusade-Water . ib. Portable Balls ib. Arrack 114 Balm, common 166 Arrangement • 115 Balsam '. ib. Arrow ib. Balsamics ib. Arrow-Grass ib. Balsamine . . 167 Arrow-Head ib. Bamboe Habit . . ib. Arrow-Root 116 Bandage .... 167 Arsenic 117 Bandy-legs ib. Art 123 Bane-berries . . 168 Artemesia Dracunculus 124 Bank .... ib. Artery . . ib. Bank-fence . . 169 Artichoke 126 Banks of Rivers ib. Artichoke, the Jerusalem ib. Banks of the Sea 171 Articulation 127 Barbel ib. Artificer 128 Barbies, or Barbs 172 Artist ib. Barilla 173 Arvenusly (with a Cut) ib. Baring of Trees 175 Asafcetida 129 Bark ib. Asarabacca 130 Barley 177 Ascarides 131 Barn 184 Ash 132 Barn-floors 186 Ashes . . 135 Barometer . 188 Asparagus 138 Barrel . . ♦ 195 Asphodel 141 Barrenness . ib. Ass 142 Basaltes . . 196 Assembly . . . ib. Basilicon Ointment ib. CONTENTS. xiii PAGE page Basket 197 Bismuth 283 Basket-salt ib. Bistort 284 Bat ib. Bite of a Mad Dog 285 Bath 193 Bitter 289 Bathing, in general 207 Bitumens 290 Baths, Dry ib. Black 291 Baths, Medicated, 209 Black-bird 292 Bath-Waters 210 Black-bird (Red winged) ib. Bay-salt 211 Black Cattle ib. Bay-tree 212 Black Canker 293 Bean 213 Black Fly ib. Bean,the Kidney 217 Black Land ib. Bear 218 Black Leather ib. Beauty 219 Black Legs ib. Beaver 221 Black Tin 294 Bed 222 Black Wadd ib. Bed-room 223 Blackberry . • . ib. Bed-stead ib. Blacking . . 295 Bed-time . 225 Bladder ib. Bee ib. Bladder-nut Tree 296 Bee-hives . . 226 Blain 297 Bees-wax 243 Blanching . • ib. Beech-tree 246 Blanket ib. Beech-nut 247 Blast ib. Beech-mast Oil . 248 Bleaching ib. Beef ib. Bleak ib. Beef-tea 251 Bleeding 305 Beer 252 Blend-water 306 Beestings 258 Blight ib. Beet ib. Blindness, (with a Cut) 309 Beetle 261 Blindworm 312 Belles Lettres 262 Blister ib. Bell-flower ib. Blite 314 Bellows 263 Blood . ib. Belly-ach ib. Blood-hound 316 Bene-seed 264 Blood-shot Eyes ib. Bent-grass ib. Blood-spavin 317 Benzoine ib. Blood-Stone ib. Berberries ■ 266 Blood-letting ib. Bere 267 Blood-vessels 319 Bergamot 268 Blood-wort ib. Berne-machine ib. Blossom . ' . 320 Betony-Wood 269 Blow-pipe ib. Bezoar ib. Blowing ib. Biennial Plants . 270 Blubber 321 Bilberry 271 Blue . ib. Bile " ib. Blue bird 322 Bind-weed 273 Blue Bottle ib. Biography ib. Blueing ib. Birch-tree 274 Board 323 Bird 276 Boat ib. Bird-lime 278 Boat (Life) 324 Bird-cherry 281 Boat (Ice) 327 Birds-foot, Common ib. Body 328 Birth wort, Slender 282 Bog 329 Biscuit ib. Bohea * ib. xiv CONTENTS. PAGE PAGE Boilers 329 Brute 416 Boiling 332 Bryony, the White 417 Boles ib. the Black 418 Bombast ib. Buck-bean 419 Bones - ib. Buck-thorn - ib. Bone-spavin 336 Buck-thorn, the Sea 421 ib. Book 337 Buck-wheat Book-Keeping 339 Bucking 425 ib. Boorcole 342 Buckram Boot - ib. Bud 426 Borage 343 Buffalo 427 ib. Borax ib. Bug Botany - r Bottle 344 Bugle 428 ib. - 346 Building Bottling Botts ib. Bulb 435 ib. Bulfinch 437 Bounty Bow 348 ib. Bull Bullrush ib. 440 Bowels 349 Bui'dens - ib. Box-tree 351 Burdock, or Clott-burr ib. Boxing - ib. Burdock, the Lesser 441 ib. Braces 352 Burgoo - Brain ib. Burial ib. Brake 354 Burnet - - - 442 Bramble ib. Burning 446 Bran ib. Burns - 448 Brandy 355 Burnt Grain ib. Brass - 356 Bur-weed ib. Brawn 358 Burying-Ground - 449 Bread ib. Bush-vetch 450 Bread-fruit Tree 376 Bushel ib. Bream ib. Bustard 451 Breast 377 Butcher 452 Breath 378 Butter - - ib. Breathing 379 Butter-burr 462 Breeches 380 Butter-cup ib. Breeding of Cattle ib. Butterfly - 463 of Fish 382 Butterwort ib. Good ib. Buxton Waters 464 Brewing 383 Buzzard 465 Briar 396 Cabbage 466 Brick ib. Cabbage, the Anjou 473 Bridge Brine 402 Cabbage-palm ib. 405 Cabbage-tree 474 Bristol, mineral water 406 Cage 475 Broad-cast Husbandry 407 Cajeput ib. Broccoli 408 Cake 476 Brome-grass 409 Calamine - ib. Bronze 410 Calamint ib. Brook ib. Calandre ib. Brook-lime ib. Calcareous Matter 477 Broom 411 Calcination ib. Broth 412 Calculary - 478 Bruises - 413 Calender ib. Brush 415 Calf 479 1 CONTENTS. XV PAGE PAGE CALLICARPA AMERICANA 482 Cancer 492 Calico - ib. Candle 495 Calkins ib. Canker 498 Calycanthus floridus ib. Canker Worm 499 Calx ... 483 Caoutchouc 502 Camblet ib. Caper - 503 Cambric ib. Capillaire - 504 Camphor ib. Caraway ib. Canada Balsam 485 Cardamon - 505 Canal ib. Carline - ib. Canary Bird 486 Carmine - - 506 Canary Grass 492 Carnivorous Animals. ib. *** Additions by the Editor are enclosed in Crotchets. PLATES IN THE FIRST VOLUME. I. Mr. Dearborn's Improved Balance, p. 161. II. and III. Floating Baths at Hamburgh....Plate II. p. 202. Plate III. p. 204. IV. Bedsteads for the Sick and Wounded, invented by Mr. Lambert, p. 224 V. Ice-boats, newly invented by Mr. Thomas Ritzier, of Hamburgh, p. 327. VI. View of the Inside of a Brewhouse, p. 388. INDEX TO THE CORRESPONDING SYNONYMS, OR INVERSIONS OF TERMS, OCCURRING IN THE FIRST VOLUME. Abele-tree; see Poplar, the White. Acetite of Copper; see Verdi- grease. Agio; see Bank. Argentine, the Common; see Thistle, the Cotton. Agriculture; see Husbandry. Ale-hoof; see Ground-Ivy. Almond-leaved Willow; see Willow. Alpine Bistort; see Bistort the Small. Apoplexy, in Farriery; see Staggers. Apple-Quince; see Quince. -Rose; see Rose. -tree, Coccus; see Coccus. Arbutus, the Black-berried Al- pine ; see Strawberry-tree. Arcell; see Liverwort, the Dark-coloured. Archangel, the Red; see Dead- nettle. Archangel, the White; see Dead-nettle. Argol; see Orchal. Arrow-grass; see Barilla. Ash-weed; see Goutweed. Asp; see poplar. Asthma, in Farriery; see Cough. Balass; see Ruby. Balm of Gilead; see Gilead. Balsam of Copaiba; see Co- paiba. Balsamine-sage; see Sage. Bank-cresses; see Mustard, the Common Hedge. Banstickle; see Stickleback, the Common. Barley-big; see Bere. Bastard-cress; see Mithridate- mustard. Bastard Saffron; see Safflower. Bath-cheese; see Cheese. Beach-sumach; see sumach, the Narrow-leaved. Bear-berries, or Bear-whortle- berries ; see Strawberry .tree. Beetle; see Chafer. Bidet; see Water-closet. Bird-grass; see Meadow-grass* the Roughish. Bird's-foot Trefoil; see Trefoil, the Common-Bird's-foot. Bites of Dogs; see Dog. Bitter-apple; see Cucumber. Blackberry-bearing Alder; see Alder Buckthorn. Black-legs; see Quarter-evil. Black-thorn ; see Sloe-tree. Bladder, in Horses; see Dia- betes and Stranguary. Bladder Campion; see Spatling Poppy. Bladder-locks; see Sea-wrack, the Esculent. Blessed-thistle; see Thistle. Blowing of Fish; see Fish. Blue Hawk; see Hen-harrier. Blue Ink; see Ink. Branks; see Buck-wheat. Breeze; see Gad-fly. Brimstone; see Sulphur. British Viper; see Viper, the Common. Broken-wind ; see Wind. Bi-uisewort; see Soapwort, the Common. Brussels-Carpet; see Carpet. Buck; see Deer. Bucket; see Well. Bugloss, the Greater Garden; see Alkanet. Bulbous Crow-foot; see Crow- foot. Bullace-plum; see Plum-tree. Bunt; see Puff-ball, the Com- mon. Burn-baiting; see Burning of Land. Burnet-rose ; see rose. Bur-reed ; see Bur-weed. Cabbage-lettuce ; see Lettuce. Cacoa-tree; see Chocolate-tree. Calabash; see Gourd. Calaguala; see Cough. Cam-ho-tea; see Tea-tree. Canal-coal; see Coal. Carolina-poplar; see Poplar. Caroline-thistle; see Carline. THE DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPEDIA. ABD ABD ABDOMEN, or the lower belly, is one of the most important re- gions of the human body, not only on account of its various contents, but also from its exposed situation. Although, to give a strictly ana- tomical description of the different parts composing the admirable fa- bric of the animal frame, is not con- sistent with the plan of this work, yet, where the welfare and safety of the body are essentially concerned we propose to add a distinct expla- nation of the organs liable to injury, and, occasionally, to point out their proper management in a healthy state, together with a few hints for treating complaints, the source of which is frequently not suspected. The abdomen extends, longitudi- nally, from that cavity, or hollow, which is usually called the pit of the stomach, to the lower part of the trunk : it is defended, in front, by the abdominal muscles; behind,by the vertebra: of the back ; and, on both sides, by the false ribs. Instead of perplexing the reader with a minute account of the three regions, into which the lower belly is divided by anatomists, namely, the upper, or epigastric ; the mid- dle, or umbilical; and the lower, VOL. I. or hypogastric region ; we shall ra- ther proceed to examine their dif- ferent contents. In the first place, it deserves to be remarked, that the whole intes- tinal canal forms one continued tube, ofgreaterorlesscapacity,beginning with the stomach, and terminating at the anus. This canal is, gene- rally, six times the length of the whole human subject, in proportion to the person's stature, and is by Nature divided into tv/o distinct parts ; namely, the anterior, or up- permost, that is next to the sto- mach, comprizing what are called the thin, or small intestines, which fill the middle, or fore parts, of the belly ; and the posterior, or lower- most, where we find the large intes- tines occupying the sides, and both the upper and lower parts of that cavity. The former are again di- vided into the duodenum, or twelve inch gut; the jejunum, or empty gut, and the ileum, or crooked gut; and the latter, or large portion, into the coecum, or blind gut; the colon, or hollow gut, being the largest of all the intestines ; and the rect um,ov the straight excretory gut, which terminates in the anus. On openincr the abdomen, we ob- 15 ABD ABD serve its viscera and intestines in the following situation: after having re- moved the skin and the muscles, we discover the peritoneum, or a membrane which envelopes all the viscera of the lower belly. This being divided, the omentum, or cawl, appears floating on the sur- face of the intestines, which are likewise seen in a moist and loose state, making numerous windings through the whole cavity. The vi- scera next present themselves in this order : on the uppermost part of the belly, namely, under the midriff, towards the middle, but rather inclining to the right side, lies the liver, and near its concave surface is the gall-bladder ; some- what to the left is the stomach, and laterally, contiguous to it,the spleen. The kidneys are placed about the middle of the lumbar region, or the loins, while the urinary bladder, and the parts of generation, are si- tuated in the lower division of the belly ; in thai bony cavity which is denominated the pelvis, or bason, and the sides of which form what are commonly called the hips. The situation of these parts, however, in a natural state, fre- quently undergoes considerable va- riations, especially that of the liver, the stomach, and the spleen : and these deviations, being produced by various causes, as by a different posture of the whole body ; disten- tion of the stomach with an unusual quantity of food, either in a solid or liquid form ; or lastly, during preg- nancy ; hence it may be understood that,wijheverypreternaturalchange of their respective positions, there may arise ruptures, spasmodic con- tractions, callosities, accumulations of water, called dropsy, and many similar complaints. To prevent such disastrous consequences, we cannot too strongly inculcate the necessity of observing stricttemperance, par- ticularly with respect to food, drink, and exercise. This proposition may be rendered more evident, by ap- pealing to the experience of those Europeans, who have long resided in warm climates, and prudently restrained their sensual appetites ; in consequence of which, they have seldom been attacked with diseases of the liver; an organ which cannot fail to become a prey to an irregular mode of living. The intestines have certain gene- ral characters, though each of them manifests its peculiarities. In the former respect, we find that they are all connected with the vertebrae by means of the mesentery ; that each of them consists of different membranes, the innermost coat of which terminates in the intestinal canal itself, and forms semi-lunar valves, inclining towards each other contracting thetube of that passage, and often appearing in several parts more numerous and conspicuous than in others. Each gut is, far- ther, provided with small glands, for the secretion of a viscid humour and many small vessels for the ab- sorption of certain fluids. Lastly, all intestines possess, in common, a certain creeping, called the peris- tallic, or vermicular motion ; which ir> occasioned by the contraction of their muscular fibres, operating in a spiral direction, or obliquely from the upper towards the lower parts ; and they are thus liable to alternate contortions in their respective situ- atioi fused through the air,and to insinu- ate itself into the pores of all other bodies. Its existence, however, has been denied by many, who assert, that the air, by its tenuity and ex- pansion, is fully sufficient for the above-mentioned purposes. Whatever conjectures may be formed concerning the nature and properties of this subtle fluid, there is every reason to believe in the ex- istence of a matter finer than the air itself. Sir Isaac Newton has observed, that heat is readily com- municated through a vacuum,which cannot take place withovit the inter- vention of some other medium..... This, being subtle enough to pene- trate even throu gh the pores of glass, may readily be conceived to be ca- pable of pervading all other bodies, and diffusing itself through every part of space : and thus it conveys acomplete idea of an aethereal fluid. ./Ether is now principally consi- dered as a chemical composition.... It is a combination of vitriolic acid and spirits of wine, and is used for a variety of medical purposes. The head-ach is said to have been often cured by rubbing it on the temples; and Dr. Ccnyers declares, that a tea-spoon full applied to the affect- ed jaw, and repeated till the pain ceases, is a never-failing remedy for the tooth-ach. It has also been used in cases of rheumatism, gout, and hooping-cough, with great success. In a paroxysm of suffocating asth- ma, and all those diseases where the organs of respiration are affect- ed, half a tea-spoon full of vitriolic sether in a table spoon full of water, quickly swallowed and occasionally repeated,has often produced instant relief. Even the simple evaporation of this volatile fluid, a spoon full of which may be placed at a time in a shallow vessel contigious to the pa- tient, has frequently been found of great service, and alleviated the most distressing shortness of breath. A combination of spirit of sea- salt with the flowers of zinc, pro- duces the marine aether. JEthusa Cynapium,T,. See Fool's Parsley. AFFLICTION, as opposed to a state of joy and prosperity, cannot be called a disease, though when indulged to excess, it may be pro- ductive of many mental and bodily affections. For whatever tends to excite anger, hatred, envy, 8cc. cannot fail to bring on disorders arising from tense or rigid fibres ; as, on the contrary, fear, grief, and excessive joy, engender those ma- ladies which are the consequence of relaxation. Hence we cannot be too much on our guard against the invasion of passions, which may be truly styled the greatest enemies of man- kind. Lord Bolingbroke, in his Letters " on the study and use of history," gives the following perti- nent advice : " Let us set all our past and our present afflictions at once before our eyes. Let us re- solve to overcome them, instead of shrinking from the contest, or of wearing out the sense of them, by AG A A G I 11 long and ignominious patience..... Instead of palliating remedies, let us use the incision-knife and the caustic ; probe the wound to the bottom, and work an immediate and radical cure." Uninterrupted misery, continues this stoic philo- sopher, has this good effect, that, as it continually torments, it finally hardens the sufferer. After-birth. See Midwifery. AGARIC of the oak, or the Agaricus Quercinue, L. is well known as a styptic, when applied to exter- nal wounds. M. Adouillet, an eminent French surgeon, has em- ployed it, instead of ligatures, on the arteries, in cases of amputation, by applying small pieces of it to the mouths of these vessels, and af- terwards covering the stump with lint. This species of agaric may be Usefully employed for the purpose of dying silks of a black colour : to succeed in the experiment, it ought to be cut in small pieces, and boil- ed in a solution of copperas, over a gentle fire, till the dye be sufficient- ly strong. Another species of agaric, namely, the common puff-ball, has, by far- riers also, been used as a styptic : and, in an experiment made upon a horse, it completely stopped, in a few minutes, a hemorrhage from one of the largest arteries. The wound afterwards healed, without any further discharge. We cannot, on this occasion, omit to remark, that persons living in retired situations, and particular- ly those employed in husbandry, as well as artizans working with sharp instruments, ought always to be provided with some styptic, which, at a distance from medical aid, and in a moment of emergency, may, sometimes, save an useful animal, VOL. I. and even the life of a fellow-crea- ture, by its timely application. The efficacy of agaric, as a styptic for external wounds, has, however, been disputed by IJr. Neale, a surgeon of the London Hospital, who published some observations on the subject, in the year 1757.... He asserts, that he has seen it used on several occasions, and frequently employed it himself, without effect, nay, to the detriment of the patient. Agaricus Muscarius, L. See Musky Mushroom. AGE signifies any period of du- ration. It is indiscriminately used to express many objects and situa- tions, but is more frequently ap- plied to the latter or advanced pe- riods of human life ; and, in this sense, is accompanied with the epi- thet old. Human existence has been di- vided into four distinct periods, viz. infancy, youth, manhood, and old age. The gradation through these successive stages is often slight and imperceptible ; it may be either ac- celerated or retarded, according to the more or less prudent conduct of the individual, the mode of life which is pursued, and the various rules and precautions observed in diet, regimen, Sec. Age, when accompanied with other good qualities, is more espe- cially entitled to respect and reve- rence ; but if marked with igno- rance and folly, becomes disgusting and contemptible. See the article Longevity. AGITATION is the act of shak- ing a body, or tossing it backwards and forwards. In physics, this term is often used for a commotion of the parts of a natural body. Fer- mentation and effervescence are at- tended with a brisk agitation of the particles. D 18 AGR AGR Agitation is also one of the chief causes or instruments of mixtion. By the agitation of the parts of the blood and chyle, sanguification is in a great measure effected. Butter is also made out of milk by the same means ; a separation of the oleous from the serous parts taking place, and a combination of the for- mer among themselves. Digestion is supposed to be accomplished by an insensible kind of agitation. This term is also used in medi- cine, to denote that species of exer- cise, commonly called swinging ; which has been found serviceable in several complaints; and it is assert- ed, that even the tooth-ach and deaf- ness have sometimes been removed by violent agitations of the body. We propose to make some farther observations on this species of exer- cise, under the article Swinging. AGONY is a term used to sig- nify an extreme degree of pain, or the last pangs of death. The ter- ror of death appears, in a great de- gree, occasioned by the contortions and convulsions with which the ago- ny seems attended ; though the ge- neral opinion of physiologists is, that in such cases the sensations of pain are not very acute ; a course of affliction during sickness, having naturally indisposed the nerves for any quick sensations. Various means have been em- ployed for mitigating the agonies of death, such as opium, he.; but these attempts are, by judicious per- sons, generally discountenanced : the conscious reflection of having spent an active and useful life, is, on this occasion, the most effectual remedy which suggests itself to the christian and the philosopher. AGRICULTURE is the art of cultivating the earth, so that it may produce the vegetables we desire in their greatest perfection. It may be divided into two branches; name- ly, theory and practice. The for- mer particularly treats of the va- rious means of preparing and ma- naging the soil and manure, and of the different kinds of vegetables which are adapted to particular soils, and most proper to be raised for the consumption of men, cattle, Etc. The latter relates to the im- plements of husbandry, the various methods of cultivating land, raising crops, and feeding cattle. Agriculture is one of those arts which, from the earliest periods, have been deservedly held in the highest estimation. One of the first injunctions upon our original pro- genitor, after his dismission from the garden of Eden, was, that he should " till the ground." Subsequent ex- perience has fully proved, that the cultivation of this necessary art es- sentially contributes to the prospe- rity of mankind, and that it ought to form a primary object in all mo- ral and political regulations. In the earliest ages, and among those nations which have been ce- lebrated for their refinement and civilization, agriculture has been highly prized, and carried even to considerable perfection. Among the Hebrews, high birth or rank conferred no exclusive distinctions; for it was then considered as the most honourable of human em- ployments. By this valuable art, the Chaldeans discovered the means of procuring excessive crops of corn, which enabled them to remain sta- tionary, and not migrate, as their predecessors had formerly done, in order to obtain subsistence for them- selves and their flocks. So sensible were many nations of its great im- portance, that, according to the his- tory of the ancient Persians, tlieir AGR AGR 19 kings, once in every month, divest- ed themselves of regal pomp, and ate with husbandmen. In China, a day is still annually appointed, when the emperor goes in solemn pro- cession to a field, where he shews his sense of the inestimable benefits of agriculture, by undertaking, for a short time the laborious occupa- tion of directing the plough in per- son. Among the Romans, the ru- ral art was deemed so honourable a pursuit, that the most distinguished senators, at their leisure intervals, applied themselves to the cultiva- tion of the SOil. NUMA PoMPILIUS, one of their first kings, was distin- guished as much for his skill in agriculture, as for his exemplary piety ; and such was the amiable simplicity of those times, thattheir greatest warriors and legislators, were often called from the active labours of the field to the higher, but not more dignified, offices of the state. Cato, the censor,who had governed and subdued many war- like nations, did not consider it be- neath him to write a treatise on agri- culture ; and several valuable works iiDon this subject, appeared at va- rious periods of the Roman em- pire. In the year 1756, a period of dif- ficulty and distress, France began to pay particular attention to this important subject. Prize questions were annually proposed by the aca- demies of Lyons, Bourdeaux, and by the society instituted for the im- provement of agriculture in Brit- tany. About this time, also, it was greatly encouraged in Russia, Prus- sia, Sweden, Denmark, Germany, and Italy ; in the last mentioned country, a private gentleman, about 40 years ago, left his whole fortune to the establishment and support of an agricultural academy. Whether we consider agriculture as a means of procuring, as well the necessaries as luxuries of life ; of providing a security against the ag- gregated calamities of scarcity, fa- mine and disease ; or of engaging the mind in active and extensive pursuits of general knowledge, it is one of the most useful and import- ant of all the arts which have em- ployed the attention of mankind. Its theory is, in a great measure, dependent on several branches of science, such as natural history, chemistiy, experimental philoso- phy, and mechanics, all of which may be successively applied to its advancement; and without a com-. petent knowledge of these, it can- not be properly understood. Its practical part, however, may be car- ried on, independently of scientific experiments. No person, therefore, need be deterred from attempting any improvements, because he is not conversant with the more ab- stract parts of physical knowledge. The successful advancement of the rural art depends upon two ciiv cumstances ; the one, its improve- ment by discovery or invention ; the other, a more extensive practice of such improvements, when fully de- monstrated. The former is effect- ed, by the contrivance of more per- fect machines and implements of husbandry, which facilitate the pro- gress of labour; the introduction of new articles of profitable culture, and the most advantageous method of treatingthose which have already been cultivated, though in a defec- tive manner. The latter, namely, the practice, relates not only to fu- ture improvements, but likewise to those which, though generally known, have been either wholly ne- glected, or adopted only in particu- lar places. 20 AGR AGR Agricultural pursuits will always constitute one of the principal em- ployments of the bulk of mankind; it is, therefore, as well the interest, as the duty, of the higher classes, to contribute every comfort in their power, towards alleviating the bur- thens inseparable from the lot of the husbandman. For, so long as that valuable body of the people, who cultivate the soil, were duly stimulated to habits of industry, and encouraged in the practice of do- mestic virtues, we,find no example in the pages of ancient or modern history, that such a nation ever suf- fered a general calamity. [It has been justly observed, that in America, in particular, agricul- ture is the foundation of productive industry, and the buiwrark of moral habits. Throughout the United States, the land is distributed among a great number of proprietors ; and these proprietors have the entire disposal of their freeholds ; the ec- clesiastical encumbrances of tythes, and the feudal impositions of ser- vices, which cramp and parahze every effort made towards the im- provement of this science, are un- known ; and the improvements of the farmer or planter, accrue to themselves and their families, in- heritable as a clear estate, or trans? ferable at their option to any pur- chaser. Where the soil is parcelled out among millions of free citizens, each has more at stake in the com- munity, has greater importance and higher responsibility, and as he va- lues his actual enjoyment and future projects of happiness, will become convinced that the self-government he exercises ■ought to be founded on wwienn ai.ci virtu.. From these causes may be deduced that inder pendent spirit, that honest demea- nour, that unsuspicious frankness, and that unaffected patriotism,which distinguish the sons of agriculture. How worthy then of consideration is this noble art! How laudable the efforts of those who detect its errors, or introduce improve- ments ! Howparticularly commend- able are those Americans who la- bour and make experiments for the instruction of their fellow-citi- zens !] For an account of the different subjects connected with agriculture, we refer the reader to the articles, as they are classed in the order of the alphabet. AGRIMONY, Common; or Agrimonia Eupatoria, L. It is re- presented in the 6th and 7th plates of Curtis's Flora Londinensis, p. 317. Ifi a medicinal view, the leaves of this vegetable are said to be ape- rient, detergent, and to strengthen the tone of the viscera; hence they have been used in laxity of the in- testines, in scorbutic, and other dis- orders arising from debility. Di- gested in whey, agrimony affords a diet-drink grateful to the palate and stomach; though its leaves have an herbaceous and roughish tastS, accompanied with an aromatic fla- vour. The leaves and stalks, toge- ther with the closed flowers, afford a dark yellow decoction, which when previously impregnated with a diluted solution of bismuth, im- parts a beautiful and permanent gold-colour to animal wool. We are induced to state this fact upon the authority of M. Dambourney, who, in the year 1793, published a volume of" Facts and Experi- ments on genuine and permanent Colours," printed at Leipzig, in the German language. The blossoms of the common agrimony have also been occasion- AGU A G U 21 ally employed by tanners, for curing soft and delicate skins. [. /. Eupatoria is a native of the United States. Kalm says, the Canadians use an infusion of the root in fevers with great success.... Varieties of thisspecies,are a.minor, or white a....a. odorata, or sweet- scented a.....The a. passiflorafis also found in the United States.] Agrostemma Githago, L. See Corncockle. Agrostis Spicaventi,L,. See Silky Bent Grass. AGUE is a general term for those fevers which have periodical intermissions, and are specifically denominated quotidian,tertian, quar- tan, according to the various pe- riods at which the febrile paroxysm returns. The symptoms generally observ- ed, during the cold fit in agues are, strong shiverings, succeeded by great heat, and the usual concomi- tants of fever, such as thirst, quick pulse, &c The hot fit is termi- nated by a perspiration more or less profuse, according to the habit and constitution of the patient. Several other symptoms occa- sionally present themselves in the different stages of the disease. Dur- ing the interval of each paroxysm, the patient apparently enjoys as good a state of health, as previous to the attack of this disease. Never- theless, if it be suffered to continue long-, it weakens and exhausts the constitution, and occasions such ra- vages as medicine cannot easily re- pair ; producing general debility, obstructions in the viscera, jaundice, dropsy, he. \Yv shall proceed to point out a few of those remedies which have been found effectual in this disease. A tea-spoon full of powdered snake-root mixed with a glass of brandy and water, and taken be- fore the approach of the fit, keeping the body warm to induce perspira- tion, has been of considerable ser- vice. The following remedy is also said to have been successfully em- ployed in agues: Two spoonsfuls of the juice of sage, mi^gd with an equal quantity of vineglP and taken at the ap- proach or the fit. The regular method of eradicat- ing an ague, after the disease has been properly ushered in, by a few successive paroxysms, consists in cleansing the first passages by pro- per laxatives and emetics, as occa- sion may require. The patient, during the fit, should drink freely ofwater-gruehand other warm diluents. The Peruvian bark may then be administered in any form best suited to the patient's stomach, either in decoction, infu- sion, tincture, or in powder mixed with Port wine. The last mode, as being the most efficacious,«ought, when practicable, always to be pre- ferred. Dr. Lysons has observed, that his patients derived great benefit from the use of the snake-root com- bined with bark. His receipe is as follows: two scruples of bark and one of snake-root. He says, that two or three doses rarely fail to ar- rest the progress of a distinct ter- tian, or quartan ague. Should a farther repetition of this remedy be requisite, it will be attended with this advantage, that the disorder will be less likely to return, than if it were stopped by the bark alone. Repeated shocks of the electrical fluid have been said to cure agues; but this is a precarious and hazard- ous practice. Even that sovereign remedy, the bark, has sometimes been known to fail. 22 A G U AGU If no other means be found ade- quate to the inveteracy of this com- plaint, we cannot, in justice to Dr. Fowler, omit to mention his mi- neral solution, or ague-drops, so well known to all our apothecaries, that they require no farther description. Yet, convinced of their vioklirt ef- fects on the human s^tem, we seriously recommend ife use of the remedies above specified, be- fore arsenic be employed as the ultimate resource. •• [In most cases it* is necessary to give a gentle emetic, to clear the stomach of bile before the bark be taken. Ipecacuanha is the safest emetic: fifteen or twenty grains will answer for most persons: three or four grains of calomel may be joined with the ipecacuanha to open the bowels. The bark may then be commenced, and a tea-spoonful taken every three hours during the absence of the fever: beer is the best vehicle to disguise the taste of the bark, but milk answers the purpose very well. It may also be taken wrapped up in a wafer made of flour and water, pressed between two hot flat-irons, and in this way proves less disagreeable to the sto- mach. After a few days use of the bark, the stomach commonly nauseates it; it may then be omitted for a short time, and strong snake-root and chamomile tea,or a decoction of dogwood and black alder, to which some shavings of sassafras root have been added, may be substitu- ted. The diet may be more gene- rous than usual; and great care taken to avoid any cause that may bring on a return of the ague, par- ticularly cold, damp air. Should however,the usual symptoms of afit come on, twenty drops of laudanum must be taken, and the person co- vered up in bed. The bark must then be recurred to and steadily taken. The complaint is very apt to return, after being suspend- ed for some time. To prevent this, care should be taken not to go out in the morning before the ground be dry, or with an empty stomach: to avoid the hot sun, and chilling damps of the night. It often hap- pens that a change of air, will prove a cure, when no internal remedy avails. A flannel shirt is highly useful in fortifying the body against the attacks of intermittents; and after a long continued indisposition always ought to be worn, and re- gularly changed once a week. In situations subject to intermit- tents it is an excellent practice to keep fires in the common sitting rooms every morning and evening, nay in the middle of the day, even if it be necessary to keep the doors open: for the air will be thus de- prived of its unhealthy moisture, and the walls kept dry. By this practice I have known the health of a family in the swamps of Dela- ware, preserved during a whole summer, while the neighbours were all afflicted by agues. In obstinate intermittents, a slight salivation will prove a cure: blisters applied to the wrists, will also check the return of fits. Dr. Rush re- commends the loss of some blood when the disease is protracted to the winter months, and I have known the remedy frequently suc- cessful. Periodical head aches, sore eyes, and pains in other parts of the body, frequently proceed from the same cause that produced the intermit* tent fever, and may be cured by the bark, or by the mineral solution of AIR Dr. Fowler. The following are the doses for various ages: Years. Drops. 5 to 7 from 5 to 7 8 12 7 \0 13 18 10 12 18 and upwards. 12] AIR, in a pure state, is a colour- less, transparent, compressible and elastic fluid; and one of the most important elements; whether we consider its application to pur- poses of general economy, or its effects on animated nature. It is the medium through which we breathe, and without which we can- not exist. WThen perfectly freed from all extraneous and noxious particles, it may be denominated vital air, or oxygen; and in this state is capable of invigorating and supporting the human frame, in a very eminent degree. Mixed with the common ingredients, it is called atmospheric air, or that by which we are usually surrounded. [Before the modem discoveries in chemistry, the atmosphere was con- sidered as one simple elastic fluid: but it now appears that there are four distinct elastic fluids found in every portion of atmospheric air. And these, for aught we know, are totally independent of one another: so much that if any one of them were wholly withdrawn from the surface of the earth, the rest would not at all be affected by the circum- stance either in their density or si- tuation.] In diseases of the lungs, and epi- demics arising from a confined or vitiated atmosphere, the adminis- tration of air, in a pure state, has been attended with singular suc- cess; while, in such complaints, the most powerful remedies have been unable to compensate the want of this necessary article. AIR 23 Air vitiated by the different pro- cesses of respiration, combustion, and putrefaction, or which is suf- fered to stagnate, becomes prejudi- cial to the human frame: hence large cities, public assemblies, hos- pitals, burying-grounds, he. are injurious to health, and often pro- ductive ofxontagious disorders. Plants'ftd vegetables possess the wonderful property of restoring the purity of airt This, however, takes place only in the day-time, and when they are exposed to the light of the sun; for at night they dis- charge their noxious particles, and corrupt the atmosphere. Never- theless, the disadvantage arising from their impure exhalation dur- ing the night, is far exceeded by the benefits produced in the day-time; as the former does not amount to a hundredth part of the pure vital air, which is generated by the same plant, in the course of two hours of a fine day. It has been asserted, that the purity of air may be also restored by wetting a cloth in wa- ter mixed with quick-lime, hanging it in a room till it become dry, and renewing the operation so long as it appears needful. A mode of forwarding the distil- lation of salt water at sea, has been discovered, and consists simply in blowing currents of air through the distilled fluid. The same me-: thod has also been successfully em- ployed to take off the unpleasant taste which is sometimes found in milk. Dr. Reich of Erlang, describes a particular machine for the pur- pose of extracting air from the in- testines, and thus procuring instant relief in a complaint called ty/npa- nites, or the dry windy dropsy. A small tube with a cock having a ▼alve on its side, and so constructed 24 AIR AIR as to turn quickly, is affixed to the common clystering machine. Upon each successive introduction, the cock must be turned, in order to admit the air into the tube, and then quickly closed. Air which is rarefied, ascends. This is particularly exemplified in the periodical sea and laud breezes of hot climates; wherein conse- quence of the reflection of the sun from the earth's unequal surface, the lower land-air becomes highly rarefied, and rises into the upper at- mosphere, while the sea-air, being cool and dense, rushes in to supply its place. Upon this principle, M. \rANMARUM,aDutch chemist, has discovered a method of purifying assembly-rooms by a tin tube of nine inches diameter, and ten feet length, to the lower surface of which lamps are suspended, for the purpose of rarefying the air, and urging it to ascend through the ceiling of the room. Dr. Hales has described the useful effects produced in French prisons, by long air-trunks fixed through the ceilings of wards in gacls, to carry off the foul vapours which exhale from the prisoners : he declares that it has not only pre- served many of their lives, but pre- vented them from communicating infectious distempers to persons as- sembled in the courts of judicature. We are happy to add, that this valuable improvementhas also been adopted in this country. An apparatus invented by Mr. Salmon, of Canterbury, forthe ex- pulsion of noxious air from wells, has been employed with consider- able success. Air-baloons are constructed upon similar principles; they continue to ascend, so long as the inflammable gas with which they are filled is lighter than the atmosphere with which they are surrounded. Noxious and mephitic vapours, arising from wells and other sub- terraneous places, may be effectu- ally corrected by simple ventilation, or the admission of such portions of vital air, as will render the whole sufficiently respirable. To ascertain whether the air of a mine, well, cellar, or large cask, be safe, a lighted candle, suspended by a cord, ought to be conveyed to the bottom, before any person ven- ture to approach it. Should a slight explosion take place, or the light burn dimly, or even be extinguished, the air is certainly noxious ; but if the flame continue bright, no dan* ger is to be apprehended. Another easy expedient of puri- fying foul air may be adopted, by pouring several vessels of boiling water into such receptacles, before any person be suffered to descend. A still better method of dispel- ling the deleterious air from deep wells or pits, is the following : take a leather tube of sufficient length to reach the bottom of the shaft or cellar ; fix the nozle of a pair of large bellows to the top, and work them briskly for a few minutes : thus fresh air will be introduced, the flame of the candle, on trial, will not be extinguished, and we may descend without any danger. [ This last is the plan recom- mended by Mr. Robertson of Phil- adelphia, in the Amer. Phil. Trans. It is a tedious method; a much bet- ter one will be described under the article Well.] Artizans who are employed over charcoal-fire, such as dyers, gilders, refiners of metals, Sec. are exposed to considerable danger from the vi- tiated state of the air : to avert the injury to which their lungs are thus A I R exposed, it would be advisable to place near them a flat-bottomed vessel filled with lime-water, and to renew it every other day, or so often as a variegated film or pellicle appear floating on such water..... This powerfully attracts and ab- sorbs the pernicious exhalations pro- duced from the burning of charcoal. Likewise, in the construction of chemical laboratories, smelting- mills, and similar offices, proper attention ought to be paid to their free and constant ventilation; as the metallic fumes, and other noxious vapours which they generate, are highly detrimental to health. In chronic diseases, especially those of the lungs, a change of air is strongly recommended. It has sometimes, independently of any other circumstance, proved highly beneficial; inasmuch as patients have breathed more freely, even though removed to a damp and con- fined situation. In a late volume of the "■ Annates de Cliimie, we meet with a memoir by M. Deyeux, on the means of purifying infectious air ; and which is extracted from a work of M.Guy- ton de Morveau, who made nu- merous experiments with different matters, in order to ascertain those which were best calculated to pre- vent the diffusion of contagious atoms in the atmosphere. As, how- ever, we cannot enter into an ana- lysis of his experiments,' we shall briefly state their results. Accord- ing to these, the nitric acid is well calculated to destroy the putrid ef- fluvia ; but, as it cannot without great difficulty be divested of nitrous gas, the action of which is always prejudicial to the health of those who respire it, M. Morveau re- marks, that the use of this remedy u still attended with great inconve- tol. i. AIR 25 nience. He is, therefore, of opinion, that the muriatic acid affords very great advantages in dispelling con- tagion, by the uncommon expansi- bility of its vapours; which thus pe- netrate every part of the substance on which the operation may be per- formed. Nevertheless, he conceives oxygenated muriatic add to be su- perior to every other remedy, both for the celerity and facility with which it is diffused, and likewise for the certainty of its action ; in consequence of which, it instantly destroys all putrid miasmata, that may either be floating in the air, or be fixed upon bodies. [With regard to Guyton's pub- lication, the editor agrees with Dr. Mitchell in thinking, that soap- suds, alkaline lye, and lime-water, properly used, by an active woman, will much more effectually extin- guish contagion and infection, than any acid fumigations, whether ni- trous or muriatic ; and that there is no need of books, or chemical pro- cesses, when the best possible me- thods are in daily use already, and only want to be carried rigorously into execution. It is curious to ob- serve that while Dr.C. Smyth, who has lately been rewarded by the British Parliament with 50001. for the discovery, insists upon the effi- cacy of the " nitrous vapour," Guy- ton is equally positive that the suf- focating fumes of the muriatic acid are the most certain destroyers of contagion. Both methods are at variance with jthe common expe- rience of mankind.] Aha Cespitosa, L. See Turft Hair Grass. AIR-BATH, in its general ac- ceptation, implies a contrivance for the reception of fresh air. All per- sons, but especially children, ought to resort, at least for a short time, E 26 AIR ALA every day to this method of enjoy- ing the salubrious influence of that universal agent. To persons of a robust and vi- gorous habit,we cannot recommend a more brac;i>g and pleasant reme- dy. In this place, however, we shall give only an historical sketch of the simple air-bath, without ex- patiating on its nature and effects. Its benefits were first pointed out by the If to illustrious Franklin, who describes it with his peculiar simplicity, in the following words : " Every morning at day-break I get out of bed, and pass half an hour, or an hour, in my chamber, according to the season, in writing or reading,without any clothes; and this seems rather pleasant than otherwise : and if I return to bed, as is sometimes the case,before I dress myself, I have an addition to my night's rest of one or two hours sleep, sweeter than you can ima- gine." The late Lord Monboddo, a man of an amiable, though eccentric cha- racter, was so decided an advocate for the air-bath that he accustomed himself to take violent exercise, when quite undressed, in the open air. In this practice he persevered till within a few years of his death (which happened in May, 1799) ; he also annointed his body, like the ancients, with aromatic oils, espe- cially in a moist and heavy atmos- phere. Whether by these singular expedients, or by a frugal and phi- losophic mode of life, he enjoyed that extraordinary degree of men- tal serenity and bodily energy, which prolonged his existence to the 90th year of age, we shall not pretend to decide. AIR-JACKET, a dress made of leather, in which are contained se- veral bags or bladders, composed of the same materials, and communi- cating with each other. These are filled with air blown through a lea- ther tube, having a brass stop-cock, accurately ground at its extremity. In order to confine this elastic fluid, the jacket must previously be wet- ted ; and thus the person is sup- ported in the water without any ef- fort, by the aid of these bladders placed near the breast. Those who are proficients in the art of swim- ming, condemn such artificial as- sistance as cannot always be readily procured : in our opinion, the most proper and easy method of acquir- ing this useful talent, is that men- tioned by Dr. Struve, in his Ger- man treatise on the Physical Educa- tion of Children, lately published, with three Introductory Lectures by the Editor of this Encyclopedia. See the article Swimming. Aix-la-Chapelle. See Mineral Waters. ALABASTER, is a species of stone, the basis of which is calca- reous earth. Mixed with any acid, no effervescence takes place ; in this respect it differs from marble, but in its chemical properties it re- sembles gypsum, selenite, and plas- ter of Paris. There are three spe- cies of alabaster: the white-shining; the yellowish ; and the variegated, a mixture of yellow and red. The last, indeed, violently ferments with aqua-fortis, and burns to a paje yel- low. It was formerly brought from Egypt, but is now obtained in se- veral parts of England. Mr. Boyle, speaking of the first sort, says, that, if finely powdered, and set in a bason over the fire, it will, when hot, assume the appear- ance of a fluid, rolling in waves, yielding to the smallest touch, and emitting vapour. On the departure of the heat, it loses these proper- ALA ALB 27 ties, and again becomes a mere in- coherent powder. So great is the transparency of this stone, that it has sometimes been employed for windows, and at Florence a church still receives its light through the medium of alabaster. It is found in the greatest abundance near Co- blentz, in Germany ; near Cluni, in France ; near Rome, in Italy; and in some places of Lorrain. Alabaster, or marble, may be cleaned by the following process : beat pumice stones to an impalpa- ble powder, and mix it up with ver- juice : let it stand for two hours, then dip into it a sponge, and rub the marble or alabaster, wash it with a linen cloth, and fresh water, and dry it with clean linen rags. ALARUM, a term employed to signify any instrument, or contriv- ance, for the purpose of awakening persons from sleep, at a certain hour, or of alarming them when exposed to danger. In the former sense, it is generally a part of clock-work, and deserves here no farther notice; but, in the latter, we strongly re- commend the utility of alarums to every family, whether living in towns, or in solitary situations in the country. Many ingenious suggestions have been devised, for affording security to the industrious, against the au- dacious attempts of house-breakei s: the most common of these are, hanging bells to the windows, or larger bells and rattles kept in rea- diness for giving early notice to the wa'chman absent from his duty, or to the peaceful neighbour whose aid is required. In the year 1771, Mr. Henry invented a curious alarum, which was highly approved of by Sir John Fielding. All burglaries being perpetrated at night, this piece of mechanism deserves peculiar en- couragement. On being fixed up by a bell-hanger, with wires fasten- ed to the windows and doors, it will, upon the least attempt to break into the house, go off with a noise sufficient to awaken the family. As every clock-maker is acquainted with the construction of this alarum, we think it unnecessary to give a particular description. ALBUMEN, properly signifies the white of an egg, but has lately been used in chemistry to denote likewise one of those elementary constituents of vegetable bodies, which, in its colour and properties, bears an exact resemblance to the animal substance known under this denomination. The white of eggs if taken warm from the hen, especially in luke- warm milk,is uncommonly nourish- ing to the weak and infirm ; but, when boiled hard, its nutritive qua-. lity is in a great measure destroyed, and it then becomes very difficult of digestion. If the white of a fresh egg be ap- plied to burns, immediately after the accident, it generally prevents them from rising in blisters : it al- so tends to abate recent inflamma- tion of the eyes, when spread upon soft linen, and placed over the parts affected, Used as a lotion on the face, it preserves it from sun-burn- ing or freckles, in the heat of sum- mer. On the contrary, a very snu'll portion of the white of an egg, if swallowed in a putrid state, is at- tended with dreadful effects ; such as nausea, horror, fainting, vomit-r- ing, diarrhoea, and gripes, accom- panied by heat, thirst and fever, while it inflames or violently stimu- lates the bile, and, not unlike the plague, promotes a speedy dissolu- tion of the humours. 28 ALB ALC It is remarkable that, according to Boerhaave, the white of eggs was employed bythe reputedPARA- celsus, as a menstruum of extraor- dinar;. properties; and which great- ly contributed to his fame. When boiled hard in the shell, and then suspended in the air by a thread, it dissolves and drops down into a flavourless liquor ; which, though destitute of acrid, oily, or sapona- ceous ingredients, makes a more perfect solution of myrrh than either water, oil, spirits, or even fire itself can effect. In domestic economy, the white of eggs is usefully employed for clarifying ale, wine, Sec. for which purpose it shoulci be mixed with the liquor, and the w hole boiled toge- ther : thus all the gross particles of the latter will subside, or be car- ried off' with the former, which, by this processes reduced to a concrete state, and is either precipitated, or combined with, the feculent ingre- dients of the liquid. The vegetable albumen is one of those primary constituents of plants, which may be separated by chemi- cal aid, without undergoing any change of their native or inherent qualities. It is found principally in cresses, scurvy-grass, hemlock, and most abundantly in the anti- scorbutic and narcotic plants, where it generally resides in the leaves. Its existence may be easily disco- vered, by mixing the freshly ex- pressed juice of these plants with spirits of wine, or by macerating them with hot water, nearly to the hoiling pomt: in both cases, the albumen will be coagulated and se- parated from the other fluids in the form of cheesy matter. It is, per- haps, superfluous to observe, that this vegeto-animal production may in times of scarcity serve as a pro- per substitute for the white of eggs; it being possessedof similar proper- ties. See the article Eggs. [ALCARRAZAS. A kind of vessels used in Spain for cooling water intended for drinking. As they are exceedingly porous, the water oozes through them on all sides ; the air which comes in con- tact with the water by making it evaporate, carries off the caloric or the principle of heat in the water in the vessel, and by these means renders it remarkably cool. The most celebrated place for this spe- cies of pottery is Anduxas in An- dalusia. These vessels might be easily imported from Spain, and would be found of singular use in the United States.] Alcea rosea, L. See Hollyhock and Paper. Alchemilla vulgaris, L. See Com- mon Ladies' Mantle. ALCHEMY is the art of trans- muting metals into gold, or chang- ing the inferior into more precious ores. It was formerly much culti- vated, and held in high estimation by fanatics, as well as by many learned but deluded men : in latter times, however, it has been almost generally exploded, and is now pur- sued only by crafty impostors. The ruin which frequently at- tended this popular delusion, be- came so extensive, that alchemy has, at various times, been proscrib- ed in several states. The Romans banished such persons as professed it; and Dioclesian and Caesar ordered all books, on this subject to be publicly burned. In England it has, at no period been much en- couraged ; for the native good sense of the inhabitants generally pre- vailed, so that this useless art, has by the more enlightened, always been considered in its true colours. ALD ALCOHOL, in chemistry, sig- nifies spirit of wine, in a more ar- dent and purified state, obtained by distillation. Its specific gravity is to that of distilled water, as 815 to 1000. When diluted, in the pro- portion of about twenty ounces to seventeen of water, it is called proof spirit, and is used for tinc- tures, distilled cordials, Sec. See the article, Spirit of Wine. [The following method of rectify- ing weak spirit of wine, will be found very advantageous to artists. Take well dried potash and pour over it spirit of wine: the latter will not unite with the potash, but the water which it may contain will be taken up by that alkali.... The spirit of wine is then to be poured into another glass, and sub- jected to the same operation as be- fore. This process is to be repeated till it is observed that the potash is no longer very moist. Such spirit of wine is exceedingly strong, but rendered a little impure by the pot- ash, as will appear from its yellow- ish colour. It must therefore be poured into a retort, having a re- ceiver adapted to it, and distilled to a fifth part over a slow heat. What comes over is alcohol.] ALDER-TREE, or the Betula Alnus of Linnaeus, is sowell known by the name of common birch, as to require no particular description. There are three.species, l.the alba, or common; 2. the nana, or dwarf; and 3. the lenta, or Canada-birch : the last of which grows to a height of upwards of sixty feet. The al- nu8,or alder-tree, is,properly speak- ing, another species of the Canada- birch. When suffered to grow in an open situation, it has an agree- able appearance. Whenever any soil be intended for pasture, the al- der should by no means be encou- ALD 29 raged, as it poisons the herbage, and renders the soil moist and rotten. The alba, or common birch, is easily propagated; either from seeds or layers, and will flourish in most soils. While in the nursery, they should, in dry weather, be con- stantly weeded and watered. Ac- cording to Hanbury, the best method of producing them, and preserving their varieties, is by dis- tributing them in layers. The wood of this tree was, in ancient times, used for the con- struction of boats, and at present, on account of its hardness, is em- ployed in the North of Europe for making carriages and wheels. In France, it is generally used for wooden shoes; and in England for women's shoe-heels, travelling box- es, &c. ; it also affords very good fuel. In Sweden it is employed for covering houses, and is very dura- ble. On deeply wounding,cr boring the trunk of this tree, in the begin- ning of spring, a sweetish juice ex- udes in large quantities ; and one branch alone will yield a gcilcn in a day. This juice is recommend- ed in scorbutic disorders, and other impurities of the blood. Its most sensible effect is in promoting the urinary discharge. By proper fer- mentation, and with the addition of sugar, it makes a pleasant wine.... The plant itself is astringent, but the bark of the black berry-bearing alder, is affirmed to be the most certain purge for horned cattle..... The leaves, when eaten by cows, are said greatly to increase their milk. [There are several species of al- der peculiar to the L1 nited States. The bark is used by dyers, tan- ners, and leather dressers. It dyes a yellow; and with a little copperas, a yellowish gray, very useful in the 3Q ALD ALE demitints, and shadows of flesh in tapestry. The shoots cut in March will dye a cinnamon colour ; and a fine tawny if they be dryed and powdered. The fresh wood yields a dye the colour of rappee snuff.... The catkins dye green. The bark is also used as a basis for blacks; an ounce of it dried and powdered, boiled in three quarters of a pint of water, with an equal quantity of logwood, with solution of copper, tin, and bismuth, six grains of each, and two drops of solution of sul- phate of iron (copperas) will dye a strong deep boue-de-Paris, or Paris- mud. The leaves have been some- times employed in tanning leather. The whole tree is very astringent. The alder-tree thrives in swampy ground. The wood of this tree is in great esteem in Europe for ma- chinery. The cogs for mill wheels formed of it are deemed superior to any other. It is commonly used for bobbins. It resists water pow- erfully, and hence is of great value for pump trees, pipes, drains, con- duits to reservoirs, piles under va- ter, and all kinds of wood work, kept constantly wet. In Flanders and Holland it is raised for this purpose. The alder is highly useful as a medicine. I have heard of a well authenticated instance of the effica- cy of an infusion of the catkins or candles taken internally, having effectually cured a boy of sore eyes, which apparently proceeded from ascrophulous cause, after a variety of remedies had been used without effect. A decoction of the barks of black alder and dogwood (cornus florida) is a commltm and success- ful remedy in the United States for intermittents. The roots of the liriondendron tulifnfera, or tulip poplar tree, and of the saaafrass (laurus sasafrass) are sometimes joined with the alder and dogwood. Medical gentlemen who practise in the country would render a ser- vice to the public by stating the pro- portions of each remedy, which produce the best effect.] ALE, a fermented liquor, ex- tracted from malt by the process of brewing. It differs from beer, in having a less proportion of hops.... This beverage was first made in Egypt, and used as a substitute in those climates which were unfavor- able to the production of the grape. Among the Anglo-Saxons and Danes, it was a favourite drink, and they believed, that large and fre- quent potations of it constituted one of the chief enjoyments of those who were admitted into the Hali of Odin. There are various kinds of ale, particularly the pale and brown; the former, being brewed from malt slightly roasted, is esteemed more glutinous and wholesome than the latter, which is made from malt of a drier nature. It may be prepared in various ways, from wheat, rye, millet, oats, barley, he. Its con- sumption in England, was about twenty years ago, computed at the value of four millions sterling an- nually, including Great Britain and Ireland. See the articles, Beer, and Brewing. In cold countries, and to persons who take considerable exercise, ale may be of service, but in weak and lax habits, it is often attended with disagreeable effects, such as indi- gestion, flatulency, Sec. When drunk to excess, it has sometimes occasioned clwlcra morbus, and se- vere colics. Various methods of preserving this valuable liquor from turning sour on long voyages, have been ALI ALI 31 proposed; of which the following appears to be the most effectual: it was first published by Dr. Stubbs, in the 27th Number of the Philo- sophical Transactions. For its dis- covery we are indebted to an ale- seller at Deal; and it was tried with success in a voyage to Jamaica..... " To every runlet of five gallons, after being placed in a cask on ship- board, not to be stirred any more, put in two new laid eggs whole, and let them lie in it; in a fortnight, or little more, the whole egg shells will be dissolved, and the eggs be- come like wind-eggs, inclosed only in a thin skin ; after this, the white is preyed on, but the yolks are not touched or corrupted, by which means the ale was so well preserv- ed, that it was found better at Ja- maica than at Deal." ALE-HOUSE, a public place of resort for drinking ale or beer. The utility of ale-houses has been much questioned ; they certainly, in some degree, encourage habits of intemperance and dissipation ; yet, we must acknowledge, that by the subsistence which they afford to a considerable part of the commu- nity, the facility with which they enable those who cannot brew for themselves, to procure their liquors at intervals,and in small quantities; and the social relaxation they pro- cure forthe weary traveller, as well as the industrious peasant,they ma- terially contribute to the ease and enjoyment of a portion of society, over whom the moralist may be saf :Iy allowed to exert the sober influence of persuasion, but with whose amusements the legislature should cautiously interfere. ALIMENT. By this term is understood the nutritive quality of such substances as are dissolved and mixed in the stomach, and convert- ed into chyle, by the digestive pro- cess. It may be considered rather as the consequence of food taken by a healthy individual, than as an ar- ticle of food itself; for all kinds of animal and vegetable bodies do not furnish an alimentary supply, or at least, not in the same proportion. Of those articles which afford it in the highest degree, animal food is the principal; being most easily digested, and furnishing a greater quantity of that milky fluid, called chyle. For this purpose, however, a due mixture of vegetables must be added, in order to correct its high luxuriance, and to render it more congenial to our nature. Fresh air is one of those agents- which are necessary to the digestion of food, and the consequent produc- tion of aliment: as, without a re- newal of this salutary medium, the most wholesome diet will be pro- ductive of but little benefit. It is asserted that substances have been discovered, which have ena- bled men to exist without proper food, for a considerable length of ■ time ; and as a proof of this asser- tion, the following instance of an extraordinary powder, which was given to six pensioners of the Royal Hospital of Invalids at Paris, is re- corded in the Gentleman's Maga^ zine for January, 1755. It is sup- posed to consist of Turkey corn, roasted, powdered, and mixed with a small quantity of sea-salt: six ounces of this composition, with less than a pint of water, afforded suf- ficient nutriment to one person for twenty four hours. No other pro- vision was taken for fifteen days, during which time, it is said, these invsflids continued well and hearty, though one was seventy years of age, and the other five were young men, who had lost some of their 32 AL K ALK limbs. None experienced any in- convenience, either from faintness or hunger ; several of them being employed in such bodily exercises as were suited to their years ; and they frequently did not eat the whole of their allowance. To prevent any deception, they were constantly guarded by a centinel. Previous to its administration, the powder was prepared in the manner as follows: six ounces of it were shaken by degrees into boil- ing water, and briskly agitated with a spoon ; after having acquired the consistence of a thin panada, it was fit for use. The invention of it is ascribed to M.Bouch, late surgeon- major of a regiment in France. It is recommended to an army on forced marches, a besieged garri- son, and to the poor at a time of scarcity, or when other provisions cannot be easily procured. Among the articles of diet afford- ing aliment in an uncommon pro- portion, we may enumerate the following, to which we refer the reader, under the heads of Arrow- Root, Rice, Sago, Salep-Pow- der, Tapioca, &c. See also Food and Drink. Alisma Plantago, L. See Great- er Water Plantain. ALKALIES, in chemistry, sig- nify those substances which possess the following properties: viz. they are 1. incombustible; 2. capable of converting a vegetable blue to a green colour; 3. they manifest a hot and caustic taste; and 4. are soluble in water. Alkalies are divided into two liinds.fixed and volatile. The fixed are subdivided into vegetable and mineral; the former being the pro- duction of burnt vegetables in the open air; and the latter have some- times been found native in the earth, though we generally obtain our soda by the calcination of ma- rine plants, chiefly from the differ- ent species of the glass-wort, or Salsola, L. as well as from other saline vegetables growing near the sea-shore....See the article Ba- rilla. Both the fixed alkalies endure a very intense degree of heat, with- out dissipation, and are used in the composition of glass: the volatile are produced by distillation from animal substances; in their pure state they are invisible, and so pun- gent to the smell, that they can- not be approached without great danger. All vegetable substances contain fixed alkali, in greater or less pro- portion. M. M. Deyeux and Vau- quELiN have proved by recent ex- periments, that one pound of the ashesofhorse-chesnutsyieldsnearly six ounces and a half of pot-ash; nay, the same quantity of the burnt husks produced more than six ounces. But, according to an ac- curate analysis made by these chemists, the greatest quantity of vegetable alkali is contained in the fruit of the Spanish lilac, or sy- ringa vulgaris, L. the ashes of which yield more than one-half of pure alkali, or in proportion of eight ounces and three drachms to a pound. M. Jacobson, the editor of the German Technological Dictionary, asserts, that the dry or withered leaves of the beech-tree, or the Fagus sylvatica, L. afford the vege- table alkali in great abundance, in- somuch that ten pounds weight of the ashes thence obtained, are equal to thirty pounds of common wood- ashes.... We have purposely men- tioned the results of these experi- ments, as the vegetables alluded to A L K may be readily procured, and sub- stituted for the very expensive arti- cles of pearl-ashes and soap. A far- ther account of useful substitutes will appear under the different headsof So ap,Sod a, and Washing. It is affirmed, that pestilential fluids are rendered harmless and inactive by alkaline substances; and Dr. Mitchill, of New-York, in two letters written to a young lady has ingeniously and humourously described their good effects. As these refer to many articles of do- mestic economy, which are more or less composed of alkaline pro- ductions, we shall present our read- ers with an extract, nearly in the author's own words....It is a stale and indelicate subject of jesting among men, how much time and labour are consumed by women in scrubbing, scowering, whitening, and washing. These operations, however, are not performed for mere pleasure, but to prevent the conversion of impurities to infec- tion ; or to destroy it, if already pro- duced. For this purpose, they em- ploy pot-ash and its ley, soap, lime, calcareous earth, Sec. to scower the porous materials of their floors and stair-cases; to purify garments that have become soiled or contaminated by long use, or wearing; and with good reason, as these saline sub- stances are capable of drawing forth and rendering harmless, those ani- mal exhalations which are ready to be converted into pestilential poi- son....The ladies have indeed prov- ed from long established experi- ence, that " infection is uniformly prevented and extinguished by the use of alkalies." Dr. Mitchill also recommends the use of pot-ash cakes for chil- dren, to prevent the injurious ef- fects of an acid upon their stomach, VOL. I. AL K 33 and mitigate the disorders to which their bowels are liable. He ob- serves, that those infants who have been accustomed to eat cakes a little tinctured with this excellent ingredient, grow fat and healthy; and concludes with advising alka- line washes and powders as dentri- fices; which, in his opinion, have been beneficial only in proportion to the alkali, of which they are partly composed. [For a large body of evidence in favour of the antiputrefactive and antipestilential properties of alka- lies, and of their virtues in curing various diseases, See the Medical Repository of New-York.~\ ALKANET, Evergreen, or Bugloss; the Anchusa sempervirens, L. of eight species, the only one which is indigenous; it is repre- sented in Sowerby's. Engl. Bot. 45, p. 5....7. The Anchusa officinalis, or great- er garden-bugloss, is a native of the warmer parts of Europe; but will also thrive in Britain. The flowers of this species, which blow during the whole summer, have ob- tained the name of cordial flowers, as they moderately cool and soften the palate and stomach. They are much visited by bees....the young leaves afford a good substitute for early garden vegetables, and the whole plant is an excellent fodder for cattle....If the juice of the fresh flowers be boiled with a solution of alum, it yields a green colour, which is used for dyeing. The Anchusa lutea, or Onosma echioides, L. is a native of France, Italy, Switzerland, Austria, and some parts of Russia. Its peren- nial and woody root is, as it were, externally varnished with a beau- tiful carmine colour; hence the fe- males of the last mentioned country 34 A L K steep it in oil, for the vain purpose of painting their faces. Another species, the Anchusa tinctoria, L. is imported from the Levant, but unprincipled dealers frequently dye the common gar- den-bugloss iry& decoction of Bra- zil wood, and substitute it for the genuine root, which, as obtained from Montpellier, is of a woody texture, externally blood-red, but internally white, without flavour, and of an acrid taste. Dodonaeus affirms that, when transplanted to a cold climate, it loses its red co- lour. The Spanish wool, or Charta hispanica, is said to be prepared of this root: and Ruger, a late Ger- man writer, gives, in his " Pocket- book for Painters^" the following directions for obtaining from it a beautiful purple lacker: take two ounces of the root finely powdered, and boil it for a few minutes in a lixivium made of pot-ash suf- ficiently diluted: and, after the liquor has grown cold, precipitate the colouring matter with a strong- solution of roach-alum. The pre- cipitate thus obtained must not be edulcorated or washed with water, as is done in similar processes; be- cause this ablution would carry off too many of the colouring particles. All the species of Anchusa may be propagated by seeds, which should be sown either in the spring or autumn, upon a bed of light sandy earth; and when the plants are strong enough to be removed, they should be planted in beds two feet distant from each other, and watered, if the season require it, till they have taken root. The al- kanet reared in this country, is greatly inferior to that which is im- ported from the Levant. ALL ALL-HEAL, Clown's, or, Marsh Woundwort, the Stachy* palustris, L. is ar> indigenous plant, growing on the sides of rivers and lakes, in low, moist grounds, and sometimes in corn fields. It is re- presented and described in Cur- tis's Flora. Londinensia, pi. 8, p. 248. This plant has a fetid smell, and bitter taste. Formerly it was em- ployed in medicine as a vulnerary ; but at present we shall confine our account to its economical purposes. Linnaeus, the illustrious author of the prevailing system of botany, informs us, in his account of escu- lent plants, that the creeping roots of the all-heal are sought after with avidity by hogs; and that from their farinaceous nature, they would well repay the trouble of collecting and converting them into flour, for the purpose of making bread. In the present distressing condition of the industrious poor, Ave feel it our duty to take particular notice of all such substitutes as would, if pro- perly and timely resorted to, in a great measure tend to avert or re- live a national calamity....See Bread. Allium. See Garlick. ALLSPICE, Pimento, or Ja- maica pepper. The berry, in its smell, resembles a mixture of cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves, whence it has derived its name. It is milder than the East India pep- per, and, when employed in whole grains, makes an useful ingredient in broth, and stewed dishes. In me- dicine, it forms the basis of a dis- tilled water, a spirit and an essential oil; in which different forms it is efficaciously employed as an aro- matic, for cold and' phlegmatic habits....See the article Spices. ALM ALMANACK, a term derived from two Arabic words, at and ma- nack, a diary; and is, as its name imports, a table or register con- taining a calendar of days and months,the rising and setting of the sun, the age of the moon, and the eclipses of these luminaries. It is also used to foretel the change of seasons, the state of the weather, the ebb and flow of the tide, &c. A great number of such diaries are annually printed in Britain; and we understand, that of the celebrat- ed Moore's Almanack, notwithstand- ing all the superstitious notions per- petuated in this popular book, not less than 400,000 copies are, every year, ushered into public notice.... It is, therefore, sincerely to be wish- ed, that such publications as are ad- dressed immediately to the bulk of the people, may in future be render- ed the vehicles of more useful infor- mation. Hence we presume to re- mark, that an annual publication, conducted upon the plan of Poor Richard's Almanack, in Pennsylva- nia, would be attended with great advantages, both to the husbandman and mechanic, in this country. The great FRANKLiN,whois said to have edited that popular work for many years, furnished it with various sen- tences and proverbs, principally re- lating to subjects of industry, do- mestic economy, and frugality. ALMOND, a tree, eminent both for its fruit, and for the ornament which it affords to a shrubbery. It is the original of the ancient genus amygelalus, and by the botanic cha- racters of the flowers, comprehends also the peach and nectarine. Bota- nists admit but of one real species of the common almond tree, which they term Amygdalus communis.... \Tot being indigenous, we shall omit its particular description, and pro- ALM 35 ceed to state the properties and effects of its fruit on the human body. Sweet almonds are supposed to afford but little nourishment, and are not easily digested, unless tho- roughly triturated. Six or eight of them peeled and eaten, sometimes give immediate relief in the heart- burn. In medicine, they are chiefly used for preparing emulsions, as they abound not only with an oil, but likewise with a mucilage fit for incorporating oil and water. We have already observed that this fruit is difficult of digestion, on account of the oil it contains, which quickly becomes acrid in the stomach; hence it is particularly improper for bilious constitutions. The various preparations of almonds are liable to similar objections: and it is there- fore absurd to give almond milk as a common diet-drink to febrile pa- tients: for, as it consists entirely of oily and insoluble parts, it not only heats and vitiates the stomach, but at the same time occasions an ac- cumulation of bile. Almonds, as well as nuts, ought to be eaten only while fresh, and without their skins. They should be well chewed; for every piece swallowed entire is indigestible. The use of a little salt, however, renders them miscible with our fluids, as a saponaceous mass; but, if indulged in to excess, they are productive of alarming, and some- times fatal disorders. The expressed oil of bitter al- monds,is, in cases of poison, recom- mended preferably to all others; but care must be taken not to use the chemical, instead of the natural oil, as the former is itself a poison. Bitter almonds are now generally disused. They have been found to destroy some kinds of animals; 36 ALM ALM hence modern physicians prescribe them with more caution; they are, nevertheless, frequently employed, for making orgeat and other liquors, without producing any bad ef- fect. Although we have declined to give a particular description of the Almond-tree, yet as it is frequently cultivated in shrubberies, both on account of its beautiful flowers, and also for its fruit, we shall here add an outline of the manner in which it should be managed. Almonds are propagated by Ino- culation, or budding on plum or peach stocks, in the month of Au- gust, at such height as may cor- respond to that of the stem in- tended to be raised: at the expira- tion of two years, the trees may be finally planted out. If the soil be dry, this operation should be per- formed in October, when the leaves begin to decay; but, in case the ground be wet, the proper season is the month of February. When the young trees are re- moved from the nursery, Mr. For- syth is of opinion, that they should never be cut, or pruned, " till the " new shoots begin to break;" and, as these frequently perish during severe winters, that succeed wet autumns, when the wood is not well-ripened, he directs them to be cut down to the sound wood; care being taken to extirpate with the knife all cross shoots, so as to make the tree open in the middle, and to leave the principal shoots, accord- ing to their strength, from six to sixteen inches long. Those parts, which are affected with theCANKER, must also be cut out; and such ex- pision ought farther to be extended to all decayed wood. Almond-trees being very deli- cate, it wilj be advisable to place them in a southern aspect, and in a sheltered situation, either among tall flowering-shrubs, or to thatch their tops with fern, or other light covering; in order to prevent the blossoms from being killed, by the frost, during the months of Febru- ary and March. When the fruit is set, and the leaves are sufficiently long to cover it, such shelter ought, if the weather be warm, to be re- moved, towards the end of April, or early in May; by which expe- dient an abundant supply of almonds may be obtained for the desert, both in autumn and in the winter. The fruit of the almond-tree ischiefly va- lued on account of its kernels; it may be preserved either in dry bran, or in sand; but it ought previously to be dried, on shelves or boards in an open situation; as it is otherwise apt to become mouldy, and conse- quently the kernels will be unfit for use. ALMS-HOUSES are asylums for the support and maintenance of a certain number of poor, aged, or infirm persons, during their lives. When these institutions are of a private nature, and limited in their extent, they are certainly beneficial to society ; yet it may on the whole be doubted, whether such public es- tablishments, especially as they are generally managed under the abso- lute controul of rapacious trustees, do not in a great measure tend to relax the springs of industry, and encourage habits of indolence. For, by accustoming people rather to resort to eleemosynary sources, than exert their own strength and abilities, they cannot fail to degrade the moral feelings of human nature, and to destroy that independence which constitutes its noblest sup- port—See the articles Charity and Hospitals. A L O ALOE is a beautiful exotic plant, the flowers of which grow in um- bels on the tops of the stalks, are of an elegant red colour, and ap- pear in the months of August and September. It consists of ten spe- cies, all of which are propagated either by off-sets, or by planting the leaves. The proper earth for this vegetable, is one half of garden- mould, or fresh earth dug from a common; the other half consists of an equal proportion of white sea- sand, and sifted lime-rubbish. This mixture should be made, at least, six or eight months previous to its use. The common aloe will live in a dry green-house in winter, and in summer may be placed under shelter, in the open air ; but should have very little water, and none on the stem of the plant; the other species require to be kept in an airy green-house, in which there is a stove to make a fire in cold wea- ther. Among the Mahometans, and especially in Egypt, the aloe is held in high estimation, and even dedi- cated to religious offices. These superstitious people believe, that it prevents evil spirits from entering their houses: for this purpose, both Christians and Jews place it over their doors; and whoever returns from a pilgrimage, exhibits it as an emblem of his having performed that holy journey. Its properties are various; and applied to numerous purposes, both medicinal and domestic. The leaves of the Guinea-aloe, as described by M. Adanson, in his voyage to Senegal, are employed in making very good ropes, not liable to rot in the water. Dr. Sloane describes two sorts of aloe, one of which is used for fishing lines, bow-strings, stockings, A L O 37 and hammocks; the other produces leaves capable of holding rain water. In Mexico, there is a species of aloe called the Maguei, which is ap- plied to almost every purpose of life. Besides making excellent hedges and inclosures for their farms, its trunk serves as beams for the roofs of their houses, and its leaves instead of tiles. From this plant, the natives make their pa- per, thread, needles, and various articles of clothing, and cordage; while, from its copious juice, they extract wine, honey, sugar and vi- negar. Of the trunk, and thickest part of the leaves, when baked, they prepare an excellent dish. It is likewise employed by them in se- veral diseases, but especially in those of the urinary passages. In this country, aloe is princi- pally known as a medicine in the form of an inspissated juice, which consists of three sorts : 1. the Aloe pcrfoliata, or Socotrine Aloe; 2. the Hepatica, Barbadoes, or Common ; and 3. the Caballina, fetid or Horse Aloe. The first of these is the pur- est, and is brought from the island of Socotora, wrapt in skins. It is of a glossy surface, and in some degree pellucid, of a yellowish red colour,with a purple cast, and when reduced to powder, of a bright gold- en shade. In winter, it is hard and friable, but in summer pliable, and grows soft, when pressed between the fingers. Its taste is bitter, ac- companied with an aromatic fla- vour ; the smell is not unpleasant, and slightly resembles thatof myrrh. Aloe is considered as a good opening medicine for persons of a lax habit, and those whose stomach and bowels are loaded with phlegm or mucus, and also for worms ; be- cause, while it carries off viscid 33 A L O ALO humours, it serves by its stimulat- ing qualities to strengthen and brace the system. When given in small doses of a few grains, repeated at intervals, it not only cleanses the alimentary canal, but tends also to promote the menstrual discharge in women : hence its use in the green sickness, and all female ob- structions. We must, however, observe, that, though it be a good stomachic laxative, it ought to be employed with great precaution, being an acrid and heating medi- cine, and therefore not proper in bilious complaints, or in a febrile state of the body. Its continued use sometimes produces the piles and habitual costiveness. When given in substance, without any mixture, it frequently adheres to the coats of the intestines, where it occasions griping and uneasiness : for which reasons, and in order to destroy its viscid properties, it should be pre- viously combined with some sapo- naceous or resolvent medicine, such as a small quantity of alkaline salts, die yolk of an egg, Castile soap, or mucilaginous vegetable extracts. We have purposely given a more minute account of the medicinal effects of this plant, than the limits of our work Aril! admit, on similar occasions : this exception, however, has not been made with a view to encourage the sale of those aloetic preparations, so generally known and vended, under the name of "Anderson's Pills;" which,like most patent and quack medicines,have un- questionably contributed to increase the number of patients among those credulous victims, who are frequent- ly obliged to seek relief in public dispensaries and hospitals. Con- vinced of the mischievous tendency thence resulting to the community, we devoutly hope that the wisdom of the legislature will, at length, be effectually directed to the suppres- sion of those destructive practices, the pretended success of which, we almost blush to say, is exultingly related in our daily prints 1 With respect to the economical purposes to which the aloe may be rendered subservient, we shall in this place relate only the principal. It is asserted by an anonymous writer, in the Gentleman's Maga- zine for July, 1754, that a varnish made of the extract of the Hepa- tic aloe, turpentine, tallow, and white lead, or Spanish brown, when applied to the bottoms of ships, is the most effectual means of pre- serving them from the sea-worm : the discoverer remarks, that a plank covered with this mixture,was sunk with a proper weight and ropes, to- gether with another in an unpre- pared state, both in an equal depth of salt-water, where the worm abounded ; and, upon raising them, after they had remained there from five to eight months, the former was perfectly sound and untouched, while the latter was eaten to a ho- ney-comb. This hint was adopted by a gentleman at Bermudas, who observed the inhabitants employ a few sliced leaves of the plants, from which the hepatic aloe is extracted, in addition to the oil and tallow, which are boiled together and used in careening their fishing-boats. Another valuable property of the horse-aloe, beside its being an ex- cellent purgative for horses, is its bitter principle, which renders it eminently useful in watery solu- tions, not only for preserving ten- der plants from the depredations of vermin and insects, but likewise for preventing putrefaction in certain vegetable and animal bodies, such as .dried plants, stuffed birds, quad- ALO rupeds, Jkc. Proper care, however, should be taken, that solutions or mixtures made with aloe be not exposed to be swallowed by dogs, cats, or other domestic animals, as to them the consequences would be fatal. Several species of this useful plant have also been employed for manufacturing a cloth, resembling linen in its texture, and paper of various qualities. Clusius made shirts of it at Madrid, and Bour- G0iNG,in his travels through Spain, informs us, that the natives of that country manufacture their horse- bridles from the filaments of aloe- leaves. Minasi, an Italian, pro- duced from similar materials, dif- ferent kinds of coarse and fine paper. Lastly, we find, in the " Experi- ments and Observations" published by Poerner, a creditable German writer, in 1772, that a watery de- coction, made of the resinous gum of the aloe, Avithout any farther ad- dition, produces a beautiful dark cherry-brown colour on woollen- cloth, by simple immersion. This fact may be easily ascertained by dyers. According to M. Fabroni, the leaves of the Socotrine aloe afford a beautiful violet colour, which re- sists the action of oxygen, acids, and alkalies. He directs the juice to be extracted from the freshleaves, and then exposed to the air : thus, the liquid will become gradually red, and at length be converted into a deep violet purple which is pecu- liarly calculated for dyeing silk, a stuff that readily imbibes the colour without the aid of mordants. M. F. observes, that such juice may also be inspissated; in which state it forms a beautiful transparent colour for painting in miniature. ALU 39 Alopecurus pratensig, L. See Meadow Fox-tail. Alopecurus agrestis, L. See Slender Fox-tail. Alsine media, L. See Common Chickweed. Althaa officinalis, L. See Marshmallow. ALUM is a concrete salt, trans- parent, and of a very austere and astringent taste. It is in general a chemical preparation, being rare- ly found in a natural state, or freed from other ingredients. In Egypt, Sardinia, Spain, Bohemia, Sec. it is said to be sometimes discovered in crystals. There are various kinds, but that which is called the Roman alum, is preferable to any other. This is usually to be found in small crystals, and of a reddish colour, probably owing to a small quantity of cal* of iron, which, however, does not in the least impair its qualities...... The other kinds contain a propor- tion either of vitriolated tartar, or sal ammoniac. In medicine, it has been consi- dered as an astringent, and is of great service in restraining hemorr- hages, and other immoderate se- cretions. It is likewise externally used in lotions and eye-waters: and one scruple of burnt alum has been found beneficial in removing vio- lent coliopains arising from flatu- lency, bile, or great relaxation of the bowels; but in other cases it may prove hurtful. It is used for various purposes by dyers to fix different colours upon cloth; in the making of candles, to give them a gloss and firm con- sistence ; wood soaked in a solution of alum, does not readily take fire ; and paper impregnated with it, is the most proper for the preserva- tioji of gunpowder, as it also ex- 40 ALU ALU eludes the moisture of the air...... Tanners employ it to restore the cohesion of those skins which have been almost entirely destroyed by lime ; and vintners in fining their wines, Sec. Fishermen dry their cod-fish by means of it; and it is asserted, that bakers generally use it as an ingredient in bread: the truth of this assertion, however, has been much questioned, and the sole reason ascribed for its use, is, that corrupt flour, being mixed with good, thus acquire a proper degree of cohesion, as the aluminous par- ticles equally pervade the whole mass and render it of a due con- sistence. Although some writers have maintained, that this styptic salt " is entirely innocent, and now seldom used" in the process of making bread, yet we have but too much reason to believe the contrary. The English translator of Tissot's excellent "Advice to the People in general," he. very pertinently re- marks, that the abuse of alum, and other pernicious materials, intro- duced by our bakers, may too justly be considered as one lamentable source of the numerous diseases of children. The Monthly Review- er of that book, for July 1765, adds, with equal justice, the following commentary: "Hence obstructions in the bowels and viscera, feeble- ness, slow-fevers, hectics, rickets, and other lingering and fatal dis- eases." To discover such unlawful prac- tices, requires no chemical skill: on macerating a small piece of the crumb of new-baked bread in cold water, sufficient to dissolve it, the taste of the latter, if alum has been used by the baker, will acquire a sweetish astringency. Another me- thod of detecting this adulteration, consists in thrusting a heated knife into a loaf, before it has grown cold; and if it be free from that ingredient, scarce any alteration will be visible on the blade ; but, in the contrary case, its surface, after being allowed to cool, will appear slightly covered with an aluminous incrustation. This me- thod, we understand, is generally preferred in the experiments made by country-justices. It deserves, however, to be remarked, that a very small proportion of alum, such as a few grains to a quartern-loaf, cannot be productive of any serious effects. In relaxed and scorbutic habits, or to those persons who are troubled with flatulency, bilious co- lic, and jaundice, such medicated bread may be conducive to the re- covery of health ; while in others, of a plethoric constitution, and a rigid fibre, it cannot fail to aggra- vate their complaints. In short, such addition to a common article of subsistence is, to say the least of it, highly improper, and ought not to be intrusted to the hands of a mechanic. One of the most important pur- poses, to which this concrete salt may be readily applied, is that of purifying and sweetening water that has become fetid and unfit for use. On long voyages, or at a dis- tance from clear rivers and wells, each gallon requires, according to its impurity, only from five to ten grains of calcined alum, and dou- ble or triple that proportion of pow- dered charcoal, in order to render the most offensive water perfectly sweet and pellucid : both ingredi- ents, however, ought to be preserv- ed in close vessels, or otherwise their efficacy will be considerably diminished. Alum has also been tried in the boiling of salt, to render it of a firm ALU A M B 41 consistence,but the good which was supposed to be derived from it, is now solely attributed to the effects of the slow and gentle heat, so that in this process it has of late been discontinued. The manufacture of alum was first invented in the year 1608, and greatly encouraged in England, by Lord Sheffield and other gentle- men of the county of York. King James the 1st assumed a monopo- ly of tli at article, and prohibited its importation. Beside the methods of detecting alum in bread, already stated, there is a chemical process, that consists in combining a little chalk with a small portion of aqua fortis and pouring the mixture on water, in which the suspected bread has been immersed for some time. If there be any aluminous acid, its presence will become evident, by a gypseous or chalky mass deposited at the bot- tom of the vessel: in the contrary case no sediment will be formed. In October, 1794 a patent was granted the Earl of Dundonald for his method of preparing alum, vitriol of argil, and other saline sub- stances. He directs aluminous, vitriolic or pyrituous schist to be mixed with sea water, or with solu- tions of sea-salt, kelp, sandiver, soap-boilers ashes, or any saline matter, containing muriat of soda. The liquor resulting fromsuchmix- ture, is then boiled till it be suffi- ciently concentrated for crystaliza- tion ; after which it is mixed with a due proportion of alum-schist, clay or other argillaceous engredi- ent. The materials are next dried, pulverized, and submitted to the action of heat, till the muriatic acid be expelled : the result of these va- rious processes, is alum. The sub- stance remaining may, by repeated vol. i. washing and drying be used as a pigment ; and, by collecting the muriatic acid in proper vessels, and combining it with volatile alkali, Lord D. procures sal ammoniac...., A more diffuse account of his inven- tions, is inserted in the 4th vol. of the " Repertory of Arts", he. Alyssum sativum, L. See Gold of Pleasure. Amaranthus Blitum, L. See Small Red Blite. Amaurosis. See Gutta Se- rena. AMBER (Succinum) is a hard, bituminous substance, possessing a subacid resinous taste, and a fra- grant aromatic smell. It is the pro- duction of many countries, but the best sort is that which is found in various parts of England, especial- ly in the clay and gravel-pits be- tween Tyburn and Kensington, as well as behind St. George's hospi- tal, near Hyde-Park Corner, where fine specimens of this concrete are occasionally discovered. Prussia possesses it in great abundance, and the king derives from this ar- ticle alone an annual revenue of 26,000 dollars; on which account the late Frederic professed him- self to belong to the trade olamber- turners. Those parts of the earth which produce this bitumen, are generally covered with a soft slaty stone, and abound with vitriol. Its most re- markable properties are, that it at- tracts other bodies to its surface, such as paper, hair, wool, Sec. and that it presents a luminous appear- ance in the dark. In its native form, under ground, it resembles various substances, such as pears, almonds, peas, &c. but, when broken, leaves, insects, and other small objects, frequently appear inclosed : hence it has been supposed, that amber G 42 A M B was originally in a fluid state, or that from its exposure to the sun, it became softened, so as to be sus- ceptible to those impressions- As these insects are never found in its centre, but always near its surface, the latter seems the more probable conjecture. Animals of all kinds, are extremely fond of it, and pieces are frequently discovered in their excrements. Several centuries be- fore the Christian aera, it was in high esteem as a medicine; and Plato, Aristotle, and other writers, have commended its vir- tues : among the Romans it was valued as a gem, and in the reign of NERO,brought in immense quan- tities to the capital, where it was highly prized by the fashionable la- dies, who decorated themselves with trinkets made of that substance ; a custom which is still prevalent at Munster in Westphalia, and other catholic countries, Avhere it is con- verted into amulets, crosses, &c. As a medicine, amber is at pre- sent but in little repute, though it is still given in fluor alb us, hysteric affections, and in those diseases which proceed from debility. For- merly it was used in a variety of preparations, but of late, an aro- matic balsam, a powder, and an essential oil, are the only forms in which it is employed. Lastly, this bituminous matter constitutes the basis of several kinds of varnish. It is used for the coat- ing of various toys, for staining the papier mache, and for the var- nishing of carriages ; for which last purpose, however, it is more pro- fitable to dissolve the gum copal. A method of making artificial amber har; lately been discover- ed by Prof. Hermbstaedt, of Ber- lin. He placed rectified petroleum, about one line in thickness, on wa- AMB ter, in a china saucer, which wa? exposed to the rays of the sun, for several months, beneath a glass- bell containing oxygen. At length, the petroleum had absorbed the oxygen and sunk a little beneath the sarface: the glass was remov- ed ; when after pouring off the wa- ter, and evaporating by a gentle heat, that part of the petroleum which retained its fluidity, the con- densed residuum was found to pos- sess all the properties of amber..... Such mode of preparing that valua- ble bitumen, however, would be too tedious to be generally adopted j but Prof. H. from this ingenious experiment, justly infers, that am- ber originates from petroleum,oxy- genated and inspissated by its con- tact with the atmosphere, under the action of the sun. See Varn- ish. AMBERGRISE, or Grey Am- ber, is a solid ©pake, bituminous substance, of a greyish or ash co- lour, usually intermixed with yellow and blackish veins. This concrete is found floating on the sea, or thrown on the shores, and is pro- duced in the greatest quantity by the Indian Ocean. It has been sometimes also discovered by fish- ermen in the bellies of whales, in lumps of various sizes, from half an ounce to one hundred pounds in weight. Hence it is supposed to be an animal production. Clusius, however, asserts that it is an indu- rated and indigested partof the food collected by these fish, and forms a similar concretion with that of the b"~oar found in the stomach of other animals. When pure, it sof- tens between the fingers; melts in- to an oil, in a moderate degree of heat, and, in a stronger one, proves highly volatile. Slightly warmed, it emits a iragrant odour, and when A MB AMM 43 -set on fire, smells like amber. It dissolves, though with difficulty, in spirits of wine, and essential oils, but not in those which are expres- sed from vegetables, nor in water. In Asia, and part of Africa, am- bergrise is not only used in medi- cine, and as an article of perfumery, but also applied to the purposes of cookery, by adding it as a spice to several dishes. It is valued by the Turks as an aphrodisiac, and er- roneously supposed to promote longevity- It was formerly esteemed a cor- dial, and to be of great service in disorders of the head, and nervous complaints; but it now chiefly serves as an agreeable perfume, and is certainly free from many of those inconveniencies which usually ac- company substances of this .de- scription. Ambergrise may be considered as genuine, when it emits a fragrant smelh on thrusting a hot needle in- to its substance, and melts like fat, of an uniform consistence. AMBURY, in farriery, signifies a tumour, or wart which is soft to the touch, and full of extravasated blood. It is a disorder incident to horses, and may be cured by the following method. Tie a strong hair very tightround the part affected ; and, alter it has spontaneously fallen off, which usually happens in about eight days, sprinkle powdered verdigrise on the place, to prevent a return of the complaint, When, from its local situation, it cannot be tied, it may be either cut out with a knife, or burnt away with a sharp, hot iron ; or, where this.cannot be prac- tised with safety, for instance, in sinewy parts, it may be removed by applying oil of vitriol, or corro- sive sublimate to the tumour. Dur- ing the cure, the animal must be kept quiet, and free from every ex- ertion. AMMONIA signifies a salt, of which there are two sorts, the na- tive and the factitious. The for- mer, described by Pliny, and Dio- scorides, was generated from the urine of camels, in the inns, or cara- vanseras, where the pilgrims, re- turning from the Temple of Jupiter Ammov, used to lodge ; whence it derived its name. The latter is a chemical preparation,formed either of the acetous or muriatic acids, combined with volatile alkali. A salt nearly of the same kind is thrown out by Mount Etna. The ancient sal amoniac was said to pos- sess the properties of cooling wa- ter, and dissolving gold. Great quantities of this concrete were formerly brought from Egypt, where it was originally prepared by sublimation, from the soot of animal .dung; though at present we are principally supplied from our own manufactories, several of which are established in .different parts of Britain ; but that in the vi- cinity of Edinburgh is ,one of the most extensive. Although the cheapest and most convenient method of preparing it is not generally know u, yet it is conjectured to be chiefly formed of a combination of sea salt and soot. It is commonly crystallized in the form of large, round cakes, and sometimes in conical kuves. The best sort is colourless, almor.t trans- parent, and free from visible impu- rities. The taste of this salt is very- sharp and penetrating. It dissolves in rattier less than thrice its weight of water; mid upon evaporating, a part of the liquor concretes a^ain into thin shining spicules, or plates, like feathers. In fio-ity weather 44 A M M AM M these are remarkably beautiful, and resembles trees, plants, &c Sal ammoniac, when pure, pro- motes perspiration, and in some cases, increases the secretion of urine. A drachm of it, dissolved in water, if the patient be kept warm after taking it, generally proves sudorific. By moderate ex- ercise in the open air, it benefici- ally operates on the kidneys; given in a large dose, it proves aperient; and in a still larger, acts as an emetic. As a cooling and diaphoretic me- dicine, the sal ammoniac dissolved either in vinegar and water, or combined with small doses of the Peruvian bark, has often been at- tended with the best effects, when taken in fevers, and especially in intermittents, after the intestinal canal has been properly evacuated. Mr. C Lynam, a medical practi- tioner in the metropolis, has "for- merly favoured the editor of this work with an account of a cheap and expeditious manner of saturat- ing the common solution obtained by dissolving this salt in vinegar, with fixed air, or carbonic acid gas ; which is a valuable addition to that liquor. His method is in effect as follows; take one ounce of pure sal ammoniac, and one pint and a half of distilled vinegar; put the latter in a decanter provided with a close glass-stopper; then intro- duce the salt, previously broken into lumps, but not too small; as by plunging it too suddenly into the liquor, the extrication of the gas would be too quick, and a quan- tity of it be dissipated. Next, the r.topper of the bottle should be tied over with a piece of leather, and the whole be k-ft undisturbed. It would farther be useful, to add, on fhe top of the bottle, some wreight or pressure, by which means' the combination of the carbonic acid gas with the water will be greatly facilitated. After having stood a few hours, the ammonia will be dis- solved, and the carbonic acid ab- sorbed by the liquor. By this simple process, the ace- tated water of ammonia becomes strongly impregnated with fixed air, while it is almost entirely de- prived of that disagreeable taste which is peculiar to this medicine, when prepared in the usual way. Mr. Lynam speaks from expe- rience, of the superior qualities this preparation possesses as a febri- fuge ; beside the very great advan- tage, that it tends to keep the bow- els open, even under the immediate influence of opiates. It likewise, generally, agrees with weak and irritable stomachs, which can re- tain scarcely any other medicine. This salt has also been employed externally in lotions and embroca- tions, for scirrhous and other indo- lent tumours ; for removing warts and other excrescences, and in gar- garisms, for inflammations of the tonsils. Ammonia pura, or the caustic vegetable alkali, possesses uncom- mon alexiteric powers, in the cure of persons bitten by snakes, and other venomous animals. Sixty drops of it, sufficiently diluted with water, make a moderate dose, which ought to be repeated accord- ing to the urgency of the symp- toms. At the same time, the wound should be washed with a similar mixture. It is positively asserted, that such treatment has been attended with uniform success, when the patient was able to swallow the medicine. [.Mr. John Williams in a late pub- lication speaks in the most positive AMM AMP 45 manner of the good effects of the volatile alkali, (spirits of hartshorn, orspiritsal ammoniac) in curing the bitesofvenomous snakes in the East Indies. The cure consists in the immediate application of a bandage around the limb bitten, in wash- ing the wound with volatile alkali, and in the repeated administration of the same medicine, in doses of from 30 to 60 drops, in water, every five, eight, or ten minutes, till the* patient is completely re- lieved. Though the medicine is directed to be administered imme- diately, yet one instance occurs of its obviating the effects of a bite which had been inflicted more than an hour. Relief is given in a few minutes. As this remedy is kept in most families, an opportunity is afforded of trying its effects in the case of a bite of our American cro- talus horridus or rattle snake.] [For a very interesting account by Dr. Mitchell, of the anti- pestilential quality of vol. alkali See the Medical Repository, parti- cularly vol. 4, p. 257.] AMMONIAC is a concrete, gummy-resinous juice, usually brought from the East Indies in large masses composed of lumps or tears of a milky colour, but on exposure to the air, it quickly ac- quires a yellowish appearance. Hitherto we have no certain ac- count of the plant which affords this juice, but it has, and with some probability, been asserted, that it is a species of the ferula, from another species of which is also produced the asa fatiela....it is said to grow in Nubia, Abyssinia, and the interior parts of Egypt. This gum has a nauseous sweet- ish taste, succeeded by a sensation of bitter; and a smell somewhat re- sembling, but more grateful than, galbanum. When chewed, it sof- tens in the mouth, and becomes of a white colour. It may be partially dissolved, in water, or in vinegar, with which it assumes the appear- ance of milk, but the resinous part, amounting to about one half, sub- sides when suffered to rest. A si- milar composition, but much infe- rior in virtue, is frequently sold under the name of strained gum ammoniac. Those tears which are large, dry, and free from little stones, or other impurities, should be selected and prepared for in- ternal use; the coarser kind may be purified by solution and strain- ing, but unless this be carefully managed, it will lose a considerable portion of its fine and more volatile parts. In medicine, it is prescribed for removing obstructions of the abdo- minal viscera; in hysterical com- plaints occasioned by the deficiency of periodical evacuations, and in long and obstinate colics, proceed- ing from viscid matter lodged in the intestines. A solution of it, in vinegar of squills, has proved of considerable service in the humid chronic asthma of the aged and decrepid. The most convenient form for its exhibition, is that of pills; a scruple may be given every night, or oftener. Externally it is used for softening and ripening in^ dolent tumours; and with a mix-. ture of squill vinegar, forms a plais- ter which has sometimes been sue-. cessfully recommended for white swellings. A solution of it, in pei-ny-i-oyal water, is usually kept in the shops, under the name of ammoniac milk. AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS are so called, on account of theirliving partly on land, and partly in the water. 46 AMP AMP We cannot, consistently with our plan, enter into a disquisition re- specting their nature and functions; and shall therefore content our- selves with observing, that in their structure, they are principally dis- tinguished from land-animals, by having red cold blood, and instead of lungs, either gills or branchia, as is generally observed in snakes, eels, and fish, which chiefly inhabit the water. Sometimes, however, they have the oval hole open be- tween the right and left auricles of the heart; and, in many, the arterial canal is also free. This is a dis- tinguishing character of the phoca, or such animals as enjoy their chief functions on land, for instance, ot- ters, beavers, frogs, crocodiles, seme kind of rats, birds, he. While these remain under water, where they may safely continue for seve- ral hours, their respiration is inter- rupted ; and the blood not finding a free passage through the pulmo- nary artery, rushes through the hole from the right to the left au- ricle, and partly through the arte- rial canal; having but a short course to the aorta, the largest of all the blood vessels,and thencecirculating to every part of the body. But, on rising to come ashore, the blood makes its way again through the lungs, as soon as the animal begins to respire. As in all land animals a large portion of the mass of blood conti- nually circulates through the lungs, which would be stopped, if the free access of air were excluded; so we find in fish a great number of blood-vessels passing through the gills, which must be perpetually v.'ct, lest the blood should, in like manner, be checked, and conse- quently stagnate in its progress. Hence,when the latter are removed from their natural element, the branchia very soon grow crisp and dry, the vessels become corrugat- ed, and the blood finds no outlet; likewise, when land-animals are im- mersed under water, or in any other manner deprived of respira- tion, the circulation ceases, and the animal inevitably dies. Inquisitive physiologists have ad- vanced, that man may, by art, be rendered amphibious, and enabled to live under water, as well as the beaver, or turtle; because the foetus in utero lives without air, and the circulation is continued by means of the oval hole: if, therefore, this important opening coidd be pre- served after the birth of the child, the same useful faculty might still remain. This proposition is plausible; and we do not hesitate to declare, that in a maritime country, such attempts ought by all suitable means to be encouraged: for the advantages re- sulting from a successful applica- tion of the theory, would indeed be incalculable. In its support, and as an instance of the wonderful power we possess over the organs of respiration, it may be urged, that expert divers feel no inconvenience from remaining for several minutes under water, at a considerable depth; that individuals affected with asthma (among whom the writer of this article is a living evidence) have by mere force of habit obtain- ed effectual and permanent relief in that distressing complaint, by ac- customing themselves from the commencement of it, to respire principally through the nostrils, whether in a waiting or sleeping state ; and lastly, that none of the in- terior organs possess a flexibility AMP AMP 47 and power of expansion (unattend- ed with loco-motion) equal to those of respiration. After this short digression, we shall proceed to state the means by which that desirable faculty of re- spiring under water, may be ac- quired by the human subject. It should previously be remark- ed, that the lungs of the embryo are compressed during its confine- ment, so that the pulmonary blood- vessels are impervious, and conse- quently the circulation must take place through the oval hole, and the arterial canal before-mention- ed: hence the amphibious animal and the fetus in utero are so far analagous in their nature; and though this hole generally closes at an early period of infancy, yet there are instances, Avell attested by anatomists, where it has been occasionally found not quite closed in human subjects, who have died at an advanced age. There is, however, one material difference between them: the foetus never having respired, is sufficiently nou- rished by the maternal blood circu- lating through its whole body, which progressively grows, till its birth, without feeling the want of respiration during the whole period of pregnancy; on the contrary, ter- raqueous animals having respired from the moment of their birth, cannot support life for any length of time without it; because both the hole and canal above alluded to would be closed, or at least con- stricted in them, as is the case in land animal?, if they did not in- stinctively, soon after the birth of the cub, instruct it in the exercise of that \ital function. This is ef- fected, by frequently carrying it into the water....a practice by which (hose passages are kept open dur- ing life, and the creatures enabled to procure that kind of food which is designed for them by the provi- dential care of Nature. Thus we may easily conceive that, in infants, the oval hole, by proper expedients and persevering exertions, might, without much dif- ficulty, be preserved in an open state ; for instance, by gradually accustoming young children, soon after their birth, to suspend their breath once, or oftener in a day, increasing the duration of the ex- periment with every attempt, so that the blood may at length be di- rected to circulate through its ori- ginal passage, which, by several trials, cautiously repeated, would no doubt remain sufficiently lubri- cated, and never again be closed in the manner we generally find it in the deceased body. That these are rational, and, we may venture to add, well founded conjectures, few will dispute ; es- pecially if it be considered that or- dinary divers, without having been trained to this practice from early infancy, are capable of retaining their breath, and continuing much longer under water, than persons in whom that primitive organ of respiration, having never been ex- ercised, has become unfit to act as an useful substitute for the lungs, while immersed under water. Nay, there are well authenticated in- stances of persons who were in the full possession of the uncommon faculty here described : of others, we shall relate only that of a Sici- lian, named the Fish-Colas, who possessed it in so eminent a degree, " that he lived rather after the man- ner of a fish than a man," in con- sequence of having from his youth, and by an assiduous practice, suc- cessfully acquired the habit of living 48 AMP AMU in water, and thus effected a com- plete change of his physical nature. AMPUTATION is a term in surgery, and signifies the cutting off a limb from the body. It is sometimes rendered necessary, when a part is so diseased as either to be wholly useless, or threatening danger, if not removed. The cases in which this operation is usually performed, are, severe, compound fractures of the bones, attended with splinters; extensive lacera- tions, and contusions of wounds, with great loss of substance, and pouring forth a profuse discharge; wide.-spreading mortifications ; white swellings of the joints ; can- cers, or other incurable ulcers ; ex- ostosed,carious and distorted bones, Sec. Sec. Amputation is one of the most important operations in surgery, and has lately been brought to the highest perfection. Previous to the invention of the tourniquet, and the method of securing the blood-ves- sels from hemorrhages, by liga- tures, it was rarely undertaken, and a great proportion of those who submitted to it, afterwards died. But in consequence of mo- dern improvements, there seldom happens more than one death in twenty or thirty cases. In per- forming this operation, some par- ticular cautions are necessary, viz. to make the incision at a proper place ; to save a quantity of skin and cellular substance, sufficient to cover the muscles and bone com- pletely, without being stretched ; to prevent hemorrhages ; to secure the arteries carefully, without in- cluding the nerves, or any of the contiguous parts ; and to prevent the retraction of the integuments. Where part of a limb is either car- ried off, or much shattered, it will be necessary to amputate above the diseased surface, to ensure a spee- dier and safer cure. Should morti- fication have previously taken place, every other remedy ought to be timely and vigorously employed, till its progress be arrested; the first symptom of which will be, an inflamed circle separating the dis- eased from the sound parts: as soon as this has taken place, no time should be lost in resorting to the operation, lest the patient suffer from the absorption of putrescent matter, which readily occasions a hectic fever. As the privation of a limb, and the great destruction of animal parts, are often attended with fatal consequences, nothing but extreme necessity, or the failure of all other means, can justify the choice of this formidable expedient. Some emi- nent authorities have altogether questioned its utility ; and M. Bil- guer, late surgeon-general to the Prussian armies, in his observations on this subject, declares, " that the cases in which amputation is ne- cessary, are less frequent than has hitherto been supposed." He says, that during the late war, it proved unsuccessful in a variety of instan- ces ; and that he himself had, with- out resorting to operations, cured many patients, whose limbs had been so much bruised and shatter- ed, that the ablest surgeons thought it advisable to employ their instru- ments. See Tourniquet. AMUSEMENTS, may be divid- ed into public and private; and they are "either of an active or se- dentary nature. The former usu- ally consist of balls, plays, enter- tainments, &c. the latter, of the various diversions of cards, chess, back-gammon, and other games of chance or skill,, AMU ANA 49 Those of an active kind ought always to be preferred, as they not only relieve the mind, when wearied with intense application, or de- pressed Avith grief; but by their agreeable variety,together with the advantages of air, exercise, &c. they are highly conducive to health. On this account, they are particu- larly serviceable to such persons as are subject to nervous and hypo- chondriacal complaints, and to all those Avho lead a confined or se- dentary life. Private amusements, on the contrary, are principally em- ployed with a view to consume time, and frequently require more application than either study or bu- siness. Those amusements which afford the most violent exercise, and ought, therefore, to be pursued only by the healthy and robust, are hunting, shooting, cricket-playing, hand-ball, and similar games...... When these are undertaken.with the necessary adaptation to the strength of the individual, they pro- mote perspiration and other secre- tions, expand the lungs, and give firmness and agility to the whole frame. SeeG a m i n g , and T hkatre. With respect to the amusements of children, we shall here only re- mark, that they may be compared tothelabours and pursuitsof adults; and that their influence, as well on health, as on the future inclinations and desires of the individual, is much greater, and more perma- nent, than is generally supposed. Hence we should advise parents and guardians to encourage no games, or play-things, which have a tendency to impair the constitu- tion, or deprave the morals, of their offspring ; of this nature are, im- proper and unnatural postures, or gesticulations of the body; wanton jumping up and doWn high places ; VOL. I. forcible exertions of muscular pow- er, by lifting great weights and carrying ponderous bodies ; the partial exercise of one arm or leg ; sedentary plays of long duration ; the standing for hours on their legs; musical wind-instruments ; toys manufactured by common potters, or made of plaster of Paris ; drink- ing-vessels of lead, pewter, white iron, bell-metal, or earthen-ware imperfectly burnt and glazed ; play- things coloured or painted with noxious metallic preparations, such as verdigrease, orpiment, minium, as well as those devices and similar trifles produced by the confection- er, &c. he. On this interesting sub- ject, which cannot fail to engage the attention of every judicious pa- rent, we presume to refer the reader to a work lately published, from the German of Dr. Struve, enti- tled, "A Familiar Treatise on tn- Physical Education of Children;'' with three Introductory Lectures, and Notes, by the Editor of this En- cyclopaedia. [See also " Eelg. worth on Education" 2 vols.] Amygdalus. See Almond. [ANAGALLIS ARYENSIS,L. or,CommonPimpernel,h&s two strong varieties, a, fiore caruleo, b, flore phxniceo : these have been distin- guished by late botanists as distinct species, leaving the name arvensis for a, or calling it coerulea ; b, is their phomicea. The coerulea I have not seen, the phoenicea is com- mon, perhaps a native. (Dr. Muh- lenberg in a letter to the Editor.) This plant affords another in- stance among many others, with which the records of medicine abound, of remedies obtaining a high character without the small- est pretensions thereto. Crowned heads and republics, have passed laws to preserve it fromdestructiom H 50 ANA ANC and learned doctors have celebrat- ed in classical Latin, its imaginary virtue in preventing the effects of the bite of mad dogs. In this country it has long been celebrated among the Germans, two of w hom kept the same remedy a great secret. One of these persons, a Mr. Ket- tering, of Dauphin County, com- municated the knowledge of the plant to the legislature of Pennsyl- vania last year. It failed in the case of a child of a citizen of Phila- delphia, and in that of a Mr. Iiu- bkr of Lancaster, both of whom died last summer. To the latter it was given both as a preventive andasacure. The Rev.Dr.M.Muh- lenberg of Lancaster, who thought well of the remedy, nevertheless candidly informed me, that he heard of one case in which it failed...... Prof. Murray, in his excellent work,a/iparatus medicaminum, gives a long account of this plant, and of the authorities by which its cha- racter was supported, but he doubts its efficacy, andsays that J.Bauhan also disbelieved its supposed vir- tues. " At Viriscum too in the hands of the celebrated Roulet, it failed to save the life of a woman. At Marseilles there were two cases of similar failure, although other remedies against this dreadful dis- ease were prescribed at the same time. Another case is recorded, where, notwithstanding tfie anagal- lis had been given, the hydropho- bia came on and proved fatal. To the celebrated Tissot also, after a laborious investigation, it appeared of a very doubtful nature." It ar- gues little short of madness to trust this remedy. The causes producing the repute of this and other nostrums for this disease, shall be fullydiscussed.Avhen we come to the article " Biteofamad dog."1 Ananas. See Pine-Apple. ANCHOVY, or Clupea encrasi- colus, L. a small fish of the herring- kind, taken in immense quantities on the coast of the Mediteranean Sea, whence they are imported into Britain, in a pickled state. They are in general from 3 to 4 inches in length, have a pointed head, a wide mouth, destitute of teeth, and the gums are uncommonly rough. According to Collins, these dimi- nutive fish are, likewise, found in abundance, on the western coasts of England and Wales. The fishing for anchovies is prin- cipally carried on during the night; when a light being affixed to the stern of a small vessel, the ancho- vies are thus attracted, and caught in nets. It is, hoAvever, asserted, that they are neither so good, firm, nor so proper for pickling, as those taken without this stratagem. After having secured these delicate fish, their heads are cut off; the intes- tines extracted; and the bodies salt- ed, and deposited in barrels. In the choice of anchovies, such as arc small, round-backed, fresh pickled, white on the outside, and red within, deserve to be preferred ; because those of a flat, or large form, are frequently a spurious sort, called Sardinias. Independently of these qualities, the pickle should possess a fine taste and flavour. Anchovies are variously prepar- ed : after boning them, and taking oflf the tails and fins, thev may either be eaten with oil arxl vinegar; or, by mincing them Avith pepper, he. be formed into sauce for other fish. They are likewise packed in earthen vessels, closely covered, so as to exclude the air : by this sim- ple precaution, their flavour may, for a long time be preserved. But the most effectual method of keep- ANC AN C 51 ing these fish in a concentrated state, is that of reducing the fleshy part to a soft pulp, of the consist- ence of butter; and, after adding pepper or other spices, the extract of anchovies thus prepared, should be put in gallipots, first covered with a round piece of fine writing paper, or hog's bladder; and then melted beef suet in a luke-Avarm state, must be pouredoverthe whole, so as to leave about half an inch space between this air-tight cover- ing and the top of the vessel, which is again secured with strong paper. Anchusa sempervirens, L. See Evergreen Alkankt. ANCIENT LANGUAGES are those which are no longer spoken by a living people, such as the He- brew, Greek and Latin : they ge- nerally form a part of the education of those students Avho are intended for the learned professions. The utility of employing so much of the time of children at schools, in clas- sical pursuits, and the study of the dead languages, has been much questioned : upon this subject, a humorous Avriter thus expresses himself: "Who can patiently en- dure to see persons so studiously going back two thousand years, in search of that perfection which lies so plainly still before them ? To see men of sense and learning spending their whole time and at- tention about ^Eolic Digammas, the use of accents, or the meaning of a passage in Horace, whilst, at the same time, they are suffering the finest language in the world, their own, to lie entirely uncultivated, unless by the laudable and occasion- al efforts of some individual ? Had the Same been practised by the Greeks or Romans....had they stu- died nothing but Fgyptian hiero- glyphics, we might,at this day,have been obliged to travel to the Pyra- mids to read the Classics, whilst all the letters in the world would have been nothing more than the ill-imi- tated forms of men, animals, imple- ments, S;c. If we think that they did right, why do we not imitate their example ? What possible reason can be alledged why the En- glish might not, by similar care and attention, be made as good a language as either the Greek or Latin ? Had we the address of Savift, or Addison, Avhat a peti- tion might we draAV up in favour of our poor mother tongue, setting forth the many hardships she has long endured ; the various insults and barbarous injuries she, from time to time, has suffered, and is still obliged to undergo, from the undutifulness of her own children," he. [See this subject fully-and ably discussed by Dr. Rush, Miscella- neous Essays: Philadelnhin, 1798.] ANCIENT LEARNING sig- nifies a thorough acquaintance with the Avritings of the ancients. A very great and illiberal prejudice has for some time since existed, Avhich has induced us to give a con- stant preference to the ancients, for their genius, as well as their virtue. Their innocence, courage, and skill in writing, have been extolled as superior to our modem acquire- ments, and proposed to us as a standard of real perfection. FeAv authors, indeed, have been suffered to wear their laurels during life ; these have been generally reserved, either to croAvn their statues, or en- twine around their tombs. Hom ef , in his days, Avas considered as a mei e ballad singer ; he is now a b.uu. Shakspeare lived a pre- carious hireling. Milton's divine poem lay long neglected, and was sold for a song. Or way lived and 52 ANC AND died in a corner; Cervantes pas- sed his days in poverty ai'd obscu- rity, a living reproach to Spain ; and the first of our English philo- sophers, the immortal Newton, wasindebtedtotheofficiouskindness of a Barrow, to announce his me- rit to the world. Praise is slower than censure, because the former is retarded by envy and contention, which time alone, the final subduer of all things, can effectually remove. 'Tis the same in the moral as in the natural Avorld: the sun exhibits the largest disk, when about to quit our hemisphere. The ancients have acquired a prejudged heredi- tary admiration, and their only solid grounds of preference are, that they had the good fortune to come first into the Avorld. Thus, by the laws of primogeniture, the eldest son inherits the patrimony, to the de- triment of the rest of the family. It cannot, however, be disputed, that the ancient Avriters have left us performances which would re- flect the highest honour on any age, or nation ; but to allow them the merit of exclusive excellence, is injustice to their competitors. A principle of tenderness has been urged as a plausible reason for en- tertaining a partiality for the an- cients, and that the infant state of learning ought to experience the same flattering indulgence which is shewn to young children. The weakness of this plea is evident: and candour obliges us to declare, that it is equally unjust and impro- per to consider the Greeks and Ro- mans, with all their inaccuracies and defects, as perfect models of imitation. Many an ancient writer, whose real beauties have been just- ly admired, has also frequently been praised for his faults: thus ius reputation has been sullied ; in- stead of being indebted to his pane- gyrists, he has excited doubts and censures, where he had least de- served them. The remarks made in the pre- ceding article, may with equal pro- priety be applied to the present subject: but we shall content our- selves with observing, that those persons who have imbibed an early prejudice for the learning of the ancients, are generally deficient in active discernment, and incapable of ascertaining the merits of modern improvements. ANCIENT TIMES are those which refer to remote periods of antiquity. The degeneracy and corruption of modem times, as opposed to those of the ancients, have afforded a fruitful source of peevish invec- tive, and an endless cause of que- rulous complaint, to both the learn- ed and the illiterate. It has been the constant custom, at all timesr to declare every succeeding age more wicked than the former; to represent the world as perpetually increasing in vice and folly ; to la- ment the good old days that are past, and to anticipate nothing but misery from the future. Yet, how- ever corrupt or vicious may be the age in Avhich we live, let us but im- partially compare the history of past times with those of our own, and we shall find no great reason to unite in the general outcry : on the con- trary, it is highly probable, that our successors Avill attribute more virtues to us, than are possessed by themselves ; though, perhaps, nei- ther may be less virtuous, or more depraved, than the most celebrated nations of antiquity. [ANDROMEDA. Sorrel tree, Indian Pipe Stem, TVickie. An ex- tensive genus many species of which A N E A N E 53 abound in the United States, they occupy lands of similar soil and situation with the heaths in the old continent. He-whortleberry is the most common trivial name in the United States for all the species,be- cause they bear no berries, and re- semble the wortle berry bushes. They are all handsome flowering shrubs, the a. formosissima of Bar- tram or Indian pipe stem, is the most beautiful. It is an evergreen. The Creek Indians set a high va- lue upon the shoots two years old, for making tlieir pipe stems, being very straight, and from 12 to 15 feet long. Dr. Barton in- forms us, that a decoction of the A. mariana, or broad leaved moor- wort, is used as a wash, in a disa- greeable ulceration of the feet at- tended with an intolerable itching, which is common among the ne- groes of the southern states. The plant is there called " wickie". It is suspected to be poisonous, and Shoepf says, that it is hurtful to sheep: no doubt he spoke from the information of our farmers.] ANEMOMETER signifies a mechanical instrument for ascer- taining the power and velocity of the wind. Successful methods have been discovered to determine, with pre- cision, the various properties of the air, its temperature, humidity, and weight, by means of the thermo- meter, the hygrometer, and the barometer; but, till lately, no at- tempts have been made to ascer- tain the force of the wind. Seve- ral instruments for this purpose have, indeed, been contrived ; but they are in general more compli- cated, and less to be depended on, than the machine which we shall describe under the head of Ane- moscope. ANEMONE, or Wind-Flow- er, is the name of a plant chiefly distinguished on account of its beautiful flowers, which by the Greeks, were supposed not to open till the wind blows ? whence it has received its original name. Lin- naeus enumerates tAventy-one spe- cies, of which the following five deserve particular notice, though the first of these is not indigenous. 1. Anemone pralensis, L. the dark-flowered, or MeadoAV Ane- mone, as described and represent- ed in Dr. Woodville's Medical Botany,\ol. iii. p. 400, plate 148.... It produces beautiful dark violet, or almost black flowers, which blow in March and April*, and never expand. In its recent state, the meadow- anemone is almost flavourless, though its taste, when chewed, is extremely pungent, and corrodes the tongue and fauces ; a property also manifested in a slight degree by the dried leaves. Hence we may conclude, that this plant possesses considerable medicinal virtues; a supposition amply confirmed, though often contested, by various practitioners of great respectability. Chemists, hoAvever, have proved by experiment, that one of its con- stituent parts is camphor, which has been obtained in the form of crystals. Hence it has been suc- cessfully employed in the cure of chronic affections of the eyes, espe- * Some botanical writers confound this plant with the Anemone Pulsatilla, L, which is a distinct species. The Anemone prateiuis, L. is a native of Germany, where it flow- ers in the beginning of May : it was thence imported into England, and cultivated in our gardens by the late, aud justly celebxated>pMifci.KK, about the year 173 L 54 A N E ANE dally in gut la serena, cataract, and opacity of the cornea. But, on ac- count of its singular efficacy, it has generally been used in external applications, as an excellent aperi- ent, detergent, and vulnerary me- dicine, with whose Arirtues the an- cieuts were well acquainted, though they accounted for such effects from superstitious notions. The juice of the anemone root, chewed in small quantities, stimu- lates the salival glands, and fre- quently affords sudden relief in ex- cruciating tooth-ache, if it proceed from an acrimony or superfluity of humours, in phlegmatic habits..... When boiled in rich wine, and ap- plied as a cataplasm, it not only abates inveterate inflammations of the eyes, but also cleanses indolent and foul ulcers. Its leaves and stalks, slowly simmered in ptisan, and occasionally eaten, are said un- commonly to increase the maternal milk. If credit be due to the an- cients, they also cure that frequent and destructive complaint of young females, called chlorosis; and, when beaten up with a mixture of bees-Avax and turpentine, so as to form a pessary, tend to restore the catamenia. We doubt, hoAvever, whether the numerous other vir- tues ascribed to this vegetable, be founded on truth; yet we believe that external applications of it, pro- perly repeated, especially the leaves, bruised together with marshmal- Ioav root or other cooling herbs, may cure paralytic attacks in their commencement, herpetic eruptions, and even the leprosy ; though we would not rely upon its efficacy in true syphilis, in caries or mortifi- cation of the bones, and still less, in cases of melancholy, or mania. The dark violet leaves of this species, when boiled together with those of the Serratula tinctoria, L. or common saw-wort, and a pro- per addition of alum, afford, ac- cording to Prof. Pallas, an excel- lent water-colour for landscape and other paintings. 2. Anemone Pulsatilla, L. or Pasque ] "loAver, so called because it generally blossoms about Easter, when it adorns some of our dry, chalky-hills. In April it bears beautiful bell-shaped flowers, of a purple or reddish colour. A de- scription and representation of it may be found in Soaverby's Eng- lish Botany, p. 4. 3....5 1. Although this species may not be possessed of healing virtues similar to the preceding, yet it is asserted that its flowers are of great efficacy in curing inveterate ulcers, in man and cattle. As it is a poisonous plant, the inhabitants of Kamtschat- ka use its leaves for staining their arrows ; which unless the Avound be immediately cleansed, and the communicated virus extracted by the mouth, are said to prove inevit- ably fatal: in like manner, these un- tutored savages destroy the Avhales which frequent their coast. Both the flowers and leaves of this species are employed by fo- reign dyers for green colours of various shades. From the expres- sed juice of the leaAes, a green ink may be prepared; and if the florets only be used, it will be a lighter shade, but from the whole flower, the colour will be much deeper.... Relying on the authority of Da.m- bourney, Ave shall add, that animal wool previously immersed in a so- lution of bismuth, acquires a pleas- ing light vigogne colour. 3. Anemone nemorota, L. or the Wood-Anemone; another wild sort, bearing only one white, or some- times purplish, flower on a plant. ....See Curtis's Flor. JLond. ii. 38. AN E A N E 55 In medicine this plant may be usefully employed as a substitute for cantharides, or Spanish flies ; for it produces not only a more speedy, but less painful effect. Its juice is so extremely acrid, that it has been justly suspected to occasion the dysentery among ca*tk\ and inflam- mation, accompanied with a dis- charge of bloody urine, in sheep. fTe:ve the necessity of guarding these animals against the cause of distempers, which are frequently so formidable in their consequences, as to deprive the u.a wary husband- man of a great portion of his most valuable live-stock. 4. Anemone ranunculoides, L. or the YelloAV Wood-Anemone. See p. 5. Gerard's Herbal, 333. I. On account of its corrosive acri- mony, the juice of this vegetable is also used by the inhabitants of Kamtschatka, for a similar delete- rious purpose as is mentioned of the second species. [ In the United States, we have, 1. Anemone Virginiana, 2. A. Pennsylvanica, 3. A.Quinquefolia, 4. A. Thalictroides. This last grows near the city of Philadelphia in the woods, and deserves to be cultivated for its elegant simplicity.] ANEMOSCOPE, a mechanical instrument for determining the course' and velocity of the wind..... That part which exhibits the for- mer, or shews from what point of the compass the wind blows, con- sists of an h dex, moving round an uoright circular plate, like the dial of a clock ; on which, instead of the hours, the thirty-two points of the compass are represented. The index which points to the divisions on the dial, is turned by a horizon- tal axis, having a trundle-head at its out .vard extremity. This trun- dle-head is moved by a cog-wheel, on a perpendicular axis ; at the top of which is fixed a vane, moving with the course of the a, ind, and imparting motion to the whole ma- chine. The contrivance is extreme- ly simple, and requires in its con- struction only, that the number of cogs in the wheel, and rounds in thetrundle-head.be equal; because when the vane moves entirely round, the index of the dial should also make a complete revolution. An anemoscope of this cour.truction is placed in one of the turrets of Buckingham-house, the residence of Her present Majesty. The anemoscope invented by Mr. Pickering, and published in the Philosophical Transactions,No. 473, is a machine four feet and a quarter high, consisting of a broad and weighty pedestal,apillar, attach- ed to it, and an iron axis, about half an inch in diameter, fastened into the pillar. Upon this axis turns a wooden tube ; at the top of which is placed a vane, of the same ma- terials, twenty-one inches long, consisting of a quadrant, graduated, and shod Avith an iron ring, notch- ed to each degree ; and a counter- poise of wood on the other, as re- presented in the figure. Through the center of the quadrant runs an iron pin ; upon which are fastened two small round pieces of wood, serving as moveable radii to des- cribe the degrees upon the quad- rant, and as handles to a velum or sail ; the pane of which is one foot square, made of canvas stretched on four battens, and painted. On the upper batten, next to the shod rim of the quadrant, is a small spring, Avhich catches at every notch, corresponding to each de- gree, as the sail may be raised on the pressure of the wind, and thus 56 ANE A N E its falling back prevented, when the force of the Avind decreases..... At the bottom of the wooden tube is an iron index, which moves round a circular piece of Avood fastened to the top of the pillar, on the pedes- tal, where the thirty-two points of the compass are described. We have annexed a representation of this machine : a is the pedestal; b the pillar on which the iron axis is fitted ; c, the circle of avoocI repre- senting the points of the compass ; e, the wooden tube upon its axis ; f, the velum; g, the graduated quadrant; h, the counterpoise of the vane. The subjoined figure represents the velum, which may be taken off; a is the plane of the velum; b, the spring; cc, the avoocI- en radii; d, d, the holes through which passes the pin, in the center of the quadrant. This instrument serves the fol- lowing useful purposes. 1. Having a circvdar motion round the iron axis, and being fur- nished Avith a vane at the top, and an index at the bottom, as soon as the artificial points described on the round piece of wood on the pil- lar are fixed to the corresponding quarters of the heavens, it faithfully points out the quarter from which the wind bloAvs. 2. Being furnished Avith a velum, or sail, elevated by the wind, along the arch of the quadrant, to an height proportionate to the power of the column of wind pressing against it, its relative force and its comparative poAver, at any two times of examination, may be ac- curately taken. 3. By means of a spring fitted to the notches of the iron, Avith which the quadrant is shod, the velum is prevented from returning upon the fall of the wind; and the instru- ment, without the trouble of watch- ing it, ascertains the force of the ANE highest blast, since the last time of examination. This machine may be confidently depended upon, as the velum is hung so nicely, that it is suscep- tible of the most gentle breeze, and will also- describe the force of the wind in a violent storm. There is, however, reason to apprehend, that by exposing the anemoscope to all winds, especially to irregular blasts and squalls, for a length of time, it may become inaccurate. The ob- server ought, therefore, to take the tube with its vane and velum, in his hand, with a view to learn the force of the wind; and, after having made his observation, he should return with the machine into the house, till the violence of the storm sub- side. ANEURISM, in surgery, sig- nifies a throbbing tumor, occasion- ed by the dilation or rupture of an artery: it consists of three kinds, viz. the true or encysted, the false or diffused, and the varicose. The true aneurism, Avhen situa- ted near the surface of the body, produces a tumor, at first small and circumscribed, but, Avhen press- ed by the finger, it manifests a dis- tinct puteation. By degrees it in- creases, and becomes more pro- minent; still, however, the patient does not complain of any pain. As it grows larger, the skin turns more pale than usual, also more phlegmonous, or swollen, and at length assumes a livid and gangre- nous appearance. A bloody scrum now oozes through the integu- ments; the skin cracks in several places; and the artery, being de- prived of the usual resistance, dis- charges its blood Avith such velocity, as to occasion almost instantaneous death. VOL. i. ANE 57 The false aneurism consists of a wound or rupture of an artery, and, by the extravasation of blood, pro- duces a SAvelling of the contiguous parts. If not improperly treated by constant and close pressure, it ge- nerally remains nearly of the same size, for several weeks. Instances have occurred, where the blood has diffused itself over the Avhole arm in a few hours; as,on the contrary, SAvellings of this kind have been months, nay, even years, in arriving at any considerable size. The varicose aneurism is that which arises from the puncture of an artery, and sometimes happens in blood-letting. This circumstance, it is hoped, will point out the ne- cessity of persons applying to regu- lar practitioners, Avho are acquaint- ed with the situation of the blood- vessels, and not employing, as is too frequently the case, ignorant and unskilful pretenders, for the performance of this important oper- ation: soon after the injury has been committed, the vein Avhich immediately communicates with the wounded artery, begins to swell, and gradually to enlarge. Upon pressure, the tumor disappears, be- cause the blood contained in it is pushed forwards in its circulation to the heart; and Avhen large, there is a singular tremulous motion, at- tended Avith a hissing noise, as if air were passing through a small aper- ture. The causes which generally pro- duce aneurisms, are a peculiar pre- disposition of the arteries, when they are in a relaxed state; a par- tial debility of their coats; exces- sive bodily exertions; stooping, and lifting great weights; acrid matter contained in a neighbouring sore; intemperance, &c. Where they 58 ANG A NG arise from any external accident, an operation may be attended with success; but, in all other cases, art can afford but iittle assistance. In a complaint of this nature, it is presumed that the earliest ap- plication Avill be made to profes- sional men; and as the narrow li- mits of this work do not permit us to enter into a more minute inves- tigation, Ave shall close this article with describing a new method of treating an aneurism, recommend- ed by Mr. Lambert, surgeon at Newcastle upon Tyre, in a letter to Dr. Hunter. This Avas suc- cessfully practised, by passing a steel pin, one-fourth of an inch in length, through the lips of the wounded artery, and then securing it in the same manner as in the operation for the hare-lip, by twist- ing a thread round it. It Avas per- formed on the 15th of June, 1763, and on the 19th of the following month, the patient was dismissed, perfectly well; the pulsation of that arm remaining nearly as strong as in the former. Anethum Foeniculum, L. See Common Fennel. ANGELICA, is a plant of which there are seven species, though only two of them may be ranked among the indigenous. 1. Angelica Archangelica, L. or the Garden Angelica, is a large umbelliferous plant. An accurate botanical description and delineation of it may be seen in Dr. Wood- ville's Medical Botany; vol. i. p. 138. pi. 50. The stalk of this magni- ficent plant, when properly cultivat- ed in a moist soil, rise to the height of seven or eight feet; its flowers are of a greenish white colour, or sometimes yellow. Every part of this useful vege- table, the root, stalk, leaves, and seeds, partake of the aromatic pro- perties ; whence the Germans de- nominate it angel-root, or breast- root, being one of the most spicy plants of European growth. Its resinous root, and the seeds, are chiefly esteemed in medicine, and the former, when fresh, affords by distillation a strong and fragrant spirit, and an essential oil, in the proportion of a whole drachm, and upwards, from one pound. A tincture made of one ounce digest- ed in twelve ounces of proof spirits, yields, on evaporation, two drachms of a very pungent and spicy ex- tract. This is generally preferred by the Medical College of Berlin; a valuable member of Avhich, the late Dr. Gleditsh, giA-es the fol- lowing account of its effects: Fifteen grains of this extract, which are equal to one ounce, or two table-spoonsful, of the tincture, dilated with Avater, and taken three times or oftener in a day, prove a gently stimulating medicine, well calculated to strengthen the solids, and especially serviceable for dis- pelling flatulency, removing pec- toral complaints, and affording ef- fectual relief in hysterics. The oily, spiritous and resinous part of it, tends to resolve viscid humours, while its gummy and balsamic constituents beneficially act on the fluids. Being very mild in its oper- ation, the angelica deserves the preference to many other roots of this nature, and may therefore be usefully employed in flatulent co- lics, obstructions of the breast, and uterus, malignant fevers, and the true scurvy, in doses of two drachms in substance, conveyed either in tea, or mild Avine. Exter- nally it may be applied to scorbutic gums; and, when boiled in water, it affords a good gargle for swell- ANG A N G 59 mgs of the throat and fauces, as well as for cleansing ulcers. It may farther be used with advan- tage in a bruised state, as an ingre- dient in cataplasms and fomenta- tions on the abdomen, to relieve painful distensions of the bowels, or to strengthen a Aveak and disor- dered stomach, if the patient at the same time pay proper attention to diet and regimen. 2.^'ngelica Sylvcstris, L. or Wild Angelica, is a much smaller plant, of a thinner and less succulent stem than the former. It grows in marshy woods and in hedges, flow- ers in June or July, and is repre- sented in Gerard's Herbal, 999. 1. This species, however possesses, but in an inferior degree, the medi- cinal properties of the preceding, which may always be more readily procured. Both the garden and wild an- gelica, delight in a moist soil; the seeds should be soavti immediately after they are perfectly ripe. As the leaves of the young plants spread wide, and require much ground, they should be transplanted at a considerable distance, when they are about six inches in height. Unless the roots be thoroughly dried, they are apt to grow mouldy, and be preyed upon by insects : hence the necessity ofkeeping them in a dry place, Avhich should be frequently aired. It has been sug- gested, for the preservation of these useful roots, that they should be dipped in boiling spirit, or ex- posed to its steam, in a dry stale. We believe, however, thai this ex- pensive process may be rendered unnecessary, by gathering the root in a dry season, suspending it in an airy room, upon threads, and guarding against the attacks of ver- min. Cattle are exceedingly fond of eating the fresh spring leaves of the wild angelica, which to them are a good cleansing and strengthening medicine : bees visit its white flow- ers, and extract from them a more balsamic honey. Hence its growth should be encouraged, and even artificially promoted, especially as it is one of those plants which have lately been used with success as a substitute for oak-bark, in tanning leather, and particularly in prepar- ing a kind of morocco from sheep, calf, and goat-skins. Lastly, Dambourney asserts, that, from the leaves of the last mentioned species, he produced a beautiful and permanent gold co- lour, in dying avooI properly pre- pared by a solution of bismuth. [We have some species of An- gelica in the United States, a. spino^a, a. atropurpurea, or purple angelica, a. lucida, or shining, a. sylvestris, or Avild angelica. The latter dyes a good yellow.] AMGER may be defined to be a violent passion of the mind, aris- ing from a sense of personal injury, and attended with an ardent desire of revenge. It is either delib? ntive or in- stinctive; in the latter case, it is rash and precipitate, and blindly operates, regardless of the present, or of future consequences; in the former, it anticipates the moment of revenge, and nudi'tates retalia- tion, it is not always, r.owever, a selfish passion, since it is as fre- quently excited by injuries offered to others as to ourselves, and is of en the distinguishing character- istic of a susceptible and vigorous mind. Indulged to excess, and excited by every petty provocation, it be- comes habitual, and is sometimes 60 AN G ANG productive of the most fatal effects. Independent of its moral conse- quences, excessive anger produces spasmodic contractions, and stagna- tion in the liver and its vessels ; and, by these means, renders them schirrous, often generating stones and gravel in the gall-bladder and biliary ducts. When accompanied with affliction, it usually occasions paleness of the countenance, pal- pitation of the heart, faltering of the tongue, trembling of the limbs, and jaundice. When the hope of revenge is the predominant feature in anger, it causes violent commo- tions of the Avhole system, strong pulsation of the arteries, and a quick circulation; the vital spirits flow rapidly and irregularly through the whole body; the muscles are contracted, and some of them ap- pear almost palsied ; the cheeks are flushed, the eyes sparkle with additional lustre, and the whole frame feels unusual animation, and a desire of motion. Anger is particularly injurious to infants, Avho, from the sensibility of their frames, are extremely sus- ceptible of this passion, and are sometimes so severely affected as to die suddenly in convulsions, or to retain, ever after, an imbecility of mind and body, arising from its powerful impression. Persons of an irritable habit are more fre- quently liable to its aitacks ; hence il generally appears in individuals Avho are troubled Avith nervous, hysterical, andhypochondrical com- plaints. Those of a hot and dry temperament, of strong black hair, and great muscular strength, are likewise much exposed to its in- fluence. We ought, as rational agents, to beware of encouraging such de- structive emotions; for it is certain, that men and women, possessing an irascible temper, generally die of pulmonary consumptions ; and young persons, especially females, should be informed, that indepen- pently of its moral turpitude, it de- forms the face, steals the rose from the cheek of beauty, and not only tends to extinguish the most tender affections, but sometimes even pro- duces aversion. On its first approach, persons subject to the invasion of this tur- bulent passion, should, as much as possible,divert their attention from the cause, by an application to some other object. A propensity to anger is increased by Avant of sleep, stimulant food, spices, Avines, and such things as have a tendency to inflame the blood. Hence they ought to make use of diluent, aci- dulated, and gently aperient drink; and in every respect observe the most rigid temperance: they should allow themselves more sleep, em- ploy the hike-warm bath, and in- dulge in the eating of fruit, butter- milk, whey, vegetable aliment, &c. ...See Grief, Passions,Revenge, Terror. ANGLING, among sportsmen, is the art of fishing with a rod, to which are fitted a line, hook, and bait. The season for this amuse- ment commences about the month of June, and the proper hours are, at the dawn of day, and about three o'clock in the afternoon ; at which times the fish, in ponds and small rivers, are accustomed to feed. Easterly winds afford but little sport to the angler ; for those bloAV- ing from the south, are the most conducive to his purpose ; and a Avarm, but lovvring day, is of all others the most propitious. A cloudy day following a bright moon- light night, is always an auspicious ANG AN I 61 omen ; as the fish do not love to seek for food in the moon-shine, and are, therefore, always hungry the next morning. The observa- tion of small fish, confined in ajar, either refusing or taking food, af- fords a good criterion of the most convenient season. Upon taking his stand, the angler should shelter himself under some tree or bush, or remain at least so far from the brink of the water, that he may just discern his float; as the fish are timorous, and easily frightened away. The rod must be preserved in a moderate state, neither too dry nor too moist, as in these cases it Avill be either brit- tle or rotten. Various baits are used; such as worms, artificial flies, paste made of boiled cheese, beat up with poAvdered quick-lime, £cc. when these last are employed, it will be proper to cement them Avith a little tow, and rub them over with honey. The best method of using the ily, is down the current of the stream; and half a dozen trials will be sufficient to determine, whether the fish will take or refuse the bait.....With respect to the ha- bitations most congenial to particu- lar kinds of fish, it deserves to be noticed, that bream are to be found in the deepest and most quiet places; eels, under the banks of rivers ; perch and roach, in a pure, swift stream ; chub, in deep, shad- ed holes ; and trout, in clear, rapid brooks. Situations abounding in weeds, or old stumps of trees, often harbour numbers of fish, which bite freely ; but there is great hazard of breaking the line, or en- tangling the hook. The openings of sluices and mill-dams always in- vite them up the current, to seek for the food which is conveyed Avith the stream ; and angling in these places is generally successful....See Fishing. ANIMALCULE, in its general acceptation, merely signifies a little animal, but is usually applied to those living objects, which are in- visible to the naked eye, and can be discoverable only by the assistance of glasses. By the invention of the micros- cope, we haAre become acquainted with a variety of animals, which, from their minuteness, Avould other- wise have escaped our observation; and there is reason to believe that myriads of them exist, both in the atmosphere and on the earth,which elude the human eye, even Avhen assisted by this instrument. They are of various kinds, and to be met with in different natural bodies. By the assistance of magnifying glasses, they may be seen in water, vinegar, beer, milk, Sec. they are also found in corn, paste, flour, and other fa- rinaceous substances. In the year 1677, M. Leaven- hoeck first discovered their exist- ence in the human semen, and that of the lower animals ; their num- ber is inconceivable. On vieAving with a microscope the milt or seed of a male cod-fish, he found them in such SAvarms, and of so diminu- tive a size, that he supposed 10,000" of them, at least, capable of being contained in the bulk of a grain of sand ; whence he concludes, that the semen of this fish produces more animalcule than there are found living persons in the whole Avorld. They appear to be very vigorous and tenacious of life, as they continue to move long after the animal, from which they are taken, is dead. They also have this peculiarity, that they are in 62 AN I AN I constant motion, without intermis- sion, provided there be sufficient fluid, in which they may SAvim. Great numbers of animalcule, some of which are of an oval figure, and others resemble eels, are to be found in the whitish mat- terthat adheres between the human teeth; but they have never hitherto been discovered, either in the blood, saliva, urine, bile, or chyle. Animalcule are generated by putrefaction, and are supposed to produce many diseases, such as the plague, typhus, marsh miasma, &c. The small-pox, measles, and other cutaneous eruptions, are also by many conjectured to owe their origin to this source. The existence of animalcule in the semen, has by several authors been denied, and among others by Mr. Needham, who, in an inqui- ry into the generation or produc- tion of animals, observes that seeds macerated in water, first disunite into small, motionless, and ap- parently inert particles, but that these afterwards possess power of motion, and seem alive, though in reality they are not so. Fie asserts, thatthere are no pre-existent germs formed for the production of ani- mals, or vegetables, but that mat- ter, organized in a peculiar man- ner, in its minute assemblages, produces them. In this opinion he is supported by M. Buffon, Reaumur, Maupertuis, and other French Naturalists.....See Generation and Microscope. ANIMAL FLOWER (Actinia Sociata) from its supposed property of stinging, was formerly called Sea-Nettle, or Sea-Anemone, but by late English writers has receiv- ed its present name. This singu- lar animal was found in some of the islands, which were ceded to this country in the late treaty of peace with France. It is of a tender, fleshy substance, Avhich consists of many tubular bodies, gently swell- ing towards the upper part, and terminating like a bulb, or very small onion : its only orifice is in the centre of the uppermost part, surrounded with rows of tentacles, or claws, which, when contracted, appear like circles of beads. This opening is capable of great exten- sion, and it is amazing to see what large fish some of them can swal- Ioav, such as muscles, crabs, 8cc. When the animal has scratched out the fish, it throws back the shells through the same passage. From this aperture likewise, it pro- duces its young ones alive, already furnished with little claws, Avhich they extend in search of food, as soon as they are fixed. At Ioav water, they are found on the rocky coasts of Sussex and Cornwall, at- tached in the shalloAvsto some solid substance, by a broad base, like a sucker. This base is Avorthy of notice....the knobs observable on it, are formed into several parts, by its insinuating itself into the inequali- ties of rocks, or grasping pieces of shells, part of which frequently remain in it, covered with the fleshy substance. By its assist- ance, they are enabled to preserve themselves from the violence of the weaves, and withstand the fury of a storm. Animal flowers very much resemble the exterior leaves of the anemone, and their limbs are not unlike its shag, or inner part. They are said to possess, in an extraordinary degree, the power of re-production, so that to multi- ply them at pleasure, nothing more is necessary than to cut a single one into several pieces. ANIMAL FOOD. See Food. ANI A N I 63 ANIMAL KINGDOM, an ex- pression which includes all orga- nized living bodies capable of sen- sation and voluntary motion : and essentially differing from plants and minerals, which have neither organs of sense, nor the poAver of loco-motion. Another circumstance affords a criterion to distinguish animals from vegetables and fossils; which, in many instances, so closely border on each other, especially the two former, that naturalists have fre- quently hesitated, to which of these kingdoms certain marine productions, for instance, the po- lypus, may Avith the greatest pro- priety be referred.....See Vegeta- ble and Mineral Kingdoms. The circumstance alluded to is the following : 1. All bodies which grow from without, that is, derive their origin and increase in such manner as to approximate to themselves certain foreign and inert particles, and are incapable of motion, consequently inanimate, are called minerals or fossils. 2. Bodies having no aggregate form, but groAving from within, being proA-ided with certain tubes or vessels adapted to the circulation of fluids, which afford them nou- rishment and promote their exten- sion, may be said to enjoy a pas- sive life, and are therefore termed vtgetables, or plants. 3. Living creatures which like- wise grow from within, and are en- doAved not only with those A'essels, but also Avith organs of sense, the faculty of loco-motion, and the power of distinguishing one external object from another, yet do not en- joy the advantages of reason, are generally denominated animals. Hence arise the three divisions of natural bodies, consisting of the Animal, Vegetable, and Mine- ral Kingdoms. Although naturalists, in general, have included man in the first of these kingdoms, yet the propriety of this classification may justly be doubted. He possesses, indeed, organs and faculties in common with the brute creation, yet no in- stance has been discovered, w hich evinces that the inferior animals enjoy thai noble and most import- ant of all the gifts of Providence, " reason." On account of this distinguish- ing characteristic, we are irresisti- bly induced to separate man from the ape, the elephant, the lion, and all irrational animals, over which no other than the reasoning faculty could confer upon us the exclusive dominion. Trusting, therefore, that naturalists will, without hesi- tation, agree with us in the neces- sity of rescuing the human race, however at present depraved, from the humiliating situation in which it is placed among the inferior ani- mals, Ave venture, with due defer- ence to their judgment, to exclude our species from the subsequent division of the animal kingdom, which consists of sixdistinctclasses. I. Mamillary Animals are furnish- ed with a heart of two ventricles and two auricles ; have a red, Avarm blood, breathe through lungs, pro- duce living young ones, and suckle them with their milk. II. Birds likewise have a heart of four cavities, red, Avarm blood, respire through lungs, deposit eggs, and are uniformly provided Avith beaks and wings. III. Amphibious Animals possess a heart, but it has only one ven- 64 AN I tricle and one auricle ; thie those which were former-' ly said to be produced by magic. Animation may be either dimi- nished, or suspended without in- juring or destroying the living prin- ciple. The former eflcct may be seen in those persons A^ho have suffered ficiu long and close con- finement in prisons, hospitals, croAvded and heated assemblies, as vch as in fevers, consumptions, and ether chronic complaints. In these cases, a proper and moderate application of the necessary sti- muli, such as air, exercbe, a nourishing diet, he. will generally accomplish, either its partial or complete restoration. Of the lat- ter, various instances have lately happened: persons who were ac- cidentally suffocated or droAvned, have, by timely and proper means (particularly those recommended by that excellent institution, the Royal Humane Society), been suc- cessfully re-animated, when life it- self seemed on the eve of depart- ing. Among those causes which prin- cipally tend to preserve and increase animation, are temperance, gentle exercise, nourishing diet, wine, moderate gratifications, and con- stant activity, both corporeal and mental; Various methods have, at differ- ent times, been recommended to restore animation when suspended, either from suffocation or drown- ing. In Spain, they first lay the body with its head downwards, near a fire, till it begins to feel warm, and eject water from the trachea, or Avindpipe; they then foment the Avhole breast, and seat of the heart, with spirits of wine, brandy, or bread dipped in strong wines. By these means, if the vital principle be not extinct, the circulation of the blood is usually restored....The French Academy advise tobacco-smoke to be forci- bly injected into the anus and lungs, after which a vein to be opened in the arm and foot: it is asserted, that by this method, per- sons Avho have lain many hours under Avater, have been happily re- suscitated. In the Journal Historique sur lea matieres du terns, for Dec. 1753, a case is related by Dr. Du Mou- lin, Avho succeeded in recovering a young woman, after she had lain for several hours under water. All pulsation having ceased, he consi- dered it as a desperate case, and was induced to try a method he had frequently observed to be suc- cessful with flies and other insects, which, when droAvned or apparently dead, had been revived by half burving them in ashes or salt. He accordingly ordered a quantity of dry pot-ashes to be strewed, about 68 AN I ANI three inches deep, on a bed: upon this layer his patient Avas placed, and another, about two inches in depth Avas spread over her. The head Avas covered with a cap con- taining some of these ashes; and a stocking filled with the same ma- terial Avas placed round her throat. Blankets were then laid on the bed; and in half an hour her pulse began to beat; after Avhich she quickly recovered. If pot-ash can- not be readily procured, dry salt may be used as a substitute. In Russia, the common people are frequently deprived of sensa- tion, by pestilential vapours arising from the folloAving cause. Persons of rank, in that country, have dou- ble AvindoAvs to their houses in winter, but those of the poorer classes are only single. During frosty Aveather, an incrustation is formed on the inside of those win- dows, from a condensation of the breath, perspiration, &c. of a number of persons living together in the same room. This mephitic crust is mixed with the noxious fumes of candles, and of the OA^en with which the chamber is heated. When a thaw succeeds, and this plate of ice is converted into water, a deleterious principle is disen- gaged, which produces effects si- milar to those arising from the fumes of charcoal. The method of recovering persons affected by this effluvia, is as follows: they are immediately carried out of doors, and placed on the snow, Avith no other covering but a shirt and linen drawers. Their temples, and the region of the stomach are then Avell rubbed Avith snow ; and cold water and milk is poured down their throats. The friction is continued till the livid hue of the skin disappears, and the surface acquires its natural colour. In cases of apparent death, from droAvning, it is necessary to rub the breast and temples for a consi- derable time with salt, and all the other parts with warm cloths. Bladders filled Avith warm water, or bricks heated and wrapped in flannel, should be applied to the soles of the feet, under the arm- pits, and between the thighs. The head should be covered with blan- kets, to preserve the lungs from too sudden an ingress of the air, on the renewal of respiration. When symptoms of returning ani- mation appear, a few ounces of blood may be taken from the arm. Farther directions for the ma- nagement of bodies in that unfor- tunate situation, we propose to communicate under the articles of Droavning, Suspension by the cord, Lightning, £cc. As a proof of the success which has attended the exertions of medi- cal men in this country, who have liberally co-operated with the be- nevolent design of the Royal Hu- mane Society, under the immedi- ate patronage of our august Sove- reign, we shall adjourn this sub- ject, in the words of our wor- thy friend, the philanthropic Dr. Hawes, a gentleman whose inte- grity and disinterested activity de- serve equal commendation: " Ani- mation (says this noble veteran), has been given to thousands since 1774, the birth of our life-saving labours." ANISE,or Pimpinella, in botany, is an annual, umbelliferous and aromatic plant, of which there are ten species. The Common Burnet Saxifrage, orthePimpinella Saxifraga, L. grows ANI AN I 69 on a dry, calcareous, gravelly soil, blossoms in July and August; and is described in Dr. Withering's Arrangement of British Plants, p. 311, and Eng. Bot. T. 407. Every part of this useful plant has a fragrant smell and taste, and is subservient to many beneficial purposes. The white root of the burnet- saxifrage is of a very hot, pungent, bitterish taste, which may be en- tirely extracted in rectified spirits of wine, and affords a medicine of great efficacy in scorbutic and cu- taneous disorders in general, but especially for dropsical and asthma- tic complaints, in which it has been administered by the great Boer- haave, with singular success. Al- though he directs it to be taken on- ly in a Avatery infusion, yet we would prefer the tincture, as pos- sessing in a superior degree the me- dicinal virtues of the root. In short, the physicians of Germany fre- quently prescribe it in cases where emollient, resolvent, detergent, diu- retic, and stomachic remedies are indicated, as well as for removing tumors and obstructions in the glands. Frederic Hoffman asserts, that this vegetable is an excellent medicine for promoting the men- ses ; while other writers recom- mend it in all cases Avhere pituitous humours are supposed to prevail, such as catarrhal coughs, hoarse- ness, and humid asthma, but particularly in a symptomatic sore throat, called the mucous quinsy. There is a variety of the burnet- saxifrage growing av ild in Branden- burgh, and denominated by Els- holz, a Prussian botanist, the Pimpinella coerulea or the blue pimpinella; as it differs from the former only, by yielding a blue colour in rectified spirit, a similar oil on distillation, and a fine blue juice on expressing the fresh root. For this reason, we have men- tioned it, as it may probably afford a proper substitute for indigo, in remote places where that cannot readily be obtained. The young leaves and shoots of this species are very palatable, and are eaten as sallad : small bunches of them tied together, and suspend- ed in a cask of table-beer, or ale, impart to it an agreeable aromatic taste; and, it is affirmed, that they likewise tend to correct tart and spoiled wines, which, by this sim- ple expedient, may be restored to their former briskness. As the herbs of this plant are acknowledged to be a very Avhole- some fodder for cows, to increase their milk, and to preserve them against epidemics, we presume to recommend its culture to the far- mer and grazier. The Great Burnet-Saxifrage, or the Pimpinella magna, L. delights in shady places, on a calcareous soil, also floAvers in July and August; and is described by YY i- thering, p. 313, and Eng. Bot. T. 408. It is stated to possess properties similar to the former, though cat- tle refuse to browze upon it, on account of its hard stalks, Avhich often attain the height of four feet. The Dwarf I'urnet-Saxifrage, or Pimpinella dioica, L. only grows on hilly pastures and calcareous soils, for instance; on St. Vincent's Rock, near Bristol, and above Uphill, in Somersetshire. It bears flowers in May and June; is described by Witetking, p. 313 ; and delineated in Gerard'* Herbal, 1054. 3. 70 ANN ANN Its properties are not sufficiently ascertained ; but being a dAvarfish plant, the two preceding species in every respect deserve the prefer- ence. ANNEALING, by artificers call- ed nealing, is a part of the process of making, or finishing, glass ; and consists in placing bottles and other vessels, Avhile hot, in a kind of oven or furnace, where they are suffered gradually to cool. The difference between unan- nealed, and annealed glass, is very remarkable. When a glass vessel that has not undergone this process, is broken, it often flies into a small powder with a violence apparent- ly disproportionate to the stroke which it received. In general, it is in greater danger of being broken from a very shgnt blow, than from a more considerable one. Such a vessels will often resist the effects of a pistol bullet dropt into it, from the height of two or three feet, yet a grain of sand falling into it, will break, it into small fragments. This sometimes takes place immediately on dropping the sand into it, but the vessel will frequently remain apparently sound, for several mi- nutes after ; when, .without the least touch, it will suddenly fly to pieces. If the glass be very thin, this effect does not take place ; and, on the contrary, it seems to possess all the properties of such as are annealed. Glass isoneof those bodies Avhich increase in bulk, on passing from a fluid to a solid state. When it is allowed to crystalize regularly, the particles are so arranged, that it has a fibrous texture ; but, when a mass of melted glass is suddenly exposed to a cold temperature, the surface crystalizes, and forms a firm shell round the interior fluid parts, by Avhich they become solid, and are prevented from expanding. By the process of annealing, the glass is preserved for some time in a state approaching to fluidity ; the heat increases the bulk of the crys- talized part, and renders it so soft, that the internal fibres have an op- portunity of expanding and forming a regular crystallization. A similar process is now used for rendering kettles, and other ves- sels of cast iron, less brittle ; Avhich admits of the same explanation as that above stated. The greater number of metals diminish in bulk when they pass from a fluid to a solid state. Iron, on the contrary, expands. ANNUITY implies a sum of money payable yearly, half-yearly, or quarterly, to continue for a cer- tain number of years, for life, or for ever. An annuity is called an arrear, when it continues unpaid after it becomes due ; and is said to be in reAersion, Avhen the purchaser, upon paying the price, does not immediately enter upon possession: the annuity not commencing till some time after. The interest upon annuities may be computed either in the simple or compound manner. But the latter, being most equitable, is ge- nerally preferred. In the first class, viz. in those which extend for a limited period, the principal considerations are, the annuity, rate, and time being given, to find the amount, or sum of yearly payments, and interest. These are readily ascertained, by a series of algebraical calculations. In freehold estates, the principal circumstances to be attended to, are: 1. The annuity or yearly rent. 2. The price, or present value; and, ANN ANN 71 S. The rate of interest. The value of life-annuities is de- termined by comparative observa- tions and calculations derived from the bills of mortality. Several computations have been made for this purpose ; the most esteemed of which are those by Dr. Hal- ley, Mr. Simpson, and M. De Moivre. Breslaw, the capital of Silesia, being a central place, and not much crowded, was fixed upon by Dr. Halley, who had recourse to the bills of mortality, when he com- posed his table. He selected 1000 persons, all born in one year, and observed, how many of these re- mained alive every year from their birth, to the extinction of the last; and, consequently, ascertained the number which died in each year, as follows: Persons Persons Age. living. Age. living. 1 1000 24 573 , 2 855 25 567 3 798 26 560 4 760 27 553 5 732 28 546 6 710 29 539 7 692 30 531 8 680 31 523 9 670 32 515 10 661 33 507 11 653 34 499 12 646 35 490 13 640 36 481 14 634 37 472 15 628 38 463 16 622 39 454 17 616 40 445 18 610 41 436 19 604 42 427 20 598 43 417 21 592 44 407 22 586 45 397 23 579 46 387 Age. Persons liA-ing. Age. Persons living. 47 377 70 142 48 367 71 131 49 357 72 120 50 346 73 109 51 335 74 98 52 324 75 88 53 313 76 78 54 302 77 68 55 292 78 1 58 56 282 79 . 49 57 272 80 41 58 262 81 34 59 252 82 28 60 242 83 23 61 232 84 20 62 222 85 15 63 212 86 11 64 202 87 8 65 192 88 5 66 182 89 o o 67 172 90 1 68 162 91 0 69 | 152 _ As there is allowed to be a greater disparity between births and burials in the city of London, than in any other place, Mr. Simp- son selects 1280 persons, all born in the same year, and records the number remaining alive each year, till none be left, in order to form a table particularly suited to this po- pulous city. The following is Mr. Simpson's table on the bills of mortality, at London: Age. Persons living. Age. Persons living. 0 1280 5 580 1 870 6 564 2 700 7 551 3 635 8 541 4 600 9 532 72 ANN ANN Age. Persons living. Age. Persons living. 10 524 53 180 11 517 54 172 12 510 55 165 13 504 56 158 14 493 57 151 15 492 58 144 16 486 59 137 17 480 60 130 18 474 61 123 19 468 62 117 20 462 63 111 21 455 64 105 22 448 65 '99 23 441 66 93 24 434 67 87 25 426 68 81 26 418 69 75 27 410 70 69 28 402 71 64 29 394 72 59 30 385 73 54 31 376 74 49 32 367 75 45 33 358 76 41 34 349 77 38 35 340 78 35 36 331 79 32 37 322 80 29 38 313 81 26 39 304 82 23 40 294 83 20 41 284 84 17 42 274 85 14 43 264 86 12 44 255 87 10 45 246 88 8 46 237 89 6 47 228 90 5 48 220 91 4 49 212 92 3 50 204 93 2 51 196 94 1 52 188 95 0 But these tables, however per- fect they may be in themselves, must be considered only as proba- ble conjectures, founded on the usual period of human life, which is estimated as follows : 1. The probability that a person of a given age may live a certain number of years, is measured by the proportion which the number of persons living at the proposed age bears to the difference between the said number, and that of per- sons existing at the given ages. Thus, if it be required to know what chance a person 40 years of age may have to live seven years longer, the reader should refer to Dr. Halley's table, and from 445', the number of persons living at 40 years of age, subtract the number of persons living at 47 years of age, and the remainder, being 68, will be the number of those who have died dur- ing those seven years. The proba- bility, that the person in question will live these seven years, is in the proportion of 377 to 68, or nearly as 5i to 1. By Mr. Simpson's table, the chance is somewhat less than that of 4 to 1. If it be desirable to ascertain the year, Avhich a person of a given age has an equal chance of attain- ing, the inquirer ought to find half the number of persons living at that given age, in the tables ; and the year required will appear in the column of ages. The premium of insurance upon lives may also, in some degree, be regulated by these tables, as follows: The chance which a person of 25 years has to live another year, is, by Dr. Halley's table, as 80 to 1 ; but the chance that a person of 50 years has to live a year long- er, is only 30 to 1 ; and conse- quently, the premium for insuring the former ought to be the pre- mium for insuring the latter for one year, as 30 to 80, or as 3 to 8. A NO Life-annuities are commonly bought or sold at a certain number of years' purchase. The value of an annuity of one pound for an age of 50 years, at 3 per cent, interest, is about 121. 10s. or twelve and a half years' purchase. Among those w ho have written on this subject, none is more de- servedly celebrated than Dr. Price, the author of Observations on Re- versionary Payments, Annuities, Sec. published in 1771 ; and his curious remarks on this subject, inserted in the LXVth vol. of the Philos. Transactions, for 1775, p. 424, are wellAVorthy of perusal and attention. In our opinion, life annuities, when granted by individuals Avhose property is already involved, or who by such an expedient injure the just expectations of their rela- tives, ought not to be connived at in a Avell-regulated state....Viewed in a commercial light, this species of gambling, in a certain degree, resembles the furious rage for the hazard or pharo-table ; to which all those adventurers and avaricious money-lenders generally resort, who are anxious to amass large sums of money, which, by mo- derate legal interest, could not*be realized. ANODYNE, is a term applied to medicines Avhich have a tendency to assuage pain. This desirable purpose may be attained in three different Avays : 1. By paregorics, or such remedies as are calculated to ease pain; 2. My soporifics, Avhich relieve the patient by causing arti- ficial sleep ; and 3. By narcotics, or such as stupify, by their action on the nervous system. This division, though sanctioned by general authority, is very im- perfect; and we shall attempt to VOL. I. AN O 73 explain the subject in a manner, perhaps, more consonant vrith just principles of animal economy.."not from the result, but from the cause by Avhich a proper application of anodynes induces certain changes in the human body. In order to giAre a distinct view of the subject, we shall arrange them under three classes ; namely, I. Such remedies as tend either to remove the offending cause, or prevent the part affected from re- ceiving a sensible and painful im- pression, viz. in consequence of the " amputation of a limb; the draw- ing of a tooth ; the burning of parts either by the cautery, or by means of a red-hot iron ; the ap- plication of the tourniquet, a tight ligature, compresses, Sec. To this class also belong opiates, and other stupify ing medicines, administered for the suspension of pain ; but which may be justly termed, " poi- sons of the sensitive faculty." How- ever liberally others may explain the effects of opium on the organs of the mind, Ave cannot avoid ob- seiwng, that its operation on the sensorium communeis ahvays attend- ed with violence, and that so poAV- erful a medicine ought not to be in- trusted to the hands of those Avho are but little acquainted Avith its nature. Nay, we are of opinion, that even medical men cannot be too carefui in its exhibition ; but far from wishing to deprecate the use of this invaluable drug, which cannot, in the present state of me- dical science, be excluded from the list of medicinal substances, we shall here venture to suggest a few ideas respecting the propriety, and great- er safety, of its external use. In very painful wounds, excruci-. ating rheumatism, contractions, and parah tic affections arising from L 74 A N O ANO frecjuent spasms and strictures, the external use of opium is both safe and beneficial, especially if com- bined Avith antispasmodic and emol- lient remedies, such as camphor, lint-seed oil, marsh-malloAvs, Sec. These alone are frequently suffi- cient to relieve distressing pain, Avithout the assistance of anodynes properly so called; as the latter generally determine the circulation of blood towards the head, and oc- casion giddiness, stupor, and a re- laxation of the nerves. With the above additions, hoAvever, opium may be advantageously employed in the form of baths, fomentations, ointments, cataplasms, and parti- cularly in clysters.....[See the arti- cle Abdomen, o. 5. laudanum.'] When the pain is in the interior organs, and its seat cannot be pre- cisely ascertained, or when it arises from causes Avhich neither the pa- tient nor physician can discover, we would prefer the following ano- dyne liniment, a timely application of which has frequently procured immediate relief: take one ounce of the dried leaves of the common henbane, or four ounces of the green plant, and half a pint of sweet olive oil, digest them near a fire for a few days, then express the leaves through a coarse piece of linen, filter the decoction, and preserve it in a vessel closely stopped. This preparation, if ap- plied warm, or rubbed into painful parts, has, according to cur oavii experience, proved of singular ef- ficacy. II. Those remedies which are calculated to change, suppress, or evacuate the material cause of pain, and are therefore the most rational, though, unfortunately, not always Avithin the reach of the medical practitionet:. Thus, if the intes- tinal canal be obstructed, or the stomach clogged with acrid matter that cannot fail to produce violent 4t coucs, and other disorders, the principal aim Avill'be to evacuate it by purgatives, or emetics, and thereby not only cure the com- plaint, but, at the same time, save the patient's life, Avhich, by means of opiates, given either by the mouth or clyster, without such previous e\*acuations, would be ex- posed to imminent danger. Hence Ave are induced to express our opi- nion decidedly in favour of those Avho, from a conviction of the great importance of the trust reposed in them, seriously hesitate to employ anodynes, so long as there is a pos- sibility of dispensing Avith such precarious remedies. But, in cases where the morbid matter cannot be expelled, a skilful practitioner will endeavour, at least, to deprive it of its activity, or to neutralize it, while in the human body. In this man- ner, pains arising from acrimonious humours, are reiieved by drinking bland, diluent, and saccharine liquors; from intestinal worms (though resisting every vermifuge), by remedies which destrov them before they are carried off by the feces ; from a pleurisy, by such means as resolve the stagnant fluids, and promote their circula- tion through the constricted capil- lary vessels ; from stones in the bladder, if they be too large for expulsion, by the use of lime- water, which tends to bhmt their edges, he. These illustrations, however, might be acccn.-pa.nied with a variety of practical hints and precautions, if we did . not intend to reserve such observations, till we have occasion to treat of the different acute and ptinful diseases, under then respective heads. AN O ANO 75 Til. The last class of anodynes comprehends all those which, by exciting impressions and represent- ations of a different kind, either counteract or subdue the pain. These are generally resorted to, when neither the affected organs can be locally relieved, the mate- rial cause removed, nor the senses stupified by narcotics. Hence phy- sicians are frequently obliged to employ such expedients as may suppress the partial affection, by exciting feelings of a different na- ture, and perhaps to a more intense degree than those occasioned by the original complaint. These re- medies, however, require equal in- genuity and nrecaution. Thus, for instance, violent head-ach, tooth- ach, pains cl the breast, he. may be alleviated by blisters, or cata- plasms made cf onions, garlic, mustard-seed web vinegar, horse- radish, and similar stimulants ; rheumatic and gouty affections, hy early friction with flannel, which for many reasons, is jfreferable to a flesh-brush. All these applications, nevertheless, ought to be maturely considered, previous to their use, Avith respect to the place, strength, and duration, of trie stimulus. To this class may also be referr- ed, diversions of the mind ; incli- nations and passions artificially ex- cited, in order to direct the atten- tion of the patient to a different ob- ject : sv.ch expedients are frequent- ly of excellent service, especially in chronic diseases, and to invet- erate hypochondriacs. In a similar manner, terror and anger some- times instantaneously suppress the painful sensations of gouty and rheumatic patients. Thus, the pleasures of conversation, a coun- try-life, theatres, music, dancing, hunting, and similar amusements, are often more effectual anodynes than wine, brandy, or laudanum : the former agreeably cozen and delude the mind ; the latter al- ways, sooner or later, aggravate the complaint. Having given this concise view of the subject, we shah acid only a few general observations relative to the manner of determining, whether, and when a patient may with safety resort to anodynes ; be- cause, in this place, Ave cannot en- ter into particulars, which it Avould become necessary to repeat, when treating of "^^se substances them- selves. If a person be suddenly seized with violent pains, the cause or source of which cannot be clearly ascertained, it will be of the first consequence to inquire, whether the patient be at the same time subject to febrile heat,- accompa- nied by an unusual determination of blood tOAvards the head, and a strong, full pulse. In such case, if the pain should not abate on the friction of the parts afiected, or on plunging the legs in warm water, it would be proper to take a few ounces of blood from the arm or foot. In many instances of acute pair, however, the pulse is con- siderably depressed, and the circu- lation of the fluids in general so languid, that the extremities ap- pear rather pale and cold : yet, under these circumstances also, it may frequently become necessary to bleed the patient without delay, in order to restore an uniform action of the vessels ; a point to be determined by the judicious practi- tioner. From whatever cause an internal or deep-seated pain may arise, it wiil always be useful to allow the patient considerable portions of di- 76 ANO luent drink, such as luke-warm water mixed with a fourth part of milk, or decoctions of barley, blanched oats, rice, Sec. to admi- nister emollient clysters, consisting of six parts of warm water, two of oil, and one of soft sugar; to wrap the suffering part in soft flannel, or, if it can bear the application of heat, to cover the whole Avith a common poultice, made of the crumb of bread boiled in milk, Avith the ad- dition of a little sweet oil; to place the patient, if his peculiar situation and circumstances admit of this practice, in a tepid bath, of a tem- perature not exceeding 98° of Fah- renheit; and, lastly, if none of these expedients should afford the desired relief, to resort to opium, or laudanum, as the last resource : one grain of the former, or twenty drops of the latter, Avith a proper quantity of diluent beverage, is generally a sufficient dose, to per- sons not accustomed to its use. But let us here observe, that even in very desperate paroxysms of pain, there is no necessity of giving an indiscriminate preference toopium, till every other method has been previously tried: thus, for instance, the most excruciating head and tooth-ach, have often been sudden- ly dispelled, by applying horse-rad- ish in fresh shavings, or bruised garlick, between two fine pieces of muslin, to the bend of both arms, or the hams. Another simple remedy, of equal efficacy, in periodical head-achs, especially in the morning, is a thin piece of fresh lemon-peel freed from the soft fibrous part, and plac- ed on each of the temples, before the volatile oil be evaporated..... These external applications are perfectly safe; for, as their action is confined to the part which they ANO stimulate, they occasion a degree , of irritation different from the ori- ginalcomplaint, and thus produce a cessation of pain. In the last-men- tioned case, we Avould also recom- mend the timely application of a feAV leeches, either to the temples, or rather to the lateral part of the neck, behind the ears, Avhere the effect is almost instantaneous. Lastly, opium may be called an almost divine remedy, when judi- ciously administered, in gan- grenes, after painful amputations, fractures of bones, and, in short, every operation attended with spasms and great prostration of strength; but especially in diseases of the eyes, such as the cataract, or gutta serena. [The apprehensions expressed by Dr. Willich, with respect to the bad effects of anodynes are in a great measure groundless; and the substitutes he recommends, will do more injury than the opium, by their inefficacy in relieving the system, fromu/iolent pain, Avhich an anodyne might soon dispel. Thus in very violent colics it is always more advisable to take an anodyne, when first seized, and afterAvards to purge, and bleed, if necessary.... (See Colic) In the head-ach also, commonly termed nervous, but which most frequently is caused by affections of the stomach, 15, 20, or 30, drops of laudanum, taken on the first attack, will nine times out of ten, remove the disease, Avhich, Avith any, substitute, might be protracted for two'or three days; a cup of coffee, witiiout sugar will relieve the sickness and unplea- sant sensations which commonly follow the use of opium. It must be acknoAvledged, hoAvever, that cases often occur where anodynes cannot be safely given internally, ANO ANT 77 in consequence of the derangement they create in the system; in such cases, opium may be safely appli- ed externally, in the form of lauda- num, with great advantage ; or the following prescription may be used: Take opium, in fine powder, half a drachm. Camphor, four grains. Hog's fat, four scruples. Olive-oil, one drachm....Mix. This mixture may b% rubbed on the inside of the legs and thighs, as often as the symptoms require. In the course of this work, the va- rious cases in which anodynes may be given with safety, shall be point- ed out.] ANOTTA, is an elegant red colouring substance, prepared from the pellicles, or pulp, Avhich sur- round the seeds of the Arnotto Tree, or Bixa, L. a native of South America. According to Labat, the Indians prepare an anotta far superior to that imported into Britain : it is of a bright, glossy, red colour, little in- ferior to Car mink. For this pur- pose, instead of steeping and fer- menting the seeds in Avater, they rub them with the hands, previ- ously immersed in oil, till the pel- licles are separated, and reduced to a clear paste ; which is then scraped off Avith a knife, and ex- posed on a clean leaf in the shade, Avhere it is gradually dried. Anotta is chiefly used for im- parting to wool or silk a deep, though not permanent, orange hue. Considerable quantities of this dyeing drug are likeAvise em- ployed in the colouring of Cheese ; and also as an ingredient in var- nishes, for communicating an orange shade to the simple yellows. From the wax or pulp, in which the seeds of the arnotto-tree are in- cloaed, the Indians and Spaniards prepare a cool, agreeably rich cor- dial, which they mix with their chocolate, for improving its fla- vour, and heightening its colour1. The roots possess nearly similar properties, but operate more pow- erfully by the urinary passages.... they are employed by the natives in broths, and answer all the pur- poses of the pulp, though in a weaker degree. ANT, or Formica, in zoology, is a genus of insects belonging to the sixth class of the animal king- dom. The characters of this insect are, that there is a small scale be- tween the breast and belly ; and the joint is so deep, that the animal appears as if it Avere almost cut through the body. The females and the neuters, or Avorking ants, Avhich have no sexual characteris- tics, are furnished Avith a secret sting; and both the males and fe- males have Avings, but the neuters have none. There are eighteen species, which are in general dis- tinguished by their colours. These insects cohabit in nume- rous parties, and maintain a sort of republic, not unlike that of the bees. Their nests are in the form of an oblong square, and contain paths which lead to different ma- gazines. Their method of con- structing these habitations is truly wonderful. Some of the ants are employed in making the ground firm, by mixing it with a kind of glue, to prevent its crumbling, and falling upon th'em: others may be seen gathering several twigs, which they use for rafters, by placing them over the paths to support the co- vering : they lay others across, and 78 ANT npon tbese, rushes, Aveeds, and dried grass, which they form into a double declivity, and thus conduct the water from their magazine. For provisions they secure every thing which, to them, is eatable, and Ave may often observe one loaded with a dead fly, sometimes several together Avith the carcase of a may-bug, or other large insect; and, if they cannot transport it, they consume par': of it upon the spot, at least so much as may re- duce it to a hulk adequate to their strength. They lay up hoards of wheat and other corn: and, for fear it should sprout from the moisture of their subterraneous cells, they gnaAV off the end Avhich would produce the blade. It is re- markable, that if one ant meets another Avhich is loaded, it ahvays gives way, or will help it, if it be over-burthened. Indeed, the strength of this little animal is astonishing, as one of then* will frequently drag a burthen many times heavier than itself 1 On depriving a mouse or other little animal of its skin, and placing it on an ant-hill, in a little box, perforated in several parts, so as to admit a free passage for the ants, it will be found, in a feAV days, con- verted into the most perfect skele- ton. The ant deposits her eggs in the manner of the common flies, and from these eggs are hatched the larva, a sort of small maggots, or worms Avithout legs; which, after a short time, change into large white aurelia, or chrysalids, usually call- ed ant's eggs. Although ants are considered as injurious to husbandry, by making their hills, and impairing the grass upon pasture land, yet they are unjustly reproached with damaging ANT fruit-trees. In Switzerland, they * are made subservient to the de- struction of caterpillars, by hang- v*£ ing a pouch filled with ants upon '#£ a tree, whence they are suffered */V to make their escape, thi^u^L an aperture, and over-run all its branches, Avithout being able to reach the ground- as the trunk has been previously smeared wi>h wet clay, or soft pi'xh, in consequence of which, impelled by hunger, they fall upon the caterpillars, and de- vour them. Ants have also been successfully used in medicine. By distillation, they afford an acid liquor,, which, when mixed with brandy, is by many considered as a strengthen- ing nervous cordial; they have also been added to Avarm baths, when used for the gout and sprained limbs. We shall now proceed to state several methods of destroying this numerous insect. Themos' simple of these is, to pour boiling water into the apertures of their hillocks. By mixing soot with cold water, and pouring it at the roots of trees infested by them, they will speedily be destroyed. Besides that already mentioned, there is another simple expedient, to prevent them from descending a tree which they visit. Nothing farther is required than to mark with a piece of common chalk a circle round its trunk, about two feet from the ground, and about an inch or two in breadth : as soon as the ants arrive at this ring, not one will attempt to cross it. This cu- rious experiment, hoAvever, should be performed in dry Aveather, and the ring must be renewed, when partly washed off by rain. The small garden-ants,which are supposed to devour the young shoots of fruit-trees, may be destroyed, ANT ANT 79 by placing among them a number of large ants, which are commonly found in the Avoods ; as there pre- vails between these two species ot insects so strong an antipathy, that the larger sort attack the smaller, and never relinquish the combat till they have extirpated, or driven their antagonists from the neigh- bourhood. Mr. Clutterbuck, jun. of Watford, washed the walls of his hot-house with a painter's brush, dipped i.i a solution made of four ounces of sublimate, in two gallons of water; and since that application, neither the red spider, against Avhich this remedy Avas employed, nor ants have made their appear- ance. One of the most effectual me- thods of dispersing these trouble- some insects from plantations and gardens, we believe, is that men- tioned in the Encyclopadia Britan- nica ; on the authority of which we shall communicate it to our readers : " A small quantity of hu- man feces, when placed in their hills, Avill not only destroy great numbers, but expel the rest from their habitations." A new method of exterminating these insects, is recommended by Mr. 1 orsyth ; with a view to pre- vent them traversing walls, and in- juring fruit. I Le directs a hole to be drilled in the ground, with a sharp-pointed Avooden stake, close to the side of the wall, and at such depth as the soil will permit. In consequence of the earth being stir- red, the insects will be induced to move about: the sides of the hole are then to be made smooth, so that the ants, on approaching the edge of the orifice may fall in, and be unable to climb upwards. When a considerable number is collected at the bottom, water may be poured on them, and thus thousands may be drowned. Great numbers may likev/ise be killed Ly strewing a mixture of quick lime and soot, along such pi teee- as are much fre- quented by ants : they may further be banished from trees by scatter- ing a little pulverised Staves-acre on the ground, around their stems: but, where it is practicable, it is best to open the nest of these insects, and throw in them a piece of quick lime Avith a sufficient quantity of Avater for slacking it; when the heat, together with the suffocating air thus evolved, will certainly destroy them. Antelope. See Deer. Anthemis. See Chamomile. Anthcricum. See Spiderwort. ANT-HILLS are so well known, that they require no additional de- scription to that given under the article ANT....They are very inju- rious to dry pastures, not only by wasting the extent of soil which they cover, but by impeding the scythe at the time of mowing, and yielding a poor food, pernicious to cattle. The manner of reducing them, simply consists in cutting them into four parts, from the top, and then digging deep enough to take out the cere beloAV, so that when the tdrf is replaced, it may be somewhat lower than the level of the rest of the land: thus the place will be more wet, and the ants prevented from returning to their former situation. The earth taken out should be scattered, or removed to a considerable distance, lest they might collect it, and soon form another hill. This useful kind of work ought to be performed in winter; for if, at that season, the places be left open, the frost and succeeding rains will destroy those 80 A N T ants which are in the lower part of their habitation. In Hertfordshire and Somersetshire, a particular kind of spade is used for this pur- pose ; its blade is very sharp, and so formed, that the Avhole edge describes about three-fourths of a circle. St. Anthony's Fire. See Ery- sipelas, or Rosk. [ANTHRAX, or Carbuncle....A large inflamed painful tumour ; it commonly seizes the backs of old people. Several cases of this com- plaint have occurred in Philadel- phia Avithin a feAV years past. I have seen a dreadful case in Avhich the muscles of the back Avere as completely laid bare, as if dissected by a surgeon's hand. It was cured by the late eminent Dr. J. Jones of this city, by emollient poul- tices frequently renewed, bark, wine, and generous diet duly regu- lated, and opium : and by removing the mortified edges when their se- paration from the living parts did not go on fast enough, or Avhen the edges of the sore were left Avith large flabby irregular lips which gave room for matter to lodge and preA'ented a reunion. The dis- charge of matter Avas very great, to prevent the smell of Avhich a large cloth dipped in brandy Avas put over the dressings, and frequently re- newed. See another case described by Dr. Jones in the transactions of the College of Physicians of Phila- delphia. As a violent inflammation is al- ways the first symptom, might not the application of tAventy or thirty leeches to the part, prevent the pro- gress of the disease ? They might be renewed if 'necessary.] Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. See Sweet-scented Spring-grass. ANT Anthyllis vulneraria, L. See Kidney-vetch. *f!fl ANTIDOTES, are medicines-Sl^ which prevent or cure the effects of''■*%& deleterious substances, either taken pjfo: into the stomach, or externally ap- :' plied to the human body. Of those poisons Avhich general- ly prove mortal, when SAvalloAved, the principal are, arsenic, corrosive sublimate, glass of antimony, ver- digrease, and lead. Mineral poi- sons apparently attack the solid parts of the stomach; and, by eroding its substance, occasion death. Antimonials rather injure the nerves, and destroy by produc- ing convulsions. Most vegetable poisons seem to operate in this manner; but fatal accidents more frequently happen from the former. In the'year 1777, M. Navier advised large quantities of milk to be administered to persons who had SAvallowed arsenic ; a metal, the virulence of Avhich is effectually counteracted by this liquid, as it allays the irritation of the viscera, and prevents the inflammation of the intestines. The patient is af- terwards directed to take a drachm of the liver of sulphur, in a pint of Avarm Avater; but when this can- not be procured, he may substitute a gently alkaline lixivium, or soap- water, a solution of iron in vinegar, or any other acid, or even a por- tion of ink, if nothing else can be readily procured. The cure may be completed by the constant use of milk and Avarm sulphureous wa- ters....See Arsenic The remedies most suited to ob- viate the effects of corrosive subli- mate, are different preparations of the liver of sulphur, which decom- poses or resolves the mercurial salt; and, by the addition of the alkali ANT ANT 81 to the acid, forms an inoffensive neutral salt. Acids, therefore, even of the mildest kind, are fatal, if ap- plied to counteract this poison, as they render it more active: thus, even lemonade, or treacle, are per- nicious, as they contribute to in- crease pain and danger. Common salt dissolved in water, readily pre- cipitates the mercury, and thereby greatly abates its virulence. This article being ahvays ready, it ought to be resorted to preferably to any other : especially as, Avhen taken in a large quantity, it operates as an emetic, or carries off the mercury by stool. Volatile and fixed alkaline salts and spirits, also precipitate mer- cury, such as spirits of hartshorn, or sal ammoniac, salt of tartar, wormAvood, 8cc. but, as these can seldom be obtained on an emer- gency, the following articles may be substituted, viz. pot-ashes dis- solved in warm or cold water, but the lixivium should not be too strong. When pot-ashes are not at hand, warm water may be strain- ed through ashes of bean-stalks, broom, straw, or any other vege- table that can be most readily burn- ed. White or black soap should be injected by way of clyster, and like- wise dissolved in all the Avater that is drunk. Those poisons which may be called culinary, are perhaps the most destructive ; because they are generally the least suspected. No vessels, therefore, which contain copper in their composition, should be used in cookery, Sec. In cases where the poison of verdigrease has been recently swallowed, eme- tics should first be given, and af- tei-Avards cold water gently alkalis- ed, ought to be drunk in abund- ance. vol.. I. Though lead may not be consi- dered as corrosive poison, its ef- fects are nevertheless deleterious, and may be corrected by the re* medies already suggested, namely, by drinking large quantities of aci- dulated liquors, or solutions of the liver of sulphur, and completing the cure by gentle laxatives; but, in the commencement of the com- plaint, drastic purgatives should be carefully avoided. The poisonous effects of mineral acids may be counteracted by the administration of calcined magne- sia. M. Desgranges relieved a soldier in the agonies of death, Avho had swalloAved a glass of the sul- phuric acid, or oil of vitriol, by prescribing the folloAving antidote, viz. a dram and a half of the car- bonate of magnesia (magnesia usta aerata,) dissolved in a tea-cupful of pure water. This dose pro-' duced excessive vomiting. He re- peated the magnesia in the quanti- ty of half a dram every half hour, giving at intervals a solution of gum-arabic and sugar till the cure was accomplished. To obviate the ill effects of opium, emetics should be given as speedily as possible. If the first symptoms only appear, Avhich are the same as those of intoxication, the folloAving emetic Avill be of ser- vice, viz. Simple spearmint Avater and oxymel of squills, of each one ounce, and half a scruple of ipeca- cuanha : frequent draughts of Ava- ter-gruel should be given, to assist the operation. If the poison has been SAvallowed in a liquid state, Avhich may be ascertained from the smell of the first discharge, four or five vomitings may be sufficient; but if in a solid form, two or three more must be procured, by giving fresh doses. Should the symptoms M 82 A N T AN T continue violent, it will be neces- sary to increase the quantity of the medicines, in proportion to the ur- gency of the case, and the strength of the patient. The principal ob- ject to be kept in vieAV, according to Dr. Seaman, of New-York, is, to produce such a degree of irrita- tion, as may counteract the narcotic effects of this deleterious drug.... Hence it is very useful to stimulate the nostrils with spirits of hartshorn, and to apply friction with salt over the Avhole body. [The Editor has known copious bleeding save a per- son, who was labouring under the effects of a very large dose of laud- anum.] Lemon juice, a solution of white vitriol, and other acid substances, have long been considered as effec- tual antidotes against opium ; but they do not afford sufficient secu- rity. As we seriously advise all per- sons in this unfortunate situation, immediately to avail themseh'es of medical assistance, it would be needless to expatiate farther on the subject: we shall only observe, that there is a remedy at once sim- ple and effectual for all kinds of poisons, to be found near every cot- tage, as Avell as in the palaces of the great. This is pure Avater, which, when taken at an early pe- riod, and in sufficient quantity, has the beneficial tendency of diluting and neutralizing most of the poi- sons introduced into the stomach. With respect to those vege- table substances Avhich sometimes, though rarely, requireantidotes, we shall in this place mention the fol- lowing : 1. Camphor; 2. ylrnica, or German Leopard's bane; 3. Coccului Indian, or India berry ; 4. Gamboge; 5. Datura stramo- nium, or Thorn-apple; 6. Vera- trum album, or White Hellebore ; and 7. Mezereum, or Spurg Olive. Against the violent operation of these medicinal drugs, Professor Hufeland, of Jena, at present physician to the King of Prussia, has from experience found, that the first is most effectually coun- teracted by taking internally pro- portionate doses of opium; the se- cond, by the copious use of vinegar; the third, by moderate portions of camphor; the fourth by swallow- ing alkaline solutions in water; the fifth, by either vinegar, or the acid of lemons; the sixth, by strong decoctions of coffee; and the seventh by camphor. There are, however, many other vegetable, animal, and mineral sub- stances, sometimes taken by mis- take, or administered from malig- nant motives, and the fatal effects of which may be obviated by a timely use of their respective anti- dotes....In order to conclude this article, Avithin its due limits, we are obliged to refer the reader to the following heads, where he will find each subject discussed as it occurs in the order of the alphabet, viz. Balsamine Seeds, Cassava, Co- loquintida, Water-Crowfoot, Wild Cucumber, BfardedDar- nel,Euphorbium,Spanish Flies, Foxglove, Glass,Gypsum, Hel- lebore, Hemlock, Henbane, Lead, Leadwort, Lime, Lob- ster s,PutridMe at, Metallic, Pointed Substances, Muscles, Deadly Nightshade, Nux vomi- ca, Oysters, Meadow Saffron, Saltpetre, Scammony, Sow- bread, Stavesacre, Wolf's- bane, and Poisons in general. ANTIMONY is a heavy, brittle semi-metal, composed of long bright streaks, resembling needles, of a dark lead colour, and without ANT taste or smell. It is found in Ger- many, France, and also in Eng- land. The impurities which are found in the foreign sorts, are of the infusible stony kind, and are extracted by melting the antimony in vessels, the bottoms of which are perforated with small holes, so that the lighter and drossy matter rises to the surface, Avhile the more pure and ponderous sinks, and is receiv- ed into conical moulds. This mine- ral, Avhen analyzed, is found to con- sist of a metal united Avith common sulphur. [It is found in nature in the metal- lic state ; in the state of calx miner- alized, most generally with sulphur, called, Crude Antimony. a. Native Antimony, usually mix- ed with iron and arsenic. It con- tains so large a proportion of the latter, that by fusion Avith sulphur, the product resembles realgar,or red arsenic, found in a matrix of calca- reous spar or limestone. b. Muriate of Antimony, more rarely occurs....White antimonial ore : combined w ith muriatic acid, of a greyish white colour, found in oblong, rectangular four-sided la- in inrc. c. Sulphurised Antimony....Its co- lour is bluish or steel grey, cor- responding to that of the common antimony of the shops, which is in- deed nothing else than this ore se- parated from its impurities by means of fusion. It is of metallic lustre, and often variegated on the surface. It occurs in lumps, interspersed, or more or less crystalized. In the mass its texture is either compact, granular or foliated, more common- ly, however, divergingly striated, or fibrous; when crystalized, its form if determinate, is that of com- pressed hexahedral prisms, Avith obtuse tetrahedral pyramids, which ANT 83 are either comparatively large, massy, and longitudinally grooved, or more frequently in lengthened needle-like, or capillary prisms di- verging from different centres and variously decussating each other. It is opake, brittle, very easily- scratched with a knife, sometimes so soft as to soil the fingers....gives a blackish poAvder: it is very easily fusible, giving out a white sulphur- ous smoke ; on the dissipation of its sulphur by a more gentle heat it leaves grey verifiable oxyde, equivalent, according to Bergman, to about 74 per cent, of regulus.... It is frequently found in limestone, indurated clay, and iron pyrites, but most commonly associated with different forms of quartz.... The French regulus of antimony according to the experience of Messrs. Binny and Ronaldson of this city, is 15 per cent, better for types than the English. Antimony being of very great use in medicine and the arts, particularly in the very important manufacture of types, which are now made by the above mentioned ingenious men, in every respect equal to those im- ported, it Avould be of immense consequence to discover a mine of antimony in the United States.... A few years since, a large lump of this metal was brought to an apo- thecary of this city, to sell for plumbago, or (black lead) Dr. Sey- bert analyzed it, and found it a rich ore of antimony. The apo- thecary now forgets whence the specimen came. Antimonial Wine, is prepared by simply infusing either the crocus or ant. vit. in wine : from ten to fifty or sixty drops of which are usually prescribed as an alterative and diaphoretic. In larger doses, it acts as a diuretic and cathartic} 84 ANT ANT and three or four drams prove, in general, vioknt.y emetic. For this last purpose, it has been frequent- ly employed in madness and apo- plexy. It is, hoAvever, a very uncer- tain medicine, because the more acid the wine, the stronger Avill the tincture prove. Hence scarce- ly two preparations of antimonial wine, are of equal strength: ten drops from one shop will sometimes vomit more than a tea-spoonful from another shop. It ought to be given up, and tartar emetic in mi- nute doses, substituted.] Dr. James Walker, late sur- geon to the navy, gives a remark- able account of the effects produced by a large quantity of antimonial Avine. Having ordered some whey, in consequence of a cold, that wine, in a mistake, was used instead of Lisbon. Of this whey, he drank a full English pint, in which was con- tained not less than a gill and a half of antimonial wine; but, instead of producing the effects which might naturally be expected, it was attended with an unusual propensity to sleep, Avith a lassitude and numb- ness of the limbs. His two medi- cal pupils, Avho had eaten the curd, were affected in a similar manner. He consequently asks, "Whether, if its emetic quality be destroyed by its combination Avith milk, and exchanged for that of a narcotic kind, some useful hints might not be draAvn from this case, and intro- duced into medical practice?" An improvement in the prepar- ation of the antimonial powder, which is substituted in regular pharmacy, for Dr. James' Fever Powders, has lately been proposed to the Royal Society, by Mr. Che- venix. lie directs equal parts of phosphat of lime and pulverized algaroth to be dissolved in the smallest possible quantity of mu- riatic acid; some caustic ammonia must then be mixed with distilled water, and the muriatic solution dropped gradually into the mixture: the result of such combination v. ill be a copious Avhite precipitate; which, by Avashing and crying, is rendered fit for use. This rnedi- cine,has already been administered, by some eminent pi actitionei s; ai d according to the account of Mr. C. it possesses the valuable properties of the antimonial powder, though in a less concentrated form, so that the former may be exhibited in doses of less than eight grains, without exciting A'omiting. ANTIPATHY, in physiology, is used to express the natural aversion which an animated or sensitiv e be- ing feels at the real or ideal pre- sence of any particular object.... Such are the reciprocal hostilities subsisting between the toad and the weasel; between sheep and wolves, and the aversion of particu- lar persons against cats, mice, spi- ders, Sec. This prepossession is sometimes so violent as to induce fainting, even upon beholding their natural enemies. Most animals likewise evince a remarkable antipathy to the sight of the blood of their own species. To explore this subject, without prejudice, it will be necessary to exclude those antipathies which are not authenticated, such as those be- tween the weasel and toad, which can be extinguished or resumed at pleasure; or those, the causes of Avhich are ev ident.,..we shall then be inclined to admit but a very in- considerable number. The aversion which prevails be- tween the sheep and the wolf, can- ANT not certainly be called an antipathy, as its origin is obvious; the latter devours the former, and every ani- mal naturally shuns pain, or de- struction. From similar causes proceeds that dread which many persons feci of seipents and rep- tiles. During the period of infan- cy, pains are taken to impress the mind with the frightful idea that these animals are of a venomous nature, and that their bite is mor- tal. Such apprehensions are ag- gravated by the relation of dismal tales, which often make a lasting impression. When others, at their approach, have exhibited symptoms of terror, we have been persuaded to avoid them ; and hence it is not surprising that we should entertain an aversion for such objects. Our emotions at the sight of what we fear, being excited while we are unprepared, Avill be in proportion to the sensibility of our frame, and the irritability of our nerves. A person, who formerly had no dislike to particular objects, by as- sociating with those who are sub- ject to such idle fears, often ac- quires an unfavourable bias against things which, prior to those con- tagious examples, he beheld with perfect indifference. Thus, many evince an aversion to eels, which, however, arises chiefly from their resemblance to serpents. There are other antipathies, which do not originate from the source of the imagination, but from some natural loathing, such as is often perceptible in children, for particu- lar kinds of victuals, Avhich, though not distasteful, yet, from a weak- ness of the digestive organs, are disgorged as soon as swallowed. Antipathies, in general, owe their origin to objects Avhich are con- ceived to be dangerous; to a terror ANT 85 of imaginary disasters; toa squeam- ish delicacy; and of a rooted dis- like to things supposed to be detri- mental. Those of children are to be conquered by teaching them the means of defence and security, or the methods of avoiding the influ- ence of noxious agents; and when age has strengthened the judgment, by demonstrating to them the na- ture and properties of those natural bodies, or phenomena, Avhich they fear, they will thus gradually over- come their early prejudices and antipathies....See Sympathy. ANTIQUITIES, is a term sig- nifying those testimonies, or au- thentic records of the early ages, which are transmitted to posterity by tradition. The study of antiquities forms a very extensive science, including an historical survey of the ancient edifices, magistrates, officers, ha- biliments, manners, customs, cere- monies, religious institutions, &c. of the vrarious nations of the earth. It is equally useful and interesting to the laAvyer, physician, and divine. Antiquarian science may be di- vided into sacred and profane, pub. lie and private, universal and par- ticular. The antiquities of Greece and Rome attract the curiosity of every scholar; and though including thq history of the JeAvs, Egyptians, Persians, Phoenicians, Carthagem- ans, and in short, every celebrated nation, they, by no means, contain the whole of this branch of learn. ing. For, if to the general be added a particular acquaintance with statues, bas reliefs, medals, paintings, and the venerable re- mains of ancient architecture, this aggregate information constitutes a very interesting and extensive sci- ence. 86 ANT ANT To acquire a knoAvledge of the works of sculpture, statuary, grav- ing, painting, he. which are called antiques, strict attention ought to be paid to the substance, on which the art has been practised : as wax, clay, wood, ivory, stones, marble, bronze, and every kind of metal: because, on comparing this with the subject, it frequently serves to discriminate the true from the coun- terfeit specimens. Many of our great antiquaries (Avho are not the most skilled in designing)frequently grant the pre- ference to the ancients, rather from prejudice than judgment. That striking peculiarity which to them appears so marvellous in the works of antiquity, is often a mere chi- mera: for most of the antique fi- gures and statues are totally void of expression, and we can only fancy their characters. We are, however, greatly in- debted to the persevering exertions, and the laudable spirit of enquiry, Avhich have lately been displayed by the Royal Antiquarian Society, in- asmuch as the members of that learned and patriotic body have in- dividually and collectively contri- buted to the acquisition of those valuable materials which are now converted into their proper use..... Mr. Burgess, in his ingenious Es- say " On the Study of Antiquities" printed in 1783, justly observes, that "this study, once far removed from all the arts of elegance, is now become an attendant on the Muses, and a handmaid to History, Poetry, and Philosophy. Antirrhinum. See Snapdragon, Fluellin, and Toadflax. ANTISCORBUTICS, signify those applications and medicines which are found useful in the cure ©f the scurvy, such as pure air, gentle exercise, milk, vegetables, fruit, he.....See Scurvy. ANTISEPTICS, a term applied to those substances which resist or check putrefaction. Numerous trials have confirmed Sir John Pringle's opinion of the antiseptic properties of alkaline salts, though they appear to be inferior to some resinous substances, and other vegetables. Thus myrrh, in a watery menstruum, has been found twelve times more antiseptic than sea-salt. Two grains of camphor were a better preservative of flesh than sixty grains of com- mon salt. An infusion of a few grains of powdered Virginian snake- root, exceeded in antiseptic pro- perty twelve times its Aveight of chamomile floAvers ; and the Peru- vian bark possesses nearly the same extraordinary quality. These balsa- mic vegetables are the more valu- able, as they are usually free from acrimony, and may be taken in much greater quantity than either spirits, acids, resins, or even neu-. tral salts. To the class of antiseptics we may also add fermented liquors, acids, vinous spirits, and even those plants called ant-acids, which for- merly were erroneously supposed to accelerate putrefaction, particu- larly the scurvy-grass and horse- radish. Antiseptics are prescribed in all putrid and malignant diseases, though not without due precaution, as to the proper time for their exhi- bition, and the different stages of the disorder. Thus, for instance, bark is a specific in mortifications, or gangrene, when the vessels are relaxed, and the blood disposed to putrefy; but will be unavailing, when the intestinal canal is ob- structed, or if there prevail a pre-. AN X ANX 87 ternatural tension and fulness. In cases where astringent remedies cannot be employed Avith safety, 'contrayerva, snake-root, camphor, 8cc. may serve as excellent substi- tutes....[For an account of the anti- septic properties of alkaline salts, See the Medical Repository of N. York.~\ See also Putrefaction. ANTISPASMODICS are those medicines, which are calculated to relieve persons afflicted with cramps, spasms, or convulsions : such are opium, Peruvian balsam, and the essential oils of different vegetables. The most speedy an- tispasmodic, with respect to its im- mediate effects, is doubtless the juice of the poppy ; but the Peru- vian balsam produces more per- manent benefit, and has frequently been of eminent service, after opium had failed to afford any relief. Essential oils act principally on some particular part, rather than on the system in general; and are seldom attended with any so- porific effects. But, beside these internal medicines, there are some which instantly remove spasmodic contractions by contact; for in- stance, cream, oil of almonds, and asses'-milk; white sulphur, sal ammoniac, nitre, 8cc. mitigate these painful complaints, by di- minishing heat. Where, however, spasms originate from inanition, and a defect of vital heat, the best antispasmodics are, valerian, musk, and castor; because these medi- cines tend to restore the animal spirits, and at the same time ope- rate as corroborants. ANXIETY, is that state of the mind in which it is uneasy about some future event; either from an ■^apprehension of danger, or a soli- citude of being relieved from sus- pense. The causes of anxiety may be various ; but, in general they arise either from too long continued and forcible an impression of external objects, or a diseased state of the nerves, in which they are liable to be too powerfully affected by the usual action of such objects. Concerning the effects of this mental disorder on the human sys- tem, Ave agree in opinion with the late Dr. W. Battie, that they are particularly obvious from the spas- modic strictures which seldom fail to accompany persons subject to that afflictive passion ; hence palsy, asthma and similar complaints. When the body is thus constantly influenced by an excess of sensa- tion, it may be easily conceived that its consequences on a torment- ed mind, or deluded imagination, must frequently be serious and in- curable. Dr. Arbutiinot appears to con- found the cause, with the effect, of anxiety, when he advises to al- low febrile patients, troubled with anxieties, " a warmer regimen, af- ter the cold fit is over;" while he recommends " spices as useful, be- cause anxieties often happen by spasms, from wind." The futility of this advice is evident; for though aromatics, or carminatives, will un- doubtedly afford a temporary relief from flatulency, yet the cause Avill not only remain, but even be more deeply rooted into the system, by this mode of treatment. A more effectual remedy for ob- \-iating the causes of anxiety, in a healthy state of the body, is per- haps the following : When persons of a settled age are too anxious in all their expectations and under- takings, it will only be necessary to enlighten their contracted minds, by teaching them to form a proper 88 APE APE estimate of those things which, in a moral point of vieAv, are of little consequence to human happiness. Thus instructed, they will learn more reasonably to appreciate their own merits; and, by comparing these Avith the frequent failure of success in others, Avho have ex- celled them in Airtuous as well as in useful deeds, they Avill gradually be enabled to reduce their OAvn ex- pectations to a proper standard. APE, in zoology, an animal of which we find more than fifty spe- cies ; it is more remarkable on ac- count of its peculiar instincts, bodily structure, and habits of life, than from either its dangerous or useful tendencies. Apes were formerly considered as a degenerated cast of mankind, because some of them, such as the troglodytes, or the African wood- man, and the ourang-outang, bear a great resemblance to the human form. These creatures, and espe- cially the former species, are grega- rious, inhabit the thickest forests, are from four to five feet in stature, very ferocious and strong, and do not hesitate to attack even men. Several of those audacious bipeds possess such a degree of muscular strength, that ten unarmed per- sons are inadequate to the task of reducing one of them to obe- dience. On a close examination of their external shape, howrever, and par- ticularly of the head, it clearly ap- pears that their structure is essen- tially different from that of our species. From the natural constitu- tion of their bodies, they are not only deficient in the organs of speecii, hu do not even display the sagaci.y of dogs, not to mention that dignified criterion between man and the inferior animais....reason. As an instance of their deficiency of judgment, we shall only men- tion, that, notwithstanding their excessive fondness of enjoying the Avarmth and light of a fire in the woods, made by the natives, who seldom take the trouble of extin- guishing it, those whimsical imita- tors have not even the ingenuity of supplying it with fuel; and there- fore afford no proof of their reason- ing poAvers. Nevertheless, they are justly en- titled to the next place to man, Avhen we consider some extraordi- nary qualifications with which they are preferably endowed. Of this nature is their uncommon talent of imitation, which to them, is so far from being advantageous, or con- ducive to their safety, that it is ingeniously employed for ensnaring them into captivity. Thus the In- dians wash their faces in the pre- sence of apes Avith water, for which they substitute a solution of glue, or gum arabic : on leaving the ves- sel with this seductive liquor, the animal, Avithout suspicion, imitates the natives, and being neither sen- sible of the danger attending this experiment, nor the means of pre- venting the effect, its eyes are soon pasted vjp, and it is exposed to the mercy of its enemy. Besides making good use of their teeth and nails, apes defend them- selves Avith branchesof trees, stones, and the like.....Their maternal af- fection is -sq great, that they fre- quently smother the dearest of their offspring ; and hence it has been proverbially applied to mothers who spoil their children, by excessive indulgence in the articles of food and drink. APERIENTS, in medicine, sig- nify those substances which possess a gentle, purgative quality, and fa- APO APO 89 cilitate the circulation of the fluids, by removing obstructions.....See Laxatives. Aphanes Arvensis, L. See Pars- LEY-PIERT. Aphernously. See Arve- NUSLY. Aphis. See Plant-louse. APHORISM, is a term used to denote either an unconnected maxim, or a short pointed sen- tence, comprising much in a few words. It is at present chiefly used in medicine, and law: thus we say, the Aphorisms of Boer- haave, Hippocrates, of the Civil Law, &c It Avould be highly conducive to the progress of learning, if all ele- mentary works, whieh treat of any particular art or science, were written in an aphoristic form, so that every detached fact, or asser- tion, might be reduced to a dis- tinct proposition. Apium graveolens, L. See Smal- lage. APOPLEXY is a disease in which the patient is suddenly de- prived of sensation, and incapable of voluntary motion. It is usually divided into two kinds, the sangui- neous and the serous. The symp- toms which distinguish the form- er are, a sound sleep, preceded by giddiness, and attended with snorting, noise in the ears, confis- cations before the eyes, and redness of the face- If any thing be put into the mouth, it is immediately returned through the nose; nor can it be swallowed unless the nostrils be closed, in which case there is danger of suffocation. If the patient appear insensible, there is but little hope of his recovery. Sometimes the consequence of this attack is heiniphlegia, or palsy of one side of the whole frame, which is evident VOL. I. from a distortion of the mouth to- wards the sound side, a contraction of the tongue, and stammering of speech. The general cause of sanguineous apoplexy, is a plethoric habit, with a peculiar determination of blood towards the head. Whatever tends to accelerate the circulation, such as surfeits, intoxication, immode- rate exercise, and violent passions of the mind, may sooner or later occasion this disease. It seldom, however> occurs till persons haAre passed the age of sixty, and after a fulness of the veins has for a long time prevailed in the system. In many instances, it proves fatal on the first attack ; and few survive a repetition of the fit. Those who apparently recover, are frequently carried off, without being warned of its approach. The usual method of treatment consists in placing the body in an erect posture, and supporting the head in that situation ; in copious and repeated bleedings from the jugular veins and temporal arteries, cupping, and the application of blisters to the head, or between the shoulders. In the serous, or watery apo- plexy, the pulse is small and fee- ble, the complexion pale, and there is a diminution of natural heat..... Upon dissection, the ventricles of the brain have been found to con- tain a larger quantity of fluid than they ought in a natural state. This species is equally fatal as the other, and may arise from any cause which induces a debilitated state, such as mental depression, excessive study, long Avatching, 8cc. In this alarm- ing complaint, bleeding cannot be attempted Avith safety : acrid, sti- mulating purgatives, and emetics, have been employed with a view to N. 90 APO APO carry off the superabundant serum ; but, in debilitated habits, they are liable to strong objections. Vola- tile salts, cephalic elixirs, and cor- dials, are usually prescribed which, if a hemiphlegia supervene, may be aided by cathartics, and sudorifics, gentle exercise, especially in a car- riage ; blisters, and such other sti- mulating medicines, as are proper in paralytic affections. The opinion, that the immediate cause of apoplexy is an extravasa- tion of fluids, or a preternatural fullness of the vessels, has afforded a subject of much controversy among medical Avriters. To re- fute tins conjecture they have quot- ed an instance of the hydroce- phalus, or dropsy of the brain, Avhere the head Avas increased to more than double its natural size, Avithout producing one apoplectic symptom. Le Cat, in his inge- nious Reflection, published in the Philosophical Transactions, relates, that, when he opened the head of M. De Frecu:iennf,late president of the Parliament of Paris, Avho died of an apoplexy, he found about a tea-spoonful of blood ex- travasated between the third and fourth ventricles of the brain: hence Le Cat deduces the impossibility of so trifling a quantity being capa- ble of pressing on the origin of the nerves, so as totally to interscept the course of the animal spirits. According to thi; writer, the ex- travasated blood, usually found in the brain of a person dying of an apoplexy, so far from being the cause of death, is an accident OAving to the convulsive motions of the dura mater (a strong membrane, covering all the cavity of the cra- nium) as well as the vessels of the whole basis of the scull; and that, in general, it is occasioned by the matter of gout, or rheumatism, set- tling on this source of the nerves. The sAvelling and distension of the dura mater, causes a stagnation of the blood vessels of the brain, some of the weakest of which burst, while all the canals of the nerves become constricted and closed ; a circumstance which sufficiently ac- counts for the consequent fatal event. It will not surely be con- tended, that these ruptured vessels concur in the production of those spirits which impart motion to the heart, as it is Avell known that this organ receives the influence of nu- merous nerves at a time, all which ought to share in an accident con- sisting merely in the rupture of a capillary vessel. These reflections are here offer- ed, to repress that hypothetical con- fidence Avhich many practitioners profess for their theories; and to discountenance the precipitate and excessive use of the lancet. This practice is plausibly suggested by an idea, that it is too great a pro- portion of blood which destroys the patient; but, besides that so ill- founded an opinion may prove fatal to those persons who are liable to apoplectic attacks, a prejudice in favour of the theory may prevent others from inquiring into the true cause, and discovering the reme- dies adequate to the cure of that fatal disorder. In Heister's Medical Observa- tions, a case is related, of a person who died of an apoplexy, in con- sequence of his being constantly exposed to the scent of three or four floAver-pots of Avhite lillies, which were kept in his chamber. This melancholy fact should deter those to Avhom such odours are APO APP 91 sensibly prejudicial, from continu- ing long within the sphere of their deleterious influence. [The distinction of this disease into sanguineous and serous, is now ■usually given up, and the gene- ral state of the system attended to, in forming our indications of cure In nineteen cases out of twenty, the disease is attended with a. full, strong, and eloio pulse: and requires copious bleeding for a cure. The sooner bleedhn: is performed after the attack, the better. The quan- tity of blood to be taken aAvay, must be in proportion to the vio- lence of the symptoms: but, in strong vigorous persons, accus- tomed to full living, from two to four pints may be safely drawn in the course of the first twenty-four hours, at two or more bleedings.... Powerful purges of jalap and calo- mel (15 of the former, and 10 of the latter), ought also to be given, and purging clysters frequently administered. The head must be shaved, and cold water applicdtoit by means of cloths. Cupping the head and back of the neck, is also pro- per to relieve the vessels, and may be useful, when general bleed- ing is deemed improper, owing to the pulse sinking: when leeches can be had they may be substituted. A blister applied over the whole surface of the head, is often of great service; it must be kept on twenty- four hours, and prevented from healing, by mixing some cantha- rides Avith the ointment used to dress the blister. All tight liga- tures must be removed from about his body, and the head well raised. The air of the room should be fre- quently renewed, and no ]>■.■♦ ;ons admitted but those necessary to ad- minister to the sick. To prevent a a return of this disease, it will be highly necessary to guard against too much fullness in the system, by proportioning the quality and quantity of diet to the exercise taken; to avoid intense application of the mind to any one subject, great fatigue of body, violent an^er, indigestible food, especially at night, and wet feet: As the disease seldom comes on without some premonitory symptoms, attention ought to be paid to them, and the proper remedies administered in time. These symptoms are a gid- diness, dimness of sight, herd-ach, faultering of the tongue, or drowsi- ness. When any of these appear, some blood should be taken away, a purge given, and lew diet enjoin- eduiuh the danger be OA'er. No usual evacuation ought to be suppress- ed, without supplying its place by means of an issue in the arm....] See Dropst of the Brain, and Epilepsy. APPETITE, in general, signi- fies the natural instinctive desire, by which the animal is led to pur- sue the gratifications of sense. In the present instance, however, we shall confine its meaning to the craving for food. In this respect the appetite of man may be divided in- to three different species though that evinced by inferior animals is naturally simple, because it is not impaired by ai t. Thus, if children were never enticed by weak pa- rents, and igncrant nurses, to eat more than their own inclination di- rects them, or to partake of highly flavoured artificial dishes which sti- mulate the palate, and pretematu- rally distend the stomach, there is every reason to believe that the fol- lowing classification would be un- necessary. 1. The natural appetite, which is contented, as wellAvith the most 92 A P P APP simple as the most compound and delicious dishes: such is that of country people employed in hard manual labour; of children who have not been mismanaged in the nursery; and of every rational per- son wno is convinced of the advan- tages resulting to both mind and body, from a simple and a frugal diet. 2. The artificial appetite of the epicure, the hypochondriac, and the tipler; all may be ranked under the same class. It would be need- less to add in this place, any other remark, than that such an inclina- tion for sensual enjoyment remains only so long as the operation of these exquisite stimulants conti- nues. When the papillary nerves of the palate can be no longer in- fluenced by such excitement, the sensualist loses his appetite, and is punished Avith all the concomitant symptoms of indigestion. 3. The habitual appetite, though partly acquired is not liable to those serious objections which ap- ply to the latter species; nor is it attended with any other disadvan- tages than those arising from long fasting, or an undue allowance of food on particular occasions. Thus after fatiguintr exercise, when the fibres of the digestive organs are already weakened, and the circula- tion of the blood to those parts is unusually increased, the nourish- ment then received can be digested only Avith great difficulty, and to the detriment of the body. Want of appetite may proceed either from a defective energy of the stomach, originating more fre- quently from an immoderate quan- tity, than the improper quality of food ; or it may be occasioned by the sympathy of other diseased parts, such as the iiver, boAvels, uterus, Sec. or by intestinal worms, obstructions of the mesentery, and many other causes. Hence it will be understood, that there can be no specific remedy su ggested to remove the complaint; but that the treat- ment must be regulated by the na- ture of the case, and the constitu- tion of the patient. In general, hoAvever, the following hints de- serve attention. When .the stomach loathes Avholesome food, and is troubled Avith habitual flatulency, and eructations, of a bitter, rancid, or saline taste, it should be previ- ously ascertained, av hether an eme- tic be proper, or necessary, to eva- cuate its foul contents. Yet to determine this point, requires a de- gree of skill and experience Avhich few persons in common life pos- sess : on the other hand, the ad- ministration of a simple emetic may be attended with serious conse- quences. For this reason, we Avould preAiously recommend a change of air and diet; early rising in the morning ; gentle exercise ; absti- nence from all hot drinks, particu- larly tea, punch, and hot broths, fat or hard meat, spirituous liquors, tobacco, &c. to avoid the influence of depressing passions, such as ex- cessive grief, fear and anxiety ; ano, if this treatment, after having been rigorously pursued for several days or weeks, produce no change in the appetite, then to have re- course to gentle emetics, or rather to the operation of nauseating me- dicines. According to our expe- rience, the powder of ipecacuanha, in the smallest doses of a quarter or sixth part of a grain, in a little cold Avater, repeated every ten mi- nutes for two or three hours to- gether, before breakfast, stands eminently recommended in disor- ders of this nature, and has seldom APP APP 93 failed to be of service to phlegma- tic or corpulent individuals, when continued for several mornings..... But if there appear to be great ful- ness of the stomach, or bowels, at- tended Avith the symptoms before described, it avill sometimes be ne- cessary to give such an emetic as may, according to circumstances, at the same time relieve the boAV- e. . A mixture of two parts of ipecacuanha wine, and one part of antimonial wine taken in single tea- spoonfuls every quarter of an hour, w ithout any farther drink till it be- gins to operate, generally produces the desired effect. Alter the stomach and bowels have, by such, or similar means, been evacuated, it will be useful to strengthen the tone of the fibres, by drinking small draughts of cold chamo mile-tea, or an infusion of quassia, or simple toast and water well prepared, Avhich last may be justly considered as one of the mildest and most grateful corro- borants. An insatiable appetite may arise from two great a distention of the stomach in early infancy ; from an over-abundant secretion of the gas- tric or digestive liquor; from drinking large quantities of stimu- lating acid beverage, such as cyder, perry, butter-mi ik, he. but espe- cially from a bad habit of fast eat- ing, without properly masticating hard substances. Hence the first maxim in diet should be, to eat slowly, in order to prevent a sudden distention of the digestive organs, and to allow sufficient time for the food to be duly prepared, and gra- dually mixed with the gastric juice. It would be superfluous to add any other suggestions, respecting the treatment and cure of this trouble- some complaint, which in the pre- sent times of frugality, cannot fail to find its own remedy. The appetite for certain whimsi- cal dishes, peculiar to females in particular states of the body, be- longs to the articles, Green-Sick- ness and Pregnancy. APPLE-TREE, the common, or Pyrus malus, L. is too well known in this country, to require a minute description. It frequently grows to the height of tAventy or thirty feet, and produces a consi- derable variety of fruit. Botanists are of opinion, that the Avilding, or crab-apple of the woods and hedges, is the original kind, from the seeds of which the apple now cult'iA-aled was first obtained. The varieties of this species are multiplied to some hundreds, in different places, all having been first accidentally procured from the seed or kernels of the fruit, and then increased by grafting upon crabs, or any kind of apple^stocks. Notwithstanding the numerous sorts, not above forty, or fifty, are reared in the nursery. Their fruit arrives at full groAvth in successive order, from July to the end of Oc- tober, but comes to maturity only after gathering ; and several of the winter kinds, may be preserved for many months. Apples serve as excellent fruit for the dessert, the kitchen, and for making cyder. The folloAving, which are most esteemed for eat- ing, are ranged according to the successive order in which they ripen: the white junicating, marga- ret apple, summer pearmain, sum- mer queening, embroidered apple, golden rennet, summer white cal- ville, summer red calville, silver pippen, aromatic pippen, la reinette grise, la liaute bonte, royal russet- ing, Wheeler's russet, Sharp's rus- 94 APP APP set, the spine**apple, golden pippen, nonpareil, and pomme d'api. Those for culinary use, are, the codling, summer marygold, summer red pearmain, Holland pippen, Kentish pippen, courpendu, Loan's pear- main, the French rennet, French pippen, royal russet, monstrous rennet, Avinter pearmain, pomme violette, Spencer's pippen, the stone pippen, and oaken pippen. Those most esteemed for making cyder, are, the Devonshire royal Avilding, red-streak apple, whitesour, Here- fordshire under-leaf, John-apple, or deux ames, everlasting hanger, and gennet moyle. Among all the fruit growing in this country, says a celebrated bo- tanical Avriter apples justly deserve the preference. In raising these useful trees for orchards, or fields, Avhether for cyder or baking, the Avlld crab-kernels are the most suitable, as they yield hardy stocks, which are better able to endure cold and coarse lands, take firmer root and produce larger trees..... Where these seeds cannot be con- veniently procured, the kernels of common apples may be substituted, especially with a view of ingrafting them. Although the former do not bring forth trees bearing the same kind of apples, yet they thrive Avith- out grafting, and their hard fruit may, notwithstanding its astringent and acid properties, be advantage- ously converted into cyder. Culture....The method of propa- gating the cyder fruit-trees in He- refordshire, is by grafting. Very large, and even old trees, may be grafted, so as to bear fine heads of other sorts ; and thus they Avill produce a crop of fruit quicker than by any other method. New orchards are raised by planting well-groAvn crab-stocks, and graft- ing them the year after. If the trees are full sized, the tops of them must be cut off in Avinter, otherwise Avhen grafted, they Avill, as it is termed, bleed so much, that the grafts will not suc- ceed. The trees should not be cut down to the trunk, but as many branches must be left as look kind above, Avhere it branches out about the thickness of one's arm ; the tops of these must be taken off, about two or three feet above the part where they project from the trunk. Good crab-stocks, for rais- ing new orchards, generally cost from 1 s. 6d. to 4s. each, according to their quality. Linnaeus considers the' apple and the quince as species of the pear-tree, or Pyrus, all the varieties of which are hardy, and will suc- ceed in any common garden soil, if planted in a free situation. They are propagated by grafting and budding upon any kind of pear- stocks, occasionally upon quince, and sometimes upon Avhite-thorn stocks. Apples of every kind may be reared in the manner above des- cribed ; and, according to Dr. Anderson, the pure paradise- stock is the best graft. They will not thrive, however, in a low and moist soil, where they are apt to canker, and speedily decay. In a friable loam, they generally prosper extremely Aveli. Pruning.....If a tree be very old, and much incumbered, the stumps, Avith all the decayed, rotten, and blighted branches, should be care- fully removed : but instead of de- laying this operation till the trees become too old, it ought to be commenced even in the nursery, APP APP 95 and regularly continued ; as, by the use of medications, the wounds will heal, without causing any blemishes. When the trees are so luxuriant, as not to bear those prolific spurs from Avhich the fruit proceeds, the too abundant flow of their juices must be checked by the folloAving method : the tops of most of the shoots are to be pruned off in Au- gust, the bark perpendicularly slitted in different places, and the trunk cut about one-third through with asaAv, but so as not to injure the heart. For the first year, or two, after this experiment, the tree will not bear more fruit than usual, but afterwards its produc- tion will be adequate to every ex- pectation. From this operation, a still fur- ther benefit may be derived. When there is a superabundance of moist- ure, the trees are liable to be cover- ed Avith moss, which affords shelter for caterpillars and other insects ; but this process in a great measure cures it, especially if the moss be carefully scraped off, or rubbed vvith a coarse, wet cloth. The pruning of the tops diverts the channel of circulation, and ac- celerates the groAvth of the fruit- bearing shoots ; Avhile the cutting of the trunk, across, moderates the great rise of nourishment, or sap. Thus the saAved part will overgrow in so complete a manner, that it cannot be discerned, except from the freshness of its bark. Apple Blossoms are, in some seasons, injured by the devastations of an uncommon number of in- sects, produced from a species of black flies which deposit their eggs in the bud, at its first opening ; and which, by feeding on the heart ef the bud, soon occasion it to con- tract, and drop. To remedy this fatal effect, Mr. C. Gullett ad- vises to collect heaps of long dung, wet straAv, Aveeds, &c. to dispose them in different parts of the orchard; and set fire to the heaps in that quarter fromAvhich the wind blows, so that the smoke may tho- roughly fumigate all the trees. Thus the insects, which are sup- posed to be brought by the Avind, will be preA^ented from depositing their eggs. As very serious apprehensions were lately entertained in the cyder counties, that the moss growing on apple-trees, and the millions of insects which harbour in it, might be destructive to orchards, we shall here insert another remedy disco- vered by Mr. Tench of the Mi- nories : " Take a quantity of un- slacked lime, mix it Avith as soft water as your situation will furnish, to the consistency of very thick Avhite-wash ; this mixture, with a soft paint-brush, apply to your ap- ple-trees, as soon as you judge the sap begins to rise, and wash the stem and large boughs well Avith it, observing to have it done in dry Aveather, that it may adhere and Avithstand rain: you will find, that in the course of the ensuing sum- mer, it will remove all the moss and insects, and give to the bark a fresh and green appearance, and that the tree will shoot much new and strong Avood; at least, it did so in Nova Scotia. The trial is sim- ple, and can neither be attended with much expence, trouble, or danger." Injustice to Mr. Forsyth, His Majesty's gardener at Kensington, we cannot omit to mention his composition used for the same purpose, and, perhaps, of superior efficacy, if the nature of its iiigre- 96 APP dients be considered: To one hun- dred gallons of human urine, and one bushel of lime, add cow-dung sufficient to bring it to the con- sistence of paint.....After having carefully brushed off all the moss, the infected trees should be anoint- ed with this mixture, about the lat- ter end of March; which simple precaution, it is said, fully answers the desired effect. Concerning the physical proper- ties of apples, it deserves to be stat- ed, that beside their aromatic qua- lities, they are wholesome and lax- ative, when fully ripe. In diseases of the breast, such as catarrhs, coughs, asthmas, consumption, &c. they are of considerable service: for these beneficial purposes, how- ever, they ought not to be eaten raw, but either roasted, stewed, or boiled : they also may be usefully employed in decoctions, Avhich, if drank plentifully, tend to abate fe- brile heat, as well as to relieve painful strictures, in pectoral com- plaints. With regard to their sensible properties, apples have been divid- ed into spicy, acidulated, and wa- tery. To the first class belong the various species of rennet, which possess a most delicate flavour, contain the least proportion of wa- ter, and, on account of their vinous nature, are not apt to excite flatu- lency. Pippens, on the contrary, though affording more nutriment than the former, are more fibrous, and consequently require a more vigorous stomach to digest them : hence they may be ranked under the second class. Lastly, those sweet and tender apples which are very juicy and palatable, are the least fit to be eaten in a raw state, unless with the addition of bread or biscuit: when baked, or dried in APP the open air, they make an ex- cellent substitute for raisins or plums, in puddings, pyes, and othef dishes prepared of flour. Sour apples may be much im- proved, both in taste and quality, by either baking, or digesting them in a close vessel by steam, over a very slow fire : thus the saccharine principle is disengaged, and they undergo a speedy and complete change. As apples are very liable to de- cay, especially in hard winters, va- rious methods of preserving them have been tried, with different de- grees of success. One of the best expedients to preserve them for Avinter use, is, to let them remain upon the trees till there be danger of frost; to ga- ther them in dry weather, and lay them in large heaps to sweat, for a month, or six weeks. At the end of that time, they should be care- fully examined, those Avhich have the least appearance of decay re- moved from the others, the sound fruit wiped dry, and packed in large dry jars, and then closely stopped, in order to exclude the access of air. If this plan be properly follow- ed, the fruit Avill keep sound for a long time: it is, however, frequent- ly impossible to procure a sufficient number of jars for this purpose; hence, in considerable quantities, the folloAving methods are general ly adopted: In North America, as well as in Germany, apples are often pre- served during the most seA'ere frosts, by placing them in an apar ment immediately under the re of the house, but Avithout a fire ; linen cloth being thrown over the? before the frost commences. T' experiment, however, lias not *: ceeded in Britain. APP In some parts, a coarse linen cloth is spread upon the floor of an upper room, and a layer of apples is placed on it; this is covered with a cloth of a similar texture, on Avhich another layer is spread, and again covered : in this manner the pile may be increased to any height, with alternate strata of linen and fruit; after which a cloth, of suffi- cient dimensions to communicate with the floor on every side, is throAvn over the whole heap. This practice has been attended Avith success. Anothermethod is, to put a layer of apples, and a layer of dried fern, alternately in a basket, or box (the latter is considered the best, as it admits less air,) and cover them closely. The advantage olfern, in preference to straw, is, that it does not impart a musty taste. - Apples, in small quantities, may be preserved for a greater length of time by the following, than by any of the before-mentioned pro- cesses.....First, completely dry a glazed jar, then pUt a few pebbles at the bottom, fill it with apples, and cover it with a piece of Avood exactly fitted, and fill up the in- terstices with a little fresh mortar. The pebbles attract the moisture of the apples, Avhile the mortar excludes the air from the jar, and secures the fruit from pres- sure. This useful fruit may likewise be occasionally preserved from frost, by placing one or two tubs, or pails of water, in the room Avhere apples are stored, taking care daily to break the ice, and, if thick, to re- new the water, which, having a much stronger attraction for cold, protects the apples. Gathering.....This fruit should be gathered with the hand, and «are- VOL. I. APP 97 fully placed in baskets; rejecting those which spontaneously fall, as unfit for long keeping. Moving the apples, in order to examine them whether sound, is likewise injurious to their presentation. [Apples abound in Pennsylva- nia, and in every state in the union except in the maritime dis- tricts of the Carolinas and Georgia, which are sandy and level, and the air replete with humidity....In Pennsylvania Ave have a very great variety of apples, many of which are equal in size, beauty and fla- vour, to any found in the world. Some begin to ripen in June, after harvest, and others ripen in succes- sion until frost. A particular ac- count will be given of the Ameri- can apples when Ave come to the article " fruit trees." A very interesting paper by W. Denning, Esq. on the subject of the alarming decay of apple-trees is inserted in the 1st. vol. of the transactions of the N. York Agricul- tural Society : from Avhich it ap- pears, that on cutting doAvn some apple-trees which Avere far decay- ed, he discovered two worm holes running perpendicularly from the tap root through the heart ; these holes were large enough to admit a pipe stem and reached about fourteen inches above the surface, and from each hole a Avorm was taken. In some trees eight or ten holes Avere found. They resembled the peach-tree worm. Mr. D. proposes no remedy, but as it is probable that the worm first penetrates the tree from Avithout, and then takes a perpendicular di- rection, the only way to save the tree will be : either to destroy the egg when deposited on the bark by the fly, by frequently washing the trunk during the summer with O 98 APP warm urine, or warm soap suds ; or to take out the Avorm at an early period When the worm has entered the tree, it may be dis- covered by uncovering the root, and searching for the spot Avhere the gum exudes : this will be found to be the entrance of the worm; to discover Avhich a knitting needle must be used to perforate the hole. If the cavity be horizon- tal the Avorm may be easily bored out; but if the direction of the wound be round the root,the Avhole course of the worm must be laid open with a pointed small knife until it be discovered. The wound made, must be filled up by melted wax and oil, or by Forsyth's com- position. Several species of cerambyx or goat beetle, likeAvise prove very destructive to apple-trees. They 'attack the trees about the surface of the earth. The female when in the perfect or beetle state lays her egg on the bark, Avhere it is hatch- eel ; and, gradually gnawing, the insect Avorks itself inwards: as it increases in size and strength, it perforates the trunk, from side to side in various directions, Avhich venders it porous and hollow; the tree becomes sickly, the leaves small, of a yelloAvish green colour and blotched; the extremities of the branches decay, and soon after the whole tree dies as it stands: at other times it breaks off even Avith the surface of the earth. Young trees attacked in this man- lier seldom recover, but after the trunk arrives to the diameter of 12 inches, they seem to be able to re- sist the assaults for some years lon- ger. The entranceof theinsectmay be discovered by a powder like saw- dust issuing from the hole: this may be perforated, and the insect taken APP out: the wound made in the tree must then be carefully filled up. ■ As insects have increased' greatly since the birds have been thinned by the increased number of sportsmen, and as Ave know that insects are the favourite food of al- most all kinds of birds, particular- ly of the smaller kind ; (See Bird), " let us" says the amiable Wm. B a r t r am "recall those benefactors, and put them again in possession of their natural rights and privileg- es ; let them at least for a time be protected by law."....Let. to the Editor. Dr. Anderson describes an in- sest of the coccus tribe, that lh-es upon apple-trees, and throws out such a quantity of cotton-like mat- ter, as sometimes to cover eve- ry twig of the young trees. It communicates a corrosive ichor, that affects the tree, after the in- sect itself is removed, like a gan- grene ; so that the tree becomes blotched, uneven in the bark, and full of deep holes that soon pro- duce decay and death. When these insects are discovered, they should be rubbed off, and the limb covered Avith cow dung and urine by means of a paint brush. Dr. Mitchell, in the 1st. vol. of the transactions of the Agricul- tural Society of NeAV-York, des- describes aphalcena, or miller,which conceals itself during the day in holes, and spaces under the loose bark of apple-trees, and may be easily found by searching. The male has Avings, but the female ap- pears to have none : They Avere seen as early as the 25th of March in the state of NeAv-York, crawling towards the extremities of the twigs to deposit their eggs. Thus as soon as the leaves unfold and sprout forth, the worm bursts from the egg. The APP APP 99 insect preys upon the leaves, blos- soms and fruit. The method of preventing the destruction caused by these millers, will be, to keep the female from ascending the tree: for this purpose the tree may be encircled by a streak of tar early in the spring; but probably a more certain remedy will be found in the foiiovving ob- servations. A Avriter under signature " Vi a- " tor" who dates from Hartford County, August, 17'.>2, and Avhose paper is preserved in Carey's Ame- rican Museum, says, " Canker worms never destroy apple-trees Avhich suu.d on a stiff clay, or in low ground, where Avater stands long in the spring. The reason for this is -obvious. The canker- worm al>out the tenth of June de- scends into the earth, there to lie till the next spring, when the mil- ler (phaloena) rises and ascends the trees. This worm is not strong, nor furnished Avith the necessary instruments for digging into a hard stiff clay : of courr.e it cannot bury itself in clay, and is not fond of L-ravtl. The writer therefore prc- jiv>ses to lay a covering of stiff clay, round trees which stand on sand, or other light earth. This cover- ing or layer, may be thrown upon the top of the natural soil, which men be renewed to the depth of a few inches. If the clay be laid on in summer or autumn, after the de- scent of the worm ; it may prevent the miller from rising in the spring; if when the worm is upon the tree, it may prevent its finding a lodg- ing ; hut as in the latter case, the worm might travel some distance Ixvond the limits of the layer, it mie,ht be better to form the lay- er round the tree after the descent of the worm in June." From some expeliments of Dr. Mitchell, (Medical Repository v. 3.) it appears, that apple-trees may be barked with safety and in- deed apparently with advantage.... The farmers say, that taking off the bark will make old trees young again. By an extract from the Miscellanea Berolinensia, in the Medical Repos. v. 4. p. 102 ; the advantage of decorticating trees is confirmed. Whenever it was ap- prehended, the growth of the tree was impeded by a disease of the bark, the practice was "to .strip it off; a neAV and healthy bark suc- ceeded. Pear and cherry-trees were treated in the same way. The summer solstice was the period for performing the operation. Apple-trees have not succeeded so well, in the course of the last eight or ten years, as formerly. Be- sides the worm, the decay may be owing to the winters becoming more mild, Avhich occasions an ear- lier circulation of the sap, and thus disposes the fruit buds to be de- stroyed by late frosts; formerly, when the winterswere cold and long, the vegetation was retarded until the danger of frost Avas passed..... Another reason may be, the neg- lect of pruning; for it is well known that this important operation is sel- dom performed upon our trees, and hence they are overgrown Avith old and decayed wood, and after bear- ing thirty or forty years, they die, or cease to bear. In this situation are most of the old orchards near Philadelphia. Those in the remote counties of the state, Avhich have been recently planted, bear Avell, but in a few years they will be in the same situation Avith the former, un- less attention be paid to them. Be- sides pruning, the moss should be rubbed off, and manure put round 100 APP the roots every year or two. This manure may consist either of Avell rotten stable dung, or the blood of all slaughtered animals, which is too commonly thrown away ; or the black Avater from the manure heap, which is shamefully permitted to go to waste, though abounding with the very essence of the food of plants. The following directions are abridged from Mr. Forsyth's trea- tise on fruit-trees. CHOicF.,.In choosing apple-trees from the nursery, observe that they haAestrong,straightandclean stems. In heading old, decayed apple- trees, cut at the forked branches, as near as can be to the upper side of the fork, in a sloping manner, and round off the edges. Begin at the lower branches, and proceed up- wards, cutting from one to six joints or forks according to their strength. Cut away cankered parts: ....apply the composition to all the cut limbs, and finish with the ashes, and burnt bones. A tree thus prepared, will, in the course of three or four years, produce more and finer fruit than a maiden tree, that has been planted up- wards of twenty years. Never shorten the youngbranches except they are very thin, Avhen it will be necessary to do so, to fill the trees w'ith young Avood; nor prune any of the young shoots the second year (that is the year after they are cut,) as many of the eyes almost to the end of the shoot, will, if it be strong, become fruit- buds next year; and so on every yea:. In the month of May, in the first year after the trees have been so cut, it will be necessary to go over them, and rub off all superfluous young shoots, leaving from three to APP six eyes on each shoot, according to the size and strength of the branch cut. These shoots will bear from three to four years, by Avhich time they will be pretty^ ;£' , much exhausted, by the great quan- tity of fruit produced from them; they should then be cut down to tAvo eyes, to produce neAv wood. Mr. F. ahvays leavesthe branches . j of three different years on the trees, and thus keeps them in a constant bearing state, Avhereas, if left to na- ture, they would only produce a crop of fruit once in two or three years, as almost constantly happens in the United States. When the shoot has done bearing, cut it off, apply the composition imme- diately, and rub off the shoots where they are too numerous. PRUNiNG....The best time to prune apple-trees in the United States, is in the month of March. The small shoots that cross each other, should be cut off, leaving the strongest to fill up the tree, and make a handsome head. Grub up suckers from the roots. Pare away knobs where branches have been cut off, leaving the surface of the tree as smooth as possible; and ap- ply the composition. Apple-trees Avhich grow in low situations, or within fifty miles of the sea coast, and have not the soil tilled round them, are subject to be overgrown with moss, which in a feAv years, Avill cause the trees to become bark bound, and greatly diminish their growth and produce. To cure these effects, and prevent their return, Mr. N. Ogden, of Flushing, Long-Island, keeps the ground of his orchard ploughed; and scrapes off the moss from the trunks and branches of the trees Avith a hoe or drawing knife, and then spreads over them a smaH APP APP 101 quantity of new, strong, soft soap, by means of a long haired brush.... The soap destroys the moss and softens the bark; and Avhen Avashed off, by rain, acts as a manure to the roots. When Mr. Ogden began this process his trees Avere covered Avith moss, and old scaly bark, and bore bad crops; but, in two years, all the old bark dropped off, and the bodies became as smooth as a young poplar. The soaping may be done at any season, and re- peated if necessary. When the tree is bark bound, it will be neces- sary to slit the bark in two or three places down the bodies, observing not to let the knife wound the wood of the tree; the best season for this work is early in the spring. Apple-trees raised from thepum- mice, if transplanted in time, nip- ping off the end of the top root, may be fit for grafting one or two seasons earlier, than if left in the place Avhere sow n This obser- vation is the result of the expe- riments of the Agricultural Society of Nova Scotia. The following inestimable obser- vations were communicated to the Editor, by Mr. J.Cooper of New- Jersey, and Avill therefore command serious attention....They refer in part to subjects already mentioned, but it Avas deemed best to insert them unconnected with the obser. vations of others. " Experience for more than fifty years has convinced me, that altho' seedlings from apples will scarcely ever produce fruit in New Jersey, exactly similar to the original, yet many of them will produce excel- lent fruit: some will even be supe- rior to the apples from which the seeds were taken. Thi< fact has led me to plant seeds from the largest and best kinds of fruit, and from trees of a strong and rapid growth; and to lei all young trees bear fruit before grafting, which produced an u.veonn .on strong shoot, or large rich looking leaf.... I have seldom known them fail of bearing fruit having some good quality ; at all events they make a stock to put any gcod kind on Avhich may afterwards present itself." " In grafting or budding apple- trees, it is best to perform the operation within or near the earth, if of such kinds as produce an erect strong stem ; but on such kinds as incline horizontaliy, or small weak shoots, the preferable mode is, to insert the bud or graft hi^h enough to form a top. " I have in numerous instances seen the stock have great influence on the fruit grafted thereon, in re- spect to bearing, size, and flavour; and, also, on the durability of the tree, particularly in the instance of a number of vandevere apple-trees, the fruit of which was so subject to the bitter rot as to be of little use. They were ingrafted fifty years ago, and ever since, those of them hav- ing tops composed oi several differ- ent kinds, though they continue to be more productive c( fruit than any others in my orchard, yet are subject to the bitter rot, the origin- al and well known :.flection of the fruit of the primitive stcek. I have had frequent opportunities of observing the same circumstance, in consequence of receiving many scions from my fr'nnds, which after bearing I have engrafted, and the succeeding fruit uniformly pai to. k in some degree of the qualities of the former, even in their dkrosi- tion to bear annually or biennially. " Pruning is an affair requiring great care and judgment, as the future prosperity of the tree grea* 102 APP ly depends thereon. In the first place young fruit trees should not have the side shoots cut close to the stem, as the Avhole groAVth is thereby forced to the top, Avhich soon becomes so weighty as to bend and spoil the tree. 1 have found it better to cut the ends of the side shoots so as to keep the tree in a spiral form which will en- courage the growth of the trunk, until it acquires strength to sup- port a good top. The side shoots may then be trimmed close. In forming the top, I have found it necessary to lighten the east and north-east sides, as fruit-trees gene- rally incline that way ; and to en- courage the branches on the oppo- site quarters to keep the sun from the trunk, otherwise the rays of that luminary, when striking at nearly right angles Avill kill the bark, bring on canker, and ruin the tree. The best method that I have found to heal such wounds is a composition of resin, tallow, and bees-wax of a proper consist- ence to stick, applied after taking oil' the dead bark, and if suckers shoot out below the Avound, they i.ught to be trained so as to shade the affected part, until the branches above will answer the pur- pose. By these means I have re- covered many trees which would have perished if neglected....I also endeaAour to prevent acute angles in any part of the tree, as the growth takes in bark which is the general cause of the branches breaking off or splitting from the weight of fruit or from high Avinds." APPLICATION, in a general sense, signifies the art of bringing things together, in order to disco- ver their mutual agreement or re- lation to each other. It is also fa- APR miliarly used to express the study or consideration of any subject, and includes the idea of assiduity and persevering attention. In the Economy of Human Life, we meet Avith the folloAving short sentence, in praise of application : " Since the days that are past, are gone for ever, and those that are to come, may never appear, it be- hoveth thee, oh! man, to employ the present time without vainly re- gretting the loss of that Avhich is past, or too much depending on that Avhich is to come. This in- stant is thine ; the next is in the womb of futurity ; and thou know- est not Avhat it may bring forth." APPRENTICESHIP, is the binding of a person by covenant, to serve his master for a limited period, on condition of being in- structed in his trade or occupation. Its usual duration is for the term of seven years, afjter Avhich the ap- prentice himself is entitled to be- come a teacher, and to engage pu- pils to serve under him. Apprenticeships were unknown to the ancients. The Roman law makes no mention of them ; nor is there any Greek or Latin word which expresses the idea now an- nexed to this appellation. APRICOT-TREE, the Prunus Armeniaca, L. is a species of the plum, or cherry-tree. Although Linnaeus has reduced these dif- ferent trees to one genus, which he calls Prunus, yet Ave shall in this place enumerate only the varieties known under the name of apri- cot : 1. The male, or early apricot, which produces a small, round, reddish fruit; has more stone than pulp, ripens in July, and has but an indifferent flavour. As this tree blossoms early in spring, it is liable APR APR 103 tobeinjurcd by night-frosts, against which it ought to be protected, by placing contiguous to it shallow vessels filled Avith water. 2. The white apricot is oblong, flat at both ends, and of a pale co- lour : its tree is not only less influ- enced by cold, than any other sort, but also bears fmit in greater abundance. 3. The orange apricot acquires, when ripe, a deep yellow colour, is distinguished by a sweet kernel, but its fmit is more fit for preserv- ing, drying, and using it in pas- try, than for the dessert. 4. The red apricot is of an oval size, its pulp likewise reddish and juicy, and the kernel sweet like a hazle-nut: the leaves of this tree are longer than those of any other variety. 5. The large, or Turkey apricot, exceeds in size and beauty all the other sorts, has a deep yellow pulp and sweet kernel, but is not pro- ductive. 6. The Breda apricot, a native of Africa, is one of the finest and most delicious: its fruit is large and round, externally of a deep yellow, and internally of a golden, colour. Its kernel is the largest of the kind ; and if this fruit arrive at maturity in an airy situation, it de- serves an unqualified preference. 7. The Brussels apricot is of a middle size, somewhat oval; on its southern exposure red, with many dark spots, and greenish or deep yellow on the opposite side. Its fruit is firm, and of a delicious taste ; the skin is apt to burst be- fore the fmit is mature, and it sel- dom ripens until August or Sep- tember. Some amateurs even pre- fer it to the preceding species..... Lastly: 8. The peach apricot is more spherical and larger than any other species; Avhile it possesses the sweetness of the apricot combined with the acidulated vinous taste of the peach. This tree, however, requires a temperate climate, and will not thrive in the open air of this country. Culture.....All the* varieties of apricot-trees have originally been raised from their stones: they Avere then propagated by budding or grafting on any plum-stock. The soil most congenial to.their nature, is a rich black mould ; for they will not prosper in a loamy, sandy, gtavelly, clamp, or cold ground. As they are generally placed near walls, an eastern aspect will be the most eligible and pro- per, because they are apt to grow mealy, from the strong and con- stant heat of the sun, in a southern direction. In a luxuriant bottom, they may be planted at a distance of sixteen or twenty feet from each other ; but in an inferior soil, from twelve to fifteen. When transplant- ed in the month of October, no other branches ought to be pruned off, except such as cannot be fixed to the Avail. After the tree has been properly set in the ground, its branches should be loosely tied, and the surface of the soil sur- rounding the stem covered Avith good manure, partly to prevent in- jury from frost, and to afford more nourishment to the roots. Towards the end of February, or beginning of March, the branches must be untied, and the top of the tree cut off, Avhile the operator's foot should be placed close to its trunk, and only four or five eyes are to be left aboA'e the place Avhere it has been grafted : taking care that the ob- lique side of the cut be turned to- wards the wall. 104 APR APR During a dry spring, the roots may be occasionally watered, and covered with a little straw or grass plats, in order to protect them against night-frosts, and afford them additional moisture in summer. All the young shoots should be trained horizontally. About the end of September, the branches are again to be loosened, and pruned, so that two only may remain, one of a larger size, from eight to nine, and an inferior one, from five to six Fiches long. In the second summer, all the straight shoots ought to be remov- ed, as in the first, while the neAV sprigs are transversely fastened close to the a\ all, so that the trunk of the tree remain free : the prun- ing, however, should not be at- tempted later than in the course of April. About the 28th September, the young shoots are again to be dressed, as in the preceding year ; and the most vigorous left from eight to ten, but the weaker ones, only six or se\'en inches long. A similar treatment must be pur- sued in the third and following years. It deserves farther to be remarked, that apricots bear their buds and blossoms not only on the branches of the preceding year, but likewise on the young shoots and tops of these branches : hence the dressing of them, during summer, ought to be performed with addi- tional care. Uses....Vvom the Acinous and sac- charine nature of this fruit Ave may readily conclude, that it is possess- ed of antiseptic, cooling, and nu- tritive properties ; yet, unless fully ripe, it is apt to ferment and turn acid in weak stomachs, especially those of persons who are subject to flatulency and eructations : hence apricots ought to be eaten in mo- deration- with the addition of a lit- tle bread, and rather before, than after meals. In short, they are more useful to bilious and ple- thoric, than to phlegmatic and hys- terical individuals, or those trou- bled Avith hypochondriacal com- plaints. In France and Germany, the orange apricot is usually preserv- ed in a dry state, for the winter, Avhenit forms a delicious ingredient in pyes, tarts, Sec. The kernels of several species of apricots contain a sweet oil, on account of Avhich they Ave re for- merly, like sweet almonds, used in emulsions, and considered as vulnerary and anodyne : at pre- sent, however, their use is confin- ed to external applications, in which the expressed oil of these kernels has sometimes been of ser- vice, for a contracted and chapped skin of the hands and lips, sore nipples, painful ears, and similar cases. [Dr. Willich recommends an easterly aspect for apricot trees : but in the United States, an east- erly, north, or n. easterly exposure is highly injurious to this fruit. Apricot trees should be screened by a high Avail, fence, or building, from the winds of those quarters, othenvise the trees' will not bear, though they may grew large. The best time for planting apri- cots, according to Forsyth, is in autumn, as soon as the leaf is ob- served to fall. Choose trees with the strongest and cleanest stems. The ground must be a light, fresh loam. When the trees are plant- ed, they should, by no means, be headed doAvn till they begin to throAv out fresh roots. Strong trees should then be cut a foot from the ground, and those that are wealc AQU AQU 105 about half that length.....In back- Avard seasons, they should not be headed doAvn until the buds are fairly broken ; always observing to cut sloping towards the wall, and as near to an eye as possible, that the young leading shoot may cover the cut.....The shoots then thrown out, must be trained horizontally, to cover the wall, or attached to a railing near'the border. The num- ber of shoots left out ought to be from three to six on each side, ac- cording to the strength of the main shoot, taking care to rub off the four right shoots all over the tree, except a few which may be want- ed to fill up the wall near the body of it. Apricots, and other stone fruits, thrive best in paved yards, or Avhere the ground is permitted to remain undisturbed round theroots....They succeed no where better than in confined paved yards in our cities.] AQUA FORTIS, the nitrous acid of a certain strength, and so called from its dissolving power; but, when in a concentrated and smoking state, it is denominated spirit of nitre. It is made by dis- tilling equal parts of crude nitre with calcined vitriol ; or by care- fully mixing one part of oil of vitriol with nine of pure spirit of nitre.....See Acids. As this poAverful liquid is used for various purposes in the arts and manufactures, but chiefly by dyers, brass--founders,, hatters, £cc. great caution should be observed, both in preparing and employing it, be- cause it possesses a very caustic property, and its fumes are highly deleterious to the organs of respi- ration. Hence those artisans fre- quently become subject to convul- sive coughing and blood spitting, paralyticaffeclions,trembling, pak- VOL. \. ness of countenance, loose teeth, the loss of smeli and taste, and at length, pulmonary consumption. In order to prevent these fatal ef- fects, we seriously advise them to make use of oily and bland nourish- ment, and externally to secure the mouth and nose, by tying a hand- kerchief round those parts, while they are exposed to the fumes of this volatile acid. But in casualties where a person has, by mistake, swallowed a por- tion of aqua-fortis, the following treatment will be the most proper for averting the imminent danger of suffocation. Immediately after the accident, luke-warm water ought to be drunk in the greatest possible quantity, even to the amount of several gallons, to weak- en the causticity of the poison. Next, a solution of half an ounce of salt of tartar, or clean pearl- ashes, in one pint of water, should be taken in about six or eight small draughts ; and as the effervescence thus occasioned in the stomach, greatly tends to weaken that organ, it Avill be necessary to make use of more water, and other diluent, oily, or mucilaginous drinks. We are of opinion, that a solu- tion of borax, or tincal, in the pro- portion of three drams to a pint of water, forms a more effectual anti- dote than the vegetable alkali; be- cause the former, by uniting with acids, causes no effervescence..... There are instances of persons having completely obviated the ill effects of this poison, simply by drinking small portions of swreet oil, frequently repeated, for three days successively. If, however, the sensation of a burning pain in the stomach and boAvels should not subside, after plentiful vomiting, large draughts 106 A R A AR A of SAveet coav's milk must be swal- lowed, Avith the addition of one drachm, or sixty drops of liquid tar- tar, usually called oil of tartar, to each pint. But previously to the expulsion of the poison by vomit- ing, or the neutralizing of it with alkaline solutions, neither milk, oily, nor saponaceous draughts can be taken with advantage. Hence these ought to conclude the cure ; during Avhich the patient may fre- quently use gargarismsand clysters of the same liquids, Avhich are di- rected to be taken internally. In- deed, after the poisonous fluid has left the stomach, and entered the intestinal canal, the principal be- nefit will be derived from emollient and balsamic injections. AQUA REGIA is a compound of the nitrous and marine acids, in different proportions, according to the purpose for which it is required; and usually made, by dissolving sal ammoniac, or common salt, in ni- trous acid. When the former is employed, the usual proportion is one of this salt to four of the acid ; but equal parts Avill be ncessary to dissob'e platina. Aqua regia is used as a men- struum for gold ; it likewise dis- solves all other metals, silver alone excepted. The best kind for the above-mentioned purpose, is a pre- paration of three parts of the pure marine, with one of the nitrous, acid. One hundred grains of gold require for their solution, two hun- dred and forty-six of this mixture. Concerning the nature and cure of those casualties which may arise from an improvident use of this powerful solvent, we refer to the preceding article. Ai/uil'gia. See Columbine. ARABLE LANDS, in general, are those naturally fit for tillage, or which may, by proper means, be prepared for the production of grain. The just proportion between ara- ble and pasture lands, has in this country, of late years, been much exceeded in favour of the latter.... It is asserted by competent judges, that though the prevailing rage for breeding cattle of the finest quality ; and to the greatest extent, has doubtless benefited the grazier, and the'lord of the manor, yet this prac- tice must certainly be attended with disadvantages to the community at large. We cannot, in this place, enter into a minute discussion of this important subject; but it clear- ly appears, from the present prices of com, when compared with those of animal food, that they bear no just proportion to each other. With respect to the general me- thods of improving arable land, we are induced to avail ourselves of the excellent remarks of M. Duha- mel, who maintains that it is much more profitable to increase the fer- tility of land by tillage, than ma- nure: 1. Because only a certain quantity of dung can be had ; the produce of twenty acres being scarcely sufficient to dung one ; whereas the particles of the earth may be pulverized and divided at pleasure : 2. Plants reared in dung, do not possess the fine flavour of those produced by a natural soil: 3. The plough not only separates the particles in a manner exactly similar to the fermentation occa- sioned by dung, but also changes their situation, by turning up the earth, and thus exposing the whole, at different times, to the influence of the sun, air and dews; all Avhich greatly conduce to render it fertile: 4. Dung breeds and harbours in- sects, Avhich afterwards feed upon AR A A R A 107 and spoil the plants. To remedy, this inconvenience, he recommends the following expedient: " Let a reservoir of quick-lime be kept in a very dry place. When you be- gin to make your dunghill, sprinkle each layer of dung with quick-lime, till the Avhole is finisheu. This lime kills most insects, perhaps en- riches the manure, and renders it more serviceable, It will likewise destroy the seeds of weeds, which are generally in dung, and hurt the wheat when they shoot up." Various methods of improving poor arable land, have been sug- gested by different writers. But as we consider old Duhamel's plan of ploughing, and then pulve- rizing the soil properly by the har- row, the most effectual, Avhere suf- ficient manure cannot be procured, we shall only relate two sugges- tions which deserve notice, chiefly on account of their originality..... John Mordant, in his " Com- plete Steward," published in 1761, advises a method of improving poor, worn-out land, as he terms it; which not being an expensive one, may well deserve a trial: " A pound of turnip-seed sown, after harvest, upon an acre of light, sandy, or gravelly land, that is poor or worn out by over-ploughing, and Avhere manure is wanting (the crop of which being ploughed in, when groAvn high,) Avill, in two months' time, die away and rot, and enrich the land, so as to prove as good a manuring as tAventy loads of dung, or more, upon an acre".....p. 457. Another manner of recruiting worn-out lanel, is that proposed by Mr. Randall, in his "Seuu-Vir- gilian Husbandry," which appeared in 176t. We likewise communi- cate it in the author's own Avords: " The loam, immediately after har- vest, is to be turned up ; and as Ave shall suppose it will alloAV the ploughman to go very deep, this is a point to be obtained at any rate, for a worn out soil. In order to effect this, one plough is to go the usual depth, and another plough to folloAV at the same depth, and in the same furrow, Avhich will throAv the mould over it, and bury the stubble. In this case, the field will lie under the advantage of being turned upside-down, as if it Avere double spitted, more than a foot deep, and the stubble Avill be soon- er rotted. When this is done, the harrows must make the ground as fine as the bad condition of it, or the season, will permit"....p. 12. We shall conclude this article with an useful hint, given by Mr. R. Price, of Knelworth, Herts, to the Society for the Encourage- ment of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce; respecting the damage elone to arable land, by carrying off the small stones and flints from the surface, for the purpose of making turnpike -roads. This practice is highly detrimental to almost every kind of ploughed land, but particu- larly to what are called thin stapled, or light soils. Mr. Price justly observes, that k' stones are of sur- prising and manifold uses : for in- stance, they greatly assist the plough in working the land ; they also prevent land of a binding quali- ty from running together, and hard- ening, like mortar in a Avail; they screen the tender blade from blasts and blights ; they not only prevent the crop, where the staple is thin, from being scorched up in summer, but also the exudations of the eai th from evaporating; and by that means greatly promote vegeta- tion." 108 ARC ARC It is almost superfluous to add, that this reasoning is equally appli- caoie to fields and gardens.....See also the articles Husbandry, Lands, Soil, and Tillage. Arachis hypogaa.....See Earth or Ground-Nut, and Choco- late. [ARALIA. Four species grow in the United States. 1. Arulia Spinosa, Angelica tree, prickly a--h, tooth-ach tree. A decoction of its bark and root has often succeeded when taken inward- ly, in removing rheumatic com- plaints. It encites a gentle perspi- rano. . The berries are used to put into a hollow tooth Avhen ach- ing. A tincture of them in spirits is also used for the same purpose. 2. A racemosa, Spikenard, Wild- Liyuoriec, Berry-bearing A....Vak- KiNsoNssiys, the berries are eaten in Canada, and both leaves and roots are used as saliads and pot-herbs, by the natives. 3. A. r.udicaulis, Sarsaparilla.... The roots are used as a substitute for sarsaparilla. A decoction is used in the country, for that erup- tive complaint called the shingles. It is also esteemed as a remedy to restore the tone of the stcma-h. 4. A. hisfida....The root of this is highly emetic] Arena; gel, FeYifc.■:'....See Wea- se l-Snout. ARCHERY, is the art, or exer- cise, of shooting with a bow and arrow. Among ancient nations, the bow Avas the principal instrument of war; and the &k:ll of the archer of- ten decided the fate of battles and of emp'u es. The Eji.ll:tii Avere particularly expert in the use of this instru- ment; and their ever memorable victories at the battles of Cressy and Poictiers, Avere chiefly ascribed to their valiant archers. James the First of Scotland, Avho had seen and admired the dexterity of English archers, and was him- self a skillful bowman, endeavoured to revive that exercise among his own subjects, by Avhom it had been neglected; but the untimely death of that excellent prince, pre- vented the effectual execution of this useful project. In the time of Edavard the Third, there Avas an act of parlia- ment, which obliged the English archers, even in times of peace, to erect butts in every parish, and to shoot on Sundays and holidays. By this constant practice, the Eng- lish armies possessed an exclusive advantage over their enemies. Charles the first of England, from a treatise entitled "The Bow- man's Glory," also appears to have been an archer. In the eighth year of his reign, he issued a commis- sion to the chancellor, Lord Mayor and Privy council, to prevent the fields near London from being so much enclosed, as "to interrupt the necessary and profitable exercise of shooting." The use of the long-bow continu- ed in estimation for -nore than two centuries after the introduction of gun-powder; which was proh ,hly owing to the weight and unwLful- ness of muskets. The distance to which an arrow may be shot from a long-bow, de- pends, in a gre:»t degree, on the strength and size of the archer, but in general is reckoned from eleven to twelve score yards. Archers consider an arrow of foui twenty to twenty -four drachms Aveight, tobe tiie best for flight, or hitting a mark at a considerable distance; and yew, the best mate- ARC ARC 109 rial of which they can be made.... The feathers of a goose are gene- rally preferred; two out of three are commonly white, being taken from the gander; the third is brown or grey; and this difference of colour informs the archer Avhen the arrow is properly placed. The long bow is of the same height as the archer himself: and in Eng- land a peculiar method is practised, by drawing the arrow to the ear, and not towards the breast; Avhich is doubtless more advantageous than that adopted among other na- tions. Thfc force Avith which an arrow strikes an object, at a moderate dis- tance, may be conceived, from the account given by King Edward VI. in his Journal, where he says, that one hundred archers of his guard, discharged in his presence two arrows each; that they shot at an inch-board, and many of them pierced it quite through- though the timber was weii seasoned. It may perhaps be a subject worthy the consideration of go- vernment, whether the revival of archery, by uniting military disci- pline Avith manly exercise, might not beonue an additional means, both of preserving health, and pro- tecting us against foreign enemies. According to Neade, an archer might shoot six arrows in the time of charging and discharging a musket; and an ounce of fire-work may also be discharged upon an ar- toav, to the distance of 240 yards. The earliest histories of archery in England, are those by Ascham, ay ho Avrote his Toxophiius in the reign of Henry A III; Mark- ham's Art of Archery, Avhich ap- peared in 1634; and Wood's Bowman's Glory, in 1682 : but the latest, and most complete Avork on the subject, is, " An Essay on Archery," describing the practice of that art, in all ages and nations ; by W. M. Moseley, Esq. 8vo. pp. 348. 7s. boards. Robson, 1792. In this classical treatise, the author considers bows, arrows, quivers, butts, targets, and cross-bews, un- der different heads; and his ac- count is illustrated by plates. Ease and perspicuity ; richness without verbosity ; and elegance untainted with affectation, are the characters of this entertaining work. Archery continues to be . prac- tised by the inhabitants of Geneva, and in many parts of Flanders. In Britain there are seA-eral societies of archers, the principal of which are the Woodmen of Arden, the Toxo- pholite, and the Royal Company of Archers of Scoiland....'6ee also, Ar- row. ARCHITECTURE, a term which denotes the art of building in general, though chiefly applied to the construction of edifices ap- propriated to the purposes of civil life, such as houses, churches, halls, bridges, &c Sec. The origin of this art is involved in obsc.u-ity. All regular build- ings, however, hath, by several authors, been generally, and very plausibly deduced from the con- struction of the meanest huts. These wrere, at first, probably made of a conic figure, Avhich is the simplest in structure, but being in- convenient on account of its in- clined sides, both the figure and construction of the huts Avere changed, by giving them a cubical form. At length, mankind insensibly improved in the art of building, and invented methods of rendering their habitations durable and hand- some, as well as convenient. They 110 ARC deprived the trunks of trees of their bark, and other inequalities of sur- face, raised them above the wet, or humid soil, by means of stones, and also covered each with a flat stone, or slate, to exclude the rain. The interstices between the ends of the joists, were closed with wax, clay, or similar substances : the position of the roof was likewise altered ; and, as on account of its level surface, it was unfit to carry off the abundant rain-water, they elevated it in the middle, by placing rafters on the joists, to support the earth and other materials of the covering. From this simple con- struction, the orders of architecture undoubtedly took their origin ; for, when the rude builder began to erect stately edifices of stone, he imitated those parts which, from necessity, had composed the primitive huts. Thus, the upright trees, Avith stones at each end, Avere the origin of columns, bases, and capitals ; and the beams, joists, rafters, he. Avhich formed the co- vering, gave rise to architraves, frizes, trigliphs, cornices, Sec. Although the first buildings were rough and uncouth, because the artificers of those remote ages pos- sessed neither skill, experience, nor tools, yet, Avhen by length of practice, certain rules had been established, and many new instru- ments invented, the art rapidly advanced tOAvards perfection: a variety of style, or different me- thods of building, were discover- ed, Avhich, by succeeding genera- tions, have been held in the greatest esteem. The Egyptians, from the ear- liest ages of antiquity, have been considered as the inventors of arts; and, among other contrivances, may be numbered that species of o 'igi- ARC nal architecture, in Avhich the strength of the fabric was more re- garded than either its elegance, or symmetry. The Greeks, whose sublime and penetrating genius prompted them to combine ele- gance Avith convenience, derived their first ideas of building from the Egyptians. The orders, as now executed by architects, are five, viz. 1. the Tuscan; 2. the Doric; 3. the Ionic ; 4. the Corinthian ; and 5. the Composite. The first, from its robust appearance, is used in works Avhere strength and sim- plicity are the essential reemisites; the second is nearly similar to the Tuscan in strength, but is enli- vened by its peculiar ornaments ; the third is more delicate than ei- ther of the former ; but the fourth displays more beauty and ornament than the others, and is therefore frequently used for the internal de- corations of stately rooms ; the fifth order is nearly the same as the Co- rinthian. In the 12th century, architec- ture revived, and experienced very great improvements, in conse- ejuence of the religious zeal of the clergy ; and, in the 15th and 16th centuries, the chaste style of the Greeks and Romans was displayed in Britain. For, though the Itali- ans for a long time maintained their superiority, in this as avcII as in other arts, over all the European nations, yet as men of genius from distant parts constantly resorted to Italy for the purpose of improve- ment, since that period architects have arisen in Britain, equal to any that ever appeared on the clas- sical ground of Italy. The latest and most splendid publication on this subject, which is intended as a Supplement to that ARC magnificent work, " Vitruvius Bri- tannicus," and which contains the studies of themostcelebrated artists of the present day, is the following : " A Collection of Plans and Eleva- tions of modern Buildings, public and private, erected in Great Bri- tain, he." It is engraved in aqua- tinta, from original drawings by G. R. Richardson, architect. Seven numbers, at 10s. 6d. each, are already published, and the whole is to be completed in ten such numbers. Another very useful work has lately appeared, under the title, " Hints for Dwellings, he." By D. Laing, architect and surveyor, 4to. 34 plates, 11. 5s. Taylor, 1800. It consists of original designs for cottages, farm-houses, villas, Sec. plain and ornamental: with plans to each, uniting convenience and elegance with economy. The Monthly Reviewers say : " We recommend the present work, as one of the best of that kind, to the attention of those who Avish to amuse themselves with brick and mortar." Beside these, we shall mention the following architectural works, which reflect credit on the artists of this country: " The Rudiments of Ancient Architecture, Sec." royal 8vo. edit. 2d. price 6s. boards, published for Taylor, in 1794..... " Sketches in Architecture, ;" by J. So ane, architect, Sec. 54 folio plates, 21. 12s. 6d. half bound, 1793....."A Treatise on the decorative part of Civil Architecture ;" by Sir Wm. Chambers, Sec. edit. 3d. Imperial folio, price 31. 3s. Cadell, 1791. Architecture, being an useful and elegant art, is carried on in three different ways : first, for uti- lity ; secondly, for ornament; and, thirdly, for the construction of such ARG 111 buildings as require the combined effect of both. Buildings of such a nature only, are compatible with our plan, and of these we shall give a more par- ticular account under the article Building. Arctium. See Burdock. Areca. See Faselnut, Cate- chu, and Cabbage-Palm. Armaria. See Sandwort. Argemone. See Prickly Poppt. ARGUMENT, when applied to logic, signifies an inference drawn from premises, the truth of which is either indisputable,or highly pro- bable. In matters of literature, it denotes the abridgement, or heads, of a book, history, chapter, Sec. Considered in the former sense, in which it solely relates to reason, and to the investigation of truth, it is, in its principles, of a simple and homogeneous nature ; and re- quires no particular explanation. For, pleasure being the chief end of poetry, and persuasion that of eloquence, the real constitution of things is often perverted, or dis- guised, and compelled to adapt itself to the imagination and the passions ; but truth, being the ulti- mate object of argument, stands in need of no dazzling colours, or the figurative language of rhetoric. It is not, however, unusual (both in private life and in the senate) to draw from an argument, a con- clusion very different from what it really implies. Cunning and bold disputants frequently avail them- selves of ambiguous expressions, which easily engender a confusion of ideas ; and thus the fallacy of their incongruous reasoning but too often escapes detection, as it remains involved in sophistical per- plexity.....For a farther considera- tion of this intere sting subject, we 112 ARI ARI refer our readers to the article of Logic, where it will be more ap- plicable than under the present. Arislolochia. See Birthwort. ARITHMETIC, is a science which teaches the method of com- puting numbers, and explains their nature and peculiarities. At Avhat time it was invented, is altogether unknown; though the four first fundamental principles, viz. addi- tion, subtraction, multiplication, and division, have always, in a cer- tain degree, been practised by dif- ferent nations. The Greeks were among the first who brought arithmetic to per- fection ; and they are supposed to have originally made use of pebbles in their calculations. The most complete method of numbering now used in this country, Avas in- troduced into Europe by the Ara- bians, Avhen they were in possession of Spain. These people, however, acknowledged that they derived their information from the Indi- ans. How the latter became ac- emainted with it, Ave are entirely ignorant. The earliest treatises extant upon the theory of arithme- tic, are, the 7th, 8th, and 9th books of Euclid's Elements, in which he treats of proportion ; of prime and composite numbers. Nicoma- chus, the Pythagorean, also wrote concerning the distinction and di- visions of numbers into classes, as plain, solid, triangular, Sec. in which he explained some of the leading peculiarities of the several kinds. As learning advanced in Europe, the knowledge of numbers also in- creased, and the writers on this subject soon became numerous. Ramus Avas the first Avho, in his Treatise on Arithmetic, published in 1586, used decimal periods, for reducing the square and cube roots to fractions ; but the greatest improvement which the art of computation ever received, was from the invention of logarithms, the honour of which is due to John Napier, Baron of Merchiston, in Scotland, who published his disco- very about the beginning of the 17th century. Arithmetic may now be consi- dered as having advanced to a de- gree of perfection which, in former times, could scarcely have been conceiA'ed, and to be one of those few sciences which have left little room for farther improvement. It is, however, a serious and al- most general complaint, that few children, while at school, make any tolerable progress in arithmetic ; and that the generality, after hav- ing spent several years under the tuiton of a master, are incapable of applying the few rules which they may have learned, to the use- ful purposes of life. A little re- flection will suffice to convince us, that not much benefit is to be de- rived from the usual mode of in- struction. A few elementary prin- ciples are acquired by rote, and therefore quickly forgotten; be- cause the most essential particu- lars, viz. the reasons on Avhich these rules are founded, and their extens'iA'e use in the A'arious con- cerns of society, are generally omitted. Teachers, as well as writers, cannot be Avholly exempt- ed from the charge of having, in some degree, contributed to this evil; for, by stating the rules with- out their corresponding reasons, they act upon mechanical princi- ples, and thus encourage the idea, that demonstrations in every in- stance are useless, and in some, im- possible. ARI ARQ 113 1 Ivery young arithmetician should remember, that before he forms any particular question or numeri- cal proposition, it is absolutely ne- cessary to consider Avhether the terms be directly proportionate to each other; for otherwise he will be liable to commit gross errors. Although in buying and selling, the price increases or decreases in the same relative proportion as the quantity of goods, yet in geome- try, natural philosophy, Sec. those things which at first sight appear to be in simple proportion to each other, may, on a mature investi- gation, prove the contrary. Pre- viously, therefore, to the solution of questions respecting these sciences, he should be made acquainted with those elementry principles on Avhich they are founded. Another material error commit- ted in the inferior schools, is the admission of boys under the age of ten or twelve, often for the sake of early fees, though they are inca- pable of being instructed by rea- soning with them. Hence we are decidedly of opinion, that this is one of the negative, modern im- provements ; and that the earliest periods of fixing the attention of youth on scientific objects, is, ac- cording to their individual capaci- ties, from the twelfth to the fif- teenth year of their age. Among the latest, and most in- structive works on this subject, Ave enumerate the following:...." An Introduction to Arithmetic and Al- gebra ;" by T. Manning, two vo- lumes, 8vo. 10s. boards. Riving- tons, 1798....." Arithmetical Ques- tions, on a N-w Plan ;" by W. Butler, 8vo. edit. 2d. 4s. boards. Dilly, 1797....." The Arithmetician's Guide ;" by W. Taylor, 12mo. 2s. 6d. bound. Baldwin, 1788. VOL. I. [To this list may be addedPiKE's Arithmetic, a work originally pub* lished in the U. States, and esteem- ed by competent judges, one of the best on the subject.] See also,EDucATioNandBlind- ness. Arnica montana, L.....See Ger- man Leopard's Bane. AROMATIC, an epithet given to such substances as yield a strong fragrant smell, and impart a warm taste. In this class are included the various spices, such as nut- megs, cloves, cinnamon, mace, Sec. Some of them have a sweet- ness mixed with their aromatic principle; such as the angelica root, anise seed, and fennel ; some are astringent, as cinnamon; others afford a strong mucilage, as the Cassia lignea ; and again, others a bitterness, as orange and lemon peel. The aromatic ingredient is ex- tracted in different proportions from various substances, by recti- fied spirits of wine ; though it is sometimes obtained by mere infu- sion with Avater. Aromatics form an useful and agreeable ingredient in many arti- cles of cookery, but especially in dishes prepared of Avatery and fla- tulent vegetables, of which they are the best correctors : they warm the stomach, and stimulate the whole system ; raise the pulse, and cuiicken the circulation. In cold, languid habits, anel a relaxed state of the solids, they support the ani- mal spirits, or increase vital ac- tion, and promote the salutary se- cretions : but to hot, bilious tem- peraments, full habits, and inflam- matory dispositions, they are cer- tainly pernicious. ARQUEBUSADE WATER, a medicinal preparation, whick has Q 114 ARR ARR received this name, from its great efficacyin healing gun-shot wounds, though it is, at present, with more propriety, applied to bruises, tu- mors arising from blows, and par- ticularly to suggillated parts con- taining coagulated blood. Various mixtures are used for this purpose, but according to our experience, the following deserves the preference, both on account of the easy manner of preparing it, and its superior virtues: " Take distilled vinegar and rectified spirit of wine, of each one pound and a half, double refined loaf-sugar, half a pound, and five ounces of com- mon oil of vitriol. This composi- tion may be applied to the injured parts in a cold or lukewarm state, and the compresses should be kept continually moist, for as soon as they become dry, the pain is liable to return. By its astringent pro- perty it contracts the skin ; and the sugar Avhich settles on it, not un- like a coating of glue, ought to be carefully washed off every other, or third day, with Goulard-Avater. [The virtueof these healing waters are more imaginary than real: for most Avounds, nothing more is re- quired, than to join the separated parts, and bind them up in the ef- fused blood ; the separated vessels will soon unite. In Avarm weather, the parts may be covered Avith a cloth dipped in spirits or brandy.... No remedy, for a bruise, is equal to an ounce of sal ammoniac dis- solved in a pint or a pint and a half of vinegar, with which the parts must be bathed every hour, or oftener.] ARRACK, Arac, or Rack, is a spirituous liquet- imported from the East Indies, and used either as a cordial, or an ingredient in punch. It is obtained by distillation from rice, or sugar, fermented with the juice of cocoa-nuts. Goa and Batavia are the chief places from which arrack is exported. At the former, there are three sorts, viz. the single, double, and treble distilled. The double is but a weak spirit, in comparison with that ob- tained at the latter place ; but, on account of its peculiar flavour, it is preferreel to all the others. The arrack now in general use contains but a sixth, and some- times only an eighth part of alco- hol, or pure spirit. A spirituous liquor of this name is also extracted by the Tartars of Tungusia, from mare's milk, which is first suffer- ed to turn sour, and then distilled two or three times, between two close earthen pots, from Avhich it runs through a small wooden pipe. It is possessed of the most intoxi- cating qualities; so that, according to Professor Pallas, men, wo- men, and children, frequently drink themselves into a semi-deli- rious trance, Avhich continues for forty-eight hours. Various penalties are attached to the sale of arrack, without con- forming to the usual duties and regulations established by several acts of parliament, Avith Avhich we shall not trouble our readers, but refer them to the statutes made concerning this article. Genuine arrack is said to possess balsamic, softening, and restora- tive properties, and to be less lia- ble to produce the usual inconve- niencies of other spirits. It is farther supposed to contain a fine subtile oil, so minute as to incor- porate readily with water: hence it is generally preferred in those cases, where repeated debauches bave abraded the internal sides of the vessels. Persons who are ua- ARR Fortunately addicted to the use of ardent spirits, as well as those troubled with the gout or rheuma- tism, and who cannot comply Avith the rules of sobriety and temper- ance, may use arrack in preference to Hollands, or brandy. On ac- count of its strong empyreumatic oil, however, it is difficult of di- gestion., soon turns rancid, causes numerous obstructions, and is con- sequently injurious to individuals of lax solids, and thick or sizy fluids. Happy, therefore, are those Avho can entirely banish spirituous li- quors from their tables ; as, from their stimulating and pernicious qualities, they have destroyed in- calculable numbers of human be- ings....perhaps exceeding, in the aggregate, all the victims that ever fell under the combined scourges of war, hunger, and nestilence. ARRANGEMENT, a term which denotes a distribution of the various component parts of any whole, in a certain order, or pro- portion ; and refers either to sub- stance, time, or place. In the first instance, we may say, that the diversity observable in various co- lours is owing to a peculiar arrange- ment of those parts which reflect th« light; in the second, that re- gularity and order in human trans- actions are the result of a methodi- cal distribution, or arrangement of time ; and to explain the last, it may be said, that the different genera and species of plants and flowers are, by botanists, arranged ■under their respective classes, and in their proper places. A happy arrangement of ideas, Avords, and sentences, forms one of the principal beauties of a speech, or dissertation. The reverse im- plies confusion, which is frequently gjosscd over by a torrent of ajubi- ARR 115 guous and floAvery expressions, so that it requires no small degree of critical acumen, to distinguish the philosophical speaker from the ver- bose orator.....See Argument. ARROW, is a missive weapon of defence, used by archers. Its form is slender, pointed, and barb- ed.....Arrow-makers were denomi- natedfietchers ; men of considera- ble importance in the state. Arrow-heads and quarrels Avere required to be well boched or bras- ed, and hardened at the points with steel; the finishing of Avhich ap- pears to have been the business of the arrow-smith. A more particu- lar account of doavs and arrows will be found under the title of Archery. ARROW-GRASS, is a plant of which there are three species ; but two only are natives of Britain, namely, the Triglochin palustre, or Marsh, and the maritimum, or Sea Arrow-grass. The former is fre. quently met Avith in marshy grounds, and the latter near the sea coast, and in saline tracts. As they are eaten Avith avidity by sheep, for which they serve as an excellent and Avholesome food, Ave presume strongly to recommend their culture. An additional nu> tive for the propagation of the ar- roAV-grass, may be suggested to the farmer and breeder of sheep ; be- cause it thrives extremely well in moist and SAvampy places, where few other vegetables Avould grow. ARROW-HEAD, Common,the Sagittaria sagittifolic, L. is one of those neglected plants, winch, though fjroAving Avild in many parts of England especially on the bank's of rivers are not converted to any useful purpose: it is repre* sentedinP1.7.Engllih Bpavjypo. 8*. The root of tlu; arrow-head h 116 ARR ARR composed of numerous strong fi- bres, which strike into the mud; the foot stalks of the* leaves are of a length proportionate to the depth of the Avater in which they groAv; they are thick, fungous, and sometimes three feet high. Its sharp pointed leaves resemble the point of an arrow, and float upon the Avater. At the lower extremity of the root, there is always, even in its Avild state, a bulb which groAVS in the solid clay, beneath the mud- dy stratum. This esculent root is industrious- ly cultivated in China and America, where it attains to the size of several inches in diameter; Avhile in this country, of which it is a native, we suffer it to undergo spontaneous dissolution. As it constitutes a considerable part of the Chinese diet, no reason can be alledged Avhy it should not be re- sorted to in times of scarcity when a poor cottager, in some parts of the country, might in one day, with his family, collect a sufficient quan- tity of these nourishing and palat- able roots, to serve them for a fort- night, as excellent substitutes for bread. With respect to the man- ner of dressing and preparing such vegetables, Ave shall give the neces- sary directions under the article Bread. The arrow-head requires a low, cold, marshy situation, and a clayey soil, Avhere scarcely any other plant would thrive. Here it gr&ws lux- uriantly, and produces an oblong, thick, bulbous root, which, from its mealy nature, may be easily con- verted into starch, or flour. Even in its raw and unprepared state, it affords a proper and Avholesomc food for horses, goats and hogs; though cows do not relish it..... There are two methods of propa- gating this beneficial plant; either by the wild-groAving fibres of the root, or by the seed; and we ear- nestly recommend its culture, from a conviction of its great utili- ty. In the present alarming crisis, we also venture to suggest the pro- priety and expediency of inducing the industrious poor to collect this and similar plentiful roots, and after washing, macerating them, and ex- pressing their starch, to mix it Avith other ingredients, in the making of bread. If persuasion and reason- ing do not avail, small premiums or rewards might be offered, to accom- plish so desirable a purpose. ARROW-ROOT, Indian, or the Maranta, a plant of Avhich there are three species, the' arundinacea, galanga, and comosa; all of them are herbaceous, perennial exotics of the Indies, and kept in our hot- houses merely for curiosity. The first of these species is the true starch-plant, and is likewise used by the Indians to extract the poison communicated by their arrows. Dr. Wright, of Jamaica, ap- pears to be the first who informed us that a decoction of the. fresh roots makes an excellent ptisan in acute diseases. From an ingeni- ous pamphlet published in 1796, by Mr. T.Ryder, of Oxford-stree*, Ave farther leam, that one of his West-Indian patients, employed it as an article of diet, anel since that period it has been very gene- rally used in families. The arroAV-root poAvder unques- tionably yields a larger proportion of nutritive mucilage than any Eu- ropean vegetable, if we except the Salep-root; hence a single table- spoonful of either, makes a pint of strong and nourishing jelly, which affords a very proper food in acute diseases as well as in all those ARR ARS 117 complaints where animal food must be abstained from. It is there- fore to be regretted, that we cannot easily obtain this powder in a pure state, Avithout paying the extrava- gant price of from five to ten shil- lings per pound; for in those shops where it is offered to sale at an inferior price of two or three shillings the pound, Ave have found by experience, that it is considera- bly adulterated. Mr. Ryder, before mentioned, has justly recommended the cul- ture of this root to the West-Indian Planters, and the new African Co- lonists, as an object of commerce, and the most eligible substitute for starch, made of Avheat: 1. Be- cause it would save annually 66,000 quarters of that valuable grain, in Great Britain alone, where the average quantum of starch made in the years 1793, 1794, and 1795, amounted to 8 millions of pounds Aveight, allowing one hundred and twenty pounds per quarter :...2. As the Avholesale price of the arrow- root was, in 1796, fifteen pence a pound, and as one pound of its starch is equal to two pounds and a half prepared from wheat, its in- trinsic value would, by this com- putation, not exceed *fx-pence per pound : whereas the average price of starch in England for seven years (from 1789 to lT95)maybe stated at nine-pence the pound. 3. As the arrow-root contains more soluble, gelatinous matter, occupying less space, being less enveloped in earthy particles and affording a purer farina than any other plant, it may be reasonably inferred, that the starch obtained from it must be of the finest quality; an opinion amply confirmed by three clear- starchers, Avho were, on this occa- sion, consulted by the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Manu- factures and Commerce. [The arrow-root furnishes an ex- cellent remedy for the bowel com- plaints, which so commonly pre- vail in the United States, during warm weather, especially among children. The plants would thrive in the southern states, and ought to be introduced into them, by some of the numerous Americans who visit the West-Indies.] ARSENIC, an heavy, opaque, crystalline substance, which, on fracture, resembles sal ammoniac in a concrete state. Most of the metallic ores contain it in greater or less proportion, especially those of copper, tin, bismuth, and the fossil called cobalt, from which last it is extracted in Saxony, by a kind of sublimation. Its true nature is so little known, that che- mists have hesitated Avhether it ought to be ranked among the salts, or semi-metals; because it may, by various processes, be made to assume either a saline or metal- lic state. Hence, it has by many been considered as a mineralizing substance, which only tends to combine metals, and to give them a more perfect form. Nay, there are others, who have doubted Avhe- ther it be a simple body; and Ave Avell remember the assertion of an ingenious lecturer on chemistry and pharmacy in Edinburgh, who still flatters himself Avith the hope of being able, at some future period, to demonstrate by experiment, " that arsenic is the true basis of silver." This semi-metallic concrete is A-ery usefully employed in various branches of the arts and manufac- tures ; it is frequently added as an ingredient, to facilitate the fusion of glass, and to produce a certain ^ 118 ARS ARS degree of opacity. Painters use two arsenical preparations,namely, the orpiment and realgar. A very beautiful green pigment may be precipitated from blue vitriol, by a watery solution of white arsenic and vegetable alkali : this, when prepared either with water or oil, affords a permanent colour. It is highly probable that, if arsenic were added to the paint used for wood, it might form an ingredient which AA'ould not be liable to be preyed upon by worms. But the practice of painting the toys of children Avith arsenical pigments, deserves severe censure; as they are accustomed to put every thing into their mouth. In dyeing, it is likewise of great service. Combined Avith sulphur, it has the property of readily dis- solving indigo ; for which purpose it is u^ed in the printing of calico, and other cloth. On exposure to the air, however, the arsenic is precipitated from this solution, and may be farther employed in pencil colours. Some dyers are said to understand the art of imparting beautiful shades of colours to furs, by arsenical solutions. In rural and domestic economy, this concrete is also freemently re- sorted to Avith great .advantage, though not always Avith due pre- caution. Farmers dissolve it in lime-water, for steeping wheat, in (order to prevent the smut; and it is likcAvise asserted, that the husband- men of Flanders and Germany use it for fertilizing the earth,by sprink- ling the sc il Avith a solution of ar- senic in dung-water. In medicine, it has long been known as the basis of the most celebrated cancer-powders, especi- ally those of Plunket, Dr. Hugh Martin, and probably also, of Guy's. A Aveak solution of it in water, is directed by Dr. Way, of Wilmington, for effectually cleans- ing foul ulcers, and removing im- purities of the skin: it is prepared by boiling one ounce of white arse- nic in two quarts of Avater to three pints, and applying it once or twice a day. When it is used for extract- ing, or disctissing, cancerous or schirrous tumors, that are not ul- cerated, the above-mentioned Dr. Martin, a late physician in Ame- rica, previously ordered a blister of Spanish flies to be applied to the part, with a view to open the pores of the skin. But, as he prescribed it empirically, and indiscriminately in all cancerous cases, we were not surprised to learn from his old professor,Dr. Benj. Rush, that his pupil has often been unsuccessful in the application of his arsenicated poAvder*. In the cure of agues, a solution of this mineral has been strongly recommended, and administered with success, upon the authority of Drs. Fowler, Arnold, Wi- th ering,Will an, Marsh,Pear- son, and many other respectable English and foreign practitioners, who do not hesitate to prescribe it in doses, from two to twelve drops, once, twice, or oftener in the course of the day, according to the age, strength, and other circumstances of the patient. A preparation similar to that di- rected by Dr. Fowler, and called the Avhite tasteless ague-drop, has lately been given with singular effi- cacy in the hooping-cough. We re- * It is presumed, that the liquid medicines, now secretly exhibited by a physician in London, who positively maintains that be cures cancers " by absorption," likewise con- sist of solutions made of this virulent semi-metal. See Cancers. ARS ARS 119 late this fact upon the evidence of Mr. Crop, an eminent surgeon, of Bamet. Notwithstanding these remark- able and powerful effects of arsenic over the virulence of diseases, which appear to depend either on a speci- cific contagious miasma, such as is supposed to produce the ague and hooping-cough, or on a peculiar disposition of the fluids and solids, to undergo a certain degree of de- composition in the living body, as is evident in cancers, and other malignant ulcers....we are, on the combined testimony of many me- dical practitioners, equally cele- brated for their extensive practice and 'erudition, as they are conspi- cuous for their professional zeal and integrity, irresistibly induced to declare our opinion, at least, against the internal use of this ac- tive and dangerous medicine. Of the numerous authorities which might be aelduceel in support of this declaration, we shall here avail ourselves only of the conclusive testimony of Dr. Black, the late professor of chemistry in the uni- versity of Edinburgh, who main- tains, that he has seen the Internal exhibition of arsenic attended Avith fatal effects, such as hectics, he. nay, he declares, that though the external application of this sub- stance has, in some cases, proved successful, it has often, even in this way, produced dreadful conse- quences ; so that, far from recom- mending it internally,he reprobates even the external use of this preca- rious drug. Hence we hope to be forgiven by those worthy medical practitioners, from whom no slight motives would induce us to differ : and unless it could be proved by a plurality of cases, that patients, af- ter the taking of arsenic to some extent, have not only recovered from agues, cancers, hooping- cough, Sec. but that they have likewise attained to a considerable age, without ever having been sub- ject to paralytic, spasmodic, or phthisical disorders, we shall not be disposed to retract our opinion of its virulent and destructive ten- dency. Although we have deprecated the internal use of arsenic, both from the concurrent evidence of many other practitioners, and our own experience, yet we shall at- tempt to prove, that there is actu- ally less danger to be apprehended from those accidents, when this corrosive poison has by mistake, been swallowed, either in the form of a powder, or solution. And as it is frequently used for destroying rats, mice, and other troublesome animals ; for preparing sympathe- tic inks*, as well as for chemical tests ; to discover the adulterations of wines*, which have been SAveet- ened by sugar of lead ; we cannot be too minute in laying down pro- per rules and directions for obvi- ating the dangerous effects of such casualties, as but too often occur among those who employ arsenical preparations, in a dry or liquid state, either for gratifying tlieir curiosity by different experiments, or for other more useful purposes. Arsenic is one of the most sud- den and violent poisons Ave are acquainted with. Its fumes are so deleterious to the lungs, that the artist ought to be on his guard, to prevent their inhalation by the .• See the article Sympathetic Inc. *■ See \\ ujk. 120 ARS ARS mouth; for if they be mixed ana1 swallowed with the saliva, effects Avill take place similar to those, which follow its introduction into the stomach in a saline or dissolv- ed state; namely, a sensation of a piercing, gnawing, and burning kind, accompanied with an acute pain in the stomach and intestines, which last are violently contort- ed ; convulsive vomiting ; insatiable thirst, from the parched and rough state of the tongue and throat; hiccough, palpitation of the heart, and a deadly oppression of the whole breast succeed next; the matters ejected by the mouth, as well as the stools, exhibit a black, fetid and putrid appearance ; at length, Avith the mortification of the boAvels, the pain subsides, and the fatal catastrophe terminates the sufferings of the patient. There are, however, cases on medical re- cord, in Avhich, on dissection, nei- ther the stomach nor bowels, ac- cording to the testimonies of Drs. Metzger and Hahnemann, have been corroded, nor even injured; so that this poison may, in some instances, exert its action immedi- ately on the living principle.... Thus we find, in a case related by our late friend, Dr. Unzer, of Hamburgh, that a lady, Avho had only tasted a little arsenic, without swalloAving a particle, was twelve hours after the accielent thrown into the most convulsive spasms, and attacked Avith inflammatory pustules, not unlike the measles, covering her face, neck, and Avhole body, so that she recovered with great difficulty, and remained for several years in a miserable state of langour, and general debility. For these obvious reasons, artists exposeel to the fumes or vapour of this volatile mineral, ought to be extremely, cautious to preserve themselves from its influence on their mouth and nostrils, as well as from touching it Avith their hands; for every external contact may be attended with serious consequences. Hence they should dress in thick and firm clothes, keep at a proper distance from the exhaling fumes, and cover the orifices of the face with a mask, made for the purpose. In their system of diet, Ave advise them to make use of a great pro- portion of blanel and mucilaginous nourishment; such as fresh butter, pork, SAveet-oil, milk, artichokes, and similar vegetables. With respect to the treatment of persons, after the inhalation, or swallowing of arsenic, we shall arrange the subject under three distinct propositions. I. When a large portion of arse- nic has been introduced into the stomach, or inhaled by the lungs : 1. Immediately after the acci- dent, brisk emetics ; for instance, half a elrachm of white vitriol, anel, after it, plenty of sweet lintseed, or almond-oil, either of which is pre- ferable to olive-oil; or, if these be not at hand, large draughts of milk, barley gruel, or warmed beer, with a third part of oil, or butter, ought to be substituted, as soon as possible. To facilitate the operation, a strong feather should be dipt in oil, for stimulating the tonsils. If the throat be SAVollen and contracted, a surgeon ought to be instantly procured, for open- ing the gullet by means of a probe, or other proper instruments. 2. To neutralize and deprive this corrosive poison of its activity. according to Dr. Hahnemann, nothing is more efficacious than a solution of white soap in hot wa- ter, in the proportion of half a ARS ARS 121 pound of the former to a quart of the latter, which must be boiled, and the soap agitated until the whole is dissolved: when it may be sweetened with sugar. This preparation ought to be taken with- out delay, and so frequently as to repeat half a tea-cup full of it every five minutes, that the patient may swallow several pounds in the course of two hours. If hepatised water (prepared by pouring acids on the liver of sulphur, and satu- rating, with the ascending vapours, water contained in another vessel,) could be readily procured, it would, with the addition of one half of thick cream, be an excellent sub- stitute for the solution of soap. 3. To promote the evacuation of the poison by stool, clysters composed of the preceding liquids, and a third part of castor-oil, ought to be speedily administered, and the whole abdomen fomented with soap-water. 4. With a vieAv to prevent local or general inflammation, besiele the fomentations, cataplasms, luke- Avarm baths and clysters, it will, perhaps, be necessary to bleed the patient largely, but not without con- sulting medical men. II. When a person has been slow- ly poisoned, or has swallowed only a small portion of arsenic ; or, if the proper remedies should have been neglected for several hours. In these cases, the judicious practitioner only can decide upon the relative propriety and expe- diency of the preceding remedies ; but if a considerable time has elapsed since the accident happen- ed, it will be necessary to com- mence the treatment Avith purga- tive remedies, such as will at the same time lubricate the coats of the Stomach, and the whole intestinal VOL. I. canal, Avhile they tend to assuage the acrimony, and counteract the corrosive effect produced on the first passages. Of this nature is, in a pre-eminent degree, the castor- oil, combined with large draughts, either of the hepatised or soap- waters. A strictly antiphlogistic regimen ought now to be pursued, together with the remedies proper to obviate inflammation, and after- wards a milk-diet, lintseed tea, barley-water, gruel, and infusions of different mucilaginous vegeta- bles, milk chocolate without spice, aided by the enjoyment of fresh and pure air. III. Indications of cure, when the patient labours under a gradual and long-continued action of the poison ; or in the secondary stages of the two former casualties. The principal object now to be attained, is the destruction of poi- sonous matter in the second pas- sages, or to prevent its influence on the kidneys, biliary ducts, the organs of perspiration, Sec. To ascertain Avhether the virus has dif- fused itself through the system, the person's state of mind and body should be comparatively examined; whether the former be dejected, or the latter reduced to preternatural debility ; or whether any of the animal and natural functions be impaired. When there appears a blue ring round the eyes, and the lips exhibit a similar colour, Ave may conclude, that the devastation occasioned in the whole frame is considerable; and in such in- stances, Dr. Boerhaave advises to let the patient drink no less than twelve pints of luke-Avarm honey- water, in24hours,for 3 days succes- sively ; and to administer frequent clysters of the same liquid. By this simple treatment, he observes, all R 122 ARS ARS those painful and dangerous symp- toms, Avhich sometimes afflict the victims of this poison through the remainder of their lives, have been effectually obviated. On the con- trary, M.Navier, a reputed French Avriter, on the effects of arsenic and its antidotes, recommends the method Ave have already pointed out, in propositions I. and II. af- ter which, he insinuates the pro- priety of re-commencing a milk- diet, and enjoins the patient to ab- stain from the use of all acid sub- stances, or liquors. In this opi- nion he is likeAvise supported by Dr. Hahnemann, who cautions the convalescent to be very atten- tive to his evacuations by stool; which, so long as he is subject to griping pain, and strictures in the abdomen, constantly require to be aided by the mildest purgatives. Besides these, he may drink decoc- tions of the Lichen islandicus, of the root called Polygala senega, or of ejuassia-Avooel, which last is, of all other corroborant and astringent remedies, the least heating, and consequently the most proper to be taken. In order to prevent all the bad consequences resulting from this malignant poison, the patient may Avith advantage resort to the warm mineral, sulphureous waters, which he should not only drink plentifully but likewise bathe in them, espe- cially in the form of vapour. If such natural Avaters cannot be ea- sily procured, they may be artifi- cially substituteel by medical men, Avho are, in general, perfectly Avell acquainted with their component parts, as well as the manner of preparing them. By their proper use, the unfortunate invalid may at length recover from that tremu- lating affection of the limbs, re- laxation, paralysis, convulsions, and other distressing complaints, Avhich the improvident swallowing of arse- nic usually produces. From a multiplicity of instances related by Wepfer, Heer, Zitt- man, Ebell, and other Avriters, we have reason to conclude, that in our daily victuals, as Avell as by the use of glazed vessels, consider- able portions of lead and arsenic are taken into the stomach, and mixeel with solid food ; though un- attended with danger or inconve- nience, except that of vomiting. Sometimes, hoAvever, when the digesting organs are in a languid state, the poison may lodge in the cellular membranes of the sto- mach anel bowels, for several days or weeks, before it be evacuated. In such cases, the necessary con- seepiences will be a sIoav hectic fe- ver, for which the physician, who is generally consulted in the secon- dary stage of the disease, can as- sign no cause. Lastly, we shall briefly mention, by Avhat means and process it may, after death be discovered, Avhether a person have died from the poison of arsenic, though this knoAvledge properly belongs to the department of medical police or jurisprudence. 1. The contents of the stomach and intestines should be taken out, and washed in Avater. If any poAvder be contained therein, it should be allowed to separate ; and if this be arsenic, it will fall to the bottom. 2. Place the separated poAvder on a red hot iron ; anel, if it eva- porate in a thick Avhite vapour, without melting, there is reason to conclude that it is arsenic....this effect will take place Avith the for- tieth part of a grain. ART ART 123 S. If this poAvder be mixed with charcoal, and emit an odour re- sembling that of garlic, we may also infer that it is arsenic. 4. The most convincing test of its nature is the following : iu.- close the mixed powder with the charcoal, between two small po- lished plates of copper (or between two perfectly smooth halfpenny- pieces,) the edges of Avhich must be cemented with a lute made of two parts of fine sand, and one of pipe-clay. Fasten the plates Avith a thin Avire, and expose the Avhole to a red heat: thus the arsenical powder will be metallized; and, penetrating the copper, a blackish skin will first appear upon it, which being rubbed off, the parts touched by the arsenical vapour Avill acquire a whitish or leaden colour. As this deleterious concrete fre- quently enters metallic composi- tions, especially those of copper and tin, it were much to be Avished, that such compound metals could for ever be banished, at least from our kitchens.....See Copper, Lead Pewter, and Tin- ART, as defined by Lord Bacon is a proper disposal of natural ob- jects, by human thought and expe- rience ; so as to answer the several purposes of mankind ; in Avhich sense the Avord Art stands opposed to Nature : it is also used for a system of rules, serving to facilitate the performance of certain actions, r.nd is then opposed to Science, or a system of theoretical principles. Arts are generally elivided into useful or mechanic, liberal or polite. The former consist of those in which manual labour has a greater share than intellectual exertion; snd by which we are provided Avith the necessaries of life ; whence lluy are denominated trades, as baking, breAving, carpentry, he. The latter are such as depenel on the application of mental abilities, and the active powers of a fertile imagination. Of this nature are, poetry, painting, music, and the like. The progress of the arts and sciences towards perfection, is also greatly promoted by emulation. Mathematics, for instance, appear to be on the decline in Europe ; for, since the immortal Newton has far surpassed all the ancients, there appears to be little hope for the moderns, either of excelling, or equalling, his creative genius. In countries thinly inhabited, it is not uncommon to find one per- son exercising several professions, and this is proc'uctive, in cnr.e de- gree, of gooel effects. Various operations being carried on by the same individual, his mind becomes invigorated, because a combination of talents is reemired to perform the task; but, Avhen the mental powers are restricted to a single object, all thought and invention are excluded, and the operator is, in a manner, converted into a dull and inanimate machine. From the useful, naturally re- sulted the cultivation of the liberal arts. Persons who enjoyed every convenience from the former, turn- ed their attention towards the lat- ter : hence arose Sculpture, Sta- tuary, Painting, Literary Compo- sition, Sec. The decline of the fine arts in Rome, is ascribed, by Petronius Arbiter to a cause Avhich ulti- mately proves the destruction of mankind, wherever it preA'ails..... such is opulence, Avith its never- failing concomitants, avarice and hixury. It has therefore been justly remarked, by acute observers, that 124 ART ART during the rise and progress of em- pires, the military arts chiefly flou- rish ; when arrived at their height, the liberal arts ; and when in a de- clining state, the arts of luxury. The fine arts are only relished by persons of taste, who can spare large sums for supporting them : thus it will be found, that they sel- dom, or never, flourish in coun- tries where they do not obtain the liberal patronage of the sovereign, or men in power. On the other hand, the useful arts are aiAvays encouraged in every Avell regulated State. In short, the unexampled success of both, in Great Britain, may be justly attributed to the sanction and munificence which men of talents and genius (whe- ther natives or foreigners), uni- formly experience from the Sove- reign, as Avell as from the nobility, almost without exception. No na- tion can boast of a greater number of connoisseurs and patrons, in the wealthy classes of society, than the British. When the people are once rous- ed from their indolence and le- thargy, by AvhateA-er fortunate event or change of circumstances, the progress of the arts is gene- lally rapid. Prosperity, contrast- ed with former penury, creates in the mind a spring which is vigor- ously exerted in new pursuits. The Athenians, while under the tyranny of Pisistratus, made but a mean appearance ; but, on regaining their independence, Avere convert- ed into heroes. This prosperity produced its usual effects, and Athens became the chief theatre of the arts and sciences.....The Corsi- cans, when engaged in a perilous war for the defence of their liber- ties, displayed a vigorous national spirit: they founded an universi- ty, a public library, and a public bank.....The Royal Society of Lon- don, and the Academy of Sciences in Paris, were both instituted after civil wars, which had animated the people, and excited their activity and emulation. Democritus maintained, that men Avere indebted for the acquisi- tion of their arts to brutes; that the spider taught them weaving; the sAvallow, building ; the night- ingale, music, and so forth. [ARTEMISIA DRACUNCU- LUS, Estragon or Tarragon, Fr. Is frequently used in salads, espe- cially by the French, to correct the coldness of other herbs. The leaves make an excellent pickle : they have a fragrant smell, and aromatic taste. The use of them in Fersia has ever been general, at meals, to create an appetite. The famous vinegar of Mai lie, in France, OAves its superior flavour to this plant, which has not yet been found in this country. It is to be wished that some, of many Ameri- cans Avho visit France, Avould bring home this excellent plant, or, at least, the seeds of it with them. There are several other species of Artemisia.] Artemisia absinthium, L. See Mugwort. ARTERY, or a pulsating blood- vessel, is a cylindrical canal, con- veying the blood immediately from the heart to all the parts of the body. On examining the struc- ture of the largest of these ves- sels, such as the aorta, and the pulmonary artery, it .may be dis- tinctly seen, that each is compos- ed of three coats; namely, 1. The external coat, which is of a cellular texture, loose on the outside, but growing progressively firmer to- wards the inner part; 2. A fibrous ART spiral, or rather circular mem- brane, of a yelloAvi.h colour, and of which there are several strata, according to the size of the artery; 3. The innermost coat, or a thin, extremely smooth anu transparent membrane, keeping the blcod in its canal, which otherwise, upon the dilatation of an artery, would easily separate the spiral fibres from each other. From the trunk of every artery there arise branches; from these again extend ramifications of blood- vessels, which become progressive- ly smaller, so that their distribu- tion may be traced by the micro- scope, in more than twenty different divisions, nay, to an almost infinite number. The arteries, however, do not, as has been erroneously as- serted by several anatomical writers, become narrower, and as- sume a conic form in their continu- ed progress ; on the contrary, they seem uniformly to remain cylindri- cal, insomuch that, in their rami- fications, a smaller cylinder always arises from a larger one, and where theformerproceeds from the latter, it generally presents a slight swelling at this vascular joint, if this expression he admissible. The aggregate diameter of all the branches of one trunk is someAvhat larger than that of the trunk itself; an observation which also applies to the veins. On account of their thicker membranes, the arteries possess a greater degree of elasticity than the veins ; though the latter are more capable of resisting the me- chanical force of the blood, anel are less liable to rupture. It far- ther deserves to be remarked, that, with the increase of years, the coats of the arteries acquire firm- ness, while those of the veins be- ART 125 come Aveaker. This, in some mea- sure, accounts for the circumstance that persons, between the age of eighteen and thirty-five, are more liable to phthisical and other Com- plaints, which depend chiefly on an increased action Of the arterial system ; because, after that period, the arteries already possess suffi- cient vigour and firmness, to over- come the additional impetus of the circulation. Hence, too, we may comprehend Avhy sthenic or in- flammatory eliseases seldom occur at certain stages of life, when the whole system possesses that degree of re-action, which is necessary to maintain a due equilibrium between the animal and vital functions, as well as to resist the occasional im- pressions made on the body, by sudden vicissitudes of heat and cold, moist ?nd dry air, &c. All the arteries derive their ori- gin from the ventricles of- the heart ; namely, the pulmonary ar- tery from the right, and the aorta from the left; of which two the rest are branches. They terminate in veins, exhaling vessels, or anas- tomose with one another, that is, unite by inosculation. It is assert- ed by physiologists, that the circu- lation of the blood, its heat, red colour, fluidity, assimilation of food, Sec. the conversion of fixed into volatile salts, and the per- formance of the different secre- tions, such as bile, urine, saliva, Sec. all must be attributed to the contractile power of the arteries and the heart.....See Assimila- tion, Bile, Blood, Chyle, Sa- liva, Urine, he. It is farther worthy of notice, that an injury received by a very considerable vein, is not nearly so dangerous as that of a small artery, especially in the vicinity of the 126 ART heart.....(See Bleeding, or He- morrhage ;) and that single arteries sometimes become osified, or ac- quire a cartilaginous and bony con- sistence. In the larger ones, this phenomenon rarely occurs : yet a \'ery remarkable instance of an os- sification of the aorta is recorded bv the celebrated Dr.ZiMMERMAN, tire author of the classical treatises " On Solitude," and " On National Pride," in his excellent Avork " On Exj'ierienct'in Physic;" Avhich de- serves to be read and studied by every medical and philosophical in- quirer. Such preternatural produc- tion of bone is attributed to an abundance of earthy particles, which are, perhaps, generated by a too liberal use of tart Avines, veal, potatoes, cheese, and all food that is hard and difficult of digestion. Fortunately, howeArer, this fatal conA'ersion of membraneous sub- stance takes place only at an ad- A'anced age; but then it affords little or no hope of prolonging the patient's life.....See Heart, Pulse, Veins. Arthritis. See Gout. ARTICHOKE, or the Cynara, L. though an exotic, is a plant well known. There are four species, but only two are reared for use, viz. the scolymus, or garden arti- choke, and the cardunculus, or cardoon, both of Avhich are propa- gated by slips, or suckers, arising in spring, from the roots of the old plants. The slips should be taken from good plants in March, or the beginning of April, and set in an open quarter of the kitchen-garden, in roAvs at the distance of five feet from each other. By this process, artichokes may be produced in the autumn of the same year. The size of their fruit will gradually di- minish, after the third or fourth ART year, though the roots continue sound for several seasons. The cardoon, Avhich is a hardy plant, may be propagated by seeds sown in March. As these plants are very large, they ought to be placed at the distance of several feet from each other; and thus crops of spinach, endive, cabbage, or bro- coli, may be raised between the roAvs. About the 28th September, the cardoons generally attain to a considerable size; the leaves of each plant should then be tied, that they may be hoed, forthe purpose of blanching; which will require six or eight Aveeks. Thus the plants will be fit for use in Novem- ber or December, and continue the whole winter. Artichokes flourish best in a rich and moist soil; but if it be too wet, the roots are apt to decay in severe frosts. They have been used with advantage in the making of soda; and the leaves of the scolymus, prepared Avith bismuth, impart to wool a fine and perma- nent gold colour. ARTICHOKE, the Jerusalem, is a plant of the same genus as the sun-floAver. It produces bulbs at its roots, has been long cultivated in gardens, as an esculent vegetable, and, except that it is watery and of a softer consistence, in many respects resembles the potatoe, but is not in such general esteem. This root, hoAvever, is much valued for feeding hogs and store-pigs. Mr. Peters, the author of " Win- ter Riches," published in the year 1772, asserts, that from one acre of ground, he obtained betAveen seventy and eighty tons of this root. He is of opinion, that seven acres will yield three hundred and ninety-six tons, Avhich will keep one hundred swine for six months, ART allowing each head fifty-six ptmnds per day, at an advance of value from ten to fifteen shillings, espe- cially if they be boiled with sweet hog-wash. When these roots are given to horses, they should be Avashed, cut, and ground in an apple-mill : the proportion given at each time is eight pounds, with two ounces of salt, and a bite of hay, thrice daily. Another celebrated cultivator found the produce of this root to be about four hundred and eighty bushels Winchester measure, per acre, without any dung. Its chief recommendations are, the certain- ty of a crop ; its flourishing almost upon any soil; not requiring ma- nure, and being proof against the severest frosts.,...The culture is the same as that of potatoes. [Artichokes succeed very.well in this state, if left exposed to the Avinter months. When covered with straw in the autumn, they rot. The only precaution necessa- ry to take, is to dig a ditch round the plant, to * prevent the water from injuring them. Fortius very useful information, the editor is indebted to Mr. Legaux,of Spring- mill. His artichokes were eight and nine inches diameter.....The seed Avas imported from Holland.] ARTICULATION, in lan- guage, is the division of sounds into distinct syllables ;• and consists in giving every letter its due pro- portion of sound, so that the hearer may perceive and determine their number without difficulty; while he is enabled to ascertain the res- pective letters in every syllable. The late Mr. Thomas Sheri- dan, however, has endeavoured to prove, in his " Course when alone, to speak his thoughts aloud, in the same slow manner, and Avith the same view. Otherwise, though he may get a habit of reading more slowly, he will fall into his usual manner in discourse : and this habit of speak- ing aloud, Avhen alone, Avill not only bring him to a more distinct utterance, but produce a facility of expression, in Avhich silent thinkers are generally defective.—See the articles Language, Reading, Speech. ARTIFICER is a person em- ployed in manufacturing any kind ARV of goo'ds or wares, such as those of iron, brass, wool, &c. By the English laAVS, artificers in avooI, iron, steel, brass, or other metal, leaving the kingdom, and departing to a foreign country, Avith- out license, are liable to be impri- soned for three months, and fined in a sum not exceeding one hun- dred pounds. Those who go abroad, and do not return on receiving no- tice from our Ambassadors, are disabled from holding land by de- scent or devise; from receiving any legacy, &c. and are deemed aliens. A penalty is also inflicted on those who seduce artificers to quit their native soil. ARTIST is an appellation given to a person skilled in some particu- lar art, such as that of watch-mak- ing, engraving, he. Evelyn informs us, that a pri- vilege is granted to artists at Vi- cenza, similar to the benefit of cler- gy in England ; by virtue of which, criminals adjudged to death are pardoned, if they can prove them- selves the most excellent and con- summate workmen in any art. Artocarpus. See Bread-Tree. Arum. See Wtake Robin. Arundo. See Reed. ARVENUSLY, or Pinus Cem- bra, L. is a species of pine, which is principally found in Siberia, and on the Alpine mountains. Its branches resemble those of the pitch-tree, Avhich is commonly call- ed spruce-fir. The leaves are of a striated form, about three inches in length, and the fruit about the size of a large hen's e^fr, contain- ing kernels covered with a broAvn skin, Avhich, Avhen peeled, are as large as a common pea, white and soft as a blanched almond, and of an agreeable taste. ASA ASA 129 The arvenusly is applied to va- lute for mushrooms, in ragouts, and rious purposes of useful and do- sometimes form a part of their des- mestic economy. Its planks afford serts. excellent wainscoting, flooring, and The arvenusly is of a healthy other materials for joiners; are of and vigorous nature, and will bear a finer grain, more beautifully va- removing, when young, even in dry riegated, and of a more agreeable and warm weather. It likewise smell, than deal. The white wood grows in great abundance on the has a very pleasant fragrance ; and most mountainous and coldest Avhen made into shelves, is said to parts of the Brianconnois, where possess the remarkable property of the natives call it alviez. It bears keeping away moths and other in- some resemblance to the Canada, sects. It also furnishes excellent or Weymouth pine. fuel for stoves, ovens and kilns; but This tree is the more valuable, is dangerous Avhen used in grates, as its timber is fit forthe choicest being liable to splinter, and throw furniture ; and from its enormous out sparks to a considerable dis- height and size, when full groAvn, tance. From the resinous parts of it Avould make excellent masts...... this tree, is distilled a fragrant oil, As the culture of this remarkable resembling in taste and flavour that tree in no respect differs from the of juniper, and possessing the same other species of the Pine, we refer properties. An expressed oil is to that article. also obtained from the fmit, which, We have here subjoined a branch on account of its balsamic nature, of the arvenusly, of a reduced size, has been recommended in consump- to distinguish it from other species tive cases ; and the kernels are em- of the same genus. ployed, by the Swiss, as a substi- ASAFOETIDA, a gum-resin, tion, it acquires the consistence of so called on account of its offensive wax, and a yellowish red colour..... sme 1. It is obtained from the We have seen fine specimens ot Ferula asafoetida, L. an umbelli- this plant in the Botanical i arden f rous plant, growingwild in Persia; at Edinburgh; and there is no doubt the root of which, on cutting it, that it will bear the vicissitudes of exudes a milky juice : by evapora- our climate, in the open air; and VOL. I. 130 ASA that it is strongly impregnated with its peculiar juice. Although this nauseous drug pos- sesses a bitter and acrid taste, whichis much stronger, when fresh, the Persians nevertheless use it as a spice with their food ; so that our epicurean imitators do not deserve the credit of 01 iginal choice. Beside its aperient and resolvent properties, asafoetida is one of the most valuable medicines in spasmo- dic, flatulent, hysteric and hypo- chondriacal complaints, especially when they arise from obstructions of the bowels. But, as it is of a heating nature, it increases the cir- culation of the fluids, and outfit not, therefore, to be employed ei- ther in violent fevers, or in consti- tutions liable to hemorrhages. On the contrary, where spasms and constipations have contributed to weaken the powers of nature, and the functions are in a languid state, it generally affords effectual relief; as it promotes digestion ; enlivens the animal spirits; and, by increas- ing the peristaltic motion of the in- testines, tends to open them in per- sons of an advanced age. In the spasmodic, as well as in humoral asthma, unattended Avith fever, it is an excellent remedy ; for, in the former, it counteracts the strictures of the respiratory organs ; and, in the latter, greatly facilitates expec- toration. The hooping-cough has been cured, and worms have fre- quently been expelled, by the con- joined administration of asafoetida, both by the mouth, and in the form of clysters. When given Avith the last mentioned intention, it is very usefully combined Avith jalap ; by the assistance of Avhich, it possesses uncommon poAvers over the tape- worm, especially in adults. Thus, according to C. J. Mellin, an el- ASA derlyTady was relieved of a formi- dable tape-Avorm, together with a considerable portion of coagulated and viscid matter, resembling a fishing-net, after making use of the folloAving pills : Take asafoeti- da, half an ounce, powder of jalap two drachms ; let them be mixed with any syrup, to a proper consist- ence for making sixty pills : two of these are to be taken every morn- ing and evening, at first; but gra- dually increasee; to four or five, ac- cording to circumstances. ASARABACCA, in botany, the Asarum Europoeum, L- A good representation of it is given in Dr. Woodville's Med.Bot. PI. 86.... It produces large bell-shaped flow- ers of a dusky purple colour, and blossoms in the beginning of May. As a medicine, the different pro- perties of this plant render it an object of attention : hence Lin- naeus proposed it as a substitute for ipecacuanha ; and, according to Dr. Cullen, "• the root, dried only so much as to be powdered, proves in a moderate dose a gentle eme- tic." But as the internal use of the asarabacca is precarious, the Lon- don College have justly rejected the root, and directed the leaves only to be employed as an errhine, or sneezing powder, with the addi- tion of one half of dried lavender- floAvers. Thus carefully prepared and snuffed in small doses of a few grains, several successive evenings, Dr. Woodville say3, 'tit produces a pretty large Avatery discharge, which sometimes continues severa days together ; and by Avhich, head- ach, tooth-ach, opthalmia or in- flammation of the eyes, as well as some paralytic and soporific com- plaints, have been effectually re- lieved." That such is the effect of this powder, we have - frequently > Ase i observed from experience, though there is reason to doubt whether its action extends to palsy, as it more particularly affects the salival glands, A'.hioh is obvious from the copious spitting it generally occa- sions, after being used for a feAV evenings. In farriery, the powdered root of this plant is given mixed with bran, to horses troubled with the farcy, or leprosy, in doses from one to two ounces....as likeAvise for worms in either horses or sheep. Dyers may aho usefully employ the fresh leaves or roots of the asa- rabacca, for producing first an ap- ple-green, ane' by boiling them still longer, a light-brown colour, on wool prepared with bismuth. These experiments are related by Dam- bourney, whose work we first quoted, p. 19. [Several species grow in theU. S. 1. A. Canadense....o\, Canadian, A. called, also, wild ginger. 2. A. Virginia-m....ov, sAveet scented, A. or, catsfoot. These plants delight in a moist shady situation, anel may be in- creased by parting the roots in au- tumn. Too much Avet av ill rot the Canadian sort in winter. If the second species be too much expos- ed to the sun in summer, it seldom thrives well; it should therefore be planted in a border Avhere it may have only the morning sun....The juice of the fresh leaves, is eme- tic...The powder of this plant I have knoAvn to ansAver very good effects in cases of giddiness, unat- tended by too much fullness. It was used as a snuff. It certainly is an active plant, and deserves fur- ther trials.] A-sarum. See Asarabacca. ASCARIDES, in zoology, be- long to the order of vermes, and are ASC 131 divided into two species : 1. the vermicularis, distinguished by a transA'erse mouth, and faint annular rugae, or folds. It is about a quar- ter of an inch in length, and is found in boggy places: in the roots of decayed plants ; and very fre- quently in the rectum, or straight gut of children and horses. 2. The lumbricoieles, which is eqtial in length with the lumbricus terrestris, or common earth-Avorm, Jbut Avants the protuberant ring towards the middle of the body, which is its only distinguishing mark. Its body is cylindrical, subulated at each extremity ; but its tail is someAvhat triangular. This is the worm which is most commonly found in human intestines, and its usual seat is the rectum. The symptoms are,' an uneasiness and intolerable itching in the anus, which generally take place in the evening, and some- times prevent sleep. They are of- ten attended with so considerable a degree of heat, as to produce both an external and internal swell- ing in that intestine; which, if not epiickly relieved, bring on a tenesmus, or a frequent inclination to go to stool, accompanied with a mucous dejection. There are also frequent griping pains, in the Ioav- er part of the abdomen, a little above the os pubis; if these be acute, they are succeeded by a bloody mucous discharge, in which these worms are often found alive. Mucus, or slime, appears to be the proper nest of the ascarides: in this they live, are nourished, anel preserved unhurt, though sur- rounded with many other fluids, the immediate contact of which, would to them prove fatal. Purges, by lessening this, viscous matter, never fail to relieve the patient; for those worms, which are not 132 A S C expelled by the increased vermicu- lar motion of the intestines, for want of a proper quantity, languish, and at last die; as may be seen in those which are taken out of their mucus and exposed to the open air. Such purges, therefore, as act briskly, and can be conveni- ently repeated, for instance, purg- ing waters, and jalap, especially for children, two grains of which maybe mixed with sugar,and taken daily, are the most effectual. When the tenesmus, or mucous stools, are urgent and distressing, a clys- ter of warm milk and oil will af- ford immediate relief. The most useful purge, is cinnabar and rhu- barb, of each half a drachm, which, w hen taken, seldom fail to bring aAvay a transparent mucus, con- taining many of those worms alive. Various other remedies have been employed in the removal of this troublesome complaint, of which quicksilver, calomel, and powder of tin, are the principal. The in- habitants of Jamaica are said to use the Geoffraea-inermis, or cabbage bark, with singular success. Dr. Duguid, a surgeon of that island, declares, that it is the most safe, and yet most powerful, vermifuge ever known, and that it frequently brings away as many Avorms by stools, as Avould fill a hat. He owns, however, that it sometimes produces violent effects, but these take place only, Avhen it is used in the form of a strong decoction, in- stead of small doses of the poAv- der. Yet we cannot, on this oc- casion, omit to warn every affec- tionate parent, against tampering with such powerful remedies as may prove destruct'iAre to their children ; nor to trust to the impudent asser- tions of daring advertisers of ver- mifuge&....Se& Worms. ASH [I have often used the Cabbage-^ tree bark as a vermifuge, and with success. When made into a syrup, its effects are less violent, and children take it more readily. To make this, boil one ounce and a half of the coarsely poAvdered bark, in a quart of Avater, for haif an hour; then add the sugar, or give two table spoonsful every morning, sweetened. In powder, fifteen grains, with as much jalap, is a good purge. But, after all, re- peated experience has convinced me, that no remedy is so safe, so mild, or so certain, as calomel. Procure the medicine from an apo- thecary of character, give it in the dose suited to the age and consti- tution of the child, and keep him warm during the operation, avoid- ing cold and sour drinks, for two or three days, and no danger can ever attend the use of the remedy. Rhubarb, or jalap, may be mixed with the calomel, to quicken its operation.....A nausea, which some- times comes on during the opera- tion, maybe relieved by mint-Avater ....and an unnecessary purging may be restrained by two or three drops of laudanum. A child, be- tween the ages of two and four years, in general, may take from one to three grains at a dose, in syrup.] Ascites. See Dropsy. Asclepias. See Savallow-avort. ASH, or the Fraxinus, L. is a genus of which there are six spe- cies. Of these, the most useful is the common indigenous ash, or Fraxinusexcelsior,!„ which is well known to every rural economist. A plantation of these trees, when properly managed, seldom fails to prove of great advantage to the OAvner; for the underwood, which is fit to be cut every eight or ten ASH years, will produce a regular in- come, more than adequate to de- fray the rent of the ground, and other charges ; besides which, the trunk or stock preserved for tim- ber, will be worth forty or fifty shillings and upwards, per tree. It flourishes best in groves, but grows well in the rich soil of open fields: it also bears transplanting and lopping. In the north of Lanca- shire, in England, they lop the tops of these trees in autumn to feed cattle, when the grass is on the eiecline. The ash-tree delights in a rich, light soil ; it attains its greatest height and perfection Avhen at an age of from forty to fifty years. Although it also groAvs in Avet and loose grounds, yet, when reared in these, its wood becomes less firm and durable. It prospers remarka- bly Avell on a Avhite calcareous soil, and is also frequently found in a thriving state near brooks and rivulets. Planting.....The Society for the Encouragement of Arts, See. at London, considered the cultivation of the ash of so much importance, that, in the year 1779, they gave a premium of twenty pounds, and in 1780, their gold medal, to Mr. Day, of Friendsbury, near Ro- chester, for an account of his suc- cessful method of rearing it. The Avhole is eletailed in the first vo- lume of their Transactions ; and Ave shall only observe,that Mr. Day is enabled to plant one thousand trees for two shillings : by his me- thod, fourteen acres, three quarters, anel thirteen rod, out of sixteen acres, three quarters, and twenty- seven rod, are planted at the dis- tance of four feet, by two. To fill this extent of ground, there are ASH 133* required 80,682 plants: tAvo acres and fourteen rod are planted at a distance of two feet, by eight inches, which takes up 66,400 plants. The reason for planting twice as thick one Avay as the other, is, that in such manner they are much easier to till. He has ascertained by experience, that there is an essential difference be- tween wild ash and those Avhich are trained : hence he advises all the crooked ones to be rejected, and particular attention to be paid in getting the ash-keys. There is another advantage attending his plan, that potatoes may be planted between the rows. The emulation excited by the aboA-e and similar premiums, pro- duced such effects as might be ex- pected to result from so cxtensiA'e and honourable a patronage. In the year 1790, the gold medal of the Society Avas adjudged to Lewis Majendie of Hedingham Castle, Esq. and the silver medal to H. G. Fausset, of Heppington, near Canterbury, Esq. The first mentioned gentleman planted on seven acres and twenty-one poles, of a principally loamy sr.il, the sur- prizing number of nhv.teen thou- sand trees, of four and five vears old, at intervals of four feet. In a subseciuent paper, Mr. M. recom- mends the soil to be completely trenched, previous to planting..... Mr. Fausset intermixed willow Avith his ash, and planted them at the distance of three feet and a half, in the proportion of three willows to one ash ; so that, on the decay of the willows, the ash plants remain seven feet asunder. The follow- ing is a sketch of his method : the stars denote the ash, anel the dots the willow-plants. 134 ASH ASH *• • • # • • •, * • • •# The ash Avhen young, requires constant cultivation, for want of Avhich it will be stinted in its growth, and often remain fortwen- ty years together Avithout making any progress; it is brought forward much sooner, when sheltered by other plants. An improved method of plant- ing this tree, for hurdles, hoops, laths, fencing, and what is termed post anel billet for collieries, is de- scribed by a correspondent in the fifth volume of the Papers publish- ed by the Bath Society. The leaves of the ash appear late and fall early: it is therefore unfit to be planted for protection or or- nament. Its timber ranks next in value to the oak ; and it ought, when sold, to be measured to a much smaller girth than either oak or elm. The wood of ash possesses the uncommon property of being al- most uniibvrnly good, whether of young or old trees. It is hard, tough, and much used in making the different implements of hus- bandry, but particularly for hop- poles. Its ashes afford very good pot-ash ; and the bark is employed in tanning calf-skins. The seeds are acrid and bitter, and the leaves have been used for the adultera- tion of tea. Poor people formerly derived considerable advantage by collecting them ; but we under- stand this practice has been prohi- bited, as it tends to diminish the revenue. We may, hoAvever ven- ture to say, that the leaves of the ash are as wholesome as those of the tea-tree: the latter, like most: other evergreens, is of a doubtful, if not pernicious, quality, indepen- dently of the circumstance, that our teas may also partake of the fraudulent practice of the Chinese, to Avhich most of their goods are liable. In rural economy, it has been as- serted, that the leaves of the ash impart a bad taste to milk ; and it is therefore seldom sufferedto grew in dairy farms. Those ieaves, however, are eaten with avidity by horses, sheep, and goats, for Avhich animals they are considered as good fodder. The bark of the common ash is used in dyeing. It is placed for some time in water, with a solu- tion of vitriol, by Avhich the Avater acquires a black colour. The Mor- lachians boil the hark for the space of eight days, Avith the dross of iron, and, when the solution has groAvn cold, they use it for dyeing black. With cold Avater, the bark makes a l'utivium of a variegated colour, which displays azure and greenish shacks ; but boiled Avater is not proper, as it renders the dye thick and brown. Warm water is preferable, as this produces a blueish lixivium, which imparts a fine blue colour to yarn, particu- larly if it has been previously dyed yellow. According to Dambour- ney, the fresh shavings of ash, giA-e to avooI, prepared with bis- muth, the true and permanent vigogne colour. [Several species of this highly useful tree, grow in the United States. 1. Fraxinus Americana Carolina, or red ash ; grows to the height of 30 feet, dividing intoseA'eral branch- es, the small ones generally oppo- site, leaves composed of three or ASH ASH 135 four pair of lobes, terminated by an odd one, of a light green colour, and egg shaped and pointed. Their under surface covered with white downy hairs. 2. Fraxinus alba, or white ash ; 3. I'raxinus nigra, or black ash ; grows in moist places, covered with rough, light coloured bark, and sending out but few branches. 4. Fraxinus Pennsylvania, or Pennsylvania sharp-keyed ask. The ash is a large tree, the 2d and last species are much used by wheelwrights, carriage makers, for shafts, rimmers, wheels, axles, not being apt to split and scale, it is excellent for tenors and mortises. In England, the ash is felled from November to February : if it be done either too early in Autumn or too late in Spring, the timber will be subject to be infested Avith worms and other insects. Is there any differenceobserved as to the durabi- lity of the ash, when felled in dif- ferent seasons, in the U. States ? An answer is required. The ash is greatly cultivated in England, being easily propagated. Many hundred acres have been planted by individuals, within a feAv years past. The prickly ash is a tree of a different genus. See Aralia Spinosa.] ASHES, generally speaking, are the remains of bodies reduced by fire. These are vegetable, animal, and mineral ashes ; but the first only are strictly entitled to that appellation. We understand, that the French have recently contrived a process of converting the ashes, or residuum of animal substances, decomposed by bun .ing them, into glass, similar to that ay hick is pro- duced in the manufacture of this article, when siliceous earth and wood-ashes are the principal ingre- dients. This curious conversion of human bodies into a transparent and most beautiful metal, is an in- genious imitation of the practice frequently adopted among the an- 'ciehts, with a view to preserve the sacred remains of their revered an- cestors, or of persons of great worth and merit. But, whether such expedients, if they ever should be- come general, be compatible with the refined feelings of relations and friends in other countries, Ave sub- mit to the determination of our sentimental readers. If we may be alloAved to express our opinion on so delicate a subject, the scheme may be a very economi- cal one, for saA'ing the expences of an ostentatious funeral; and, as such avc have mentioned it in this work: but we doubt whether there may be found many individuals in this country, except those few among the emigrees, who incline, or deserve, to receive the honours of combustion. Mineral bodies, when reduced by fire, are properly called Calxes, of which we shall treat under that distinct head. There is a great variety of wood- ashes prepared from different vege- tables. We have already described the propertiesof Alkalies (p. 29,) and shall at present observe, that vegetable ashes contain a great quantity of fixed salt, blended with earthy particles; anel that from these ashes are extracted the fixed alkaline salts, called Pot-ash Pearl-ash, Barilla, he. of the preparation, and properties of which, we propose to treat under their respective heads. Confining, therefore, our account to ashes, in tlieir unchanged and crude state. 136 ASH ASH we shall give the following descrip- tion of the different useful purposes to Avhich they are subservient, in domestic and rural economy. About half a century ago, Dr. Francis Home, of Edinburgh, who may be considered as the ear- liest benefactor of the Scottish cot- ton manufactories, justly observed in an ingenious treatise, entitled Experiments in Bleaching, that the proper application of alkaline leys, is one of the most important and critical articles in the whole pro- cess of that art. This circumstance induced him to inquire, after the mathematical method of investi- gating truth, into the nature and composition of the several sorts of ashes used for this purpose. With due deference to the talents of his genius, that has apparently been misled on this early occasion, we cannot but regret .that Dr. Home appears then to have been unac- cjuainted with a strict analytical and synthetical investigation of na- tural bodies ; a method which, Ave venture to say, might have enabled him to anticipate many of the sub- secruent discoveries, made in che- mistry by the French, Swedish and British philosophers of the anti- phlogistic school. He is, however, justly entitled to the praise and gra- titude of his countrymen ; among whom he greatly contributed to excite a spirit of research into the useful phenomena of natural bo- dies ; a spirit Avhich has already proved highly beneficial to the community at large, and eminently conducive to the honour of that celebrated University, in which he is now the oldest professor.* In the treatise before alluded to, the author originally proposed the use of oil of vitriol, instead of the acids formerly used for bleaching linen, such as butter-milk, sour milk, infusions of bran, or rye- meal, Sec. kept for some days, till they acquire a proper degree of acidity. He proved by experi- ments, that the vitriolic acid is by no means injurious to the cloth; is less expensive, more expeditious, and on all accounts equally, if not more, efficacious. Many and curious were the ex- periments which Dr. Home then instituted, on the different ashes; and from the result of which he concluded, that pearl-ashes contain a pure alkaline salt, with a small proportion of vitriolated tartar and absorbent earth. In the composi- tion of Russian and SAvedish ashes, he discovered a considerable quan- tity of lime ; a discovery Avhich amply evinced the folly of an Act of the British Legislature, which prohibited the use of lime in bleaching. For though lime- water alone, greatly contributes to whiten cloth, yet it is apt to render it much weaker if not well Avashed out before drying ; but alkaline salts added to lime, diminish its power of weakening and corroding, in proportion to the quantity of these salts added to the lime. This observation suggested to him a hint of supplying the Muscovy ashes, at home, by a preparation which experience proved to answer all the intended purposes of those ashes. After repeated trials of dif- ferent proportions, the method of making this profitable substitute, consists in adding one-fourth of pot- ash dissolved in a little Avater, to three quarts of quenched lime. Whether this process has been * We believe he is near xixety years of age. ASH ASH 137 found generally successful, we have not been able to ascertain. In rural economy, ashes have, since the days of Virgil, been consider- ed as one of the best, and easiest, means of fertilizing land ; yet many objections have been started, by modem Avriters, against their use ; probably because they were indis- criminately employed for all kinds of soil, whether moist or dry, cold or warm, loose or clayey. Hence we need not be surprized that agri- culturists have differed in opinion on this subject. Without detaining the reader with speculations con- cerning the manner in which ashes act on the soil, in promoting its fertility, we shall briefly observe, on the authority of the best writers, supported by experience: 1. That vegetable ashes, in ge- neral, are most effectual for ma- nuring moist, cold, boggy, marshy, or uncultivated soils. 2. That ashes are no less fit for manure, after the salt is extracted from them, than before; and, if there be any difference, it is in fa- vour of the Avashed ashes. An anonymous correspondent in the Gentl. Mag. for June, 1766, appears to have derived the first hint respecting the advantages of peat-ashes in dressing land, and a method of preparing coal-ashes for the same purpose, from the Dic- tionaire Economique, or the Family Dictionary, translated from the 1 renchby the late Prof. Bradley, of Cambridge, and published in 172;>. In this curious Avork, Avhich equally abounds Avith excellent and frivolous remarks, Ave find the fol- lowing passage : k- Turf anel peat ashes must needs be Aery rich., much after the same manner as burning of land." Perhaps it is in consequence of this suggestion, that VOL. I. we find in the Magazine before al- luded to, an account of too interest- ing a nature to Avithhold it from our readers. Peat-ashes, properly burnt, af- ford an excellent manure for both com and grass-land ; hut the most valuable are those obtained from the lowest stratum of the peat, where the fibres and roots of the earth are most decayed. This will yield a large quantity of very strong ashes, of a colour, Avhen recently burnt, resembling vermillion, and of a very saline and pungent taste. Great care and caution should be used in burning these 'ashes, and likevrise in preserving them for fu- ture use. The method of burning them is similar to that of making charcoal. After the peat is col- lected into a large heap, and co- vered, so as not to flame out, it must be suffered to consume slowly, till the whole substance is reduced to ashes. Thus burnt, they are found excellent in sAveetening sour meadow-land, destroying rushes, and other bad kinds of Aveeds, and producing in their place great quan- tities of excellent grass. In some parts of Berkshire and Lancashire, they are considered one of the best dressings for spring crops. A very great improvement may likewise be made, and at a moderate expense, Avith coal-ashes, which, Avhen properly preserved, are a most useful article for manure. By putting one bushel of lime, in its hottest state, into every cart-load of these ashes, covering it up in the middle of the heap for about twelve hours, till the lime be en- tirely fallen; then incorporating them well together, and by turn- ing the Avhole over, tAVo or three times, the cinders or half-burnt parts of the coals, which instead T 138 ASH ASP of being useful, are noxious to the ground, will be reduced to as fine a powder as the lime itself. For this purpose, hoAvever, the coal- ashes should be carefully kept dry : and, thus prepared, they are the quickest breakers and improvers of moorish and benty land. Professor Bradley, in his dic- tionary before mentioned, farther observes, that soafi-ashcs are highly commended by Mr. Pratt, as be- ing, after the soap-boiler has ex- tracted them, eminently fructify- ing; and that the ashes of any kind of vegetables are profitable for enriching barren grounds, as they promote the decomposition of moss and rushes, in a very great degree. The best season for laying them, either for corn, pasture, or mea- dow, is said to be in the beginning of Avinter, in order that they may the more easily be dissolved by shoAvers of rain. HaA'ing given this x\zw of the subject, from the collective expe- rience of British writers, Ave shall also communicate a ft-AV practical facts, derived from authentic Ger- man authors. According to their experience, pot-ash is most usefully employed for correcting a sandy and loamy soil; the ashes obtained from the hardest woods, being the most be- neficial, and among these, the beech anel oak are generally pre- ferred. A small addition of quick- lime to the pot-ash, tends consider- ably-to increase its fertilizing pro- perty. The refuse of soap-boiler's ashes, is likewise used in Germany, with the best effect, Avhen sprinkled, soon after sowing, either in spring or in autumn, as closely as possi- ble, OA'er fields of Avheat, rye, spelt, lentils, pease, beans, barley, lint-seed, hemp, millet, and simi- lar grain. An acre of wheat, or barley, requires hoAvever a much greater proportion of these ashes, than one sown with rye, or corn of an inferior quality. They are farther employed with great ad- vantage, by scattering them on meadows in the early part of spring. [Leached ashes are much used in some parts of the United States as a manure. Great quantities are annually taken from the city of Phi- ladelphia to Long Island, for the purpose. They cost here 40 cents per one horse cart-load, and com- monly bring one elollar 50 cents, when delivered. From a paper in the first volume of the New York Agric. Soc. Trans, by M. E. L'Hommedieu, it appears, that ashes are found to succeed best on dry loamy lands, or loam mixed Avith sand* It is considered as the cheapest manure that can be pro- cured. Ten loads of this manure, on poor land, \\ ill produce ordina- rily twenty-five bushels of Avheat, which exceeds, by fife dollars, the expence of the manure, and the five dollars pays for the expence of labour in raising the crop. The land is then left in a state for yield- ing a crop of hay of betAveen two and one-half tons per acre, which it will continue to do for a great number of years. No manure continues so long in the ground as ashes.]....See also Coals. ASPARAGUS, also called Spa- ragus, Sperage, or Sparrow-grass, is an esculent plant, which is rear- ed Avith great attention, and much esteemed on account of its delicate flavour. There are ten species, but one only is cultivated for the table, viz. the common asparagus, Avhich has an erect herbaceous stalk, and bristly leaves : the other ASP ASP 139 ■species are sometimes kept in the gardens of the curious, but more for the sake of variety, than on ac- count of their utility. This useful plant is best propa- gated from the seeds, and its suc- cessful culture almost entirely de- pends on the proper quality of such seed. Hence, some of the most promising buds should be marked with a stick, and Avhen the seed begins to ripen, and the stalks to wither, they ought to be cut, and the berries being rubbed off into a tub or other vessel, water should be poured upon them. After they have been stirred, the seeds will subside, and the floating husks may be poured off with the Avater. The seeds must then be spread te dry, and thinly soAvn, in the be- ginning of February, on a bed of rich earth. They should be trod into the ground, and the earth raked over them.....During summer, the bed should be kept clean of Aveeds, and about October, when the stalks appear withered, a small quantity of rotten dung should be spread over the bed, about half an inch in thickness. In the folloAV- ing spring, the plants will be in a proper state for transplanting; when the ground should be pre- pared for them, by trenching it, and disposing a large quantity of rotten dung in the trenches, so that it may lie at least six inches below the surface ; after Avhich, the whole plot must be levelled, and all the loose stones carefully picked out. The most eligible situation for such hot-beds, is a south-Avestern aspect, sheltered from the north ; and the soil should be neither too moist, nor too firm, or hard. If the season be forward, and the soil dry, the asparagus should be trans- planted in the beginning of March ; but, in a wet soil, it is preferable to AA'ait till the beginning of April, at which time the plants begin to shoot. The roots should, at this season, be carefully raised with a narrow-pronged dung-fork, shak- ing from them the adhering earth, separating them from each other, and laying their heads even, for the greater convenience in planting them ; Avhich should be performed in the following manner: Lines are drawn across the bed, at a distance of one foot from each other, after which they must be dug in the form of small trenches of six inches in depth, into which the roots must be laid with their buds upAvards, so that, when the earth is raked over them, they may be two inches under the surface. A space of two feet and a half should be left between every four rows, for the purpose of affording room to cut the stalks. In Oct. the shoots of the asparagus should be cut within two inches of the ground; but, with respect to this process, the folloAving circumstance de- serves attention : as often as a stalk is cut, a new one springs up, and every plant running to seed depo- sits a neAv bud or eye, as it is call- ed by gardeners, beside the new shoots, which sprout the following spring. Hence, the cutting ought not to be too long continued, as this practice would prevent the new shoots from sprouting, and deprive those Avhich are hi bud, from ac- quiring sufficient strength.' [In Pennsylvania and NeAv Jersey, the cutting must not be continued longer than the first of June.] Young asparagus, fit for table, may be cut the second spring after planting ; "but, as this early fruit is Avith many a desideratum, the following directions, properly at- 140 ASP ASP tended to, will enable them to pro- duce it at any time during the Avin- ter : Take some good roots of one year's groAVth, and plant them in a rich, moist soil, about eight inches asunder ; the second and third years after planting, they will be fit for removal to a hot-bed, Avhich should be made rather of heating materials, especially tanner's Avaste and horse-dung, about three feet thick, and covered with a stratum of earth, six inches high. The plants should then be laid against a ridge maele at one end, Avithout trimming or cutting the fibres; between every row, make a small ridge of fine earth, and thus pro- ceed until the Avhole is planted ; next, let the bed be covered to the thickness of about tAvo inches with earth, and encompassed with a straw-band. About a week after, the Avhole should be sheltered under frames and glasses, and three inches of additional earth laid on the beds ; the proper season for constructing Avhich is from No- Arember to March. Dr. Daravin advises the loosen- ing, or turning over the earth, around and above the roots of. this plant annually, for the purpose of admitting air into its cells or cavi- ties, to convert a part of the ma- nure, or carbonaceous soil, Avith Avhich they have been supplied, in- to ammonia, or into carbonic acid, and thus to afford them both warrutii a: :I nutriment. The roots of this plant have a slightly bitter, mucilaginous taste, rather inclining to sweetness ; the fruit is of a nearly similar flavour ; but the young shoots are the most agreeable to the palate. In the 13th vol. of the " Reper- tory of Arts," he. a new method of rendering asparagus more produc- tive, is communicated by Mr. Richard Weston; Avho observes, that the male plants yield a great- er number of shoots than the fe- male ones ; though the former are of an inferior size. He conse- quently advises males only to be se- lected for the formation of beds; and, to prevent mistakes, they should not be planted from the seed- bed, till they have floAvered. After having grown 12 months, Mr. W. directs them to be removed into beds, at the distance of six inches from each other, Avhere they ought to remain another year, in which they generally flower; a small stick must then be driven into the ground, contiguous to each of the male plants, in order to seperate them from the females, the latter of which are then to be pulled. Towards the end of July, especi- ally if the weather be wet, the stalks of the asparagus should be cut doAvn, the beds be forked up, and raked smooth. In case the season be dry, Mr. Weston irrigates the beds with the draining of a dung- hill ; leaving them somewhat hollow in the center for the better retention of the water or rain. In the course of 12 or 14 days, the asparagus begins to appear; and if the weath- er be very dry, the Avatering ought to be repeated once or twice, every week. By such method, he ob- serves, a constant supply of this vegetable may be obtained, till the month of September, when hot- beds Avill become necessary; so that by making five or six of the latter, during .the winter, a regu- lar succession may be procured, throughout the year. [Mr. J. Cooper of NeAv-Jersey, who raises the finest asparagus brought to Philadelphia market, soavs his seeds in drills ; the beds ASP are so far distant from each other, that the center may be reached by a workman standing in the alley between them. He permits the plants to stand in the beds two years, and then places them in trenches ten inches deep, and three feet apart : the plants are one foot from eachother. The fir.-A year the trench is only half filled Avith loose rich earth, the second year, it is filled up and covered Avith manure. Mr. Cooper's soil is sandy. According to the same gentleman, this vege- table will continue for ten years ; it Avill then gradually decline in flaA-our, but the plants will remain for twenty yeai-s, and overgrow all the ground.] A.sparagus is allowed to promote the appetite ; and affords a deli- cious article of nourishment to the invalid and valetudinarian, who is not troubled with flatulency. As a substitute for asparagus, the young buds of hops have been re- commended, as they may be more easily procured, anel are both grate- ful and Avholesomc Aspen-Tree. See Poplar. Asperugo. See Bugloss,Catch- weed, and Madwort. Asperula. See Woodroof. ASPHODEL,or King's Spear, the Asphodelus, L. is an exotic plant, of Avhieh there are five spe- cies ; namely, four growing Avild in the southern parts of Europe, and one only, the Narthecium ossifra- gum, or Lancashire Asphodel, a na- tive of Britain. It thrives in turfy marshes, anel flowers in July and August. See Withering's Ar- rangement, 339, a.ndEngl.Bot.t.535. The best method of propagating this ornament to a garden, is, by dividing the roots in August, be- fore they shoot their fresh green leaves ; they may likeAvise be rais- ASP 141 ed from seeds soAvn in August; and at the same time in the succeeding year, the plants produced from these may be transplanted into beds, Avhere they Avill blossom in the second year. They should not be planted in small borders, among tender flowers, as they require considerable nourishment. The Lancashire Asphodel is sup- posed to be very noxious to sheep ; for, when necessitated to feed on it, from a poverty of pasture, they will indeed improve in flesh at first, yet they afterwards die with symp- toms of a diseased liver. Homed cattle, however, eat it without any bad effect. There are wonderful tales re- lated of this plant by Pauli, Bar- tholini, and others: who call it Gramen ossifragum, from its sup- posed property of changing the bones of such animals as SAvallow it, into cartilage ; and thus produ- cing that singular disease in cattle, Avhich in the human frame is, by nosologists, termed mollities ossium, ox softeness of the bones. For the various purposes of eco- nomy, hoAvever, Ave recommend the culture of two species of this plant; namely, 1. The Asphodelus luteus, L. or the common YcIIoav Asphodel, which according to Lemery and Vicat, produces an esculent root, abounding in farinaceous particles, easily extracted in boiling water: this mealy elecoction.passedthrough a sieve, mixed with barley or rve- flour, and then baked, affords a palatable and most nourishing bread. Its stalks also, though na- turally acrid, may be deprived of that property by boiling, and con- verted to a similar use.....Another writer on economy, Prof. Beck- man n, of Gottingen, informs us 142 ASS ASS that though this plant is a native of Sicily, it prospers, and abund- antly propagates, in the open air of Germany. Its roots, by which it is produced, consist of long yelloAV knobs, so disposed that they all adhere to a larger one, serving as the basis of the whole. They are pulpy, mucilaginous, and balsamic; and a species of bread may like- wise be prepared from their se.eds. .....Sestini also remarks, in con- firmation of the preceding facts, that the shoe-makers of Italy make of this root an excellent paste, for cementing the inner soles; and that it is preferable to the usual paste of those artisans, who consume considerable quantities of wheatcn and other flour. 2. The Asphodelus ramosus, L. or Branching Asphodel, Avith naked stalks three feet high, and ensi- form, cuneated, smooth leaves. It is a native of Germany, in many parts of which it groAvs in common meadows: its flowers are Avhite, and of a stellated form. The pulpy root of this species was eaten by the ancients, Avith the addition of oil and salt; while its stalks, roast- ed under hot Avood-ashes, afforded them, according to Bechstein, a most delicious repast. Asplenium trichomanoides. See Maiden-Hair. Asplenium scolopendrium. See Hart's-Tongue. ASS, by naturalists, is classed as a species of horse, or Equus. The tame or domestic Ass, is an animal remarkable for his meek- ness, patience, and tranquility. He submits Avith firmness to chas- tisement, is temperate in his food, and contents himself Avith the dis- agreable herbage which other ani- mals disdain to eat; but is more delicate Avith regard to his drink, never using water, unless it be perfectly pure. This animal is esteemed for his attachment, and, though generally used Avith seve- rity and harshness, nay, often with cruelty, he F fond of his master, has a scent of him at a distance, and easily distinguishes him from other persons. Of al! a:tir.\als, the ass, perhaps, is capable of support- ing the heaviest burthen, in propor- tion to his size : and, on account of his sIoav and regular pace; is y a. d- culariy useful in journeying over uneven grounds, and ^mountainous countries. The finest breed of asses was formerly met Avith in Egypt, but, at present, those reared in Span are preferable. In the latter Cv.*.n- try, as Avell as in Italy, the inha- bitants eat the flesh of asses Avith avidity. Their milk is of so thin a consistance, that it neither affords butter nor cheese, but is extremely agreeable to the tender stomachs of consumptive persons, anel very wholesome for young children, when drank Avhile warm from the animal; but it should be taken at least three or four times a day, half a pint at each time, and con- tinued for several weeks or months, if any real benefit be expected from this simple diet. The manner of preparing artifi- cial assess milk, not inferior in its properties to the natural, is as follows: Take of eryngo-root, or sea-holly, and pearl barley, each half an ounce, liquorice-root three ounces, water two pounds, or one quart; boil it doAvn over a gentle fire to one pint, then strain it, and add an equal quantity of neAv cow's milk. ASSEMBLY, in general, signi- fies a meeting of several persons in the same place, and for a common AST AST 143 purpose. Without entering into a history of the assemblies that were customary among the ancients, or these held by the moderns, for de- liberating upon political, ecclesias- tical, or civil afiairs, we shall, in this place, o-tiy observe, that all public meetings, when conducted with a spirit of order and decorum, art highly conducive to polish the manners of a people. This good eii'ect is obvious from assemblies instituted in provincial towns, for the purj ( se of either amusement or instruction, by which the man- ners of young persons, in particu- lar, acquire a certain grace and dignity,- seldom to be met with among those who spend their lives in small country towns, or solitary mansions. But, on the other hand, it can- not be denied, that the frequent vi- siting of assemblies, theatres, &c. w here a great number of persons, perhaps, afflicted Avith various chro- nic diseases, breathe and vitiate a common atmosphere, must be at- tended Avith pernicious effects, even to the most healthy.....See Balls and Masquerades. ASSIMILATION, in animal economy, is that hidden natural process by which living beings are enabled to convert such bodies as have a certain affinity to them, or atleastafter having undergone some preparation anel change of their properties, into their own sub- stance and nature. Hence every culinary process is conducted on chemical principles analogous to those on which the digestion of food appears to depend in the human stomach.....See Chyle, Digesti- on, Nutrition, Saliva. Assurance. See Insurance. ASTHMA, is a spasmodic dis- ease of the organs of respiration, attended with cough, difficulty of breathing, wheezing, Sec. There are two distinct species of this disorder, each of which re- quires a different treatment: 1. When it is attended with an ac- cumulation and discharge of hu- mours from the lungs, in which case it is called humid asthma ; and 2. When the patient is not troubled with coughing, or at least has no expectoration, which is termed dry asthma. Yet these complaints sel- dom affect persons in early life, and then chiefly the male sex. >f Asthma, in general, is distin- guished by paroxysms, preceded by a sense of tightness in the chest, and in general, occurs during the night. The patient cannot lie in an horizontal posture, Avithout danger of suffocation ; and, when seized, is immediately obliged to sit up- right. After continuing for seve- ral hours in this state, he becomes easier ; his breathing is less diffi- cult and oppressed, the cough not so frequent, and an expectoration of mucus taking place, the pa- roxysm abates until the next night; but the symptoms continue in a greater or less degree during the day, according to the particular state of the atmosphere, and other circumstances. The attack is sometimes induced by external heat, at others by cold; but in either case, their sudden accession will sufficiently distinguish the asthma from symptomatic short- ness of breath. There is a greater probability of curing it in youth, than at an advanced age. But, in the former cas?, it is often succeed- ed by a confirmed pulmonary consumption; and, after a long continuation, generally terminates^ either in dropsy of the breast, or an aneurism of the heart or ar- 144 A S T AST terial system. A tremulous respi- ration, paralysms of the arms, and a diminution of the urinary secretion, are unfavourable symp- toms. This is one of the chronic dis- eases, which may continue for a considerable number of years. Sir John Floyer, when he published his celebrated treatise on this sub- ject, had suffered under repeated paroxysms for almost thirty years. The usual treatment is, to bleed, during a fit, unless extreme weak- ness or old age should forbid the use of the lancet; to inject a purg- ing clyster, containing a solution of asafoedita; and, if the violence of the symptoms do not speedily abate, to apply a blistering plaster to the neck or breast. Previously to a fit, emetics have beep found useful, especially when the stomach was loaded with crudities. In the intervals, lac ammoniacum, vinegar of squills, asafoedita pills, and other stimulating and deobstruent medi- cines, are usefully employed. Sir John declares, that a strong infu- sion of roasted coffee is the best remedy he ever experienced, to abate the paioxysms. The coffee must be of the best Moco, newly burnt, and made very strong, im- mediately after grinding. He or- elers an ounce to one dish, Avhich is to be repeated after the short in- terval of a quarter or half an hour, and taken without milk or sugar. By the use of this remedy, he lived many years tolerably easy, under his asthmatic complaint. Dr. Percival also asserts, that he has employed it with great success. In a A-iolent paroxysm of asthma, from the effects of which there is imminent clanger of suffocation, the administration of an emetic is some- times advisable, as vomiting tends to produce immediate relief. This remedy, how ever, can only be re- sorted to with safety, under the following circumstances: 1. That there be no symptoms of inflam- mation discoverable ; 2. That the humid matter in the pectoral or- gans be loose, and ready for expec- toration ; which may be ascertain- ed by a free rattling of the throat: 3. When respiration itself is not extremely impeded : and 4. When the patient's strength is not too much exhausted. On these conditions, an emetic may prove the only means of saving his life ; though it may also acce- lerate the fatal catastrophe, espe- cially if the breast be clogged Avith matter, and the patient possess not vigour and breath sufficient to sup- port the operation of an emetic. Hence a judicious practitioner will, in such cases, not hesitate to di- rect a brisk dose, in order most speedily to produce the desired ef- fect, and to save the constitution from being unnecessarily exhaust- ed. But this illustration also eArinces the importance of every step in the practice of physic ; and that neither officious friends, nor mercenary pretenders, are the most proper persons, Avhose ser- vices can be useful on such or si- milar occasions. We, therefore, think it our duty to corroborate this proposition still farther, by ex- hibiting a concise view- of those causes, from which that formidable disease may arise in different indi- viduals. The principal of these are as follow : 1. Collections or congestions of blood in the lungs; from which there may not only arise the dry asthma, but likewise the Suffoca- tive Catarrh, Avhich is, strictly, an acute disease, occasioned by an A ST AST 145 extravasation or effusion of blood into the cellular substance of the lungs, and of which we propose to treat in its proper place. 2. Spasms in hypochondriacal and hysteric persons ; which often lay the foundation of a dry, con- vulsive asthma. 3. Worms in the first passages. 4. Stones in the gall bladder ; aneurisms; polypi, or concretions of grumous blood in the large ves- sels. 5. Asthma may likewise be a symptom of dropsy of the chest. 6. Scrophulous, rheumatic, gou- ty, psoric, and scorbutic acrimony ....all may occasion the asthma, ei- ther in the lungs themselves, or by consent of parts. 7. Noxious vapours arising from the decomposition of lead, or arse- nic ; Avhich generally cause a con- vulsive asthma. 8. The introduction of dust into the lungs, to Avhich millers, ma- sons, hatters, he. are subject. 9. Tubercles in the lungs, from which arises the dry asthma. 10. The abuse of ardent spirits. 11. A weak digestion, attended with great flatulency. 12. Every thing that oppresses the vessels, such as an expansion of the uterus, obesity or preterna- tural fatness, aneurisms, fleshy and other tumors in the chest, a distended abdomen by dropsy, ob- stipations, kc. 13. General debility, by which respiration is fie juently rend red difficult, without any other particu- lar cause. This affection may be ascertained from the circumstance, when the patient ascends a num- ber of steps with greater facility than he is able to descend, because the latter requires a greater degree of muscular effort than the former. VOL. b. w What a variety of causes do we here behold....many others being reserved, as too abstruse for non- professional readers ; and who will be bold enough to pretend, that he has discovered a specific for the cure of asthma? Beside the remedies already pointed out, as proper for the ge- neral treatment, we shall here briefly observe, that in the perio- dical astmna, infusions of bitter herbs, such as AVormAvood, lesser centaury, the blessed thistle, as well as gum ammoniac, vinegar and honey, acids in any form, nay, mixed with proportionate quanti- ties of laudanum, have been used with the best success. The exer- cise of riding on horseback is in- dispensibly necessary. Changes of weather are very sensibly felt by asthmatic persons, who, in ge- neral, cannot live Avith any comfort in the atmosphere of large cities, though some are to be found, Avho feel themselves better in an air replete Avith gross effluvia; and breathe with greater'ease, in a crowded room, Avhere there is a fire and candles. A principal ad- vantage, however, will be deriveel in this obstinate disorder, from a light and frugal diet, consisting of such animal food only as may be easily digested, and at the same time, aAToiding all flatulent and heat- ing substances, as well as liquors ; for instauce, wine, milk, turnips, cabbages, he. not exposing the body to the influence of hot air, strong smells, offensive vapours, and the like. As a most excellent diet- drink, Ave can, from experience, recommend the use of toast and Avater, in Avhich a feAV grains of nitre, or sal ammoniac, might be elissolved ; or with the addition of a little pure vinegar. And, i/anv 146 AS T alterative medicine should become necessary, after the proper evacua- tions, by either bleeding and blis- tering between tile shoulders, or, according to circumstances,by gen- tle laxatives, and nauseating closes of ipecacuanha(See Appetite), Ave have found the following mixture frequently of great advantage..... Take oxymel of squills, and cinna- mon water, two ounces of each, and pure spring water four ounces ; two table-spoonsful, each dose, every three or four hours. Astragalus. See Milk Vetch. ASTRINGENTS are those me- dicinal substances Avhich act up^n the simple elementary fibres, by contracting them, and increasing the force of cohesion, so as to re- lieve that degree of bodily debility, Avhich depends on their deficient powers of contraction. This want of cohesion, being supposed, to arise either from an aqueous consistence, or a deficiency of animal jelly, in the interstices of the fibres, it ap- pears to follow, that substances af- fording much nourishment, and containing matter for the supply anel condensation of that medium between the soPds and fluids, in the greatest proportion, are HkeAvise the mcst effectual astringents. In- deed, - faily experience speaks in favour of tnis apparently well- founded conjecture. But as man- kind seem, from the earliest ages, to haA-e been dissatisfied with those simple and congenial substances, which beneficent Nature granted them, even in the most inhospita- ble regions ; they have, by gradual steps, forsaken her path, and re- sorted to artificial means, Avhich chance or credulity induced them to procure from distant climates. Thus strangely has man, in all civilized countries, suffered himself AST to be misled by prejudice; and, instead of investigating the true nature and uses of things at home, he went in quest of foreign auxi- liaries, and frequently sacrificed the very life he was anxious to pre- server In order to ascertain, Avith pre- cision, when astringent remedies may be employed vrith safety and advantage, we shall reduce the sub- ject to distinct propositions. 1. The cases in which it will become necessary, to have recourse to astringents are : 1. A general, and lor.ah debility, or relaxation of the fibres : the for- mer is relieved by the internal and external use of tonics; but the lat- ter chiefly by local applications, such as cold fomentations. 2. In a preternatural, and parti- cularly a putrid disposition of the fluids. 3. In injuries of the vessels. On the contrary, II. The following circumstances and conditions prohibit the use of astringents': 1. A general rigidity of the frame, and tension of the solid parts. 2. Unusual heat of the body, unless it proceed from a general or partial debility, or a dissolution of the fluids. 3. Salutary and critical dis- charges, Avhich take place by a spontaneous effort of nature. 4. The existence of some mor- bid matter in the body, the eva- cuation of Avhich might thus be checked and prevented.—Hence it is attended Avith peculiar disad- vantage and danger, to apply such remedies externally, as for in- stance, cold baths in rheumatic, gouty, erysipelatous and other affections, in which there is a na- AST AST 147 tural disposition for expelling the knaves, on the credulity of th? ig- morbific matter (or at least its re- norant, is now universally exploded siduum) by the pores of the skin, by the intelligent part of society..... Thus the eating of astringent food See Divinai iu\'; Nf.ckoman- would be pernicious, if the first cy. passages be obstructed, or the per- ASTRONOMY is considered as son liable to habitual ccstiveness ; the most sublime of all the sciences, though this rule is not Avithout its and implies a knowledge of the exception, especially in putrid, bi- heavenly bodies, with regard to lious levers, where astringents must their respective magnitude, moti- frequentiy be combined with pur- ons, distances, Sec.; and of the na- gatives, to answer both intentions, tural causes by which these phe- and to support the sinking powers, nomena are proeluced. It is not Avithout the loss of that time, which improbable, that Adam and his complete evacuation would ineces- immediate progeny, the antedilu- sarily require. vians,possessed a slight knoAvledge In order to enumerate those of astronomy. On the building of astringent remedies which, partly the tower of Babel, Noah is sup- by our own experience, and paitly posed to have retired Avith his chil- by that of oi hers, have been found dren born after the flood, to the the most efficacious, either exter- north-eastern part of Asia, Avhere nally or internally, we shall here his descendants peopled the vast alphabetically arrange them, and empire of China; and this, in the treat of their individual properties opinion of Dr. Long, accounts for and effects, under their respective the early cultivation of astronomy heads, viz. Alum; Bark ; the An- by the Chinese. Mr. Bailly, gustura,Horse Chesnut, Peru- Avho has taken great pains to inves- viANand White Willow ; Bile tigate the progress of the Indians, of Animals ; Buck-bean, or is of opinion, that the first epoch Marsh Trefoil ; Centaury of their astronomy commences the Lesser; Avens-root; Gen- with the conjunction of the sun and tian ; Water-Hemlock ; Iron ; moon, which took place 3102 years Milfoil ; Mineral Acids and before the Christian sera. Even Waters;Oak;Pichurim-eeans; the Americans, and especially the and simple Water. Mexicans, Avere not altogether ASTROLOGY, a conjectural destitute of astronomical knoAV- science, the professors of which ledge. But the Chaldeans and pretend to judge of the effects and Fgyptians Avere the first nations influence of the planets ; and to that became, in this respect, con- foretel future events, by the situa- spicuous in ancient history ; and tion and different aspects of the it is doubtful, win ther the Phceni- heavenly bodies. cians acquired the .aliments of This superstition has prevailed this science from the former, or even in modern ages ; and, about the latter : though we are indebted a century ago, Avas in great re- to their enterprising merchants, pute. Since that period, however, avIio first applied it to the useful the minds of men having become anel important purposes of naviga- more enlightened, that ait, Avhich tion. owed its origin to the practices of 148 AST ATA Among the Arabs, Avho adopted the present arithmetical characters from the Indians, Gebeu laid the foundation for our modern trigono- metry; Avhich Menelaus, the Greek, about the year 90 after Christ, had ineffectually attempted to establish, in his three excellent books on spherics, even after that doctrine had been rendered more smple by the labours and improve- ments of Ptolemy. The Emperor Frederic II. of Germany, who was a great patron of the sciences, in 1230, alsoreA'iv- ed the study of astronomy in Eu- rope. Thence arose John Hali- fax, Clavius, Roger Bacon, anel at length the justly celebrat- ed Nicolaus Copernicus, the greatest luminary that ever appear- ed on the shores of the Baltic, and who is undoubtedly the principal reformer of astronomical science. After having studied physic at Rome, and returned to his native country, at present called West Prussia, he began, in the year 1507, to doubt the accuracy of ail other systems, except that of Pythago- ras. EndoAved Avith a compre- hensive and penetrating mind, a correct judgment, and inexhausti- ble powers of application, he could not fail to discover the truth of the hypothesis advanced by that sagacious Greek, " Avho placed the sun in the centre-, and sup- posed all the planetary bodies, and the earth itself, to revolve around him." Since that period, astronomy has been progressively cultivated by different nations. The principal characters, whose names will be transmitted to posterity, for their useful labours in the immense field ofpiactical and theoretical astro- nomy, are nearly the following : Tycho-Brahe, the Portuguese, who spent a great part of his time in useless efforts of opposing the immutable system of Copernicus ; Clairult, D'Alembert, La Caille, and De Lalande, in France ; Galileo, Cassini, Fon- TANA, BOSCOVICH, BlANCHINI, and others, in Ita.y;....Kepler,the two Eulers, Meyer, Kaestner, Bode, and more especially V. Zach, the leader of German astro- nomers, Avho noAV resides at the neAv observatory, near Gotha ; and Napier, Newton, Flamstead, Halley, Huygens, Hook, Brad- ley, Ferguson, Gregory, Mas- kelyne, anel in a more eminent degree than any of his compatriots on the continent, the transcendant Herschel. Of the latest and most popular publications on this subject, we shall state only the following : A Com- pendious System of Astronomy, by Margaret Bryan, 4to. 11. 7s. 6d. boards; Leigh and Sotheby, 1797. ....The Study of Astronomy, adapted to the Capacities of Youth, by J. Stedman, 12mo. pp. 154 ; 2s. 6d. Dilly, 1796.....Practical Astronomy, by A. Ewing, 8vo. pp. 400 ; 5s. boards; Longman, 1798.....Lastly, a work of a more scientific charac- ter, is the ReA'. S. Vince's Com- plete System of Astronomy, vol. 1. 4to 11. 4s. boards ; Wingrave,1797. The author excludes familiar ex- planations, moral reflections, and and historical details ; but has care- fully examined whatever relates to the subject,and bestowed the great- est attention on the correctness of the tables ; a circumstance of the first importance .to a book of this nature. [ATAMASCO LILY amaryllis (atamasco L.) The only species in- digenous in the United States. It ATM is a large, beautiful, and very fra- grant white flower, which, on its first appearance, is streaked with a fine carnation colour on the out- side, but fades till it is almost white. This flower is not found wild north of the Chesapeak, yet is hardy enough to bear the cold of our winters.] Athamanta Libanon, L. See Mountain Spignel. Athletic Art. See Gymnastic Exercise. ATHLETIC, Habit, a term which implies a strong constitution of body. Among the ancients, it signified a robust and corpulent state, such as the athleta endea- voured to acquire. The athletic habit is considered as the highest point of health ; yet such a state is ecpially precarious, and exposed to danger ; for Avhen the body is no longer capable of improvement, the next change must be for the reverse : hence "its most healthy condition close- ly borders on disease ; and the seeds of distemper are planted in the very fulness or luxuriance of our fluids." ATMOSPHERE, aterm derived from the Greek Avords vapour and sphere, whence it has been general- ly applied, to signify that surround- ing mass of air which consists of aqueous and other vapours, the electric and magnetic fluids, he. but the altitude or extent of which has never been accurately ascer- tained. Under the article Air, p. 21 Ave have already mentioned the general properties of this surround- ing medium ; hence Ave shall here observe, by way of supplement, that according to the discoveries of modern chemists, though still op- posed by Dr. Priestley, the at- ATM 149 mosphere is not a simple, but a compound body. Pure air, or oxygen, is but a small part of its composition, while that of azote, or mephitic air, constitutes about three-fourths. The former is, on account of its more salutary pro- perties, better adapted to the re- spiration of men and animals, than common atmospheric air; and though, by its powerful influence, it is eminently calculated to restore the life of creatures, Avhen anima- tion is accidentally suspended, so that the late Dr. Ingenhguz has justly termed it vital air ; yet it is not proper for long-continued re- spiration. Azote, or suffocative air, on the contrary, is unfit for sup- porting animal life, as it is abso- lutely irrespirable. Hence it must be obvious, that a greater or less proportion of this noxious ingre- dient in our atmosphere, arises from the innumerable processes of combustion, putrefaction, and re- spiration, whether by nature or art, in all large and populous ci- ties. For this reason, country-air is so much preferable, that certain invalids, especially pthisical and asthmatic persons, are obliged to retire from toAvns to a purer, or, at least, less vitiated region. Hence also, it will be understood, that sea-air must be infinitely more conducive to support the most im- portant process of life ; as, by the constant agitation or commotion of the watery element, mephitic va- pours are in a manner neutralized ; though the azote enters into no combination Avith that fluid : upon a similar principle, it has been sug- gested (p. 23) to purify the foul air of pits and Avells, before any person attempts to descend into them, by simply pouring in a feAv pailfuls of water, whether boiling 150 ATM AUT or cold. By the same method also, the noxious vapours of old wine- casks, and other vessels or recep- tacles of corrupted air, may be effectually deprived of their per- nicious, and often fatal influence. The third constituent part of the common atmosphere, viz. fixed air, or carbonic acid gas, naturally exists in so small a proportion, as to form only a hundred part of the whole, and therefore deserves no particular account in this place, as Ave propose to treat of it under the article of Brewing. [It is nowr found .that the atmos- phere, in all places exposed to the influence of the Avinds, contains very nearly the same proportions of oxygen and nitrogen; a circum- stance of great importance ; for by teaching us that the different de- grees of salubrity of air, do not de- pend upon differences in the quan- tities of its principal constituent parts, it ought to induce us to insti- tute researches concerning the dif- ferent substances, capable of being dissolved or suspended in air, which are noxious to the human constitu- tion ; particularly as an accurate knoAvledge of their nature and pro- perties Avould probably enable us, in a greatmeasure, to guard against or destroy their baneful effects. From a number of years' obser- vations made at Springmill, thir- teen miles N. N. W. of Philad. Mr. Legaux, an able meteorolo- gist, is enabled to state that the greatest dryness of the air at that place, was ahvays observed at those perioels Avhen the thermometer Avas highest....That the greatest degree of moisture prevailed, 1. When the east Avind blcAV ; 2. in calm weather; 3. before a storm; 4. when the wind bleAv from the Avest. The hygrometer used was that of De Luc. The greatest degree of heat in our climate, takes place be- tAveen the hours of two and three in the afternoon, and the least de- gree of heat at sunrise.] Atriplex. See Orach and Purs- lane. Atropa Bclladona. L. See Deadly NlGhTSHADE. AUCTION, a public sale for the disposal of household goods, books, plate, landed estates, he. By this method of sale, the highest bidder is always the purchaser. The origin of sales by auction is very ancient; for among the Ro- mans it was performed by the public crier sub hasta, \. e. under a spear erected on that occasion ; and the goods purchase .1, Avere deli- vered by a magistrate. AUTUMN, is computed the third season of the year ; and with respect to the animal body, is doubtless the most unhealthy.... Hence Tertullian calls it "the test of valetudinarians ;" but the ancient Germans, though acquaint- ed with the three other seasons, appear to have been uninfluenced by the severity of autumn ; as they had no particular term to express it, unless we admit the word " harvest," in modern German, " Herbst," as equivalent to what they at present call " ErrAte," or the gathering in the fruits of the earth. The circumstances which render this season the least conducive to a healthy state of the body, are the following: 1. Because the vege- table kingdom, with very few ex- ceptions, returns the salubrious leaves of trees and plants to their primitive, maternal earth, where they undergo spontaneous decom- position. This decay, or process of putrefaction, produces a remark- AUT A V A 151 able change in that surrounding medium which supports animal life, and the relat'iAre purity of which, determines the most im- portant function of the system, namely, that oi respiration. 2. As, by the greater pressure and humi- dity of the atmosphere, the pores of the skin, are so affected that they become unable to perform their office of exhalation, with the same facility as in winter and summer, it follows that perspirable matter, or F. least, its grosser particles, will in autumn be liable to remain on the surface, in a state inclining to putrefaction, and to be re-absorb- ed, to the great detriment of the human or animal body. Hence arise bilious and putrid fevers, with a long train of other com- plaints, according to the constitu- tion and particular circumstances of the individual. Parental Nature, however, has amply provided the means of obvi- ating such disastrous effects. With this intention, she has given us a great variety of sub-acid fruit, and acescent vegetables, which, at that season, attain to their perfection, and arc eminently qualified to coun- teract the putrid disposition of the fluids. To assist her in this be- nevolent intention, Ave ought to choose an appropriate diet; and, at the same time,defend the surface of the body with a proper dress, which is Avarm, light, and sufficient- ly porous, in o^eler to admit the evaporation of perspirable volatile humours. Notwithstanding all the objec- tions made by theorists, against the use of Flannel, worn next the skin, Ave venture to pronounce it the most beneficial covering ; pro- vided the conditions and excep- tions we shall state under that arti- cle, be duly attended to. But to see the fashionable females of the metropolis, as well as in the coun- try, at all seasons of the year, dres- sed in muslin, cotton, and other light stuffs, scarcely sufficient to protect them against a sudden blast of wind....such deviations from the rules of prudence, and real econo- my, may, indeed, deserve the lash of the Roman satyrist, who speaks of the bitter complaints of Proser- pine, in chilly autumn, but they cannot be corrected by Reason, till the shrine of that whimsical idol, " Fashion," be shaken, and its ground-work demolished, by a more dignified system of Educa- tion....See that article. AVARICE, is that restless and . insatiable desire of accumulating riches, which is the surest indica- tion of a contracted, and, generally, depraved mind. As the governing passions of the brute creation are lust and hunger, the predominant desires of the hu<- man species appear to be poAver and money: it has accordingly been asserted, that the origin from which all the misfortunes and ca- lamities of mankind have arisen, are ambition and avarice. When a person doats upon mo- ney, merely for the sake of pos- sessing it, without any regard to the good purposes of life, which it might serve ; or to the new en- joyments that may be procured by it; Avithout any regard to the be^ nefit of his neighbour, or to any advantage accruing from it to him- self....such a being may justly be called a miser of the first class..... His greatest happiness, apparently, consists in the contemplation of money; an idol whom he even con- 152 A V A AVE descends to worship, Avhile he re- moves him in triumph from one part of his dwelling to another. The next, and second class of misers, comprehends those singu- lar persons Avho are eager to amass large sums of money, enjoy but a temporary pleasure in its posses- sion, and at the same time have some particular object in view, the execution of Avhich constitutes the acme of their wishes. If this ob- ject happen to be centered in a trifling and despicable pursuit, it must be ascribed to a narroAv and sordid education; by which the foundation was laid for an incon- sistent and irrational turn of tem- per, for a servile attention to the lowest mercenary employments.... Sometimes, however, to the honour of mankind, such persons, while practising an almost criminal fru- gality, speculate on the means of benefiting their fellow-creatures.... Of this description was Godinot, a French clergyman at Rheims, who refused to relieve apparent wretchedness; and by the skilful management of his vineyard, had the good fortune to acquire large sums of money. His felloAv-cki- zens detested him, and the popu- lace every Avhere received him Avith contempt. Nevertheless, he con- tinued his usual simplicity of life, and steadily adhered to the most rigid system of economy. Mean- while, this good man had long felt the Avants of the industrious poor in that city, particularly in having no Avater but Avhat they were obli- ged to purchase at a considerable price. At length, he laid out his princely fortune in the building of an aqueduct, by which he rendered the poor more useful anel lasting service than if he had distributed his Avhok income in charity, every day at his door: and thus he proved himself the true benefactor of soci- ety, whose name deserves to be transmitted to posterity. The third, and perhaps most culpable class of avaricious persons, are those literary misers, who in- cessantly apply themselves to study, and eagerly seize upon every useful fact or discovery, Avithout ever in- tending to impart it to others. If the acquisition and propagation of knoAvledge were dependent on these persons, who in many other re- spects resemble the monks of the dark ages, a speedy return of bar- barism Avould be the necessary con- sequence. A similar idea, perhaps, struck the didactic Pope, when he thus concisely expressed himself in the folloAving lines: " Be niggards of advice on no pretence; " For the vorst avarice is that of sense." Lastly, it deserves to be remark- ed that aArarice, in general, has a tendency to stifle every spark of sympathy and generosity in the human breast; to affect also the different functions of the body, in a manner not unlike that Ave have described under the head Anxik- ty ; and that even savage nations, for instance, the Canadians, bestow the greatest care on the susceptible minds of their children, to prevent the growth of that vile and corro- sive passion. Avena. See Oats. AVENS, or Geum, L. a genus of plants comprehending eleven species, of Avhich, however, only two are natives of Britain, viz. 1. Common Avens ; the Geum urbanum, L. (also called great- floAvered Avens, or Herb Bennet); grows in woods, and about shady hedges ; produces yellow flowers from May to August, and is re pre- AVE sentedby Withering, 477. The stalks of this useful plant attain a height of two feet. In spring, its woody root possesses the aromatic flavour of cloves. In medicine, the root of the common avens has lately been em- ployed with singular efficacy in the cure of obstinate agues. A tinc- ture made of it, in the proportion of four ounces of the root, digested with a quart of brandy, in a sand heat, and given to the quantity of half an ounce, or more, two, three or four times, has seldom failed to cure intermittents, where the Peruvian bark had proved ineffec- tual. Others give it with equal success in decoction, powder, or electuary, in eloses from one scmple to a drachm or more, several times a day....provided that the first pas- sages be previously evacuated by proper laxatives. This root has also afforded an excellent remedy in several chronic disorders, as a ge- neral strengthener and astringent: indeed, the experiments made by Buchhavf shew, that its antisep- tic power is superior to that of the best foreign bark. As an object of rural and domes- tic economy, this plant deserves tome attention. Sheep are ex- tremely fond of its herbage; Avhich may likeAvise, Avhen young, be used for culinary purposes, and especially in the form of salad. If the common avens-root be col- lected, split, and dried, a portion of it secured in a bag, and hung in a cask of beer, it is affirmed (in the Transactions of the Swedish Aca- demy), that this simple expedient will prevent it from turning sour. ....On this subject, Ave refer to the article Brewing. In the useful arts, this root has likewise been employed in the vo:.. r. A Y A 153 process of tanning leather. Dam- uou.iney informs us, that the stalks and leaves of the plant have been used Avith advantage for dye- ing avooI of a permanent olive- brown colour, Avhen previously steeped in a solution of bismuth. 2. Water Avens, Geum rivale, L. grows in meadoAvs and groves of a hu raid soil; its fio-'ers appear in July. We find it delineated in Engl. Bot. t. 106, and by Wither- ing, 478....The herb and root of this species, though of inferior effi- cacy, have also been employed in medicine, as well as by tanners. AVOIRDUPOIS is the name of the weight adopted for the larger or coarser commodities, such as groceries, hops, cheese, wool, lead, he. It is distinguished from Troy-weight, Avhich was formerly used in England for every purpose, and is still retained for weighing gold, silver, and jewels, for com- pounding medicines, for experi- ments in natural philosophy, and for comparing different weights with each other. The former con- tains sixteen, and the latter only twelve ounces to the pound—«Apo- thecaries purchase their drugs, if wholesale, by the former, but retail them out by the latter....See Weights and Measures. Aversion.- See Antipathy- Azalea procumbens, L. See Trailing Rose-bay. [ AY A P ANA, a plant original- ly from the right bank of the river Amazon, in Brazil. It is a remedy for bruises, and also considered as an antidote against the poison of serpents, and of arroAvs. Citizen Bau din relates wonderful effects of this plant upon himself and others, in relieving bruises. Dr. Carmaro, of Brazil, confirmed the accounts of the efficacy of the plant in cty> 154 A Y A A Z O ing the effects of poisonous bites. Citizen Ventenat, who lately reael an account of the plant to the National Institute, thinks it belongs to the corymbifens family, and the genus eupatorium of L. It may be distinguished from other species of this genus by the following cha- racters....Eupatorium, lance-shap- ed leaves, very entire ; the loAver leaves opposite ; the upper ones alternate ; calyces very simple; many flowered.....There are seve- ral species of eupatorium in the United States, and it is possible that the aya pana may also be found. Count Rumford describes a plant of similar Arirtues, called in Santa Fe, Vijuco de Guaco, which see. See Til loch Phil. Mag. vol. 12, 13.] Azote. See Atmosphere. B. B AC B AC [BACCHARIS HALIMIFO- LIA, Cotton Groundsel-tree, Sea Purslane. This is a sea-side shrub of great beauty in the autumn, when mantled in silky doAvn, white as snow. The bark of the last year's groAvth of twigs, early in the spring, when the sap begins to flow, expands suddenly, and opens longitudinally, from Avhich springs a limpid juice of the con- sistence of pure honey, and as sweet and pleasant to the taste. At this season the bees visit these shrubs, and sip the honey en- tirely, before the sun rises.] BACHELOR, a word of doubt- ful origin ; though, in the political economy of nations, Avhen a plu- rality of persons apparently glory in that appellation, its practice cannot fail to be attended Avith ef- fects detrimental to the State, and frequently disgraceful to the indi- vidual. We allude to those un- married men, who pretend to live in a state of stoic celibacy, and are, for the most part, generally, either avaricious misers, or unprin- cipled spendthrifts. That there are many exceptions to this odious character, cannot be denied; yet, in a maritime country, Avhere a great proportion of active men de- vote themselves to a sea-faring life, there ought to be public disgrace attached to those, Avho cannot as- sign the most substantial reasons for their choice of celibacy. Even the ancient Greeks Avere so fully persuaded of the perni- cious influence of professed bache- lors, on the population and morals of their countrymen, that, by the laws of Lycurgus, they Avere branded Avith infamy, excluded from all offices civil and military, as well as from national games and public spectacles. Farther, such persons were compelled to appear at certain festivals, Avhere they were exposed to public derision, and led round the market-place: in this* degraded situation, the fair sex conducted them to the altars, and obliged them to make amende BAC B A C 155 honorable, by submitting to blows and lashes, at discretion. The women, not satisfied with this spe- cimen of passive obedience, forced them to sing certain songs teeming with satire, and deprecating a state of life which Nature had never de- signed. The Roman laAvs, also, were not more favourable to their tole- ration ; and the vigilant censors frequently imposed arbitrary fines on old bachelors. According to DionysIus, the historian, there existed in Rome an ancient edict, by which all persons of full age were obliged to marry. But the most remarkable law enacted against them, was that made in the reign of the Emperor Au- gust isj by which they were ren- dered incapable of enjoying the benefit either of legacies or inhe- ritance by will, unless from their near relations. This limitation, I'.uTarch justly observes, induced many ba'tchelors to marry ; not so much With the v'icav of having heirs to their own estates, as to quali- fy themselves to inherit those of others. Thus it clearly appears that, from the most early ages, the most civilized nations expressed a just abhorrence of a life which is more calculated to promote the narrow grovelling views of the in- dividual, Avho prefers it to the most sacred and honourable station in society, than to benefit that circle of the community, of Avhich he is frequently a consuming and worth- less member. BACON, the flesh of swine, salted, dried, and, generally, smok- ed in a chimney. As the history and customs relative to this savoury dish, Avould furnish but little- in- struction, Ave shall proceed to state the most approved methods of pre- paring it, both in England and on the continent. Somcrsctdiire-Eacon, the most esteemed in England, may be made any time during the last three months of the year. When a hog- is killed for bacon, the sides are laid in large wooden troughs, and sprinkled all over with bay salt: thus they are left for twenty-four hours, to drain aAvaythe blood and the superfluous juices. After this first preparation, they should be taken out, wiped very dry, and the drainings throAvn aAvay. Next, some fresh bay salt, Avell heated in a large iron frying-pan, is to be rubbed over the meat, until if has absorbed a sufficient quantity, and this friction repeated four succes- sive days., while the meat is turned only every other day. If large hogs are killed, the Hitches should be kept in brine for three weeks, and, during th-.t period, turned ten times, then taken out, and thoroughly dried in the usual man- ner; for, unless they be thus ma- naged, it is impossible to preserve them in a sweet state, nor will their flavour be equal to those pro- perly cured. As the preservation of the salt used in this process, when carried on to a great extent, may be an object of economy, Ave shall state the following method of recovering the saline matter contained in these drainings, or in any other brine, Avhether from herrings, beef, or pork: it Avas communicated to us by a friend, who haei seen it practis- ed on the continent, Avhere culina- ry salt is sold at a considerable price. He first added such a quan- tity of boiling Avater t» the brine, or drainings, as Avas sufficient to dissolve all the particles of the salt. 156 B A C This solution he then placed in either an iron or earthen vessel, over a fire, which,by boiling, forced all the feculent and animal particles to the top, so that they Avere care- fully removed by a perforated ladle. After the liquid had become clear, it Avas set aside for twenty-four hours, in a cool place, that the co- louring matter might subside. But, as the combination it had formeel with the boiled liquor was very te- nacious, he contrived two different ways of separating it: 1. A solu- tion of alum in Avater, one pint to an ounce of that substance, Avas gradually diopt into the cold liquor, in the proportion of a table-spoon- ful of the former to every gallon of the latter; and the whole allow- ed to stand for several hours; or, 2. If time and circumstances would pennit, he filtered the liquor by means of long flannel slips, cut longitudinally by the web, but pre- viously soaked in another strong and perfectly clear solution of salt: these slips were so immersed into the coloured fluid, that the pro- jecting external end reached ano- ther vessel, which had been placed much loAver than that containing the brine, or drainings. When these particulars were properiy at- tended to, the absorbeel liquor be- came almost colourless, and pel- lucid. Having thus procured a clear liquid solution, nothing more Avas reiiuired than to evaporate it to dryness, in order to re-produce the salt in its original granulated form. We have faithfully report- ed the process, which may be imi- tated Avithout difficulty, and at little or no expence. In our opinion, the second method of discharging the colour is preferrable, as, by this, no alum wiil be required, which only contaminates the salt. BAD Smoked Bacon, one of the most relished, but almost indigestible, dishes of the Germans, is prepared in a manner similar to that adopt- ed in the curing of the celebrated Westphalia hams. For the latter, however, animals that have been well fed, and allowed to roam at pleasure in the extensive moor- lands of that province, are gene- rally selected. And if credit be elue to the report lately spread in London, by a Native of Westpha- lia, that those delicious hams, so much esteemed in this country, are the produce of hogs which fre- quently die of obesity, and were sold for half price to the ill-reputed German skinners (schinder,) who export them to Hamburgh or Hol- land, Ave cannot, in justice to our friends, recommend them for their salubrity. The manner of obtain- ing them is nearly as follows : af- ter the hams have been properly salted, rubbed, and wiped with dry cloths, in order to absorb all the im- pure juices, the cavities of the joints, as well as the bones themselves, are carefully covered with a mixture consisting of two parts of the best salt, perfectly dried, and one part of black pepper, coarsely powder> ed. As soon as this operation is performed, the hams are, on the same day, suspended in a chimney, where no ether but wood fire is burnt, and which is usually in- creased during the first three days. The time of fumigation is regulat- ed by the size of the meat, and ge- nerally extends from three to six mouths. BADGER, an animal resem- bling in its external characters, both a dog and a hog. The un- ecmal length of its legs has intro- duced the expression badge r-l g- ged. Its flesh has a taste similar BAD to that of wild hogs, and is much esteemed in Italy, France, and Ger- many. Indeed these carnivorous quadrupeds are themselves so very fond of pork, that a piece of such meat, placed over their burroAV, is the surest inducement to their ap- petite, and Avill in a few minutes entice them above ground. Besides affording a nutritive, but not easily digestible food, the skin of the badger makes excellent knapsacks, and covers for travel- ling-trunks, saddles, he. because it is impervious to rain, and stanela in need of no additional prepara- tion for rendering it water-proof; a process we shall describe under the article Leather. The hairs or bristles of this animal are used for painters' brushes; and its pene- trating fat answers a variety of useful purposes: for it is not only employed as an ingredient in injec- tions for relieving nephritic com- plaints, or such as arise from ob- structions in the urinary passages, but likewise externally, in rheuma- tic affections, especially those called Siatica, and for the cure of sore and chapped nipples in young mo- thers. For paralytic diseases of the aged, it is asserted, that the hairy skin of this creature, when Avom next the surface of the body, has been of eminent service, by stimu- lating the inert, cutaneous and mus- cular vessels into action : and there can be no reasonable objection against giving this simple remedy a fair trial for a few weeks, Avhere medicines generally are ineffec- tual. The crafty horse-dealers also employ the badger's fat in a singu- lar manner, Avhich involves a de- gree of fraud and cruelty. They pull ont the hair in several places, and anoint the bare spots with this BAG 157 fat; when the hair groAVs again, it is of a Avhite or grey colour, so as to give the horse a pyebald appear- ance, which probably inhances its value. BAG, in commerce, is a term for a sack, or pouch, containing a certain quantity or weight of some particular commodity. Thus a bag of almonds is about three hun- dred pound ; of aniseed, from three to four hundred pounds weight, Sec. The best material for making compact and durable bags is hempen cloth [or cotton] pre- viously steeped in a strong decoc- tion of oak-bark, or tanner's waste. Bag, in farriery, signifies a me- dicated external application, made with a view to recover a horse's appetite. For this purpose, one ounce of asafoetida, with an equal quantity of powdered savin, are mixed together, put into a bag, and tied to the bit. Meanwhile the horse should be kept bridled for two hours, several times a-day, and as soon as the bag is remov- ed, the animal will begin to eat. We have stated this piece of ad- vice on the authority of the Ency- lopaadia Britannica ; though we are enclined to think that such su- perficial applications will seldom avail.....See Farriery. BAGNIO, a term adopted from the Italian, and signifying a bath : in English, it denotes a house for bathing, sweating, and cleansing the body ; but sometimes also for worse purposes. The substance used for heating bagnios are various ; such as bricks, stones, Sec. managed in different ways, and in several vessels and utensils, according to the choice or fancy of the proprietor. The ef- fect generally expected from re- sorting to such places, *i6 an immo- 158 B A K B AK derate degree of perspiration, oc- casioned by artificial heat: this cannot fail to open the pores ; to attennuate and dissolve the hu- mours ; to dissipate all the super- fluous particles ; and eventually to heat and dry the Avhole body..... Hence this practice cannot be pro- per for persons of a choleric, thin anel spare habit, nor for those sub- ject to periodical discharges. In rheumatic and paralytic dis- eases, great benefit has sometimes been derived from a cautious use of the bagnio. For whatever com- plaint it be resorted to, care must be taken that neither the boAvels nor stomach be distended, which might be the case in the former, by obstructions or costiveness ; in the latter, after a plentiful repast. Besides, the heat of a bagnio should always be accommodated to the strength and peculiar condition of the patient ; for if immoderate, it will be attended with effects very detrimental to the whole frame, the least of Avhich are pustules, tumors, and obstructions of the surface of the body. BAITING, a practice derived from the barbarous ages, and one of those amusements which degrade the human character. Thus Ave hear of the baiting of bulls, or beafs, by mastiffs, or bull-dogs with short noses, that they may take a firmer hold of their oppo- nents. The inhuman practice of bull- baiting ought not to be connived at by magistrates, especially about the metropolis. BAKER, a person whose busi- ness is that of baking and selling bread. The origin of this useful profession is notascertained,though it is certain that the first public bakers appeared in the East, and passed from Greece to Italy, about the year of Rome 583. Prior to that period, every house-wife baked her oavii bread. We regret that so Avealthy a body of men as our modern bakers, give us frequent cause of com- plaint, either by the unwholesome quality, or the deficient Aveight of bread; an article which loudly calls for the wisdom and unremitt- ing vigilance of the legislature. No new office in any department of police appears to be so necessary, and likely to be productive of such essential advantages' to a city, as that of " Inspector of Bread." BAKING is the art of con- verting flour, or other farinaceous substances, into bread.....As we propose to treat more fully on this subject, under the article Bread, we shall here only explain Avhat relates to a proper method of pre- paring it. In domestic life, the baking of bread is frequently mismanaged ; which may be ascribed to the fol- loAving circumstances. Some wo- men do not use a just proportion and temperature of Avater, so that the bread turns out either pasty, or too firm and heavy; others do not use a proper quantity or quality of leaven, or yeast, Avhence the bread acquires either an unpleasant bit- terish taste, or the dough cannot rise, and consequently becomes tough and viscid ; again, others do not understand the due degree of heat required in the oven, so that it will be either under, or over- baked. All these particulars de- serve to be attended to, otherwise a bad and unwholesome bread will be produced. To survey, there- fore, the Avhole process, which is B A K B A K 159 one of the most complicated in chemistry,. we shall here commu- nicate a few general directions. 1. The flour, whether made of wheat, or rye (which two are doubtless the be stand most whole- some species of grain), ought not to be used immediately on coming from the mill, as in a fresh state it is too moist for making good and palatable bread ; but it should be kept in a dry place, for several weeks, stirred every day in sum- mer, and at least every other day in colder seasons, till it has acemired such a consistence, as renders it loose and yielding be- tween the fingers. 2. As the dough will not rise, without.giving it a proper leaven or yeast, this ought to be a prin- cipal object in families, as well as to bakers. If leaven be employed, it shoulel, on the preceding even- ing, be deprived of its hard crust, and dissolved with a little, scarcely milk-warm, Avater; then carefully mixed with about a third part of the flour to be used for baking, and kneaded into a soft dough, by add- ing more tepid Avater. A small quantity of flour is put on the top ; and, thus prepared, it Avill be ne- cessary to cover the trough with blankets, and suffer it to stand in a moderately warm place till the following morning, that it may rise and duly ferment. The remain- ing two-thirds of the flour must then be added, Avith a proportion- ate quantity of luke-warm water, and the whole kneaded into such an elastic dough as Avill draAV into strings without breaking, and not adhere to the fingers. In this state it is again covered, and allowed to stand (while preparations are mak- ing in the oven), and not disturbed till it begins gently to rise, when it should be formed into loaves. 3. A proper degree of heat is an essential requisite to the baking process. When the inner arch of the oven appears entirely white, it is generally considered as suffi- ciently heated. But this being a fallacious criterion, Ave Avould re- commend the folloAving: Place a handful of flour before the aperture of the oven, and if it turn of a broAvn colour, the heat is then nearly of the degree required ; but if it become black, or remain white, in the former case the fire must be considerably reduced ; and in the latter, more fuel must be added. Lastly, all parts of the oven should be uniformly heated ; and though we cannot enter into farther particulars, yet the atten- tive house-Avife will easily, from. her own observations, regulate the degree of heat, Avith the same ef- fect as it might be done by Mr. Wedge wood's Pyrometer for the baking of earthen-ware. Remark.....Musty flour, when baked into bread, is not only ex- tremely detrimental to health, but it also imparts a bitter and nauseous taste. When such flour is not too strongly tainted, it may be correct- ed by first kneading it with leaven or sweet yea9t, then making large holes with a wooden cylinder in the dough, filling up the cavities with flour that is perfectly sweet, suffer- ing it to remain in this preparatory state till the next morning, then removing the dry flour carefully with long spoons or similar imple- ments, and afterwards com'erting the dough into bread, with the addition of such flour as is not musty. By this simple process, the flour first mixed up will be 160 BAK B AL SAveetened, but that which has been left over night in the dough, is said to become so corrupted, that it can be given only to ani- mals. It has frequently been attempt- ed, and not Avithout success, to bake good, wholesome bread, with little or no barm. In consequence of a dispute between the brewers and bakers of Dublin, concerning the price of yeast, in the year 1770, the latter carried the point, by making their bread without it. As this process, however, could not be readily imitated in domestic life, we shall here state a method of rais- ing a bushel of flour with a tea- spoonful of yeast; first practised by James Stone. It is as follows: Put a bushel of flour into the knead- ing-trough or trendle ; take about three quarters of a pint of warm water, and thoroughly mix with it a spoonful of thick, sweet barm ; then make a hole in the middle of the flour, large enough to contain two gallons of water ; pour in your small quantity, and stir it with a stick, so that it may, with some of the flour combining with it, acquire the consistence of batter for pud- ding ; then strew a little dry flour over it, and let it stand for about one hour, when you will find the small portion so raised, that it will -break through the dry flour scat- tered over it. After this, pour in another quart of warm Avater, while you are stirring in more flour, till it becomes as thick as before ; then again shake dry flour over it, and leave it for two hours longer....re- peat the same method about twice more, ahvays suffering it some- what longer to be a rest, and the bread Avill become zee, light as if a pint of barm had been used. Nor does this method require above a quarter of an hour more time than the usual Avay of baking ; and the author of it asserts, that his bread has never been heavy nor bitter. With respect to the difference of seasons, J. Stone directs that, in summer, the Avater should be used blood-warm; in Avinter, or cold frosty weather, as hot as the hand can bear it Avithout pain; while in the former season the dough should be covered up very warm, and strewed over Avith dry flour every time tepid Avater is added, to keep in the heat: after using six or eight quarts of such Avater to every bushel of flour, in the gradual manner before describ- ed, it will be found that the whole body of flour which is mixed with the Avarm water, by means of a single tea-spoonful of barm, is brought into considerable agitation, so that it waxes or ferments with- out difficulty.....See also Yeast. Baking-Stove (portable). See Stove. BALANCE, one of the six simple poAvers in mechanics, prin- cipally used for deteraiining the equality or difference of weights in such bodies as are liable to this computation. There are two kinds of weights principally used at present; the an- cient, or the Roman steel-yard, and the modern, which consists of a lever or beam suspended exactly in the middle, having scales or ba- sons attached to each extremity. If the arms of the balance be of equal length, and similar weights placed in the scale, the balance will con- sequently be in cjuilibrio. But if one of the arms be in length to the other as ten to nine, the balance may still be so con- structed, that both the arms with their scales shall equiponderate. • 0 * iFi / VW 7/J / ///// ? / V '/V, /'/ff/sf ///•{■/. BAL This vile contrivance, however, justly deserves to be branded with infamy ; because a weight of nine pounds suspended on the longer arm, will counterpoise another of ten pounds placed on .the shorter one ; but the fraud may be instantly dis- covered, by shifting the Aveight from the one scale to the other, in which case the balance will lose its equipoise. > [Fig. 1. Is a representation of that part of the common steelyard, in which the pivots are placed.....a is the centre of motion, upon which the beam turns'; b is the point where the article to be weighed is i suspended; and c is the point where '•the poise is suspended^ both being above the centre of motion, but c somewhat higher than b.....While the beam remains level, the hori- zontal distances of these points of suspension, are a d and a e. De- press the larger end of the beam, until the point b falls to /, and the point cwill rise'tog". It is evident. that the horizontal distance a d is increased to af, on the falling side of the centre ; and that on the ri- sing side, the horizontal distance a e is in the same time reduced to a h. Thus the descending poAver overcomes the ascending, and*de- stroys the equilibrium at the mo- ment the beam is moved from a level position. The centre of gra- vity is also placed a"bove the centre '. of motion, which must prevent the light beam from vibrating on its centre, if the larger end were made to balance the smaller, unless the former centre a\ ere placed below the latter. Hence, the reasons why the common steelyard) and all beams constructed on those principles, must ever be liable to error, and applicable to fraudulent ptirposes. VOL. I. BAL 161 Fig. 2. Is a representation of that part of Dearborn's balance in which the pivots are placed....a is the centre of motion, on which the beam turns ; b is the point Avhere the article to be Aveighed is sus- pended, andc is the point where the poise is suspended, both being on a line Avith the centre of motion..... While the beam remains leArel, the horizontal distances of these points of suspension are a b and a c ; de- press the larger end of the beam, until the point b falls to d, and the point c will rise to e ; it is evident, that the horizontal distances are both reduced, and that this reduc- tion of distances on both sides the centre of motion, is always equal or proportional....Thus, by placing the joints of suspension on a line with the centre of motion, by fixing the centre of motion above the centre of gravity,- and by making the arms of the beam in counter- poise, it preserves its 'vibrations when light or loaded, and henc-j the reasons Avby no art in manage- ment can render it a fraudulent instrument. Fig. 3. Represents the balance Avith its apparatus. ABCD is a wooden frame, with an iron screAV at E, on which the beam FG is suspended. The scale HI is at- tached to the beam by the clasp K, Avhich slides on the bar KI, to be moved over the centre of the Aveight in the scale ; the skid L is formed tq receive the scale on one end, while the other end answers as an inclined plane, over Avhich the cask M is rolled into the scale. When the scale is to be charged, it is fixed "at a proper height, by turning the screw E until the scale will rest fairly on the skid, when the beam is elevated to an anele of Y 162 BAL BAL SO or 40 degrees above a horizontal may be graduated for any two of line. The little weight P (called those weights, and may be suffi- the balance Aveight) is a brass case, ciently strong, for bearing any into Avhich a sufficient quantity of number required, for the largest shot is put, to produce an exact draughts. Under or near the be- equipoise Avith the scale ; if the ginning of the graduated edge of Aveight of the scale varies by any every beam, on each side, is stamp- cause, the shot is augmented or di- ed the Aveight of the poise, for minished accordingly, for Avhich which the respective side is mark- purpose the top of the brass case ed, and in all possible variations has a small screAv to be taken out of the weights, any article will be for making the change. The scale, found to weigh alike, Avhen weigh- when charged, rests on the skid, ed with the heavier weight alone, by which it is kept out of the mud, or the lighter weight alone, or with and at a suitable distance from the both together, or with any greater ground ; the small end of the beam number which will produce an equi- is then brought down by hand, poise; hence arises an incontroYert- which raises the scale and relieves ible testimony of the accuracy of the skid, if the weight in the scale the system,H*ind of the construc- be nearly under the clasp ; if not, tion of the balance. the beam is raised until the scale Balancesofa small size are made rests again on the skid, and the for domestic purposes, and for clasp is loose, which is moved by shop-counters, which are found hand over the weight. The beam exceedingly convenient, when a tin being again brought down, the scale is attached to the lower hook, poises NO are put on, and the and may be rendered more pecu- skid is draAvn out; Avhen the poises liarly so, by the addition of another are so placed as to produce a level scale, at sixteen times the distance beam, the two numbers being add- from the centre, for weighing ed, at Avhich the poises hang, will ounces. give the weight of the article. The Fig. 4. Is a representation of a handles QR and S, are for lifting grapnel for weighing casks and the apparatus by hand, and trans- boxes Avith the balance, without re- porting it small distances, without moving tjiem from the spot: a b the trouble of taking it apart. T is a bar of avoocI with holes, de- is a guard, which is useful when scribed by the black spots : c is an the scale is to be many times iron by Avhich the grapnel hangs charged Avith a given weight of to the balance ; it is secured to the small articles, in which case the bar by the bolts d e: fg are two beam may rest in the guard, with- irons, /kept at proper distances by out taking off the poises, until all the bolts // i ; kkkk are four points the draughts are weighed. The about three inches in length,which principles on which this balance is are entered under the ends of the predicated, require that the larger cask or box, and lift it by the poizes or weights attending it, shall draught of, the beam. The tAvo be multiples of the smaller, there- points of each iron are kept about fore the folloAving are the sizes, one foot apart, by the little bolts viz. lib. 21b. 41b. 81b. 16lb. and,'//: mm are two hooks, fastened 321b. and the two sides of abeam by a few links to the irons; these BAL B^L 163 hooks, being thrown over the bars Q R and S, in Fig. 3, keep the tAvo irons separate, a sufficient distance for setting the apparatus over the next cask, Avithout interference. The height of the Avhole should be nearly the height of a scale for weighing hogsheads, like that re- presented in Fig. 3, that either the grapnel or the scale may be used with the same frame. With this apparatus, but two assistants are necessary for weighing any number of casks, as the frame, with its ap- pendages, is moved from one to another, and set over them in ro- tation, by two persons, with much less labour than would be necessary for removing a heavy cask. In the 17th volume of the American edition of the Encyclo- paedia Britannica, (Avhich was pub- lished by Mr. Thomas Dobson, in May, 1797), an instrument is re- presented in Fig. 1, of Plate 481, which by the cursory reader may be supposed to contain the princi- ples of Mr. Dearborn's balance. If the tAvo instruments had been exactly alike, Mr. Dearborn has indisputable testimony, that his balance Avasin existence in the year 1783, Avhich Avas foiuteen years prior to the publication of that volume ; but, it will be sheAvn, that in correcting the errors of the common steel-yard, these instru- ments are alike in one particular only ; Avhich is, placing the two points of suspension andthecentreof motion in a right line; that in every other respect they differ; and that, in conseemence of this difference, Mr. Dearborn's balance is rendered one of the most extensively useful instruments for weighing which has been known ; Avhile that which is described in the Encyclopedia^ Is so contracted in its power, as to fall far short of the common steel- yard. On examining Fig. 1, be- fore mentioned, and reading the description of it, Ave find sufficient evidence, that an idea was never conceived, of using more than one counterpoise on the beam : if that were light, it could not weigh heavy articles ; if it were heavy, it could not Aveigh light articles, con- sequently the range of the instru- ment must be so contracted as to render it of little use ; and no mode of extending the range is intimat- ed, except by adding another point of suspension on the short arm. Hence the author's remark, in page 779, column first, near the bottom: " it is usual to make as many di- " vided scales on the long arm, as " there are points of suspension on " the short arm." Then two lines further on : " but the range of this " instrument is not altogether at " the pleasure of the maker." In the construction of Mr. Dearborn's balance, the range is at the pleasure of the maker ; for, with but one point of suspension on the short arm, the range may be from one pound to any quantity which a beam of any kind can sus- tain ; the range of one already made, is from one pound to seven thouvand and five hundred pounds. This advantage arises from the ap- plication of Aveights Avhich are multiples; using a lighter counter- poise for Aveighing lighter articles, and a heavier counterpoise, or both together, or any number,for Aveigh- ing heavier articles, Avithout any one of them exceeding 321b. Avhich is the heaviest counterpoise requir- ed with the Patent Balance. The place of the centre of gra- vity exhibits another essential elif- ■ ference. In Figure 1, it is placed somewhere in the long arm, de- 164 BAL pending on the scale to bring the beam to a horizontal position ; con- sequently nothing can be weighed but in the scale, unless its weight be added to the weight of the arti- cle, or accounted for in some other way. In Mr. Dearborn's balance, the centre of gravity is placed ex- actly under the centre of motion, whereby small or loose articles may be wreighed in a scale, Avhich is ba- lanced by a small weight hooked in at the end of the long arm ; and on putting these off, the hook is ready for receiving articles which may be too large for the scale ; the figures on the beam giving the ex- act Aveight in either case, rendering this balance an instrument of great convenience in markets and in fa- milies ; for the same beam Avith Avhich small articles are weighed in a tin scale, will Aveigh a quarter of beef on the hook. It will be ob- served, that the particulars here described,Avhich give to Mr. Dear- born's balance such essential supe- riority, are entirely independent of the portable and convenient ma- chinery Avhich he has constructed to accompany the instrument for weighing heavy bodies, and Avhich gives additional value to his system for Aveighing. Some of the characteristics of a Patent Balance, Avhich is now in use in the city of Philadelphia for weighing 3000lbs. compared with those which it must have possessed, if it had been made according to the description given in the Ency- clopxdia, Vol. 17, Plate 481, Fig. 1. 1st. The heaviest counterpoise belonging to the balance is 32lbs. If it had been made on the princi- ples of Fig. 1, the counterpoise must have Aveighed 112lbs. BAL 2d. The counterpoise to be lift-. ed from notch to notch on the ba- lance, for finding the exact weight of the goods, is only 16lbs. If the constmction had been on the principles of Fig. 1, the counter- poise to be lifted from notch to notch, must have weighed 112lbs. 3d. The smallest quantity which can be Aveighed with the above mentioned balance, is one pound. If it had been made on the princi- ples of Figure 1, the smallest quantity it could have weighed would be seventy pounds. 4th. The number of notches on the Balance, corresponding to one pound each, are something short of seven and a half to an inch. If it had been made on the princi- ples of Fig. 1, the number of notches correspondingtoone pound each, must have becnfifty-one to an inch.] BALDNESS, a defect of hair chiefly on the fore part of the head. Among the pre-disposing causes of baldness, excessive indulgence in sensual gratifications, and parti- cularly in Avine anel spirits, is per- haps the principal ; hough old age usually causes the loss of hair even in the most regular livers. In an- cient Rome, the term calvus, or bald-pate, Avas frequently used by Avay of reproach for this defici- ency, Avhich then was in great dis- repute. In modern times, diA'ers arts are practised to conceal a bald head, and a variety of preparations are offered to the credulous, in the daily prints, Avith the solemn pro- mise that they are infallibly calcu- lated to make the hair groAV again. As these advertisers are, compa- ratively speaking, harmless chemi- cal compounders, Ave do not Avish BAL BAL 165 to treat them Avith severity, so long as they confine their medicines to external applications. In our opinion, baldness is in- curable, Avhen it arises from gene- ral debility, or an asthenic state of the system; but where it takes place in consequence of acute dis- eases, or during a tedious recovery from malignant fevers, the growth of the hair has frequently been accelerated by the following lini- ment : take of the expressed juice of burdock-root, virgin-honey, and proof-spirits, of each one ounce, mix them together, and anoint the barren part of the head seve- ral times a day....at the same time taking care to cover it with soft flannel, in order to promote per- spiration. BALL, in a general sense, is a round or spherical body, Avhether formed by nature or art. Thus the terraqueous globe which we inha- bit, appears to have assumed that form, in consequence of the revolu- tions round its own axis, not unlike a mass of clay, when turned in a circular direction. But as the term " Ball" is used in a great variety of significations, Ave can here introduce only those feAv, Avhere it is applied to econo- mical purposes: hence we shall take no notice of fire-balls, light- balls, smoke-balls, stink-balls, sky- balls, water-balls, land-balls, 8cc. BALLS, in the polished circles of society, are those nocturnal as- semblies demoted chiefly to the en- tertainment of dancing. Whether public or private, the institution of balls appears to have been origin- ally intended for the conjoint pur- poses of promoting health, by the exercise there mingled Avith mirth and social conversation, as well as for the refinement of manners, or Avhat is more properly termed good-breeding.....(See that article.) In large and populous cities, however, these excellent purposes are often in a great measure de- feated ; partly by a deviation from the genuine principle on Avhich balls Avere first introduced, under the sanction of Avise governments, and partly by connecting this amusement Avith collateral objects, such as suppers, masquerades, card-parties, &c. Consistently Avith our plan, Ave beg leave to observe only, that morality and health Avould be better consulted, if all public balls and masquerades were limited to a certain number of visitors....exclud- ing every female who ventures to appear without a proper friend or relation ; and, upon the whole, by adopting those excellent regula- tions which already subsist in the city of Bath, where decorum or good breeding is the " order of the night." Horse-balls, among farriers, are given only for the purpose of con- veying into the stomach of that nice and noble animal, the more disagreeable drugs which it would not swallow in drenches. Hence these balls should not exceed the size of a pullet's egg, and be clipp- ed in sweet oil previous to their ad- ministration, that they may pass down the throat with greater faci- lity. But as some horses have a straight gullet, and are remarkably averse to this method of taking medicine, it would be preferable to give them drenches,or mixtures with bran, or other mashes....See Farriery. Portable-balls for removing spots from clothes in general, may be thus prepared : take fuller's-earth perfectly dried, so that it crumbles 166 BAL BAL into a powder ; moisten it with the clear juice of lemons, and add a small quantity of pure pearl-ashes; then work and knead the Avhole carefully together, till it acquires the consistence of a thick elastic paste; form it into convenient small balls, and expose them to the heat of the sun, in Avhich they ought to be completely dried. In this state, they are fit for use in the manner as follows : First, moisten the spot on your clothes with wa- ter, then rub it Avith the ball just described, and suffer it again to dry in the sun; after having washed the spot with pure water, it will entirely disappear. Ballota. See Horehound. Balls (fuel). See Coal-Balls. BALM (Common), or Melissa officinalis, L. is much cultivated by our gardeners, on account of its pleasant aromaticsmell,resembling that of the lemon, and its fragrant, though roughish taste. See Wood- ville's Med. Bot. pi. 147. Formerly, the balm Avas held in very high estimation : Paracel- sus supposed it to possess virtues, by which human life could be pro- longed beyond the usual period. In modern times, hoAvever, the properties of this agreeable plant are better understood : it yields, by distillation, a small proportion of an essential oil, of a yellowish co- lour, and a very grateful smell. A few drops of this oil, diluted in a glass of simple water; or strong infusions of the young shoots, drank as tea, and continued for several Aveeks, or months, have proved of service to nervous and hypochon- driacal patients, of a lax and debi- litated habit.....Either of these liquid preparations, Avhen slightly acidulated with lemon juice, ac- quiror a "fine reddish colour, and may be taken with advantage in dry, parching fevers, as well as in cases of distressing flatulency, at- tended with eructations, where the first passages have previously been opened. BALM (Purple and White), or Melittis grandifiora, L. another species of the balm; it is elelineat- ed in English Botany, t. 636, and in Curt. Lond./asc. 6. t. 39. We have mentioned both these native plants, not on account of their diuretic properties, for which they were once celebrated, but the former, as affording fine aromatic floAvers, which are eagerly visited by bees ; and the latter, as being a fine ornament to a floAver-garden. BALSAM, or Native Balsam, an oily-resinous fluid, oozing out of certain plants, either spontane- ously, or by incision. There are a variety of balsams, denominated according to the sub- stances from Avhich they are ob- tained, such as the Canada, Co- paiva, Gilead, Peru,Tolu, &c of which we shall give an account under their respective heads. BALSAMICS, a term used in an indefinite manner, but literally signifying mitigating substances, and very often applied to medicines of very different qualities, such as emollients, detergents, restoratiAres, Sec. It appears to be a general character of balsamics, that they are hot and pungent, like the na- tural balsams and gums; Avhile their internal use tends to increase the vital heat of the system.... Hence they are commonly admi- nistered in those complaints Avhich originate from a diseased action, or a defective state of the interior or- gans ; and as they can only be in- troduced to those parts by the sto- mach and the circulation of the BAM BAN 167 fluids, it will be easily understood that these slowly operating medi- cines cannot be productive of great effects, unless continued for a con- siderable time. HALS AMINE, or Touch-me- not, the Impatiens nobi-tangere, L. is one of the poisonous native plants, growing in moist and shady places. Its stalks are about eighteen inches high, and its yellow flowers appear in August....See Wither- ing, 263. The capsules of this plant, Avhen touched by the hand, burst and throws out their seeds with velo- city ; whence it has received its name. Balsamine Seeds possess the de- leterious property of producing violent purging, when swallowed inadvertently, especially by chil- dren ; and inevitable death, when taken to any extent. Dr. Unzer asserts, that the bread baked in an oven which had been heated with the dry stalks of this plant, poison- ed and nearly destroyed a whole family. In dyeing, the leaves and flowers of the balsamine, according to M. Bechstein, impart to wool a beautiful yellow colour. [This plant is also found in the United States.] BAMBOE HABIT, an inven- tion of the Chinese, by the use of which a person unskilled in the art of SAvimming, may easily keep himself above water. The Chinese merchants, when going on a voy- age, ahvays provide themselves with this simple apparatus, to save their lives, in cases of danger from shipwreck. It is constructed by placing four bamboos horizontally, tAvo before and two behind the body of each person, so that they project about twenty-eight inches : these are crossed on each side by two others, and the Avhole proper- ly secured, leaving an intermediate space for the body. When thus formed, the person in danger slips it over his head, and ties it securely to the Avaist: by which simple means he cannot possibly sink. Its figure is here subjoined. BANDAGE, in surgery, a fillet, or roller, used in dressing and bind- ing up wounds, restraining danger- ous bleedings, and in joining frac- tured or dislocated bones. The modern and more enlight- ened surgeons have, in some of the most important operations, relin- quished the use of tight bandages, from a conviction of their tendency to do more harm than good. Thus it is certain, that the most expedi- tious cures of broken limbs, haw generally been affected without any bandages; yet, as there is a necessity of keeping the injured limb in a steady posture, we shall expatiate on this subject under the head of Fractures.....See also Ligatures, and Tourniquet. BANDY-LEGS, a vernacular expression applied to distorted or crooked legs. In some cases this is a natural defect in the birth, though it may more frequently be ascribed to an improper treatment of infants, by indolent or officiou* 168 BAN BAN nurses. The former Avill some- times suffer an infant, scarcely twelve months old, to stand for hours on its legs, while confined in a chair, or an absurd machinery contrived for walking: the latter are too impatient to give early spe- cimens of a child's A-igour, and dai- ly try experiments with its tender legs, before they are able to sus- tain the Aveight of the body. When an infant is born Avith bandy-legs, the timely and judicious use of the bandage may, by im- perceptible degrees, correct this de- tect ; but it requires more patience and perseverance than people in general are able or disposed to be- stOAV. Hence we cannot suppress a remark made by the ingenious Levret, that this species of ne- glect is attended Avith more im- portant consecmences to the female than the male sex: for, as de- formities of the lower extremities are very frequently connected Avith similar mal-conformations of those bones Avhich form the Avaist, we may hence account for the repeated abortions in many mothers Avho pay the strictest attention to diet, and every other circumstance, dur- ing the period of gestation. This unfortunate deformity, Iioav- ever, cannot be easily remedied after the child has arrived at a cer- tain age ; and we believe all at- tempts Avould be fruitless, and even hurtful, after the sixth or seventh year : yet there are instances on record, where Nature, unassisted by art, has occasionally performed a cure. Dr. Unzer relates the case of a young man, Avho Avas born and reared with legs so dis- torted, that he was obliged to walk on the sides of his feet and heels ; but during his apprenticeship with a taylor, sitting continually with crossed legs, he remarked that his lower extremities began gradually to recover their natural direction, and that his ancles in particular spontaneously returned to their proper position. He at length es- caped from his master, entered on the list of warriors, and thus gave the most convincing proof of the soundness of his limbs. BANE-BERRIES, the produc- tion of the Herb-Christopher, or Actoea spicata, L. [a native plant of the United States,] Avhich is in a high degree poisonous.......See Withering, 483. Although some foreign writers assert that this plant does not pos- sess the deleterious propertiesvvhich are attributed to it by Linnaeus, yet Ave have reason to believe that its great astringency must be high- ly detrimental to cattle. BANK, in commerce, signifies a common repository, Avhere per- sons consent to keep their money : it is also applied to certain societies or communities, who take charge of the money of others, either for the purpose of accumulating it by interest, or preserving it in safety. There are two principal kinds of banks ; either public, consisting of a society of monied men, who, be- ing duly incorporated according to laAv, agree to deposit a considerable fund, or joint stock, to be employ- ed for their use ; by lending money upon good security, buying and sel- ling bullion, discounting bills of exchange, 8cc. or private, Avhich are established by individuals, or co-partners, who deal in the same way as the former, upon their own stock and credit. The greatest bank of circulation in Europe, or perhaps in the world, is that of England. The Company was incorporated by an act of par- BAN liament, in the fifth and sixth years of William and Mary. Private banking companies have also, Avithin these thirty years, been formed in almost every consider- able town in Great Britain ; their purchases and payments of all kinds are made by notes, and thus the country business is in a great de- gree carried on by paper currency. It is almost generally believed, that the community at large has deri- ved considerable benefit from this artificial method of increasing the circulating medium : a proposition, the truth or fallacy of which it would not be easy to demonstrate. BANK-FENCE, in rural econo- my, signifies the inclosure of ground Avith an artificial bank. In places where flat stones cannot be procured, the most durable and ad- vantageous method of fencing in arable or pasture lands, is Avith turf or green sods, about five or six inches thick ; the foundation five feet wide ; the middle filled up with earth ; the top about three feet broad, and planted with pro- per shrubs or dwarf-wood. As every agriculturist is acquainted Avith the manner of constructing such fences, Ave shall only remark, that they are in many respects pre- ferable to the common hedges ; because the latter, Avith their ditches, cover an almost incredible quantity of soil, while they neither afford sufficient shelter for cattle, nor can the herbage growing con- tiguous to them, be compared to that generally produced on the sloping sides of banks, Avhere net- tles and other aquatic weeds Avould not obstruct the vegetation of the more useful plants. It is, how- ever, to be regretted, that manual labour in this country is at present so very expensive, that few farm- VOh. I. BAN 169 ers, excepting those who hoard up their grain, and Avait for the maxi- mum, or highest price, are either inclined or able, to defray the first and unavoidable expence connect- ed Avith the system of bank-fencing. A subject of such extensive im- portance, Ave humbly conceive, is entitled to every attention from a Avise and economical legislature, or at least deserves to be conducted on similar principles, and wTith the same patriotic spirit, as has lately been displayed in the different schemes of inland navigation. BANKS of Rivers, are those natural boundaries Avithin which every stream is confined, accord- ing to the magnitude and velocity of its current. But as the course of rivers is frequently rapid and ir- regular, taking eliflerent directions, and often turning at acute angles, extensive inundations, especially in high spring tides, necessarily happen from the overfloAving of their banks. Hence it is of the utmost importance to every inha- bitant in the v icinity of rivers, to possess some knowledge of the proper method of forming em- bankments, for the prevention of floods. Although we cannot, consistent- ly Avith our limits, attempt a full mathematical analysis, yet Ave shall lay doAvn a few general hints, and maxims, by which the reader may be guided in the practical view of this subject. 1. The principal point to be ascertained, is the elevation, or the heights necessary to be given to such banks. This must be regu- lated by the additional quantity of water, which, according to formeT experience, the river brings doAvn during its freshes ; and likewise by the distance, at which the artificial Z 170 BAN bank is to be constructed, from the natural boundary of the stream. On this important point, mistaken economy frequently defeats its own purpose. If, therefore, the em- bankment is to be raised at some distance from the natural banks of the river, both a comparatively smaller height and base will be re- quired ; the saving will be in the duplicate proportion of the former, and the Avorks will be likewise the more durable, nearly in the same ratio; because, by enlarging the additional bed given to the swollen river, its velocity and poAver of ruining the Avorks are, likewise, accordingly diminished. Unless, therefore, the freshes of the stream be loaded with fine sand, Avhich might decompose the turf, the em- bankment should always be under- taken at a considerable distance from the edge of a river. By placing the artificial bank at half the breadth of the stream, from its natural banks, its channel will thus be nearly doubled, and the detach- ed space, in general, afford excel- lent pasturage. 2. The next circumstance to be attended to, is, that the river will rise higher, Avhen embanked, than it did at the time vyhen it was suf- fered to overflow ; and hence the difficulty of ascertaining to Avhat height it may rise, from the great- est swell which has been observed in its former floods. For this rea- son, the utmost rise in some gorge, where the river could not extend farther, should be accurately mark- ed, as far as can be remembered by the oldest inhabitants. Now the increased section in this place should be measured ; and, as the water rises in a much greater proportion than the section, the iatter must be increased nearly in BAN the "fcame proportion as the gorge already mentioned. Those who neglect this method of regulating the proper height of the embank- ment, by the greatest SAvell that has in former floods been observed in the plain, are in danger of con- structing their banks too low, and consequently rendering them to- tally useless. 3. The whole embankment should, as much as possible, be conducted, in an uniform line, and by the concurrence of the proprie- tors of both banks ; because the general effect to be aimed at, con- sists in rendering the course of the stream straight* r than it Avas before. All bends should be made less abrupt, by keeping the em- bankment farther from the river in all convex lines of the natural bank, and approaching to it nearer, where the latter is concave...... Thus the action of the Avaters on the embankment will be consi- derably diminished, and the dura- tion of the work insured. On the same principles, Ave ought to pro- ceed in fencing rivulets, or brooks, which empty themselves into a larger river ; and whatever bends are given at its mouth to the two lines of embankment, they should always be made less acute than those of the natural brook ; at the same time an opportunity should be taken, of reducing the angle of this transverse brook, or, in other words, of conducting it with a more gentle flexion into the main river. 4. Particular care should be taken, to cover the outside of the dyke with compact pieces of turf, or green sods, closely united. For, if it admits the water, there is great danger of drenching the interior and more porous part of the wall, BAN BAR 171 while the statical pressure of this fluid body tends to burst the bank on the land side ; and thus the labour of months or years may be suddenly destroyed. Hence, too great attention cannot be bestoAved on making and keeping it perfectly tight; so that the Avhole be one continued fine turf, and every bare spot must without delay be care- fully covered with firm and fresh sods : nor should the rat and mice- holes be neglected. Lastly, it deserves to be remark- ed, that a elry earthen bank, not firmly conjoined by grass-roots, will scarcely maintain itself against the pressure of the water Avith a slope of forty-five degrees, while a canal conveying a moderate stream cannot be supported, even Avith such a declivity. Those banks, however, the base of which is as four to three of their height, Avill stand without danger in a moist soil: and this is not only the slope usually given them, but also ob- served in the spontaneous opera- tions of Nature, in the channels which she forms in conducting rills and rivulets through the higher and steeper grounds. This natural form possesses both mechanical and mathematical properties, which justly claim the admiration of those who adopt her beneficent hints and maxims. [The only method of keeping these impervious to water, is to puddle them. That is, Avhen about two feet of the bank i-> built up on each side, let the intermediate space, amounting to three fourths of the whole Avidth be made thus: Put in the common dirt or earth in the vicinity of it, to Avhich add water enough to make it a fluid paste. Let this be well raked backward and forward by iron rui.cs with the teeth not much apart, con- stantly add to, and rake the whole of the middle part of the bank, til! it is completed. On well and labo- rious raking of common earth, in a fluid state, depends the goodness of a bank. The sides may be sod- ded. When well raked, moles find it difficult to get throughout Avhere moles are in a bank, they must be exterminated ; for the method of doing , his....See the article Mole.] BANKS of the Sea, are those inequalities or elevations of the ground or bottom of the ocean, that may be compared to ridges or hills, Avith Avhich the land is more or less intersected. Sea-banks sometimes project above the sur- face of the water,or at least leave this element so shallow, as to prevent a vessel from remaining afloat. Sand-banks are very common in the North and Baltic Seas, so that navigators are obliged constantly to Use the plummet and compass, to discover their distance and exact situation. As, however, these ele- vations frequently endanger the lives of our brave mariners, we have inserted this article, not with a view of intimidating those naval heroes, but for the information of persons whose business obliges them to cross the seas before men- tioned, that they may provide them- selves with an apparatus by no means expensive, and described under the head of Bamboe-Haeit. BARBEL, in ichthyology, a genus of fresh-water fishes, com- prising thirty-one species, which are principally distinguished by the number of rays in the vent-fin : their general characters are,atooth- less mouth; three rays in the gills ; a smooth and w hite body ; and the belly-fins bave frequently nine 172 BAR BAR rays. The following ten are the nvost remarkable species : 1. The Carp ; 2. The Barbel (of which we have here subjoined a more par- ticular account) ; 3. The Tench ; 4. The Gudgeon ; 5. The Bream ; 6. The Roach ; 7. The Dace ; 8. The Chub ; 9. The Bleak ; and 10. The Golden Fish....for a de- scription of Avhich Ave refer to the order of the alphabet. The Barbel, or• Barbus, is one of the coarsest fresh-Avater fish. Its roe is not Avholesome, and ought therefore to be throAvn away, as the eating of it is frecmently attended with nausea, vomiting, purging, £cc.....The natural history of this fish has escaped the attention of the ancients, though it is suffici- ently curious. Barbels resemble pike in their general shape, the head excepted ; for the upper jaAV of the former is more projecting, and they are also provieled Avith four dependent fibres or rays in the gills, Avith which, Avhile dexterously playing, they allure their prey, consisting of in- sects and small fishes. Their dor- sal fin is armed with a remarkably strong and sharp spine serving them as means of defence or at- tack, and with which they fre- quently cut the nets, or when in- cautiously handled, inflict severe wounds on their captors. In size, the barbel rarely exceeds the length of three feet, and weighs from twelve to eighteen, or twenty- five pound*. Its most frequent places of abode are the sides of hollow banks in calm and deep waters. In the months of May and June, it deposits its spawn on the stones lining the beds of deep rivers, and between which, as well as poles, roots of trees, Sec. barbels harbour during Avint^-, in a com- pact and social state. Not unlike swine, they dig and incavate the soft banks with their noses, are fond of animal carcasses (particularly of human flesh, according to C. P. Funke, a reputed German natu- ralist), and become exceedingly fat by living on the refuse of flax steeped in stagnant Avaters. Hence we may also account for their un- palatable, and, perhaps, unwhole- some flesh. They are so tame,that they may be easily caught by the hand; though Ave do not suggest so dangerous a method of taking them.....For the particulars relative to the method of angling for barbel, we refer to the article Carp. BARBLES, or BARBS .in far- riery, are those small excrescences frequently appearing under the tongue of horses, as well as black cattle: they are known by two paps, which may be discovered by drawing the tongue aside. Few animals arrive at a considerable age, without being sometimes troubled Avith this complaint, Avhich seldom proves hurtful, unless the part affected become inflamed by neglect, anel the acrimonious hu- mours there collected should cor- rode the tongue, and produce such a degree of pain, as to prevent the animal from taking its proper food. The method of curing this dis- temper, simply consists in cutting the excrescence close off Avith a sharp pair of scissars, or a knife, Avashing the wound several times a day with brandy, or port-Avine and vinegar, taking care, however, that no hard fooel but fresh grass, green herbs, and mashes, be given for seA'eral days, till the raAV part be healed. In those cases where black cat- tle are subject to a species of barbs, which grow quickly, and hang in BAR the form of fleshy pimples under the tongue, they ought first to be dipt off, as before stated, then pro- perly chafed with garlic and com- mon salt beaten together, and the mouth afterwards gently washed and rubbed with soft linen, dipt in lukewarm Avine,or brandy and water. But if coavs or bullocks happen to lose their appetite, Avithout any external marks of barbies, M. Chomel, in his Family Dictionary recommends the juice of garlic, or onions, mixed up with sallad-oil, to be introduced into the nostrils, every morning: this simple me- thod, it is asserted, will restore the natural craving for food. BARILLA, or BARILHA, is properly, the Spanish name of a plant cultivated for its ashes, from Avhich the purest mineral alkali is obtained ; but likewise signifies that particular sort of vegetable alkali Avhich is principally imported from Spain. There are four plants cultivated by the Spaniards for this useful purpose, namely, the Barilla, Ga- zul, Goza, and Salicor. But, as this account appears to be defective, Ave shall first present the reader with a list of those vegetables from Avhich good barilla has been extracted in Britain; and next give a description of the most expedi- tious and profitable method of pre- paring this valuable material, for the various processes of washing, bleaching, Sec. Among the British plants, from which barilla or mineral alkali may be obtained, Ave shall at present enumerate the folloAving, and then describe them in their alphabetical places : 1. Two species of the Salsola, L» or Salt-wort. BAR 173 2. Two species of the Salicor- nia, L. or Glass-avort, and Sam- phire. 3. The Zostera marina, L. or Glass-avreck. 4. Tavo species of the Triglochin, L. or Arroav-Grass. 5. The Chenopodium album, and maritimum, L. or White and Sea Goose-Foot. 6. The Atrijdex portulacoides, and littoralis,\^. or Sea-Purslane, and Grass-Orach. 7. The Plantago marilima, L. or Sea Plantain. 8. The Tamarix gallica, L. or French Tamarisk. 9. The Eryngium maritimum, L. or Sea Holly. 10. The Sedum Telephium, L, or Orpine Stonecrop, or Live- long. 11. The Dipsacus fullonum, L. or Manured Teasel ; and, 12. All the species of the Cyna- ra and Carduus, L. or the Arti- choke and Thistle, when cul- tivated either on the sea-shore, or in any soil irrigated Avith sea- water. Barilla, as an article of trade, ought to possess the following pro- perties : it should be firm, hard, and heaA-y, though porous ; dry, and sounding on percussion ; of a blueitii colour, and impart, on breaking it, a flavour slightly re- sembling that of the violet. By these criteria, it may be easily dis- tinguished from pot-ash, though it Avould be difficult to procure a ba- rilla consisting purely of mineral alkali ; as the very best sort of the former generally contains a small proportion of common salt. Ac- cording to the experiments made by Mr. Kikwax, and published in the first volume of the Tra?isaction» 174 BAR BAR of the Royal Irish Academy, in 1789, the barilla exported from Spain, contains carbonic acid, carbon, lime, clay, and silicious earth ; but such as is very pure, also contains both common and Glauber's salt, and water. From the small quan- tity of carbonic acid discoverable in Spanish barilla, he concludes that its mineral alkali is for the most part combined with it in a pure or caustic state ; and that its blueish colour must be ascribed to the matter of carbon : in a similar way, he attributes the green or blue colour of pot-ash to its combination with magnesia. This important article of com- merce, is, in proportion to its de- gree of purity and strength, class- ed according to the following places, from which it is imported: 1. The barilla made at Alexan- dria ; 2. That from Alicant; 3. Carthagena; and 4. Bourde, or Smyrna. Various methods and schemes have, in this country, excited the ingenuity of speculative men, in the production of this valuable sub- stance, for which large sums are annually paid at foreign markets. Those of our readers, Avho apply tlieir attention to experiments of this useful nature, will, perhaps, be gratified by the following spe- cification of Mr. James King's patent for his new-invented British barilla, granted in 1780. As his exclusive privilege is now expired, we shall communicate the process nearly in the patentee's own words. He first takes a quantity of ashes obtained from burning the loppings or branches of ash-wood, oak, beech, elm, alder, and any other kind of green wood and bramble, in the proportion of one-fourth ; and a similar quantity of ashes ob- tained by burning the green vege- tables, knoAvn by the name of fern, brecon, bean and pea-straw, and whin-ashes; also common field and higlrway thistles; the stalks of rape and mustard seed ; and the bent, or rushes, that grow by the sea- shore. One half of the ingredients being thus procured, they are then passed through a fine sieve, placed on a boarded floor, and carefully mixed Avith a similar quantity (mak- ing the other half) of soap-boilers' waste ashes, Avhich must be inti- mately blended together with a shovel. Next, he adds one hundred weight of quick-lime to twelve times that quantity of the other materials, and likewise intermixes them thoroughly. After this pre- paration, the whole is put into large square iron pans, and a suf- ficient quantity of sea-water is poured on it to dissolve the lime, ashes, he. while the mass is stirred with an iron rake, to effect a more minute intermixture. A coal fire is now lighted under the pans, and kept briskly burning forty-eight hours, Avithout intermission ; at the same time, the pans are continually supplied Avith sea-water, in order to impregnate these materials with a greater degree of the saline qua- lity, till they acquire a proper con- sistence for calcination in a melt- ing furnace, known by the name of calcar. This apparatus is con- structed in the usual manner, ex- cept that there is a wall above the grate-room, to separate the fire from the materials laid upon the bottom. An intense degree of heat is used in this calcar, by means of which the saline mass boiled in the pan is completely dissolved, and afterwards kept in a state of fusion for one hour, during which time, the volatile part is expelled, and BAR BAR 175 a fixed alkaline salt remains : this, being cooled in iron pans, produces our British barilla, resembling that imported from Spain. Mr. King also declares, in the preamble to his patent, that this new chemical compound is calculated to serve as a substitute for manufacturing crown and broad windoAV-glass, and also bottles, as well as for making soap and alum to much greater advantage, than any other material hitherto used in the pro- duction of those commodities. BARING of Trees, in horticul- ture, is the removing of the earth from the roots of those which are planted in a dry soil. This opera- tion should be carefully performed in autumn, without injuring the roots, around the trunk, so that the winter-rains and snow-waters may penetrate deeper in the ground, which, towards* spring, should be covered up again with manure ; because, at that season, the frequent night-frosts might otherw ise prove destructive to the tree. BARK, in the dissection of plants, is the exterior coat of trees, corresponding to the skin of ani- mals. As these are furnished with a cellular membrane covering all the fleshy parts, and usually replete with Avhite granulated fat, which can be liquified only by heat; so are plants surrounded Avith a bark abounding with oily juices, by means of Avhich, Nature has ren- dered them inaccessible to cold ; because the spiculsc of the ice are prevented from fixing and freezing the fluids, which circulate through the vessels. Hence it is that ever- greens continue their verdure ut all seasons of the year, because their bark contains an unusual proportion of oil, more than is dissipated by the heat of the sun. Dr. Darwin considers the bark of trees to be similar to that of their roots, of which he conceives it to constitute a part ; in as much as it consists of an intertexture of the vessels that descend from the plume of each individual bud to its radicle, anel form its Caudex. The root-bark, however, is provid- ed with lymphatics, for the ab- sorption of Avater and nutritious juices from the earth, and is cover- ed Avith a moister cuticle; while that of the stem has similar vessels for absorbing humidity from the air, and is furnished with a drier cuticle. Beside the purposes to which the bark of trees may be applied, and Avhich have already been enu- merated, there is a considerable quantity of mucilaginous or nutri- tious matter contained in the inner rind, or bark of the holly, elm, and also in that of the hawthorn, gooseberry, furze, or other trees armed with prickles, for preventing the depredations of animals. This mucilage, he conceives, may be used in times of scarcity, as food, either for man or for cattle, or at least for the purpose of fermenta- tion. He remarks, that the inner bark of elm-trees, when stripped off in the spring, and boiled in water, may doubtless be converted into a.palatable small-beer, with the addition of yeast. The quantity of bark on a tree may be increased by pinching off the flower-buds, as soon as they appear; but, if the former be wounded, by any accident, the edges of the dead rind ought to be carefully cut off', without injuring the living bark ; and a mixture uf 176 BAR white lead and boiled oil (i\ee Canker.) be applied, to preserve the wounded parts from air, moist- ure, and insects....The following method of cure, which is stated to have been successfully practised where the bark of a tree had recent- ly been torn off", Ave give on the authority ofDr.DARwiN. It con- sists simply in again fastening the same piece of bark, or in tying doAvn another piece from a tree, belonging to the same species ; the edges of the wound and bark being carefully adjusted ; in conseejuence of Avhich, the Avhole will combine in the same manner as the vessels of a scyon unite Avith those of the bark belonging to the engrafted stock. The bark of plants is liable to peculiar diseases, as Avell as to be preyed upon by insects, which frequently prove destructive to the tree. One of its most com- mon enemies is the bark worm, which infests and perforates its substance; and unless the parts af- fected be cautiously removed by theknife,and the superficial wounds plastered over Avith a mixture of Avax and turpentine, (or Forsyth's Composition) the stein w ill in pro- cess of time become cankered, stunted in its growth, and ulti- mately fall a sacrifice to the dis- ease. M. Buff on has ascertained, by repeated experiments, that trees stripped of their bark the Avhole length of the. stems, do not live Jonger than three or four years. It deserves, however, to be re- marked, that, when thus deprived of the whole bark, and suffered to die gradually, they afford a more compact, heavy, and more dura- ble timber, than if they had been felled in their healthy state. The BAR reason of this improvement is ob- vious, as those oily and astringent fluids, which are secreted for the uniform nourishment of the bark, are absorbed, and deposited on the fibres of the Avood, which, during the progressive dissolution of vege- table life, acquire Avhat Nature had provided for the supply of the ex- ternal integuments. Yet there is one disadvantage arising from the privation of the bark, perhaps tan- tamount to the additional value of the timber, namely, that the far- ther increase, or growth of the tree, is for three or four years effectually checked. The barking of trees ought, in our climate, to be performed in spring from about the middle of April to that of May ; because at that time the circulating sap facili- tates this operation, which, in dry seasons, is not only attended with additional labour, but the bark al- so will be of inferior value. With respect to the extent of stripping the oak-bark from trees, a wide difference of opinion ap- pears to prevail. Some owners of large tracts of wood, and great ad- mirers of timber, cautiously pro- hibit the removal of the bark near- er than six inches to the ground ; about which spot they suppose the tree to be felled : while others en- join it to be done as near the ground as possible, provided that in this operation there be no part of the root laid bare. Mr. S. Hayes, the author of an excellent "• Prac- tical Treatise on Planting," price 7s. published in 1796, inclines to the latter opinion ; and adds, that the advocates for the former me- thod would, on more accurate in- vestigation, save themselves much unnecessary trouble, to little pur- pose, if notto their material injury. BAR The inner and more delicate part of the bark, especially that of the ash and lime trees, was used by the ancients, for writing and communicating their sublime ideas to posterity, prior to the invention of paper. In economy, as Avell as in many of the practical arts, the utility of different barks is very great and extensive ; for instance, that of the oak for tanning leather, and manuring the soil; the Peruvian, cinnamon, quassia, willow-bark, Sec. in medicine and for culinary uses; that of the alder and walnut trees in dyeing; and others again for a variety of purposes, such as the bark of the cork tree, 8tc. &c.... Without detaining the particular and curious processes adopted by foreign nations, for rendering the barks of various trees essentially useful, Ave shall briefly state, that the Japanese make their beautiful paper of the bark obtained from a species of the mulberry tree, called mortis; the natives of Otaheite manufacture their cloth of the same tree, as well as the bread-fruit and the cocoa trees ; the Russians and Poles produce their shoes Avom by the peasantry, twist ropes, and form a variety of other useful articles, of the inner bark of the lime tree ; the Germans have, for the last twenty years, convert- ed the bark of the common black and Avhite mulberry trees into ex- cellent paper....An analytical ac- count of the last mentioned article, interspersed with many new and curious facts, Ave propose to give in the sequel. A patent Avas lately granted to Mr. Whitby, for his improved mill, calculated to grind bark for the use of tanners. It is performed by a number of cutting wheels, VOL. I. BAR 177 that are fixed upon axles, and chop the bark to pieces; which then fall through an eye, and pass be- tween two large cast-iron plates, with grooves or furroAvs that are cut either hollow, or are bevelled square. The lower plate is made to move in a circular direction, with a vieAv to facilitate the en- trance of the bark into the eye..... These plates are set in motion by the mechanism commonly employ- ed in mills. This machinery, when moved by a horse, grinds 3 CAvt. of bark, in one hour; but as the plates which constitute the chief inven- tion in this mill, may be made of any circumference, according to the power by which they are impelled the quantity ground in a certain time, will vary, in proportion to their size....The advantages stated to be derived from Mr. Whitby's contrivance are, a saving of the bark, and greater expedition in the process of tanning: for the rind thus reduced, Avithout being pul- verized, spends more rapidly and completely in the pits, than that prepared in mills of the common construction. BARLEY, or Hordeum, L. one of the most useful culmiferous plants, producing mealy and sac- charine grains, Avhich are princi- pally used for malting and brewing beer. As the different species and varieties of barley are but imper- fectly described in English botani- cal books, we shall here attempt to give a more satisfactory account, and also state, in a summary man- ner, the native places and qualities of the various sorts. 1. The Hordeum distichum (s. oestivum), L. or Summer Barley. It bears flat ears, divided into two rows, containing large grains, and Aa 178 BAR BAR grows wild in Tartary, on the banks of the Saamara ; in the vicinity of Babylon; and in Sicily. This species requires a loose rich soil, anel must be sown in dry Aveather, in [March] ; there are two varie- ties : a. The Hordeum distichum nu- dum, or the Large Naked Barley, bearing smooth, heavy grains, that afford excellent flour, Avhich, when mixed with that of rye, makes a Aery palatable nourishing bread, and may therefore be used for pud- dings and pastry. The beer brew- ed of it is of superior richness and flavour ; it likewise yields, on dis- tillation, a greater proportion of spirituous liquor than rye: hence it deserves to be preferably culti- vated. b. The Hordeum frutesccns, or Bushy Barley, one grain of which often produces ten stalks, with broad dark green leaA'es: it is sown late, and generally about Midsum- mer ; soon ripens; is more proli- fic, but produces smaller grains than the former variety, and easily degenerates. The Germans soav it very thinly, and in a moist, heavy soil. 2. The Hordeum vulgare (s. pc- lystichon,) L. or the Common Bar- ley of four i-oavs. It is productive of longer, though thinner ears and grains, than the first species; and as it thrives well on inferior soils, it is frequently cultivated in pre- ference to the former. In various parts of Gerr..u>ny, and especially in Thuringia, the common barley is very generally sown in autumn, and is not afiecicd by the severest winters. A variety of this species is the Hordeum coeleste, or the Walla- Chian Barley, also called Egyp- tian Corn. It produces cars and fruit in every respect similar to the former, except that it easily sheds its grains: from which excellent bread is made in Germany, as like- wise cakes, groats, Sec. Its sowing time is the month of March when it is deposited in a well-manured middle kind of soil. 3. The Hordeum hexastichon, L. or Six-rowed Barley. This sort is uncommonly fruitful, so that it is said to produce one-third more in quantity than any other species (ex- cept the next folio wing;) though, in ordinary seasons, the grains of two of the rows, do not attain to maturity. It is sown in a well- prepared and tolerably rich soil, either in April or about [28 Sep- tember ;] in the former case, it may be mowed so early as Mid- summer-day. This species, how- ever, is not so proper for malting and brewing beer, as for being re- duced either to groats and flower, or converted into ardent spirits. 4. The Hordeum Zeocriton, L. or Bearded Barley, or Rice Barley, with short and coarse stalks, as likeAvise short though broad ears, divided into tAvo rows. When cultivated on a good soil, and thinly sown, it is the most pro- ductive of all the species of barley, and possesses the additional advan- tage, that it does not droop its ears nor lodge, even in rainy seasons.... Each row contains from twelve to fifteen small grains : these yield an excellent Avhite flour, Avhich, for most culinary purposes, may be substituted for that of wheat. In England, the best home-brewed ale is produced from this grain; for the culture of which, we shall give a feAV directions in the sequel. [Only two kinds of barley are known in Pennsylvania, viz. sum- mer and Avinter barley. The first BAR BAR 179 generally weighs about 61b. in the bushel lighter than the other, and is a precarious grain, being very subject to be injured by the vicissi- tudes of the weather. To prepare the ground for a crop, plough it in the autumn, and let it lie in ridges all winter, in the spring cross plough, and sow the grain, then harrow twice, the second time crossing the first. The grain ought to be put in as early as possible ; and as we can harrow at least two weeks before we can plough, an experienced farmer recommends to sow the seed without any plough- ing in the spring, after the ground has been twice well harrowed. An accidental comparative experiment taught him, the greater increase of produce in a field which had been only well harrowed in the spring, beyond that which had been both ploughed and harrowed. It is to be understood, however, that both fields had been ploughed in the preceding autumn. The first variety of the first spe- cies, noticed by Dr. W. is also cul- tivated in Penns. and much esteem- ed. It may be sown either as a summer or winter grain. When toasted and ground, it is used by many persons as a substitute for coffee. Cattle thrive very well on barley straw, especially if timothy has been sown in the autumn on the same ground. Calcareous soils, which have been long in cultivation, and fre- quently manured, will yield abund- ant crops of barley. Oats reared under the same circumstances, are weak and puny. Barley from La Plata and Al- giers has lately been introduced into the United States : the first is the larger of the two. The grain is double the size of the common barley. An acre and a half of ground, near Philadelphia, proeluced last year nearly one hundred bushels of barley. In the autumn of 1802, a friend soAved an acre with two bushels of barley which came from England ; the lot had been in grass, and pre- viously to being sown, a crop of potatoes was taken off. The pro- duce Avas 74 bushels. Buck-wheat in blossom, plough- ed in, proves an excellent prepara- tive for winter barley.] Cultivation.....Barley, in general, requires a dry, light, mellow, and rich soil : hence extraordinary care is reeutisite where it is to be sown in clay. Immediately after the foregoing crop is removed, the land ought to be ploughed, which lays it open to be mellowed by the frost and air. In order to promote this effect, ribbing, or a peculiar me- thod of ploughing, has been intro- duced, to expose the greatest ex- tent of surface. For the improve- ment of dry clayey land, Professor Bradley recommends a manure of rich dung, ashes, chalk, or lime ; and for some particular soils, malt-dust or soot are v try useful; but, according to Sir iIugh Plat, soap-boilers' ashes are the most fertilizing substance for the growth of barley, even upon barren grounds. The comparative advantages of drilling and broad-easting, are stat- ed by Mr. Peter Smith, of Horn- church, Essex, in England, as fol- lows : in the last week of Februa- rv, 1793, he drilled three acres of turnip-land with bailey, at twelve inches intervals, with two bushels of seed per acre ; it w as scarified and harrowed across the latter end 180 BAR BAR of March, and horse-hoed the se- cond week in April; at the same time he sowed the grass-seeds, which produced fine plants, far su- perior to the broad-cast. The produce of the drilled barley Avas eighteen quarters three bushels, from three acres, [a quarter con- tains eight bushels.] On the same day, he sowed three acres of broad-cast in the same field and state of cultivation, Avith three bushels of seed per acre, and also sowed the grass-seeds at the same time. The produce of these three acres amounted only to fifteen quarters and three bushels. [In the 3d volume of the Bath Society Transactions, Sir J. An- struther relates, that the differ- ence of produce between the crop of barley drilled, and that sown broad cast, was about 20 bushels per acre, besides near two bushels of seed saved. The drills were 18 inches wide; the grain dropt by hand.] As it is of great consequence in the production of this grain, that it mayripen eepially and uniformly, to prevent that inequality which would render it less valuable, we shall communicate the following method of remedying this defect. It is certain, that barley which comes up speedily in a dusky soil, Avill gain great advantages over seed-Aveeds : to forward, therefore, its vegetation, some farmers take out about one-third from every sack of seed-barley or bear, to al- low for the swelling of the grain, which they steep thoroughly in clean water, for at least twenty- four or thirty-six hours, according to the more or less dry constitution of the season. For our part, we would prefer steeping the grain ; because in this manner all the light and unripe grains swimming on the top, may be easily skimmed off, and thus perhaps the smut at the same time prevented. Although quick-lime has often been recom- mended to be mixed with the wet barley, before it is sown, yet we agree with those who are of opi- nion, that it poisons the seeds, ab- sorbs part of its useful moisture, and injures the hands of the sower. As clean water imparts no tenacity, the seed will scatter properly ; but being swelled in the proportion of three to four, or two to three, it is necessary to use a fourth or third part more in bulk ; to harrow it in, as quickly as possible, after it is sown ; and, if convenient, to give it the benefit of a fresh furrow...... By this method, it appears above ground, at the farthest, in a fort- night, if these particulars be duly attended to. A correspondent of the Bath So- ciety, [Mr. J. Chapelle, vol. 3.] states, that in the remarkably dry spring of 1783, he soaked his seed- barley in the black Avater taken from a reservoir which constantly received the draining of stables. As the light com floated on the surface, he skimmed it off, and suffered it to rest twenty-four hours. On taking it from the water, he mixed the seed-grain with a sufficient quantity of Avood- ashes, to make it spread more re- gularly, and soAved Avith it three fields. The produce Avas sixty busliels per acre, of good clean bar- ley, Avithout any small or green com, or weeds at harvest. He also sowed several other fields with the same seed, dry, and Avithout any preparation, but the crops were poor, producing only twenty bush- els per acre, and much mixed with green com and weeds. BAR There is a species of this grain which was introduced into Britain about thirty years since, by Mr. Halliday, and is hence called by his name, or sometimes Siberian Barley ; it is possessed of qualities that entitle it to particular conside- ration as an object of importance in agriculture. From a quart of itsoAvn in May, 1768, he procured nearly a bushel, which he sowed in April 1769, in drills drawn by a plough ; and from this he reap- ed thirty-six bushels of clean corn. Since that period, Mr. Halliday has made many experiments to as- certain the merits of this prolific grain as bread-com, and as proper for malting....He accordingly in- forms us, in the second volume of the Georgical Essays, price 2 s. 6d. published in 1771, that its flour makes excellent bread, peculiarly retentive of moisture ; and the ale brewed from its malt has a fine co- lour, flavour, and body. (See the variety of our second species, from Avhich it will appear that this grain is the same which Dr. Lochster, in his Latin Dissertation, On the Medicinal Plants of Norway, feel- ingly characterizes, by calling it the Heavenly Barley, because it is equally grateful and efficacious.) As a proof of the extraordinary fecundity of barley, and hoAv muoh the fertility of the soil contributes to the increase of vegetable pro- ductions, we shall mention an instance which occurred in the summer of 1797, at Reichenbach, in Upper Saxony. Two grains of our third species being planted close to each other, in a common garden soil, greAV briskly, and spread with no less than one hundred and thir- teen stalks, which almost uniform- ly produced long ears : these con- tained the surprising number of BAR 181 two thousand five hundred and thirty-four grains, of which two thousand two hundred and five were perfectly ripe and sound, but the remaining three hundred and twen- ty-nine were of inferior size and Aveight. According to this com- putation, one bushel of barley, in a rich and mellow soil, might occupy in planting, at least twenty acres. We presume, that the following additional observations on the cul- ture of this valuable grain, made by a Norfolk farmer, will not be un- acceptable to the practical reader. The best soil in general, is that Avhich is dry and healthy, rather light than stiff", and yet of suflicient tenacity to retain the moisture..... On such land, the grain acquires the best colour and body, is the most nimble in the hand, and has the thinest rind; qualities which eminently recommend it to the maltster. But, if the land be poor, it should be kept dry and Avarm ; in which case it will often bear better corn than richer land in a cold and wet situation. The best seed is of a pale colour and brightish cast, without any deep redness or black tinge at the tail.... A slight shrivelling of the rind provesittohaAreathin skin, and that it has sweated in the mow; both being favourable circumstances..... As this grain will grow coarser every succeeding year, it should never be sown for two successive seasons on the same soil. Sprinkling a little soot over the water in which seed-barley is to be steeped, has been of great service, by securing it from the depreda- tions of insects. In viery dry sea- sons, barley that has been wetted for malting, and begins to sprout, Avill come up sooner, and produce as good a crop as any other. If 182 BAR sown after a falloAV, three times ploughing is necessary. On lands well manured, clover may be sown with barley ; the former of which after harvest, affords good fodder during the following winter, as Avell as from the next spring to July ; when the land should be falloAved till the succeeding spring, and again sown Avith barley and clover : this method does not exhaust, but pro- motes, the fertility of the ground, Avhile it produces large crops. The lightest lands are fit for receiving the seed in March; those of a moist nature, in April; because all soils liable to be infested by weeds, bear the best crops when sown late, Avith a view to stifle their growth by the ascendancy of the barley. Although the broad-cast, at two sowings, is the common method, and the usual allowance from three to four bushels per acre, yet much grain is thus unnecessarily wrasted. Half the cjuantity, and even less, if sown equally, wrould not only af- ford a better crop, but the corn also would be less liable to lodge ; for weak stalks, standing close togeth- er, are less capable of resisting the force of winds, or supporting them- selves under heavy showers. Unless the land be very light and rich, the method of setting anel drill- ing Avill not answer. Although one root Avill produce eighty stalks, all having good and long ears filled with superior grain, yet it is to be apprehended, that this process of planting is too expensive in a coun- try Avhere manual labour is per- formed by free-born [citizens]..... Hence it would be preferable to sow thin on poor lands, in order to allow sufficient room for the nou- rishment of each plant; as it is proved by experience, that this BAR simple method is the most bene- ficial. It has father been suggested, when the barley is sown and har- rowed in, that, after the first show- er of rain, the land should be rolled, to break the clods; which, by closing the earth about \he roots, will be of great advantage to it in dry weather. After the barley has been above ground three weeks or a month, it should again be rolled with a heavy roller, to prevent the sun and air from penetrating the ground, to the injury of the roots. This rolling, before the barley branches out, is said to be attended Avith another advantage, namely, that it will cause the plant to spread into a greater number of stalks, so that if they be thin, the ground Avill thus be filled, and the stalks, strengthened. Whether this expe- dient be proper for all soils, indis- criminately, we are inclined to doubt, though we do not hesitate to approve of it for very light lands, which are neither loamy nor other- wise too stiff. Lastly, if the blade grow too luxuriantly, as is the case in warm and wet springs, mowing is said to be preferable to feeding it down by sheep ; because the scythe removes only the .rank tops* but those ani- mals, being fond of the sweet end of the stalk next the root, will often bite so close as to injure its future vegetation. With respect to the time when barley is fit to be mowed, farmers frequently fall into the error of cut- ting it before it is perfectly ripe ; thinking it will attain its perfect maturity, if they allow it to lie in the swarth. This, however, is a very common error, as it will shrivel in the field, anel afterwards BAR BAR 185 make but an indifferent malt; it also threshes with more difficulty, and is apt to be bruised under the flail. The only certain test of judg- ing Avhen it is fit to iuoav, must be from the drooping and falling of the ears, so as to double against the straw. In that state, and not before, it may be cut with all expedition, and carried in Avithout danger of heating in the mow. To obviate such accidents, and secure it from being mow-burnt, it is advisable to prepare a large sheaf, or two sheaves, of straw, closely tied to- gether, which should be placed in the centre, when the stack is com- menced ; and as the layers of corn rise, other sheaves must be put on the first; so that Avhen the whole stack is completed, and the sheaves are removed, a funnel, or vent-hole, may be continued from the bottom to the top. After withdrawing the sheaves, the stack should be cover- ed Avith a bottle of straw, before it is thatched. Barley lying in the mow un- threshed, will keep for one or two years, if the above stated method be adopted. But when this grain is converted into malt, it can with difficulty be preserved longer than one year, Avithout being infested by weevils. One of the best remedies to destroy these vermin, is dry worm-AVood laid in the malt.....For farther information on this head, see Malt. Numerous have been the at- tempts to cure the smut in barley and other kinds of grain ; a disease Avhich by some is attributed to the generation of certain minute in- sects that breed in light and cor- rupted corn, sown in a moist and unfavourable season ; but by oth- ers, and Avith more probability, to the influence of the atmosphere, wafting perhaps insects from such regions as are infested with them. See article Smut. The best sort of barley is that which is thick in the grain, smooth^ weighty, inclining to a whiteish co- lour, and neither too old nor neAv. Mr. John Kerrich, an eminent maltster at Harleston, England, asserts, that out of a coomb of dis- coloured barley, more than two bushels Avill not, in most instances, work on a malting floor; nor can such grain, in his opinion, be reli- ed upon for seed, as it does not vegetate better in the ground than on the floor. He therefore advises farmers to sow bright barley, or at least such as is kiln dried, which he knows from experience Avill ve- getate ; or to dry it in the spring by exposure to the sun ; an expe- dient that may probably produce an effect similar to that of kiln- drying. We are much inclined to doubt the latter part of this* infor- mation, though we allow Mr. Ker- rich the credit of having stated an useful fact, as far as it relates to the process of malting ; but so long as the corculum,or heart of the seed, is not injured, Ave are of opinion that it Avill always germinate, in- dependently of any external disco- loration. i7*c*....Besides the almost mere* dible quantities of barley used in brewing ale and beer of different kinds, the consumption of this grain in broths is very considerable, especially in Scotland and Germa- ny ; in both countries barley-broth is as common a dish as soup in France. Hence pearl-barley is prepared in peculiar-mills, where it is freed of the husk, and reduced to the size of small shot, by grind- ing aAvay all the exterior parts to the very heart of the grain. The 184 BAR Scots and Germans, hoAvever, are more saving in their domestic eco- nomy, especially the lower classes Of people, who frequently per- form that process by hand-mills, or more commonly, in stamping- mortars, where the barley is freed from its husks, and rendered fit for culinary purposes. The latter are of a very simple construction, and may be very easily made, by exca- A'ating a heavy and firm block of wood sufficiently deep, from eigh- teen to twenty-four inches, and then adapting to it a wooden pestle, at the loAver end of which a few large iron nails with smooth heads are generally fixed, for more effectu- ally striking the barley and sepa- rating its husks. Such an imple- ment is also useful for blanching wheat, oats, and many other arti- cles for culinary purposes: Ave, therefore, seriously recommend its introduction into every family, which is desirous of reducing the consumption of bread-corn, and lessening the dangers of adultera- tion, which (whether well or ill- founded), resound from every quarter of the metropolis. Properties.....Barley has, from the earliest ages, been considered as wholesome and nutritive food for man and cattle. In diseases of the kidneys, and the breast, as well as in that state of the body where it is said to abound in acri- monious humours, decoctions made of this grain, sufficiently strong, and acidulated Avith vinegar and sugar, are eminently useful....(See also, Wort.) As a cooling and diluent bever- age, barley-Avater is of essential service to febrile patients, and in all inflammatory cases, where pre- ternatural heat and thirst prevail; but to promote its salutary effect, BAR the grosser parts, Avhich remain after decoction, ought not to be swalloAved. Barm. See Yeast. BARN, in husbandry, a covered building or place, with vent-holes in the sides, for laying up any kind of grain, hay, or straw. This kind of store-house being so well known to all rural econo- mists, no farther description will be necessary : but as several plans have been proposed for its im- provement, we shall give an ac- count of those which appear the most worthy of notice. In the sixteenth volume of Mr. Arthur Young's " Annals of Ag- riculture," Ave find the folloAving description of a barn, &c com- municated to the editor by the Rev. Roger Kedington, of Rougham, near Bury St. Edmund's, England: " Let the underpinning be of brick or stone, two feet high above ground, and let the sides be board- ed : the roof of the barn will be best covered Avith reed or straAV, and those of the stables with slate, or glazed tile ; because they must be more flat, and the water Avhich runs from the roof of the bam Avould injure most other coverings. At each end of the barn, and over the back-door, small doors, four feet square, should be fixed, at the height of twelve feet from the ground ; the two former for putting corn in at the ends, and the latter for filling the middle of the bam, after the bays are full. All the bays should have a floor of clay or marl, and the threshing-floor be made with hard bricks, which will be suf- ficient for all 'sorts of grain, except wheat and rye ; and for threshing them, it will be good economy to have planks of oak or red cleal, well fitted together and numbered^ BAR to be laid down occasionally, and confined by a frame at their ends. A bam built on such a plan would hold a great deal of com, and be filled most conveniently: and if stacks of corn were built at each end, they might be taken in Avith- out any carting. If more buildings are requisite, two may be added on the back-side, like the stables in front: otherwise, if doors are made under the eaves on the backside, as directed at the ends, and stacks be placed opposite to them (just far enough to avoid the eaves drop- ping), by placing a waggon be- tween them and the barn by way of a stage, those stacks may be ta- ken in without carting; which method prevents a great waste of corn, and much trouble. The spars of the roofs of the stables rest upon the upper sills of the sides of the barn, and the outside Avail of the stable is eight feet high ; the bam supplying the highest side, and one end of each stable ; and the stables in return are buttresses to the barn, and strengthen it greatly." This building is of the follow- ing dimensions : The length of the barn inside is 68 feet; its width 22; the height of the sides 17 feet; of the front doors 15 feet; of the back doors 8 feet and 6 inches ; the stable at each side, in length 26 feet 6 inches, in Avidth 14 feet; the door 4 feet; the threshing-floor has in front an entrance of 11 feet; behind, of 9 feet 6 inches; and the Avidth of the porch is 14 feet. The whole expence of erecting this fabric, in the year 1791, was stated to be nearly three hundred pounds. Mr. Arthur Young has, in the tame volume, inserted a plan for a bam,, and other buildings neces- >ol. I. BAR 185 sary for cattle. The dimensions of this structure Avere given in conse- quence of a request made by the late General Washington to the author, that he Avould send him a sketch of a good bam, and the ne- cessary out-buildings, proportioned to a farm of five hundred acres. The threshing-floor is large enough for three men to work on, Avho, in the course of a winter, can thresh the corn produced on such a farm. This plan appears to us, by far the most advantageous of any that has fallen under our observation; we have therefore been induced to describe it, for the information of our readers. The inner Avidth of the barn is 27 feet square, on each side of the threshing-floor. The porch 11 feet 4 inches, by 12 feet 3 inches. Threshing-floor 39 feet by 20, on its upper end, and 12% feet at the small door of the porch, which is 6^. feet in Avidth. The great door at which the carts enter with corn, 14 feet 9 inches. The sheds for cattle, on the four longitudinal sides of the bays, are 27 feet by 12. Mangers, 2 feet broad, out of which the cattle eat their food. The passages for carrying the straw from the threshing-floor to feed the cattle, are between two and three feet Avide. Each passage has a door ; there are four principal posts to each shed, besides the smaller ones, and gutters for conveying the urine to four cisterns, from Avhich it is every day throAvn upon dunghills, placed at a convenient distance. From the mangers to the gutters there is a pavement of bricks upon a slope, laid in such a manner as to terminate 6 inches perpendicular above the gutters ; which pavement is 6 feet broad B B 186 BAR BAR from that edge to the manger. The gutters are from 18 to 20 inches broad. There are four sheds for various uses, one at each corner of the threshing-floor. At each end of the barn there are two yards Avith a shed, to be applied to any purpose Avanted ; one for sheep, surrounded with low racks, and the other divided for a horse, or two, loose, if necessary : the other half is for yearling calves, Avhich thrive better in a farm-yard, than when stalled. These yards are inclosed by walling, or pales. The main body of the bam rises 14, 16, or 20 feet to the eaves. There are various sheds placed against the Availing, as this is the cheapest Avay of sheltering cattle that has yet been discovered..... Should the number of cattle in- tended to be kept, be greater than here admitted, a circular shed may be erected fronting the small door of the porch, and the hay-stacks be conveniently disposed near those sheds appropriated for cows, horses, or fat cattle. Com-stacks must be built on the opposite side of the bam. In the year 1797, a model of a barn, upon a new construction, was presented to the Bath Society by Mr. Dobson, carpenter, of Nor- wich, Avho received a premium for his contrivance. The differ- ence between the common barn, and that just mentioned, is as fol- lows....The area of the former, 1475 square feet; 24,429 cubic feet for corn only ; 702 cubic feet of timber ; the latter, according to the model, 1472 square feet, the area; 30,900 cubic feet, for com only ; and 445 cubic feet of tim- ber. By this calculation it ap- pears, that a bam built according to Mr. Dobson's plan, gains on one in common use, of the same area, 6474 cubic feet of space, and requires 257 cubic feet less of tim- ber : and as there is nothing in its construction Avhich would increase the price of workmanship, the cost of one on this plan, and another of the common kind, would be as 445 to 702 and the mathe- matical strength of the former is obvious. A representation of the model above alluded to, is given in the sixth volume of the Repertory of Arts and Manufactures. BARN-FLOORS.....The best kind are to be found, according to Mr. Marshall, in the district of Cotswold, Gloucestershire: they are from 12 to 14, by 18 to 20 feet; some of oak, others of stone ; but a species of earthen floor, which is made here of the calcareous earth of the sub-soil, a kind of ordinary gravel, and the chippings of free- stone, is considered to be superior to floors of stone, or any other material, except sound oak-plank. The great excellence of these floors is owing partly to the materials of which they are made, and partly to the method of forming them, which is, perhaps, peculiar to that district; it is described as follows : " Earthen barn-floors are made, in other places, of wet materials; a kind of mortar, which, as it dries, is liable to crack, and re- quires some months after it is made, to dry it hard enough for use: on the contrary, the mate- rials in the practice under consi- deration, are worked dry ; they of course do not crack, and are ready for use as soon as finished. The materials, mixed together, are sift- ed twice over: the first time, through a wide sieve to catch the stones and large gravel, which are BAR BAR 187 thrown to the bottom of the floor; the next, through a finer sieve, to separate the more earthy parts from the finer gravel, which is spread upon the stones, and upon this, the more earthy parts, mak- ing the whole about a foot thick, and trimming doAvn the different layers closely and firmly upon each other. The surface being levelled, it is beaten Avith a flat wooden beetle, made like the gar- deners' turf-beater, until the sur- face become as hard as a stone, and rings at every stroke, like me- tal. If properly made, they are said to last a great number of years, being eemally proof against the flail and the broom. " These materials, it is true, cannot be had in many districts; but the principle of making barn- floors with dry materials being knoAvn, other substances than these which are here in use, may be found to answerthe same purpose." The barn-floors generally used in most parts of the kingdom, con- sume a quantity of large anel va- luable oak-timber, often such as might be converted into two and a half inch ship-timber ; they last only from fifteen to twenty years, and require frequent repairs. Hol- low beech-floors, which Avere in- troduced a feAV years since, on ac- count of the very high price of oak-timber, are found not to Avear more than seven or eight years. We think it necessary therefore, to give a description of a moveable barn-floor invented by Mr. John Upton, of Petworth, Sussex, for which he received a reward of thirty guineas, from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. in the year 1796. " This floor effectually prevents a waste of corn, in threshing: it gives an addition of at least one foot in height at the doors, by which means a higher load of corn can be admitted ; and also, as the horses do not draw the Avaggon up an ascent, and upon a slippery floor; but upon a hard bottom, and level Avith the farm-yard, tAvo horses can perform the work, Avhere four are now generally used. It affords a warm and con- venient shelter for hogs, Avhen it is doAvn ; and, when turned up, it may be used as a stable, ox-stall, hovel, or cart-house ; two men can place or displace it in five minutes; and, from its allowing, at all times, an easy access to dogs and cats, under it, it affords no harbour for vermin. u The folloAving are statements of the materials used, and the ex- penceofthebarn-floors,respectiA-ely. " Bm~n-floors now in common use.....The original floor laid on the ground, with three sills, and two- inch oak-plank, Avhich in general lasts from fifteen to twenty years, cost 191. 10s.....The hollow-floors on brick quoins, with two and a half inch oak-plank, cost 31/. 10s. " John Upton's Barn-floor.... The new-constructed hollow-floor is composed of oak-plank, five feet eight inches in length, and one inch and a half thick ; whereas three-fourths of the plank used in the original floors, are fourteen feet in length.....the whole expence 231. 10s. " The plank for the last-men- tioned floor may consist of deal, beech, or elm ; as they will be perfectly free from decay by damps, which Avill considerably lessen the expence of the new-constructed floor: these are the estimates when the materials are supplied by a carpenter. When they are fur- nished from the estate, a very considerable advantage arises U> 188 BAR BAR the landlord, as the new-construct- ed floor is composed of small scantlings, which may be obtained from short timber, much inferior in value to those used for the other floors. " Where there are more than one bam in a farm-yard, this floor may be farther useful, as it may be removed from one barn to another, and save the expence of at least one out of three. " It is supposed, that a floor constructed in this manner will last for one hundred years, or in- deed as long as the barn ; because it is perfectly free from damps, on account of the distance at Avhich it lies above the ground, Avith a free current of air passing under it when down ; and Avhen it is turn- ed up (Avhich it probably will be at least half the year), it will be as free from decay as the posts or beams of the barn." [See Farm- yard]. BAROMETER, an instrument of modern invention, for measur- ing and ascertaining the weight of the atmosphere, as well as the height of mountains, and likeAvise foretelling, Avith tolerable accuracy, the probable change of the wea- ther. That such an instrument must be of extensive utility to every person engaged in the active pursuits of life, whether those of gardening and agriculture, or in the various departments of the do- mestic and useful arts, Avill be uni- versally admitted. Hence we pro- pose to bestow a considerable share of attention on this interesting subject. History and analysis.....When Galileo, in the beginning of the seventeenth century, discovered that Avater could not ascend in a pump, unless the sucker reached within 33 feet of its surface in the well, he justly concluded that the ascent of water in pumps, was effected by the presswe of the atmosphere, and not by the power of suction ; that a column of Avater 33 feet high was a counterpoise to one of air of an equal diameter and base, the height of which extended to the top of the atmosphere ; and that consequently the water could not be attracted any farther by the sucker. This important discovery induced his great pupil Torri- celli, to substitute a column of mercury for that of water ; because the former fluid being about 14 times heavier than the latter, he wanted, according to that propor- tion, only about 291 inches of quicksilver to determine the accu- racy of his experiment. He ac- cordingly found that, after having filled a glass tube with mercury, and inverted it in a bason of the same semi-metal, it descended in the tube till it became stationary at about 2 9 J- inches above the sur- face of that contained in the loAver vessel. Many years, hoAveA'er, elapsed after this experiment, before any notice Avas taken of the circum- stance, that this pressure of the air considerably varied at different times, though the tube was uni- formly kept in the same situation. Indeed, these variations in the mer- curial column, were too obvious to remain long unnoticed ; and philo- sophers began, minutely, to mark their degrees. As soon,'therefore, as this point was properly attended to, they observed that the changes in the rise and fall of the mercury were in general very speedily suc- ceeded by variations in the wea- ther. Hence the instrument ob- tained the name of weather-glass, for which purpose it has, since that period, been generally employed. BAR BAR 189 It is surprising that the ancients were unaccmainted with the laws by which the ambient air presses on our bodies as well as on all in- animate matter ; and that Otto Guericke, a German, to whom the world is indebted for the disco- very of the air-pump, was the first who excited the attention of philo- sophers to this important subject. Although Torricelli had previ- ously ascertained, by his experi- ment made in the year 1646, that the mercury in a tube of four feet in length did not remain stationary at 291 inches, but varied according to the greater or less degree of density of the atmosphere ; yet it does not appear that he applied this great dis- coA-ery to the purpose of predicting the future,or impending changes of th e weather. Even prior to that elate, namely, in 1643, experiments were instituted, both at Florence and Rome, with the Torricellian tube ; and, in 1648, Perier, a French- man, made use of two similar in- struments; one of which he left in a valley, Avhile with the other he ascended one of the highest mountains of Auvergne ; and thus he observed, that the atmosphere on the top of the hill did not press upon the mercury with a force equal to that observed in a loAver situation, where he found the cmick- silver much lower than in the former region ; and hence he ju- diciously concluded, that the air must be lighter, or more rarefied, in proportion to the altitude of places. But that these remarkable changes were in any degree con- nected Avith the present, or future, constitution of the Aveather, Avas doubtless discovered by Gl erick.e, though Mr. Boyle, whose talents anel genius deserve the highest ad- miration, improved and applied it to philosophical purposes. This assertion is amply supported by a passage in a printed work still ex- tant, and entitled " Cusp. Schotti Tcchnica curiosa" (ii. 22. p. 52) ; by Avhich it appears, from a letter addressed to the author by Gue- ricke, that the latter had con- structed a tube filled Avith mercury, on the top of which fluid he placed a small wooden figure, that rose and fell Avith the quicksilver, point- ing out Avith its finger, or index, the variations in the gravity of the air, and at the same time the con- comitant changes of the Aveather. The compound barometer, the tube of Avhich is filled not only with mercury, but likewise with another coloured fluid, Avas in- vented by Cartesius and Hua*- gens, much about the same time; but the latter considerably im- proved it, by using a elouble tube, and mixing the Avater A-.ith one- sixth part of aema-fortis, to pre- vent its congelation in whiter. The conical or pendent baro- meter was contrived by M. Amon- tons ; the well-known diagonal barometer, by Sir Samuel More- land; the wheel barometer, by Dr. Robert Hooke, Avho likewise improved Huygens' elouble baro- meter above mentioned ;.....the rectangular horizontal barometer Avas invented by Bernouilli, or rather Cassini; and the credit of another invention, by which four tubes (containing mercury, and a lighter fluid alternately) are con- nected together, is likewise due to Amontons. The marine barometer Avas also invented in the beginning of the 18th century, by Dr. R. Hooke, and afterwards rendered more per- fect by M. Pas s em en t, who, by the simple, but effectual expedient, 190 BAR of twisting the middle part of the common, or Torricellian tube, into a spiral of tAvo revolutions, pre- vented the oscillations of the mer- cury on ship-board. By this inge- nious contrivance, the shocks which the mercury sustains from the mo- tions of a ship, are effectually broken ; as, from the turns of the instrument, the impulses are trans- mitted in contrary directions. But of all the instruments con- trived for the purpose of ascertain- ing the specific gravity of the at- mosphere, that of Magellan, in the year of 1765, deserves a distin- guished place ; as it points out not only the changes occurring in the atmosphere, but likeAvise, and in a very sensible manner, the dif- ferent degrees of temperature of the air. Among the travelling barome- ters, that of M. de Luc, improv- ed by J. F. Luz, is the most useful and compendious....A wind-baro- meter has also been contrived by Mr. Wilkes, of which Ave pro- pose to give an account under the article, Wind. A great variety of other useful instruments have been invented since the days of Torricelli,upon similar principles, and with mecha- nical additions more or less com- plicated ; but it must be acknow- ledged, that the simple barometer of his invention is the most exact, though not the most sensible ba- lance for weighing the atmosphere, and has therefore been most gene- rally adopted. Rationale....M. de Luc, not sa- tisfied Avith the different hypotheses brought forward by Wallis, Hal- ley, Leibnitz, Mairan, he. to explain the variations of the baro- meter, has satisfactorily refuted the conjectures of all his predecessors, BAR and endeavoured to establish his own, which is founded on a suppo- sition, that a column of air, loaded with vapours, is lighter than a co- lumn of pure air of equal bulk. He consequently asserts, 1. That the density of air is the immediate and only cause that supports the mer- cury ; and 2. That the more elastic the air is, the less does it press and weigh upon its base: but though there is considerable inge- nuity in this explanation, it is by no means conclusive. Soon after the publication of this theory, M. Beguelin, in 1773, endeavoured to prove, that the va- riation of the whole mass of the atmosphere, as well as that of the spring or elasticity in a part of this mass, are the two general causes of the variations of the barometer; and that the primitive causes of this remarkable effect are, heat, cold, dryness, and moisture, with their different combinations. We cannot enter into the parti- culars relative to the operation of these various causes, but shall briefly observe, that heat dilates the air; cold contracts it, and draws together those parts which it is the property of heat to sepa- rate : hence, the natural effect of the former is expansion ; the con- sequences of the latter, condensa- tion, compression of its spring, and an increase of pressure, on ac- count of which, the mercury rises in the barometer. Respecting the effects of dryness and moisture, it deserves to be re- marked, that, if the latter dimi- nishes the pressure of the air, by relaxing its spring, it on the other hand loads it with watery particles, which very considerably augment its mass, so that it may be difficult to determine how far the moisture BAR of the air exerts its influence on the rise and fall of the barometer. The same observation may be applied to dryness, which dispels the wa- tery particles that increased the weight of the air ; so that there ap- pears to be a perpetual conflict be- tween the effect of spring and mass, between elasticity and weight; and experience alone can inform us whether, in this contest of the ele- ments, the effect of elasticity is much superior to that of Aveight. Such is the plausible explanation of Beguelin, and we have only to re- gret, that the result of his inquiries, still leaves the subject involved in much doubt and difficulty, because even this theory does not account for the sudden changes of the at- mosphere. Nevertheless,experience has fur- nished us Avith a sufficient number of facts, from which we may, with tolerable precision, ascertain the present, anel predict the future state of the surrounding element, by the practical use of the barometer.... Thus, 1. The rising of the quick- silver generally presages fair Avea- ther, as its falling does the contrary, or rain, snow, high winds, and storms ; 2. In very hot weather, the sudden falling of the mercury portends thunder; 3. In winter, the rising indicates frost; and in frosty weather, if the mercury falls three or four divisions, there Avill certainly follow a thaw; but if it rise in a continued frost, it will al- ways be accompanied Avith snow; 4. When foul weather quickly suc- ceeds after the falling of the mer- cury, it will not be of long dura- tion ; nor are we to expect a con- tinuance of fair weather, when it soon succeeds the rise of the quick- silver ; 5. If, in foul Aveather, the mercury happens to ascend consi- BAR 191 derably, and continues in an ad- vancing state for two or three days successively, then Ave may expect also a continuance of fair Aveather; 6. If, in clear weather, the mer- cury falls remarkably for two or three days together, before the rain sets in, it is then highly pro- bable that it will be succeedeu by much rain, and perhaps high winds ; 7. The .unsettled motion of the mercury indicates changeable weather ; [To these remarks, Mr. Capper adds, that when the baro- meter suddenly falls two or three tenths, without any material alter- ation in the thermometer, and the hygrometer is not much turned towards moist, a violent gale of wind may be expected....When the hygrometer inclines far towards moist, with only a trifling descent in the barometer, it denotes a pass- ing shower and little wind ; and when the barometer falls consider- ably, and the hygrometer turns much tOAvards moist, the thermo- meter remaining stationary, and rather inclined to rise than fall, both violent wind and rain are likely to folloAv, in the course of a few hours.] 8. Respecting the words engraved on the register-plate, they cannot be strictly relied upon to correspond exactly ith the state of the weather; though it will in ge- neral agree with them as to the mercury rising and falling. These words deserve to be particularly noticed when the mercury removes from " Changeable" upwards ; as those on the lower part should be adverted to, v hen the quicksilver falls from " Changeable" down- wards, in other cases, they are of no use ; for as its rising in any part forebodes a tendency to fair, and its falling to foul weather, it follows, that though it descend in the tube 192 BAR BAR from Settled to Fair, it may never- theless be attended with a little rain ; and when it rises from the Avords " Much Rain" to " Rain," it shews only an inclination to become fair, though the wet Aveather may- still continue in a less considerable degree than it Avas Avhen the mer- cury began to rise. But if the mer- cury, after having fallen to " Much Rain," should ascend to " Change- able," it predicts fair weather tho' of a shorter continuance than if the quicksilver had risen still higher; and so, on the contrary, if the mer- cury stood at " Fair," and descends to " Changeable," it presages foul weather, though not of such dura- tion, as if it had fallen lower. These observations are founded on experience, and we are indebted for them chiefly to Mr. Patrick, who has investigated this subject with considerable precision. It ap- pears from the result of these facts, that the height of the mercury is not the principal criterion for ascer- taining the probable changes of the weather, but rather the relative motion of that fluid in the tube. Hence, to enable us to judge right- ly of the impending variations, we ought to possess a correct know- ledge, Avhether the mercury is ac- tually rising or falling. For this purpose, the following rules, stated by Mr. Rowing, may be of advan- tage : 1. If the surface of the mer- cury be convex, standing higher in the middle of the tube than at the sides, it generally indicates the rising of this fluid metal; 2. If its surface be concave, it is then sink- ing ; 3. If it appear level, it is sta- tionary ; 4. If, after shaking the tube of a s?nall glass, the mercury rises about half a tenth of an inch higher than it stood before, it is a proof that the air has become heavier; but if it sink as much, it follows that the atmosphere is lighter. Hence, in making obser- vations on the weather, such a glass should ahvays be previously shak- en ; because the metal which ad- heres to the sides of the tube, pre- vents its free motion, till disengag- ed by a slight agitation of the instru- ment. These phenomena are pe- culiar to places situated at a distance from the equator, and, therefore, deserve to be attended to in our climate: on the contrary, at St. Helena, they Avould be of little or no service ; for, according to the ac- curate observations of Dr. Halle y, made in that island, the mercury remained stationary in all weathers. This judicious naturalist lias fur- nished us with the following curious account of these phenomena, and their causes ; of which we shall give a concise abstract: 1. In calm Aveather, Avhen there is a prospect of rain, the mercury is commonly low ; 2. In serene and settled wea- ther it is generally high ; 3. On the approach of tempestuous winds, though unaccompanied with rain, the mercury sinks loAver than on any other occasion ; 4. The great- est height of the mercury is observ- able during the prevalence of east- erly or north-easterly winds; 5. In calm, frosty Aveather, the quicksil- ver generally stands high ; 6. After very great tempests, when the mer- cuky has been very low, it general- ly again quickly ascends; 7. The barometer in the northern regions exhibits greater variations than in those lying more towards the South; 8. Within and near the tropics, there is little or no alteration in the mercury, as before observed. Hence Dr. Halley is of opinion, that the principal cause of the rise and the fall of the cjuicksilver must be at- BAR BAR 193 tributed partly to the variable Avinds in the temperate zone, the great inconstancy of which, in Britain, is well-known ; and partly to the un- certain exhalation and precipitation of the vapours floating in the at- mosphere, which is at one time more saturated than at another, and consequently heavier ; though the precipitation of aqueous vapours chiefly depends on the previous de- gree of evaporation. Our plan does not permit us to accompany these propositions with the explanations given by Dr. Hal- ley ; and as the theoretical part has been strongly contested by other philosophers, though not re- futed, till the late Dr. Black, of Edinburgh, endeavoured to prove the fallacy of all preceding theo- ries, we shall conclude this sub- ject with a summary outline of his doctrine. According to Dr. Black, 1. Va- pour is formed by an intimate union between fire and water, by which the fire, or heat, is so to- tally enveloped, and its action so entirely suspended by watery par- ticles, that it loses its properties of giving light and heat, anel conse- quently is in a latent state ; 2. If the atmosphere is affected by any unusual degree of heat, it becomes incapable of supporting a column of mercury so long as before ; for which reason that in the barome- ter sinks....From these preliminary axioms it follows, that as vapour is formed by the union of fire and Avater, or the solution of the latter in the former, it is impossible that the vapour can be condensed, un- til this union or solution be effected. The beginning of the condensation of the vapour, then, or the first symptoms of approaching rain, must be the separation of the fire VOL. I. which lies hidden or involved in the vapour. This may at first be slow and partial, or it may be sud- den and violent: in the former case, the rain may come on slowly, and after considerable intervals ; in the latter, it will be quick, and in a large quantity. With regard to the effect of this separation be- tween the fire and water, we shall only observe, that as it is gradual and slow, the barometer may in- dicate rain for a considerable time before it appears: or if the sensi- ble heat communicated from the vapour to the atmosphere, should be absorbed by the colder parts, or be carried off by any unknown means, or prevented from affecting the specific gravity of the air, the ba- rometer will undergo no change ; and yet the vapour, being deprived of the heat necessary to sustain it, must descend in rain ; and thus it happens, that the indications of the barometer do not always hold true, respecting the changes of the wea- ther. Hence also it appears, that, though the specific gravity of the air is diminished, unless that dimi- nution proceed from a discharge of the latent heat contained in the va- pours, no rain will follow; and thus the sinking of the barometer may prognosticate Avind as well as rain, or sometimes no change what- ever. Such is the ingenious theory of Dr. Black, who certainly has produced the most philosophic ex- planation yet offered on this appa- rently intricate subject; and though his reasoning- may not enable us to solve all the difficulties occurring in meteorological investigations, we do not hesitate to say, that it has placed the nature and causes of these phenomena in the clearest point of view, as far as it is possi- C c 194 B A R BAR ble to account for them, in the pre- sent state of physical science. We shall, therefore, conclude Avith ob- serving, that though the wind is certainly not the sole cause of raising and depressing the mer- cury, yet, in our climate, it has a remarkable influence on the state of the barometer. For, if the mercury falls, v/hcn the wind bloAvs from those quarters which generally are productive of much rain, such as the south and south- west winels are in the environs of London, there is no doubt but wet weather will speedily follow; on the contrary, if the quicksilver rises, Avhile the Avind blows from dry quarters, such as the northerly and easterly regions are to Bri- tain, then it is highly probable that the Aveather Avill become fair. But if the mercury rises during a south- erly wind, or falls while it blows from the north ; in both cases the prognostics are extremely doubt- ful ; as it frequently happens, that the weather does not correspond to the temporary rising or falling of the quicksilver. [The mercury in the Barometer is not only influenced in its height by the increased or diminished den- sity of the air, but also by the heat of the atmosphere. The amount of dilatation that takes place in the column from the freezing point to boiling water, is only five lines..... This Avas proved by Mr. Peter Le- gaux, in July, 1731, by experiments made before the Commissioners of the Academy of Sciences at Paris. At the same time thatthe increase of the height of the mercury is ta- king place, the specific gravity of the metal is also diminished. It has been found by experiments, that the vol. of mercury condensed by the cold of ice, is to a vol. of mer- cury rarifiedby the heat of boiling water as 66 to 67, that is to say, that the augmentation of the volume of the mercury, or what is the same thing, the diminution of its speci- fic gravity is a 66th, counting from the freezing point to that of boil- ing water. So that a barometer in passing from the cold of ice to the heat of boiling Avater, would rise to a quantity ecpial to the 66th part of its height without any change hav- ing taken place in the pressure of the atmosphere. Five lines are then the amount of the utmost possible dilatation of the column of mercu- ry by heat. Five multiplied by 16 gives 80 ; and as the scale of Reau- mur's thermometer from the point at which water freezes, to that of boiling water is divided into 80 de- gress, it is obvious that there is a perfect connection between these two instruments, so that one may be used to correct the other. It will then be necessary to deduct one sixteenth of a line from the height of the barometer, for every degree that the thermometer rises above the freezing point; and to add Ag to its height Avhen the ther- mometer marks degrees below the Cypher. Before taking an observation of the barometer, it is necessary to make the mercury move up and down once or twice, to put it in equilibrium with the air, and to de- stroy all adhesion it may have with the sides of the glass. The surface of the reservoirmust then be brought to the line of the level, by means of the screw adapted for the purpose to the bottom of the instrument; because the column of mercury can- not rise or fall without impressing a contrary effect upon the surface of the mercury contained in the reser- voir. BAR BAR 195 These remarks are of infinite con- sequence to all who wish to make accurate barometrical observations 5 and for want of knoAving their con- sequence, the greater part of those which have been published in A- merica are nearly useless. For a very interesting paper on the barometer, the reader is refer- red to a volume of essays by Mr. John D alton of Manchester. 1793.] A very curious new phenome- non deserves to be mentioned, con- cerning the state of this instru- ment, on particular occasions. M. Sc h m 1 dt, Professor of Mathematics at Pforte, in Germany, lately ob- served, that his barometer became luminous in the day-time, while the horizon was covered with thun- der-clouds ; and that on the ap- proach of a tempest, there appeared on the surface of the mercury, a small and distinct luminous globe, which could be perceived in day- light,atthedistance of several yards. We relate this singular fact; and, not being in possession of farther particulars, we can only conjecture, that such a phenomenon may per- haps be ascribed to the greater ra- refaction and electricity of the air, in the serene climate of Germany, previous to the explosion of thun- der ; and likewise to a more phos- phorescent nature of the mercury ; a property which it doubtless ac- quires when submitted to the re- peated process of distillation, and other means of purifying that pecu- liar metallic fluid....See also Spi- der. BARREL, in commerce, is a vessel of an oblong size, made of wood the form of which is general- ly known, as well as its use for holding various sorts of merchan- dize : it is also used as a measure lor liquids. The English barrel, wine mea- sure, contains the eighth part of a tun, the fourth part of a pipe, and one half of a hogshead, or 311 gallons. A barrel of beer should contain 36, and one of ale 32 gal- lons. The barrel of beer, vinegar, or licmor preparing for vinegar, ought to contain 31 gallons, ac- cording to the standard of the ale (mart. Barrel is also used to denote a certain wenrht of merchandizes, and which differs according to various commodities. A barrel of Essex butter Aveighs 106 pounds and of Suffolk butter 256 pounds. The barrel of herrings ought to contain 32 gallons, wine measure ; which amount to about 28 gallons, old standard, and consists of about 1000 herrings. The barrel of sal- mon ought to contain 42 gallons, and a barrel of eels the same eruan- tity : the barrel of soap must weigh 256 pounds....[The Pennsylvania barrel of flour.contains 196lbs.] BARRENNESS, a term syno- nimous to sterility, in opposition to fecundity. That the creation might not degenerate, Nature has wisely ordained barrenness to all mon- strous productions ; and hence the sterility of mules, he. Women frequently become bar- ren after a miscarriage, or difficult labour. Dr. Haselcuust, in his Travels to the Levant, advises married per- sons to drink, every night, a tea- cupful of clove-water for the cure of this complaint....We have in- serted this whimsical recipe, not because any reliance can be placed on so trifling a remedy, but in or- der to attest the inefficacy of medi- cines on such occasions, and to as- sure those who forsake the path of Nature, and expect relief from 196 B A S Art, that they will certainly be dis- appointed, unless they adopt a more temperate and regular mode of life. BASALTES, in natural history, a hard stone of a black, grey, or sometimes greenish colour; and on account of its constituent parts, and resemblance to lava, generally classed among the volcanic pro- ductions. Its specific gravity is to that of water, as three to one. The component parts of basaltes are in the following proportion: siliceous earth, 50, argillaceous 15, calcareous 8, magnesia 2, and iron 25. It is remarkable, that this fossil is disposed either in solid or jointed columns; the former con- sisting of five or six pillars, ei- ther of an uniform size, or coni- cal, and generally standing close to each other perpendicularly, of different, and sometimes equal length, as if they had been arrang- ed by a skilful artist. The Heb- ridic island of Staffa is entirely composed of lofty and capacious ba- saltic columns, the most curious ar- rangement of which, perhaps, on the whole globe, is the celebrated Fingal's cave. In Germany, also, there are several basaltic moun- tains ; for instance, those on the Rhine, and near Freyberg, in Sax- ony, where basaltes is frequently found of an oval or spherical figure. Spain, Russia, Poland, and Si- lesia, also produce various basaltic rocks. Great emantities of this fossil are deposited in the neigh- bourhood of Mount Etna, in Si- cily ; of Hecla, in Iceland, &c. But the largest mass yet discover- ed, are, what is called the Giant's Causeway, in Ireland. As naturalists differ in their opinion concerning the origin of this curious substance, whether it be the production of volcanos aris- B A S ing from subterraneous fires, or derive its origin from crystalliza- tion by water, we shall state only the result of M. Bergmann's in- quiry into this subject, as his ex- planation appears to be conclusive. He asserts, that both fire and wa- ter contribute to form basaltes, and it cannot be doubted that there has been some connection between the basaltic pillars and subterraneous fire, as they are found mixed with lava, and other substances, pro- duced by that element. [7*e*....Basaltes is an excellent material for building houses, and paving streets : it is also employed by lapidaries and statuaries for va- rious productions of art; as well as by artists working in gold and silver, for touch or test-stones..... Gold-beaters and book-binders, on the continent, make their anvils of this firm and massy stone ; which is also used as an ingredient in the manufacture of glass, especially for producing the common AvindoAV- glass, and green bottles. BASILICON OINTMENT, in pharmacy, a preparation consist- ing of eight parts of hog's lard; five of Avhite resin; and two of yellow wax: or, according to the London College, of nearly equal parts of yellow resin, bees wax, and olive oil. The former ingre- dients, prescribed by the Edin- burgh College, are cheaper and equally efficacious. This ointment is generally em- ployed in the dressing of wounds and ulcers, for digesting and cleans- ing them, as well as for promoting their cicatrization. Modern sur- geons, hoAvever, are not Avilling to attribute any considerable effect to external applications ; for they are well convinced, that the healing of wounds depends more on the spon- B AS taneous efforts of Nature, espe- cially in a sound and healthy con- stitution, than upon any artificial aid by liniments, unguents or plas- ters ; and that little benefit can be derived from them, unless the dis- eased part be properly dressed and cleansed; Avhile the internal state of the body should also be duly at- tended to. Yet, there are instan- ces on record in Avhich the basili- con, combined either with a small proportion of the red precipitate of mercury, or, which is still better, the juice of the burdock-root, has proved efficacious in healing scro- phulous ulcers, especially those situated near the articulations of bones. BASKET, a well known utensil, made of twigs interwoven toge- ther. Considered as a measure in commerce, it denotes an uncer- tain quantity, as a basket of meel- lars is two bushels; of asafoetida from 20 to 50 pounds weight, he. The Ancient Britons Avere cele- brated for their ingenuity in manu- facturing baskets of very elegant workmanship, which they export- ed in large quantities. Basket-salt is made from the water of the salt springs in Che- shire, and other places. It differs from the common brine-salt, in the fineness of the grain, as well as on account of its whiteness and purity. In preparing the former kind, some persons use resin and other ingre- dients, for separating the crystals, and reducing them to a smaller grain ; others effect this by keep- ing up a brisk fire under the pans, and constantly stirring the salt; but the most approved method of manufacturingbasket-salt is, to take out for this purpose, the third draught of every pan Avhich is working forthe common brine-salt; BAT 19? and to do this before the granules or crystals are perfectly formed.... Thus the salt will become very fine ; and it is then hard pressed into small wicker-baskets, dried at the stove anel kept for sale. As there prevails, in many fa- milies, a prejudice against this species of salt, from an idea that some pernicious articles are used in the chymical process of prepar- ing it, we--advise those Avho are under the influence of such appre- hension, to reduce common salt to powder, in a marble or iron mor- tar: but it requires to be previ- ously cleaned or purified, by dis- solving, and again evaporating it to dryness; in which state it may easily be pounded. BASE - ROCKET, Rocket Yellow-weed, or Wild Mig- nonette, Reseda lutea, L. is an indigenous plant, groAving in mea- dows, pastures, and corn-fields, chiefly in a calcareous soil; though it is sometimes found on walls; where its pale-yellow floAvers ap- pear from July to August.....This neglected' vegetable may be eaten in the same manner as Kale ; and it was formerly reputed to possess anodyne properties. BAT, or Vespcrtilio, an animal which seems to fill up the chasm between quadrupeds and birds; with the latter, however, it has in common only the power of flying, as Nature has provided it with a smooth gauze-like Aveb, serving the purpose of wings. There are twenty-eight species of this animal. The common bat is nearly the size of a mouse, and flies about, in ejuest of moths and other insects, in fine summer even- ings, with a rapid and irregular motion, resembling that of a but- terily. When it alights on the 198 BAT BAT ground, it is unable to fly again, till it has crawled to some height. It remains torpid during the av in- ter in some subterraneous retreat, revives in the beginning of spring, and the female brings forth from two to five young at a time, which it suckles like other mammillary animals. As the bats of our climate are freemently troublesome, by infest- ing chimnies, and annoying the neighbourhood of dwellings, we shall communicate a method of elestroying them, nearly in the Avords of the Encyclopadia Bri- tannia:. Take the flower-cups of burdock, whiten them Avith chalk, and throw them up into the way of their flight: thus attracted by the Avhiteness of the substance, the bats injure their membraneous wings by the hooks of the bur, and fall to the grounel. In our opinion, these animals are more useful than injurious ; as they devour a multitude of insects ; though they likewise prey upon bacon, and other animal food sus- pended in chimnies. But having very formidable natural enemies in the owls, which chase them into hollow trees and obscure holes of walls, there will be little occasion for persecuting them with the bur- dock. BATH, in the general accepta- tion of the term, signifies a conve-' nient receptacle of water adapted to the various purposes of washing or cleansing, and bracing the body, either by plunging, or continuing in it for a certain time. Baths may be divided into cold cool, warm, and hot: and these again into natural and artificial. In order to treat this interesting subject systematically, we shall consider it according to the division above-mentioned. Cold Baths are those of a tempe- rature varying from the 33d to the 56th degree of Fahrenheit's ther- mometer. The general properties of the cold bath consist in its power of contracting the animal fibres^ while it dissipates the caloric (op matter of heat) that exists between their interstices, and thus effects a greater approximation of the par- ticles, Avhich Avere before dilated and relaxed by heat. That such is the natural influence of cold, can- not be doubted ; and hence this species of bath, by its powerful action on the whole system, is one of the most important medicinal remedies presented by the hand, and, as it were, supplied by the very bosom of Nature. EA-en in the most remote times, cold bathing Avas resorted to, with obvious advantage, by nervous and debilitated persons ; but in the dark or middle ages, this genuine source of health Avas totally neglected, till the good sense of Europeans again adopted it as a general restorative, when the prevailing diseases of re- laxation and atony rendered the use of such a remedy inestimable. The superior advantages of cold bathing over all internal corrobo- rants, consists chiefly in its imme- diate salutary action on the solids, without the intervention of the organs of digestion and nutrition ; without having to perform a pas- sage through numerous channels, before it can exert its efficacy. For this obvious reason, it is pecu- liarly adapted to those constitutions Avhich, though robust, and appa- rently healthy, are liable to ner- vous, hysteric, hypochondriacal, and paralytic affections, as well BAT BAT 199 as to frequent attacks of flatu- lency, and conseement indigestion. Without expatiating, either on the history, or the sensible effects of the Cold Bath, we shall proceed: I. To a general enumeration of those cases, in which it cannot be resorted to Avith advantage and 9afety ; II. To lay down the necessary rules anel directions for the use of this heroic remedy. With respect to the former, we must be concise, and shall chiefly point out by negative propositions, those particular states of the body, in Avhich cold bathing must not be attempted : namely, 1. In a full habit of body, or Avhat is called general plethora, on account of the freepient febrile disposition attend- ing such individuals ; 2. In hemor- rhages or fluxes of blood, open wounds or ulcers,and every kind of inflammation, whether external or internal ; 3. In obstructions of the intestines, or habitual costiveness; 4. In affections of the breast and lungs, such as difficult respiration, short and dry coughs,he. 5. When the whole mass of the fluids ap- pears to be vitiated, or tainted with a peculiar acrimony, which cannot be easily defined, but is obvious from a sallow colour of the face, slow healing of the flesh when cut or bruised, and from a scorbutic tendency of the Avhole body ; 6. In gouty and rheumatic paroxysms ; though Sir John Floyer asserts, that " Podagries sometimes have kept their fits off with it;" 7. In cutaneous eruptions, which tend to promote a critical discharge of hu- mours by the pores (yet the cele- brated physician just mentioned, informs us, that great cures have been effected in the leprosy, by- bathing in what he calls k- Cold Sulphur Water.") 8. During preg- nancy ; and 9. In a distorted or de- formed state of the body, except in particular cases to be ascertained by professional men.....Sir John farther recommends, but too indis-< criminately, the dipping of ricketty children one year old, every morn- ing in cold Avater ; and he is of opi- nion that, in adults, it prevents the infection of fevers, by making the body less sensible of the changes of air; that, in old women, it stops violent hemorrhages from the ute- rus ; that it has contributed to cure canine madness, poisonous bites of animals, and obstinate agues, by going in previously to the return of the fit, and after all the evacua- tions of the body have been proper- ly attended to ; and, lastly, that the Sea-water Bath has been of emi- nent service in dropsies, and de- fective hearing ; in which last case, he knew a deaf person who could hear perfectly well, on the day he bathed in the sea. Experience, hoAvever, has but too often evinced, that this excel- lent remedy, whether by fresh or salt-water, cannot be implicitly re- lied upon in those complaints ; nor will it be productive of any good effects, unless our conduct, in ge- neral, be accommodated to the follow ing rules ; 1. It is a vulgar error, that it is safer to enter the water when the body is cool, and that persons heated by exercise, and beginning to per- spire, should wait till they are per- fectly cooled. Thus, by plunging into it, in this state, an alarming and dangerous chilness frequently seizes them, and the injury sus- tained is generally ascribed to their going into it too Avarm ; Avhile it doubtless arises from the contrary practice....Dr. J. CurriEj of Liver- 200 BAT BAT pool, in his valuable " Treatise on the Effects of Water in Fevers." (edit. 2d, 8vo. 1799, price 7s.), says, with equal truth and preci- sion, that " in the earliest stages of exercise, before profuse perspira- tion has dissipated the heat, and fatigue debilitated the living power, nothing is more safe, according to my experience, than the cold bath. This is so true, that I have, for some years, constantly directed in- firm persons to \ise such a degree of exercise, before immersion, as may produce some increased action of the vascular system, with some increase of heat, and thus secure a force of re-action under the shock, Avhich othenvise might not always take place. But, though it be per- fectly safe to go into the cold bath in the earlier stages of exercise, nothing is more dangerous than this practice, after exercise has pro- duced profuse perspiration, and terminated in languor and fatigue ; because in such circumstances the heat is not only sinking rapidly, but the system parts more easily with the portion that remains."....In short, it is a rule liable to no excep- tion, that moderate exercise ought always to precede cold bathing, to promote the re-action of all the vessels and muscles, on entering the water; for neither previous rest, nor exercise to a violent de- gree, are proper on this occasion. 2. The duration of every cold bathing applied to the Avhole body, ought to be short, and must be de- termined by the bodily constitution, and the sensations of the individual; for healthy persons may continue in it much longer than valetudina- rians ; and both will be influenced by the temperature of the air, so that in summer they can enjoy it for an hour, when, in spring or autumn, one or two minutes may be sufficient.....Under similar cir- cumstances, cold Avater acts on aged and lean persons with more violence than on the young and corpulent: hence the former, even in the hottest days of summer, can seldom with safety remain in the bath longer than a quarter of an hour ; Avhile the latter are general- ly able to sustain its impression for double that time. 3, The head should first come in contact with the Avater, either by immersion, pouring water upon it, or covering it for a minute with a wet cloth, and then diving head foremost into the Avater. 4. As the immersion Avill be les? felt when it is effected suddenly; and as it is of conseemence that the first impression should be uni- form over the body, Ave must not enter the bath slowly or timorous- ly, but with a degree of boldness. A contrary method would be dan- gerous ; as it might propel the blood from the lower to the upper parts of the body, and thus occa- sion a fit of apoplexy. For these reasons, the shower bath is attend- ed with considerable advantages, because it transmits the Avater cmickly over the whole body ; and, consequently, is more consistent with the rules before-mentioned. 5. The morning is the most proper time for using the cold bath, unless it be in a river; in which case the afternoon, or from one to two hours before sun-set, will be more eligible ; as the water has then acquired additional warmth from the rays of the sun, and the immersion will not interfere with digestion : on the whole, one hour after a light breakfast....or twt BAT hours before, or four hours after dinner, are the best periods of the day, for this purpose. 6. While the bather is in the water, he should not remain inac- tive, but apply brisk general fric- tion, and move his arms and legs, to promote the circulation of the fluids from the heart to the extre- mities. It would, therefore, be extremely imprudent to continue in the water till a second chilness attacks the body ; a circumstance which would not only defeat the whole purpose intended, but might at the same time be productive of the most injurious effects. Immediately after the person leaves the bath, it will be neces- sary for him, with the assistance of another person for dispatch, to wipe and dry his body with a coarse and clean cloth. He should not afterwards sit inactive, or enter a carriage, unless warmly clothed and wearing flannel next the skin : if season and circumstances permit, it will be more proper, and highly beneficial, to take gentle exercise till the equilibrium of the circulation be restored, and the vessels, as well as the muscles, have acquired a due degree of re- action. The best place for cold bathing is in the invigorating water of the sea, or a clear river ; and where neither of these can be convenient- ly resorted to, we recommend the Shower Bath ; an apparatus which may be procured from the tin-man. Its effects are doubtless more powerful than those of the common bath : and though the latter covers the surface of the body more uniformly, yet this circum- stance by no means detracts from the excellence of the former ; be- cause those intermediate parts, vol. I. BAT 201 which the water has not touched, receive an electric and sympathetic impression, in a degree similar to those brought into actual contact. As every drop of water from the shower bath operates as a partial cold bath, its vivifying shock to robust individuals, is more exten- sive, and beneficial, than from any other method of bathing. Hence this bath is possessed of the following important advan- tages ; 1. The sudden contact of the water may be repeated, pro- longed, and modified, at pleasure ; 2. The head and breast are toler- ably secure, as it descends tOAvards the lower extremities : thus, the circulation is not impeded, breath- ing is less affected, and a determi- nation of blood to the head and breast is effectually obviated ; 3. As the water descends in single drops, it is more stimulating and pleasant, than the usual immersion; and can be more readily procured and adapted to circumstances; lastly, 4. The degree of pressure from the Aveight of water, is here likeAvise in a great measure pre- vented ; nor is the circulation of the fluids interrupted so as to ren- der the use of this bath in any de- gree dangerous ; a circumstance of the highest importance ; because by the ordinary immersion, persons are often exposed to injuries which they least apprehend. [Cold bathing produces the best effects when used early in the morning ; and, when after wiping the body dry, moderate exercise is afterwards taken. The evening is certainly not the best time to use the cold bath in the city ; several cases having occurred within the Editor's observation, of violent fevers in persons who tried this ex- periment in the month of August 202 BAT BAT and September. Bathing in salt .water every morning is said to pre- serve strangers from the dangerous seasoning feversof the West Indies; but in this case temperance must also be joined, anel is probably more certain in its effects than any other remedy. The cold bath is highly useful to preserve chilelren from the bowel complaints which prevail in the summer throughout the United States.] * * * As the erection of public baths has, from the remotest ages, been considered an object worthy of na- tional attention, and private solici- tude, we have selected a modern specimen of such a structure as, in our opinion, will be admired, and perhaps adopted in this country, where public spirit, and a cordial support of every useful invention, are equally conspicuous. We al- lude to the Floating Baths at Hamburgh, an establishment which owes its origin to the en- lightened members of the " Socie- ty for the Encouragement of Arts and Useful Trades," founded in that city, in the year 1765. These baths Avere projected by Dr. Moldenhawer, physician at Hamburgh, and erected by public subscription, on a small lake of fresh water, called the Alster. M. Arens, an eminent architect of the same city, delineated the plan of the building, which Ave are informed, is an improvement on similar baths established in the principal towns of the French re- public. Although we have not had an opportunity of comparing the in- ternal construction of the Ham- burgh baths, with those floating on the river Thames, near West- minster-bridge ; yet we have rea- son to believe that they are essen- tially different from any other ex- isting in this country. Induced by this consideration, and convinced of the intrinsic aelvantages which the former possess, independent of their beautiful external appearante, we have caused accurate represen- tations to be copied from the ori- ginal plates transmitted to us from Hamburgh, with this difference only, that ours are upon a reduced scale. EXPLANATION Of the Plates representing the Floating Baths erected in ihe City of Hamburgh. plate i. A.....Elevation of the longitudi- nal Front of the Floating Bath, with its ornamental entrance; of the surrounding gallery, and the tents expanded over the bathing machines, and covered with sail- cloth, which have been four times varnished. The wooden roof is also covered with strong sail-cloth, which had been repeatedly coated with tar. The Avhole vessel is 80 feet in length, and 40 in breadth. B.....Elevation of the transverse side of the floating Bath, with its glass doors and windows, through the former of which, the corridor, and through the latter, the cabins on each side receive their light. C......Section of the building : namely, a, b, of the Bathing Ma- chines ; and c, c, of the chambers for undressing and dressing. On each longitudinal side of the ves- sel, there are (as appears on in- specting Plate II.) six of these P/ ■ > ? ' ■ /• / F / F/<■/'//f//>/I /'/ f/tt' f/'//t///'/tf/ H/tf > F/'P/ti ' Jhizlius/t, f /p/r//ff-/? f'f /Pp .Prr+ltnY'-iP Pf

pecies has been established by ex- perience. Working-bees compose the most numerous body of the state. They have the care of the hive ; collect the wax and honey ; fabricate the Avax into combs ; feed the young ; keep the hive clean ; exp.d all strangers ; and employ themselves in promoting general prosperity. The Avorking-bee has two stomachs; one to contain the honey, and another for the crude Avax. II. Of the management of bees, and the most approved methods of preserving them, on removing their honey and wax. BEE According to Columella, an Apiary should face the south, in a situation neither too hot nor too cold. It should stand in a valley, that the bees may Avith greater ease descend, on their return to the hive ; and near the mansion-house, and situated at a distance from noise and offensive smells ; and in the vicinity of a brook or river. Where the bees cannot have the benefit of running Avater, they ought to be supplied Avith it in a trough provided Avith small stones, on Avhich they may stand Avhile they drink. They cannot produce either combs, honey, or food for their maggots, without Avater ; but the neighbourhood of rivers or ca- nals Avith high banks, ought to be avoided, lestthebees should be pre- cipitateel into the Avater by high Avinds, and consequently perish. The garden in Avhich the apiary stands, should be supplied Avith melliferous plants and branchy shrubs, that the SAvarms Avhich set- tle on them may be the more easily hived. Particular attention should be paid to the circumstance, that the bees be hived in a neighbourhood productive of such plants as supply them with food ; such as thyme, the oak, the pine, fruit-trees, furze, broom, mustard, clover, heath, &c. Pliny recommends broom, as a plant particularly grateful and pro- fitable to bees. BEE-HIVES made of straw,have been generally preferred, as they are not liable to be over-heated by the rays of the sun, keep out the cold better than Avood, and are cheaper than those of any other material. M. Chabouille, in France, has lately suggested improvements upon bee-hives, which appear to BEE BEE 227 us deserving of notice. His princi- pal object is to procure the greatest degree of cleanliness for these de- licate and industrious insects, by covering the bottom of the hive with plaster of Paris, and con- structing the cylindrical inclosure of rye-straw, and cross ligaments, or bands, made of the inner rind of the lime-tree. When the basket- work is completed, he coats it over with a cement made of two- thirds of cow-dung, and one-third of ashes. In the interior part of the hive, he places tyvo thin pieces of oak, crossing each other at right angles, which greatly facili- tate the deposition of the honey- combs. The cover of the hive consists of a firm board, seventeen inches in diameter, and the en- trance is so constructed, that it may be closed by a small door, to exclude injurious animals during winter. The lower part of this door has small semi-lunar inci- sions each of which admits two bees abreast: above these, are made two rows of holes, just large enough for one bee to pass. The floor should be so constructed, that it may encompass and secure the foundation of the hive, to pre- vent any disturbance from that quarter. Such a smooth and white floor of gypsum, greatly contri- butes to cleanliness, and the bees become so much attached to it, that they will not easily relinquish their habitation. The straAv-wall ought to be one-inch, and the ce- ment before described, half an inch in thickness ; the latter is the best coating yet contrived, for ex- cluding noxious insects which would perforate the straw, and for sheltering the bees from Tain and wind, while it exhales an odour very grateful to them. M. Cha- bouille has also observed, that bees kept in a hive of this descrip- tion, are sufficiently protected against the effect of cold during winter; and that they sAvarm much earlier than those reared in any other. HoAvever ingenious this contri- vance may appear, Ave regret that the inventor has not stated the particular dimensions of the bee- hive, nor attended to many other circumstances relative to the cul- ture of the insect itself. Hence we are induced to communicate a later, more accurate and circum- stantial description of a bee-hive, invented in Italy by Professor Gaetano Ha>asti, Avhich has froved of practical utility. This a«xo":'t is transited from the Trav■■cctions of the Patriotic So- ciety of Milan, and as it contains much useful information on the subject, Ave have endeavoured to render it of practical service, by accompanying it with the appro- priate cuts of the different figures described. It is Avell known that bees, Avhen properly cultivated, produce con- siderable profit, and in order to ob- tain the greatest possible advan- tage, it is necessary to supply them with every convenience for the support of themselves and their young. We should also contrive means to take the Avax and honey with the smallest possible loss. In short, Avhen the apiary is placed in a good situation, (either south or south-west), that is, in a country abounding with flowers, at a dist- ance from brew-houses, smelting works, he. the next and most im- portant point, is the choice of well constructed hives. In Lombardy, the common hive, composed of straw, or twigs, is ge- 228 BEE BEE nerally used, though ill-contrived ; as it is difficult to take away the wax and honey without destroying the bees. Reflecting on these circum- stances, M. Harasti, during his cultivation of bees, conceived that it would be possible to form a hive which should have all the advan- tages of the best kind, while the simplicity and cheapness of its con- struction, might bring it into use among husbandmen. A good bee-hive ought to possess the following properties : First, it should be capable of enlargement or contraction, according to the number of the swarm. Secondly, it should admit of being opened without disturbing the bees, either for the purpose of cleaning it;. of freeing it from insects ; of increas- ing or dividing the swarm ; or for the admission of a stock of provi- sions for the Avinter. Thirdly, it should be so constructed, that the produce may be removed without injury to the bees. Fourthly, it should be internally clean, smooth, and free from flaws. All these properties unite in the hive here described. It is formed of four open square boxes, A, B, C, D, as represented by the following cut: These boxes are fastened to each other by several wooden buttons, b, b, 8cc. Avhich turn upon a nail or screw. The Avhole is covered Avith a moveable roof, which projects over the boxes slanting from the centre a, that the rain-water may run off. It is necessary to place a stone on the top of the roof, to keep it on firm. Instead of buttons, the boxes may be combined by a rabbet fast- ened with wooden pegs ; but in either case, the conjoined parts should be closed with cement. If the swarm is not very numerous, three, or even two, boxes will be sufficient. Each of them should be about three inches, or three inches and a half in height, and about six inches in the clear with- in. They should be made of wood, at least three quarters of an inch thick, that the bees, wax, &c. may be less affected by changes in the temperature of the atmosphere. Within the boxes, at the upper part, there should be fixed two BEE BEE 229 bars, in the form of a cross, with the extremities extending to the angles of the box, as is represented in the following figure : To these bars the bees attach their combs. At the lower part of each box, in front, there must be an aperture or door, as at c, c, c, d, as high as is necessfry for the bees to pass conveniently, and abbut an inch and a half wide ; of these apertures, only the lowest (marked d), is to be left open for the passage of the bees ; the others are to be closed by means of a piece of wood, properly fitted to them. It must be evident, that this bee- hive has all the advantages before mentioned. To lessen or enlarge it, only requires a diminution or increase of a number of the boxes; and a communication Avith the in- ternal part can easily be effected by the removal of the cover. The cheapness and facility of the construction of this hive is evident, as nothing is requisite but to join four boards Avith nails, or in any other manner, so simple that it may be done by a day-labourer. When the hives are made, they should be placed in a good situa- tion : the best is [south-Avest;] but they must not be too much expos- ed to the heat of noon, Avhich may be mitigated, by placing the branchesof trees to shade the hives, as violent heat is injurious,not only to the bees, but to the wax and honey. The country around the apiary should be of a sandy soil, abounding Avith plants and shrubs. As bees love cleanliness and quiet, the circumjacent space should be kept clean, and free from offensive smells and noise : smoke is parti- cularly disagreeable to them. The boards or table on which the hives are placed, should be dry, clean, and sound ; and the hives ought to be sufficiently raised to prevent their exposure to dampness and insects; they should also be kept at a distance from a wall, to avoid the reflected heat of the sun. In the table on Avhich the hives are to stand, there should be an aperture, under each, about two inches square, as it is represented at e, in the following cut: This aperture should be covered Avith a piece of tin, drilled full of small holes, so as to afford a free passage to the air, and at the same time prevent the ingress of insects. That this may not occasion any in- convenience to the bees in cold and damp Aveather, there must be a sliding piece of wood,,/", under the tin, by which the hole may be com- pletely covered. When it is intended to introduce a swarm of bees into a neAv hive, it must be thoroughly cleaned, and the inside rubbed with virgin Avax. It is advantageous to place a piece of clean honey-comb, about nine inches long, in the hive, and care 230 BEE BEE should also be taken to choose that which is made of very white Avax. This piece being supported by a stick passed through it, offers to the bees a kind of nest, and excites them to continue their Avork. The new hive being thus pre- pared, the manner of introducing the bees into it, from an old hive, is as follows: the latter must be placed upon one of the boxes of the neAv one ; but as it will seldom happen that they are of the same size, anel exactly fit each other, a board, at least as wide as the largest of the two hives, and Avhich has a hole equal in size to the smallest, must be placed between them, and completely joined with cement, or by any other means in such a manner as to be quite close, and to leave the bees no pas- sage except into the new hive. As these insects generally work doAvn- ivards, they Avill soon get into the new hive'; and, when it is occupi- ed by about one-half of the swarm, some holes must be made in the top of the old hive, and kept cover- ed, till the proper time for making use of them. Every thing being disposed as aboAre directed, we must take the opportunity of a fine morning (but not a Arery hot one), about eight or nine o'clock, at Avhich time most of the bees are generally out of the hive, gathering their harvest. The comb is to be cut through, by means of a piece of iron wire, and the old hive, with the board on Avhich it stands, is to be separated from the neAv one. An assistant must immediately place the cover (already avcII fitted) upon the top of the neAv hive. The old hive is then to be taken away, to the dis- tance of thirty or forty paces, and to be there placed upon two chairs, or other supports, in such a man- ner as to be quite firm; but leav- ing a free space, both above and beloAv, forthe folloAving purpose. Upon this old hive (the holes at the top of it being first opened) is to be placed one of the boxes of the new hive, having, the cover loose- ly fastened on it, so that it can easily be removed ; this box must be fixed upon the old hive, in such a manner (by closing the intervals between them with linen cloths, &c.) that the bees, upon going out by the holes in the top of the old hive, can only go into the new one. In order to drive them into it, some live*coals must be placed under the old hive, upon which a few linen rags may be thrown, to produce a great volume of smoke. As the smoke rises, the bees, be- ing incommoded by it, will ascend to the the top of the old hive, and at length will go through the holes into the new one. When all the bees, or nearly all, are gone into it (which may be known by looking in at the little door, or by their noise), it is to be removed gently from the old hive, and placed under the box already alluded to, the top or cover being previously taken off. The next morning, if it should appear that the two boxes, of which the new hive is now com- posed, do not afford sufficient space for the bees, a third box may be added, under the others ; and after that a fourth, if necessary, as their work goes on, changing them from time to time, so long as the.season permits the bees to gather wax and honey. In performing the operations here described, it -will be neces- sary to defend the hands and face from the stings of the bees. The BEE BEE 231 best way of doing this, is to cover the whole of the head, neck, Sec. (over a hat) with coarse cloth, or canvass, Avhich may be brought as low as the Avaistcoat, and fastened to it: through this cloth we may see the operations of the bees, without fearing their stings. The hands may be protected by means of gloves, of which the best are those made of wool. When we mean to bring a new swarm into a hive, that prepar- ed as above, anel formed of two, three, or four boxes, according to the size of the swarm, must be brought near the place where the swarm is. The upper box, with the cover fastened on (but so that it may easily be removed), must be taken from the others. The cross bars, before described, should be smeared with honey, diluted with a little water ; the small door must be shut, and the box must be turned upside down, and brought under the swarm, which is then to be introduced, in the same way, and Avith similar precaution as into a common hive. When the whole swarm is in the box, it is to be •carried to the other boxes (previ- ously placed in their destineel situ- ation), and, turning it very care- fully, is to be put upon them. The buttons are then to be turned, the interstices closed with the cemuit already described, and all the little doors closed, except the loAvest, through which the bees are to pass. Nothing is more disagree- able to a fresh swarm than a hot sun, for which reason, that the bees may not wish to leave their new habitation, it will be right to shade the hive for some days. But it is more advantageous to form artificial SAvarms, than to collect those which abandon their native hives, and the hiA'e here de- scribed is very convenient for that purpose. The following method, M. Harasti conceives to be more simple, and more secure than any other hitherto proposed. Take a well-stocked hive, of four boxes, in some of these, par- ticularly in the two lowermost, if they are well filled, there is cer- tainly a young brood ; for in these lower boxes the young bees are accustomed to change from the chrysalis to the perfect state, about the end of April, or beginning of May, if the hive be vtry full; but if otherwise, this change does not take place till towards the end of May, or even the middle of June. At that time, a fine serene day, but not excessively hot, must be chosen, and about eight or nine o'clock, the hive must be divided into two, in the folloAving manner: Between the two upper boxes and the two lower ones, force in a few slips of wood, so as to separate the boxes sufficiently for .the comb to be cut through with a piece of iron or brass wire. To prevent the bees from coming out through this opening, and thereby annoying the person employed in the operation, the smoke of tobacco may be blown (by introducing the small end of a pipe) into the opening; this will cause the bees to resort to the inner part of the hive, and Avill keep them quiet. Or, instead of the pipe, a small pair of bel- lows may be used, to the notel of which 232 BEE BEE is fitted a hollow cylinder of tin, or other metal, furnished with a little door i, and terminat- ing at one end in a tube h, (into Avhich the nozle of the bellows is fitted) and at the other end, in a smaller tube, k, through which the smoke is to pass. Into the body of the box, through the door i, is to be put a lighted rag, the smoke of which may be blown, by means of the bellows, into the hive. But, if the hands and face are well co- vered, these precautions are unne- cessary. An empty box must be in readiness, in the place Avhere the hive is to stand : a cover must also be procured ; and, as soon as the hive is divided in two parts, the two upper boxes must be taken from the lower ones, and the cover must be immediately put upon the latter, closing all the in- terstices Avith the usual cement. The upper boxes are to be placed upon the empty one just mention- ed, so that a hive Avill there be formed of three boxes. The loAver boxes, on which the fresh cover was put, must be left at rest till the evening, at which time a third may be placed under them ; and Avhen it appears that a proper quantity of Avork has been done in the lower box (of either hive,) a fourth box may be added, under the others. In the above manner, artificial swarms may be formed; and, by this method, we not only avoid the inconveniences which- attend the procuring of swarms in the com- mon Avay, but we obtain the ad- vantage of having the hives always well stocked. This ought to be the first object of every one who cultivates bees ; for it is allowed to be of more advantage to keep the hives well stocked, than to increase their number; and, in fact, it has been observed, that if a hive of 4000 bees gives six pounds of ho- ney, one of 8000 will give twenty- four pounds. Upon this principle, it is proper to unite two or more hives* when they happen to be thinly stocked. This may easily be done, by taking a few handsful of balm, and scat- tering it in those hives which are intended to be united. By this means, the bees will all acquire the same smell; and, it has been observed, that by the sense of smelling, bees distinguish those which belong to the same hive. After the above preparations, the hives are to be joined, by placing them one upon the other, in the evening, when they are at rest, taking away those boxes Avhich contain few or no bees. Care must be taken to shut all the little doors, except the lowest. It may even be proper some- times to shut the lower door abo, Avhen, for instance, any tumult within the hive, causes the bees to endeavour to quit it. In such case, that the bees may not be deprived of air, a piece of tin, perforated with numerous holes, may be used to close the opening, instead of the usual door, and may be taken away when the bees become quiet. The following is the method of taking the Avax and honey, with little or no injury to the bees ; but it should be previously remarked, that the honey is chiefly at the top BEE BEE 2-33 of the hive, the young brood in the middles and the greatest stock of Avax is at the bottom. For this reason, when three of the four boxes are filled Avith comb, Sec. the upper one A is to be first taken off, in the manner here described. The buttons b, b, he. which serve to unite the boxes, are to be turned, or the wooden pegs (if such are used) taken out; the cement em- ployed for closing the intervals is to be scraped off; and then a piece of iron wire is to be drawn through the comb so as to divide it. When the box A, is separated, its cover is to be taken off and put upon the box B, now become the highest. After taking out the contents of the box A, it is to be cleaned, and again placed upon the stanel or table, under the box D, taking care to open its little door, and to shut that of the box D. To prevent any bees remaining in the upper box, when taken away, a little smoke may be introduced by means of the bellows already described. The more empty space the bees find in the hive, the more eagerly I hey go to work. The brood of the box B, which remained at top, do not long delay to swarm, or at least they pass from the state of chrysalis into that of the perfect and laborious animal; therefore, when it is perceived that the loAver pan of the hive is occupied, the box B, may be taken off, in the manner already described, and after being emptied, may be placed under A. In the same way the third box C, in Avhijch there is generally a good stock of wax, may afterwards be taken off ; but this is a matter of greater consequence, because in general the eggs are deposited in it. VOL. I. We must also take care not to de- prive the bees entirely of the stock of Avax anel honey which they have collected for the Avinter. A hive made in the manner here pointed out, appears to me to be such as would be most useful to hus- bandmen in general, who wish to cultivate bees; but a hive may be made upon the same princi- ples, which will shew the work of the bees, through its whole pro- gress, and thereby enable any one to study the natural history of these wonderful insects. A hive of this kind is composed of three or four boxes, Avith a cover, like the hive already de- scribed ; it may also be of the same form and size. But in every box, on that side which is opposite the little door, there must be fixed a pane of glass, with a sliding shut- ter over it, so that by drawing back these sliders, the inside of the hive will be exposed to view. To see the bees at Avork, however it is ne- cessary that the comb should be disposed in a regular manner, and perpendicular to the pane of glass. This may be obtained, by placing in the boxes, instead of the two cross-sticks already described, in p. 229, five parrallel sticks or bars, as represented in the follow- ing figure : The bees will attach their combs these bars, and the intermediate H H 234 BEE BEE space will afford sufficient light for seeing them Avork. If more light is desired, it may be obtained by opening the little doors opposite the glass; which doors may be made considerably higher than is above directed, and may have a slider over them, by which their aperture may be diminished at pleasure. The sliders which cover the panes of glass, ought never to be opened, except for the purpose of observing the bees; because a strong light lessens their dispose tion to Avork. If it should be per- ceived that the coldness of the glass is prejudicial to the bees in winter, it may then be covered with a cotton cloth ; or it may be entirely taken away, and a piecs of paste-board put in its. place; for at that time, the operations of the bees are suspended. Instead of making a little door to each box, to be left open Avhen the box is lowermost, for the pas- sage of the bees, perhaps it might be better (because more simple) to cut a groove in the board or table on which the hive is placed. This groove should be about two inches wide, and about three fourths of an inch high at the outer edge, and should be gradually diminished, both in width and height, towards the part where it meets the hive, as is represented at b, in the fol- lowing figure: Two advantages are derived from this construction. First, the little door in the box, and the con- trivance for opening and shutting it, will be unnecessary. Secondly, it is sometimes proper to diminish or enlarge the opening for the pas- sage of the bees, according to cir- cumstances, without shutting it entirely, and this may be done with the greatest ease, by moving the hive nearer to, or farther from, the edge of the table; or this pas- sage may be entirely closed, by moving the front of the hive be- yond the groove ; but in that case some small holes must be made in the hive to let in air, which may be stopped up when that formed by the groove is open. A farther advantage attending this construction is, that as the BEE BEE 235 groove will have a slanting direc- tion, the bees will thereby be en- abled, with very little trouble, to remove from the hive any dead bees, excrement, &c. which may be obnoxious to their nature. Another very curious and use- ful bee-hive, is that originally con- trived by Mr. Thorley, of Lon- don ; Avhich, from near sixty years experience, has proved of superior utility to any other....it is con- structed as follows : the loAver part is an octangular box, made of deal boards, about an inch in thickness, the cover of which is externally seventeen inches in diameter, but internally only 15^, and its height ten inches. In the middle of this cover is a hole, which may be opened or shut at pleasure, by means of a slider. In one of the pannels is a pane of glass covered with a wooden door. The bee- hole at the bottom of the box is about 3-J inches broad, and half an inch high. Two slips of deal, about half an inch square, cross each other in the centre of the box, and are fastened to the pannels by means of small screAvs. To these slips the bees fasten their combs... In this octangular box the bees, after swarming in the usual man- ner, are hived, and suffered to continue there, till they have built their combs, and filled them with honey; which may be known by opening the door, and viewing their Avorks through the glass pane, or by the weight of the hive. When they have filled their habitation, a common bee-hive of straw, made either flat at the top, or in the common form, must be placed on the octangular box, and the slider drawn out; thus a communication will be opened between the box and the straw-hive, so that these industrious insects will fill this hive also wit>. the product of their labours. When the straw-hive is sufficiently filled, the slider may be pushed in, and after placing another in its room, again speedily remoAred. Mr. Thorley has added another part to his bee-hive, which consists of a glass receiver, 18 inches in height, 8 inches in diameter at the bottom, and in the greatest part 13. This receiver has a hole at the top, about an inch in diameter, through which a square piece of deal is ex- tended to nearly the bottom of the vessel, having two cross bars to which the bees fasten their combs. Into the other end of this square piece is screwed a piece of brass, which serves for a handle to the re- ceiver, or glass-hive. When the bees have filled their straw-hive (Avhich must have a hole in the centre, covered Avith a piece of tin) Mr. T. places the glass receiver upon the top of the straw-hive, and draws out the piece of tin...... The bees now, finding their habita- tion enlarged, pursue their labours with such alacrity, that they like- wise fill this glass hive with their stores. TheEgyptian bee-hives are made of coal-dust and clay, which being well blended together, the mixture is formed into a holIoAv cylinder, about a span in diameter, and from six to twelve feet high : this is dried in the sun, and becomes so hard that it may be handled at pleasure. Another, of a very simple and ingenious construction, has been in- vented by M. De Gelieu. It may be made either of straw or wood : but, as its internal dimcntions must 236 BEE BEE be the same throughout its Avhole length, it is necessary that its form should be either cylindrical or pris- matic. Its principal advantage is, that its bases are movtable, and may- be fixed by pins at any distance from each other; by which means its size may be increased or diminished according to circumstances. It must lie on its side, and, in the foremost base, there must be a passage left for the bees. Hence, by drawing out the posterior base, the honey may be taken from the back part of the hive, without hurting the bees; and when this is clone, the base should be pushed in close to the re- maining comb, that an intermediate space may remain. By turning the hive, and making the entrance in that part, which had before been the posterior base, the bees Avill build new cells, in the room of those taken away ; consequently the honey will be whiter, and more pure. Whoever intends to erect an api- ary, should purchase hives towarels the close of the year, when they are cheapest; and such only as are full of ccfcibs, and stocked with a suf- ficient number of bees. In order to ascertain the age of the hives, it 'should be remarked, that the combs of the last year are white, while those of the former year acquire a darkish yellow. Where the combs are black, the hive should be re- jected as too old, and liable to the inroads of vermin. Bees never swarm till the hive is too much crowded by the young brood. They sometimes begin to swarm in May, or earlier, accord- ing to the warmth of the season. As soon as a swarm is settled, the bees should be immediately hived, to prevent their taking wing again; If they settle on a low branch of a tree, it may be cut off andlaid on a cloth, the hive being ready for their reception ; but if it be eliffi- cult to reach them, it will be ad- visable to let them remain where they have settled till the evening, when there will be less danger of their escaping. When the swarm is hived, they should be immediately removed to the apiary, but the hive should be kept near the place at which the bees settled, till the evening, lest some stragglers might be lost. The usual method of uniting swarms, is by spreading a cloth at night upon the ground close to the hive in Avhich the two swarms are to be placed. Lay a stick across the cloth, on Avhich place the hive with the new swarm: on giving a smart stroke on the top of the hive, all the bees will drop in a cluster upon the cloth. Then take another hive from the stool, and place it over the bees, when they will as- cend into it, and mix Avith those al- ready there. Another method is, to invert the hive in which the unit- ed swarms are to live, and strike the bees of the other hives into it, in the manner before described. A large swarm weighs eight pounds, and others gradually less, to one pound. Hence a good swarm should weigh five or six pounds. Such as are less than four pounds weight, should be strengthened by a small aelditional SAvarm. The size of the hive ought to be proportion- ate to the number of the bees, and it should be rather too small than too large, as these insects require to be kept Avarmer than a large hive will admit. Great improvements may be made in providing plenty of pasture for BEE bees ; and as a rich com country is unfavourable to their industry, the practice of other nations, in shifting the abode of their bees, is deserving of imitation. M. Maillet, in his description of Egypt, informs us, that the na- tives of that fertile countiy annu- ally send their bees into distant re- gions to procure sustenance for them, when they cannot find any at home. About the end of Octo- ber, the inhabitants of Lower Egypt embark their bees on the Nile, and convey them to Upper Egypt, when the inundation is withdrawn, the lands are sown, and the flowers are beginning to bud. These insects are thus cone'ucted through the Avhole extent of Egypt, and, after having ga' hered all the rich produce of the banks of the Nile, are re-conducted home about the beginning of Fe- bruary. In France, floating bee-hives are very common. One barge con- tains from sixty to a hundred hives, which are well defeneled from the inclemency of the Aveather. Thus the owners float them gently down the stream, while they gather their honey from the flowers along its banks; a single bee-house yields the proprietor a considerable in- come. Their method of transporting bees by land, is also worthy of our attention. The hives are fastened to each other by laths, placed on thin pack-cloth, which is drawn up on each side, anel then tied by a piece of rack-thread several times round their tops. In this state they are laid in a cart, which generally contains from thirty to fifty hives, and conveyed to places where the bees can collect honey and wax. During the winter, bees are in so lethargic a state, that a little BEE 23T food is sufficient for their susten- ance : but as every sunny day re- vives, and prompts them to exer- cise, food is necessary on these oc- casions. Some hives of bees which are supposed to have died of cold, have in reality perished by famine, especially when a rainy summAr prevented them from collecting a sufficient store of provision. Hence the hives should be carefully ex- amined in autumn, and ought then to weigh at least eighteen pounds each. With respect to the feeding of bees, the common practice is, to leave them as much honeyin autumn as Avill make the hive weigh twen- ty pounds. The honey should be diluted with water, and put into an empty comb, split reeds, or upon clean wool, which the bees will suck perfectly dry. By the dilution with water, however, the honey is apt to become candied, in which state it is prejudicial to the bees. A better method is, to replenish the weak hives in September, with such a portion of combs filled with honey- taken from other hives, as may be deemed a sufficient supply. This is done by turning up the Aveak hive, cutting out the empty combs, and placing full ones in their stead, secured by pieces of wood, that they may not fall down when the hive is replaced. If this method be considered too troublesome, a plate of honey, unmixed Avith wa- ter, may be placed under the hive, and straws laid across the plate, covered with paper perforated with several small holes, through Avhich the bees will suck the honey with- out difficulty. The degree of cold which bees can endure, has not been ascertain- ed. In the cold parts of Russia, they are often found in hollow trees. 238 BEE BEE Their hives are frequently made of bark, which does not afford them much protection. Hence, Mr. White observes, that bees Avhich stand on the north side of a build- ing, will not consume more than ope-half of the honey necessary to supply others which stand in the sun. In Avinter, however, they should be examined ; and if, in- stead of being clustered between the combs, they are found in num- bers at the bottom of the hive, they should be carried toawarmer place, a\ here they will soon recover. In winters extremely severe, lay on the bottom of an old cask the depth of half a foot of very dry earth, powdered, and pressed down hard. On this, place the stool with the hive ; and, to preserve a com- munication with the air, cut a hole in the cask, opposite to the en- trance of the hive, in which fix a piece of reed, or hollow alder, and thencover the Avhole with dry earth. In Britain, it is usual, in taking the honey, to deprive the bees of their lives. The common method is,to suffocate themAvith the smoke of brimstone ; but Mr. Man ley has adopted a more humane and judicious plan : he says, " I never destroy the old stock of bees ; but after lifting them, to examine what honey there is, if I think the hiATe is full, I put another under it with a flat top, having a square hole in the centre. When the bees are in the under hive, I place a shutter, which is of wood, in the hole at the top; and that prevents them from going into the upper hive. I then invert it in a bucket, and strike it with a roel till I think they are all out, after Avhich they go into the under hive." Mr. YvriLDMAN gives the folloAv- ing instructions for taking the ho- ney and wax, remove the hive into a darkened room, that it may appear to the bees as if it Avas late in the evening ; then gently im'ert the hive, and place it between the frames of a chair, or any other steady support, and cover it with an empty hive raised a little towards the window-, to give the bees suf- ficient light to guide their ascent. Hold the empty hive, steadily sup- ported, on the edge of the full hive, between the left side and arm, and continue striking with the right hand round the full hive, from the bottom upwards, and the bees being frightened by the noise, will ascend into the other. Repeat the strokes, rather ejuick than strong, round the hive, till all the bees are gone out of it, which will be in about five minutes. As soon as a number of the bees have got into the empty hive, it should be raised a little from the full one, that they may not return, but continue to ascend. When they are all out of the full hive, that in which they are must be placed on the stand, to receive the absent bees as they return from the fields. The combs should be cut from the sides and top as clean as possi- ble, to save the future labour of the bees. During this operation, the hive should be placed, reclining to the side from which the combs are taken, and afterwards put for some time upright, that the remaining honey may run out. HaAing finished the taking of the wax and honey, the next bu- siness is to return the bees to their old hive, for which purpose Ave must refer the reader to the di- rections already given, when we stated the usual method of uniting swarms. By inverting the hive which con- tains the bees, .and placing their oavti over it, they will immediately BEE BEE 239 ascend, especially if the lower hive be struck on the sides to alarm them. With regard to the increase of bees, Mr. Hubbard, of Bury St. Edmunds, England, advises the owner to wait with patience, until he has acquired twenty stocks, and in the month of April to separate ten of the strongest hives for swarming ; the other ten must be raised on large empty hives, the tops of which should be previously taken off, and the joinings of the two hives secured with a little clay, which plan prevents the bees from swarming. He also recommends the prime svyarms from the other stocks, to be put into three-peck hives at least: for, when they ap- .pear very early, they will probably sAvarm again in a few weeks, Avhich should always be prevented, and all the after-swarms be united, two or three into one ; for the great ad- vantages arises from a large quan- tity of bees being kept together ; and, by that mode, ten stocks will generally yield fifteen good ones. [The following observations were published by George Morgan, Esq. formerly of Princeton, New Jersey. " Several writers on the manage- ment of bees, have given very in- genious directions for taking their new made honey, without destroy- ing those useful creatures. My humanity, hurt at the idea of sett- ing fire to the fatal match, induced me to imitate their methods ; par- ticularly those of Mr. Wildman, and the Rev. Mr. White, whose directions I observed very attentive- ly, with some success ; but my ex- pectations were not gratified, as I found young broods in every hive I took, and consequently the honey •btained was impure.....However, after a variety of experiments, I discovered an agreeable, safe, and easy way to take the honey, Avith- out the least injury or disturbance of the bees. As I have experienced great pleasure, and some benefit from my discovery, I take this opportu- nity to lay it before the Ag. Society. My boxes are made, after the manner of Mr. White's, of any well-seasoned wood, ten inches square in the clear ; in pairs, with communications at the sides, for the bees to pass freely from one box to another : a pane of glass (7 by 9) with a sliding shutter, may be put into the back part of each box, through which you may see the bees at work. Any person who can handle a saw and hammer, may make the boxes at a small ex- pence. The communications between the boxes are at top and bottom ; those at top should be three inches long, and half an inch wide, to serve as streets or alleys betwixt the hives. The communications at bottom should be five or six inches long and three fourths of ah inch deep, so as to afford a free passage from one hive to the other. The mouth of the hive may be from three to ten inches long, and half an inch deep. In the busy season, this wide entrance facili- tates the bees going out and com- ing in, and may be contracted at pleasure in autumn. Early the next morning after hiving a swarm of bees in one of these boxes, I add another to it, the door of which I close until the bees begin to work in it; when I open it to facilitate their industry. Each box, of the above dimen- sions, w ill contain thirty pounds of 240 BEE BEE honey.....An early SAvarm, in a fa- vourable situation and season, Avill fill two boxes, and cast out several swarms ; each of which will fill two boxes with honey. As Avinter approaches, all the bees collect themselves into one box, and will leave the other, with its contents, to the use of the OAvner, Avhose profit, in good seasons, will be 901b. of honey, and several addi- tional sAvarms, for every stock kept over the preceding Avinter.... 15 or 20lb. of honey are sufficient to keep a stock over our longest winters, but I leave them 30lb. Thus I accpiire the purest honey, Avithout the use of the match, or any trouble in dividing or disturb- ing the bees; for on turning up the hives (which have no glasses) I dis- cover, immediately, that in Avhich the bees are collected, and I carry off the other, without a single bee in it. The losses and disappointments I have met with in a great variety of experiments, induce me to re- commendthis management to eArery lover of bees, as I have found it easy, pleasant, and profitable." It ought to be obseiwed, that all honey is not wholesome. Bees in- discriminately sip the floAvers of all plants abounding with SAveets ; and as some of these plants are of a poi- sonous nature, it folloAvs that the honey must partake e.f their inju- rious cmalities. Dr. Barton has Avritten a very excellent paper on this subject. Amer. Phil. Trans. vol. 5th. The plants affording this poisonous honey are, kalmia angust- ifoda, or dwarf laurel ; kalmia lati- folia, or great laurel; kal. hirsuta, a pretty little shrub of the southern states ; andromeda mariana, or broad-leaved moorwort.....As these are very plentiful in many of the American forests, their blossoms afford much honey for the wild bees. Dr. B. thinks that it will be found that other plants yield un- wholesome honey; such are, 1. Rhododendron maximum, or Penn- sylvania mountain laurel; azalia nudiflora, or wild honey suckle; and datura stramonium, or James- toAvn Aveed. The four first men- tioned plants ought to be extirpat- ed in the neighbourhood of bee- hives ; and the honey procured from the three enumerated in the second place as suspicious, should be carefully examined to determine the fact with regard to them.] The manner of treating bees in Portugal, is as folloAvs : A spot of ground is chosen for the hives, ex- posed tOAvards the south or south- east, Avell sheltered from the north- ern blasts, and surrounded Avith shrubs and flowers; of the latter, rosemary is preferred. The richer the neighbouring grounds are, the better ; for bees are said to range for food to the distance of a league from their home. Lanes are cut through the shrubby thickets, of five or six feet Avide. The fences between the lanes are about the same dimensions, and formed at intervals into small recesses, like bowers or niches, to receive the hives. The Portuguese hives, in gene- ral, are of a cylindrical form, and about twenty-seven inches high by fourteen in diameter. They are constructed of the rind of the cork- tree, and covered Avith an inverted pan of earthen ware, the edge of which projects over the hive like a cornice. The whole is fastened with pegs made of hard and dura- ble wood, and the joints cemented Avith peat. In the front of the cy- BEE linder, at the height of about eight inches, there is a small aperture, where the bees enter. The inside is divided into three equal com- partments, which are separated by cross sticks, on which the bees form their combs, or cells. When they sAvarm, which is usually in May or June, the hives are placed to receive them, where they settle. If, on attempting to collect them, they fly aAvay, a sheet is placed at night on the ground, contiguous to the swarm ; and when they alight, the hive is put over them, with the entrance closed ; then the Avhole is covered with the sheet, in which they are carried home. The honey-combs are taken out in June, during the heat of the day, but not if a high wind prevail, or at the commence- ment of a new or full moon. A person holds a chaffing dish, Avith a coal fire, covered with moist peat, to increase the smoke; which being introduced among the bees, from the top of the cylinder, they either escape, or remain intoxicat- ed at the bottom : then the hive is taken to pieces, by drawing out the pins. The combs, except tAvo cells around the hive, are cut out, with- out destroying the bees, and the incision is covered with pulverised clay. It is not advisable to remove them, until they be full of honey. In this country, at former pe- riods, many artificial methods have been invented and practised, Avith a view of stimulating the indus- trious bee to still greaterexertions; and thus to increase the production of honey. Although wre are no advocates for such schemes, nor do Ave give credit to the marvellous reports circulated to confirm their success, yet Ave consider the recipe given by the late Prof. Br alley, vol. I. BEE 241 in his Family Dictionary, sufficient- ly curious, if not practically use- ful, to communicate it to our read- ers : Take a handful of SAveet yeast, one drachm of camphor, half a drachm of musk dissolved in rose- water, a sufficient quantity of yel- low bees-Avax, and oil of roses (which last, however, being an expensive article, may be safely omitted); pound the first tAvo in- gredients Avell together, and put them into the melting wax; then add the oil of roses, and make it up into a mass, Avhich should be cool, before the musk is incorpo- rated Avith it. Of this composition, place a piece of the size of a hazel- nut at the side of a hive, and it will be found, that it not only in- creases the number of the bees, but also enables them to improve the honey, in the proportion of three to one. Yet the learned editor does not inform us, Avhether this improvement is productive of a su- perior quality, or larger quantity of honey, or perhaps of both. With respect to the Diseases of Bees, we shall mention a few hints, extracted from the above-mention- ed work. Bees are sometimes afflicted with a diarrhoea, in consequence of feed- ing greedily on the blossoms of the milk-thistle, and elm. The best cure is, pounded pomegranate seed and honey, moistened with rich, SAveet wine ; or raisins mixed Avith similar Avine or mead, in which rosemary has been boiled.....When they are infested with vermin, the hive must be cleansed, and per- fumed with a branch of pomegra- nate, or the wild fig-tree, Avhich A>ill inevitably destroy them. Butterflies are said to conceal themselves in (he hives, and annoy the bees: these intruders may easi- I x 242 BEE BEE ly be exterminated, by placing lighted candles in deep tin pots be- tween the hiA-es ; as the flame will attract them, and conduce to their destruction. In order to extirpate hornets preying upon the honey, it is only necessary to expose shallow vessels near the hive, Avith a little Avater ; to Avhich these predatory insects will eagerly repair, to quench their thirst, and thus easily drown them- selves. To prevent bees of one society from attacking or destroying those of another, Dr. Darwin recom- mends a board, about an inch thick, to be laid on the bee-bench, and the hive to be set on this board, with its mouth exactly on the edge; the mouth of the hive should also be contracted to about an inch in length, and a semi-circular hollow made in the board, immediately under the mouth of the hive. By this simple method, the assailing bees will be constrained to act with great disadvantage. If, however, this should not suc- ceed, Dr. Darwin advises a re- . moval of the bee-hive to a distant part of the garden, and to a more easterly aspect ; as he has from experience observed the good ef- fects of such a change. This acute philosopher farther observes, in his admirable " Phytologia," when treating of the glands and secre- tions of vegetables, that the de- predations of insects committed on that nutritious fluid, honey, is pro- bably injurious to the proelucts of vegetation; and that some plants are more exposed and accessible to bees than others, which are either better defended, or secrete a great- er portion of honey than is neces- sary for their own economy. Of the latter description are, the catch- fly, sun-dew, hellebore and aco- nite : of the former, the Doctor mentions the Polygonum melampy- rum, or Buck-wheat, and the Ca- calia suaveolcns, or Alpine Colts- foot ; in both of which there also appears to be a superabundant quantity of honey secreted. The floAvers of the two last-mentioned plants are perpetually loaded with bees and butterflies ; insomuch, that at Kempton-land, in Germany, Mr. Worlidgf. says, in his " Mysteries of Husbandry," chap. ix. 3, he saAV forty great bee-hives filled with honey, to the amount of seventy pounds each,in one fortnight, by their being placed near a large field of buck-wheat in flower : and Dr. Darwin adds, that he well re- members having seen an astonish- ing number of bees on a field of buck-wheat in Shropshire, as well as on a plant of the Alpine Colts- foot in his garden ; from which the scent of honey could be perceived at several feet distance from the flower. To conclude this interesting sub- ject, we cannot omit the judicious remarks of a veteran writer, Dr. J. Anderson, whose numerous and useful works, in every branch of rural and domestic economy, are of inestimable value to the British farmer. In one of his practical papers " On the Management of the Dairy," communicated to the Bath and West of England Society,he ob- serves in a note, that bees, in this variable climate, are a very preca- rious stock, though extremely pro- fitable where they thrive. During the frecment mild days of winter, and the warm mornings of spring, which are suddenly succeeded by a nipping frost, or sleety rain, these creatures are roused from their torpid state ; and, being unable to BEE BEE 243 obtain food abroad,they are obliged to consume and exhausttheir stores, and to perish from want. And asthe warmth of the Aveather in spring invites them to search in vain for flowers affording them nourish- ment, they are often chilled by cold, before they are able to re- turn to the hive. To prevent such fatal accidents, Dr. Anderson is of opinion, that no method Avould be so effectual as that of placing the hives in an ice-house, at the approach of winter. Here they may be kept till the spring has so far advanced, that no danger is to be apprehended from bad weather. During the Avhole Avinter, they will remain in a state of torpor, and require no food. As soon as the mild weather incites them to ap- pear, they will commence their labours with vigour. The intense degree of cold which the bees sus- tain, Avithout the least injury, in Poland and Russia, Avhere even quick-silver is sometimes frozen, removes every doubt, or anxiety, concerning the safety of bees in a British ice-house. BEFS-WAX, a solid concrete, obtained from the honey-combs, af- ter the sweet and liquid parts are extracted, by heating anel pressing them between iron plates. The best sort should be hard, compact, of a clear yellow colour, and an agreeable odour, similar to that of honey. Pure bees-wax, when new, is tough, yet easily broken : by long keeping, it becomes Harder and more brittle, loses its fine colour, and partly also iis frag- rance. The purposes to which bees-wax is applied, are various: great quantities of it are annually bleach- ed, and converted into candles. On account of its softening and healing nature, it is much used in cerates, plasters and ointments. Artificial wax may be extracted from many vegetable substances ; especially from the flowers of the lime-tree, by a chemical procees ; but we doubt whether the ex- pence attending this experiment would, in this country, be equi- valent to the advantages. It is, however, certain, that wax is con- tained in a much greater number of vegetables than has hitherto been supposed ; and it may easily be extracted from the leaves of most plants and trees, as is mani- fest from their shining cover or varnish, which generally consists of waxy matter. This concrete also forms an ingredient of seve- ral resins ; and may be separated from gummy, mucilaginous, and saccharine matters, by simple wa- ter : from saponaceous substances, by water or spirit of Avine ; and from resinous bodies, by means of vitriolic scther. Bee-Bread is a species of crude wax, collected by the Avorking-bee from the farina of flower-cups, con- veyed to the hive in the hollows of its hind-legs, and deposited in the cells with the egg, to serve as food for the young maggot.....This sub- stance often varies in colour, ac- cording to the different flowers from which it is separated ; ard though generally Avhite at firrt, it is afterwards changed, by the im- purities arising from the steam, Sec. of the bees. In some hives, this crude wax is said to amount to one hundred Aveight in a season, if the total consumption of the voracious young maggots be calculated in proportion to the incessant labour of their supporters; though the real wax in the whole hive may per- haps not exceed two pounds weight. 244 BEE Bee-Glue, formerly called Vir- gin-Avax (Propolis), is another bal- samic production of the bee, Avhich deserves to be noticed : it is a kind of natural mastich, of a reddish colour, and very agreeable smell. Small pieces of it are frequently found in the holes and crevices of the hives, where it is employed by those little artists, as a cement for excluding cold, rain, and noxi- ous insects. In the immense forests of Poland and Russia, where bees select their own habitations in the hollow trunks of trees, the bee-glue is deposited in much larger pieces, and of a su- perior flavour, to what is obtained in countries Avhere these insects are reared by the aid of art. The inhabitants of the former, gene- rally used it as a vulnerary appli- cation, to promote the healing of fresh A-vounds. Dr. James, in his *' Medicinal Dictionary," praises the bee-glue as being gently heat- ing, abstergent, and attracting : it softens indurated parts, alleviates pains, and induces cicatrices on ulcers. Stings of Bees are more vi- rulent than even those of Avasps, and sometimes attended with very violent effects. As the sting is barbed, it is always left in the Avound. When, therefore, a per- son is stung by a bee, the sting should be instantly extracted ; for, by its peculiar form, it will pene- trate progressively deeper into the wound, and communicate more of its poison, according to the time it is suffered to remain. It should be carefully pulled out Avith a steady hand ; for if any part of it breaks in, remedies will in a great measure be ineffectual. When the sting is completely extracted, the Avounded part should be sucked; and little, BEE if any, inflammation will ensue. If a few drops of spirit of harts- horn be immediately rubbed on the part affected, the cure will be more speedily accomplished. This spi- rit, however, acts only as a stimu- lating anti-spasmodic, enabling the vessels to overcome the spasm form- ed on the extremities. An appli- cation of Goulard-water, or a cold saturnine poultice, would produce a similar effect. Another simple remedy, equally efficacious and expeditious, is a so- lution of indigo in Avater; speedily applied to the injured part. Honey and olive oil may also be occasionally substituted with advan- tage ; but their application should be repeated till the pain ceases. For treating the stings of these insects, common salt is almost a certain and almost instantaneous cure, if the sting be internal the salt must be SAvallowed: in the contrary case the skin should be previously moistened, in order that it may more easily absorb the sa- line matter. [" The folloAving method of bleaching bees-Avax, Avas handed to the managers of the Pennsylvania Society for the encouragement of manufactures and the useful arts. " It is impossible to change the colour of a Avax cake into the ut- most degeee of whiteness, without increasing the surface of it, so as to submit the inside, as Avell as the outside, of the wax, to the action of thv? air. " This is effected by dividing the wax into an infinite number of thin ribbons, which is performed Avith ease, by the following me- thod. " The yellow wax, melted in a copper, is received, and kept in fusion in a wooden tub, raised five BEE BEE 245 •r six feet from the ground, and wrapped up in a number of thick blankets of wool. The liquor, or melted Avax,is run out of it through a pipe, fixed so high, that the sedi- ments or dregs may be left at the bottom, and is received in a fine bored cullender, or strainer, which lets all run through but the dross or scum. From the cullender the wax runs into a long narroAV trough, about five or six feet in length, bored at the bottom with about fifty small holes, ranged in one line, and separated by equal spaces. The Avax distributed in its fall by the holes into fifty threads, falls upon a cylinder of some hard wood, which is about five feet in diameter, and as long as the trough, and is fixed paral- lel, and directly under it. About one half of the thickness of this cylinder is sunk in the water of a long tub, like a bathing tub, Avhose width is equal to the length of the cylinder, and on which it is to be turned by a winch. It is plain, that each thread of melted wax must coagulate and grow flat, as it comes upon the cylinder thus dipped in cold water. As the cy- linder is kept turning, a thin rib- bon must necessarily be formed of all the streams of Avax successive- ly flattened and cooled, which will go off the cylender by the action of the water, as it comes into it; thus the surface of the Avater is presently covered Avith these fifty yelloAv ribbons, Avhich are formed upon, and incessantly spun off the cylinder, as it goes round. They are taken away with a sort of wood- en fork Avith three prongs: and carried to the field, to be spread upon long Avooden frames, raised two feet from the ground and covered Avith oil cloth, Avhere the whole scattered very thin, receives freely the impression of the air and dew. " This first operation brings it to the half yellow colour. From the bleach yard it is carried back to the second copper, Avhence it passes into the second tub, and from thence to a cylinder, and cor- responding tub as before, after which it goes to the yard to be bleached anew; this second ope- ration being perfectly like the fore- going. Lastly, they melt it in the third copper, from whence it pas- ses into a tub, and thence into the wax pot, from which they next pour it with a copper ladle into round moulds not very deep, where it coagulates into small cakes; these last grow hard in the water of a tub into which they are throAvn for that purpose, and then assume the highest degree of whiteness by a final bleaching. " In a small Avork one set of ves- sels will answer very well. " It appears, that a more consi- derable quantity of yellow or un- bleached bees-wax Avas exported in 1790, than in 1801. It has been constantly decreasing, altho' our population has so much increased, and our cultivation of buckwheat and clover (on both of which the bees feed) is greatly extended. This decrease of the exportation of bees-wax, considered relatively to our numbers, prov-es the in- crease of the domestic use of Avax. All those uses, the rubbing of fur- niture excepted, are of the nature of manufactures. The raising of bees in the broken and mountain- ous parts of Greece has always been found very profitable, and merits the attention of our coun- try. It is hoped, hoAvever, that after the industrious bees have pro- 246 BEE BEE duced abundance of yelloAV Avax for us, Ave shall not be such drones as to neglect the easy and beautiful manufacture of it into Avhite Avax. Bleaching this article may be Avell added to the list of household ma- nufacturing operations."] BEECH-TREE, or the Fagus, L. a plant of which there are four species, viz. 1. The sylvatica, or beech-tree, which rises sixty or seventy feet high ; 2. The castanea, or chesnut-tree ; 3. The pumila, or dAvarf chesnut-tree ; and 4. The Americana, [or chinquaphi\, or American chesnut-tree, .[fcrrugi- ncasuton]. Atpresent, Ave shall con- fine our account, consistently Avith the alphabetical order, to the first- mentioned species. This tree is easily raised from the mast, or seeds. If intended for Avoods, it reejuires the same management as the oak; in nur- series, it should be treated like the ash ; by sowing the mast in au- tumn, or even as late as January, to preserve it from vermin. Han- bury recommends, that a suffi- cient quantity of mast be gathered about the middle of September, when it begins to fall ; it should be spread upon a mat in an airy place to dry, after which it may either be sown immediately, or preserved in bags till the spring : the latter method, however, is preferable. It must be soAvn about an inch deep, in beds properly prepared. Several of the young plants will appear early in spring, but others will not come up till the spring folloAving. After having remained two years in this state they ought to be transplanted to the nursery. In the year, 1791, John Holli- day, Escj. of Dillorn, Staffordshire, planted 113,500 trees of different kinds ; among these, the principal Avere ninety-four thousand beech. His method of planting was, to make a round hole, about the dia- meter of two spades ; to preserve the best turf, and place it on the south-west side, Avhich, by expe- rience, has been found to answer tAAro useful purposes, namely, that of protecting the young plants from the storms of Avinter, and shedding the best soil in the bed of the hole, both Avinter and summer. It is but justice to observe, that this gentleman received the honorary reward of the gold medal from the Society for the Encouragement of the Arts. The beech is the most beautiful tree England produces. In state- liness and grandeur of outline, it vies Avith the oak. Its foliage is peculiarly delicate and pleasing to the eye, and therefore preferable to the lime, for ornamental plan- tations, particularly in parks, Avhere the mast in fruitful years will be serviceable to the deer : its branch- es are numerous and spreading, and its stem grows to a great size. The bark is extremely smooth and sifrery, which, together with the elegance of its foliage,gives a pleas- ing neatness and delicacy to its general appearance. Beeches thrive best on calcareous hills, and abound on the bed of chalk which runs from Dorsetshire, through Wilt- shire, Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex, and Kent; though they may also be met with in almost every coun- ty in England. An annoymous writer on agri- culture, says, that " great care should be taken to remoAre the beech from Avoods, that oaks may thrive ; without this precaution oak-forests have become of less value by several hundred pounds, from the intrusion of the beech." BE E In Hereford and Monmouth- shire, the beech is converted into charcoal; and in several counties, its leaves are used for beds, instead of feathers. They certainly have this advantage over feathers, that they may often be changed at a trifling expence. The wood of this tree is almost as necessary to cabinet-makers and turners, as oak is to the ship-builder; it is, however, very liable to be at- tacked by a Avorm which soon de- stroys it; this worm is supposed to feed on the sap that remains in the Avood, consequently, the best me- thod of preserving it, is to extract the food on which the worm sub- sists.—For this purpose, scantlings of beech, when large, should be laid to soak in a pond for several weeks, according to the size of the timber, and the season of the year. In the heat of summer this effect is more speedily produced. As the planks or boards are in danger of Avarping, they should be exposed to dry, but sheltered from the sun and rain ; laths ought to be placed between the boards, to prevent their contact, and the Avhole press- ed by a considerable 'weight. If they are large pieces for beams, joists, &c. they need only be left to dry gradually under sheds. By the first of these methods, the timber, when applied to use, Avill be found as good and durable as elm. It is, however, advisable when beech is used, to prepare that part of the timber which touches the brick-work, with a thick coat of pitch, to guard it against the effects of moisture. It should be felled in the heat of sum- mer, when full of sap, Avhich may then he * more • readily extracted from the wood than in winter. BEE 247 Beams and thick planks should remain about twenty Aveeks in wa- ter ; joists and rafters about twelve weeks; anel the thinner boards, about two months ; but afterwards they should all be gradually dried. When this wood is intended for small Avork, such as chairs, or turnery, it is recommended to erect a large copper, sufficient to hold two hogsheads, in which the wood may be boileel for two or three hours. This mode of preparing it extracts all the sap, makes it work more smoothly, and renders it more beautiful anel durable. BEECH-NUT or, as it is more generally called, Beech-Mast, is the seed or fruit of the beech-tree, and is recommended for feeding and fattening hogs. Theseanimals may be secured from the gargut, by moistening some pease or beans Avith Avater, sprinkling them with powdered antimony, and repeating this medicine every other day, for a fortnight. The same precaution should be used when hogs are fed upon acoms. In Hertfordshire, where beech-trees grow sponta- neously, swine are kept upon the mast only, and turned out about the middle of October, or some- times sooner. On this food they thrive very fast, and generally af. ford fine meat. When a, hog is intended to be killed for pickling, it should be previously taken home for a month, or five weeks, and fed with pollard, barley meal, or pease. It has, hoAvever, been remarked, that the flesh of swine fed upon beech-mast, is of too soft a nature, and easily boils away. When these nuts are eaten by the human species, they occasion giddiness and heael-ach ; but after being well dried and ground, they 248 BEE BEE have been found to make whole- some bread : they have also occa- sionally been roasted, and used as a substitute for coffee. BEECH - MAST OIL, is ex- pressed from the mast, after it has been shelled and pounded. It is used in many parts of France and Silesia instead of butter ; according to some accounts, it is little inferior to oil of olives. After the oily part has been extracted, the re- mainder of the mast, when dried, is said to be sweeter and more palatable than before, and may be easily converted into flour, of a similar taste and colour to that of wheat. In order to obtain pure oil, the following circumstances must be attended to : 1. The fruit must be carefully selected, and all musty, rotten, or tainted nuts, particularly those of the former year, should be rejected. 2. The shell of the nut should be taken off, Avhich is necessary not only for increasing the quan- tity, but also for improving the quality of oil, because the husk communicates a particular flavour. 3. The film Avhich surrounds the kernel, should then be remov- ed, an operation which is essential to the perfection of the oil and the flour ; for the film, though small in quantity, has an astringent dis- agreeable taste, which is plainly perceptible in both the oil and the flour, where its removal has been neglected. It may be separated by puttingthe kernels into hot water,as is practised in blanching almonds. 4. After the nuts are gathered, they should be preserved for two or three months in a dry place, so ^hinly spread out as not to allow them to heat, and often turned, to keep them sweet; then bruised like apples in a cyder mill. In this state, the mass should be put into bags of strong thin canvas, and pressed cold. The oil must be ex- tracted by three degrees of pres- sure : the first moderate, which gives the purest and finest oil; the second harder, Avhich yields it of an inferior quality; and the third as forcibly as the materials will bear, from Avhich an oil of an indiffer- ent quality is obtained. After each separate pressure, the bag should be turned, and the mast, after being well shaken, may be preserved for use. It has been asserted, that the mast, though three times pressed, is more nutritive than in its natural state. It may, therefore, not only be given as a wholesome food to poultry, sAvine, and oxen, but also be manufactured into hair-powder. [See an interesting extract from a paper in the Memorable Royal Aca- demy of Sciences in Paris, on beech- mast oil, in Dr. Anderson's re- creations, vol. 2d.] BEEF, the flesh of black cattle, prepared for food. This process is managed in various ways, accord- ingly as the meat is intended for keeping a longer or shorter time. The usual method of salting beef, being generally knoAvn, Ave shall refer to the article " Bacon," and briefly observe, that much elepends, 1. On the purity and quantity of the salt used for this purpose ; 2. On the size of the pieces, and the nature of the vessels in which they are kept; and 3. On the ingredi- ents which may be employed with a view to assist the operation of the salt. It is an established fact, that salt proves antiseptic only when used in a considerable quantity ; and that a weak brine strongly tends BEE BEE 249 to hasten the putrefaction of ani- mal substances : hence the neces- sity of making a liberal use of this article. On the other hand, as common sea-salt contains a very considerable proportion of mag- nesia, one of the most absorbent earths for promoting putrefaction, it is attended with great inconve- nience to those who are obliged to make use of large quantities of such salt; because it is difficult to sepa- rate that ingredient from this con- crete. Hence rock-salt, though appa- rently more impure, is doubtless more advantageous, and proper for the curing of beef; because its crystallization has been accom- plished by Nature, probably after the more earthy base, or mag- nesia, had, in a great measure, spontaneously subsided. We offer this as a mere conjecture ; as it is of little importance to the eco- nomist, how this combination of salt apd putrefactive earth has ori- ginally taken place, if we can sug- gest a method of purifying the former, so as to render it fit for the purpose intended : See Salt. At present, hoAvever, we shall treat first of the manner which, by ex- perience, has been found the most effectual for salting, preserving, and imparting a fine flavour to beef, mutton, anel pork. For this useful information we are indebted to M. Schedel, Avho has inserted the following recipe in the " Eco- nomical Journal," for September, 1795, printed at Leipzig : Take four pounds of common salt, one pound and a half of refined -sugar, tA-.o ounces of salt-petre, anel two gallons of pure spring water. Boil the whole over a gentle fire, and carefully scum off the impurities. After this brine has become cold, VOL. I. pour it over the meat, so that every part of it may be completely co- vered. In this preparatkm, the meat not only keeps for many months, but the pickle also has the effect of softening the hardest and toughest beef, and rendering it as mellow as the flesh of chicken. But, in Avarm Aveather, it will be necessary to express the blood from the meat, and to rub it well with fine salt, before it is immersed in the liquor....Young pork should not be left longer than three or four days in this brine, during which time it will be sufficiently softened ; but hams intended to be dried, may lie in it a fortnight, be- fore they are suspended. At that period, they ought to be rubbed with pollard, and covered with paper bags, in order to prevent them from becoming fly-blown. It farther deserves to be remarked that, though this liquor is more expensive at first than the common brine, yet as it may again be used after boiling it, and adding more water with a proportionate quan- tity of the other ingredients, its relative utility is obvious. We understand that the late Empress of Russia employed this composi- tion with uniform success, in her household economy. A very curious experiment was tried, in the year 1755, before the commissioners of the Victualling- Office, relative to the salting of beef. Both jugular veins of a bul- lock were opened, and the animal bled almost to death : the carcase was then cut open, the intestines were taken out, and Avhile warm, a tube Avas introduced into one of the large arteries, Avhich was in- jected with a strong brine: this circulated through all the blood vessels, so that the flesh of the bul- K K 250 BEE BEE lock was (apparently) salted alike throughout the Avhole body, for, on cutting a piece of the leg and lip, the brine issued from these parts. Some of this beef was then stoAved, and sent to sea with a view to ascertain how long it would keep in that state: but the result of the experiment has not been published. Indeed, it is not difficult to foresee the event: as the arteries were no longer pos- sessed of the power of absorption inherent in the living body, the muscular fibre, not being saturated with the saline liquid, would ne- cessarily putrify. [The superiority of the receipt commonly knoAvn by the name of Adml.Pocock's, is so well known to those, who have had an oppor- tunity of comparing it Avith others, that it ought to be generally adopt- ed. It is thus made....Water four gallons, Muscovado sugar or mo- lasses, a pound and a half of salt, (the bay or large sort) six pounds. Boil all together in an iron pot, or kettle, and skim it repeatedly, as long as any scum rises ; then take off the pot to stand till the liquor is cold. The meat being placed in the vessel meant to hold it, pour the cold pickle on the meat, till it is covered ; and, in that state, keep it for family use. If the meat is to be-preserved a considerable time, the .pickle must be boiled once in two months ; skimming off all that rises, and throwing in, during the boiling, two ounces of sugar, and about half a pound of common salt.... Mr. Bordley, says, the above pickle " is incomparable, also, for curing hams, tongues, and hung- beef. When tongues and hung- beef are taken out of the pickle, clean and dry the pieces ; then put them in paper bags, and hang them up, in a dry warm place. In very hot weather, it is necessary, before the meat is put to the pickle, to rub it Avell over with salt, and let it lie for one, tAvo, or three hours, till the bloody juices run off. If the meat in this case be in the least tainted, before it is put to the pickle, it Avill be entirely spoiled in a day's time in hot weather. Mr. Bordley recommends, to keep beeves intended to be killed, two days from food and drink; and, in a dark and close place.... He thinks, the animal bleeds bet- ter, handles lighter and cleaner ; and, that the meat looks better by observing these directions. The barrels are to be ready, sweet and well trimmed, and the salt pre- viously washed or refined, and ground small, before the beeves are to be slaughtered. Delay in salting is injurious. The pieces are, therefore, to be packed into the tight barrels, piece by piece, as they are salted; instead of bulking them on a frame, or dress- er to drain, as is the practice.... Coarse salt washed but not ground, having also been previously ready, is to be dissolved in fair cold wa- ter, until no more can be dissolved on stirring. Let it settle a day, or tAvo, skim off the top, pour off all but the dregs. When perfectly cool and clean, it is ready to be poured on the repacked beef...... After the meat has remained in the barrels six or eight days, head- ed up tight; it is to be taken out, resalted, and closely repacked in the same barrels ; the drainings are to be preserved and boiled: the barrels are then to be headed up. In a few days, bore a hole in one of the heads, or the bulge of each barrel, and fill the barrels with the prepared and boiled juices of the meat, saved from the first BEE BEE 251 salting and barrelling. Ever}- time of filling, the barrels being rolled leaves room for more liquor..... When there is no more of the prepared liquor, the barrels are next to be repeatedly filled with the plain strong brine made as a- bove, from the washed coarse salt, till they can take no more, after standing a short time. Here, as in preserving fish in barrels, the operations are distinctly to salt and to cure, (See Art. Herring.) and the boiled juices from the salted meat, must serve to beef what the pickle of fish cured, is to herrings. On boiling the blood and juices with the pickle, the firmer parts settle in a mass on standing, and the liquor pours off clean. The barrels ought not to be ex- posed either to the sun, or to damp. A cool dry place is best. Attention to the kind of salt used in salting meats, is of more con- sequence than is generally imagin- ed. The Hollanders who furnish the world with the finest flavour- ed herrings, (caught on the coast of Scotland), and derive an immense revenue from the trade, prevent by law the use of all kinds of salt in the herring business, except that from Portugal or Spain. It Avould be well to attend to this circum- stance in this country.] As to the properties of beef, in general, we shall only say, that it affords a good, strong, and invigo- rating nutriment, because no ani- mal food is equal to the flesh of a healthy, middle-aged bullock. Plethoric persons, however, as well as youth, in whom there is natu- rally a disposition to generate heat, should eat beef in great modera- tion. Hence, it is most service- able to the robust and active adult, employed in manual labour, who digests both fat and lean with equal facility. Yet, when salted, even the most tender beef is deprived of a great portion of animal jelly, so that we may Avithout hesitation pronounce, that one pound of fresh beef is eemal to one pound and a half in a salted or pickled state. BEEF-TEA, a preparation com- monly made for persons whose energy of the stomach is reduced, either after recovery from diseases, or in consequence of complaints arising from indigestion. It has been a common practice, to treat valetudinarians, or patients, Avith viper-broth, instead of beef-tea: the former, however, does not ap- pear to possess any superior effica- cy, though it certainly is more nau- seous than the latter. Beef-tea is usually made, by cut- ting one pound of the lean part of a buttock of beef into very thin slices, or shreds, and boiling it with nearly a quart of water : Avhen it grows hot, the rising scum must be taken off, Avhile it continues boiling for about twenty minutes. After it grows cold, this liquor is strained and decanted ; in which state it resembles a light infusion of • fine green tea : has a very grateful flavour, and is more strengthening than other broths. This recipe is similar to that given by the late Dr. Barry, in his classical" Trea- tise on the three different Digestions and Discharges of the Human Bo- dy," he. 8vo. 6s. 1759. But, on considering the effect of heat on the volatile and spirituous parts of the animal fibre, when immersed in a fluid medium, we venture to suggest a more economical me- thod of preparing beef-tea. In- stead of boiling the meat, we would advise to reduce it to a pulp (pro- vided it be perfectly clean and fresh} 252 BEE BEE Avith a wooden pestle, in an iron or marble mortar, and then to express all its juice. After straining this liquor, a little spice may be added, and an equal, or larger proportion of boiling water. Thus, the whole essence of the meat will be pre- served, part of which Avould be volatilized by cooking. Nor does it admit of a doutot, that such a liquor possesses greater bracing powers, than if prepared after the usual manner; and that half a pound of beef in this way, is near- ly equal to one pound used accord- ing to the former method. It is, however, a common error, that beef-tea, or any other broth, is more easily digested than solid food : on the contrary, all liemid nutriment of this nature, unless mixed v> ith bread, rice, barley, or other vegetable aliment, requires much stronger efforts of the sto- mach to effect digestion. Hence, Ave are induced to deprecate the custom of inundating, as it Avere, patients, after their recovery from chronic diseases, with soups, broths, and spoon-meat of every descrip- tion. BEER is a fermented, spirituous liquor, prepared from any farinace- ous grain, but generally from bar- ley ; and strictly speaking, is a vinous production, serving as a sub- stitute for wine. As Ave propose to give a short analysis of the art of Brewing, under that head, Ave shall here only observe, that all kinds of beer are produced by extracting a propor- tionate quantity of malt, Avhether made of Avheat, barley or oats, in boiling water; then suffering it to remain at rest, in a degree of Avamnth requisite to induce a vinous fermentation, and afterwards ma- naging it in the manner as will be described under the article just mentioned....See also Fermenta- tion and Malt. Although malt alone might doubtless produce a liquor pos- sessing the spirituous properties of beer, yet such a preparation would speedily turn sour and insipid, un- less impregnated with hops, or ano- ther aromatic and bitter principle, derived from vegetable substances which not only render it less liable to undergo the putrefactive stage of fermentation, but also impart to it an agreeable bitterness. Of this nature is the hop in a very eminent degree, the price of which, how- ever, has of late years been so ex- orbitant, that speculative brewers have substituted a variety of other vegetable ingredients, and especial- ly the wood, bark, and root of quassia (which see.) Independent- ly of the inferior price of this drug, when compared to the indigenous hop, there can be no reasonable objection to its use; as it is one of the few astringent substances pos- sessing a considerable share of the bitter principle, without partaking of the narcotic, heating, and in- toxicating propertiesof other plants. It would be difficult to lay down an accurate criterion of the best and most wholesome beer; as its rela- tive strength and flavour, or the immediate effect it produces on the palate, are generally considered the most essential requisites. But a well-brewed and wholesome beer, Avhether ale or porter, ought to be of a bright colour, and perfectly transparent, that is, neither too high nor pale; it should have a pleasant and mellow taste, sharp and agreeably bitter, without being acrid or tart; it should leave no particular sensation on the tongue; and, if drunk in any considerable BEE BEE 253 quantity, it must neither produce speedy intoxication, with its con- comitant effects of sleep, nausea, vomiting, head-ach, languor, Avant of appetite, &c. nor should it be retained too long in the urinary passages, or be too quickly dis- charged. Dr. James Storehouse, of Northampton, inserted the fol- loAving recipe for making Beer of Treacle, in the Gentl. Mag. for January, 1758: " To eight quarts of boiling water, put one pound of treacle, a quarter of an ounce of ginger, and two bay-leaves. Let the whole boil for a quarter of an hour, then cool and work it with yeast, the same as other beer:" or, " Take one bushel of malt, with as much water and hops as if two bushels of malt were allowed ; put seven pounds of the coarsest brown sugar into the Avort, while boiling. This makes a very pleasant liquor; is as strong, anel will keep as long without becoming sour or flat, as if two bushels of malt had been em- ployed."....Dr. Stonehouse adds, that the latter is the preparation used in the Shrewsbury Infirmary, and he does not hesitate to attest its wholesome and nutritive pro- perties. [Extemporaneous small beer. To tAvo quarts of common porter, add of molasses half a pint, of ginger two drachms, water just warm, four quarts; let the whole ferment in a warm place, then rack off. Another. Lemon Peal, one ounce, Creme of Tartar four ounces, hops one ounce, molasses one quart, ginger one drachm (sixty grains), bruised cloves four in number, lx>il- ing water four gallons; ferment with yeast. Beer, (Spruce.) To a four ounce gallypot of essence of spruce, add three quarts of molasses, two gal- lons of warm rain water, and half a pint of good yeast. Stir them well together until the liquor bears a froth, then put it into the cask and fill it Avith nine gallons of water shaking it well. Set it aside for tAvo or three days to ferment with the bung close, and place the cask in a cool cellar, and in twenty-four hours it Avill be fit for use. If in- tendedforbottlingletthe cask stand undisturbed three days before it be drawn off. For the second brewing, the sediment remaining in the cask may be used instead of yeast. If well-water be used it should be war- med a little. It ought to be mentioned that ve- ry great deceptions are practised, Avith respect to the essence of spruce brought here for sale from Nova Scotia.] In the sixth volume of the Mu- seum Rusticum et Commerciale, a work of considerable merit, we meet Avith a similar account of making a kind of Table Beer, Avhich from its cheapness, and agreeableness, is greatly preferable to that obtained from malt; and which has this farther advantage, that it may be made ready for drinking in three or four days :.... " Take fifteen gallons of water, and boil one half of it, or as much as can conveniently be managed ; put the part of the Avater thus boiled, Avhile it is yet of its full heat, to the cold part,.contained in a barrel or cask; and then add one gallon of molasses, commonly called trea- cle, stirring them Avell together; add a little yeast, if the vessel be new ; but, if it has been used for the same purpose, the yeast is un- necessary. Keep the bung-hole open till the fermentation appear to be abated, and then close it up. 254 BEE BEE The beer will, in a day or two af- terwards, be fit to drink. " It is usual to put tops of the spruce fir into the Avater which is boiled for making this beer ; and it is then called spruce beer. But, though this is done at sea, when such tops can be obtained, on ac- count of the scurvy ; yet it is not necessary, and may very well be omitted, where they are not to be easily procured. Scurvy-grass, or other herbs or drugs, used in mak- ing purl, gill-ale, or any other fla- voured malt liquor, may be added at eiiscretion. But a little of the outer rind of an orange-peel, in- fused in the beer itself, and taken out as soon as it has imparted a sufficient degree of bitterness, will both be found grateful, and assist in keeping the beer from turning sour. A very little gentian-root, boileel in the water, either Avith a little orange-peel, or Avithout, gives also a very cheap, wholesome, and pleasant bitter to this beer." The philanthropic editor of the u Reports of the Society for better- ing the Condition, and increasing the Comforts of the Poor," T. Ber- nard, Esq. very justly observes, (in a note, vol. i. p. 194,) « that it would be a very desirable thing, that the poor should be able to supply themselves Avith beer of their OAvn brewing, Avithout being obliged always to recur to the ale- house. I am aAvare of the disad- vantage of brewing in small quan- tities ; but that might be compen- sated for by great advantages, and by the superior flaA'our of beer brewed and drank at home....The following recipe is according to the proportions used in the House of Industry, at Shrewsbury : To half a bushel of malt, add four pounds of treacle, and three quarters of a pound of hops; this will make twenty-five gallons of beer; the cost of which (supposing the value of the grain to be only equal to the expence of fuel,) would be two-pence a gallon, Avhere the ma- terials Avere purchased to the best advantage; and, when bought at the retail shop, 'about three-pence. I have tried the receipt, and found the beer very good : it was fit for use in a fortnight; but it is not calculated for keeping, particularly in Avarm Aveather." We have been induced to com- municate these different methods of preparing a. pure and wholesome beverage, in order to contribute our mite, hoAvever small, towards alleviating the burthens of domes- tic life, at the present critical pe- riod. And though we should not succeed in persuading many per- sons, in the middle ranks of so- ciety, to adopt our suggestions, we still may flatter ourselves with the chearing hope, that they will hu- manely exert their influence on such families as may be benefited by brewing their OAvn liquors at home: instead of carrying, per- haps, one-half of their Aveekly earn- ings to the next ale-house, and de- barring their helpless children from that necessary assistance, for Avant of Avhich, they are often doomed to become additional burthens on the parish. Having pointed out the peculiar qualities of good beer, as Avell as the most easy and advantageous methods of using a substitute for malt, we shall next consider the most effectual Avay of clarifying this grateful beverage ; and of pre- venting it from turning sour, or restoring it to its former briskness, when it has, by mismanagement, acquired a tart or insipid taste. BEE BEE 255 Various schemes have been pro- posed, and many also adopted in breweries, for fining or clarifying different beers. But, as the supe- rior brilliancy and transparency of that liquor, depend in a great mea- sure on the quality of the malt and water....which properly belongs to the article " Brewing"....Ave shall here speak of that process only so far as it relates to the management of beer, after it is fermented. In Britain, malt liquors are ge- nerally fined with ground-ivy, the Glecoma hcderacea, L ; which plant however, will not produce the de- sired effect, if the beer has been breAved of bad malt, or otherwise mismanaged during the different processes of boiling and fermenting the wort. In such cases, and espe- cially if it has been too long boiled, the liquor may indeed become clear, by throwing into it an addi- tional cmantity of ground-ivy ; but it Avill retain an opacity, or turbid appearance, because this useful plant, being at first lighter than the liquid, and swimming on the top, gradually becomes heavier; and though it combines with the impurities of the liquor, and at length sinks to the bottom of the vessel, yet it is incapable of cor- recting and decomposing those mu- cilaginous and empyreumatic par- ticles, which partly arise from in- ferior malt, and are partly extri- cated by the action of too great and long-continued heat. Hence we shall propose the folloAving sim- ple remedy, which was communi- cated to us by a continental friend : After the beer is properly ferment- ed, and a few days old, take one gallon out of every barrel, and add two ounces of hartshorn-shavings (or filings, which are still better) to every gallon. Place the liemor over a moderate fire, till it boils, and rises to the top; let the decoction stand for an hour or two ; and, when milk-warm, pour the clear part of it into the barrels, accord- ing to the proportion before speci- fied. In this state, the casks must be left undisturbed for twenty-four hours, and then the beer should either be bottled, or drawn off into other vessels. This easy and cheap process, not only has the effect of completely clarifying the beer, but likewise preventing it from turn- ing sour, especially if it be laid up in bottles properly corked, and se- cured with a cement consisting of nearly equal parts of melted bees- wax, resin, and turpentine. [Beer, should never be forced more than a week before it is tap- ped, else it becomes stale. Dis- solve i an oz. of isinglass (fish glue) in as much small beer as wi}l make it of the consistence of thin size, put 1£ pints of this in a barrel, anel stir it about. To give new beer the hard fla- vour of old beer, aeld a small quan- tity of oil of vitriol. To ropy beer, add a little salt and roll the cask well.] There is considerable damage to be appreheneled from the effects of a thunder-storm, by which "ale or beer is apt to become turbid and flat, not only at the time when un- dergoing the critical process of fer- mentation in the tub, but likewise after it has been barrelled. In the former case, Ave are not acquainted with a better method than that of placing (on the ap- proach of a tempest) several ves- sels filled with lime-water, or where this cannot be immediately procured, only simple water con- tiguous to the fermenting vat; and, if it be convenient, both fluids in 256 BEE BEE their several vessels should be on a level, or the beer might be some- what lower than the water ; which attracts and absorbs the then pre- vailing acidity of the atmosphere. In the latter case, the injurious influence of thunder may be effec- tually prevented, by laying a solid piece of iron on each cask: this easy expedient we find recorded in the Gentleman's Magazine, for Ja- nuary 1753 ; and the anonymous writer adds, that the fact is ac- counted for in one of the volumes of the " Athenian Oracles." In summer, especially in Avhat is called the bean-season, Avhen all malt liquors are liable to become flat, the following remedy is often successfully employed as a preAren- tive : Take a neAv laid egg, perfo- rate it with small holes, put it in a clean linen bag, together with some laurel-berries, and a little barley ; then suspend it in the vessel con- taining the beer :....instead of the berries and barley, a few leaves of the Avalnut-tree may be substituted. Others put salt made of the ashes of barley-straAV, into the vessel, and stir it till it be incorporated ; or, if the beer is not very sour, a small- quantity of such ashes, or calcined chalk, oyster-shells, egg-shells, See maybe suspended in a similar man- ner, in order to absorb the acidity of the liquor, and recover its for- mer sweetness. Sour Beer, however, cannot be easily restored in the manner above stated, Avithout undergoing a new process of fermentation, or impreg- nating it, for that purpose, Avith fixed air. But as the latter is an expensive and troublesome method, Ave shall communicate another of more easy application. Glauber recommended his sal mirabile (common Glauber's salt), and salt- petre, to be put into a linen bag, and suspended from the top of the cask, so as to reach the surface of, the liquor: thus the beer will not only be preserved and strengthen- ed, but it may also, when flat, or sour,be restored to its former brisk- ness. The experiment may be easily made ; but we cannot vouch for its result. Another, and a better remedy, for recovering tart, or insipid beer, is the folloAving : add to every pint of such beer, from twenty to thirty drops of what is commonly called oil of tartar (salt of tartar, or pure pot-ash, reduced to a liquid state, by exposing it to the influence of the air in a cellar, or other damp situations) ; then mix it in the ves- sel, and the acidity will be quickly neutralized.....Those Avho live at a distance from apothecaries' shops or wish to prepare this liquid tar- tar, for occasional use on journies especially in summer, may easily make it, by dissolving two ounces of fine pearl-ashes in eight ounces, or half a pint, of pure Avater, fre- quently shaking the bottle, then suffering it to stand for twenty- four hours, and afterwards filtering the solution through a fine cloth. In this state it may be preserved for one year ; but beer thus re- stored ought to be drunk soon after it has recovered its briskness, or at least on the same day: and this small addition of vegetable alkali is, in warm seasons, rather conducive, than detrimental to health. When beer has aceiuired a pecu- liar taste of the cask, either from an unclean state of the veesel, or, by long keeping, from the astrin- gency of the oak, it is advisable to suspend in it a handful of wheat tieel up in a bag ; Avhich generally removes the disagreeable taste. BEE BEE 257 With respect to the physical pro- perties of malt-liquors, we shall observe, that they are possessed of various degrees of salubrity, ac- cording to the proportion and na- ture of their ingredients, namely, water, malt, and hops, of which they are composed ; and likewise, according to the manner in which they have been brewed. If, for instance, a large proportion of wa- ter has been used, the beer will be more proper for quenching thirst, than if it were strongly impreg- nated Avith the mealy and spiritu- ous particles of the malt. Hence, strong and SAveet beer is the most nourishing and beneficial to thin and emaciated persons ; stale and bitter ale, the most intoxicating ; and weak, half fermented porter, the most flatulent, and least ser- viceable to nervous, debilitated, hysteric, or asthmatic constitutions. But, as there is no peculiar test, by Avhich Ave can ascertain with critical accuracy, when the vinous fermentation is completed, and the acetous has commenced, every kind of beer must be barrelled, or bot- tled, before it is perfectly fer- mented, so that the completion of this natural process is effected in the stomach and boAvels. Strange as this proposition may appear to some persons, it is so true that the infinite diversity of flavour and briskness obtained from the same mixture, Avhen draAvn off into dif- ferent vessels, or bottles, cannot fail to strike the most superficial observer. Beer always contains a portion of fixed air, which being disen- gaged within the human body, is apt to occasion flatulency and looseness. To the mariner, how- ever, and those Avho arc subject vol. i. to scorbutic complaints, it is, in general, a wholesome beverage, though Ave cannot refrain from ani- madverting upon the prevailing, erroneous notion, that ale' or por- ter promote digestion : this is re- futed by the uniform evidence of experience, whence it clearly ap- pears that, of all liquids whatever, pure water is the most beneficial solvent of animaland vegetable sub- stances. Such individuals, there- fore, as make use of nourishing, and principally animal food, re- quire no beer for its digestion ; as the habitual drinking of malt li- quors will expose them to all the inconveniencies of plethora* or a full and gross habit. Others, how- ever, who live chiefly on vegeta- ble diet, and Avhose stomach is weak or impaired, may be greatly invigorated by a moderate use of strong and bitter malt-liquors....a purpose which the common table beer cannot answer. Persons of dry and rigid fibres, and whose bile is duly secreted, ought to drink such beer as is sufficiently strong and nourishing, without be- ing of an intoxicating nature : for this purpose, we would give the preference to Bell's Beer, over Burton, and other ales.—A thin, weak, and well-fermented beer, is diluent and Avholesome ; whence it agrees Avell with the plethoric, and persons disposed to corpulency. On the contrary, thick and nou- rishing malt-liquors are most ser- viceable to the debilitated, and especially to Avet-nurses; conse- quently sweet beers are chiefly nu- tritive, and more proper for daily use, on account of their being least exposed to dangerous adulte- rations ; Avhile the bitter kinds possess medicinal properties, and L L 258 BEE BEE should be drunk in a Aveak state of digestion, by individuals subject to acidity in the stomach. Lastly, every kind of beer is improper for the hysteric, the hy- pochondriac, and all those who are already of a full habit, or manifest a thick, atra-bilious blood ; but it is of peculiar service to the labo- rious, the lean, emaciated, and all such constitutions as are not liable to flatulency, or any organic dis- eases of the breast. BEESTINGS, or Breastings, in domestic economy, a term used for the first milk drawn from a cow after calving. This liquor is of a thick consist- ence, and yellowish colour; whence some persons have imagined, that it is impregnated with sulphur. As Nature has peculiarly designed the beestings for the purpose of cleans- ing the young animal from those viscid impurities which, in the hu- man subject, are denominated the meconium ; it appears rational, that the calf should partake of this be- nefit. Nor is this strong and viscid liquor calculated to afford a Avhole- some food ; though farmers, in ge- neral, give it to the indigent cot- tager. And, as' it is frequently eaten by children, Avho are scarcely able to digest it, Ave are of opi- nion, that it might be better em- ployed in feeding young calves, or by converting it into cheese. BEET, or Beta, L. a plant of Avhich there are four species, viz. 1. The maritima, or sea-beet, which grows spontaneously by the sea side ; and in salt marshes in many parts of England. 2. The hortensis, or common white beet, is cultivated in gardens for its leaves, Avhich are free|uently used in soups* The root of this species seldom attains a greater size than that of a mans thumb; the varieties are the white beet, the green beet, and the Swiss, or chard beet: these vary from one to the other, but have never been knoAvn to change to the first or third sort. 3. The vulgaris, or red beet, the roots of Avhich are large, and of a deep red colour. It is worthy of remark, that the larger these roots groAv they are more tender; and the deeper their colour, the more they are esteemed. The varieties of this species are the common red beet, the tumip-rooted beet, and the green-leaved red beet. 4. The cicla, which grows wild on the banks of the Tagus, in Por- tugal ; it is originally a small, white root, but there is a variety of it, called by the Germans Runkelrube, or the Beta albissima of Botanists, the culture of Avhich cannot be too strongly recommended. The stalk of the latter grows to the height of seven or eight feet; and the root Aveighs from eight to twelve pounds. This variety of the root of scarcity is the true Mangel-wurzel, which some years since excited much at- tention in Britain ; though there is reason to suppose that other species of the beet have been frequently mistaken for the Beta albissima ; the root of Avhich is white, juicy, and streaked with red fibres : it is sown like cabbage, and to prevent injury to the fibres of the root, the young pi ants must not be pulled, but dug up with a spade ; they should then be transplanted on the same day (either in rainyAveather or after sun-set), on a rich Avell-ploughed and manured soil, in rows, from sixteen to eighteen inches asunder. [Sow very thin, and cover the seed BEE BEE 259 an inch only ; it will continue in the ground a month. In trans- planting, the root are not to be shortened, but the leaves cut at the top; then set the plant with a dibber, so that the upper part of the root shall appear half an inch out of the ground. The roots, however, will not arrive at perfecti- on, unless the plants be twice hoed, at least, and stripped of the super- fluous leaves every fortnight, or three Aveeks.] From the first and third species before-mentioned, some German chemists have extracted sugar; but the difficulty and expence at- tending the process are so consider- able, that this vegetable will never be worthy of the particular atten- tion of the gardener for this pur- pose ; though it will ahvays deserve to be cultivated as food for man and cattle. [Dr. Achard has published at Berlin the results of a second trial, made on a large scale, to extract sugar from that vegetable, under the direction of a commission ap- pointed for that purpose by his Prussian majesty. By these re- sults, it appears that 1500 epiintals of beet-root gave 5953 pounds of raw sugar, 450 quintals of refuse, and 100 ounces of syrup. Thirty quintals of beet-root, cultivated ac- cording to the process of Achard., gave each six pounds three ounces of raw sugar. The refuse may be employed as coffee, or to distil spirit, and is more profitable for feeding cattle than beets themselves. The raw sugar may be refined for every purpose whatever. Accord- ing to a calculation made by the commission charged to examine this discovery, it Avill produce to Prussia an annual saving, or rather an advantage, of two millions and a half of rix-dollars. Brandy and arrack are made at Berlin of the beet-root. Both are highly praised. Mr. Bartley, Secretary to the Bath Agr. Soc. England, informs the Editor, that the Avhite beet, or mangel-wurzel, is very easily cultivated in a deep melloAV soil. He made some trials of this root, from Avhich it resulted that 16lb. of the root will produce about 1 lb. of concrete sugar, and that the maxi- mum crop of an acre of ground might produce, at least, two tons weight of sugar, or forty tons of the root, in drills three feet asunder, with plants eighteen inchesdistance in the rows. He obtained roots weighing upwards of 16lb. each. It would be Avorth an experiment to ascertain, in the United States, the value of an acre of this root as a winter food for cattle, and to compare it with other food as tur- nips, brewer's grains shorts, linseed- jelly, hay, and cut straw, &c Sec.] The common white, as Avell as the red beet, should be sown sepa- rately in the [middle or end] of March, uponanopenspotof ground. Itreemires a rich soil (such as is fit for wheat), and a low situation, Avhich may be watered occasional- ly. The ground should be tho- roughly cleared of weeds, and ma- nured at least a year before it is sown. As the manuring is a mat- ter of great importance, it should be repeated before the soil is ploughed, which ought to be per- formed three times. Immediate- ly after the third ploughing, the ground should be carefully harrow- ed. A rake, with teeth from nine to twelve inches distant, should be drawn across it, so as to mark lines, which must be crossed bv others 260 BEE BEE transversely. If the seed be fresh and sound, one is sufficient, but if doubtful, two may be dibbled about the depth of an inch, at each of the points where these lines cross. [The beds of beets must be f of a yard wide, and the plants six or eight inches a-part. When they come up about a finger's length, and if the ground be moist, divide and transplant them into other beds.] An important discovery has late- ly been announced by Professor Scherer, of Vienna, and which promises to be of great service in domestic economy, especially Avhen barley is scarce. He found from experiments, that beet-roots afford an excellent substitute for malt, if they be deprived of the greater part of their juice by pressure, then dried, and treated in the same manner as grain intended to be used for that purpose. The beer thus brewed Avas found to be per- fectly Avholesome and palatable ; being little inferior to that prepared from malt. Besides, the juice ob- tained from those excellent roots, may be advantageously converted into sugar. When the plants have acquired six or eight leaves each, the ground should be thoroughly Aveeded ; care being taken not to deprive them of the surrounding soil. If more than one plant appear on the same spot, the superfluous ones must be re- moved ; and wherever a seed has been unproductive, another should be sown. When the ground is quite cleared from weeds, the plants grow rapidly, and all farther care is unnecessary. The harvest generally com- mences about the end of [August]. The rcpt should be dug up with great care, and the leaves and stalks cut off, to prevent it from grow- ing ; but, in performing this oper ration, though it is necessary to cut them close, great care must be taken that the root itself be not injured. In the year 1755, M. Lulin de Chateauvieux, being of opinion that a great part of the expence of dung and labour might be saved, if pot-herbs could be cultivated in the same manner as wheat accord- ing to the neAv husbandry ; he sow- ed a bed forty feet long and six Avide,with beet, and two others with carrots. Where the plants grewtoo thick, they Avere thinned, so as to leave a distance of fourteen or fifteen inches between the beets, and seven or eight between the carrots: neither of them Avere watered. On digging up the beet-roots, in Oc tober, they Avere all nearly five or six inches in diameter. He as- cribes their luxuriant growth to the method of culture without ma- nure. According to Mr. Roc que, the white beet is a most excellent fodder for cows ; the best way of feeding them, is to mow the plant, and give it to them fresh eluring the summer. The red beet is possessed of mild aperient crualities, and affords hut a Aveak nutriment to the human body. Hence it should be eaten for supper, by persons of a costive habit : but, though it be easily di- gested, its use is sometimes attend- ed Avith flatulency ; for which rea- son, it Avould be more Ayholesome and nourishing, to eat the beet with other more mealy roots, such as potatoes ; or Avith those of an aromatic nature, for instance, pars- ley, celery, Sec. BEE BEETLE, or Scarabaus, L. a well-known insect, of which there are eighty-seven species, of one common formation, having cases to their wings, Avhicharethe more necessary, as they mostly live be- neath the surface of the earth. Be- sides their diversity of shape and colour, the difference in the size of the various species is also con- siderable, some not being larger than the head of a pin, while others, as the elephant beetle, are as big as a closed hand. The May-bug, or cock-chaffer, is the species most deserving of our notice, on account of the formida- ble ravages it commits on the ter- ritory of the husbandman. In some seasons, it has been found to swarm in such numbers, as to devour every vegetable production ; our princi- pal object, therefore, will be to point out the best means for its des- truction. It is necessary to ob- serve, that the insect is first gene- rated in the earth, from the eggs deposited by the fly, in its perfect state. About three months after- wards, the insects contained in those eggs break the shell, and crawl forth in the form of a small grub or maggot, which feeds upon the roots of vegetables ; anel con- tinues in this concealed and des- tructive state for more than three years, gradually growing to the size of a walnut. It is the thick Avhite maggot with a red head, so frequently found on turning up the earth. At the end of the fourth year, these extraordinary insects emerge from their subterraneous abode ; when, in the mild eA'en- ings of May, an attentive observer may perceive them rising from the earth in numbers before him. The willow seems to be their favourite food: on this tree they BEE 261 hang in clusters, and seldom quit it till they have completely devour- ed its foliage. Rooks are particu- larly fond of them, when in their state of grubs ; and hence the pre- judice of farmers against these birds is ill-founded. In Ireland, the damage done by the beetle was at one time so great, in a particular district, that the inhabitants came to the resolution of setting fire to a wood of some extent, in order to prevent their propagation. As these insects cannot support the heat of the mid-day sun, and therefore conceal themselves till evening under the leaves of trees, the most effectual way of destroy- ing them is to beat them off Avith long poles, and then to collect and burn them : or, according to Dr. T. Molyneux, they are very be- neficial for fattening poultry. Smoke is extremely offensiA-e to them, consequently, the burning of heath, fern, or other Aveeds, Avill prevent their incursions in gar- dens, or expel them if they have entered. The leaves of the young turnip are supposed to be devour- ed by this fly, Avhich Dr. Darwin conceives may be destroyed by rolling. That very troublesome insect, the common black beetle, may be ex- tirpated by placing a hedge-hog in the kitchen, during the summer nights. A German writer recommends to place a bundle of pea-straw near their holes, as they are fond of creeping into it, and after a short time, it should be suddenly taken away, and burnt. Another simple method, which is so Avell known, that it scarcely deserves to be mentioned, is, to place a vessel with any lieiuid, with pieces of board in an oblique di- 262 BEL BEL rection, to facilitate their ascent to the edge of the A'essel, over Avhich they Avill fall into the liquid. Belladonna. See Deadly Night- shade. BELLES LETTRES, or polite literature, a very comprehensive expression, though not easily de- fined. Our industrious predeces- sors, the editors of the " Encyclo- padia Britannica," justly complain that they cannot find either a clear definition,or a succinct explanation, of the Avords Belles Lettres, nor any- summary of those sciences Avhich are comprehended under this ge- neral anel collective denomination. With diffidence Ave venture to as- sert, that, to us, it does not appear a vague term ; and though neither the voluminous French nor English Dictionaries contain an analysis of this expression, our difficulties, in this respect, are by no means in- surmountable. When we consider the influence or effect of polite literature on the moral anel intellectual character of man, it may be defined to be that extensive ramification of the sub- jective sciences, Avhich are peculi- arly calculated to improvethe heart, and enlarge the mind, in contradis- tinction to those objective, or physi- cal sciences, Avhich principally tend to increase the knowledge of the senses, while they explain the na- ture of external objects, anel are therefore denominated Natural and Experimental Philosophy, including Natural History in all its branches. Of the latter, we shall treat in their proper places; and confine our analysis, at present, to the Belles Lettres. These useful and elegant acquirements distinguish the ac- complished scholar from the illite- rate mechanic, Avho studies and applies the effects of motion, form, variety, and action, while the former endeavours to account for their causes. It would be inconsistent with our plan, to accompany every department of polite literature with a separate definition, which would extend this article beyond its proper limits. Hence we shall content our- selves, Avith exhibiting merely an outline of the branches of this ex- tensive tree of learning. 1. The Arts of Speech, compre- hendin g Oratory and Poetry; av hich last is again divided into epic, dra- matic, lyric, Sec. 2. Ornamental Gardening. 3. Elegant Architecture. 4. Music, vocal and instumental. 5. The Gymnastic Arts, such as Dancing, Fencing, Riding, &c. 6. The Art of Drawing, which includes Painting, Engraving, Carv- ing on Wood, Basso Relievo, and Mosaic Work. 7. The Art of Printing, the most simple, but the most extensively useful. We cannot, on this occasion, differ in opinion from the Monthly Reviewer, who, in the 79th volume of that work, when analysing the Transactions of the Royal Society of Edinburgh, makes the folloAving judicious remarks; The French, beside many other similar institu- tions, have long had their Academy of Sciences, and also that of Bellh Lettres. BELL-FLOWER, or, Campa- nula, L. a genus of plants compre- hending eighty species. The fol- lowing are the principal: 1. The rotundifolia, or Round- leaved Bell-flower, produces blue or Avhite floAvers, in August and September. See Withering, 241; and Curtis, Lond.fasc, 4. t. 21.... Cattle and Sheep browse upon these flowers Avith avidity; and BEL they are likewise useful in dyeing. The milky juice of the Avhite flow- ers is said to impart a beautiful green colour, by the addition of alum. The juice of the blue flow- ers alone has been used for paint- ing and writing; and Dambour- ney asserts, that Avith these flow- ers he dyed avooI and cloth of a fine vigogne colour, having previ- ously immersed them in a proper- ly diluted solution of bismuth. 2. The rapunculus, or Rampion Bell-flower, with straight stalks, two feet high, undulated leaves, lance-shaped, and nearly oval; its small blue or Avhite floAvers, which appear on the upper part of the stem, blow in July and August.... See Withering, 242 ; and Engl. Bot. t. 283....Formerly the rampion was cultivated in gardens, for its roots, which were used in salads; and though much neglected, it is often met Avith in a Avild state, on fallows, and beside causeways. 3. The latifolia, or Giant Bell- flower, with oval lance-shaped leaves, a very simple cylindrical stem, solitary floAvers (in August), and pendant seed: it grows in thickets and under hedges. See With. 243, and Engl. Bot. t. 302. The roots of this species are like- wise an useful addition to salads. 4. The rapunculoides, or Creep- ing Bell-flower, with heart and lance-shaped leaves, a branchy stalk, pendant flowers, and re- flected flower-cups. The roots of this species are likewise esculent, and cattle are fond of its leaves. 5. The glomerata, or Clustered- Bell-flower, Avith angular stems, and sessile flowers terminating in a head. It grows on high calcareous lands, and blossoms in July and August. See With. 244, and BEL 262 Engl. Bot. t. 90. Although bees eagerly frequent the flowers of this species, yet it should be carefully extirpated from meadoAVS and fields as being a pernicious food for cattle. Bellis. See Daisy. BELLOWS, an apparatus so contrived, as alternately to inspire and expel the air. This machine is too Avell known to require a par- ticular description. It is used in chambers, kitchens, forges, and founderies, as likewise for organs, and other pneumatic instruments, to introduce into them a proper vol- ume of air. Anacharsis, the Scythian, is recorded as the inventor of bellows. Their action bears an affinity to that of the lungs; for what is called blowing in the former, is an illus- tration of respiring in the latter. Animal life may, on some occasions be supported by blowing into the lungs with a pair of bellows ; espe- cially in accidents of drowning or suffocation. Hessian Bellows, a contrivance for supplying a mine with fresh air, for the respiration of the miners. This machine has been improved by M. Pa pin, Avho has changed its cylindrical into a spiral form. BELLY-ACH, or Colic, is a dis- ease which may arise from vai ious causes, and is generally accompa- nied Avith costiveness, though some- times also Avith diarrhoea, especially in children. Adults frequently be- come liable to attacks of this ma- lady, in consequence of excess in eating, or after partaking of incon- gruous mixtures, or dishes, Avhich may occasion a distention of the bowels. The symptoms of this complaint, in infants, are, sudden cries, con- traction of the thighs towards the 264 BEN BEN belly, striking with the feet, distor- tions of the face, not unlike those in laughing, hastily seizing and re- linquishing the maternal breasts, acid eruptions, Sec.....If the child be costive, it will be necessary to relieve the bowels with very small doses of manna and rheubarb, given in chamomile tea, every half hour, [or a small portion of castor-oil] till they produce the desired effect: sometimes a small quantity of the poAvder of gum arabic is an useful addition. When green feces are discharged, a few drachms of mag- nesia with one or two of rhubarb, according to the age of the infant, may be given with advantage ; but the greatest benefit will, on such occasions, be derived from a proper application of clysters, composed either of a decoction of chamomile, with a spoonful or two of sweet oil, and a few grains of salt; or milk, oil and sugar, or merely a solution of Avhite soap and water ; which last is the cheapest, and most effi- cacious. Cataplasms, or the com- mon poultice, made of bread, milk, and oil, may likeAvise be applied to the loAver part of the belly, and re- peated as often as they grow cold ; adding every time the necessary portion of new milk, to give them a proper consistence.....See Colic Belts acroamatic. See Quacke- ry. Benefit of Clergy....See Clergy. BENE-SEED, the production of an American plant. [This plant (pronounced Binne) is the Sesamum, L. and was pro- bably introduced into the Southern States, by the negroes from Africa. It abounds in many parts of Africa. and Sonini and Brown, both late traA'ellers into Egypt, say, it is much cultivated there, for the purpose of feeding horses, and for culinary purposes. The negroes in Geor- gia, boil a handful of the seeds with their alloAvance of Indian corn. Probably, no plant yields so large a proportion of oik] According to a letter of Mr. J. Morel, inserted in the first vol- ume of the " Transactions of the American Philosophical Society;'" this seed yields an oil of an equal and even preferable quality, to Florence oil: one hundred weight of seed will produce ninety pounds of oil; its cultivation, therefore, deserves to be strongly recom- mended. BENT GRASS, or Agrostis, a genus of grasses comprehending forty-one species. 1. The Spicaventi, or Silky Bent- grass : it grows to the height of three or four feet, on dry sandy fields. See With. 126.....When young, it affords a tolerable fodder for cattle ; but should not be given to them in its mature state, as its sharp leaves are apt to injure their gums. With a decoction of the brown floAvers and stalks of this species, linen may be dyed of a pleasing yellow colour, merely by repeated dippings, without any farther addition, except a little alum, Avhich gives it a greenish shade. The stalks are used by the Russians and Tartars, for ma- nufacturing beautiful basket-work. 2. The stolonifera, Creeping Bent-grass, or Blue Squitch-grass, grows in moist fields and meadows; see With. 131. It deserves to be cultivated, as it produces a wholesome and nourish- ing fodder for cattle ; and, at the same time, suppresses the growth of mosses, and other Aveeds^ by its quick and luxuriant vegetation. BENZOINE, a concrete resin- ous juice, obtained according to BEN Mr. Dryander, from the Styrax benzoe, L. a tree which grows chiefly in the island of Sumatra.... It is imported from the East Indies, in large masses composed of white and light brovm pieces, or yel- loAvish drops, which easily break between the fingers. This resin is extremely fragrant, especially when heated ; and, in a cold state, it has a sweetish taste. When exposed, in proper ves- sels, to the action of fire, benzoine yields a considerable proportion of a w hite saline concrete, called : Flowers of Be?izoine or Benzoic acid: this chemical production is obtained in a cheap and easy way, invented by Mr. Scheele ; his process is as follows : Take one drachm of the salt of benzoine, and dissolve it gradually in three ounces'of boiling water; then strain the liquor, Avhile hot, into a glass vessel which has previously been heated ; let it stand till the crystals are formed, and afterwards care- fully decant the solution, and se- parate all the salt, by repeated gentle evaporations and crystalli- zations. As, on account of their extreme lightness, flowers of ben- zoine cannot be easily reduced to powder, it is advisable to preserve them in the form of a fine precipi- tate. When properly made, they have an agreeable taste and a fra- grant smell. Spirit, of wine dis- solves them completely, as well as water by the assistance of heat.... In order to keep them suspended in the latter medium, sugar must be added, and, in that state, they may be easily formed into a bal- samic syrup. In diseases of the breast, from twenty to thirty grains were formerly administered, and held in great estimation as a pec- VOL. I. BEN 265 toral and sudorific medicine ; but they are at present seldom em- ployed, except as an ingredient in the well-known paragoric elixir, and likeAvise in the camphorated tincture of opium. As a perfume and cosmetic, the solution of flowers of benzoine still maintain their reputation at the toilette ; though, Ave believe, that their efficacy is not superior to the crystals of lemon juice, or even the salt obtained from the ashes of bean-straAV, and that their agree- able odour is the only superiority Avhich they possess. Animal Benzoine, or a Salt of similar properties to that obtained from the Styrax benzoe, L. has lately been discovered by the French chemists, in the urine of diflerent animals especially horses, from which it may be precipitated in a white powder, by adding only a small portion of muriatic acid, or spirit of salt. But this benzoic acid has been found in still greater quantities in the urine of cows and horses, in which hay and. straAV had been soaked. Hence, near cow-houses and stables, Avhere great numbers of cattle are fed, it may be easily manufactured in the large way, by combining this va- luable acid with lime, and after- wards precipitating it by the ma- rine acid, which will effectually remove the offensive smell. Probably the urine of all herba- ceous animals contains the benzoic acid in abundance; as it appears to be chiefly derived from the sweet-scented spring grass, or An- thoxanthum odoratum, L. This fra- grant substance has likewise betn discovered in the urine of infants, by M. Scheele: he, however, observes, that he could precipitate M M 266 BER BER it in considerable quantities, only during that stage of infancy, when there existed no phosphoric acid, or similar salt in the urine ; or, in other words, Avhile the phosphoric ingredients were employed by Na- ture in the formation of bones...... This remarkable phenomenon also proves, that the benzoic acid is actually generated in the animal economy ; because the first nour- ishment of infants, the mother's milk, does not appear to contain it. Hence the French chemists have endeavoured to explain the cause of the rapid formation of bones during early infancy ; be- cause the phosphoric acid of the urine of infants, and the phosphat of lime contained in milk, both be- ing deposited in a solid form, con- tributed to the consolidation of the animal frame : and these two sub- stances have, by chemical analysis, been found to serve as the basis of bones. BERBERRIES, or Barberries, the Berberis, L. a shrub better known by tae name of Piperidge bush. There are three species of this plant, but one only is indige- nous, namely, the vulgaris, or Common Berberry, which grows spontaneously in hedges, and is frequently cultivated in gardens for its fruit, which makes a good pickle, and is used for garnishing dishes. It rises to the height of eight or ten feet, with many stalks, which have externally a Avhitebark, but yellow on the inside : the stalks and branches are thorny ; the leaves are oval, and obtuse, with slightly serated edges ; the blos- soms grow at the wings of the leaves, in small bunches, like those of the currant bush : these are suc- ceeded by oval fruit, which are at first green, but when ripe turn to a fine red colour. The flowers ar> pear in May and June ; anel the fruit ripens in September.....See With.- 350, and Engl. Bot. 42. There are three varieties of this shrub, viz. the berberry, which bears a fruit without stones; the berberry with white fruit; and the eastern berberry, or that which produces a black and sweet fruit. The first sort is generally propa- gated by suckers, but the method of planting by layers is preferable. The best time for laying down the branches, is in autumn ; and the young shoots of the same year are most proper forthispurpose.. When this shrub is cultivated for its fruit, it should be planted singly, and not in hedges, as was formerly the practice ; the suckers should be cut up every autumn, and the luxu- riant shoots pruned ; by this means the fruit will be more abundant, and of a better quality than that Avhich grows wild. The third spe- cies should be planted in pots, and sheltered as soon as the young shoots are taken off, till the plants have acquired strengh, when they may be removed to a warmer situa- tion. Berberries, on account of their astringent properties, have occa- sionally been prescribed in bilious diarrhoeas. The Egyptians used them in fluxes and malignant fe- vers, for abating heat, invigorating the body, and preventing putrefac- tion. For this purpose the fruit, according to Dr. Lewis, should be macerated for twenty-four hours, in twelve times its weight of water, with the addition of a little fennel- seed ; the liquor, when strained, should be sweetened with sugar, or syrup of lemons, and given libe- rally as a drink. The flowers, when near, are offensive to the smell, but BER BER 267 at adistance their odour is extreme- ly fragrant. An infusion of the bark in white wine, is purgative. In distillation, the berries, when previously bruised, have been mix- ed with the grain to increase the quantity of spirituous liemors. The roots, boiled in ley, impart a yel- low colour to wool; and in Po- land, leather is tanned of a beauti- ful yellow with the bark of the root. The inner bark also, with the ad- dition of alum, has been employ- ed for dyeing linen of a similar colour. The effect of this shrub upon wheat lands is truly singular ; and though well known to botanists, is not familiarto every farmer- When growing in the hedges near corn- fields, it changes the ears to a dark brown colour, and prevents them from filling ; nay, its influence in this respect has often extended across a field to the distance of three or four hundred yards: it should, therefore, be carefully eradicated from lands appropriated to tillage. It is eaten by cows, sheep, and goats, but rejected by swine. BERE, or Barley-big, or Square Barley, is a very strong luxuriant plant, both in grain and straw: it resembles barley in growth, and cone-wheat in size. It is generally cultivated in Ireland, for malt, in the best and richest soil, usually after potatoes : the time of sowing is between Michaelmas [28 Sept.] and Christmas, at the rate of one barrel, which is two hundred weight, to an Irish acre ; and its produce is said to be, generally, from twenty to thirty-five barrels an acre. Two bushels and a half of seed to an English acre, will be in the same proportion. For the information of those readers who. are not acquainted with the differ- ence in the measurement of land, we shall observe, that five Irish are equal to eight English acres anel fifteen perches, or 70,560 feet to an Irish, and 43,560 feet to an English, acre. The culture of bere is recom- meneled in this country.... 1. Be- cause it will succeed extremely Ayeli in any soil fit to produce a crop of barley, and even on cold stiff lands, where barley will not thrive ; 2. As it ripens from one to three weeks sooner than any other grain : 3. It may, if generally cultivated, be in- troduced into our malt-distilleries, not only instead of barley, but, what is of much greater import- ance, as a substitute for wheat, of which so much is used in these ma- nufactories : and, lastly, it may, with great advantage, be given to swine, instead of barley-meal. Moreover, it has been asserted, that an acre of land will yield more of this grain than of barley. Bere labours under the disad- vantage of not being easily clear- ed of its anns, or beard. This has been imputed to carelessness in cleansing, or preserving it from moisture in the stacks; but the difficulty is more probably owing to the grain being cut doAvn before it is thoroughly ripe.....If sown earlier than usual, it is still more productive. A correspondent, in a letter to the editors of the " Museum Rusti- cum," &c. mentions a curious cir- cumstance respecting the cultiva- tion of this grain : " Amongst some wheat," says he, " that Avas sown last year, a small quantity of bere happened to be mixed; all of which bere is now in the ear, and in the most flourishing condition I ever beheld: even the long-continued easterly Avind has not in the least 268 BER BER affected it; and we may expect it to be ripe very soon. I could earn- estly desire some of your readers to try the experiment, and shall endeavour to have it done myself. There are many of your readers who Avould be glad that this grain had a better character as to its cleanliness ; and I am persuaded it would come into great esteem every Avhere." BERGAMOT, a variety of the citron, produced by grafting the latter on the stock of a bergamot- pear-tree. The fruit has an exqui- site smell and flavour; and its es- sence is highly esteemed as a per- fume of the fmit, by cutting it into small pieces, and expressing the oil into a glass vessel. A fragrant Avater is distilled from the peel, as follows : Take the rind of three bergamot-pears, one gallon of pure spirit, and four pints of Avater; draw off a gallon in a balneum maris, or water-bath, anel add a sufficient quantity of refined Avhite sugar ; or, take of the essence of bergamot three drachms and a half, spirit of wine three pints, and of volatile sal ammoniac one drachm; dis- til off three pints in a similar man- ner. BERNE-MACHINE,an engine for rooting up trees, invented by P. Sommer, a native of Beme, in Switzerland. This machine consists of three principal parts: the beam, the ram, and the lever. The beam is composed of two planks of oak, three inches thick, and separated by two transverse pieces of the same wood, of an equal thickness. These planks are perforated Avith holes to receive iron pins, upon which the lever acts between the tAvo sides of the beam, and is shift- ed higher as the tree is raised out of its place. The sides are secured at the top and bottom by strong iron hoops. The pins should be an inch and a quarter, and the holes through which they pass, an inch and a half in diameter. When the machine is in action,the bottom of the beam is secured by stakes driven into the earth. The ram, which is made of oak, elm, or some other strong woqd, is capped Avith three strong iron spikes, Avhich take fast hold of the tree. This ram is six or eight inches square ; and an incision is made longitudinally through its middle, from the lower end to the first ferule, in order to allow room for the chain to play round the pully, Avhich should be-four inches thick, and nine in diameter. The ram is raised by means of the chain, which should be about ten feet long, vyith links four inches and three quarters in length, and one inch thick. One end of this chain is fast- ened to the top of the beam, Avhile the other, after having passed through the lower part of the ram, and over the pully, terminates in a ring or link, the two ears of Avhich serve to keep it in a true position between the two planks of the beam. The hook, which should be made of very tough iron, is inserted in this ring ; and the handle ought to be two inches thick Avhere it joins to the hook, and gradually lessen in thickness up to the arch, which should be about half an inch in di- ameter. On each side of the upper pin is a semi-circular notch, which rests alternately on the pins, Avhen the machine is worked. The hole and arch serve to fix a long lever of wood, by means of two iron pins, and thus it is raised or low- ered at pleasure, in order to render the Avorking of the machine easy, in whatever part of the beam it may BER B E Z 269 be placed ; for, Avithout this con- trivance, the extremity of the lever would, when the handle is near the top of the beam, be higher than men standing upon the ground could reach. This machine is worked in the following manner: it is placed against a tree, and the end of the beam supported by stakes. The iron handle is placed in the open- ing between the two planks of the beam, and the wooden lever fixed to it, by means of the iron pins. The hook takes hold of the chain, and one of the iron pins is thrust into the outer row of holes, by which means the exterior notch will rest on the pin, which will be the centre of motion ; and the end of the lever being pressed downwards, the other notch will be raised, at the same time the chain, and con- sequently the ram. Aftenvards, the other iron pin is to be put into the hole in the inner row, above that which was before the centre of motion, and the end of the lever elevated or pushed upwards, the latter pin on Avhich the notch rests then becoming the centre of mo- tion. By this alternate motion of the lever, and shifting the pins, the chain is draAvn upwards over the pulley, and consequently the whole force of the engine exerted against the tree. There is a small Avheel joined to the end of the ram op- posite the pulley, in order to lessen the friction of that part of the ma- chine. From this account, the reader will perceive that the machine is a single pulley, compounded with a lever of the first and second order. As the push of the engine is given in an oblique direction, it Avill ex- ert a greater or less force against the horizontal roots of the tree, in proportion to the angle formed by the machine with the plane of the horizon ; and the angle of 45° is the maximum, or that wjien the machine will exert its greatest force against the horizontal roots of the tree. Bethlehem. See Star of Beth- lehem. BETONY (Wood), or Betomca officinalis, L. a low perennial plant, growing wild in woods and thick- ets ; its flowers, which appear in July and August, are of a purplish colour, and stand in spikes on the tops of the stalks.....See With. 530 ; and Curt. Lond.fasc. 3. t. 33. Tanners have employed this plant as a substitute for oak-bark ; and, according to Dambourney, the leaves and branches of the betony, when in blossom, may be used for dyeing wool of a permanent dark broAvn colour, when previously dressed in a Aveak solution of bis- muth. The leaves and flowers have a bitterish taste, accompanied with a weak aromatic flavour. They are mild corroborants, and, Avhen in- fused, or gently boiled, the decoc- tion may be drank as tea : a strong tincture made in rectified spirit, has proved beneficial in laxity and debility, when taken in small, re- peated doses. It is remarkable, that the roots of this plant greatly differ in qua- lity from the other parts: the for- mer are bitter, nauseous, and, like the roots of hellebore, occasion violent diarrhoea, when taken in a small dose. It is farther affirmed, that betony affects those who ga- ther any quantity of its leaves and flowers, with a disorder resembling the effects of intoxication. BEZO AR, in natural history and medicine, is a calculous concretion, 270 B I E B IG found in the stomach of animals of the goat kind. It is a morbid substance, possessing neither taste nor smell, and it cannot be consi- dered in any other light than as a Aveak absorbent. In a more com- prehensive sense, bezoar includes all concrete substances formed in the intestines of animals : hence pearls, and the concretions called crab's eyes, belong to the class of bezoars. Fossil Bezoar, is a kind of stone formed like the animal bezoar of several coats round some extrane- ous body. It is found in Sicily, in sand and clay-pits. Bidens. See Marygold. BIENNIAL PLANTS are those of only two years duration. Several vegetables are of this tribe : being raised from seed, they generally at- tain perfection the first year ; and in the following spring, or sum- mer, they produce their floAvers and seeds, and soon afterAvards de- cay. Biennials consist of esculents and floAver-plants. The former in- clude the cabbage, savoy, carrot, parsnip, beet, onion, leek, Sec. and the latter, the Canterbury bell, French honey-suckle, Avail-flower, stock July-flower, Sweet-William, China-pink, common-pink, carna- tion, scabious, holly-hock, tree- mallow, vervain-mallow, tree-prim- rose, honesty, or moonwort, Sec all of which, if sown in March, April, or May, rise the same year, anel in the following, shoot up into stalks, flower, and produce perfect seeds in autumn. Though most of the biennials dwindle in the third year, a few of them, particularly holly-hocks, Avail-flowers, carna- tions, and pinks, produce flowers which, however, are generally small, and of faint colours. Hence it is necessary to raise an annual supply from seed ; though the three last mentioned plants may be propagated by slips and layers. [BIGNONIA CATALPA. A native deciduous tree of the United States, covered with a smooth brown bark ; the flowers are produced in large branching panicles, towards the ends of the branches ; they are of dark white, with a few purple spots, and faint stripes of yellow on their inside. The flowers are succeeded by long taper pods, containing seeds. The branches dye wool a kind of cinna- mon colour. Thunberg mentions that the Japanese lay the leaves on parts of the body affected with pains ; and that a decoction of the pods is esteemed serviceable in the asthma. Poultry are very fond of the seeds, and thrive on them. The timber of the catalpa tree, makes very durable fence posts. Bignonia crucigera, or cross vine, is so called from the pith dividing the stem longitudinally into four ecmal portions, so that when cut through transversely, it exhibits the appearance of a cross. A decoc- tion of this plant is much used in Carolina in cases of yaws, and other obstinate ulcers, by way of diet drink, combined with sasafrass root, China-brier root, and poly- pody. Bignonia sempervirens, or Caro- lina yellow jesamine, is a beautiful vine, rising with slender stalks, which twist themselves round the neighbouring plants, and mount to a considerable height. The flowers are trumpet-shaped, and have a very sweet scent. It grows luxuriantly and naturally in most parts of S. Carolina, and is a native of some parts of Virginia. When in flower, it perfumes the air to a considera- B I L We distance. The flowers are yel- low, and smell like the wall-flow- cr.] BILBERRY, or the Vaccinium, L. is a plant of which, according to Bkchstein, there are twenty-six species, while others enumerate only fifteen. 1. The Myrtillus, or Bilberry, which grows in abundance, in woods and heaths. See Wither- ing, 370, anel Eng. Bot. 456. The berries, when ripe, are of a dark blue colour; and, on account of their astringent cmality, are occa- sionally given in diarrhoeas, with good effect. In Scotland, they are eaten by the Highlanders, in milk; and likewise used in tarts and jel- lies : they produce a violet-colour- ed dye, which requires to be fixed with alum. The juice, mixed with a fourth part of lime, verdi- grise, and sal ammoniac, affords a purple pigment used by artists. The young tender leaves of this plant, properly dried, are an ex- cellent substitute for tea. 2. The uliginosum, or Great Bilberry, is found on marshy heaths. See Withering, 370, and Eng. Bot. 581.....The fruit of this spe- cies is not so much esteemed as that of the preceding, because, if eaten in any quantity, it is apt to occasion head-ach. 3. The Vitis Idaa, or Red Whortle Berry, which grows on heaths,and inwoods. See Wither- ing, 371, and Eng. Bot. 593. Its fruit is acid, anel cooling. In Swe- den, it is eaten in the form of a jelly. The young leaves of this spe- cies might also be advantageously used instead of tea; from which they can scarcely be distinguished. 4. The Oxycoccus, or Cranberry, is common in bogs covered with B I L 271 mosses. See With. 372, and Engl. Bot. 319. Great quantities of these berries are used in confectionary, as deli- cipus ingredients in tarts ; to which they impart a rich flavour. It de- serves to be added, that this fruit may be kept in a fresh state for many years, merely by immersing it in a bottle filled with spring Ava- ter, and closely stopped. Silver, boiled in a decoction of the ber- ries, acquires a whiter and more beautiful lustre. All the species of the bilberry are antiseptic; and their juices, mixed with sugar, and properly fermented, may be converted into grateful and Avholesome domestic wines. BILE, is a yellow, or greenish, saponaceous liepior, secreted in the liver, and collected in the gall- bladder, into which it regurgitates, as itAvere, into a blind gut, and is thence discharged into the lower enel of the duodenum, or beginning of the jejunum. (See Aedo3U.n}. Its principal use appears to be that of sheathing or blunting the acids contained in our daily food, and thus enabling the milky liquor, called chyle, after being mixed with bile in the duodenum, to enter the lacteal veins, or milk vessels, which convey a nutritious supply to the whole body. (See Lacteals). Hence an increased quantity of aliment requires a greater proportion of bile, to pro- mote its digestion ; anel, according- ly, as the stomach is- more or less distended with food, it presses on the gall-bladder to obtain a propor- tionate cmantity of bile, Avhich is then mixed with the chyle, as be- fore described.....See Chyle, and Liver. 272 B I L BIL Bile is a very important fluid in the animal economy, insomuch, that from an excessive secretion of it, the inhabitants of Avarm climates become liable to many tedious and often fatal diseases. A supera- bundance of bile in*the first pas- sages, either flows again into the stomach, and is productive of ge- neral languor, nausea, a foul tongue, loss of appetite, and indi- gestion ; or, Avhen it is determined to the intestines, it is generally at- tended Avith a painful diarrhoea. In the temperate climates, however, a vitiated and superfluousbile is more frequently diffused through the whole body. In this case, the skin assumes a yellow colour, the urine becomes sensibly impregnat- ed with bilious matter, the pulse is preternaturally quick, and the pa- tient complains of heat, thirst, head-ach, and other symptoms of fever. His body becomes gradu- ally emaciated, and his visage strongly indicates the disorder of the constitution.....Various are the causes of this extensive derange- ment of the different bodily func- tions ; but we may safely assert, that most persons, particularly in hot climates, contract bilious di- arrhoeas, colics, fevers, and chronic diseases of the liver, by intemper- ance in eating animal food, drink- ing spirituous liquors, and by brav- ing the sudden transitions of tem- perature, from the intense heat of day to the piercing chiliness of night, anel thus checking insensible perspiration....one of the most ne- cessary excretions of the human body. Forthe cure of such maladies as may arise from numerous and diversified causes, no general plan can be safely prescribed. But it deserves to be remarked, that the greatest benefit may be derived from adopting a proper diet and re- gimen, both Avith a view to prevent and relieve bilious diseases. Hence we Avould advise persons liable to eructations, flatulency, and costive- ness, which arise from a vitiated bile, to abstain from all acrid, watery, and oily food, especially, butter and fat meat; to abandon hot liquors, such as tea, coffee, punch, he. to regu- late the depressing passion of grief, anger, and anxiety ; to exchange a hasty and irascible for a more placid and composed temper ; and on the whole to pursue a calm, steady, and temperate course of life. Vitiated Bile, is a common dis- ease in infants, who are suckled by intemperate orpassionate nurses, or, in consequence of their be- ing fed with improper nutriment, such as viscid pap made of flour, instead of biscuit or well baked bread ; animal food, before they are twelve months old; gingerbread and pastry. This complaint manifests itself by green stools, and an acrid quality of the bile, which even ex- coriates the flesh : the child ex- presses its pain by incessant cry- ing, and drawing up of the legs. Nature, therefore, frequently re- moves the evil by copious evacua- tions, which are spontaneously ex- cited by the acrimonious state of humours. Hence the impropriety of administering chalk clysters, combined with laudanum, or other cordials, anel thus in a manner locking up the poison within the intestines ; while the infant be- comes most effectually intoxicated. Thence arise convulsions, enlarg- ment of the mesentery, a principal, though remote, cause of consump- tion ; the scald head; and scro- phula in all its forms.....Instead of following those dangerous prac- BIN tices, which are calculated only to aggravate the complaint, two cir- cumstances ought to be attended to, namely. 1. To remove the sti- mulating matter, by repeated small doses of tamarinds, combined Avith a solution of manna ; and 2. To counteract the preternatural weak- ness and irritability of the intesti- nal canal, by the addition of gum arabic, powder of salep-root, or a little jelly made of Iceland moss. In cases, however, where considera- ble acidity prevails, it will be ad- visable to give a few grains of magnesia, in intermediate doses: but, if the spasmodic strictures of the abdomen continue, a medical practitioner should be consulted, whether it be proper to have re- course to a few drops of laudanum, or paregoric elixir, remedies which ought never to be intrusted to dab- blers in medicine. BINDWEED, or Convolvulus, L. a genus of plants, comprising forty-three species, 1. The tirvensis, or Small Bind- weed, a common plant in fields and hedges, but particularly trou- blesome in gardens of a gravelly soil ; its white anel red flowers ap- pear in June and July. See With. 239, anel Engl. Bot. 312......As the roots of this plant, particularly in wet seasons, strike deep into the ground, and injure the growth of corn, they ought to be carefully extirated, and transplanted on the sandy banks of rivers and lakes, where they greatly tend to bind the soil. Bees are uncommonly partial to the flowers of the con- volvulus ; and it is eagerly eaten by black cattle, rnd sheep. 2. The sepium, or Great Bind- weed, likewise a pernicious plant in gardens ; it thrives under moist hedges; its stalk grows to the VOL. I. BIO 273 height of several feet, and bears white or purplish blossoms in July and August. See With. 240, and Engl. Bot. 313. The root of this species is very acrid anel purgative to the human const) tion ; but does not affect swine, though eaten in large quantities. Its flowers are frequented by bees. 3. The soldanella, or Sea Bind- weed, grows on the sandy shores of the sea, but Cannot be long preserved in gardens; its purple flowers blow in July. See With. 240, anel Engl. Bot. 314.....This species is also possessed of cathar- tic properties, so that half an ounce of the juice of the root, or one dram of the powder, is a strong dose. The leaves of the Sea Bindweed have often been externally applied for the reduc- tion of dropsical swellings of the legs ; and, it is asserted, with good effect. Among the exotic species of this plant, Ave shall only mention the Convolvulus Jalappa, or Jalap, a native of Spanish America, which affords the drastic medicine of that name ; the Batata., [or sweet po- tatoes. See Potatoes], a delici- ous root, but too delicate to thrive in the open air of England ; the scoparius, or Bushy Bindweed, which grows wild in the island of Barrancas, and affords, it is said, the fragrant oil and wood of Rho- dium ; and, lastly, the Scammor.iu, or Syrian Bindweed, from the in- spissiated juice of which is prepar- ed the efficacious purgative sub- stance known by the name Scam- MONY. Bindweed, Black : See Climb- ing Buckwheat. BIOGRAPHY, an account of the lives anel characters of remark- able persons. It is the most en- N n 274 BIO tertaining and instructive branch of history, and admits of the descrip- tion anel passion of romance, Avith this essential difference, that the characters anel incidents ought not only to be agreeable to Nature, but strictly true. Hence no books are so proper for the amusement and instruction of youth, who, by read- ing them, are incited to the imita- tion of great and virtuous actions ; while they are deterred from vice, by an animated delineation of its baneful effects. As the subjects of biography are the lives of either public or private persons, many useful observations may be made from authentic ac- counts of those Avho have been eminently beneficial to society. Nay, even the lives of immoral characters may serve as a Avarning to deter others, and especially youth, from listening to the tempta- tions of folly and vice. Philanthropists, who have ex- posed their lives, or employed their faculties in the service of their fel- low-creatures, deserve that their memory should be perpetuated, both as a tribute of public gratitude, and as virtuous examples in the annals of history. The love of fame is natural to the human mind; anel, when properly directed, is at once, productive of happiness to the individuals, and general benefit to mankind. In the lives of great men, their public characters are principally to be regarded ; but, as the world is inquisitive, the investigation of their private conduct may also occasion- ally be useful, to illustrate the in- fluence of example. On the other hand, too minute an inquiry into the foibles and infirmities of emi- nent men, is an illiberal and cen- surable curiosity. Among the an- cient biographers, Plutarch is BIR generally allowed to excel. On the relative merits of the moderns, we shall not venture to pronounce ; as this Avould be an invidious and un- pleasing task. BIRCH-TREE (Common), or Betula alba, L. is one of the indi- genous trees Avhich has already been mentioned under the head of " Alder-tree," though the latter is only a species of the same genus, and ought more properly to have been denominated Betula alnus, L. The white or common birch- tree, is not of a large groAvth, but when cultivated in a favourable soil, and a good situation, it rises to a considerable height. There is a degree of elegance in its ge- neral appearance in summer, and the bark in winter is frequently variegated with reel and white. It is easily cultivated by the usual method ; but, Avhen raised from seed, the young shoots of the birch should remain two years in the seminary, and then be trans- planted in rows. They may also be propagated by layers: for this purpose, a sufficient number of plants should be placed at a distance of three yards from each other, in a soil which has been twice turn- ed by the spade. If, in the follow- ing year, they should produce no shoots, they may be lopped to with- in half a foot of the ground, to form the stools, in consequence of which they will germinate Avith vigour in the folloAving summer. In autumn, the young shoots should be plashed near the stools, and the tender twigs layered near the ends. Thus managed, they will have taken root, and become fine plants, the following autumn. Leonardi remarks, in the 2d volume of his " Natural History," p. 629, Germ. edit, that the flower BIR catkins of this tree, when boiled in water, affords a good substitute for Soap. Beside the utility of the sap or juice of the birch-tree, in afford- ing a delicious wine, it appears from theexperimentsof Hermestaedt, that sugar may be obtained by in- spissating the juice of the variety, called Black Birch. Such sugar, however, is not only of an inferi- or emality, but less in quantity, than that prepared from the Sugar- maple. The wood of the birch is of very extensive use, as we have before stated under the article Alder. Prof. Pallas informs us, that the Tartars cover their huts with its bark, and the navigators of the Volga construct of it portable boats, cradles, &c. it is also used in fu- migations, to purify a vitiated at- mosphere. The Laplanders cut the outer bark into thongs, of which they manufacture ropes, baskets, and other utensils ; and it even forms some part of their wearing apparel: it is also used in dyeing; and, as a substitute for oak-bark, in tanning. The Swed- ish house-wives employ this bark, after burning it to a certain degree as a cement for broken china, or earthen-ware. When boiled with alum, it affords a dye of a dark- red colour. Dambourney asserts, that the bark is better for tanning, Avhen dried, than in a fresh state. l-'or this purpose, it is cut into small pieces, and boiled for half an hour in pure water ; and the prepared hides are steeped in it, while luke- warm. The ley is again boiled on the two folloAving days, and the steeping of the leather as often repeated ; after which it is sus- pended to dry in the air. Leather BIR 275 thus prepared, is said to be water- proof. The leaves of the birch give a yellowish colour to avooI, Avhich has been previously prepared with alum. Those collected in the spring, however, are not so pro- per for dyeing, as the autumnal leaves because the former pro- duce a greenish tinge ; but the lat- ter afford a beautiful yellow colour. They have also been used in the dropsy, itch, he. either applied ex- ternally, or in decoctions taken by the mouth. The fungus which grows on the tmnk of the birch-tree, is a very good styptic; and when boiled in water, beaten, and dried in an oven, it makes excellent touch- wood. Birch-twigs are used for fishing rods and brooms; as well as by bird-catchers, Avho smear them Avith bird-lime. Birch-Wine was formerly in considerable repute, as a remedy for nephritic disorders, but is dis- used in modern practice. As it is a rich cordial, and, according to Dr. Needham, an excellent re- medy for consumption, and the scurvy, we shall acquaint our rea- ders with the method of prepa- ing it; though we have no expe- rience of its medicinal powers. The juice or sap of the birch- tree, should be extracted about the beginning of March, Avhen the buds begin to swell, and before they have opened their leaves. An incision, or hole must be made in the trunk, almost as deep as the pith, under some branch of a well-spreading tree, on its south- Avestern side, and about one foot above the ground: a hollow tube should then be fitted to the aper- 276 BIR ture, through Avhich the sap will flow similar to distillation. On ap- plying a little mould to the orifice, the wound will heal, and the bark afterwards closes. Some persons are of opinion, that the sap drawn from the trunk of the tree, is not so pure as that obtained from its higher branches. - To prevent this juice from fermenting, till a suffi- cient quantity is procured, the bottles in which it is collected, ought to be immediately stopped. One of the best methoels of making birch-wine is as follows: to every gallon of the sap, add a pint of honey, or a pound of sugar, stir the whole together, and boil it for an hour Avith a few cloves, and a little lemon peel ; at the same time carefully scum the rising impurities. When cool, a few spoonsful of new ale should be added, to induce a proper degree of fermentation ; and, after the yeast has settled, the wine should be bottled up, and kept for use. If this liquor be prepared with pro- per attention, it becomes so strong that the common stone bottles, into which it is decanted, fre- quently burst. Birch-Tree (Dwarf), or, Be- tida nana, L. Avhich groAvs on moist heaths, and rarely exceeds three feet in height. It has roundish leaves, tender branches, a smooth bark, and its flower-catkins are uncommonly small: this diminu- tive tree, however, is more com- mon in the marshy parts of Russia, Sweden, and on the mountains of La;t'and and Norway, than in Britain. From its fibrous roots, the Norwegians and Laplanders manufacture very beautiful car- pets ; and its leaves are said to produce a more delicate yellow BIR colour, than those of the common birch. BIRD is a biped animal, pro- vided with a bill, and covered with feathers, having two wings, by which it is enabled to fly, except in a few instances. The science which treats of birds, in general, is called Ornithology: to which article we refer the reader, for farther particulars respecting the feathered tribe. But the uses, &c. of the various species, will be stated under their different heads. Bird-Call is a stick split atone end, and containing a leaf of some plant, by which the notes of dif- ferent birds are imitated, and they are thus attracted to the net, snare, or lime-twig. Thus, a laurel-leaf fitted to the bird-call, enables a skilful whistler to produce accents resembling those of lapwings, a leek, those of nightingales, &c. Bird-Catching is the art of taking birds, whether for the table, for the pleasure of their song, or with a view to destroy them, on account of their depredations...... This art is practised by several persons in the vicinity of large towns, for a livelihood ; and is now reduced to a degree of systematic perfection. It is, however, at- tended with considerable expence. We shall, therefore, as concisely as possible, describe the ingenious contrivances of bird-catchers, chief- ly for the information and amuse- ment of our country readers. The nets are a most curious in- vention, about twelve yards and a half in length, and two and a half wide : the birds are caught by the nets flapping over each other. Wild birds fly, as the bird- catchers term it, chiefly during September, October, and Novem- BIR ber; and also in March, though not in such abundance. The pip- pet, a small species of lark, ap- pears in England, about Michael- mas, and is succeeded by the wood- lark, linnet, gold-finch, chaff-finch, 8cc. none of which can be caught in great numbers at any other time. The birds are, generally, on the wing from day-break till noon ; and, as they always fly a- gainst the wind, there is great con- tention among the bird-catchers, to obtain the best situation ; for ex- ample, if the wind be westerly, the person who arranges his nets far- thest to the east, uniformly has the greatest success. The bird-catcher is generally provided with five or six linnets, two gold-finches,two green-finches, one wood-lark, a red-pole, yellow- hammer, and, perhaps, a bull-finch: these are placed at short distances from the nets, in small cages : he has, besides, what are called^wr- birds, which are fastened to a mo- veable perch, placed within the net, where they can be raised at plea- sure, and gently lowered when the wild bird approaches. As there is known to be a supe- riority between different birds of the same species, with respect to their song, bird-catchers always contrive, that their call-birds may moult before the usual time. This is effected by putting them into a close box for a month, under two or three folds of blankets, and leaving their dung in the cage, to increase the heat. In consequence of premature moulting, the cap- tive bird not only begins to sing at a time when the wild ones are out of song, but his notes likeAvise are louder and more shrill than theirs. BIR 277 Having arranged his nets, the bird-catcher disposes the call-birds at proper intervals ; as their sight and hearing is infinitely superior to his OAvn. As soon as the wild birds are perceived, notice is given by one of the call-birds to the rest; they invite the wild ones by what is called short jerks: this invitation is so strong, that the latter are stopped in their course, and, it frequently happens, that, if half a flock only are caught, the remainder will immediately after- wards alight in the nets. Nightingales are not birds of flight: like the wren, and other singing birds, they only move from hedge to hedge ; and are caught by a trap-net,somewhat larger than a cabbage-net, and the bottom of which is surrounded by an iron ring : the trap is baited with a meal-worm. The common way of taking larks is by nets, called trammels, which are thirty-six yards long, and six yards broad ; they have six ribs of packthread, which are fastened to poles at the ends, about sixteen feet in length. A net thus prepared, is in the night drawn by five or six men over the ground, which it is made to touch at short intervals. When the birds fly up against the net, it is let down, and all under it are taken ; such as woodcocks, snipes, partridges,quails, &c. Larks in the day-time are caught in clap- nets, fourteen or fifteen yards long, and two and a half wide. They are enticed by a decoy-lark, and like- wise by small fragments of looking glass fixed in apiece of wood, and placed in the middle of the net, so as to receive a quick and circular motion, by means of a string! This net, however, is employed only till 278 BIR the second week in November, as larks do not sport in the air, except in fine weather. But in gloomy days, the larker changes his engine, and makes use of a trammel-net, about twenty-seven feet long, and five broad ; which is fixed on two poles eighteen feet long; and car- ried by men who, Avhen passing over the fields, and perceiving a lark hit the net, drop it, and thus secure the bird. We shall pass over the singular and hazardous methods of bird- catching practised by the inhabi- tants of the Orkney Islands, and in other parts of the world. But the following manner of taking birds alive, by means of a. fusee or musket is so ingenious, that we shall com- municate it to our readers. It was invented by M. de Vaillant, during his travels in Africa: if his plan be practicable, it will certainly facilitate the researches of the Or- nithologist....Put a smaller or larg- er quantity of gun-poAvder into the musket, according as circumstances may require. Immediately above it, place the end of a candle of suf- ficient thickness, ramming it well down ; and then fill the barrel with water up to the mouth. When at a proper distance, fire the musket thus loaded at a bird, which will only be stunned, by watering and moistening its feathers, and may be easily laid hold of, before it has time, by fluttering, to injure its plumage. [The only remark now to be made upon birds, is with respect to their very great utility in de- stroying the numerous tribes of in- sects, Avhich prove so injurious to the fruit and fruit trees in the U. States. Tor this benefit, they are entitled to our protection, instead of meriting the wanton destruction BIR to which they are continually ex- posed by the idle and inconsiderate. Many of those birds which seem to court our protection, by build- ing their little nests, about our houses, are especially entitled to our gratitude. The motacilla sialis, or blue bird, he. Certhiasfamiliaris, or house Avren, deserve particu- larly to be noticed. These birds live almost entirely on insects, many hundreds of Avhich are daily devoured by them. All the species of Motacilla, are also great devourers of insects ; in that genus are included among others, m. mitrata hooded tittmouse, m. canadensis, black throat Avarbler, or blue fly catcher ; m. regulus, or golden croAvned wren. The nume- rous families of Fringilla, in which are included, the finch, sparrow, and titt, or chirping birds, and the tribe of Parus or tittmouse, are not less useful. But probably the most valuable of all birds is the Caprimulgus Virginianus, night- hawk, or whip-poor-will ; this bird lives almost entirely on insects, and particularly deserves our protection, for it chiefly flies about in the even- ing, at Avhich time only, many de- structive insects make their appear- ance, and which would escape the birds of the day. The common blue jay of our country is also very useful, in de- stroying the cockchaffer, scara- boeus melolontha, of which, that bird is very fond.] BIRD-LIME is a viscid matter used for catching birds.....There are different Avays of preparing this substance, but it is generally made of holly bark, which is boiled ten or twelve hours; and when its green rind is separated, it is covered up in a moist place, to stand for a fortnight. It is after- B I R Avards reduced to a tough paste, and washed in a running stream, till no impurities appear. Next, it is suffered to ferment for four or five days during which it must be fre- quently skimmed. Afterwards it is mixed over the fire, with a third part of nut-oil, or thin grease, and thus rendered fit for use. Dr. Darwin observes, that this resinous material possesses un- common adhesiveness to feathers, and other dry, porous bodies ; whence it has obtained the name of bird-lime. It much resembles the caoutchouc, or elastic resin, im- ported from South America; and is also similar to a fossil elastic bi- tumen found near Matlock, in Derbyshire ; both in its elasticity and inflammability. He farther suggests, that holly may be worth cultivating, both for its wood, and the quantity it contains of this elastic matter. On this occasion, the Doctor mentions a remarkable fact, deserving the attention of rural economists. About thirty years ago, a person who purchased a wood in Yorkshire, sold the bird- lime prepared from the bark of the numerous holly-trees, to a Dutch merchant, for nearly the whole sum given for the wood. If, there- fore, this substance could be har- dened, it mi:tilt probably be sub- stituted for the caoutchouc, or In- dia-rubber. The German method of prepar- ing bird-lime is, by putting about two pounds of lintseed oil into a pot, to simmer upon the fire for some time, after which it is taken off, and lighted with a match. In this state of inflammation, it con- tinues about two hours, when half the epiantity will be consumed...... By elipping from time to time, a stick into the oil, and trying the BIR 279 matter between the fingers, its pro- per glutinous consistence may be easily ascertained; on which the pot is covered, and the flame ex- tinguished. Water bird-lime may be pre- pared as follows : Take a pound of strong and good ordinary bird- lime, wash it thoroughly in spring- water, till it become perfectly soft; next beat it well, that the water may be entirely separated ; then dry it, put it into an earthen pip- kin, and add to it as much capon's or goose-grease as will render it fluid. In this state of the prepa- ration, add two spoonsful of strong vinegar, one spoonful of oil, and a small quantity of Venice turpen- tine. Let the whole boil for a few minutes over a moderate fire, stir- ring it during that process. Then take it off; but previous to its use, warm it, and cover the twigs with it in every direction. This is the best bird-lime for snipes, or such birds as frequent marshy places. The proper method of using bird- lime is, to cut down the principal branch of a tree, the twigs of which are straight, long and smooth. The AvilloAV and birch are the best for this purpose. After the superfluous shoots have been lopped, and the twigs cleaned, they must be uniformly covered with the bird-lime, to within four inches of the bottom ; but the main stem should not be touched by this matter. Great care is required in laying it on properly ; for, if two thick, it will alarm the birds, and prevent their approach ; and, if too small a quantity be applied, it will not hold them when they settle upon it. The branch thus pre- pared, must be erected in a hedge or among some growing bushes.... If employed in summer, it should 280 BIR BIR be placed in a quickset hedge, in groves, bushes, or white-thorn trees, near com-fields, he. but in winter, the best spots are near stacks of corn, sheds, or barns...... The sportsman ought to stand as near the limed bush as possible, and imitate the notes of birds with a call. When a bird is attracted to the bush, and entangled by the lime, the sportsman should suffer it to remain; as by the fluttering it makes to disengage itself, others will be attracted to the bush, and thus several may be taken together. The hours proper for this sport, are from sun-rise till ten o'clock; and from one, to sun-set. Another method of attracting birds is, by a stale; a bat makes a very good stale, but it must be fixed so as to be perceptible at a distance. An owl is still more eligible for this purpose, being folloAved by the small birds, whenever it appears. If a live owl, or bat, cannot be obtained, the skin of one stuffed will likewise answer; nay, even the image of an owl carved in wood, and painted of the natural colour, will produce the desired effect. When the German composition is used, care should be taken to seize the bird, when entangled, to prevent it from attempting to free itself by its beak ; otherwise it will be destroyed by the deleterious ef- fects of the oil. Singing-birds [in England] are principally the nightingale, black- bird, thrush, starling, linnet, lark, red-breast, canary-bird, bull-finch- and gold finch. Their first note is termed chirp, which is repeated at short intervals: the second is denominated call, being a repetition of the same note, and the third sound is termed recording, which a young bird will do for nearly a twelve-month, and when perfect in his lesson, he is said to sing his song round. Their notes are not more natural to birds, than lan- guage is to man ; and they all sing in the same key. Preservation of Birds. Vari- ous methods have been attempted by naturalists, to preserve animal sub- stances from putrefaction; but, from the want of a proper antisep- tic, many curious animals, and particularly birds from foreign parts, are imported in a very im- perfect state. The following pro- cess appears to be the most easy and effectual: After opening the bird, by a longitudinal incision from the breast to the vent, dissecting the fleshy parts from the bones, and remov- ing the entrails, eyes, brains, and tongue, the cavities, and inside of the skin are to be sprinkled with the following powders: Take of corrosive sublimate 41b. pulverized nitre ^lb. burnt alum ilb. flowers of sulphur -|lb. camphor ilb. black pepper, and coarsely ground to- bacco, one pound each; mix the ingredients Avell together, and keep them in a glass vessel closely stop- ped. First insert the eyes, and stuff the head with cotton or tow ; then pass a wire down the throat, through one of the nostrils, and fix it into the breast-bone: wires are likeAvise to be introduced through the feet, up the legs and thighs, and fastened into the same bone ; the body is afterwards stuff- ed with cotton to its natural size, and the skin seAved over it. In whatever position the bird is placed to dry, the same will afterwards be retained. Small birds may be preserved in brandy, rum, arrack, or first run- B IR nings j but, by these means, the colour of the plumage is liable to be extracted by the spirit. Large sea-fowl have thick strong skins, anel such may be skinned; the tail, claws, head and feet, are to be carefully preserved, and the plumage stained as little as possi- ble with blood. The inside of the skin may be stuffed as recommend- ed above. Mr. Bancroft, in his Natural History of Guiana, says, that se- veral persons in the colony are ad- vantageously employed in preserv- ing a variety of beautiful birds for the cabinets of European natu- ralists. Their method is, to put the bird in a proper vessel, and cover it with strong wine, or the first running of the distillation of rum, in which it remains for twenty-four or forty-eight hours, till the liquor has penetrated every part of its body. The body is then taken out, and its feathers, which are not in the least injured by this immersion, being placed smooth, it is put into a machine made for the purpose, and the Avings, tail, Bee. arranged agreeable to nature. In this position, it is placed in an oven moderately heated, where it is slowly dried, and will ever after retain its natural attitude, without danger or putrefaction. The following simple composi- tion may be employed with suc- cess, for the same purpose : Com- mon salt one pound, powdered alum, four ounces, ground pepper, two ounces. The bird intended for preservation, should be opened from the lower part of the breast- bone to the tail, Avith a pair of sharp-pointed scissars, and the Avhole of the intestines taken out. The cavity is then to be filled Avith the mixture, and the lacerated part VOL. I. BIR 281 should be properly stitched. The thorax, from the beak to the sto- mach, must be filled with the same composition, reduced to a fine pow- der. The head is to be opened near the root of the tongue, with- the point of the scissars, and the structure of the brain destroyed, by moving them in a circular di- rection, and as scon as they are withdrawn, the cavity is likewise to be filled with the mixture. After having been suspended by the legs, for a few days, the bird may be fixed in a frame, in its natural atti- tude. Bird - grass.......See Roughish Meadow-grass. BIRD-CHERRY, or the Prunus Padus, L. is a species of cherry- tree. It attains a height of fifteen or twenty feet, is of a shrub-like growth, with a branchy top; its leaves are large, oblong, rough, and serated ; the fruit large and red.... See With. 455. From the fruit of the bird-cher- ry an agreeable wine may be pro- duced : and it is affirmed in the Transactions of the Swedish Aca- demy, for 1774, that its kernels, when deprived of their external rind, alToid so good a substitute for almond milk, that the most expe- rienced persons cannot ascertain the difference. Its wood is much used on the continent, by cabinet- makers and upholsterers....its in- ner bark affords a green lixivium for dyers. [See Cherry.] Iird'r Eye. See Primrose. BIRD s FOOT (Common), or Ornithopus perpuillus, L. is an in- digenous plant; the yellow flowers of which blow in July or August; and the le;.;uuvn, or pulse, is curv- ed in the form of a bow. See Curt. Lond.fasc. 6. O o 282 B I S BIS This plant affords a good fodder for sheep, Avhen grass is scarce, in the latter end of autumn. BIRTHWORT, (Slender), or Aristolochia clematitis, L. has heart- shaped leaA'es, an upright stem, and its root is long and slender..... See Engl. Bot. 398. On being chewed, the BirthAvort instantly imparts an aromatic bit- terness, not ungrateful to the pa- late. It possesses medicinal vir- tues, and is prescribed as an atte- nuant of viscid phlegm, and pro- moter of the fluid secretions. The dose in substance is from a scruple to tAvo drachms. There are four other species of this plant imported for medicinal purposes, particularly the Aristolochia tonga, a native of France, Spain, and Italy. It is applied externally in cutaneous dis- eases, as likewise for cleansing and healing wounds and ulcers. [See Snake»root.] BISCUIT, a kind of bread ma- nufactured by confectioners, of fine flour, eggs, sugar, and rose or orange water; or of flour, eggs, and sugar, with aniseeds and ci- tron-peel. Sea Bicuit, a sort of hard, dry bread, formed into flat cakes: when intended for long voyages, it is four times baked, six months before it is shipped ; after Avhich it will con- tinue good during a whole year.... In order to preserve such bread from insects, Mr. Hales recom- mends the fumhration of the casks with sulphur, after the y have been filled. Biscuits may likeAvise be preservec.by packirrrthem in casks well cnu'.ked anel lined with tin. As the manufacture of sea-bis- cuits is of considerable importance to a maratime country, Ave shall communicate the method of baking practiced in France. In the preparation of biscuit, a proportion of ten pounds of leven (rather more stale than that com- monly used for bread), is diluted in Avarm water, with one hundred pounds of flour, which is kneaded; but the Avater should be added by small portions, to prevent the ne- cessity of adding more flour: Avhen the dough can no longer be worked by the hand, it is pressed with the feet till it is perfectly smooth, glu- tinous, and compact. The knead- ing being finished, the dough is worked up in parts: at first it is formed into rolls, Avhich again pass through the hands of the baker; this is called rubbing. When the Aveight of each piece is determin- ed, it is made round, flattened with a rolling pin, and then placed on a table or board exposed to the fresh air, in order to prevent too quick fermentation. Care is taken that the oven be less heated for the bak- ing of biscuit than bread; and as soon as the last cake is formed, that which has been first made, is pierced with several holes, with the point of an iron, which at once flattens it, and gives vent to eva- poration : it is then placed in the oven. The biscuits are kept there about two hours, and Avhen draAvn out, they are packed with great caution in boxes, lest they should break. Each box commonly con- tains either a half, or a whole quin- tal ; and, Avhen filled, is placed in a close, warm room, with Avhich the heat of the oven has a commu- nication. The biscuit here parts' with its superabundant moisture, and undergoes what is called a sweating. A good biscuit breaks clean and crisp, has a shining appearance Avithin, and the outside is glossy. When soaked, it swells consider- BIS ably in the water, Avithout crum- bling, or sinking to the bottom of the vessel. As the composition of biscuit is connected with the general princi- ples of making bread, we shall only observe, that the defects which pre- vail in many bake-houses are simi- lar to those where biscuit is pre- pared ; such as an imperfect grind- ing, which leaA-es the bran in the flour, or the flour in the bran, and injures the manufacture. Ovens too high, and not closely stopped, consume much fuel, and produce an indifferent baking. One of the first rules in the pre- paration of biscuit should be, never to make it of any but choice wheat, very clean, and dry, because it ever continues to carry with it this original principle of preservation ; Avhile [wheat,] which is naturally moist, be it ever so Avell ground, and worked, has a tendency to be- come worse. For this reason, rye and maize are unfit to be manufac- tured into biscuit. It must be confessed with re- gret, that sea-biscuit of the best preparation, often carries in it a principle of destruction. Some- times it is in the bran, Avhich occa- sions insects, and hollow spaces in the interior part of the biscuit, giving it a disposition to mould ; and sometimes it is a Avant of clean- liness which prevails in the bread- room of the vessel. [See Ship-bread.] M. Cardon, a biscuit-baker of Hesse, in conjunction Avith four others of the business, has recent- ly made some experiments, the re- sult of Avhich is : that 1001b. of flour give 1261b. of dough ; Avhich, divided into cakes of eight or nine ounces, when well baked, aftbrd 90lb. of biscuit. Instead of mak- BI S 283 ing use of old leaven, and of ten or twelve pounds weight to each quin- tal of flour, he recommends to use the leaven while fresh, in a quan^ tity of fifty pounds, and to make the dough less firm, that it may be kneaded with more ease. He has shewn biscuit, made after this manner, to several masters of ships, who have found it excellent, and that it stands the test of float- ing on the surface of water, with- out falling to pieces. BISMUTH, or Tin-glass, one of the semi-metals, of a reddish or light yellow colour, and a lamel- lateel texture : it is moderately hard and brittle, so that it breaks under the hammer, and may even be re- duced to povvder. [It is very fusible, and soluble in the vitriolic, muriatic, and nitric acids, particularly in the last, and when dissolved in it, is precipita- ble by a mere dilution with pure water; the precipitate is white; and is commonly called Magistery of Bismuth; it forms the flake-white too often employed as a paint for the complexion under various names, but is a bad substitute for temperance, exercise, and early hours, as it frequently turns black by the animal transpiration, and certainly so, by an exposure to sulphurated hydrogen gas, which is metwith in those mineral waters, called " sulphur springs," and in privies.....Flake white, when mix- ed with suet or fat, is more inno- cently used to blacken the hair. Bismuth, dissolved in the acids, forms pellucid sympathetic inks, which become black by exposure to the vapour of alkaline sulphur- ets.] Most metallic substances, by an union Avith bismuth, become mprg 284 BIS BIS fusible ; hence it is used in the making of solder, printer's types, pe-rter, he. Bismuth reduced to powder, mixed with the white of eggs, and applied to wood, gives it the ap- pearance of being silvered....when it is gradually dried, and rubbed with a polisher. This semi-vnetal is commonly deposited in cobalt-ores; which, when of a high red colour, are called bismuth bLom, or flowers of bismuth. To this mixture may be ascribed the property which bis- muth-ore has of making sympa- thetic ink, similar to that formed by a solution of the regulus of co- balt.....See Ink. In dyeing, a solution of Tin- glass in aqua fortis has lately been recenmended by Dambolrney, for fixing certain colours on avooI, in preference to alum, or other neutral salts....See Dyeing. In medicine, the calx and flow- ers of bismuth were formerly used, in cases Avhere antimonial prepa- rations are now employed with greater safety, and equal effect; so that the former are, at present, chiefly converted into pigments and cosmetics.....Nevertheless* we are possessed of the most convincing proofs,that the magistery of bLmuth is one of the most powerful anti-. Bpasmodics, especially in cramps of the stomach. When cautiously administered, in doses from half a grain to one grain, in simple water, repeated every half hour, or oft- ener, according to circumstances, it affords speedy relief in the most excruciating pain; anel is, in this respect, of superior efficacy to the celebrated flowers of zinc. But we think it our duty to repeat, that both medicines require the greatest precaution* [The very great utility of bismuth in the arts of dyeing, and parti- cularly in the manufactory of types, which is yearly increasing in the United States, will cause a consi- derable consumption of this mine- ral. A great quantity is imported every year by Messrs. Binny and Ronaldson, of Philadelphia. It is said that a specimen of bismuth was brought to Philadel- phia from the Juniata, in 1799, by a man wrho died of the fever of that year.] BISTORT (Great), or Snake- weed ; the Polygonum bistorta, L. a species of knot-grass, most plen- tiful on meadows and pastures : it has a thick oblique root, about the size of a finger, blackish brown without, and reddish within; a simple round, slender stem, near- ly two feet high ; oval leaves, and the stalk terminates in thick short spikes, of whitish red flowers, which appear in July, and are pro- ductive of seerjs in August.....See Withering, 382, and Engl. Bot. 509. As this [indigenous] plant is sub- servient to many useful purposes, Ave have been more particular in its description, than the limits of our work will permit on future oc- casions. Cattle and sheep are exceedingly partial to the herbage of the Great Bistort; but horses will not eat it. The young leaves are excellent for culinary use ; and a small quantity of the root, reduced to powder, and added to the dough in baking, com- municate an agreeable taste to the bread, and improves its salubrity. The Great Bistort has likewise been usefully employed in the arts of dyeing and tanning. According to Gleditsch andBAUTscH, two creditable authors, the herb Avith B IS BIT 285 its blossom has, by tanners on the continent of Europe, been found to be a proper substitute for oak-bark; and Dambourney assures us, that from the root of this plant he ob- tained a deception of a mordore bhade, in which he dyed wool of a real beaver colour, after having previously immersed it in a ley,-sa- turated with a solution of Bismuth. All the parts of this plant have a rough, austere taste: the root, in particular, is one of the strongest vegetable astringents produced in England; and,therefore,justly re- commended in intermittent fevers, immoderate hemorrhages, and other fluxes, both internally and externally, where the constitution of the patient requires such a* medi- cine. According to a late popular writer, it has often, and especially in agues, been given in larger eloses than those commonly admi- nistered : he has prescribed it both alone, and together, with gentian, to the amount of three drachms in one day. It is allowed to be a very powerful styptic, and consequently possessed of antiseptic properties ; but we doubt, whether it is suffici- ently efficacious to supersede the use of the Peruvian bark, or even that of the white willow. BISTORT (Small), Welch, or Alpine ; the Polygonum viviparum, L ; it has a smaller root than the preceding species; a simple slen- der stem, six inches high, spear- shaped leaves, anel the stalks anel branches terminate by stalks of whitish red flowers, which appear in June or July, and bear seeds in August....See With. 383 ; and En\-;. Bot. 669. Although we haAre no distinct account of the economical and phys.cal uses of this plant, yet it may be rationally inferred, that it is not inferior to the preceding spe- cies. Indeeel, Gmelin informs us, that its root is so far from being astringent, in the island of Ramt- schatka, that the inhabitants eat it in a raw state; and Steller, a late traveller, found it sufficiently SAveet and nutritive, to support him without any other alii uu, for se- veral elay>. The Samoiedes also eat it as a sweet and wholesome food. Several other nations dry and reduce this root to flour, of which they bake good bread. If credit be cue to Oloff, who has visited Iceland, the inhabitants of that inhospitable climate make bread, even of the small knots which grow on the upper part of the stalk. BITE, of a mad dog, an unfor- tunate accident which but too fre- cpiently happens in hot summers; [or very cold v\ inters,] and is sup- posed to be occasioned chiefly by suffering that faitiiiul animal to feed upon putrid meat, without sup- plying it with sufficient Avater ; but more probably originates from a, specific contagion, like the small- pox, &c...The disease thence ari- sing in the human species, is called Canine Madness, or, according to medical Avriters, Hydrophobia; a. term which literally signifies "dread of water." This A'irulent disorder does net in general, manifest itself till a considerable time after the bite, for, though in some instances it has commenced in seven or eight days after the accident, the patient often continued in health for twen- ty, thirty, or forty days, nay, some- limes for several months. If the wound be not prevented, it will in most instances, be healed long before the symptoms of the disease appear; though it frequently resists 286 BIT BIT all healing applications, and forms an ulcer discharging a quantity of matter. The approach of the dis- ease is known by the cicatrix of the wound becoming hard and ele- vated, and by a peculiar tingling sensation in the part affected; pains shoot from it towards the throat: in some cases it is sur- rounded with livid or red streaks; and seems to be in a state of inflammation; more frequently, however, no remarkable external change can be perceived. But the patient soon becomes melancholy, prefers solitude, and is troubled with nausea. Sometimes the cha- racteristic symptom of the disease, the dread of water, suddenly at- tacks the patient, and every at- tempt to swallow liquids, is ac- companied Avith the most painful sensations. This appears to be a circumstance peculiar to the hu- man race; for mad animals do not eA'ince any dread of Avater....... There is not the least doubt, that the disease is occasioned by the saliva of the mad creature. Un- less, therefore, part of the true skin be injured, the poison Avill not be communicated; but in the con- trary case, the smallest quantity is sufficient to produce the fatal effect. Hence, if the cuticle has been Wounded, it is absolutely neces- sary to remove the surrounding muscular substance by the knife, and to lose no time in submitting to this operation; as it is the only certain and effectual preventive..... It is, however, of consequence pre- viously to be convinced, Avhether the animal has been actually mad. In order to ascertain whether a dog is reaUy infected Avith that dis- temper, the following particulars deserve attention. Several days previously to the invasion of the disorder, the animal becomes sullen and shews equal indifference to hit master, his food, and drink. Hi* ears and tail droop; instead of bark- ing, he groAvls and snaps at every surrounding object, runs about ir- regularly, is no longer able to dis- tinguish his master from strangers, and lolls out his tongue, which is parched, and of a lived hue. At length, he drops down suddenly, starts up again, bites Avhatever seems to obstruct his passage, and in this condition he seldom survives twenty-four, or, at the farthest, forty-eight hours. If the disease has actually been communicated by a bite, the patient feels a burning heat in the throat and injured part, according to the degree of vio'ence with which the malady is accompanied. But the proximate cause of the affection appears to be confined to the ner- vous system, so that patients, la- bouring under the influence of hy- drophobia, have overcome the small pox, and quartan agues, Avithout any aggravation of symptoms..... Hence opiates, and other narcotics, as is the case in many nervous dis- eases, produce no effect. As it is generally allowed, that canine mad- ness, if the dread of water has once taken place, can seldom be curedj the most essential part of the treat- ment will be the speedy application of preventives. For this reason, we have already stated the imme- diate necessity of cutting away the parts contiguous to the wound, especially Avherethat operation can •be performed, without injuring any large blood vessel. Beside this precaution, the Avound should be frequently washed, by pouring cold water upon it from [the mouth of a tea-kettle], and to prevent the ca- nine virus from remaining aboijt B IT BIT 287 the wounded part, it should be kept open, and a discharge of matter promoted for several weeks; by stimulating ointments, mixed, with cantharides,or similar applications. M. Sabatier mentions an in- stance in which, by repeated at- tacks of a mad elog, the patient had received twenty-five Avounds, and about fifty scratches: these Avere all radically healed, by the applica- tion of the cautery, and of fire, which completely destroyed the poison. [This conclusion is highly ab- surd, because many persons have done nothing for their Avounds, and yet remained well. Indeed it may be safely said, that the actual cautery, burning the wound Avith gun-powder, washing it with vinegar and water, or lunar caustic dissolved in water, have all been tried, and repeatedly failed to prevent the disease. As sreneral remedies, Dr. Mfad's celebrateel favourites ath-liverwort and black pepper; the Ormskirk remedy, the Tonquin composition of musk and cinnabar, mercury, anagalis (pim- pernel or chickweed Avhich sec,) and many others have again and again been given, without the least success. The distance of time that elap- ses between a bite and the appear- ance of the disease, is very various. In a case lately recorded by the editor, three years anel four months elapsed....See Med. Rep. vol. 5..... From three to six weeks however, is the common interval. As there are a number of vulgar errors pre- valent respecting this disease it may be satisfactory to state the truth upon several points. 1st. Neither the part of the body bitten, nor the si age of the animal's disease at the time of the bite, nor the supposed difference of the ori- ginal virulence of the poison, nor the quantity of it inserted into a wound ; have any influence on the rapidity, certainty, or violence of the attack. After much investiga- tion of the history of nearly all the cases of this disease, recorded with- in the last three centuries; from many private communications, and from the circumstances attending an instructive case which the Editor had an opportunity of observing last year ; he is fully able to make the above positions. Whether the bite be received in the head or foot, during the first hour of the ani- mal's indisposition, or just before death ; and whether the wound be large or small, no difference is ob- served in the appearance of the dis- ease. 2dly. No danger is to be appre- hended from the saliva of a human persou.or of a dog, falling upon .the skin; nor from the breath of either being received into the lungs..... The saliva of a dog must be appli- ed to a broken surface to infect. The mere insertion of the tooth of a dis- eased dog,covered with saliva ip.to the flesh, is sufficient to produce the disease ; and the late Dr. Hutch- inson informed me of a case in which it came on in conseejuence of a dog merely licking a sore on the leg. Another case is recorded in the Medical Repos. of the dis- ease being produced by a little dog licking a sore in the ear. In both cases the dogs discovered no symp- toms of madness at the time. It is of infinite consequence that all these facts should be known. 3dly. The practice of Avorming dogs to prevent their being attack- ed by madness is highly ah;. ..!; because quite useless. The nature of the present work 288 BIT B IT Avill not allow of a more extensive detail. The reader is therefore referred to two pamphlets on the subject by the editor, and to the Medical Repos. vol. i. and v. As no specific remedy has yet been discoA-ered for the cure of this dreadful disorder, Ave shall suggest- [a probable] plan of treat- ment. Prevention.....It is a singular and fortunate circumstance, (as the dis- ease yvhen produced, has always proved fatal;) that nearly nineteen out of twenty who are bitten, es- cape. But this exemption ought not to induce a security vvhich may prevent everyprecautionbeingtaken to avert it. If the Avound be small, and in a part capable of extirpation no time should be lost in cutting it out, as directed by Dr. Willich; if the lower joint of a finger or toe be bitten, take it off without delay. If excision cannot be performed, enlarge the wound, pour water on it from a tea-kettle for an hour, and keep it open by the stimulating ointment mentioned above, for se- veral months ; the application of a caustic to the wound will not an- swer, and no internal remedy can be of the leait use. In case the disease should appear, give three grains of cantharieles in a pill, or fifteen drops of the tincture, every hour, diluted with a little broth, un- till a.violent stranguary, and soreness in the bowels are produced. Keep up these symptoms until those of the disease have vanished. Broth and mucilaginous drinks, such as flaxseed tea, may then be taken, and clysters of the same combined Avith laudanum, may be given to heal the irritated boAvels: the Avarm bath may be also used, and bark, wine and generous diet to recruit the strength. The reasons for the above treatment are too long to be inserted here, but may be found in the two pamphlets men- tioned before, on this subject. It is however proper to observe, that not one of the various modes of treatment hitherto pursued, has ever succeeded. And as the field of experiment is fairly open, it is perfectly warrantable rather to fol- low the light of analogy and con- jecture in pursuit of a new remedy, than to persist in the use of such as are proved to be incompetent anel fruitless. The symptoms ex- cited by cantharides, are alarming, but not dangerous unless the re- medy be pushed too far. The body should also be anointed Avith Avarm oil in a warm room. There are feAV diseases, for the cure of Avhich quacks have more successfully imposed upon the cre- dulity of mankind. The reputed success of their nostrums, may be referred to the following causes. 1. Every dog that bites is not mad. 2. The part of the body bitten, being covered by clothes, boots, or shoes by which the saliva is wiped from the tooth, before it reaches the flesh, and of course the poison is not communicated. In such cases the exemption is attributed to the remedy administered. - 3. As mentioned before it is known that, a great many persons bitten by the same dog, are never infected with the disease. This is an important consideration, and ought to be attended to in forming an opinion of a remedy. Dogs ought not to be killed after giving a bite, but penned up, in order to discover Avhether they are actual- ly mad or not. It is also of great BIT BIT 289 importance, to keep the mind of the person who may be bitten per- fectly easy. The theory of thedisease,resulting from the action of the canine poi- son on the system, is probably more involved in obscurity, than that of any other, to which the human body is liable. How death takes place, has not yet been de- termine J. It cannot be from an exhaustion of the powers of life by the spasms, because, as Dr. Piiy- sick justly observes, " we see oc- casionally more muscles in other parts of the body affected with spasm, without any risk being incurred." Dr. Physick thinks it is occasioneel by suffocation, aris- ing from the spasmodic action of the muscles, of the upper part of the windpipe called glottis, and hence very judiciously proposes to admit air to the lungs, by the ope- ration of tracheotomy : and where the disease has advanced rapidly, and no expectations are entertain- ed of a cure, I would certainly try this plan, which is not attended with any danger if properly per- formed. Should the pain in swallowing, continue so excessive, as to pre- vent the possibility of swallowing, the method suggested by Dr. Coze of supplying nourishment, might be adopted. This is, to pass a flexible tube into 1 he stomach, and thus convey liquid food into the sy ,tem. This tube may remain until the disease shalJ abate. The same plan has been pursued in France, in cases where violent in- juries to the face anel mouth, have produced a total inability to take nourishment.] BITTER, is a term applied to substances of a peculiar taste, and generally opposed to sweet; the VOL. I. principal of which are, the Gen- tian and Bistort-roots, Hops, Lesser Centaury, Carduus, &c. Most bitters impart their virtues, both to watery and spirituous fluids. By distillation, their taste is in a great measure destroyed ; but, on evaporating the watery solution to a thick consistence, the bitter prin- ciple remains unaltered, and is frequently improved. See Ex- tracts. Dr. Darwin ingeniously ob- serves, that the bitter, narcotic, and acrid juices of plants, are secreted by their glands, for defending ve- getables against the depredations of insects, anel larger animals. An acrid juice exists in the husks of walnuts, and in the pellicle, or skin, of the kernel ; but not in the lobes, or nutritious part. Bitters appear to have been excluded from the seed, lest they might have been in- jurious to the tender organs of digestion of the embryon plant. In some seeds, however, he adds, there is a bitter e[uality, Avhich re- fuses to mix Avith the oleaginous part; as the oil expressed from bitter almonds is as tasteless as that from the SAveet kind. Vegetable bitters possess the combined properties of astringents and aromatics. Hence they are frequently employed in weakness of the stomach anel intestines ; in cold habits, where the bile and humours require to be attenuated or diluted ; and for promoting na- tural evacuations, particularly those by the pores and the urinary canal. They are also of service in many cases of indigestion, loss of appe- tite, flatulency, he. when these complaints* proceed from muscular weakness, or a phlegmatic anel inert state of the fluids. But, in constitutions where the fibres are Pp 290 £ I T tense and rigid, or an immoderate heat and inflammation prevail, the continued use of bitters, especially in the gout, Avould sensibly in- crease the disorder, and frequently determine it to the kidneys. Thus the secretion of urine might be greatly checked, to the injury of the patient, and at length either dropsy or consumption Avould be the natural conseemence. It is not easy to conceive, in Avhat manner bitters taken by the stomach operate on the human system ; though they are generally considered as poAverful tonics. So much is certain, that they do not act as stimulants ; because neither the frequency of the pulse, nor the force of the circulation, is increased by their use. Nor can it be main- tained, that their operation is simi- lar to that of astringents ; so that bitters are to be considered purely as tonics, which strengthen, or im- part new energy to the muscular fibres of the stomach ; an effect Avhich is by sympathy communi- cated to other parts of the body. Bitter substances are often used as vermifuges, though seldom effi- cacious ; and externally, as anti- septics. In domestic economy, they are, at present, chiefly em- ployed for the destruction of in- sects, &c. but it deserves to be re- marked, that there is scarcely a bit- ter root growing in this country, which might not be converted to very useful purposes....See Bread. Bitter-Sweet. See Woody Nightshade. BITUMENS, are inflammable mineral bodies, not sulphureous, or only casually impregnated Avith sulphur. They are of various de- grees of consistence, and appear in the mineral kingdom, to corres- pond with the oils and resins in the vegetable. By their peculiar smell, BIT they are easily distinguished from either purely animal or vegetable productions. When the native rock-oils are mixed Avith concen- trated mineral acids, they become thick, and at length consistent: in which state they are called bitu- mens. There is a thin fluid bitumen called naphtha, which is found on the surface of waters, or oozing from clefts of rocks in the eastern countries, particularly Persia. It has a strong smell, very different from that of vegetable or animal oils, is highly inflammable, not so- luble in spirit of wine, and almost as limpid as Avater, Avith which it is more averse to unite than any other oil. Next to naphtha, in consistence, is petroleum, or rock- oil : the former is collected for making varnishes, and the latter is used for lamps and torches. Ge- nuine naphtha is sometimes recom- mended in diseases of the nerves, but it is seldom obtained in a pure state. The solid bitumens are, amber, jet, asphaltum, or bitumen of Ju- dea, and fossil or pit-coal. ' By dis- tillation, they all yield an odorous water, more or less coloured and saline ; an acid frequently in a concrete state, an oil similar to the native rock-oils, but which soon in- creases in weight, and becomes thicker; and, lastly, a quantity of A-olatile alkali. The residum is a charry matter, differing in appear- ance, according to the nature of the analyzed bitumen. Barbadoes tar is a bitumen of a consistence between a fluid and solid ; and turf or peat is, by some writers, supposed to belong to this class. It is conjectured by naturalists, that all bitumens are of animal or vegetable origin : and that the cir- BL A BLA 291 cumstances by which they differ from the resinous and other oily matters of vegetables and animals, are the natural effects of time : or of an alteration produced on them by mineral acids; or of both causes combined. This opinion is the more probable, as bitumens, on a chemical analysis, afford oil and volatile alkali, neither of which is found in any other minerals. BLACK, the darkest of colours, supposed to be owing to the ab- sence of light, as most of the rays which fall on black substances are not reflected, but absorbed by them. There are many shades or varie- ties of this colour. The native black substances, are black chalk pitcoal, black sands, black vege- table juices, and cuttle-fish ink. Those which are the product of fire, comprehend charcoal blacks, soot blacks, and black metallic calces. Blacks obtained by mixture, are those from iron, silver, and from a combination of lead with sulphur. The infusions of certain vegetable astringents, mixed with green vi- triol (which is a solution of iron in the sulphuric acid), produce a deep black colour, of most extensive use for dyeing and staining. The astringent substances chiefly em- ployed for this purpose, are the excrescences of the oak-tree, call- ed galls : all parts of this tree, as the leaves, acorns, and more par- ticularly the bark and wood. A great variety of other vegetable substances, such as the small branches and flowers of the su- mach-tree, alder bark, bistort root, and, in general, those which are astringent or corrugating to the taste, possess similar properties. The power by Avhich these vegeta- bles strike black with vitriol, and their astringency, are proportional to one another, and seem to de- pend on one and the same princi- ple. Of the other properties of this astringent and colouring mat- ter, little more is known, than that it is dissolved anel extracted both by water and spirit of wine, and that it does not exhale on the evaporation of the menstruum..... See the article Dyeing. The only native vegetable black, is the juie-.e of the cashew nut-tree, or Anacardium occidentale, which probably is the tree that yields the black varnish of China and Japan. ....See Varnish. Lastly, there are also several colours artificially prepared for the use of painters, such as lamp- black, ivory-black, German-black, he.....See Colour-making. BLACK-BIRD, or Turelus me- rula, a species of the thrush. When young, its plumage is of a rusty black ; but at the age of one year, being the period of its full growth, its feathers acquire a^deep glossy black, the bill a bright yel- low, and the edges of the eye-lids a similar colour. The black-bird loves solitude, and chiefly frequents thickets, and the remotest parts of plantations and woods. In severe winters, however, it is sometimes compell- ed to approach barns and farm- yards, in search of food. It builds earlier than any other bird, and forms its nest in hedges and thick- ets, of withered grass and moss, plastered Avith clay, and covered with hay or straw. Its eggs are commonly four or live in number, of a blueish-green colour, marked with irregular dark spots. About 292 B L A the latter enel of March, it has a young brooel, which may be taken at ten or twelve days old. The only way to distinguish the young cock from the hen, is by its colour; as that of the former is of a deeper black. When young, they are commonly fed Avith bread and milk, or curds; but the most proper nourishment is a sheep's heart chopped small, mixed with bread, and moistened with water: they should be fed every two hours, and kept very clean. This bird, especially the male, has a very pleasing note, but too loud for a confined situation ; and it may be taught to Avhistle tunes to a pipe. It sings during the spring, anel the early part of summer ; is silent in the moulting season, and resumes its music in the latter part of autumn. [BLACK - BIRD, (CROW). Gracula Barita. BLACK-BIRD (RED-WING- ED).... Oriolus Phaniceus. These birds make their appear- ance in March, anel are generally called black-birds, because in the spring season, before the time of incubation, and in autumn, after they have reared their young, they flock together, and confederate in their depredations, on the corn (maize) and grain fields.] BLACK CATTLE, among graziers, denotes all the larger kinds of domestic animals which contri- bute to our support or convenience; such as oxen, cows, horses, &c. As these will be respectively treated of in their proper oreler, we shall, therefore, at present, state only the essential properties of a perfect breed of black cattle, designed for the purposes of the dairy, as laid down by Mr. Marshall : 1. The head small and clean, to BL A lessen the quantity of offal. 2. The neck thin and clean, to lighten the fore-end, as well as to lessen the collar, and make it fit close anel easy to the animal in work. 3. The carcass large, the chest deep, and the bosom broad, with the ribs standing out full from the spine; to give strength of frame and con- stitution, and to allow sufficient room for the intestines within the ribs. 4. The shoulders should be light of bone, and rounded off at the lower point, that the collar may be easy, but broad, to give strength; and Avell coA'ered with flesh, for the greater ease of draught, as well as to furnish a desired point in fatten- ing cattle. 5. The back ought to be Avide and level throughout; the quarters long ; the thighs thin, and standing narrow at the round bone ; the udder large when full, but thin and loose Avhen empty, to hold the greater quantity of milk; with large dug-veins to fill it, and long elastic teats for drawing it off with greater ease. 6. The legs (below the knee and hock) straight, and of a middle length ; their bone, in ge- neral, light anel clean from fleshi- ness, but with the joints and sinews of a moderate size, forthe purposes of strength and activity. 7. The flesh ought to be mellow in the state of fleshiness, and firm in the state of fatness. ■ 8. The hide mel- low, and of a middle thickness, though, in our author's opinion, this is a point not yet Avell deter- mined. Black Cattle, as well as horses, haA-e been observed to thrive better in salt-marshes, than in fresh-Avater meadoAvs, or upland pastures ; and it has been conjectured, that the herbs produced by the lands near the sea, are more healthy for her- baceous animals, than such as grow BL A B L A 293 on higher lands. But it is said, that the saline particles with which the earth, as well as its produce near the sea, is strongly impreg- nate;!, occasions this beneficial change in the condition of cattle ; a:i these salts purge away the foul humours which the beasts have contracted, either by idleness, or by being over-heated in labour. As cattle are naturally fond of salt, and, if left at their liberty, will take no more of it than what is conducive to their health, it is recommended to lay common sea-salt in the fields, for them to lick as often as they please....See Salt. BLACK CANKER, is the name given by husbandmen to a cater- pillar Avhich commits great devas- tation among turnips. The best method of destroying these insects is, to turn a body of ducks into the fields infested by them. In the year 1784, Mr. Coke purchased four hundred ducks, and set them at liberty on thirty-three acres of turnii s, Avhich they completely cleared of the caterpillar in five days. In a relative proportion, twenty or thirty might be employed upon a small farm, with considera- ble effect. Black Clock. See Beetle. BLACK FLY, an insect that at- tacks the seedling leaA'es of tur- nips, cabbages, anel many other ve- getables. In summer, it may fre- quently be seen in swarms on the wing near the ground, searching for, and settling on the fresh bites ; and thus, in some seasons, destroy- ing thousands of acres. Its rava- ges may be prevented by the fol- lowing means : Mix one ounce of flour of sulphur with three pounds of turnip-seed daily, for three days successively, in a glazed earthen pot, and keep it closely covered, stirring it well at each addition, that the seed may be impregnated with the suiphur: then sow it as usual, on an acre of ground, and the fly will not attack it till the third or fourth seedling leaf is formed, by which time the plant will have acquired a bitterish property, and conseejuently be out of danger. Others advise to fix alder-bows in a harrow, and draw them over the land immediately after the seed is sown. Again, others bruise the bows, and fumi- gate them with burnt tobacco, ami a small quantity of asafortkla....See TuRNir. BLACK LAND, in agriculture, a term used to denote a peculiar kind of clayey soil, which in rainy weather appears of a dusky or blackish colour, though, when dry, it more resembles a pale grey, than a true black. On ploughing this soil, especially in wet seasons, it is apt to adhere to the plough-shares ; and assumes a darker anel muddier appearance, the more it is worked. It generally abounds with small white stones, and always con- tains a considerable proportion of sand. A soil of this description may be improved, by manuring it with such substances as tcnel to pulverize the ground, and deprive it of its tenacity—.See Land and Manure. Black Lead. See Lead. BLACK LEATHER is that which, having passed through the hands of the currier, after bei.-v- scored and rubbed three times r,:, the grain side with copperas-wa- ter, acquires a black colcur, in- stead of the russet, at least by the tanners....See Leathe r. BLACK-LEGS, a name given by the Leicestershire breeders to a elisease incident to calves and sheep. 294 B L A It is a kind of gelatinous humour, which settles between the skin and flesh of the neck, and not unfre- quently in their legs. To remove this troublesome complaint, we conceive that the sal-ammoniac dissolved in the smallest possible epiantity of water, and applied to the parts affected, by means of pro- per compresses, or even simple friction, conjoined with suitable ex- ercise, would be the most effectual remedy. BLACK TIN, in mineralogy, a term given to tin ore Avhen it is ready to be melted into metal, af- ter having been Avell stamped, washed and dressed. It is taken up from the Avashing-troughs in the form of a fine black powder, and from this circumstance is called black tin ; two pounds of which be- ing melted, -will produce one pound of white tin. The principal mines from which this useful metal is obtained in Britain, are those in Cornwall....See Tin. BLACK WADD, in mineralo- gy is a kind of ore of manganese, remarkable for its property of tak- ing fire, when mixed Avith a cer- tain proportion of lintseed-oil. It is found in Derbyshire, and is a use- ful ingredient in paints ; for on be- ing ground with a large quantity of oily matter, it loses the property above-mentioned. BLACKBERRY, the fmit of the common bramble, or Rubus fruticosus, L....See Bramble. These berries, when eaten im- moderately, and too frequently, are apt to produce the most vio- lent effects, as fever, delirium, he. [Blackberry. Rubus Ameri- canus. We have too distinct spe- cies, the fruit of which, in general is called blackberries. The first which we designate by the above ti- BL A tie, is a robust plant, which fre- quently, in a rich moist loose soil, Avill send forth shoots 10 or 12 feet in length, and an inch in dia- meter, somewhat ribbed or angled, armed with strong hooked spines ; the next season after these shoots spring out of the earth, they flower, and bear fruit, in corymbs or clus- ters, which terminate like the branches, proceeding from the ax- ills of the leaves ; the fruit is ob- long, above an inch in length, | of an inch in diameter, of a beautiful shining black colour, and of an agreeable taste, sweetish mixed with a sub-acid astringency. The second species we shall no- tice, Rubus procumbens, [Rubus hispidus of Marshall,] is com- monly known by the name of Dewberry. This brier does not grow either so high or so robust as the preceding species ; its stems are weaker, diverge from the root, and bear down towards the earth; their extremities often trail on the ground, and taking root in the earth, form neAv plants, and in a lit- tle time spread over uncultivated fields. This species prefers high hilly land; the fruit is large, near- ly round, and black when ripe, suf- fused with a glaucous nibula, or mist like the Damacene plum, grapes, &c. They possess a sweet and lively sub-acid taste, and for eating is generally preferred to the former species. Wm. Bartram's mss. A jelly made of blackberries, or dewberries, when on the turn from red to black, is much used in the United States for the gravel.... A friend of the Editor, subject to this disease, spoke highly in praise of the remedy. Rubus occidentali?....See Ras- berry.] BL A B L A 295 BLACKING, in general, signi- fies a factitious black ; as lamp- black, shoe-black, &c. The com- mon oil-blacking, consists of ivory- black mixed with lintseed oil. The shining blacking is made in vari- ous Avays, and affords employment to several persons in the metropo- lis, who prepare it for the supply of the shops. The preparation which has experienced the most extensive sale, is probably that of Mr. Bayley. His patent being expired, we shall communicate the particulars of the process. Take one part of the gummy juice that issues, in the months of June, July and August, from the shrub called the goat's thorn ; four parts of river water ; two parts of neat's foot, or some other softing, lubricating oil; two parts of superfine ivory-black; two parts of eleep blue, prepared from iron and copper; and four parts of brown sugar-candy. Let the water be evaporated, and, when the composition is of a proper consistence, let it be formed into cakes, of such size that each cake may make a pint of liquid black- ing. [The goat's thorn mentioned, is the Astragalus tragacantha Lin. the plant producing the common gum tragacantha of the shops. It is a native of the South of France, and of Switzerland. Mr. Miller enumerates four species of the plant. In the United States Ave have tAvo herbaceous species of this genus : -< iz. A. Canadensis, or woolly milky vetch, and A. Caroli- nianus, or Car. milky v....As yet, they have been applied to no medi- cinal purpose, but cattle eat them. The A. tragacantha Avould certain- ly flourish in the United States, and ought to be sent over by our consul at Marseilles, or brought home by some American.] Frankfort-blacking is made by a process much more simple. A emantity of the lees of wine is burnt in a well closed vessel, and the residuum reduced to powder, which, when mixed with water, is fit for immediate use; or, if made into cakes, may be preserved for any length of time. Ivory-black, as imported from Holland, is prepared in the follow- ing manner: Small pieces of ivory are smeared with a little lintseed- oil, and put into a black-lead cru- cible ; this is covered with a simi- lar vessel inverted, but of a smaller size, and the crevices are secured with a lute made of potter's clay and rye-flour, so as to prevent the access of external air. Thus pre- pared, the whole is exposed to a red heat, not too intense, for about half an hour, after which it is taken out and suffered to cool gradually. When cold, the charred ivory, or bones, where the former is scarce, ought to be reduced to powder, and triturated, with the addition of water, on a painter's stone, till it assumes the form of a smooth paste. In this state it is moulded into small cones, and allowed to dry....Similar black may also be obtained by burning the stones of peaches, after having previously dried them and removed the ker- nels. This useful fact we state on the authority of Hochhkimer, a German Avriter on general eco- nomy. BLADDER, in anatomy, a thin membranous, expanded receptacle of some juice or humour secreted in the animal body. This term principally applies to the vessels in which the urine and bile are re- 296 B L A BL A spectively collected; and hence the two chief reservoirs of this nature are the urinary bladder, and that containing the bile. In this place we shall treat only of the former, which is situated witliin the cavity of the pelvis : its form is oval, and being a continuation of the abdo- men, it is almost uniformly sur- rounded with bones, though below, and at each side, encompassed by muscles. It is remarkable, that this vessel is considerably larger in the female than in the male sex. Nature has Avisely contrived that the human bladder should possess a high degree of expansion, for con- taining the Avatery parts secreted from the chyle, as they Avould otherwise mix with the blood of animals, anel render that fluid too thin for the performance of its functions. Though a large pro- portion of such aqueous humours, from three to four pounds every day, are insensibly evacuated by the skin, yet a still greater quanti- ty must be secreted by the kidneys, and thence conducted to the blad- der, lest they should accumulate between the interstices of the cel- lular membrane, Avhich covers all the muscles, and occasion dropsical sAvellihgs. On the other hand, the diseases incident to the bladder are various, but principally arise from debility, spasms, and calculous con- cretions ; for an account of Avhich, we refer to the articles Gravel, Stone, and Urine. At present, we shall confine ourselves to the inflammatory state of that vessel, Avhich requires immediate relief.... This dangerous malady is occa- sioned by stimulating medicines ; gravel and stones lodged in the orifice of the bladder ; violent exer- cise after a long retention of urine, and especially in hot Aveather; lying in soft, effeminating fea- ther-beds, he. The symptoms are manifest from an acute burn- ing pain, and tension of the part, frequent inclination to go to stool, and a constant desire to make water, while the patient is in a state of fever. A.s under such circumstances, no time should be lost in applying for proper advice, it w-ould be needless to enlarge on the treatment of the disease ; but we shall observe that, beside bleed- ing and purgatives both by the mouth and injections, it will be necessary to drink plentifully of emollient decoctions, or other be- verages of a cooling and diuretic na- ture. Previous to the arrival of a medical man, leeches may be ap- plied to the part affected, the lower belly should be diligently fomented Avith av arm Avater, and the patient be placed in a tepid bath, not ex- ceeding 98°....If, hoAvever, the pain suddenly abates, and is succeeded by cokl SAveats, hiccough, fetid urine, or a total suppression of it, there is reason to apprehend a mor- tification, and fatal issue of the dis- ease. [The Avant of fullness and tension in the pulse in this disease must not be attended to. We must be guided by the continuance of Uie symptoms. Bleeding should be re- peated every three or four hours, and half a pint taken away at a time. No disease requires or bears more copious bleeding. Clysters of cool water ought also to be in- jected.] BLADDER-NUT-TREE, or the Staphylca, L, is a plant contain- ing two species, the pinnata, indi- genous in Britain, and the trifolia, BL A or three-leaved bladder-nut, a native of Virginia. For the first, to which we shall confine our account, see Withering, 317. The flowers are Avhite, and grow on long pen- dulous foot-stalks ; the plant blows in June. This shrub affords an oil Avhich might be employed for lamps, but the trouble of expressing it is too great. The Avood is hard, and used on the Continent for various domes- tic purposes; and the floAvers are much frecruented by bees. BLAIN, in farriery, a distem- per incident to horses and cattle, consisting of a tumor which grows on the root of the tongue, and swells to such a size as frequently to stop respiration. It is caused by excessive irritation and heat of the stomach, and discoA-ers itself by the animal's gaping, and hanging out its tongue. The method of cure is as follows : Lay the beast on the ground, open the tumor, and wash it with vinegar and a little salt. BLANCHING, the art or man- ner of rendering any thing white. See Bleaching. The blanching of woollen stuffs is performed with soap, chalk, sul- phur, &c. Silk is blanched with soap and sulphur ; and wax is ren- dered white by exposing it to the action of the sun and dew. SeeWAx. BLANKET, an article of com- merce so Avell knoAvn in domestic economy, that any definition of it would be superfluous. The best kind of blankets is ma- nufactured at Whitney, in Oxford- shire : their excellency is attribut- ed by some persons to the abster- sive nitrous water of the river Windrush, with Avhich they are scoured ; while others imagine it is to be ascribed to a peculiar looseness in the spinning. Blank- VOL. I. B L E 297 ets are made of felt-wool, or that from sheepskins, which is divided into several sorts. Of the head- wool anel bay avooI they make blankets of ten, eleven and twelve quarters broad, commonly of the or- dinary sort, those of seven and eight quarters ; and of the best tail-wool, are, made blankets of six quarters broad called cuts, and used for sea- men's hammocks.....See IIykes. BLAST, in agriculture and gar- dening, is a term synonimous with blight, which see. That species of blasts called ure- dines, or fire-blasts, is supposed by Mr. Hales to originate from the solar rays, reflected from, or con- densed in the clouds, or collected by the steams in hop-gardens, &c. They wither, scorch, and blacken the leaves, blossoms, and fruits of trees, shrubs, grass, corn, Sec. and this devastation is at times extend- ed over whole tracts of ground. Balatta. See Cockroach. BLEACHING is the art of whitening linen cloth, thread, cot- ton, &c. In the present advanced state of the linen and cotton manu- factures of Great Britain and Ire- land, the art of bleaching is one of the most interesting and import- ant. Its object is to reduce flax, cotton, or the thread* or cloths manufactured from them, to a state of perfect Avhiteness. To attain this end, oils, metallic oxides, earthy impregnations, resins, and other animal, vegetable, or mine- ral particles, containing any co- louring matter, must be discharg- ed from the texture of the sub- stances manufactured. The process of bleaching is di- vided into five parts, viz. 1. Steep- ing and milling ; 2. Bucking and boiling ; 3. Alternate watering and, drying ; 4. Souring ; and, 5. Ru!> 298 B L E BLE bing Avith soap and Avarm water, starching and blueing. By the first of these methods, the cloth is in a great degree freed from its superficial foulness, and is rendered more pliant and soft. The second process is the most important of the whole. Its object is to loosen and carry off, by means of alkaline leys, that particular substance in cloth, which is the cause of its brown colour. The operation of alternate watering and drying is as follows : After the cloth has been bucked, it is carried out to the field, and frequently watered, dur- ing the first six hours. For, if in the course of that time it be allow- ed to dry, Avhile strongly impreg- nated Avith salts, the latter, by ap- proaching closer together, and being assisted by a degree of heat which increases in proportion to the dryness of the cloth, act with greater force, and destroy its tex- ture. After this time, dry spots are suffered to appear before it re- ceives any Avater. By the continual evaporation which takes place on the surface of the cloth, it is evident that this operation is intended to carry off some impurities that remain after the former process of bucking..... This is clearly proved from the fact, that the upper side of the cloth, where the evaporation is strongest, attains to a greater de- gree of whiteness than the reverse side ; and the whole likewise turns much lighter on being exposed to the influence of the sun, air, and winds. Souring.....Every person, who possesses the smallest knoAvledge of chemistry, is aware that alkaline salts may, by various methods, be converted into absorbent earths.... One of these is, frequent solution in water, and again evaporating it. A transmutation, therefore, of these salts must be continually going for- Avards in the cloth, during the al- ternate Avaterings and dryings of the former process. The souring process is sooner completed in cold than in warm Aveather ; and it is noAv experimentally ascertained, that vitriol is preferable to milk sours in bleaching. The next is hand rubbing with soap and warm water, rubbing- boards, starching, and blueing..... After the cloth has been suffici- ently soured, it is washed in the mill, to deprive it of the acrid par- ticles which adhere to its surface. From the mill, it is taken to be washed by the hand, with soap and warm Avater, to free it from the oily particles which could not be disengaged by the milling. Soft soap is preferred to hard, for this purpose, as the latter contains a considerable quantity of sea-salt, which is prejudicial to the cloth. The management of coarse cloth in this operation is very different from that of fine : for the former, instead of being worked by the hands (a method Avhich would be too expensive), is laid upon a table, rubbed over with soap, and then placed between what are called rubbing-boards, which have ridges and grooves from one side to the other, in the form of teeth. The starching and blueing, which is the last operation, differs so little from the process employed by laun- dry-women, that it scarcely re- quires discription, But it often happens, that the cloth, Avhen ex- posed to dry in the open air, after being starched, is wetted by rain, which frustrates the effects intended by the operation: to remedy this inconvenience, many bleachers em- ploy a dry-house, where the linen may be dryed in all weathers. BL E B L E 299 As bleaching is a process still susceptible of improvement, scarce- ly a year elapses, which does not produce some new discovery in this useful branch of manufactures. We shall, therefore, content our- selves with communicating a feAv of such hints as may prove advan- tageous to the practical bleacher ; and with which, Ave presume, there are many persons still unacquainted. The new method of bleaching with the dephlogisticated or oxyge- nated muriatic acid, or spirit of salt combined with manganese, is founded upon the remarkable pro- perty which that acid possesses of destroying vegetable colours ; and though various attempts have been made to introduce it into this coun- try, the difficulties or disadvantages attending it have prevented its ge- neral adoption. This acid was first applied to the purpose of bleaching by M. Berthollet ; and the par- ticulars of the process are describ- ed at length in a treatise on bleach- ing published a few years since, at Edinburgh. It is to be regretted, that no ex- act comparative statement of the difference of expence between the old and new methods of bleaching, has yet been laid before the public; but it is probable that the acid drawn from one pound of salt, will whiten four of linen cloth, with- out any addition. The expence in this case may appear trifling, but when we compute the vitriolic acid which is employed, and that the residuum is almost useless, it will soon be found to be very consider- able ; and upon the whole, the ad- vantage may be only in the saving of time : but M. Berthollet as- serts, that by this method the tex- ture of the cloth is less injured than by that hitherto practised. The oxy-muriatic acid is also very generally used for bleaching paper. According to M. Chap- tal, blotting-paper, Avhen put into it, is bleached without suffering any injury : and old books, and prints, Avhen soiled in such a man- ner as to be scarcely distinguisha- ble, have been completely restored to their original state. The simple immersion of a print in this acid, is sufficient to produce that desirable effect; but with books some far- ther precaution is necessary: they should be unseAved, and the adher- ing leaA'es carefully separated, that the whole may be equally impreg- nated. Mr. Higgins, chemist to the Irish Linen Board, has discovered that the oxy-muriate of lime is, in bleaching, not only cheaper, but in other respects preferable to that of pot-ash. The chemical attraction of the former is somewhat stronger than that of the latter; and, on account of this quality, it does less injury to the cloth. Alternate boilings in solutions of pot-ash, steepings in oxy-muriate of lime, exposure to the action of light, anel evaporating water on the green, are found to complete within six weeks, at little more than half the expence, what otherwise cannot be performed in less than elouble the lime. Notwithstanding this great im- provement, Mr. Higgins was anxious to diminish still farther the expence attending the process of bleaching. Convinced that the mixtures of sulphur with soda, are detergents, or cleansers of the most powerful kind, he Avas naturally led to conjecture, that lime, which, in other respects, pussesses pro- perties nearly similar to those of the fixed alkali, might also resemble 300 B L E them in the detergent effect of their combination with sulphur. He made trial: a sulphuret of lime, composed of four pounds of sul- phur added to twenty pounds of lime, and diluted in sixteen gal- lons of Avater, formed a solution Avhich answered cold, just as Avell for the bleaching of linen, as the boiling solution of pot-ash. In consequence of this experiment, he recommends, that linen, after be- ing perfectly cleansed from the weaver's dressing, be immersed alternately in solutions of sulphuret of lime, and of oxy-muriate of lime, namely, six times in each. By this method, linen may be com- pletely bleached, and with a con- siderable saving of expence. In Ireland, it is at present almost ge- nerally adopted. [The following process is com- municated by T.Cooper, of Nor- thumberland, an excellent chemist, who says, it was the result of the successful experience of three years in England, where it is still a se- cret. "Bleaching Linen....ln bleaching linen the objects are as follow : to get rid of the sowen or paste used by the weaver: to destroy the colouring matter of the cloth ; to give additional whiteness when this is destroyed; to give apparent fineness to the cloth. Into a tub sunk in the ground, put any number of pieces from 50 to 100 immersed in water. Let them stay therein for two or three days, until there is an appearance of fermentation. Take them out and dash them Avell in the dash- wheel, and lay them down on the grass till dry. Into a cuir or round tub about four feet six in- ches deep, capable of holding 220 pieces of common Irish linen, put BLE in that quantity. The upper pieces should be covered by pieces twisted and placed very close, so that the steam may be somewhat confined ; near the bottom of this cuir is a hole, stopped occasionally with a plug through which the liquor is let out into an iron pan just beloAv.... Under this pan is a fire, with its proper flue. Put into this iron pan 70lb. of good pot ash. It is absurd to use kelp or barilla : it is more impure, much weaker when pure, and in all respects dearer and less efficacious, than the vegetable alkali. Fill the pan Avith water and make a fire under it. The pan should hold just enough to let the liquor cover the cloth when the cuir is full and the plug in. By the side of the pap. stands a man Avith a tin vessel, holding a- bout a gallon, fixed at the end of a wooden handle; with which he con- tinually lades out the liquor in the pan to the cloth, distributing it evenly, beginning with it cold, and continuing as it boils from morning to night, occasionally filling up the pan to prevent the alkaline solution being too strong. This operation, which should continue nine hours, is called bouking. The cloth is thus left all night, taken out in the morning, Avell dashed and laid down on the grass for about a week, being turned every day or two. It must undergo this operation of bouking a second time with from 50 to 60lb of pot ash, and being Avell dashed, is laid down as before. It is noAv soured in vitriolic acid and water in tubs sunk in the ground : the mixture should be the strength of strong vinegar or a lit- tle more. In this souring they should continue two days and nights at least: then dashed well; layed B L E B L E 301 down for a week and turned as be- fore. The pieces should then be bouked Avith 30lb. of pearl ash, and ten pounds of soap to a cuir; dashed, laid down for three or four days: then soured, dashed, laid doAvn for three or four days, turn- ed, isfc. as before. Bouk again with 25lb. of good pearl ash to a cuir. Dash, lay down for two or three days, and then sour if you please in the oxy- genated muriatic acid, made in the manner directed in the article, Mu- riatic Acid. If you do not use the oxygenated acid, sour again in common vitriolic acid for six or eight hours, and wash it extremely well. Indeed, perfect dashing con- tinued to a certainty of all the acid being washed out, is indispensible : otherwise the pieces would rot on the ground when dry. Less than a month is not suffici- ent to get a piece of linen cloth per- fectly white, though half that time Avill do for callicoes in England.... But in America the superior heat of the sun will save at least one fourth of the time in laying down the pieces. After this process, the cloth in Ireland is put under the operation of the rubbing boards, which certainly injure the texture, as appears by the knap in the teeth, although the more soap is used the less injury is done. But it is a part of the manufacture which may be omitted where the cloth is required to gain credit by the strength of its texture. After the rubbing boards the cloth is gradually Avound round cylinders of wood and beetled.... The beetles are stampers lifted up by a cog-wheel, and let fall on the cloth, as it is slowly taken up round a turning cylinder. This is also a part of the operation by which the thread is flattened, and the cloth made to look finer at the expence of the texture. It is then run through a very thin solution of fine starch, and blued with smalt. Then run through two cylinders to give it evenness and gloss, and made up for market. Bleaching of Cotton....The pro- cess is exactly the same as for linen, only requiring less time and labour, viz.... 1. Steep the grey cloth for two or three days, then wash. 2. Bouk with 70lb. of pot ash to 230 pieces of callico of 2 Ba- yards each, or muslinets, velver- ets, &c. in proportion, that is to a cuir, (keer) full, which will hold 230 callicoes in the grey. A cuir that will hold 230 callicoes will not hold quite so many of Irish linen of equal length. 3. Lay the goods doAvn on the grass three days,turning them each day. 4. Bouk with 50lb. of good pearl ash, and about 5lb. of soap. Dash, lay down for three days as before. 5. Sour in vitriolic acid and wa- ter, the strength of strong vinegar for two days. 6. Dash well, lay doAvn for three days as before. 7. Bouk Avith 30lb. of pearl ash, dash and lay down for three days. 8. Bleach with oxygenated mu- riatic acid. Dash well, lay down for a day, dash again and make up the callicoes." Muslinets and Muslins require a detail of processes after they are white, too long and complicateel to be described in this compendium. A new method of bleaching cot- ton thread and hosiery has been a- dopted in Swabia. The operation is performed in two days, and does not require extensive premises. An 302 B LE B L E alkalizate caustic ley is prepared, by taking two measures of epiick lime, and covering them with ten measures of good ashes ; the heap is then to be sprinkled with water, and Avhen the lime is slacked, and the mass cooled, it is fit for making the leArs by the addition of cold soft water. The skains of cotton being untAvisted and tie:l in parcels, are to be immersed in the ley, in which they are to be left six hours, and to be occasionally turned ; they are then to be washed in a ri- ver, and afterwards boiled twelve- hours in a bath of the same kind of ley, in which for every sixty-six pounds of cotton thread, six pounds of soap have been dissolved ; the^ are then to be boiled the same length of time in a solution of soap and water only, according to the former proportion ; after Avhich, they are again to be washeel in the river, and hung up in the air, or laid on the grass, to dry as ejuick- Iy as possible. The process for the hosiery is similar. The boiler must be made of copper, and always well cleaned after it has been used. The successful experiments made by Berthollet in bleaching vegetable goods, by means of the oxymuriatic acid, seem to have brought this art nearly to a state of perfection. But this method is not in every instance, equally eco- nomical. It requires to be per- formed by very skilful operators, in order that the goods may not be affected by a ley too corrosive, or applied at an improper time ; independent of which considera- tion, it is desirable that every pro- cess should be completely disclo- sed, in order that the artist may choose such means as may best suit his pursuit. This considera- tion has induced the publication of the following account of Chap- t all's simple and economical mode of bleaching cotton thread. At the height of about 4-1 deci- metres (17.716 inches) above the grate of a common furnace, a cop- per boiler is placed, of a round form, 5 decemetres, (19.685) inch- es) in depth, and U- metres (52.49 inches) in diameter. The project- ing rim of the boiler, which is about 2 decimetres (7.874 inches), rests upon the brick work of the furnace. The remainder of the kiln is made of free stone, and forms an oval boiler or digester, about 2 metres, (78.74 inches) in height, and its width, Avhen measured at the cen- tre, is 1-i metre, (52.49 inches)..... The upper part of this vessel has a round orifice, about half a metre, (19,68 inches) in diameter, which is closed, when necessary, by a large moveable stone, or by a cop- per lid adapted for the purpose. On the flank of the copper vessel, which forms the bottom of this di- gester, a grating is laid, which con- sists of bars of wood placed near enough to prevent the cotton that is put on them from falling through, and sufficiently strong to support the weight of 800 kilo- grammes (or lbs. 1781,4oz.) When this structure is completed, the cot- ton thread, having been previously divided into parcels or hanks, is slightly impregnated Avith a solu- tion of soda, rendered caustic by lime. This operation is performed in a trough of wood or stone, and as soon as the cotton is sufficiently impregnated with the alkaline li- quor, it is conveyed to the digest- er, and piled upon the wooden- grate. In this situation, the exud- ing liquor runs through the bars into the copper boiler, where it forms a stratum of fluid, and allovvs BL E B L E 303 the whole mass to be heated, with- out danger of burning either the cotton or the metal. The alkaline Icy is composed of the best pot- ash, one tenth part of the weight of the cotton in cmantity. After the cotton is properly dis- posed in the boiler, the cover is put on, and very little issue left forthe disengaged vapours, in order that they may acquire a greater degree of heat, and act more powerfully on the cotton. When the digester is charged, the fire is lighted in the furnace, and the ley submitted to a gentle ebullition from 20 to 36 hours. It is then suffered to cool, the cover taken off, the cotton care- fully washed and exposed on the bleaching ground for 2 or 3 days, by spreading it on frames during the day, and on the grass at night. Thus the cotton accmires a beauti- ful degree of whiteness; and if some portions should accidentally remain unbleached, which may happen from its not having been equally and completely impregnat- ed with the ley, those portions must be replaced and subjected to a second operation, or left in the bleach-field for some days longer. The oxygenated muriatic acid, was discovered by Scheele ; its application to bleaching was first suggested by Berthollet and Chaptall in France, anel used at Glasgow, by Mr. Watt, anel in Manchester in the year 1791 in a large way, first by Baker and Co. whose process has never yet been made public, and is that now about to be detailed. The method of making this acid for bleaching, yet used in Manches- ter and elsewhere, is by adding to 3 parts, by weight of manganese, 8 parts of common salt and 6 parts of oil of vitriol, and 12 of water..•• These are distilled together, and the products received in barrels of water, arranged in the manner of Wolfe's apparatus by tubes com- municating from the retort to the first barrel, and from the first to a second. Sometimes the water is only impregnated with the acid, sometimes it is made to saturate lime or pearl ash. This process cannot be used with economy : the trouble and expence of retorts, and the attendance on the fire renders it complicated so as ultimately to bring it into disuse. It has not yet, and never Avill answer for goods in general. Where parti- cular patterns are suddenly want- ed for the market it may pay. The writer of this article attenel- ecl for three years continually to the bleaching of cotton goods of various kinds, to the amount of 800 pieces of callico per week, on the average of the year, by the follow- ing process, The goods under- went three boukings, as described before in this article, and two acid baths. The third Avas the oxygenated muriatic acid made as follows. In a building of one room on a bank and another over it, were placed on substantial frames or tressels, five wooden cylindrical machines four feet diameter by five feet long, the staves two and an half inches thick and well dove- tailed. Into each of these, twice a day, through a funnel inserted in a two inch augur hole and let through the floor of the upper room was poured 75lb. of salt and 25lb. of red lead. To this was ad- ded 40lb. of oil of vitriol, weighing 29>oz. to the wine pint. The machine was then filled with Avater, the augur hole stopt with a plug and rag, and then turn- ed round 20 or 30 times, and in 304 B L E BLE 15 minutes the acid Avas made..... The vitriolic acid acts on the salt, anel the marine acid thus produced on the red lead, Avhich in a few minutes is deprived of its oxygen, and converted into vitriol of lead. The handle of each machine was fixed on the centre of one of the ends with two cross-bars [X]...... The acid when made Avas let off on the pieces placed in wooden ves- sels in a room adjoining and be- low. It frequently occasioned a spitting of blood among the work- men who took out the pieces, but Avas never attended with any fur- ther deleterious effects, laudanum relieved the short phthisicky cough. One of these vessels full was allow- ed to 60 muslinets. No lead re- mained in the liquor, for vitriol of lead is insoluble. This process may be imitated in a small way, by pouring into a strong vial, with a glass stopper, about an ounce of spirits of salt on a tea-spoonful of red-lead ; stop the vial,heat is generated,the lead turns white and a very strong oxygena- ted acid is produced in a minute's time. But this acid will contain a little lead, while the acid made Avith vitriol anel salt does not. This acid has lately been recommend- ed by Guyton Morveau, as an effectual destroyer of putrid exhala- tion.] We shall conclude this article by abstracting the patent lately granted to Mr. Turnbull, for an improve- ment in the common process of bleaching cotton, or linen pieces: Take any kind of earth Avhich is easily mixable Avith water, such as clay, marl, or Fuller's earth, or if that cannot be had, any kind of soft mud or the like, Avhich is put into a boiler to evaporate the moisture, dried, again mixed with water, and passed through fine sieves. This powder is then mix- ed Avith quick-lime, which is slack- ed in the earthy mass, and forms the materials for the several bouk- ings which the cloth is to undergo. The pieces are to fee worked in the bouking tubs for a number of times, alternating this operation with rins- ing and souring, as is usual in the long established method, and after- wards exposing them to the air, on, the bleaching ground. The only difference in the process here em- ployed, is the admixture of earthy mud, or clay, to the lime, so that the corrosive power of the latter is diminished, and may consequently be used more freely. In the last buckings, pot-ash is also added to the earthy mixture. Hence the patentee's method unites that of fulling with soap, or washing with alkaline lye ; and it is very pro- bable, that by such a combination not only time, but also expence may be saved, as alkali is the most valuable article used in the pro- cess. In January, 1798, a patent was granted to Mr. C. Tennant, for his method of using calcareous earths, especially those known un- der the names of barytes and stron- tites as substitutes for alkalies, in neutralizing the muriatic acid gas employed in bleaching, he. and the patentee directs such calcareous earths to be calcined, pulverized, anel sifted; after which a certain portion of quick-lime, according to the degree of strength required, must be thrown into the vessel usually employed in the prepara- tion of the bleaching liquor, for the purpose of retaining the oxygena- tid muriatic gas. When the in- gredients generally employed, namely, manganeze and spirit of BLE B L E 305 Aalt, have been introduced into the retort, and the gas begins to rise, the liquor contained in the receiver ought to be constantly agitated, so that the title particles of the lime may be diffused throughout the whole of such fluid ; for the suc- cess of the process depends chiefly on this circumstance. As soon as the manganese, or other material, ceases to yield the oxygenated muriatic acid gas, the whole should be suffered to remain at rest, for tAvo or three hours ; after Avhich the clear liquor must be decanted for use ; Mr. T. farther observes, that if these calcareous earths be mechanically suspended in water, or other aqueous fluid, they will unite with such gas, and form a compound that may be advanta- geously employed in bleaching. The liquor, thus -prepared, is not only a considerable saving in the article of ashes, but also the time usually required for bleach- ing is remarkably shortened. The latest Avork published on this subject is, we belieA-e, a treatise writtenby M.Pajot des Charmes, of which a translation Avas lately published in London, by Messrs. Robinson, in one vol. 8vo. [Since the work by Pajot des Charmes, Citizen Chaptal, of France, has greatly improved the practice of bleaching, an account of the Avhole process, as actually conducted by Cit. Bawens, near Paris, is detached in a publication by R. O'Reilley, Parij year 9. (1801). A translation of this work may be found in Tilloch's Philadel- phia Magazine, vol. 10, Avith some observations on part of the process. In the 11th vol. of the same use- ful work, are remarks on Chap- tal's machine for unitingoxviren VOL. I. with water, and on bleaching the pulp of paper on this last process. See a paper by Cit. Loysel, in Nicholson's Phil. Journal, 8vo. 1 vol. The Editor has thought it his duty, to give a comprehensive view of the present state of the know- ledge on bleaching, leaving the application of the principles and practice to the discretion of. those Avho may wish to follow the busi- ness. He will gladly receive any observations upon the various modes recommended, from practi- cal men.] BLEAK, or Cyprinus Albums, L. a well known scaly fish. See Pearl. BLEEDING, a term used to ex- press either a spontaneous, or arti- ficial, discharge of blood : in the former case, it is by medical writers called hemorrhage ; in the latter, venesection, or blood-letting, of which last we propose to treat in its place. At present, therefore we shall consider only those eva- cuations which Nature directs to take place in the system, and fre- quently for the benefit of the indi- vidual. 1. Bleeding at the nose generally arises in full sanguine habits, more commonly in young men than wo- men, especially during adolescence. Exposure to the heat of the sun, a hot room, contusions of the head, or acrid substances introduced into the nostrils, are the general causes of this complaint.....On its first attack, all cumbersome clothes and ligatures, especially those about the wrists and neck, ought to be instantly loosened ; the patient should be removed to a cooler tem- perature, and placed in an erect posture ; his hands and legs im- mersed in tepid water, about milk- P R 306 B L E BLI warm ; and dossils of lint dipped in vinegar, or a strong solution of white vitriol, put up the nostrils. [In general, bleeding of the nose may be stopped by screwing up the nostril, a piece of dry linen rag, rolled very tight. Sometimes it answers to clip the plug in a solu- tion of sugar of lead in vinegar.] If the bleeding does not abate, or threatens to become more profuse, cold Avater, or solutions of nitre and sugar of lead, should be repeatedly applied to the forehead and temples as Avell as the region of the kidneys and genitals.....One of the most ef- fectual methods of stopping violent bleeding, consists in the unremitted administration of lukewarm, emol- lient clysters, in such small propor- tions as may be retained and ab- sorbed by the bowels, while cold fomentations are applied to the ab- domen. Meanwhile, the patient should drink lemonade, or water acidulated with a few drops of vi- triolic acid, and sweetened with sugar ; or if these cannot be had, a mixture of equal parts of vinegar and Avater may be substituted. 2. Spitting of blood may be owing to an abundance of that fluid, an organic debility of the lungs, or an imperfect structure of the chest. It may also proceed from exertions in blowing Avind- instruments,loud-speaking^singing, running, wrestling, and excess in drinking, especially after violent exercise. This alarming complaint is attended Avith a dry cough, and difficulty of breathing : and if the evacuated blood be thin, frothy, and florid, it indicates a rupture of some pulmonary artery ; but if it be thick, and of a darkish colour, while the coughing up is accompa- nied with pain, the disease is then occasioned by a fall, or other ex- ternal injury. In either case, the diet should be cooling and diluent: hence sweet whey, a decoction of marsh-mallows, or barley, vege- tables abounding in • mucilage, the mildest laxatives, consisting of manna, tamarinds, phosphorated soda, vitriolated tartar, Sec. ought to be instantly resorted to. At the same time, emollient clysters bath- ing the legs in tepid water, and a suspension of all mental and bodily exertion, are absolutely necessary. Bleeding, cupping, styptic tinc- tures, fox-glove, and opium, must be submitted to the discretion of the medical practitioner: and we shall here only observe, that a ta- ble spoonful of fine salt, taken dry, has frequently afforded instant re- lief. 3. Vomiting of Blood. See Vo- miting. 4. Discharge of Blood by the urethra. See Urine. 5. Bloody Flux. See Dysen- tery. 6. Bleeding Hemorrhoids. See Piles. BLEND-WATER, also called more-hough, a distemper incident to black cattle, which proceeds either from the state of the ani- mal's blood, from the yellows, or from the change of ground, which if too hard, is apt to produce this evil. To cure it....Take one ounce of bole armenian, as much char- coal as will fill a small tea-cup, and three ounces of the rind of the oak : let the whole be reduced to a powder, anel given to the animal in a quart of new milk. BLIGHT, in husbandry, is a disease incident to plants, and af- fecting them in various degrees ; sometimes destroying only the leaves and blossoms, and frequently causing the whole plant to perish* BL I Blights are generally supposed to be produced by easterly winds, which convey multitudes of the eggs of insects from some distant quarter; and these being lodged on the surface of the leaves and flowers of fruit-trees, cause them to shrivel and decay. It is the general opinion, that one principal reason why the en- virons of London are particularly subject to blights, is the great number of pruned trees and cut hedges near that metropolis; for as all vegetables become more or less sickly when the course of their sap is impeded, the trees in this state are more liable to blight, than such as are vigorous and uninjured by the pruhing-knife. It is worthy of remark, that to the westward of London the effects of this distem- per insensibly decrease, insomuch, that at forty miles distance it rarely occurs, and at an hundred miles and upwards, it is entirely un- known. This circumstance seems to favour the idea of its being con- veyed by easterly winds. But the true cause appeal's to be, the conti- nuance of these Avinds for several elays, Avithout the intervention of showers or dews, by Avhich the expansion of the tender blossom is checked, so that the young leaves necessarily wither. To cure this distemper, some persons burn a quantity of wet litter on the windward side of the plants, as it is supposed that the smoke will suffocate the insects: others fumigate the trees, by streAV- ing sulphur upon lighted charcoal, or by sprinkling them Avith to- bacco-dust, or with water in which tobacco-stalks have been infused for twelve hours. Ground-pepper, scattered over the blossoms, has sometimes proved beneficial. BLI 307 Mr. Gullett, of Tavistock, is of opinion that great benefit may be derived from whipping the branches of fruit-trees with a bunch of elder-twigs, the leaves of Avhich should be previously bruised. The smell of the elder being extremely disagreeable, no insects will settle on the parts touched by it; and some blighted shoots have even been restored, by first whipping them, and then tying up a bunch of elder leaves among them. A composition of oil and sul- * phur, mixed to the consistence of paint, Avill also prove highly advan- tageous, in expelling young insects from the trees infested by them. But the most effectual remedy is, to wash the plants gently and fre- quently with pure Avater, and if the young shoots be much infected, to rub them gently with a Avoollen cloth, in order to clear away the glutinous matter. This operation should be performed in the morn- ing, that the moisture may be ex- haled before night. It deserves to be mentioned, that the blights most destructiveto fruit- trees, are those produced by the hoar frosts in spring mornings, Avhich are often succeeded by Avarm sun-shine. We shall now give an account of the different remedies that have heen proposed by Mr. Forsyth, both for its prevention and cure, according to the various causes from Avhich it may originate. Where the blight arises from long-continued easterly winds, the diseased tree ought to be washed Avith a mixture of urine and soap- suds : this operation must be per- formed as early as possible; for the malady may thus be in a great measure prevented; but, if the 308 B L I BLI young and tender shoots be great- ly infected, it will be advisable to cleanse them with a woollen cloth, dipped in the following liquor: Take 1 lb. of tobacco, 2 lbs. of sul- phur, 1 peck of unslacked lime, and about 1 lb. of elder-buds ; let 10 gallons of boiling Avater be poured on these ingredients into a hogs- head, which must now be closely covered, and the whole be suffered to become cool. The vessel is then to be filled up with cold water; and, after standing two or three days, during which time the liquor must be skimmed, the mixture will be fit for use. Another cause of blight in the spring, is the sharp hoar frost, which often takes place during the night, and is succeeded by hot days; so that the blossoms and fruit ine- vitably perish. The only preven- tive of such accidents, hitherto known, is the covering of Avails with old fish-nets, doubled three times ; and, if a flew branches of dry fern be placed between the boughs, they will greatly contribute to break the force of high Avinds, as well as of the frost. Such shelter ought to be employed only during the night, and be removed in the day time. Thus, the fruit will be effectually preserved ; and, as the apparent trouble attending this practice might deter many persons from adopting it, Mr. F. is of opi- nion, that the object may be easily and expeditiously attained, by con- triving to draAv up and let down the nets by means of pullies. Frequently, however, the affec- tion termed blight, is merely a weakness in the trees, Avhich de- pends on the difference of their constitutions, and proceeds from want of proper nourishment; some bad quality in the soil; or from a distemper in the stock, buds, or scyons ; all of which causes pro* duce a malady in trees, that is with difficulty cured. Should the cause arise from the soil, Mr. F. directs it to be dug out, and supplied Avith fresh mould ; or, it Avill be advisable to remove the trees, and to plant others, which are better adapted to the ground; because it is indispensibly neces- sary to suit different kinds of fruit- trees, as nearly as possible, to the nature 08) the land. But, where the weakness of trees is induced by some inbred disease, they ought to be dug up ; the earth be changed; and other plants be substituted. Lastly, there is another species of blight that is very destvuctive to orchards and plantations, in the months of April and May : it is known under the name of Blast. This malady is conjectured to ori- ginate from certain transparent floating vapours, which assume such forms as to converge the rays of the sun, in a manner similar to a burning glass, and to scorch those plants on which they happen to de- scend, in a greater or less degree, according to their convergency. The blast occurs most frecmently in close plantations, where the exha- lation of vapours from the earth, and the perspiration of the trees are confined, for want of a sufficient circulation of the air to disperse them. Mr. Forsyth, therefore, recommends a clear, healthy spot, to be selected for kitchen-gardens, orchards, he. ; the trees being planted at such a distance as to give free admission to the air; so that all noxious vapours may be dissipated, before they are formed into volumes capable of occasion- ing blasts. [Dr. Anderson attributes blight^ BLI to an insect, and not to E. winds. He thinks this opinion is proved by the well-known fact, that when the blight once affects a tree to a con- siderable degree, it is ten to one but it will be affected with the same disease for many successive years : because, the insects lay their eggs in the bark of the tree, and thus ensure their successors. Dr. A. directs the trees to be brushed early in the spring, in the direction of the buds; or, when the insects are numerous, to cut out the twigs : this operation, though it may dimi- nish the fruit for a year, it will put the tree in the finest order the next year. The twigs cut off must be burnt. If no attention has been paid to the trees until the leaves appear, they must be pulled off; and the twigs brushed, the tree will put forth new leaves. In a paper by the late Mr: Cur- tis, in the 6th vol. of the Lin. So- ciety's Transactions, London, the sentiments of Dr. Anderson re- specting the cause of blights, are confirmed. Mr. C. ascribes this disease to aphides. They greatly multiply in consecjuence of a mild Avinter, but are usually kept in check by coccinella ichneumon aphi- dum, and muses, aphidora, their de- clared enemies. In the years 1793 and 1798, they greatly injured the hops in England....They resist im- mersion in water for hours toge- ther, but quickly perish in the smoke of tobacco. They part with an excrementitious saccharine mat- ter, which forms honey dire, and gives the sooty appearance com- monly called blight. Fmit trees, particularly apple and pear trees, are very subject to the blight or blast, the cause of which is little understoo 1. By ac- cident, Mr. Cooper, of Xew-Jer- B L I 309 sey, discovered some years since, that a tree upon which a number of iron hoops and other articles of iron had been hung, remained free, Avhile all the rest suffered severely. Since that year, he has constantly encircled tAvo or three branches of every tree Avith an iron hoop, and with uniform success. As a proof, he pointed out one tree with a wi- thered limb near the top, and ob- served that he had neglected to de- fend itlast year. Philosophers may speculate as to the theory of the operation of the iron, and cause of the blast, but practical men will be contented with a knowledge of the important fact, Avhich comes from a man of judgment, and of an ob- serving disposition, Avho has again and again satisfied himself that no deception or accidental circum- stance occurred, by reference to which, the preservation of his hoop- ed trees could be accounted for.] Blighted Corn. See Smut. BLINDNESS, implies either a partial or total privation of sight, proceeding from some defect of the organs of vision, or an impaired state of their functions. Hence it may be either total, partial, tran- sient, periodical, or nocturnal. The causes of blindness are likewise va- rious, such as weakness, or decay of the optic nerves, preternatural conformation of the organs, exter- nal violence, malignant effluvia, poisonous liquids dropt into the eye, too frequent exposure to intense heat, long confinement in dark pla- ces, Sec. As Ave propose to treat of the principal diseases of the eye, under the heads of Cataract, Gutta- serena, andSicHT, we shall here only observe, that those unfortunate persons who are born blind, orlose their sight in infancy, seldom re- 310 B L I B LI cover that important faculty, and ought therefore to be educated for such pursuits as are adequate to their individual capacities. It is, indeed, equally cruel, anel incon- sistent Avith good policy, to suffer these pitiable beings frequently to spend a vagrant life, anel remain in the darkest ignorance. On the contrary, it has been uniformly observed, that the privation of one sense renders the others compara- tively more acute and useful. Hence blind persons generally hear bet- ter, and possess a more accurate sense of touch, than those who en- joy all their sensitive faculties; and we haA-e also many instances of the poetical and philosophical talents displayed by the former. With a view to contribute our share towards alleviating the severe lot of such unfortunate individuals, we shall here communicate an in- vention of Mr. Thomas Gren- ville, organist, of Ross, in Here- fordshire ; Avho, in the year 1770, received a premium of fifteen gui- neas ; and, in 1785, for some ad- ditional improvements, the silver medal, from the Society for the Encouragement of Arts, tsfc. It is remarkable, that the ingenious in- ventor is himself deprived of sight; and that by the use of his machine, any blind person may be taught the elements of arithmetic, name- ly, addition, subtraction, multipli- cation, division, reduction, and the rule of three, Avhether in money, weights, or measures of every kind, as perfectly as it may be per- formed on paper. His apparatus being of a simple construction, and so contriAred that it may be of ser- vice in teaching the art of reckon- ing,to young children, in a very easy and entertaining manner; Ave shall first give an account of this ma- chine, as represented in the sub- joined cut, and then conclude Avith a description of its mechanism. It consists of a box nineteen in- ches square in the clear space Avith- in, and near two inches deep, divid- ed into cells, containing the figures, lines, he. hereafter described, ne- cessary for performing the rules of arithmetic. The lid or cover of the box, Avhich serves as a leaf, or slate, is pierced full of holes in parrallel rows ; the first row has eighteen large, and seventeen small holes, alternately placed ; the se- cond row, eighteen small holes, placed under the above large ones ; the third, as the first, and so on alternately, thirty-five toavs, the Avhole cover being full, and contain- ing three hundred and twenty-four large lioles, and six hundred anel twelve small ones, which make an exact square. The figures are re- presented by pegs with cubical heads, and distinguished by pins placed on one side in the following manner :....One, is expressed by a pin's point on the right hand ; two, by the same in the middle; and three, by having it on the left- hand ; four, five, and six, by pins' heads in the above three different situations ; seven, eight, and nine, by crooked pins, or staples, in the same manner: the cypher is un- derstood by a plain peg, without any mark. On the top of each peg is printed the figure which it repre- sents, to render the Avork intelligi- ble to any person that may see it, without being acquainted Avith the marks. These pegs are made to fit the large holes. Pieces of brass wire, bent to a right angle, about half an inch from each end, and made to fit the small holes, serve for the purpose of lines, to separate the different parts of the Avork. BLI BLI 311 The box contains twenty-eight figures, and the others for the lines partitions, situated as in the fol- of different lengths. lowing cut, ten of them to hold A, The box with its several di- visions, containing the different pegs, bars, Sec. with which the rules in arithmetic are to be per- formed....B, The cover, Avhich when turned back, and standing on its feet as represented, shews the holes wherein the pegs and bars are occasionally placed to exhibit the value of the figures....C, The pegs marked in such manner as to enable the blind person to distin- guish by the touch, what each peg is intended to represent, when placed in the holes in the cover B. A complete specimen of this ma- chine may be seen in the Reposi- tory of the Society, Adelphi build- ings, London. With respect to the education of the blind, we have already re- marked, that it deserves public sym- pathy, and the interposition of the legislature ; as their natural indus- try, and persevering application, will enable them to overcome the greatest difficulties, and amply re- pay the trouble and expence be- stowed on their mechanical or li- terary, acquirements. To strength- en their faculties, and preserve their health, blind children should never be suffered to remain idle, so that during the hours of recreation, they ought to take suit- able exercise, such as riding on horseback, walking out in fair wea- ther, the use of dumb bells, the bath chair, Scc....In regard to diet, their meals should be temperate, light, and of easy digestion. Ve- getables the most farinaceous, and least acescent, should be preferred to animal food. Neither ferment- ed liquors, nor ardent spirits, should be given them, except in cases of general debility. Tea is likewise pernicious ; and their regular drink ought to consist of equal parts of milk and Avater: a little chocolate, 312 BLI BLI and coffee, may occasionally be granted; but infusions of balm, sage, or ground-ivy, are more wholesome. Tobacco and snuff must be absolutely prohibited ; and on the whole, blind persons should neither be too much restricted to the observance of a rigid system of diet, nor allowed to eat and drink whatever is suggested by their OAvn fancy: in the former case, they are apt to become pitiable slaves to custom ; and, in the latter, it is a shameful dereliction of duty in those whom Providence has ena- bled to see, and direct their affairs. Blindness, in farriery, is a disease incident to the eyes of horses, but more particularly to those of an iron grey, or dapple- grey, colour; and is supposed to proceed from riding them too hard, or backingthem at too early an age. This disorder may be discovered by the walk or step, which, in a blind animal, is always uncertain and unequal, when led; but if he be mounted by an expert horseman, an apprehension of the spur may induce him to move Avith more free- dom, so that the blindness can scarcely be perceived. A horse may also be known to have lost his sight, if observed constantly to prick up his ears, and move them backwards and forwards, on hear- ing any person enter the stable. The ordinary cause of blindness in horses, is attributed by Dr. Lower, to a spongy excrescence growing in one, and sometimes in two or three places of the coloured part of the iris, or Avhich being ultimately overgroAvn, covers the pupil Avhen the horse is brought into the light, but again dilates on returning him to a dark stable.... See Eyes of Horses. Blind-worm (fragilis), or slow- Avorm ; a species of the Anguis, or snake. It is about a foot in length, and of the thickness of the little finger. Its name is de- rived from the slowness of its mo- tion, and the smallness of its eyes. It is chiefly found in gardens and pastures. The Rev. Mr. Foster, in his " Observations on noxious Ani- mals," asserts, from his own expe- rience, that the bite of this crea- ture is perfectly harmless; and he mentions two cases in which it was not attended with any ill conse- quences. These observations are farther corroborated by a passage in the twenty-ninth volume of the Monthly Review, respecting a dog having been bitten by a slow-worm without any ill effects. BLISTER, in medicine, signi- fies either a thin bladder, contain- ing a watery humour raised on the skin, or the application of vesica- tories to different parts of the body. With this intention, Spanish flies are most commonly employed; though we are possessed of a great variety of indigenous plants, Avhich might be effectually substituted.... Hence- Ave recommend, from ex- perience, the following: 1. Mus- tard-seed mixed with vinegar suf- ficient to convert it into a thick paste, to be spread upon linen; 2. The fresh root of the horse- radish, grated, or in fine shavings ; 3. The bruised leaves of the dif- ferent species of the Ranunculus, or crow-foot; 4. The leaves of the Polygonum hydropiper, .or Avater- pepper, groAving wild on the banks of rivulets ; and 5. The most poAV- erful of all indigenous vegetables, the Da/ihne Mezereum, or spurge olive, every part of which is ex- BLI tremcly acrid, but the rind is pre- ferably u»ed for blisters. Whether fresh, or dried, this rind should be previously steeped for a feAV hours in strong vinegar, and then a piece about one inch broad, and tAvo or three inches long, tied over- night to the part : after it has suf- ficiently drawn, the blistered place is covered with an ivy leaf; and a similar vesicatory is applied contiguous to the former. In this manner, it is continued, ac- cording to particular circumstances, especially in chronic diseases till the desired effect is attained...... Where no time is to be lost, we advise the use of mustard-seed, as before described, with the addition of a little salt, which greatly in- creases its efficacy. These cata- plasms are often more proper than the blisters prepared with Spanish flies; because the former operate more speedily, and act with less vio- lence on the fluids than the latter. Hence they are of eminent service to promote critical eruptions; to prevent the small-pox from break- ing out on the face, when applied at the commencement of the dis- ease, either to the calves of the legs, or the soles of the feet; to mitigate the pain arising from in- ternal inflammations, todrive catarr- hal and rheumatic humours from the more essential organs of life to the proximate external parts, and to rouse the indolent powers of Nature. In the most acute pains of the head, and the tooth-ache pro- ceeeling from a rheumatic cause, as Avell as in inflammatory affec- tions of the eyes, such plasters may be usefully applied to the neck or the arm ; in inflammations of the chest, to the breast and between the shoulders ; in apoplectic fits, to the temples, &c VOL. I. BLI 313 In paralytic diseases, it is of the utmost consequence to place the blister in that direction which cor- responds with the situation of the nerves in the part effected ; and, in rheumatic disorders, such places should be preferred, as contain nerves connected with the painful part, immediately under the skin. Thus, in the most acute lumbago, or sciatica, it would be of little use to blister the hip or thigh, where the nerves are situated deep in the muscles: but by applying a vesi- catory to the sole of the foot on the same side, we may promise almost certain relief. [In the second stage of inflamma- tory diseases : in low fevers where a tendency to delirium takes place, and prostration of strength prevails, they are highly useful when ap- plied to various parts of the body.] We shall farther observe, that in acute and dangerous diseases, where it is often necessary to re- peat the application of blisters, [to the same part], the new one should never be delayed till the former is completely healed. But, with re- spect to the time they are to be left on the skin, much, depends on the degree of irritability in the patient, as well as the relative strength of the plaster. Some constitutions, of an irritable fibre, experience its effects in less than half an hour, while in others it may remain four, six, or eight hours, without raising the skin. In opening a blister, it is not necessary to cut away the epidermis, or scarf skin, and to cause unnecessary pain and irritation ; as a single lon- gitudinal incision is sufficient to give vent to the collected humour. Blisters sometimes operate on the urinary canal, and produce a painful strangury, or difficulty of S s 314 BLO making urine : this effect may be remedied by the internal use of camphor, assisted by diluent amul- sions ; such as decoctions of bar- ley, lintseed, solutions of gum ara- ble, See. [or by pouring warm water from a bottle, upon the lower part of the belly, as the person lies in bed,] and to prevent such acci- dents, the blister itself may be mixed with camphor. If, on the other hand, they will not draw, the skin ought to be previously rubbed with strong vinegar: or, if their action be too violent, a little of the extract of henbane may be added to the composition. Caution. We think it our duty to warn the reader againt the use of blisters, in Avhich the Spanish fly is the principal ingredient. In plethoric persons, or those of a full habit, they increase the circulation of the blood ; and ought to be ap- plied only after the necessary eva- cuations have been strictly attended to: in "sallow, weakly, cachectic persons, blisters are not unfre- quently productive of incurable mortification. These fatal effects, however.seklom or never take place from tiie application of mustard- seed, or horse-radish. BLITE, the small red, or Ama- ranthus, blitvm, L. is an indigenous species of the amaranth Avhich is frequently found groAving on rub- bish, ^c It flowers in July and August: .on the Continent its seed is used as a substitute for millet, and the leaA'esare dressed and eaten like spinach. Blue, the upright. See round- leaved Goosefoot. BLOOD, the mo"t c.";>ious fluid in the animal body: and essentially nectssai y tothe preservation of life: it is generahy cf a red, but in most insects., and in all worms, of a white colour. BLO Thehumanbody is,by Dr. Keill, supposed to contain at least one half of its weight in blood ; includ- ing in this computation all that ex- ists in the lymphatic ducts, nerves, or any other vessel. This computa- tion, however, is exaggerated ; and Ave believe that the greatest quanti- ty in a full-grown adult, seldom ex- ceeds thirty pounds Aveight. Its most remarkable property is that of incessantly circulating in the ca- vities of the heart, arteries, and veins, Avhile the animal is alive. Although Hippocrates appears to have possessed a faint idea of this admirable process, when he says, " that all the blood vessels spring from one ; and that this one has neither beginning nor end; for Avhere there is a circle, there can be no beginning;" yet as he was not acquainted with the office of the valves, he could neither compre- hend, nor demonstrate, the circu- lation of the blood. This most important of all discoveries in phy- siology, was reserved for the im- mortal Harvey, who first ascer- tained the true nature and uses of the valves, and about the year 1616, taught, in his Lectures at Cam- bridge,that justly admired doctrine, the substance of whi h he published in 1628. He proved that, in most animals, the blood circulates in ar- teries and veins, and through the medium of one,tAvo, or more hearts; (see Animal Kingdom) ; that in arteries it moves from the trunk to the branches ; and that, meeting there with the branches of veins, it returns in a languid state to the heart; that the heart communxates a neAv impulse, and propels it to the trunk of the arteries ; v.F that by these, the thickness of their coats, exerting muscularforce,again clrivd it into the veins.....^ alves are si- tuated in every ,.art of this circulat- BLO BLO 315 ing course, in order to prevent the return of the blood. The colour of this fluid in the arteriesisof a florid hue ; butsome- what darker in the veins, except in those of the lungs, in which it is of a lighter ca.t. When exposed to the open air, the blood gradually separates into two parts, namely, the serum, or a yellowish, some- times greenish fluid, and the cras- samcntum, or cake, Avhich resem- bles a red mass swimming distinct- ly on the top. The latter contracts greatly in its dimensions, and in- creases in solidity; properties which depend on the state of the indiv i- dual at the time when the blood is drawn. Hence, in vigorous per- sons, when attacked with an in- flammatory disease, the solid part is so tough that it resembles a piece of flesh, and has therefore been called the buffy coat; whereas, in other diseases, it is very soft and tender, breaking in pieces on the slightest touch. By chemical ana- lysis, it discovers the same princi- ples with other animal substances; yielding in distillation a volatile spirit, a great quantity of phlegm, and fetid oil ; lastly, there remains a charred matter, Avhich, when burnt in the open air, leaves a white earth similar to calcined hartshorn. According to some chemists, how- ever, it contains both an acid and an alkali. But the most remarka- ble circumstance in the blood, is its texture, which consists of mil- lions of red globular particles, or more properly, as Mr. Hewson calls them, flat vesicles, each of which has a little solid sphere in its centre. He observes, that they are flat in all animals, of very dif- ferent sizes in different creatures, and impart to the blood its red colour. In man, they are small, perfectly flat, and appear to have a dark spot in the middle. To see them dis- tinctly, he diluted the blood with fresh serum. Their shape he sup-. posed to be of great importance, but it can be altered with a mixture of different fluids. By a deter- minate quantity of neutral salt con- tained in the serum, this fluid is adapted to preserve those vescicleS in their flat shape ; for, if mixed with water, they become round, and dissolve perfectly, but on add- ing a little of any neutral salt to the water, they remain in it with- out dissolving, or any alteration of their form. The uses of the blood in the ani- mal economy are so various and important, that some have not scrupled to maintain that it is pos- sessed of a vital principle, from which the life of the whole body is derived. This opinion Avas former- ly entertained by Harvey, anel has lately been revived and supported, with many ingenious, though in- conclusive arguments, by John Hunter. Yet, so much is certain, that the blood stimulates the cavi- ties of the heart and vessels to contract, that its circulation con- tributes to generate the heat of the body, and propagate it to the remotest parts ; in bhort, that it nourishes every part, and supplies all the secretions, Avhich, Avithout exception, are separated from the blood. Hence it forms the bones, ligaments, tendons, membranes, muscles, nerves, vessels, and the whole organized body. The blood is of differentdegrees of viscidity in different animals, and even in the same creature, at different times. It ahvays pos- sesses a considerable degree of te- nacity ; Avhich, however, is re- markably greater in strong than in 316 BLO BLO weak animals: thus, the blood of bulls was usee! by the ancients as a poison, on account of its extreme viscidity, Avhich renders it totally indigestible by the human sto- mach. The principal use of blood is confined to the arts, for making Prussian blue ; sometimes for cla- rifying certain licniors ; and very large quantities are used in the manufacture of loaf sugar. In horticulture, it is recommended as an excellent manure, Avhen poured in spring on the roots of fruit-trees, having previously re- moved the soil round the trunk: thus employed, it promotes the growth of the tree, and enriches its fruit. A mixture of blood Avith quick-lime, forms an exceedingly strong cement, and has therefore been used in preparing chemical lutes, as well as in making the floors of common farm-houses, and other humble habitations. For the latter purpose, a mixture of clay, ox-blood, and a moderate portion of sharp sand, beaten Avell together and uniformly spread, produce a neat, firm floor, and of a beautiful colour. Whether blood really affords nou- rishme nt, has been doubted by some, and affirmed- by others. In our opinion, it contains little or no ali- mentary matter; and though it may be digested by very poAverful stomachs, it might be more advan- tageously employed in manuring the soil. In hot climates in parti- cular, it is highly alkalescent, and was therefore wisely prohibited to the Israelites. When blood Avas used as a common article of food in this country, the scurvy not only prevailed more generally than at present, but it Avas a more violent and obstinate disease. Travellers inform us, that in some countries the savage natives are accustomed to intoxicate them- selves by drinking the warm blood of animals. This barbarous prac- tice, with its consequent effect, ap- parently confirms John Hunter's opinion, that this fluid is the im- mediate reservoir of the vital principle ; and the inebriating ema- lity of the blood certainly deserves the farther researches of the che- mical philosopher. Several ex- pressions in Scripture also tend to countenance the conjecture of this acute inquirer.....See Transfu- sion. BLOOD-HOUND, Sanguina- rius, a species of dog remarkable for possessing the sense of smell- ing in the highest degree. This animal is distinguished by his long, smooth, anel pendent ears, broad chest, muscular form, a deep tan colour, and is generally marked with a black spot above each eye. We believe the breeding of this species has of late years been ne- glected. These animals were formerly much employed in the discovering of game that had escaped, or been stolen out of the forest. From the acuteness of their smell, they are said to have also been able to trace the footsteps of man with the great- est certainty ; hence, they were trained for discovering delinquents who endeavoured to escape the hands of justice. [Dogs of this species were taken to Jamaica by Lord Balcarras, to hunt down the maroons, in the interior of the island.] BLOOD-SHOT EYES, an in- flammation of the membranes which invest the eye. As avc pro- pose to treat of the diseases incident to that organ, in general, under its BLO alphabetical head, we shall at pre- sent only state the first, and most necessary rules for preventing the progress of inflammatory com- plaints ; namely, rest, and exclu- sion of light, without heating the eye by a close cover; cold fo- mentations repeatedly applied,Avhen they become Avarm; abstinence from animal food, and all heating or stimulating liquors ; mild aperi- ents ; and, if these do not produce the desired effect, leeches may be applied, near the eyes; though drawing blood, by cupping and scarifying near the temples, has generally been found more effec- tual. BLOOD-SPAVIN, in farriery, is a swelling and dilatation that runs along the inside of the horse's leg, forming a small, soft tumor in the hollow part,and is not unfreemently accompanied with Aveakness and lameness of the part affected. The cure of this disorder should at first be attempted with restrin- gents and bandages, which will be found very efficacious in strengthen- ing the joints. [Taplin recom- mends the following : strong white wine vinegar, 4 oz. camphor : spi- rits 3 oz. extract of lead 1 oz. or sugar of lead \ oz. Shake well together at every time of using.... Rub in about two large spoonsful twice daily, and keep on a pledget of tow, wet with the same.] But, if these should fail, in reducing the vein to its natural size, the skin must be opened, and the vein tied Avith Avaxed thread passed under it with a crooked needle, both above and below the swelling, and the turgid part suffered to digest away with the ligatures: for this pur- pose, the wound should be daily dressed with a mixture of turpen- tine, honey, and spirit of wine. BLO 317 BLOOD - STONE, or Hema- tites, is a hard mineral substance of a red or purple colour. It is found in masses of different forms, and contains a considerable portion of iron, insomuch, that forty pounds of that metal have been extracted from a quintal of the stone. The iron is of a very inferior quality, and therefore seldom used; but the blood-stone itself, on account of its hardness, serves to burnish or po- lish metals. Dragon's Blood. See Dragon. BLOOD - LETTING, in sur- gery, is performed with a view ei- ther to diminish the emantity of the circulating fluid, or to relieve a par- ticular part, in case of inflamma- tion, and, conseemently, it is either general or local. General blood-letting, is that which is performed upon a vein or an artery : hence we have the terms phli botomxj and arteriotomy. Local, or topical blood-letting, is performed by scarification and cup- ping-glasses, by leeches, or by punctures made Avith a lancet, ac- cording to the nature of the di.-.or- der. This latter, or topical blood- letting, is never dangerous, but in many cases has been found effec- tual in rc'.iev ing the patient. With respect to venesection, however, as different opinions are entertained of its utility by diflerent physicians, it may nofc be improper to offer a few remarks. There was a period, during which blood-letting was in very general use, and obtained great credit, as one of the most effectual means of prolonging life : while a plethoric habit was supposed to be a principal causeof early dissolution. Through the veins thus regularly opened, at certain seasons, the superfluous cr vitiated blocd was emitted, while 318 BLO BLO that of a more salubrious quality Avas supposed to be left behind. It is now Avell known, however, that the corrupted part of the blood cannot be separated from the mass, so as to preserve the remaining particles sound and uncorrupted. If the quality of the blood ever be- come vitiated and diseased; if it be too thick and viscous, or too acrid and serous, the whole mass neces- sarily participates in the infection: neither is it in the power of art to co.itrive any method, by Avhich the corrupted part may be separated from that which is in a sound state. It would be ermally unreasonable to expect, that a spoiled cask of wine could be cured of its tartness, by attempting to draw the acid and impure portion from the top, in or- der to leave the sweet and whole- some part behind. Considered as a remedy, phlebo- tomy must certainly be allowed to possess its us; s ; it is sometimes a necessary expedient, to produce an immediate diminution of the ful- ness of the blood, particularly when the time is too short, anel the dan- ger too pressing, to aelmit of any other method for effecting that pur- pose. As there can be no eloubt, that blood-letting is an invaluable remedy in some disorders, it is the more peculiarly incumbent on the practitioner, to distinguish Avith care those cases in which imminent danger may be averted, and health restored by the use of it. There are two cases, and perhaps only two, in Avhich venesection is likely to be attended with real advantage ; 1. When it is recjuired to prevent the fluids from gaining access to the parts more essential to life ; and 2. Where means must be spee- dily used to counteract a threatened inflammation in the intestines. But even in those two cases, the intel- ligent physician is at no loss for other remedies, Avhich may be fre- quently administered with greater safety and equal success. The blood contains in itself, and affords to the vessels, nerves, mus- cles, membranes, tendons, liga- ments, bones, in short, to the whole organired body, all the substance and properties which enter into the formation of each, and constitute them what they are. Each of these parts iseAolvedfrom the blood, and adapted to its proper place, in so wonderful a manner, that the hu- man mind is totally at a loss to comprehend how this operation is performed ; neither have the re- searches of the most acute and at- tentive observer been able to ac- count for it. And as the blood serves to supply the waste, and to make up the losses, Avhich those parts occasionally sustain, it may be considered as the original source of our whole organization. Now it requires little reflection to per- ceive, that by wasting this vital fluid, the sources of animal sup- port and regeneration are in a great measure obstructed and diminish- ed. Although it be true, that the blood lost by periodical bleedings is soon reproduced by the activity of the vital powers, yet this resto- ration is not effected Avithout con- siderable efforts, and at the expence of the Avhole machine. As this exertion, therefore, is a great pres- sure upon the vital powers, it must of course be attended with a pro- portionate degree of their consump- tion. And experience has shewn in numberless instances, that per- sons accustomed to frequent blood- letting are not only rendered more delicate in their constitutions, and more subject to diseases, but also BLO BLO 219 that they die in general at an earlier age than others. The absurd notion, that bleeding is useful and necessary to the pro- longation of human life, is still pretty generally received among the common people of all countries. Yet neither the good nor the bad days, superstitiously marked in the almanacks for the amusement of the vulgar, can palliate or justify the mischief with which this dan- gerous error is pregnant: for bleed- ing can only be of service in some urgent cases, and when performed at the proper time : but to the healthy it is always injurious. [A.very common accident in per- forming the operation of bleeding, is the wound of a tendon.... Where this has happened, pain and ten- sion are perceived near the part where the orifice was made ; in- flammation comes on, and extends the whole length of the limb. To cure this complaint, the lhnb must be kept perfectly cmiet, and in the most relaxed position fiossible. Ap- ply double linen cloths dipped in lead water, made by dissolving half an ounce of sugar of lead in a ejuart of rain, snow, or river water : give gentle laxatives, and observe a low diet.] Blood-letting, in farriery, an ope- ration often undertaken when it is as useless and pernicious as in the human species. Such horses, how- ever, as stand much in stable, and are full fed, occasionally require bleeding, especially when their eyes are heavy and inflamed, or when they Eel unusually hot, and champ their hay. i'oung horses should be bled when they are shedding their teeth, as it allay* tho.>c feverish heats to Avhich they are t :h;ect at that pe- rio .; but the case* t.:.d more par- ticularly require bleeding, are colds, falls, injuries of the eyes, strains, and all inflammatory disorder?. These noble creatures should al- ways be bled by measure ; two or three quarts are generally a suffi- cient quantity: aud when vene- section is repeated, strict attenti„a should be paid both to tne disease and constitution of the animal. BLOOD-VESSELS, in anato- my, are long membranous canals, which convey tne blood through every part of the body. They are divided into two classes, arteries and veins. For an account of tne construction, situation, and uses of the former. See Artery. The veins originate from the ex- tremities of the arteries, and return the blood from them into the au- ricles of the heart, which is the common termination of ail the veins. Like the arteries, the veins are also composed of tnree mem- branes, but moi e ckhcdte than those of the former, and nearly transpa- rent ; they are di tided lino trunks, branches, ramuli, he. In general, the veins are situated by t:.e sid^s of the arteries, but more superficial- ly ; and as they proqe.et towards the heart, they gradually become larger. As the veins do not pulsate, the blood, which they itc-ive from the arteries, is urged forward lardy by the contractibility of their co...s, partly by the pressure of tne blood from the arteries, ai d >f t A/it //tfuPyfP. BOA people standing on the ends to pre- vent the sea moving them ; then, with the assistance of the anchor and cable (which has been laid out at sea for that purpose) the boat's crew Avould draw her over the highest sea. " Upon the boat returning to the shore, tAvo double blocks are pro- vided, and having a short strop fixed in the hole, in the end of the boat next the sea, the boat is easily drawn upon the carriage." Mr. Thomas Hinderwell stated, " That the peculiar nature of the curviture of the keel of the boat, is the foundation and basis of its excellence. It regulates, in a great measure, the shear with the elevation towards the ends. This construction spreads and repels the water in every direction, and ena- bles her to ascend and descend Avith great facility over the break- ers. The ends being reduced re- gularly from the centre, to less than one-third proportion to the mid-ships, both ends are lighter than the body section. By means of the curved keel, and the centre of gravity being placed in the cen- tre of the boat, she preserves an equilibrium in the midst of the breakers. The internal shallow- ness of the boat in the body sec- tion, occasioned by the convexity of the keel, and the shear of the top, loaves so small a space for the water to occupy, that the boat, though filled with Avater, is in no danger of sinking or upsetting. The buoyancy of the boat, Avhen filled Avith water, is also assisted by the cork being placed above the water line."] BOATS, (ICEJ a modem inven- tion of Thomas Ritzler, of Hamburgh, whose name deserves to be transmitted to posterity ; as BOA 327 his ingenious and useful contriv- ance has already saved many valua- ble lives from a watery grave. We have given an accurate representa- tion of such a bo»t, with our First Number, and shall here furnish our reader with the description. Fig. 1, Is a perspective view of the boat, the body of which con- sists of wicker-work covered with leather, to render it impermeable by water ; and so remarkably light, that it may be easily managed by one person, both on the ice and in the Avater. Its length, when mea- sured on the outside, is 7^ feet in the keel, and 12 feet above from end to end : its breadth, 3 feet at the bottom, and 4 at the upper part. Fig. 2, Represents the plan of the boat, the bottom of which is shod Avith two small pieces of iron, marked x, x : by means of two hooks, one of which is delineated on the plate, the boat may with the greatest facility be slided over the ice. In the lower part, or body of the vessel, there is a large open- ing, 3 feet long, and 15 inches wide, pointed out by o, o, o, fig. 2 ; and o, fig. 3 ; the four sides of which are secured by a frame-work, marked r, fig. 1, and 3, to prevent the Ava- ter from entering the vessel. Through this opening, also, the boatman is enabled to step upon the ice in those places Avhere it is too uneven to admit the sliding of the boat, and to carry it, by means of the handles, as represented in fig. 1, Avhere the person standing is marked only with clotted lines, .to sheAV that he has emitted his former station in the boat. Another ad- vantage derived from this aperture, in the middle of the boat, is the counterpoise Avhich a column of Avater in its centre produces, and 328 BOA BOD thus prevents it from being over- set, while the man who carried it over the ice, immediately raises himself above the level of the wa- ter, and sits do' n in the vessel. But, in order to approach nearer to the person whose life is endang- ered, there is al>o employed a ladder Avith a long jointed handle, which is pushed forward and held by another assistant standing on the firm ice. On this ladder (which Avill be delineated among- the im- plements of restoration from Drowning) the boatman places himself, and advances as near as possible to the body immersed in the water. Having successfully extracted it, no time should be lost in laying it in a proper posture in the boat; for which purpose there is a kind of chair with an elevated back, on the stern of the boat, marked n, in fig. 1, and 3 ; Avhich last exhibits the longitudinal section of the vessel. Mr. Gunther, one of the most active members of the Hamburgh Society for the Encouragement of the Arts and useful Trades, informs us in the third volume of their Transactions, published in 1795, that he has often been present when unfortunate persons have been res- cued from untimely death, by means of the ice-boat, and that the swift- ness and dexterity with which this machine may be managed by ex- pert assistants, is almost incredi- ble. Hence the vessel is not in- trusted to any but skilful hands, anel during summer it is deposited in an airy place, and the leather pre- served from becoming either too diy or mouldy. The Avhole of this useful apparatus costs only 150 marks currency, or about 101. sterling ; a sum so insignificant, that, Avhile the city of Hamburgh has built five such ice-boats, the great city of London ought to be in possession of at least one hun- dred. A patent has lately been granted to Mr. Edavard Steers, of the Inner Temple, for a machine to be applied to boats and other vessels, for the purpose of moving them with ease and swiftness. This in- vention consists of two or more paddles, moving by means of ma- chinery, in contrary anel alternate directions. The paddles are so constructed, that Avhen the machi- nery is set in motion, the broad surface of one or more of them will press against the Avater, while the broad surface of the other, or others, will give Avay to it, and by this means the vessel will be mo- ved. BODY, in physics, implies an extended, solid, divisible substance, Avhich in itself has no power of motion, but acts by external im- pulse ; it also possesses the pro- perties of attraction and repulsion. Whatever relates to this branch of knoAvledge, under its various modi- fications and appearances, through the Avhole creation, is the subject of physics, or natural philosophy : if it concern the economy of the human body, in particular, anel the treatment of its various disorders, it belongs to the province of me- dicine, or the department of the physician. In this sense, there- fore, the term body is useel in op- position to soul, and forms the sub- ject of anatomical research. Whatever tends to impart a pro- per tone and vigour to the body, that is, every impression Avhich is most likely to soothe and harmon- ize the passions, at the same tjme contributes to regulate the pe>wers of the understanding, and gives BOD B O I 329 them their due force and energy. Hence, temperate gratifications, as they are highly conducive to these ends, promote the harmony of vir- tue ; for by contributing to the health andsprightlincss of the body, they invigorate the powers of the mind, and check the violence of the passions. The human body is a machine so artificially and admirably orga- nized, for withstanding the various impressions of external agency, or the sudden vicissitudes of heat and cold, dryness and moisture, as well as for performing its v arious func- tions, that it bears evident marks of a wise and omnipotent Creator. It is composed of fluids and solids : the principal of the former arc, the blood, chyle, saliva, bile, and the gastric liquor ; of which the three last mentioned materially promote the digestion of food: the chief of the solids are the bones and cartilages, which give firm- ness and attitude to the body. It would lead us too far from the plan of this Avork, to enter into particulars respectingthe com- plicated and wonderful structure of the human frame: Ave shall, therefore, only observe, that it ceases to grow in height when the bones arrives at a certain degree of firmness and rigidity, which will not admit of farther extension by the motion of the blood. This pe- riod appears to take place between the age of eighteen arid twenty- four ; but in females, often one or two years earlier than in males. Lastly, it is remarkable, that the height or length of the human body varies at different parts of the day: thus, in the morning, after a long and refreshing sleep, an adult will be found one inch taller than he was in the preceding evening. VOL. I. BOG, a^juagmire covered Avith grass, but not firm enough to sup- port a heavy body. Various theories have been start-1 ed, to account for the formation of bogs; but the most probable is, that they have originated from the roots of trees, and other decayed vegeta- bles. Under some bogs of consi- derable depth, are to be seen the furrows of land once ploughed..... The black bog is a solid, weighty substance, which cuts like butter, and is similar to rotten wood : but the red bog is of a lighter texture, though under it there is commonly a solid black stratum, which makes good fuel. Sound trees are found in both sorts of bogs, particularly in those of Ireland, Avhich differ from the English, as the former sometimes present a perfect see-' nery of hill and dale, while the lat- ter are mostly of a level surface.... Of the most common spontaneous growth are, heath, bog-myrtle, rushes, and seedy grass. Bogs are of various depths, some being found to be fifty feet deep, and others still deeper. A good method of draining boggy lands is, by deep trenches partly filled Avith stones, and covered Avith thorns and straw. A quantity of hard, dry earths, such as gravels, sands, chalks, stones, 8cc is of great use in the improvement of bogs, as these sub- stances serve to bind, fatten, and warm the soil, Avhile they prevent springs from oozing up and over- flowing the surface. By this me- thod, boggy or marshy grounds may be improved so as to produce good grass. [See Swamp-Drain.] BOHEA, a species of tea....See Tea. BOILERS. Many ingenious vessels and utensils have, at dif- ferent periods, been iiiA-ented, Avith U V 330 B O I BOI a view to facilitate the process of boiling, and save the consumption of fuel. In the latter respect, Count Rum ford stands at the head of those experimental inquir- ers, who have directed their la- bours to the benefit of society ; yet we must confess that there is still great room for improvement. One of the latest inventions in this de- partment of domestic economy is that of Mr. Tho. Rowntree, en- gine-maker, of Great Surry-street, Blackfriara-road [London], who in 1798, obtained a Patent for " a neAv method of applying fire for the pur- pose of heating boilers and other vessels, Avhere heat is required." But as the Patentee had not given a clear specification, from Avhich an ordinary tradesman could have constructed a furnace on his prin- ciples, without any farther expla- nation, his patent was declared void, after a trial before Lord El- don and a special jury, on the 3d of NoA'ember last, and has conse- cmently become public property.... These proceedings, hoAvever, have been attended Avith a good effect, as the obscure account published by Mr. Roavntree, has been more clearly defined by the evidence given in Court, especially by that of Mr* Hindmarsh. We shall, therefore, present our readers Avith the specification communicated by the Patentee, and accompany it with the necessary illustrations..... The folloAving is a literal abstract of the inventor's description...... " For heating of coppers, boilers, furnaces, ovens, and stoves, my fire-place is much smaller than heretofore made use of for the same sized copper, boiler, furnace, oven, or stove. Instead of placing my fire-place, accordingto the com- mon practice, immediately under the boiler, or other vessel, I place it at the front, side or end, as I see most convenient, in such a man- ner as to oblige the flame to rise in the front, side or enel, and pass all round the vessel, he. while at the same time it strikes the bot- tom of the vessel, he, Avithout suf- fering the flame to pass off in a flue, or flues, as it usually does in the common way, and by that means sending the heat into the flues, in- stead of its being used where it ought to be, namely, on the vessels, he. this, my method effectually prevents ; for, by means of a small perpendicular, or other opening, into a box or trap, which I call a reservoir, and Avhich I place hori- zontally, or diagonally, as the situ- ation may require, and is made of iron, brick, stone, or any other ma- terial capable of bearing heat, where a valve is placed riding on centres or otherwise, and standing in a dia- gonal or other direction, as is found most convenient, the flame is re- turned or impeded in its progress to the chimney, and made to de- scend beloAv the bottom of the ves- sel, and pass out at the bottom, top, or side of said box, trap, or re* servoir, into the common chimney. This reservoir is placed between the vessel, Sec. and the chimney.... To the opening, which admits the flame into the reservoir, are affixed, Avhen necessary, sliders, registers, or stops, which serve to increase or diminish the heat. The valve in the reservoir is for the same pur- pose in another degree, Avhich more immediately appertains to increas- ing or diminishing the draught, Avhich it does by moving the said valve into different positions, as the speed of the operation may re- quire." It would be needless to state the particulars of the evidence relative to the effect produced by the new BOI Invented furnaces, in heating boil- ers, 8ec. as Avell as the great sav- ing of fuel, which was proved to be more than one-third, and in some cases nearly one-half, of what is usually consumed in furnaces con- structed on the old plan. Hence Ave shall communicate only the substance of Mr. IIind.marsh's evidence, which greatly tends to illustrate the principles of the in- vention. This, he conceives, prin- cipally consists in the three follow- ing circumstances: 1. In the peculiar mode of con- structing the furnace, or setting the boiler, and of placing the fire, not immediately under, but a little in front, or at one side of it, whereby the flame and hot air can get access to every part of the ves- sel, and not only strike Avith force against its bottom, but also with equal effect reverberate against, and violently embrace its sides, and whole external surface ; unlike every former contrivance, the most perfect of which could only cause the flame and hot air to act par- tially upon the bottom and sides of the vessel. 2. In the eleA-ated situation, and smallncss of the aperture leading from the furnace towards the chimney ; Avhereby the flame and hot air are impeded in their pro- gress to the atmosphere, and com- pelled to tarry in the cavity of the furnace, and occupy every part thereof much longer than they otherwise would do. This effect in stopping, checking, and as it were arresting the flame and hot air, in their attempt to escape into the atmosphere, Mr. Hindmarsh considered as not only new, but singularly beneficial ; for, by this means, the flame and hot air are detained in the very place where BOI 331 their presence is most wanted, and constrained to give forth their en- ergies with an impetus against the bottom and sides of the vessel to be heated : whereas, in none of the furnaces heretofore erected, Avas any effectual stop interposed between the fire and the chimney, to cause the flame and hot air to dwell under and round the sides of the A-essel; but they passed ra- pidly off into the atmosphere, either by a direct communication through the chimney, or indirectly, but al- most as speedily, by flues ; or else by a drain (as it is called), the aperture of which is equal in di- mensions to that of the chimney itself. 3. In an open space between the furnace and chimney, called by the Patentee a box, trap, or reser- voir, and intended as a receptacle of the flame, hot air, and smoke, after they have quitted the fur- nace, anel passed through the small aperture as above described. This space, or -reservoir, for the flame, hot air, and smoke, being closed at the top and external sides, and open only at the bottom outwards, for the purpose of permitting the smoke, he. to pass off into the chimney, still farther checks and detains the flame and hot air in the furnace; and being itself constantly full cf warm air, smoke, he. causes the heat to be reverberated against the sides and bottom of the vessel or boiler, and effectually preA-ents the admission of the cold atmos- pheric air from thechimney, which, on the old plans of construction, is found by experience to rob the fur- nace and vessel of more than half the supply of heat which any given quantity of fuel is capable of yield- ing. The valves, sliders, and dam- pers, are not essential parts of the 532 BOI BON invention, but merely as regulators, which, in many cases, may be alto- gether omitted, Avithout detriment to the operation of the fire. Although Count Kumford has successively extended his research- es to discover the most economical plan in the management cf fire, end the generation of heat for culi- nary anel other purposes,it does not appear from his Avritings, that he had a distinct conception of the neAv method suggested by Mr. Rowntree, till after the enroll- ment of his specification in May 1798. Nay, says Mr. Hindmarsh, the Count evidently takes it for granted (see vol. II. p. 73, of his Essays), and even reasons on the fact, Avhich he there supposes to be unavoidable, and beyontl remedy, that the fire cannot be made to impinge against the sides of a ves- sel with the same force and effect as against the bottom : which is a plain proof, that at the time of writing that essay, he Avas totally unacquainted Avith Mr. Rown- tree's method of applying and managing the fire ; in which the very effect Avhich the Count con- si lers as a desideratum in science, and which appears to have been one grand object of his philosophi- cal pursuits, is now in a great mea- sure completed....[See Kitchen.] BOILING, in the culinary art, is a method of dressing animal food, vep-etables, he. by decoction in hot Avater, for the purpose of re- moving their natural crudities, and renebring them more easy of di- gestion. By too much boiling, however, flesh is deprived of a con- siderable part of its nourishing juice, as the gelatinous substance of the meat is extracted, and incor- porated with the Avrter, Avhile the spirituous and balsamic particles are dissipated by evaporation. The culinary process of stewing is more profitable, especially if conducted in close vessels, as it is better cal- culated to preserve and concen- trate the most substantial and nu- tritious parts of animal food. BOLES, are viscid earths more friable titan clay : they are soft and unctuous, and gradually melt in the mouth, communicating a slight sensation of astringency. There is a great variety of these earths, Avhich have been recommended as astringent, sudorific, and alexi- pharmic, but Avithout sufficient grounds. They are still prescrib- ed in fluxes, and complaints of the first passages. BOMBAST, in composition, is an endeavour, by strained and tur- gid description to give a low or familiar subject that importance of which it is not susceptible; in- stead, therefore, of being sublime, it always proves ridiculous. The style of a writer, Avho has no real genius or talent for description, is extremely prone to deviate into bombast, and vitiate the taste of others. Hence, books written in a redundant or affected style, ought never to be entrusted to the hands of youth, who are more apt to listen to and imitate the language which is addressed to the imagina- tion and the senses, than the seri- ous and dignified admonitions Avhich are supported by reason and experience. BONES, are solid substances composed of animal earth and glu- tei:. They support and form the stature of the body, defend its vis- cera, anel give adhesion to the mus- cles. Their number in the human frame is generally 240 ; but in some individuals, Avho have two additional bones in each thumb and BON BON 333 great toe, they amount to 248.... The' regular division of them is as follows : 63 bones of the head, in- cluding the 32 teeth : 53 of the tmnk : 64 of the upper, and 60 of the lower extremities. One of the most remarkable dis- eases of animal bones, is their oc- casional softness and reduction in the living body ; of which there are several Avell authenticated in- stances. The late Mr. Gooch, a respectable surgeon of London, re- lates the case of a Avoman naturally five feet six inches high, Avho Avas gradually* reduced doAvn to three feet four inches. In rickety child- ren, the bones are obviously softer than they ought to be in a sound state, owing perhaps to their ero- sion, occasioned by the discharge of an acrimonious humour. In a simi- lar manner, the scurvy has often been remarked to affect these solid parts of the human frame. Hence in the former instances, attention to a proper diet, gentle friction with coarse cloths, exercise, fresh air, and cold bathing, Avill frequently change the constitution of such children, insomuch, that at the age of twenty, there will not remain the hast symptom of their former de- bility. It is generally believed, that the 'bones, in a healthy statue, are in- sensible to pain, because the larger ones are unconnected with any nerve : hence the operation of the trepan has been performed upon sound persons who were not un- der the influence of opium, with- out giving them any additional pain during the perforation of the skull. See Fractures and Teeth. Decomposition of Bones. After being separated from the animal, they maybe hardened and softened, both by acids and alkalies, accord- ing to the quantity of saline matter employed, and the manner in which it is applied. Although Boerhaave asserts, that alkaline salts render them harder and firmer, and that acids make them softer and more flexible, yet these effects take place only in certain circumstances. Thus Newman found, that bones be- came harder and more compact by steeping them in oil of vitriol; but when this acid was in sufficient proportion, it destroyed their co- hesion, and dissolved them. Dr. Lewis,on the other hand, observed, that diluted vitriolic acid, though it rendered them remarkably soft, made them at the same time brit- tle ; but that either in aqua-fortis, or spirit of salt diluted, as well as in the acetous acid, they became flexible and soft like leather. The mosteffectual and cheapest method of reducing the hardest bones to a soft pap or jelly, is that effected by the action of simple water, heated in what is called Papin's Digester ; a machine consisting of a strong and close iron vessel, in which the steam of boiling liquors is confined, and thus a more intense decree of heat is produced than any fluid could otherwise acquire. This ef- fect, however, may be accomplished in a much shorter time, Avhen, in- stead of pure water, alkaline solu- tions are employed; yet the latter could not properly be used in any" culinary process. If bones be exposed to a mode- rate fire, either in open vessels, or in contact with the burning fuel, they become opaque, white, and friable: by increasing the fire, they are still more reduced, and easily crumble into powder. But, if they be at first submitted to an in- tense heat, such as is required to melt copper or iron, they become 334 BON BON firm, semi-transparent, and sono- rous not unlike hard mineral stones. This curious experiment deserves the farther researches of the chemist. [If bones reduced to powder between a pair of toothed iron cy- linders, are boiled in eight or ten times their weight of water, for the space of three or four hours, or till about half the Avater is Avasted, the liquor will be found, on cooling, of a gelatinous consistence. A vessel with a tight cover should be used, that the water may acquire as much heat as possible, and it should not be of copper, as this me- tal is easily dissolved by animal mu- cilage. Bones from different parts, af- ford different proportions of jelly. According to the experiments of Professor Prouest of Madrid, five pounds of the middle part of the bone of a leg of beef, will afford nine pints of jelly : the same quan- tity of the bone of the joint, fifteen pints ; of the ribs and spine, eleven quarts; of the rump and edgebone, thirteen quarts. Five pounds of mutton bones, of every sort toge- ther, give nineteen pints of jelly-.. Pig bones yield a little more. To Mr. P's taste, the jelly from pig bones Avas the most agreeable of all: that from mutton had the fla- vour of the meat. Of the jellies from beef bones, that from the ribs was most pleasing, both to the sight and palate, that from the leg and joint least. In warm Aveather the liquor must be boiled down somewhat more, if it be intended to assume the same gelatinous con- sistence when cold; as the same quantity of bone that would afford a quart of jelly in winter, will not yield above a pint and a half in sum- mer, but then it contains propor- tionably more nourishment. If this jelly be boiled till it acquires a consistence a little thicker than a syrup, then poured out into plates, and, when cold, cut into pieces, and dried on a net, it will keep a long time, and be particularly useful at sea. One ounce of this dry porta- ble jelly, being soaked in water for a quarter of an hour, to soften it, and then boiled, will make a pint and a quarter to a quart of jelly, equally good as that which is fresh extracted. Mr. P. prepares a very pleasant restorative for the sick, by adding an ounce and a half of sugar, and a little salt, to fourteen or fifteen ounces of the jelly, and then making it into an emulsion, with twelve SAveet, and four bitter almonds, and a little orange peel.] A method of producing phos- phorus in large quantities from bones, has been invented by M. Scheele, who employed for this purpose the vitriolic acid : it has, therefore, been doubted, Avhether the phosphoric acid is naturally contained in the bones, and united with calcareous earth, or whether it is generated by a combination of the vitriolic acid Avith a certain quantity of lime. As, however, the phosphoric acid has, likewise, though in a smaller quantity, been discovered in the gastric juice of animals, there is reason to conclude that it forms one of the elementary constituents of bones....See Ben- zoine. Colouring of Bones.....This pro- cess may be performed either by immersing bones in the common dyeing liquors made of animal and vegetable - substances, or staining them without heat, by different me- tallic solutions. To succeed in the former method, the bones should BON BON 335 previously be boiled in a solution of alum, and afterwards steeped in a decoction made of any colouring substance. Thus, for instance, to stain them of a red colour, half a pound of Brazil-wood may be boil- ed for an hour in a gallon of water, in which the bones are suffereel to lie till they acquire a propercolour : if they assume too deep a hue of purple, it will be necessary to plunge them into a solution of alum, Avhich has the effect of bringing them to a crimson or scarlet shade. By metalic solutions, bones may be easily spotted or variegated..... Thus a solution of silver in aqua- fortis, imparts, according to its strength, a brown or black colour ; a solution of gold in aqua-regia, or in spirit of salt, a fine purple ; a solution of copper in the acetous acid, a pleasant green ; and solu- tions of the same metal in the vo- latile spirit of ammonia, at first a deep and beautiful blue; but Avhich, on exposing it to the air, changes into a green, or blueish green. On touching the bone with the two solutions first mentioned, itacquires the desired tint in a few hours, when placed in the open air; but in those liquors made with copper, it 6hould be steeped for at least twenty-four hours, sufficiently to imbibe the colour. In such cases as require immersion for some time, the bone may be variegated, by co- vering those parts which are in- tended to remain av hire, Avith Avax, or other matter not soluble in the staining liquor. Economical uses of Bones.....Be- side the various toys, and other ar- ticles of elomestic economy, made of bones, they are extensively use- ful in many of the chemical arts; for instance, to absorb the sulphur of ferruginous ores for renelering cast-iron malleable ; to form tests and cupels, or vessels for refining gold and silver with lead ; to make glasses and porcelain of a milky colour ; to rectify volatile salts, and empyreumatic oils ; to produce glue, he. But the most important and beneficial uses, to which bones may be rendered subservient, are those in rural economy. In Evelyn's Philosophical Dis- course of the Earth, we meet Avith a note by Dr. A. Huntea, the edi- tor of a new edition of this trea- tise, published in 1778, fromAvhich we shall extract the following ac- count : Bones are an excellent ma- nure, though not generally known ; they should, however, not be cal- cined, as their virtue will be dis- sipated by the fire. A. St. Leger, Esq. had once laid down to grass a large piece of very indifferent lime- stone land, with a crop of corn ; and from this uniformly well-dres- sed piece he selected three rods of equal quality with the rest, and ma- nured them Avith bones broken very small, at the rate of sixty bushels per acre. Upon the land thus ma- naged, the crop Avas infinitely su- perior to the rest. The next year's grass Avas also more luxuriant, and has continued to preserve the same superiority for at least eight years, insomuch, that in spring it is green three Aveeks before the rest of the field. He also dresseel two acres with bones, in two different fields prepared for turnips, at sixty bush- els to the acre, and found the crops incomparably more productive than the others managed in the common way. Upon grass-lands, he ob- served, that this kind of manure exerts its influence more powerful- ly in the second year than in the first. For whatever soil it be in- tended, the bones should be well- 336 BON broken, before they can be equally spread upon the land. No pieces should exceed the size of small marbles. To perform this neces- sary operation, he recommends the bones to be sufficiently bruised, by putting them under a circular stone, Avhich, being moved round upon its edge, by means of a horse, in the manner tanners grind their bark, will very expeditiously effect the purpose. Some people break them with small hammers upon a piece of iron, but that method is inferior to grinding. Although bones of ull kinds may be used with advantage, yet those of fat cat- tle are doubtless the best; but un- ground bones should never be em- ployed, as they are of little or no service to the soil. , A. St. Leger has also found it very beneficial to mix ashes Avith the bones : a cart- load of the former being put to thir- ty or forty bushels of the latter, and heated for twenty-four hours (which may be known by the smoking of the heap), the Avhole should be turned. After lying ten days lon- ger, this excellent manure will be fit for use. Lastly, Dr. Hunter remarks, that the best method of grinding bones, is that between two cast metal cylinders. And as mills are very rarely erected pur- posely for this operation, the appa- ratus may be added to any com- mon water-mill, at a very trifling expence. BONE-SPAVIN, is a bony ex- crescence, or hard swelling, on the inside of a horse's leg. A spavin, which begins on the lower part of the hock, is not so dangerous as that Avhich groAvs higher, betAveen the tAvo round processes of the leg- bone ; and that which appears near the edge, is less injurious than if it Avere situated more tOAvards the BON middle and inwards, av here it would, in a greater degree, impede the bending of the knee. A swelling occasioned by a kick or blow, is not at first the true spa- vin, nor so dangerous as when it proceeds from a natural cause ; and that Avhich grows on the leg of a colt, is not so inveterate as that of ahorse come to maturity. In old horses, the spavin generally is in- curable. The usual method of treating this disease is, by blisters, and the actual cautery. When a fullness on the fore part of the hock is oc- casioned by hard riding, or any other violence, cooling and repel- ling applications are proper, as in the case of bruises or strains. Among the various prescriptions for the blistering ointment, the fol- loAving, by Mr. Gibson, is prefer- able: Nerve and marsh-mallow ointment, of each two ounces; quicksilver, one ounce, thoroughly mingled with one ounce of Venice turpentine ; Spanish flies, poAv- dered, a dram and a half; subli- mate, one dram ; oil of origanum, tAvo drams. When the hair is cut as close as possible, the ointment is to be ap- plied pretty thick to the injured part, in the morning, and the horse should be kept tied up without any litter till night. He should then be untied, that he may lie doAvn, and a pitch plaster fastened to the part, with a proper bandage. After the blister has done run- ning, anel the scabs begin to peel off, another may be applied, which will have a still better eflect; and in young horses, will generally complete the cure. But if the spa- vin has been of long standing, a re- petition of the blister five or six timesj will perhaps be requisite. BOO BOO 337 Each application must be made at intervals of a fortnight or three weeks, lest the blemish of a scar, or baldness, remain on the part. Spavins on old or full-aged horses, as they grow more inward, and run among the sinuosities of the joint, are for the most part, incurable. In such cases, the strongest cau- stic blisters must be applied, or the part immediately fired ; but the best and safest Avay to preserve the use of the limb is, by long-repeat- ed applications of the above-men- tioned blistering ointment,for some months, if necessary. The horse, in the intervals, should be exer- cised moderately ; and by degrees the hardness will be dissolved, and disappear. If the spavin is deep, and runs so far into the joint that no appli- cation can reach it, all medicines will be unavailing. When the dis- ease does not penetrate the joint, and the blistering method is found ineffectual, the swelling may be safely cauterized with a thin iron, forced pretty deeply into the sub- stance : and it should afterwards be dressed according to the forego- ing directions. BOOK, a general name for most literary compositions ; but should, with propriety, be applied to such productions only as extend to the size of a volume. The writings of Moses are al- lowed to be the most ancient of any extant; but as several are cited by this author, some must unloubtedly have been Avritten previous to his time. Next to these, the oldest with which we are ac- quainted, are Homer's Poems; though the Greek authors men- i on no less than seventy other Avriters prior to Homer. vol. i. The materials used by the an- cients instead of paper, were of various kinds ; as plates of lead and copper, the bark of trees, bricks, stone, wood, &c. Instead of Avooden tables, the leaves of the palm-tree Avere afterwards used, and the inner part of the bark of the lime, the ash, the maple, and the elm : as these could be rolled up, they received the name of vo- lumen, or a volume, which appel- lation was aftei-Avards transferred to similar rolls of paper, or parch- ment. The material next introduced for the purpose of transmitting the re- cords of the learned to posterity, was wax; and afterwards leather, or the skins of goats and sheep, which at length were manufactured into parchment: these were suc- ceeded by lead, linen, silk, horn, and, lastly, paper. Books Avere first made square, in the form of blocks and tables ; but that of rolls was afterwards found most conve- nient : they were composed of se- veral sheets fastened together, and rolled upon a stick; the whole making a kind of column, which was managed by the stick as a handle, it being considered a crime to lay hold of the roll itself. The volume, when extended, was com- monly fifty yards in length, and a yard and a half wide. The pre- sent form of books, consisting of separate leaves, was not unknoAvn to the ancients, though little used by them. With the form of books is also connected their internal economy, as the order and arrangement of lines and pages, margins, he. these have undergone many varia- tions. At first, the l^Lers Avere only divided into lines ; afterwards into separate Avords, Avhich by de- X x 338 BOO BOO grees Avere distinguished by ac- cents, and distributed by points and stops into periods, paragraphs, chapters, and other divisions. The Orientals began their lines from the right, and carried them to the left; while the Greeks Avrote in both directions, alternately begin- ning in the one, and returning in the other. The method of writing practised by the Chinese is still more curious, as they extend their lines from the top to the bottom of the page. Complaints were made as early as the time of Solomon, respect- ing the multiplicity of books ; and they are now too numerous, not only to be procured and read, but even to be knoAvn by their names or titles. The editors of the En- cylo/iaelia Britannica remark, that " England has more to fear on this score than other countries, since, besides their own produce, they have for some years past drained their neighbours." It is but justice to observe, however, that this idea is unfounded, as it is a Avell known fact, that the number of A7olumes annually published on the Conti- nent, and particularly in Germany, is more than four times the amount of those issued from the British press in the three united king- doms : besides Avhich, many hun- dred volumes are annually export- ed, thus rendering the number in the country nearly Avhat it would be without the importation of foreign books. This truth will be evident to those who reflect on the relative difference between the price and quality of the paper employed on the Continent, and that used in England, not to mention the ex- tremely high price of labour^ and many other circumstances, Avhich we apprehend, Avill ultimately tend to impede the progress of British Literature. But with respect to a superfluity of books, they are doubtless of use ; for knowledge is ever advantageous, and cannot be too Avidely diffused. We shall conclude this article, by stating a method of preserving books from the depredations of worms and insects. There is a very small insect that deposits its eggs-in books during the month of August, especially on those leaves nearest the cover. .These gradu- ally produce a sort of mites, similar to Avhat are generated in cheese ; and Avhich afterwards change their state, and become beetles: and when the time of their transfor- mation approaches, they eat their way through, till they gain the extremity of the book. The best preventive against their attacks is mineral salts, to which all insects have an aversion. The salt call- ed in the old system of chemis- try, arcanum duplicatum, alum and vitriol, are proper for this purpose; a small emantity of which should be mixed with the paste used by book-binders. To prevent the de- predations of the book-worm, M. Prediger advises book-binders to to make their paste of starch in- stead of flour. He likevvise di- rects a little pulverized alum to be strewed between the book and its cover, and also upon the shelves of the library. Books are liable to be stained Avith grease, tallow, oil, or other fat substances ; by Avhich their beauty and value are greatly im- paired : hence Ave shall add the fol- lowing recipe for restoring them to their former colour, on the au- thority of M.Deschamps. He di- rects (" Biblmheejuc Economi-ue," Arol. i.) the soiled paper first to be BOO BOO 339 warmed, and as much of the grease medy which, the plan here repre- as is possible, to be taken out, by sented is found very useful. The means of blotting-paper. A small figure represents one half a book- brush is then to be dipped in the case. Two strips of wood, in essential oil of well-rectified spirit Avhich are cut teeth like those of of turpentine, previously heated till a saw, about half an inch deep, are it nearly boil, and to be drawn over screwed on each side of the front, both sidesof the paper, which ought and two other corresponding pieces %, to be kept warm. This operation on the back comers of the book- is to be repeated, till all the grease case....Two cross bars, about f of be extracted ; when another brush, an inch broad, for each shelf, are immersed in highly-rectified spirit then to be fitted into the teeth to of wine, must be passed over the support the shelves. By this con- same paper; by which expedients, trivance, the shelves may be re- the spots will completely disappear; moved so as to fit a row of books the paper will resume its original of any size. Book-cases made whiteness; and, though the pro- upon this plan are now becoming cess be employed on a part contain- common in Philadelphia. Mr. ing written or printed characters, Car stairs, South 8th St. who fur- they av ill experience no alteration, nished the draAving from Avhich the [The common form of book-ca- cut Avas taken, first made them in ses with fixed shelves, is attended this city, from a pattern in the pos- with many inconveniences, to re- session of Mr. Jefferson.] BOOK-KEEPING, is the art of Book-keeping comprehends the recording mercantile transactions folloAving heads : the debts owing in a systematic manner. to a merchant, and those due by A merchant's books should con- him to others ; the goods which tain every particular which relates belonged to him, Avith the quantity to his affairs ; and exhibit the state and value sold, and those which re- ef his business, the connection of main in his possession ; also the the diflerent parts, with the amount amount of his stock when the books and success of the Avhole. Accord- were opened, together Avith his pro- ingly, they should be so full and fits and losses, and the extent of regular, as to afford information in his property at present. every point for which they may be The Italian method of book- consulted, keeping by double-^ntry, is founded 340 BOO B OO on the most universal principles, and is therefore the 'best in exten- sive and complicated mercantile transactions, indeed the account- ant Avho thoroughly understands it, can Avith facility either adopt or in- vent any other form better suited to any particular business. According to the Italian method, three principal books, namely, the Avaste-book, journal, and ledger, are used. The Avaste-book, or day- book, begins with an inventory of the owner's goods, a list of debts due to him, and of the debts he owes to others ; and it is continued with a clear statement of the mo- ney received or paid, and the goods bought or sold by him, 8cc. The accountant's first care should be, to have nothing defective ; and his second, to insert nothing superflu- ous in the waste-book. The journal is a concise record of transactions compiled from the Avaste-book, in the same order as they stand there, but expressed in a technical style. The whole art of writing the journal depends upon the proper choice of the Drs. and Crs. Every thing received, or per- son accountable to us, is Dr. ; and every thing delivered, or person to whom we are accountable, is Cr. On these tAvo comprehensiA'e rules, and their various modifications, de- pends the regularity of accounts. As for the more particular rules, they will readily be suggested by the judgment of the accountant. From the journal, the different transactions are posted in the ledg- er. Each account is distinguished by a proper title, anel articles of the same kind received and deli- vered, are entered on opposite sides of the same folio. For instance, money received is entered on the one side, and money paid on the other ; or goods bought on the one side, and goods sold on the other. The left hand page is called the Dr. side; the right hand page the Cr. side of the account; and the difference between the sums of the Dr. and Cr. sides, is denominated in the balance. Accounts, in the ledger, are of three kinds, personal, real, andflc- titious. Personal accounts are those opened for every person or compa- ny Avith whom the merchant has any dealings or credit; real ac- counts are those of property, such as ready money, goods, ships, hou- ses, 8cc.; and fictitious accounts are stock, together with profit and loss, and its subsidiary accounts. The stock account contains, on the Dr. side, the amounts of the debts due by the merchant when the books were opened; and on the Cr. the amount of money, goods, he. belonging to him ; con- sequently the balance shews the amount of his nett stock. Profit and loss account contains every ar- ticle of gain on the Cr. and of loss on the Dr. side ; therefore the ba- lance is the nett gain or loss, Avhich is posted on the proper side of the stock account above-mentioned. Several subsidiary accounts are opened, to shorten and methodize that of profit and loss, such as in- terest account, proper expences, he. These are used, or others invented, according to the nature and purpo- ses of the business. Accounts may be opened in the ledger, in the same order as they occur in the journal; or those of a similar kind may be placed toge- ther ; the personal accounts in one part of the book, and the real ac- counts in another. Besides the three principal, there are subsidiary books used by me.r- BOO BOO 341 . wants of extensive connections and business. These are, the cash- book, book of charges of merchan- dize, book of house-expences, in- voice-book, sales-book, bill-book, receipt-book, letter-book, and poc- ket-book. Some merchants also keep a memorandum-book; but the man of business cannot be re- stricted to these, as he will either use them, or invent others more conformable to the nature of his business. In the year 1796, a patent was granted to Mr. Edward Thomas Jones, of Bristol, for his method or plan of delecting errors in ac- counts of all kinds, by Avhich they may be adjusted in a regular and concise manner. This work is en- titled, The English System of Book- Kee/ring, which requires a day- book, or journal, an alphabet, and a ledger, ruled in the following manner: namely, the day-book has three columns on each page, for receiving the amount of the transactions ; one column of which to receive the amount of the debits and credits, one column to receive the debits only, and another to re- ceive the credits only ; or it may be ruled with only two columns on each page, one to receive the amount of the elebits, and the other the amount of the credits. There must also be on each page of the day- book, four other columns ruled, two on the left side, next the amount of the debits, and two on the right side next the amount of the credits, for receiving the letter or mark of posting, and the page of the ledger to w hich each amount is to be post- ed. The alphabet need not be rul- ed at all, but must contain the name of every account in the ledger, the letter that is annexed to it as a mark of posting, and the page of the ledger. The ledger must be ruled with three, four, five, or seven columns on each page, as may be most agreeable, for receiving the amounts of the different transac- tions entered in the day-book. But in order to prevent any mis- takes that may happen from the hurry of business in a counting- house, Mr. Jones has given only one column for receiving the amount of every transaction, whether debits or credits, at the instant of making the entry : and, for the convenience of separating the debits from the credits, previous to posting, which is necessary to prevent confusion and perplexity, he has two other columns on the same page ; that on the left side, into Avhich the amount of every debit must be carefully entered, and that on the right for the amount of the credits; which columns must be cast up once a month. The column of de- bits and credits of itself forms one amount; the column for the debits produces a second amount; and the column of credits a third amount; which second and third amounts, added together, must exactly agree with the first amount, or the work is not done right. By this means, the man of business may obtain monthly such a statement of his af- fairs, as will sheAV how much he owes for that month, and how much is owing to him ; and the debits being added together for any given time, with the value of the stock of goods on hand, will, when the amount of the credits is subtracted therefrom, shew the profits of the trade. The patentee's manner of exa- mining the books kept by this me- thod, also professedly differs from that hitherto practised, as well in expedition as in the certain accu- 342 BOO BOO racy Avhich attends the process ; it being only necessary to cast up the columns through the ledger debits and credits, according to the exam- ples given, and the amount of those columns, if right, must agree with the columns in the day-book for the same corresponding space of time. These castings should take place once a month, and if the amounts do not agree, the posting must then, but not else, be called over; and when the time, whether it be one, two, three, or four months, that is allotted to each column of the ledger, is expired, the amount of each column should be put at the bottom of the first page, and carried forward to the bottom of the next, and so on to the end of the accounts ; taking care that the amount in the day-book, of each month's transactions, be brought into one gross amount for the same time. Having already enlarged upon this subject, we shall only observe, that this new system of book-keep- ing, however ingeniously contriv- ed, has not met with that general approbation to Avhich it is apparent- ly entitled. To enforce his claim to public patronage, Mr. Jones concludes the specification of his patent by asserting, that upon his plan every page -will be proved in the progress of calculation, and "_ the balances of ten thousand ledgers could not unobservedly be taken off wrong."....We give him full credit for this assertion; though it has, perhaps, by inviduous rivals, been objected that his method is more complicated than the old Ita- lian system of book-keeping; which bas,by experience, been found fully adequate to the purpose of mercan- tile accuracy. BOORCOLE, is a species of thtf Brassica, L. and generally culti- vated in the open fields like turnips, cabbages, or the turnip-rooted cab- bage. It is one of those hardy plants, the leaves of which may be cut without detriment to its growth, and will produce a neAv crop in the course of a month or six weeks. According to an experiment made by Mr. Baker in the year 1763, an Irish acre of fallow ground, which Avas planted with boorcole, at the distance of two feet, and hoed in the Tullian method, produced plants which Aveighed about five'pounds ten ounces each, on an average, and the whole pro- duce of an Irish acre was 40,096 pounds. It should be observed, that the land must be well manured, and in a high state of tillage, for the cul- tivation of this plant, which, if kept constantly hoed, will grow very luxuriantly, and, in the hottest wea- ther, be infinitely more brittle in the leaves than any other cultivated in gardens ; Avhich is a certain in- dication of its being a healthy plant* It is Avorthy the attention of the farmer or grazier, on account of the rapidity of its growth, and the property of withstanding the effect of severe frosts, Avhile it affords an excellent vegetable for the table, and may be used Avith advantage for feeding sheep. Mr. Baker farther observes, that sheep should not be suffered to depasture so long upon a crop of boorcole, as to injure the stalks ; because its future groAvth will be checked by depriving it of the sprouting leaves. BOOT, a cover or defence for the leg and foot, made of leather, BOO B O R 343 ■md generally worn by horsemen. The boot is by no means a modem invention, as it was worn in the Roman army by the infantry asAvell as the cavalry. It was originally made of leather, but afterwards of brass or iron, that it might be proof against the sword. There are various kinds of boots, as hunting-boots, fishing-boots, jack-boots, he. The fishermen of New-England preserve their boots water proof by the following com- position : One pint of boiled lint- seed oil, half a pound of mutton suet, six ounces of pure bees-wax, anel four ounces of rosin. These ingredients are melted together over a slow fire, and the boots or shoes, Avhen new and quite clean, are warmed, and rubbed with the com- position till the leather is complete- ly saturated. There is an improved composi- tion for preserving leather, the good effects of which are sufficiently as- certained, One pint of drying oil, two ounces of yellow wax, two ounces of spirit of turpentine, and half an ounce of Burgundy pitch, should be carefully melted together over a slow fire. With this mix- ture new shoes and boots are rubbed either in the sun, or at some dist- ance from a fire, with a sponge or brush : the operation is to be re- peated as often as they become dry, until they be fully saturated. In this manner, the leather becomes impervious to wet; the shoes or boots made of it last much longer than those made of common lea- ther ; acquire such softness and pliability that they never shrivel nor grow hard or inflexible ; and, in that state, are the most effectual preservatives against cold and chil- blains. It is, however, necessary to remark, that shoes or boots, thus prepared, ought not to be worn till they have become per- fectly dry and elastic; as, in the contrary case, the leather will be too soft, and wear out much sooner than even the common kind. [The following composition is recommended in ,u An Essay on Shooting," Dublin edition, 1789. Tallow, half a pound. Hog's lard, 4 oz. Turpentine, ") New bees Avax, v 2 oz. each. Olive oil, J To be melted by a gentle heat and rubbed on the leather (when free from dampness) the night before the shoes or boots are wanted.] BORAGE, the Common, or Bo- rago officinalis, L. It is rough, and clothed with small prickly hairs; has alternate leaves,, and bears blue spreading flowers in June and July. See With. 230, and Engl. Bot. 36. The flowers of the borage are much frequented by bees, and the plant itself may be used as a culi- nary vegetable, or as an ingredient in lettuce-salad, to which it im- parts an agreeable flavour. The whole of this plant abounds with nitrous particles, which may be easily obtained by elixation ; for after evaporating the lixivium to a proper consistence, and allowing it to stand in a cool place, crystals will be formed, which deflagrate upon the fire, and possess all the properties of salt-petre. BORAX, in chemistry, a salt proeluced in the mountains of Thi- bet, in Asia, both naturally and ar- tificially by evaporation. The borax imported from China is purer than that of Thibet, and is found in a natural state in small masses of irregular crystals, of a faint Avhite colour. Beside the vi- 344 BOT BOT trescible earth, Avhich is an essen- tial principle of borax, it contains copper and the marine acid, but no traces of the vitriolic. It has also been clearly proved by expe- riments, that borax consists of fossil alkali, in some degree neu- tralized by a peculiar salt. When dissolved and crystalized, it forms small transparent masses ; and the refiners have a method of shooting it into large crystals, which, how- ever, in many respects, differ from, and are inferior to, the genuine salt. Borax is useful in metallurgy, for soldering; in the fusion of a verifiable earths, Avith which it forms glass ; as Avell as in several other chemical processes; and dyers frequently employ it for giv- ing a gloss to silks. Its medical properties have not been sufficiently investigated. Mr. Bisset recommends a weak solu- tion of this salt in water, for heal- ing aphthous crusts, or the thrush inthe mouth and fauceus of children. A small quantity of it, powdered and mixed with sugar, is often ap- plied for the same purpose. We are not acquainted with a more bal- samic application to sore nipples, or chapped lips and hands in frosty Aveather, than a few grains of bo- rax dissolved in warm water, Avith the addition of a little pure ho- ney. BOTANY, that part of natural history which relates to plants or vegetables. This pleasing science had the misfortune of being, from its in- fancy, considered merely as a branch of medicine ; and while the naturalist Avas employed in disco- A-ering the virtues of plants, the knowledge of their organization was in a great measure neglected. In consecvuence of this erroneous idea of botany, the study of it was for a long time confined to medici- nal plants ; which Avere searched for Avith a vieAv to discover reme- dies. On the revival of letters, instead of investigating plants in the gar- den of Nature, they were studied only in the writings of Pliny and Dioscorides : thus translators, commentators, and practitioners, seldom agreeing, a variety of names were given to the same plant, and the same name to several plants. At length, more careful researches and many excellent observations were made ; but the latter being enveloped in a chaos of nomencla- ture, physicians and herbalists no longer understood each other. Botanists of real genius indeed occasionally published instructive books, among which the principal are the Avritings of Cordus, Ges- ner, Clusius, and Coesalpinus; but each of these authors regulat- ing his nomenclature by his own method, created new genera, or divided the old ones, according to his own fancy. Hence the genera and species were so intermingled and confounded, that almost every plant received as many names as there were authors employed in its description. The advancement of the study of botany was, however, greatly promoted by the writings of the indefatigable Bauhins, two bro- thers, each of Avhom undertook an universal history of plants, in- cluding a synonymy, or exact list of the names of each plant in the Avorks of all the writers that pre- ceded them. Meanwhile, voyages of discove- ry enriched botany with new trea- sures, and Avhile the old names BOT over-loaded the memory, new ones were invented for the newly disco- vered plants. In order to extricate themselves from this immense la- byrinth, botanists Avere obliged to adopt some methodical arrange- ment. Ray, Herman, Rivinius, proposed their respective plans; but Tournefort, who published his system in 1697, surpassed them all. To him Ave are indebted for the first complete regular arrange- ment of the vegetable kingdom ; his plates of generic characters are excellent, but his work is defi- cient, as it contains no characters or descriptions of the different spe- cies. At length, Linnaeus formed the vast project of new moulding the Avhole science of botany. Hav- ing prepared the rules by which it ought to be conducted, he deter- mined the genera of plants, and afterwards the species ; and by keeping all the old names that agreed with these neAv rules, and new modelling all the rest, he esta- blished a clear nomenclature, form- ed upon principles more consonant with Nature. He also invented specific names, which he joined to the generical ones, in order to dis- tinguish the species. The whole Linnsan system is founded on the idea, that there is in vegetables as well as in animals, a real distinction of the sexes ; that each plant may be analysed by its several organs of fructification; and, consequently, that it is ne- cessary to acquire an accurate knowledge of the number, shape, situation, and proportion of these parts. Hence, only the student will be enabled to understand the ele- ments of the science. And as all vegetables are capable of producing blossoms and fruit, or seed, the VOL. I. BOT 345 following parts, which compose a flower, must be minutely examin- ed in every plant, namely : l.The calyx, or flower cup, or empale- ment; 2. The corolla, or blossom, or flower-leaf; 3. The stamina, or chives; 4. The pistillum, or pointal; 5. The pericarpium, or seed-vessel ; 6. The semina, or seeds. To these may be added the nectary, or honey-cup; and the receptacle, or base. It required the resolution, know- ledge and ingenuity of Linnaeus, to effect this reform with success. His system at first met Avith re- sistance, and meets Avith it still from his rivals in fame ; but on account of its practical utility it has been almost universally adopt-1 ed throughout Europe. To pursue the study of plants Avith advantage, that of the nomen- clature must not be neglected; Names, it is true, are arbitrary ; but if the most engaging part of Natural History merits the atten- tion of the curious, it will be ne- cessary to begin with learning the language of the writers, in order to knoAV with precission to Avhat ob- jects the names employed by them actually belong. The vegetables on the face of the globe may be considered as analogous to its inhabitants ; under which view of the subject vege- tables may be said to resemble the inhabitants in general; classes, the nations ; orders, the tribes ; genera, the families ; spedes, the individu- als ; and varieties, the same indivi- duals in different circumstances. Beside the satisfaction which the study of the Avorks of Nature, and especially that of botany, affords to an inquisitive mind, it counteracts the passion for more frivolous amusements, and always prevents 346 BOT BOT objects Avorthy - of contemplation. Hence the late Dr. Withering very justly remarks, that, inde- pendently of its immediate use, the study of botany is as healthful as it is innocent; that it beguiles the tediousness of the road ; furnishes amusement at every footstep of the solitary Avalk ; and, above all, that it leads to pleasing reflections on the bounty, the wisdom, anel the power of the Great Creator !• Among the latest elementary works of this' branch of science are the following : Dr. Withering's " Arrangements of British Plants," in four volumes 8vo. (■!/. 11*. 6d.) .....Prof. Martyr's translation of Rousseau's "Letter's on the Ele- ments of Boteeny, addressed to a Lady ;*' (7s.)....Priscilla Wake- Field's " Introduction to Botany;" (-3s. 6d« Avhh plain, and 7s. with coloured plates) ; Dr. Hull's In- troduction to- the Study of Botany. [To these may be added, Mar- tyn's Language of Botany, and lastly the Elements of Botany, by Dr. Barton, just published.] BOTTLE, a small vessel made Of glass, leather, or stone. Glass- bottles are better for cyder than those of any other substance. Dr. Percival censures the com- mon practice of clean ■ting wine- bottles with shot; for if, through inattention, any of it should remain, Avhen the bottles are again filled with Avme, the metal will be dis- solved, and the liquor impregnated with its deleterious qualities. For this reason, he recommends pot- ash in preference to shot, as a few ounces of the former dissolved in water, will cleanse a great number of bottles : and where the impuri- ties adhere to the sides; a few pieces of blotting paper put into the Ares- *el, and shaken with the Avater, will remove them in an expeditious manner. BOTTLING, the filling of bot- tles with liquor, cud corking them in order to preserve it. Particular caution should be used in bottling cyder : the best Avay to secure the bottles from bursting, is to have the liquor thoroughly fine before it be bottled. If one bottle break, it w'll be necessary to give vent to the remainder, and cork them up again. Weak cyder is more apt to burst the bottles than that of a stronger quality : they should be placed so that the corks may be kept Avet, and stowed in a cellar not exposed to the changes and in- fluence of the air. For this pur- pose, the ground is preferable to a frame ; and a layer of saw-dust or sand better than the bare soil: but the most proper situation is a stream of running water. Bottled beer may be much im- proved by putting a small quantity of crystals of tartar, spirituous liquor, or sugar boiled with the essence of cloves, into each bottle* In order to ripen bottled liquors, they are sometimes exposed to mo- derate warmth, or the rays of the sun, which in a few days, will bring them to maturity. BOTTS, in zoology, a species of short worms produced and nourished in the intestines of a horse. As the flies, from Avhose eggs the botts are produced, do not fre- quent the neighbourhood of large towns, horses are not liable to this disease, if they be kept in the sta- ble during summer and autumn. In summer the females of these flies enter the anus of the horse, where they deposit their eggs,which are soon hatched by the heat, and the worms penetrate into the in- B O T testines, sometimes as far as thg stomach. Botts are very large maggots, composed of circular rings Avith prickly feet, by which they adhere to the part where they breed, and derive their nourishment. When they reach the-stomach, they fasten themselves in its muscular coat, and suck the blood like leeches, each worm ulcerating the part where it fixes, till it resembles a lioney-oomb. These worms are not unfrequently the cause of con- "»ulsions. Botts that are generated in the stomach of the horse are extremely dangerous, and seldom discovera- ble till they have acquired some strength, Avhen they throAv him into -great agonies. The symptomsof the other kinds, .which are more troublesome than dangerous, are the following: The horse becomes lean, and looks jaded ; his hair stands out roughly; he often strikes his hindfeetagainst his belly ; he is sometimes griped, but generally lies down epiietly on .his belly for a short time, anel then -gets up and eats his food. But the surest sign is, when he voids the botts in his dung. For the cure of botts in the sto- mach, calomel should first be given in large cjuantities, and repeated at intervals, ilrthiops mineral may be given afterwards. The botts, that many horses are troubled with, in the beginning of summer, are always seen on the .rtraight gut, and are often thrown .out with the dung and a yellowish matter. They are not dangerous in that part, though they render -the horse restless. The season when they affect the animal is commonly in the months of May .♦ad June, after which they are BOT 347 rarely seen, as they do not con- tinue with the horse above a fort- night or three weeks. Botts in the straight gut may be cured by giv- ing the horse a spoonful of savin, cut small, once or twice a day, in oats or bran moistened, to which may be added three or four cloves of garlic. The following aloetic purge should also be given at in- tervals : Fine socotrine aloes, ten drams ; fresh jalap, one dram; ari- stolochia, or birthwort and myrrh powdered, of each two drams ; oil of savin and amber, of each one dram; syrup of buckthorn, enough to form the whole into a ball. [Mr. Andrew Billings,of Pou- keepsie, New-York, has proved that botts are produced from the eggs deposited by a fly upon the hairs of horses. The fly is about the size of the honey-bee, and the head and neck not much un- like it. It flies with its head and body erect and perpendicular to the horizon, while its tail forms a sharp angle with their bodies, be- ing bent towards the horse, so that they touch the hair of his legs, or belly (which are the parts they most affect), only Avith the extre- mity of the tail, and in this way will fly about him for an hour dis- charging a great number of eggs, which adhere to the ends of the hair. Mr. Chancellor Living- ston observes, that the late Dr. Wemple, a man of veracity and accuracy, proved the truth of Mr. B's theory by the following expe- riment : One of his horses having beenkilled by the botts, he took the largest of the worms, and pre- serving them in a proper tempera- ture, they Avent through the usual changes, and produceel flies exact- ly resembling those already de- scribed. Mr. B. also kept, a hair 348 BOW BOW to which an egg was attached, for some time, in a box, when a per- fect bott extricated itself. Valisnery's theory of the in- troduction of the botts into the bo- dies of the animal, as stated by Dr. Willich, is probably erroneous. May not the egg be introduced by the horse licking and biting the part on which the eggs are depo- sited, to relieve an occasional itch- ing ? To guard against the botts there- fore, attention must be paid to the flies, anel killed when found buz- zing about horses. The nits should should be scraped off and a handful of salt given weekly.] * BOUNTY, in commerce, a premium paid by government to the exporters and importers of cer- tain commodities, such as corn, fish, 8cc. Bounties are sometimes given to support a new manufacture against one of a similar kind established by other nations. To promote the manufacture of sail-cloth in this country, is doubtless an object of the greatest national importance, on account of our vast consumption of that article. The principal intention of boun- ties to exporters is to enable the trader to become beneficial to his country, by giving him a com- pensation for his ingenuity and industry. As bounties are usually grantee! only for a limited time, they can never be the cause of any material loss to a nation, though avaricious men are often stimu- lated by a desire of gain, to con- vert to their private advantage what Avas intended for the benefit pf the community. BOW, a Aveapon made of wood, hom, or some other elastic sub- stance, and bent into a curve, in which position it is kept by a string fastened to each end. The elastic poAver thus acquired, is such that after bending and unbending, an arrow is impelled with great force. The long-bow, so called by way of distinction from the cross-bowj is the most ancient of all Aveapons, and has very generally been used by remote and barbarous nations. The Laplanders, Avho support themselves principally by hunting, excel the most civilized nations in the construction of this instrument. Their bow is composed of two pieces of strong elastic wood, of an equal size, which are flat on each side, and glewed together. This instrument expels the arrow with much greater force than if it were formed of one piece of similar di- mensions. The Indians still make use of the bow; and the repository of the Royal Society contains a West- Indian bow two yards long. In the the year 1749 aboAvand quiver containing twenty-four ar- roAvs made of reed, pointed with steel, and bearded, Avere found in the New Forest, Hampshire, sup- posed to have lain there since the reign of William Rufus, who was shot there 649 years previous to their discovery: the reeds Avere not decayed, nor the steel points rusty. The strength of a bow is calcu- lated on the principle, that its spring or elastic power is proportionate to the extent of its curve. The use of the bow is termed archery, and those who practice it, are called bowmen, or archers.....See Ar- chery. Cross-bow. This weapon con- sists of a steel bow set in a shaft of .avoocI, Avith a string and trigger.... It is bent by means of a piece of BOW steel, and expels bullets, large ar- rows, darts, &c. Avith great velo- city. BOWELS, or intestines, are very important parts in the animal economy, (See Abdomen); and are often subject to diseases, which, if neglected, may be attended with dangerous consequences. Of this nature, in particular, are inflam- mations of the bowels, Avhich ma- nifest themselves by a continued acute pain, frecmently accompa- nied with a sensation of burning. The abdomen is pained on the slightest touch, and the body is generally costive. After taking any kind of nutriment, the patient is inclined to vomit; but the princi- pal symptom, by Avhich the inflam- matory state of the intestines may be distinguished from a mere colic, in a peculiar fever, Avith a small, though hard pulse, Avhile the heat in the extremities of the body con- tinues almost the same as when in a state of health. The most fre- quent causes of this dangerous com- plaint are, acrid substances in the boAvels; crude and hardened feces ; confined ruptures ; suppressed he- morrhages ; violent diarrhoeas and dysenteries ; abortions, Sec. At their commencement, inflamma- tions are often confounded with other complaints ; anel sometimes they terminate in a fatal mortifi- cation, though more frequently in suppuration. The degree of dan- ger may be ascertained by the in- creasing coldness of theextremities, and the more or less inveterate ob- stipations of the bowels. Hic- cough, and vomiting of excrements, indicate the approach of dissolu- tion. If the inflammation be occasioned by a confined rupture, it sometimes may be reduced by applications of BOW 349 cold water and ice, or still more effectually by dropping and evapo- rating vitriolic xther on the protu- berant part. Diluent and emolient liquids are of no service in this case, as they only contribute to distend the bowels ; and where the external application of cold has no effect, the patient must, without delay, submit to an operation. Suppressed hemorrhoids [or piles] and other natural fluxes, should be restored by applying leeches to the parts, and repeated warm fomem- tations. Diarrhoeas and dysente- ries ought to be treated according to their causes ; and poison intro- duced into the stomach, should be remedied according to the rules given under the head of Anti- dotes. When there is reason to suspect an inflammation, venesection Avill be necessary ; but the emantity of blood draAvn must be'regulated by the strength of the patient, and the nature of the fever. The bowels should be opened by emolient clys- ters ; or, if these prove ineffectual, strong solutions of pot-ash, in vine- gar, ought, without elehy, to be injected, and the abdomen rubbed with balsamic and antispasmodic embrocations, such as the campho- rated liniment,mixed with an equal quantity of honey ; or, in cases of extremity, the latter dissolved in a strong decoction made of sage- leaves and vinegar. If these reme- dies produce no relief, the smoke of tobacco may be introduced by the rectum, and.blisters applied to the abdomen. But, during the obstipation, 1.0 medicines should be used internally ; as stimulating the stomach and boAvels cannot fail to increase the inflammation, and thus endanger the life of the patient. .-350 BOW [Inflammations of the bowels :very commonly proceed, in the United States, from exposure of the body to alterations of heat and ■cold. The disease should be early .attended to, and the progress of in- flammation prevented, by copious .bleeding, and frequent clysters of cool Avater, in which Glauber's salts have been dissolved; if these do oiot succeed in procuring stools, cold water must be dashed upon .the feet, and clysters of tobacco in decoction with antimonial wine given. This last remedy succeed- ed, when a variety of pthers failed. Med. Com; vol. £th.] Diseases of the Bowels in Horses. Jt is difficult to form a proper judg- .ment respecting disorders of the stomach and oowels of these ani- and assisted by an emollient clyster prepared with a- handful of salt, will answer this purpose. Scalded bran, with an ounce of fenugreek and lintseed, •ccasionally given, will prevent costiveness. But Avhere it is con- stitutional, and the horse continues in perfect health, no inconvenience will arise from it; nay, it is Avell knoAvn, that such horses are re- markably vigorous and hardy. BOX - TREE, or Buxus, L. a genus of plants containing three •pecies; namely, the sempervirens, or common box, with oval leaves ; the augustifolia, or narroAV-leaved box ; and the suffruticosa, or Dutch box ; the first of which only is in- digenous. The tAvo first-mentioned species, groAv in great abundance upon Box-hill, near Dorking, in Surrey,- Avhere there were formerly large trees of this kind. Of the first species, there are two or three varieties, Avhich are propagated in gardens ; and this, as well as the second, may be either raised from seeds or cuttings ; the latter should be planted or sown in autumn, on a shady border. Box-trees may be transplanted at any time, except Midsummer, provided they be taken up with a good mass of earth, but the best time for their removal is October. The Dutch, or dwarf-box, is in- creased by parting the roots, or planting the slips : it should be in- termixed with other evergreens. The uses of the large kind of box are various : many articles of tur- nery, and musical instruments, are manufactured of its wood: which is of greater specific gravity than any other of European growth, as BOX 551 it will not float upon Avater. In Paris, combs are made of no other material than this Avcod ; and the quantity imported annually from Spain into that city, is estimated at 10,000 livres. Box admits of a beautiful polish when made into articles of furniture, for which it is now much employed, as its bitter quality renders it secure from the attacks of worms. It is asserted, that a decoction of box-wood rubbed on the head, will speedily restore the hair decayed in consequence of malignant fe- vers ; but care should be taken in applying it, to prevent it from touching the skin of the face, which, in consequence of this em- brocation, would likewise be co- vered Avith hair. A similar decoc- tion has been recommended as a powerful sudorific, even preferable to Guaiacum ; though, at present, neither the wood nor the leaves of the box-tree are used for medicinal purposes. BOXING, the art of fighting with the fists, Avhich, among the Romans, Avere either naked, or in- closed a stone or leaden ball. Hence this exercise is very ancient, hav- ing been in vogue in the heroic ages. To the disgrace of England, the art of boxing, about half a century since, formed a regular kind of amusement, was encouraged by the first nobility of the kingdom, and even tolerated by the magistrates. About the time above-mentioned, a booth was erected at Tottenham- court, to which the public paid for admission the same as at a regular theatre, and the profits were divid- ed among the combatants; the victor receiving two-thirds, and the remainder devolving to the loser. In consequence of the inconveni- 352 BRA BRA encies sustained at Taylor's booth, by the patrons of this refined art, Mr, Broughton, then the princi- pal actor in these exhibitions, erect- ed a more commodious amphithe- atre near Oxford-street. This bar- barous amusement was at length neglected; though within these few years it has again engaged a considerable degree of the public attention : a fatal issue, however, which took place at one of the com- bats, again brought the practice into disrepute. On this occasion, one of the combatants Avas killed on the spot; and his royal highness the Prince of Wales, Avho was present, declared, that on ac- count of the dreadful example he had then witnessed, he would never again be present at, or patronize another exhibition ofa similar kind. [Broughton was, however, ho- noured by being made one of the Yeomen of the King's Guards ; and boxing in England has again become fashionable.] Boxing also signifies the tapping of a tree, to make it yield its juice. This operation is performed on the maple, by making a hole in the side of the tree, about a foot from the ground, with an auger or chis- el : from this juice or sap a good sugar may be extracted. BRACES, a supplementary arti- cle of dress, now very generally adopted, which by rendering a tight cincture altogether unnecessary, cannot be too much recommended both to men and women, for the sake of health as well as comfort. If they were used to keep up the stockings, instead of tight garters, it Avould be an improvement of much greater moment than many are inclined to imagine; for garters doubtless occasion great mischief, whether tied above or below the knee, in causing the part to Avhich they are applied to acquire an un- natural hardness, in disposing the thighs and legs to dropsy, and in- ducing great fatigue in walking. BRAIN, in anatomy, a great viscus in the cavity of the skull, of an oval figure, and larger in man, in proportion to his size, than in any other animal. The brain is uniformly considered as the grand sensorium of the body, or the or- gan of all the senses ; and hence it is supposed, not Avithout reason, to be the seat of the soul. The most important functions of an animal body are those of the brain. To afford a more distinct view of the subject, Ave shall mention a few experiments Avhich have been made upon animals. If the brain be irritated, dread- ful convulsions take place all over the body. If any part of the brain be compressed, that part of the body which derives its nerves from the compressed part, is immedi- ately deprived of motion and sen- sation. On compressing, tying, or dividing a nerve, the muscles to which the nerve proceeds, become paralytic. If the nerve thus com- pressed, tied, or divided, had be- fore any particular sensation, it exists no longer ; but on removing the compression, or untying it, its peculiar sense returns. From these phehomena, it is evident, that every sensation in an animal body is derived from the brain, or from the spinal marrow, which is a continuation of the brain; and that it is conveyed thence, through the medium of the nerves, to all parts of the sentient body.... But, in what manner the various sensations are produced by the nerves, and how the will operates upon the contiguous and remote BRA •rgans, so as to put them into in- stantaneous motion, are difficulties which have never been satisfactori- ly explained, and, in all probability will always baffle the keenest in- vestigation. As the brain is the representa- tive organ of the mind, its sound and perfect state is of the utmost importance in the exercise of the intellect. If, therefore, the brain of an individual, be pretematurally soft, or too firm and hard, or spe- cifically too light, or proportionate- ly too small; or if it be in any man- ner compressed or shaken by ex- ternal violence ; or if acrimonious humours should settle on it, in con- secruence of various diseases; or, lastly, ii in plethoric habits too great a portion of blood should flow to- wards the head, and too much ex- tend its vessel ;....in all these cases, the representing faculty will more or less partake of the disorder...... Thus the power of imagination, or fancy, is sometimes so much in- creased, that the patient is either in part, or entirely, deprived of the faculty of judgment. Such, for in- stance, is the case in delirious per- sons, who are then only called ma- niacs, when a total privation of their reasoning faculty is evident. In ideots, or stupid people, how- ever, the mental disease arises chiefly from their incapacity of comprehending and properly ar- ranging ideas. The causes of these humiliating elerangcments of the human mind, though various, may be reduced to the following heads: namely, in- ordinate passions, especially those which are 'attended with a great dissipation of strength; debauchery of every kind ; anel irregular mode of life ; excessive eating anel drink- ing ; intense, an well ax long-con- vol. I. BRA 353 tinued application to study ; and likewise, a sudden change of cli- mate, air, and aliment. It deserves to be pointed out as a vulgar error, that abscesses of the brain discharge themselves through the mouth and ears; and that snuff is liable to enter into the brain ; neither of these is capable of pas- sing through that bone, which has the form of a sieve ; nor is any matter, or fluid, secreted in a com- mon cold, evacuated by that canal, though discharged through the nos- trllsi The seat of this disease is, indeed, not in the brain, but in the cavities of the nose ; and if impost- hurnes take place in the ear, they suppurate and empty themselves externally. Inflammation cf the Brain, is a disease more common in hot than in temperate climates ; in the lat- ter, hoAvever, it may also take place from external violence, or in con- sequence of severe falls, blows and bruises upon the head ; night- watching ; hard drinking ; strong passions, especially those of grief, anger, and anxiety; exposure to the heat of the sun during sleep, with the head uncovered, he. Phe principal symptoms of this danger- ous malady are, pain of the head, redness of the eyes, want of sleep, and slight dropping of blood from the nose ; these are attended Avith costiveness and a retention of urine. As the disease, when neglected, is often fatal in a fewr days, medical advice should be called in Avithout delay. Meanwhile, the patient ought to be kept as quiet as possi- ble, and free from the access of strong light ; his body must be kept open by clysters; the legs bathed in warm water ; trie bleed- ing of the nose promoted by. w a; m fomentations to the part; and the 354 BRA BRA head, after being shaved, should be frequently rubbed Avith vinegar and water ; or cloths dipped in the folloAving solution may be applied, and repeated every hour, or half hour, Avith the best effect. Take two ounces of nitre, and one ounce of sal.ammoniac, dissolve them in five pints of water and half a pint of strong vinegar. Of this mixture the patient may also drink a table spoonful every hour, or often er. BRAKE is a large and weighty harroAV, used to reduce a stubborn soil. It consists of four square bulls each side five inches thick, and six feet and a half in length. The teeth are seventeen inches long, anel bend forward like a coulter; four of these are inserted in each bull, fixed above, with a screw nut, having twelve inches free below, Avith a heel close to the under part of the bull, to prevent its being pushed back .by stones. This instrument reejuires four horses, or the same number of oxen, and may be ap- plied with great advantage in fal- lowing strong clay that requires frequent ploughings, as a breaking between each ploughing will pul- verize the soil. In the month of March or April, on ploughing strong ground for barley, a cross brakeing is preferable to a cross ploughing, and may be performed at half the expence. A brake with a greater number of teeth than that above described, is not proper for ground that is rendered adhesive by the roots of plants, such as land newly broken up : on the contrary, a less num- ber of teeth would not sufficiently break the clods. BRAMBLE, the Common, or Rubus fruticosus, L. a species of the raspberry-bush, which groAvs Avild in hedges, and has three va- rieties one of which bears Avhite fruit....See Withering, 469..... There are several other species in- digenous in England ; as the saxa- tilis, or stone bramble, the arcticus, or dwarf crimson bramble, the chamacmorus, or mountain bramble, by some called cloud-berry, and the corylifolius, or, hazel-leaved bramble. The bad effects of the fruit of the bramble, when eaten too freely, have already been mentioned under the article Blackberry. In Pro- vence, in France, it is employed in the colouring of Avine. The Rus- sians mix the berries of the saxa- tilis Avith honey, which, when fer- mented, is a pleasant beverage.... Wine and vinegar are also made from the fruit of the bramble ; and a syrup and jelly prepared from it, are used as gentle astringents.... The leaves afford several colours in dyeing. As this plant is of quick growth, it may be advantageously employed for inclosures ', because it defends the young epiick-set hedge from sheep, and by intertwining itself with a dead hedge, preserves it from injury. The usual method of planting it, is in two rows upon the bank, the lower of bramble, and the upper of white-thorn. BRAN, the husks of wheat, which when ground are separated from the flour by a sieve. It con- tains a portion of the farinaceous matter, less glutinous than flour, and slightly detergent and purga- tive. Infusions of bran are often applied externally, to cleanse the hands instead of soap ; and it also removes scurf and dandriff. Bran may, in times of scarcity, be advantageously employed in the making of common household bread; this is effected by previous- ly boiling the bran in water, and then adding tfre whole decoction to BRA BRA 355 the dough : thus the bran Avill be sufficiently softened, and divested of its dry husky quality ; Avhile the nutritive part, which is supposed to contain an essential oil, is duly pre- pared for food. It is asserted, that the increase in the quantity of bread, by the addition of 14lb. 14 oz. of bran to 5 61b. of flour, is from 34lb. to 361b. of bread, be- yond what is produced by the com- mon made. In one instance, 56lb. of flour, with 14lb. 14oz. of bran, produced, on being weighed the next clay, when cold, 1061b. and a half of bread ; which is above half as much more than what is com- monly made, and about twice the quantity obtained from a bushel of Avheat, when merely the fine flour is used. [Ten ounces of bran Avere boil- ed in somewhat more than two quarts of water, from fifteen to twenty minutes. The water was then strained off; and when of a proper degree of heat, 7 pounds of flour were wet Avith it in the usual way, with the common quan- tities of salt and yeast. The pro- duce was, 121b. lOoz. of bread.... The same quantity of flour, made at the same time by the same per- son, and baked in the same oven, as bread is generally made, pro- duced 91b. of bread.] BRANDY, is a spirituous and inflammable liquor, obtained by distillation from wine. French brandies are accounted the best in llurope ; and those of Bourdeaux, Uochc'lle, Cogniac, Charenton, Sec. are held in the highest estimation. Good brandy is clear, not too hot, nor sharp, and of a pleasant vinous flavour. French brandy acquires by age a great degree of softness, and at the same time a yellowish brown colour, which our distillers have imitated in their artificial pre- parations. But this colour being found only in such brandies as have become mellow by long keep- ing, it follows that the ingredient, from which it is extracted, is the wood of the cask, and that the brandy in reality has received a tincture from the oak. The pecu- liar flavour which French brandies possess, is supposed to be derived from an essential oil of wine, mix- ed with the spirit; but, more pro- bably, it originates from the A-ery nature of the grape, or the wine- lees, t It deserves to be remarked, that our distillers frequently make use of the spirit of nitrous at her, com- monly called, dulcified spirit of nitre : a very small proportion of which, added to pure whiskey, or a liquor obtained by the distillation of malt, imparts to it a flavour, not unlike that of French brandy. A vinous spirit has been extract- ed from carrots by Mr. Thomas Hornby, of York, (England,) Avho, in 1788,communicated to Dr. Hun- ter a particular account of the whole process. This may be vieAV- ed in the light of a national advan- tage, as it affords the means of supplying another material for the distiller, and of saving great quan- tities of barley and wheat. By Mr. Hornby's experiment, it Avas found, that an acre of carrots (20 tons,) produced 240 gallons of spirit Avhich is considerably more than what can be obtained from five quarters of barley, the average produce of an acre. Brandy,even of the most genuine kind, is less wholesome than rum ; but the counterfeit and adulterated sorts are exceedingly detrimental to those who are habitually addict- ed to the use of this pernicious liquor. It should, therefore, be drunk very moderately,rather from 356 BRA necessity than for gratification.... When the stomach is empty, Aveak, and lax, a moderate dram excites a pleasant Avarmth and gentle ten- sion ; it is said to promote diges- tion, by dissolving the viscid phlegm Avhich loaded that organ, invigorating its fibres, and stimu- lating its coats to act Avith more vigour. Yet all these good effects Avill not counterbalance the mis- chiefs done by an indiscreet and immoderate use of this cordial. Melancholy tempers, as Avell as choleric and sanguine habits, can- not fail to be injured by ardent spirits : and, in short, a too free use of them in any constitution, is of the most fatal conseepience. Hence, Sydenham, with great justice and propriety, exclaims, " Would to Gocl brandy were to- tally abstained from, or used only on occasions to support Nature, and not destroy it, unless it were thought proper to prohibit any in- ternal use of it at all, and leave it entirely to surgeons for bathing ulcers and burns."....See also Dis- tilling. [Excellent brandy is made from apples in the U. States, notwith- standing Avhat Chaptal has said on the subject. If carefully distilled from sound apples, and kept a few years in a warm situation, it is A'ery agreeable when diluted Avith wa- ter. Peaches also yield a liquor, which when properly distilled, is by many preferred to the finest French brandy. The following recipe for making apple-brandy, was communicated by Mr. Joseph Cooper, of New- Jersey, already mentioned. The licjuor made agreeably to this pro- cess, is mild, melloAV, anel plea- sant, and greatly superior to apple spirits procured by the common mode. BRA " Put the cider preA'iously to dis- tilling, into vessels free from must or ill smell, and keep it till in the state which is commonly called good sound cider, but not till sour, as that lessens the quantity and in- jures the quality of the spirit. In the distillation, let it run perfectly cool from the Avorm, and in the first time of distilling, not longer than it will flash when cast on the still head and a lighted candle ap- plied under it. In the second dis- tillation, shift the vessel as soon as the spirit runs beloAV proof, or has a disagreeable smell or taste, and put what runs after with the low wines. By this method the spirit if distilled from good cider, Avill take nearly or quite one third its quantity to bring it to proof; for which purpose take the last run- ning from a cheese of good water cider, direct from the press, un fer- mented, and in forty-eight hours the spirit Avill be milder and better flavoured than in seA'eral years standing if manufactured in the common Avay. When the spirit is draAvn off, which may be done in five or six days, there will be a thin jelly at bottom, which may be dis- tilled again, or put into the best cider, or used for making royal ci- der....it being better for these pur- poses than the clear spirit, as it Avill greatly facilitate in refining the liquor." One wine glass full added to a half gallon bowl of punch, highly im- proves the flavour of that drink. In Virginia, peach brandy has long been distilled, and might be made a very profitable article of internal commerce, as the peach-tree ap- pears to thrive better in that state, than in almost any other in the Union.] BRASS, in metallurgy, is a fac- titious metal, made of copper and BRA BRA 357 zinc, or lapis calaminaris. The French call it yellow copper. The Scriptures informs us, that the first formation of brass was previous to the deluge ; but the use of it was not, as is generally believed, and as the Arundelian marbles assert, prior to the knowledge of iron. In the earliest ages, whose manners have been delineated by- history, we find the weapons of their war- riors invariably framed of this fac- titious metal. Military nations were naturally studious of brightness in their arms : and the Ancient Bri- tons, particularly, gloried in the neatness of theirs. Hence various nations continued to fabricate their amis of brass, even after the dis- covery of iron. By long calcination alone, and without the mixture of any other substance vrith it, brass affords a beautiful green or blue colour for glass : but if it be calcined Avith powdered sulphur, it Avill give a red, yellow, or chalcedony colour, according to the quantity, and other variations in using it. Brass-colour, is that prepared by colour-men and braziers to imitate brass ; of Avhich there are two sorts : namely, the reel brass, or bronze, which is mixed with red- ochre, finely pulverized; and the yellow, or gilt brass, which is made of copper-filings only. Both sorts arc used with varnish. Corinthian brass, is a mixture of gold, silver, and copper ; so called from the melting and running to- gether of immense quantities of those metals, when the city of Co- rinth was sacked and burnt, 146 years before Christ. In 1781, a patent Avas granted to Mr. James Emerson, for his invention of making brass of cop- per and zinc. The Patentee directs the spelter to be melted in an iron boiler, then passed through a per- forated ladle and placed over a ATes- sel containing water; by which means the zinc will be granulated. Fifty-four pounds of copper shot are now annexed with lOlbs. of ca- lcined and pulverized calamine, to- gether with about one bushel of charcoal: a handful of this mixture is first put into a casting-pot, then 3lbs. of the granulated zinc ; upon which the composition before spe- cified is laid till the vessel is fil- led : Mr. Emerson, however, has not stated the exact proportion of the ingredients. Eight similar pots are now to be supplied Avith the same materials, and the whole must be submitted to the heat of a furnace, for the space of 12 hours; when the process will be corn- pleated and 821bs. of brass be pro- cured ; which the Patentee asserts to be of a very superior cmality to that manufactured from copper and calamine. [Various articles made of brass have sometimes an appearance of Avell gilt metal. This appear- ance, we nowknow, is produced by means of a solution of gum-lac in spirit of wine, with Avhich they are rubbed. As long as the lac lasts, they retain their splendour. These articles," however, are at- tended Avith one inconvenience, that they must never be cleaned with a strong brush, or scoured with chalk or Avhiting, but only wiped with a soft rag; for as soon as the lac is rubbed off they loose their brilliancy. A varnish of this kind may be prepared in the following manner: Dissolve two ounces of very pure and fine gum lac in forty-eight ounces of alcohol, and place the solution in a sand bath exposed to a moderate heat. To prevent the too abundant evaporation of the- 358 BRA B RE spirit of Avine, as Avell as the burst- ing of the glass, a piece of bladder ought to be bound over the latter, and a few holes made in it with a needle. In another glass, dissolve in the same quantity of spirit of wine, an ounce of dragon's blood in grains. When both the solu- tions are completed, mix them to- gether, then put three grains of yellow wood into it, and suffer it to remain there twelve hours in a mo- derate heat: after which, strain the liquor through filtering paper, and preserve it for use in a clean glass bottle. To give this lac- varnish a high gold colour, yellow wood is preferable to every other substance. If the varnish be in- tended to be pale, and not to change the colour of the brass, the yellow wood may be omitted, but if a stronger colour be required, a half more of the yellow Avood may be added.] Brassica. See Cabbage,Cole- wort,R ape, Rocket, and Turnip. BRAWN, is the flesh of a boar, pickled or souced, which is ahvays found to be better tasted, accord- ing to the greater age of the ani- mal. The most approved method of preparing it is as folloAvs : Af- ter the boar is killed, take the flitches only, Avithout the legs, and extract the bones from them; sprinkle the flesh with salt, and lay it in a tray till the blood is drained off; let it then be salted a little more, and rolled up as hard as pos- sible. The collar of brawn should be made of the Avhole length of the flitch, so as to measure nine or ten inches in diameter. The flesh thus prepared is to be boiled in a large kettle or copper, till it be- comes tender enough to be pierced Avith a straAV : then set it by, till it is thoroughly cold, and immerse it into the following pickle: To every gallon of water, put near two handsful of salt, and as much wheat-bran ; boil them well to- gether ; then drain the liquor from the bran as clear as possible ; and when the liquor is quite cold, put the bran into it. BREAD, an important article of food, prepared of flour kneaded with a mixture of yeast, water, and salt, and afterwards baked in an oven. Before the invention of mills for grinding com, bread was prepared by boiling the grain, and forming it into viscous cakes,not very agree- able to the palate, and difficult of digestion. In process of time, ma- chines were constructed for grind- ing corn, as well as for separ'ating the pure flour ; and a method was discovered to raise the dough by fermentation. Dough may be fer- mented either by leaven or by yeast; but as the latter raises the kneaded mass more uniformly, and produ- ces the sweetest and lightest bread, it is generally preferred. Bread Avell raised and baked is not only more agreeable to the taste than un fermented bread, but more rea- dily mixes with water, Avithout forming a viscous mass, or puff, and is at the same time more easi- ly digested in the stomach. Bread in [England] is divided into three kinds, namely, white, wheaten, and household. Fine white bread is made only of flour ; the wheaten contains a mixture of the finer oart of the bran ; and the household of the Avhole substance of the grain. An act for regulating the assize of bread was passed [in England,] in the year 1773 ; by Avhich it was enacted, that all bread made of the flour of wheat, anel which shall be the whole produce of the grain, the hull thereof only excepted, and BRE B R E 359 which shall weigh three-fourth parts of the weight of the wheat, shall be allowed to be made, baked and sold, and shall be understood to be a standard wheaten bread ; also, that every standard wheaten peck loaf shall always Aveigh 171b. 6 oz. avoirdupois ; every half peck loaf 81b. I loz. and every cmar- tern loaf 4lb. 5ioz. and be marked with the letters S. W. anel that every peck loaf, half peck loaf, and quartern loaf, shall always be sold, as to price, in proportion to each other respectively. Although we have, in the article Baking, given general directions for successively conducting this complicated process, yet we think it will be useful, in this place, to add, by Avay of supplement, a few particulars relative to this subject, and more especially applicable to domestic purposes. Mr. Dossie, who appears to have paid great at- tention to the art of baking, gives the folloAving simple and much ap- proved method of making good white bread : Take of fine flour, six pounds ; of water, moderately warm, but not hot, two points and ahalf; of liquid yeast, eight spoons,- ful; and of salt, two ounces. Put about a pint of the warm Avater to the yeast, and mix them well, by beating themtogethet with a whisk. Let the salt be put to the remain- ing part of the water, and stirred till completely dissolved. Then put both calamities of the fluid gra- dually to the flour, and knead the mass well till the whole is pro- perly mixed. The dough thus made must stand four or five hours, that is, till the exact moment of its being fully risen, and before it is sensibly perceived to fall. It is then to be formed into loaves, and immediately placed in the oven. To bake it properly, is at- tended with some difficulty to those who are not skilled in the art. The first care is to see that the oven be sufficiently heated, yet not to such a degree as to burn the crust. If a green vegetable turns black when put in, the oven will scorch the bread; in whichcase it must stand open till the heat has somewhat abated. The next cir- cumstance to be attended to is, that the mouth of the oven be well closed, till the bread has risen to its full height, which will not take place in less than two or three hours. After this, but not before, the oven may be opened for the purpose of view ing the bread, and seeing that it is baked without being either burnt or too crusty ; for if the mouth of the oven be not kept closely stopped till the bread is fully risen, it will flatten and be- come heavy. When properly ma- naged, the above-mentioned ingre- dients will have lost about one pound two ounces in Aveight, so that a well-baked loaf of this kind should amount to seven pounds twelve ounces. Bread may be made without yeast, as is practised in Hungary, by the following process : Boil two good handsful of hops in fouremarts of water ; pour the decoction upon as much wheat bran as the lieruor Avill moisten. Then add four or five pounds of leaven ; mix the whole together, till perfectly unit- ed. Put this mass into a Avarm place for twenty-four hours ; then diride it into pieces about the size of a hen's egg ; let these be dried in the air, but not in the sun, and they will keep good for six months. Or, make the above into six large loaves, take six good handsful of dough, broken small and dissolved inejght quarters of warm water,and poured through a sieve into one 360 B R E J3RE end of the bread-trough; then pour three quarts more of warm water through the sieve after it, and what remains in the sieve must be well expressed. [To make Bread with Soft...Take as much salt as is necessary to a loaf of the size intended, dissolve it in as much Avarm water as will mix the flour. Set it in a pot at a distance from the fire, sufficient to warm, but not to bake the flour on the side of the pot; a yellow Avater will rise on the top, Avhich take off with a spoon, and the ris- ing will begin. Then mix it Avith as much flour, as will make the loaf, and if it should not be suffici- ent, add a little warm Avater ; in less than an hour it w ill be fit to bake. From the time the salt Avater and flour are mixed, three or four hours are required. The mass does not rise like bread made with yeast. The Editor has tasted bread made agreeably to the above recipe, and found it pleasant and light. Mr. Ferryman, of England has invented a machine for separating the outer coat or bran of wheat, without loosing the internal coat, which adheres to the outer, and has always hitherto been throAvn off with the former ingrinding. It is asserted that this second coat, is highly nourishing and gives a sweetness to bread, which it ne- ver has, when made from common flour. The late Duke of Bedford bore testimony before a commit- tee of the house of commons, of the superiority of bread made of grain thus blanched. The only objection which can be made to such bread is that it is of a darker hue than common bread.....See Wheat. One hundred pounds weight of flour will make from 134 to 138-| pounds of bread. In an experiment made to ascer- tain the number of loaves of bread which a barrel of flour will produce, it appeared that 3^1b of flour produ- ced 4 lb. 9 oz. of good light bread. This is an increase of about 40 per cent. Therefore, a barrel of flour will make 272Jlbs. of bread, which will produce 312 loaves, weighing 14 oz. and at 6 cents, or TV of a dollar, yield gl9. T^. A machine for kneading flour is used in the public baking houses at Genoa, and is calculated to save much labour. An account of this machine, together with a plate may be found in Nicholson's Phil. Jour, and the Re/i. of Arts ; taken from the Trans, of the Pat. Society of Milan, vol. 2.] Like all other farinaceous sub- stances, bread is very nourishing, on account of the copious mucilage it contains ; but, if eaten too free- ly, it is productive of viscidity which obstructs the intestines, and lays the foundation of habitual cos- tiveness. Leavened bread, or such as has acquired an acidulated taste by a slow fermentation of the dough, is cooling and antiseptic. By this process, all the viscous are combined Avith the drier parts of the flour, and the fixed air is expelled in baking. New baked bread contains a large proportion of indigestible paste, which may be rendered less unwholesome by allowing it to dry for two or three days, or by toasting it. This mode ought to be adopted, both on account of health and economy, especially in times of scarcity. Stale bread, in every respect, de- serves the preference to that Avhich is newly baked ; and persons trou- bled with flatulency, cramp of the stomach, or indigestion, should abstain from new bread, and parti- cularly from hot rolls. BRE Various substances have been used for bread, instead, of wheat. In the years 1629 and 1630, when there Avas a dearth in England, bread was made in London of tur- nips, on the recommendation of Dr. Bealk. In 1693 also, when corn was very dear, a great quan- tity of turnip-bread was made in several parts of the kingdom, but particularly in Essex, by a receipt registered in the Philosopldcal Transactions. The process is, to put the turnips into a kettle over a sIoav fire, till they become soft; they are then taken out, squeezed, and drained as dry as possible, and afterwards mashed and mixed with an equal weight of flour, and knead- ed with yeast, salt,and a little warm water. The folloAving is another method of making bread of turnips, which deserves to be recommended for its cheapness : Wash clean, pare, and afterwards boil a number of turnips,till they become soft enough to mash ; press the greatest part of the water out of them, then mix them with an equal weight of Avheat-meal, make the dough in the usual manner with yeast, 8ec. it Avill rise well in the trough, and, after being well kneaded, may be formed into loaves and put into the oven. Bread prepared in this man- ner has a peculiar sweetish taste, which is by no means disagreea- ble ; it is as light and white as the Avheaten, and should be kept about twelve hours before it is cut, when the smell and taste of the turnip will scarcely be perceptible. Potatoes have also been maele into bread, by different processes. The simplest is to choose the large mealy sort, boil them as for eating, then peel and mash them very fine without adding any water. Two vol. i. BRE 371 parts of wheat flour are added to one of potatoes, and a little more yeast than usual. The whole mass is to be kneaded into dough, and alloAved to stand a proper time to rise and ferment, before it is put into the oven. Bread thus pre- pared is good and wholesome ; and if bakers Avere to make use of no Avorse ingredients than this nutri- tive root, they might be justified in times of scarcity, provided they sold it at a moderate price, and under proper limitations. M. Parmentier found, from a variety of experiments, that good bread might be made of equal quan- tities of flour and potatoe meal. He also obtained Avell-fermented bread of a good colour and taste, from a mixture of raw potatoe-pulp and Avheaten meal, with the addition of yeast and salt. Dr. Darwin asserts, that if eight pounds of good raw potatoes be grated into cold water, and af- ter stirring the mixture the starch be left to subside, and when col- lected, it be mixed with eight pounds of boiled potatoes, the mass will make as good bread as that from the best wheaten flour. He likewise observes, that hay, which has been kept in stacks, so as to undergo the saccharine process, may be so managed, by grinding anel fermentation Avith yeast, like bread, as to serve in part for the sustenance of mankind in times of great scarcity. As an instance of the very nutritive quality of hay, it is mentioned, that a cow, after drinking a strong infusion of it for some time, produced above double the usual quantity of milk. Hence, if bread cannot be made from ground hay, there is reason to be- lieve, that a nutritive beverage may be prepared from it, either in - A 572 BRE BRE its saccharine state, or by ferment- ing it into a kind of beer. There are other vegetables, says Dr. Darwin, Avhich would pro- bably afford wholesome nutriment, either by boiling, or drying and grinding them, or by both these processes. Among these may be reckoned perhaps the tops and bark of gooseberry-trees, holly, gorse, and hawthorn. The inner bark of the elm may be converted into a kind of gruel, [See Elm,] and the roots of fern, and probably those of many other plants, such as grass or clover, might yield nou- rishment either by boiling, baking and separating the fibres from the pulp, or by extracting the starch from those which possess an acrid mucilage, such as the white bryony. The adulteration of flour and bread has often been the subject of animadversion.- Mealmen and mill- ers have been accused of adding chalk, lime, and whiting to the flour, and bakers of mixing alum Avith the dough.- There is much reason to suspect, that these prac- tices are but too prevalent. It has been asserted, that the adulteration of bread is OAving to the legal distinctions in the quality of it, and to our making colour the standard of goodness. Dr. Dar- win observes, that where much alum is mixed with bread, it may be easily distinguished by the eye : when two loaves so adulterated have stuck together in the oven, they break from each other with a much smoother surface, Avhere they had adhered, than those loaves do, which contain no alum. An excellent method of making 'bread of rice is, by boiling three- fourths of wheaten flour and one- fourth of rice separately. The rice should be Avell boiled, the Avater squeezed out (which may be after- wards used as starch for linen, for there can be no better), and the mass should then be mixed with the flour. It is made in the same manner as common bread, and is very nutritive. One pound and a half of flour mixed with half a pound of rice, will produce a loaf weighing from three pounds to three pounds two ounces, which is greater than that obtained by bak- ing bread of wheat flour only. Rice has also been tried in the same proportion with barley, and makes good bread for labouring people ; but the gain in baking is by no means ecpial to that obtained by mixing it with wheat.....See Rice. Another mode of preparing bread with all the bran, the result of which we have stated under the head of Bran, is as follows..... " Take seven pounds seven ounces of bran and pollard, and fourteen quarts of water, and boil the- whole very gently over a slow fire. When the mixture begins to swell and thicken, let it be frequently stirred, to prevent its boiling over; or burning either at the bottom or sides of the vessel. After having boiled two hours, it will acquire the consistence of a thin pudding. Now put it into aclean cloth, and squeeze out the .liquor : take a quart of this, mix it with three pints of yeast, and set the sponge for twenty-eight pounds of flour. The mass, bran, and pollard, even after the liquor has been separated, will be found to be above four times its original weight ; it is then to be placed near the fire. In about two hours, the sponge will have sufficiently risen.. The bran and pollard, then lukewarm, should be mixed with the flour ; and, after adding half a pound of salt, the whole must be well kneaded, with one quart of the bran liquor. Thus BRE , BRE 573 prepared, the dough is formed into loaves, and baked for two hours and a quarter in a common oven. The bread, when cold, will Aveigh one- half more than the same ejuantity of flour would, without the addition of the bran. If the bran-Avater only is used, and the bran itself (which, by the boiling, increases consielerably in weight) is not added to the dough, the increase of bread will still be considerable ; but not more than one-third of the increase obtained, when all the bran is used. [It is known that rice gains greatly in boiling; and hence, Avhen made into bread with flour, is highly economical,as will appear by the following experiments : Six ounces of rice Avere boiled in a email of Avater, till it Avas dry and soft, and two»pounds of flour were then added, and the whole, Avith two table spoonsful of yeast Avell worked into dough together, with the usual quantity of salt, giving it rather longer time to rise, which it was found it reemired.....The loaf thus made, when baked, Avas light in ciuality, sweeter and more pa- latable than the common bread, and produced three pounds, seven ounces and a half. From this experiment the fol- lowing fact appears, that rice gains in weight in a double proportion to that of any other grain. This will be further seen by the following state- ment : en;. 2 pounds of flour........32 Bice..................6 38 Bread produced.........55| Deduct per contra......38 Gained..............17\ To make a quartern loaf are generallyused three pounds and an half of oz. flour,...............56 When baked, is by stand- ard to weigh four pounds five ounces eight drachms,......I 69 i Deduct as per contra .... 56 Gained.............13i Therefore the difference is, that two pounds of flour and six ounces of rice, produce four ounces weight morethan three and ahalfpoundsof flour....Two pounds of flour, and six ounces of rice boiled till it was quite dry and soft, produced four pounds twelve ounces of excellent bread.....One pound of flour, and three ounces of rice, Avet Avith bran-water, produced one pound twelve ounces of bread. Another experiment....In doub- ling the quantity of rice to the same quantity of flour, which was found to answer for immediate consumption, but would not answer for general purposes; it may be safely concluded, that one-fifth of rice may be used with flour to great advantage to the public, by increasing the subsistence, and with profit to the baker, Avho can afford to sell it at lJ-d. under the assize, and gain double Avhat he does by baking the standard bread. In making the foregoing expe- riments, it was proved, that nine- tenths flour and one-.tenth rice, and in the same way as directed for making bread (except using yeast and salt) produced a finer crust in pastry than using flour alone. Bread thus made keeps longer moist than Avheaten bread, and is better the second day than the first. Rice may be steamed rather than boiled , and if the qualitv of the rice is good, half a pound steamed 374 BRE. BR E in a little more than a quart of wa- ter, till it is quite dry and soft, gains two pounds, that is, four- fifths in weight.] French bread is prepared in the following manner: Take half a bushel of the best wheaten flour, and dilute one pint of good yeast with three quarts of Avarm water ; mix the Avhole properly, and cover it Avith flannel, till the sponge be formed. After the dough has suf- ficiently risen, six quarts of luke- Avarm skimmed milk, and one pound of salt, are to be worked in, with the fingers, till the sponge be weak and ropy ; Avhen it must again be covered, and kept warm. The oven being now made very hot, and the paste moulded into bricks or rolls, they are put in expediti- ously ; the former requiring one hour and a half; but the latter only half an hour. As soon as the bread is baked, it must be draAvn ; and, if burnt, the black crust should be rasped....When the milk is added to the sponge, two ounces of butter are sometimes incorpo- rated ; but this addition being im- material, it may be omitted. The great advantage of eating pure and genuine bread must be obvious. Every part of the Avheat, which may be called flour, Avas not only intended to be eaten by man, but it really makes the best bread, since that may be called the best which is of most general use, and so fine as to contain no part of the husks of the grain. But the delusion, by which so many per- sons are misled, to think that even the whole flour is not good enough for them, obliges them to pay a seventh or eighth part more than they need, to gratify a fanciful ap- petite. Had it not been for the custom of eating Avhiter bread than the Avhole of the flour will make, the miller and baker Avould not have employed all their art to ren- der the bread as Avhite as possible, and make the consumer pay for this artificial whiteness. New Substitutes for Flour or Bread. We have, in the pre- ceding analysis, as Avell as on for- mer occasions, mentioned various substances which might advanta- geously be employed in the manu- facture of this indispensably article of human sustenance ; independ- ently of the different kinds of grain and roots that are already made subservient to this beneficial pur- pose. In order to exhibit a dis- tinct view of the most promising substitutes, Avhether indigenous or exotic, and especially such as have actually been used, on the authori- ty of creditable evidence, Ave shall here divide them into three classes, and, in the course of the work, give a more particular account of each article, in its alphabetical order. I. Farinaceous Seeds....Wheat- grass, or Triticum Spelta ; Millet, or Panicum miliaceum ; Common Buck-wheat, or Polygonum fagopy- rum ; Siberian Buck-wheat, or Po- lygonum tartaricum ; Wilel Buck- wheat, or Polygonum convulvulus ; Wild Fescue-grass, or Festuca flui- tans; Maize, or Indian Corn, the Mays Zea ; Rice, or Oryza Sativa ; Guinea Corn, or White Round- seeded Indian Millet; the Holcvs Sorghum, L. Canary-grass, or Pha- laris canariensis; Rough Dog's-tail Grass, or Cynosurus echinatus; WaterZizany, or Zizania aquatica; Upright Sea Lime-grass, or Elymus arenarius; Sea-reed, Marram, Helme, or Sea Mat-Aveed, the Ca- lamagrostis, or Arundo arenaria. The folloAving mealy fruits, how- ever, deserve a decided preference BRE over many of the preceding : viz. Water Caltrops, or the fmit of the Trapa nutans, L. Pulse of various kinds, such as Peas, Lentils, Beans, and the seeds of the Common Vetch, Fetch, or Tare-acorns, and especially those of the Quercus cerris and csculus; the seeds of the White Goose-foot, Common Wild Orange, or the Chenopodium album ; the seeds and flowers of the Rocket, or Brassica eruca ; the seeds of the Sorrel, or Rumex acetosa ; of the different species of Dock, or La- pathum ; of the YelloAV and White Water-lily, or the Nymphoea lutea and alba ; of the Corn-spurrey, or Spergula arvensis ; of the Spinage, or Spinacia oleracea, L. of the Common Cromwell, or Graymill, the Lithospermum officinale ; of the Knot-grass, or Paniculum avicu- lare ; the Beech-nut (see p. 247) ; the husks of the Lint-seed, &c. II. Farinaceous Roots ; namely, those of the Common and YelloAV Bethlem Star, or Ornithogalum lu- teum and umbellatum; of the Yel- |oav Asphodel (see p. 141) ; of the Wake Robin, or Arum maculatum (after being properly dried and Washed); of the Pilewort, or Lesser Celandine, the Ranunculus ficaria ; of the Common Dropwort, the Spi- na fllipendula ; of the MeadoAvr- sweet, or Spiraa ulmaria ; of the White Bryony, or Bryonia alba ; of the Turnip-rooted Cabbage, or Napobrassica ; of the Great Bistort, or Snake-weed (p. 284) ; of the Small, Welch, or Alpine Bistort (p. 284) ; of the Common Orobus, or Heath-Pea ; the Tuberous Vetch ; the Common Reed ; both the Sweet-smelling and Common Solomon's Seal; the Common Cora-flag, or Gladiolus Communis; the Salt-marsh Club-rush, or Scir- pus maritimus, Sec.....Indeed, some BRE 375 authors also include in this list the roots of the Mandragora-t Colchi- cum, Fumaria bulb., Helleborus ac- conitifol. and nigr., Liliam bulbif., and many others ; but for these last mentioned we have not suffi- cient authority. III. Fibrous and less juicy roots: viz. those of the Couch-grass, or Creeping Wheat-grass; the Clown's or Marsh Wound-Avort (p. 34) ; the Marsh Mary-gold, or Meadow- Bouts ; the Silver-weed, or Wild Tansey ; the Sea Seg, or Carex arcnarius, he. Having thus stated the various substitutes for bread, which have either already been adopted Avith success in this country, or which might, in times of real scarcity, be easily converted into proper nutri- ment, Ave cannot better conclude this article than in the words of Arthur Young, Esq. who, in his Observations on the late Royal Proclamation, recommending fru- gality in the consumption of corn as one of the surest and most ef- fectual means of alleviating the present pressure of the times, es- pouses the cause of the unfortunate poor, nearly in the following words: Every master or head of a family is in duty bound to second, without compulsion, the humane view.-, of the legislature. Hence, bread made of the whole produce of the wheat, excepting only seven pounds of the bran in each bushel, and ad- ding one-fourth or third part of a substitute, would probably be the most effective saving. If the con- sumption of the whole kingdom be computed at 8,000,000 of quarters in twelve mon ths, this saving on all the wheat consumed in nine months Avould be 700,000 quarters, which Avould feed 875,000 persons, ra the ordinary consumption of one \ 376 BRE BRE quarter a head per annum ; and probably be equal, under the pre- sent restrictions, to afford food to 1,000,000 of people for the next nine months.....Farther, if the sav- ing of oats to the supposed number of 500,000 horses of luxury, be calculated only at one bushel per Aveek, this Avould, in nine months, amount to 18,000,000 of bushels ; ■or sufficient to support 1,000,000 of persons for the same period of time, allowing to each not less than twen- ty-five bushels per annum.....With due deference to Mr. Young's sta- tistical information, however, we beg leave to doubt whether 500,000 fat horses, crammed on the food of man, move about the country ; though it must be acknowledged, thatpleasure horses " are spectacles of envy to the starving poor.....abo- shinable and scandalous spectacles, Avhich, in times of scarcity, ought to be removed from the view of those whose miserable children might be fed on the corn thus sav- ed." BREAD-FRUIT-TREE, or the Artocarpus, L......a plant which grows in the South-Sea Islands, and is remarkable for the size and nu- tritive quality of its fruit. Altho' this tree has been mentioned by many voyagers, it Avas little noticed till the return of Captain Wallis from the South Seas. It groAvs in abundance on the Ladrone Islands. In the Society Islands, it is of the size of a middling oak ; its leaves are about a foot and a half in length, of an oblong shape, deeply sinuat- ed like those of the fig-tree, which they resemble in colour; and, Avhen broken, exude a milky juice. The fruit is shaped like a heart, and at- tains the size of a child's head. Its rind is thick, green, and covered with excrescences of a hexagonal figure. The internal part of the rind is composed of a pulpy sub- stance, full of twisted fibres : this pulp becomes softer tOAvards the middle, Avhere a small cavity is formed, containing no kernels or seeds. The inhabitants of Suma- tra dry the soft internal part, and use it as bread with other food. At Amboyrta, they dress the inner rind with the milk of the cocoa-nut, and fry it in oil like fritters. It affords much nourishment, is very satisfying, and therefore proper for labouring people. Being of an as- tringent quality, it is also benefi- cial to persons of a laxative habit. Its taste is rather harsh, and similar to the potatoe bread made in the West of England. The milky juice Avhich issues from the tmnk, when boiled with cocoa-nut oil, makes a very strong bird-lime. From the investigations ©f bota- nists it appears, that this tree can only be propagated by suckers or layers, owing to a deficiency in the parts of fructification. Breakstone(Chickweed). See Procumbent Pear lav ort. BREAM, or Brama, is a spe- cies of the Cyprinus, or carp. It inhabits lakes, or the deep parts of smooth rivers, and affords sport to the angler, though it is not much esteemed for its flavour. The rules for catching this fish are nearly si- milar to those established fortaking carp in general, which Avill be stat- ed under the article Carp : the tackle, hoAvever, should be finer than Avhat is commonly used for that fish ; and the angler should throw his line as nearly as possible into the mieldle of the stream. The bream may be taken with a blue- bottle fly, either by whipping, or in the common method, by paste or gentles. BRE BRE 37? BREAST, or fore part of the chest, signifies that cavity of the trunk which is composed of many bones, namely, the sternum or breast-bone in front, twelve ribs on each side, twelve vertebra, or turn- ing joints of the spine, as the body is turned upon them, and two shoul- der blades. The thorax, or chest, extends from the lower part of the neck to the midriff, and contains the organs most essential to life, such as the heart, the lungs, and likewise the Avind-pipe and the gul- let. W ith respect to the diseases of the breast, we refer to the arti- cles Cough and Inflammation. Breasts, or mamma, in females, are two glandular, protuberant bo- dies on the sides of the chest, in the most proper situation for giv- ing food to the infant. In some instances there have been found three, and even/bur breasts in one person, all yielding milk alike. They are very sensible to the touch, and ought therefore to be carefully guarded against external injury ; as a very slight bruise or bloAV may be attended with fatal conseepien- ces. No part of the human body is so easily affected by cold, and so liable to cancerous complaints, as that of the female breast.....See Cancer. There prevails a custom of draw- ing the breasts after delivery, when the secretion of milk is so great, tliat from an incapacity of the child to empty, or relieve, them by early sucking, the vessels are consider- ably distended, and the breasts so completely filled as to occasion much pain to the mother. This practice is severely censured by the Rev. C. Crutwell, in his " Ad- vice to Lying-in Women," publish- ed in 1779: and he is of opinion that the attempt is unnatural, as applying a different agent from that designed by Nature : and in- delicate, because a disease of a ma- lignant tendency may thus be easi- ly communicated ; while it is pain- ful and dangerous to the patient. According to his experience, the neglect of drawing the breasts has never been prejudicial. If, says he, they were not touched during this state of fullness, hardness, or in- flammation, but the whole suffered to subside, which Avould happen in a few hours, the chilel might then be safely put to the breast. It is the application of too great force in drawing them, or placing the child to suck at an improper time, and not the delay, Avhich causes the mischief. If the infant cannot be suckled the first day, or before the hardness appears, it should be de- ferred till the breast becomes soft. This callocity is chiefly produced by some external injury, such as drawing the breasts, heated rooms, hot and stimulating liquors, medi- cines, he. all of Avhich contribute to excite inflammation, or increase a slight degree of irritation, so as to occasion a milk-fever, abscesses, or both....See Nipples snd Suck- ling. [Sore breasts are very common attendants upon lying-in women; anel the source of infinite pain..... The most frequent cause of this complaint is a chill, induced by exposure of the body to draughts of cold air; by pennitting the fire to go down during the night; or by not accommodating the quantity of clothing to the change in the air from heat to cold. A sudden fright has frequently been known to produce it. To guard against this truly dreadful complaint, attend to the prevention of the abovemen- tioned causes; and by all means 378 BRE BRE keep.the breasts well drawn, either by the child or by a grown person. Nipple glasses may also be used for this purpose, but the mouth of a young person is much more ef- fectual in emptying the breasts of the milk. A slight hardness of the breast will sometimes go off by gently bathing it for a quarter of an hour, twice a day, with a Avarm hand smeared Avith sweet-oil, and covering the part with a cabbage- leaf, which promotes perspiration and thus relieves the vessels...... More threatening cases may be treated by annointing the breast Avith an ointment of the juice of the leaves of stramonium or James- Town weed, (commonly called Jim- son) : but the grand remedy, which will quickly disperse the most alarming swelling in the breast, is a blister to the /.art. Care must be taken to apply it smoothly, and to cause it to adhere tightly. A wide hole must be cut in the centre of the blister for the nipple to pass through. Dress the sore with an ointment composed of equal parts of sweet-oil and spermaceti. The breast must be drawn constantly during the whole course of the dis- ease, and anodynes given occa- sionally. Should an abscess make its appearance, asit seldomornever can be dispersed, apply a poultice of bread and milk, with an onion cut fine in it, until fit to open, Avhen a slight touch of a lancet in the most distended and depending part, Avill afford great relief, by dis- charging the matter. The poul- tices must now be continued, and the wound kept open, to permit a free discharge. Breasts will fre- quently heal and break out again and again. A hardness sometimes follows an abscess in the breast; this is effectually removed, by ap- plying a little mercurial ointment, Avith a hand covered Avith a blad- der, every night to the hardness, or rather below it.] BREATH, fetid, a misfortune to which many persons are liable, though they may appear to be in perfect health. It may arise from various causes, the principal of which are, carious teeth, putrid gums, ulcerations of the lungs, or some peculiarity in the constitu- tion of the individual. If it originate from hollow teeth, care should be taken that no frag- ments of provisions, and especially cheese, remain in them after eat- ing ; hence the mouth ought to be washed, or properly rinsed, after every meal, with tepid water, or hike-warm chamomile tea. A simi- lar precaution is necessary, when the teeth are carious, or the gums in a flacid and spongy state: but if the lungs, or other organs of respiration be deceased, due regard ought to be paid to the primary af- fection, of Avhich Ave shall treat under the head of Pulmonary Consumption. In this case, as well as in some peculiar habits, where the real cause of fetid gums cannot be easily ascertained, the skill of the practitioner is frequent- ly baffled ; yet we shall venture to suggest a remedy Avhich has, in a great variety of instances, been at- tended with the desired effect..... Many persons afflicted with that disagreeable complaint are, also, subject to habitual costiAreness, Avhich cannot, in general, be re- lieved without administering lax- atives : these, by relaxing the bowels, ultimately tend to injure the constitution. On the other hand, we have observed from ex- perience, that finely powdered charcoal, newly prepared, and kept BRE in close vessels, has a remarkable tendency to open the boAvels, with- out inducing an extraordinary de- gree of Aveakness, especially if it be mixed with the syrup of yellow roses. For this purpose, a table- spoonful of each, diluted with a little Avater, should be taken two or three times every day, according to circumstances. Thus, if the pa- tient abstain, for some timei from the use of animal food, the most distressing costiveness may be gra- dually relieved with perfect safety to the constitution ; while the car- bon acts on the whole system as the most effectual antiseptic with which we are acquainted. To in- crease the effect of this mild medi- cine, a tea-spoonful of squill vine- gar may occasionally be added to each dose, together Avith a little cinnamon, or other aromatic water. The best palliatives for sweeten- ing an offensive breath, are gar- gles consisting simply of lime- water ; or a decoction of the Peru- vian bark ; or a liquor made by mixing two ounces of compound alum-Avater, and half an ounce of essence of lemons, with three ounces and a half of fennel-water, which should be frequently used previous to going into company. BREATHING, is that alternate contraction and expansion of the lungs and breast, by which animals inspire and expire the surrounding atmosphere ; a process essentially necessary to the support of life. From the moment a child enters the world the air penetrates into its lungs, Avhich Avere previously filled with a watery mucus, but are then opened for the circulation of the blood. Thus respiration, one of the primary and most important of the vital functions, commences with birth, and is incessantly active ; as VOL. I. BRE 379 it cannot be interrupted for many minutes, without endangering the life of the individual. There have, indeed, been in- stances of persons wantonly endea- vouring to restrain the act of breathing, nay, even to check the pulsation of the arteries, so as to exhibit a specimen of apparent death, for several minutes. We still remember the account of such a hazardous experiment, related by a most respectable professor in the University of Edinburgh, who informed his pupils, that a man possessing the talent here alluded to, at length paid the price of his life, by remaining in one of his exhibitions, a fatal example of his temerity. More frequent, however, though not so immediately dangerous, are the instances in which persons, in other respects sensible, unthink- ingly expose themselves to situa- tions, where they must necessarily breathe the most vitiated and per- nicious atmosphere. Such is the case in all public assemblies, which are confined in narrow limits, par- ticularly in theatres and other places of amusement to which numbers of spectators indiscriminately re- sort, and where each individual is obliged to respire part of the aggre- gate mephitic vapours 01 .he com- pany. Far from wishing to discou- rage the frequenting of those fa- shionable places of resort, in gene- ral, Ave only think it our duty to warn such invalids, as are liable to asthmatic or pulmonary complaints, against a too free indulgence in theseenticingamusements. Indeed, Ave are convinced, by numerous facts, of their deleterious influence ; and if any person be disposed to doubt the propriety of this caution, let him reflect on the dreadful ef- iB 380 BRE fects frequently produced by shut- ting up 5 or 6 passengers in a stage- coach, only during a short space of time ; and he will acknowledge that ouradmonition is well founded. Hence we would advise those who lead a studious or sedentary life, never to continue for several hours together, in a close,andperhapslow, apartment, where they admit the same air to re-enter the lungs, Avhich has before been respired, and has become at length totally unfit for supplying the vital principle.... Thus, they deprive themselves of the most beneficial cordial of life, namely, fresh air, and exhaust the source of vitality as much in one hour, as was perhaps destined by Nature for the support of Aveeks, or even months. Instead of fol- lowing such an irrational practice, they ought either to remove to an- other atmosphere, or to open the Window or door, to admit a supply of pure air, rather than to destroy themselves by an obstinate or in- dolent perseverance in their for- mer habit. BREECHES, a part of the dress Of most Europeans, worn by males, and reaching from the Avrist to the knees* With respect to the construction of this article of our dress, it may be useful to observe, that if made too tight in the waistband, or of improper materials, they must ne- cessarily occasion uneasiness, and prove injurious to the body. The form most to be preferred, and now very generally adopted, is that of pantaloons: these ought to be of a sufficient width, of a thin substance in summer, and of warm cloth in winter. Breeches made of leather and so narrow as to fit exactly the shape of the limbs, are liable to many inconveniencies: they be- BRE numb the hips and thighs, occa- sion a painful pressure upon the parts, especially the abdomen; and by the close texture of the leather, in a great measure impede perspir- ation. BREEDING of Cattle: As the different circumstancesto be attend- ed to in the management of cat- tle, will be stated when treating of the various kinds of useful animals, we shall here only observe, that the first thing to be considered is beauty of form ; the next is proportion of parts, or Avhat may be called utility of form ; the third, which has en- gaged the attention of midland breeders, is the texture of the mus- cular parts, or what is called flesh; a quality which, however familiar it may have been to the butcher and consumer, has not in general been attended to by breeders. In short, it is a rule applicable to all sorts of live-stock, to breed from straight backed, round bodied, clean, small boned,healthy animals: care- fully rejecting such as have roach backs and heavy legs, with much external appearance of offal, &c. To the late Mr. Bakewell, of Dishley, Avho Avas undoubtedly the most scientific breeder of his time, we are indebted for many new and important improvements in the art of breeding cattle. His principle was, to procure the best beast, that Avould Aveigh most in the valuable joints ; and thus, while he gained in point of shape, he also acquired a breed much hardier, and easier feel, than any other. With respect to the breed of oxeui Mr. Bakewell asserts, that the smaller the bones, the more perfect will be the make of the beast, and the quicker it will fatten. The breed preferred, and consider- ed by him a3 the best in England, BER BBE 381 is that of Lancashire. The shaps which should be the criterion of a cow or bull, an ox, or a sheep, is that of a hogshead, or a firkin, with legs as small and short as possible. He found from various experiments in different parts of the kingdom, that no land is too bad for a good breed of cattle, and particularly of sheep. The great advantage ari*. ing from his breed is, that the same quantity of food will suffice them, much longer than it will any other kind; besides which, the wool is of the finest quality, and the sheep stand the fold perfectly Avell. The wintering of cattle, also re- ceived particular attention from this professional breeder: his homed beasts were tied up during the win- ter, in sheds, and fed with straw, turnips, or hay ; all the lean beasts were fed with straw alone, and lay without litter. Young cattle, that require to be kept in a thriving state, are fed upon turnips ; and as the spring advances, and this ve- getable becomes scarce, hay is their only food. The floors, on which the cattle stand, are paved, and raised six or eight inches above the level of the yard; and each crib being only broad enough for a beast to stand on, its dung falls on the lower pave- ment; by which contrivance it is kept perfectly clean without litter. [See Cattle.] [Ljttle attention has been paid to the preservation of a good breed of cattle in the United States. Some with excellent qualities, have been imported, and are occasionally met with; but they are in general fattened and killed, instead of being carefully preserved for breeding cat- tle. But this is not the Avay to im- proA'e. It was by apractice directly the reverse that Bakewell brought; his breed to unrivalled celebritv. Some attempts have been made near Baltimore, and in the state of New-York to improve the breed by an imported stock. Will these meritorious gentlemen who are making the experiments, inform us of the breed, the qualities of the animals, and the success that has- attended their well meant efforts ? Droves of cattle are annually brought to Philadelphia from New England and North-Carolina. The former are larger and more profita*- ble than the latter, which are gene- rally small, and wild from having been fed in the woods. Several very large cattle have been fed and killed within a few years in Philadelphia. They have in general been raised near Eliza- beth-town, New-Jersey, but whe- ther from a native or imported Stock is unknown. The following are the weights of a few of these heasts: 1. A Cow raised by the late Mr. Hiltzheimer, of the city ofPhi- delphia, and killed on the 2d of March, 1787. The fore-quarters weighed, (one)......326 lbs. The other, 328 lbs. ---- 654 The hind-quarters weigh- ed, (one) 283 The other, 289.......571 The nett Beef............1225 The Hide weighed.....Ill Head and Heart.... 49 Belly »nd Feet.....72 Facie............35 Tallow..........163......430 Entire weight (exclusive of guts). . 1555 2. A five year old steer, fed by Mr. Sickle, of Philadelphia, a few years since, one summer and one winter, Aveighed alive, l,494f lbs. The belly fat......278 Kidney do........100 382 BRE 3. Ten head of cattle, fed by the same gentleman, produced 2,439 lbs. of belly and kidney faty with one summer feeding on grass. 4. A steer, raised at Tulpohock- en, was killed on the 12th March, 1787, weighed alive, 2,184 lbs. 5. A steer raised at Haddonfield, New-Jersey, killed at Philadelphia, on the 7th April, 1787, weighed alive, 2,140 lbs. Formerly a great prejudice pre- vailed in faA-or of large beasts, but it has been ascertained that this large big boned breed is not so profitable as the middle sized bar- rel shaped short legged kind...... Much may be done towards im- proving the breed, by a careful at- tention to stock. Mr. Bakewell and hisdesciples relied upon a.kind- ly skin, as a principal point in the choice of a beast. By that is meant a skin that feels soft, though firm to the touch, which is equally dis- tant from the hard dry skin, pecu- liar to some cattle, as from the loose and flabby feel of others. Some breeds have a tendency to generate fat on certain parts of the body in great quantities, while others have it more mixed Avith the flesh of every part of the body. These particulars demand the at- tention of improvers. It is said, that cattle having fore- quarters heavier than their hind,re- quire more food than others. Is this the fact ?.] Breeding of Fish. The neces- sary qualities of a pond for breed- ing fish, are very different from those Avhich are requisite to make it serve for their nourishment. A good breeding pond is more rare to be met Avith than a good feeding one. The best indications of the former, are plenty of rushes and grass about its sides, with gravelly BRE shoals, like those of horse-ponds. The quantity of the spawn of fish is prodigious ; and where it suc- ceeds, one fish may sometimes produce millions. Hence two or three melters, and as many spaw- ners, placed in such a pond, will, in a short time, stock a whole coun- try. If it be not intended to keep these ponds entirely for breeding, but to let the fish grow to a consi- derable size, their numbers should be thinned, or they -will otherwise starve each other. Different kinds of fish may also be added, which will prey upon the young, and pre- vent their increasing in number..... For this purpose,eels and perch are most useful, because they not only feed upon the spawn itself, but also upon the young fry. Some fish will breed abundantly in all kinds of waters ; of this nature are the roach, pike, perch, Sec. [See Fish.] Breeding, Good; an expression which is used to denote the proper deportment of persons in the ex- ternal offices and decorum of social intercourse. Good breeding necessarily im- plies civility; though a person, Avithout being Avell bred, may be ci- vil : the one is the result of good- nature; the other, of good sense joined to experience, observation, and attention. The most perfect degree of good breeding is only to be acquired by great knowledge of the world, and keeping the best company. To at- tain this desirable object we would advise parents not to suffer their children, after a certain age, to spend the greatest part of their time among servants, or menial de- pendents; from whom neither good language nor proper manners can be expected; and who seldom fail B RE to instruct the susceptible young mind in all the low cunning, and artifices of the vulgar. Good- breeding adorns and enforces virtue and tmth ; it connects, it endears, and while it indulges the just li- berty, restrains that indecent licen- tiousness of conversation, which alienates and provokes. Great ta- lents render a man famous ; great merit procures respect ; great learning, esteem : but good-breed- ing alone can ensure love and affec- tion. Hence it deserves to be pe- culiarly recommended to women, as the greatest ornament to such as possess beauty, and the safest re- fuge for those of a contrary descrip- tion. It facilitates the conquests, and decorates the triumphs of beau- ty ; Avhile, on the other hand, it atones, in some degree, for the want of that quality. On the Avhole, good-breeding is attended with so many advantageous effects, that, though it cannot be called a virtue in itself, it may be justly considered as one of the most pleasing and use- ful accomplishments; insomuch as it has a direct tendency to check the violence of all the turbulent passions, and to render the path through life more comfortable and easy. BREWING,theartof preparing beer or ale from malt, by extract- ing all its fermentable parts in the best manner; by adding hops in such proportions as experience has shewn, will preserve and meliorate the extracts ; anel by causing a per- fect fermentation in them, by means of yeast and barm. One of the most approved methods of performing this operation, is as follows: Take of the purest and softest water you can procure, as much as you As ill have occasion for; boil it, BRE 383 put it into large tubs, and let it stand exposed to the air to purge itselfi, at least one week. Grind a sufficient quantity of the best brown, high-dried malt; let it re- main four days before you use it, that it may mellow, and dispose it- self for fermentation. Fill a copper with your prepared water, and let it boil; then lade about three-quar- ters of a hogshead into the mash- tub, filling the copper up again, and making it boil. When the Avater in the mash-tub is cooled to such a degree, that in consequence of the steam subsiding, you may see your face in it, empty into it, by degrees, nine bushels of the malt, mash it Avell, and stir it about with the rudder near half an hour, till it is thoroughly wetted, and in- corporated with the water: then spread another bushel of malt lightly over its surface, cover the whole with empty sacks to keep in the steam, and leave it for an hour. At the end of the hour, the wa- ter in the copper being boiling, damp the fire, and let the water cool a little as before : then lade as much as is necessary on the mash, till the whole together will yield about a hogshead of wort. When this second quantity of water is added, stir it again well, cover it, and leave it for another hour. Then let the first wort run in a small stream into the under back, and lade another hogshead [or 64 gal- lons] on the mash : stir it again as before, cover it, and let it remain for two hours. In the mean time, return the first wort into the copper, and put into it six pounds of fine brown seedy hops, first rubbing them between the hands. Then make a brisk fire under your eopper, till the li- quor boils ; let it continue- to boil 384 BRE BRE till the hops sink : [the sinking of the hops is not always a sign of the liquor being boiled enough. A bet- ter method is Avhen the wort bucks well and is perfectly clear. The casks must be filled up every three hours. A. A.] Then damp the fire and strain the liquor into coolers. When it is about as warm as new milk, mix some yeast or barm with it, anel leave it to work till the surface appears in curls ; then stir and mix the whole properly Avith a hand-bowl, and let it again ferment. Repeat the stirring Avith the bowl three times, then tun it, and leave it to work in the hogs- head. When it has nearly done working, fill up the cask, and bung it, but let the vent-hole remain open. Set the second wort aside for the next breAving, which, as far as Avet- ting the mash, must be managed exactly in the same manner as the first; but afterwards, instead of water, heat the second wort of the first brewing, and lade it on the mash, which will give the neAv wort additional strength anel soft- ness. Make the second Avort of the second brewing Avith water, and save it for the first wort of the third ; and so on for as many brew- ings as you please. A third wort may be taken from the first brew- ing, which should be heated and laded on the mash of your second brewing, after taking of the second wort ; and thus an additional hogs- head of very good mild beer may be procured. On taking a review of the above process, and the multiplicity of cir- cumstances to be attended to, it is easy to see that the operation of brewing is of a very precarious na- ture ; and requires great skill and desJerity to manage it Avith com- plete success. The goodness of the beer will depend on the quality of the malt from which it is made; on the peculiar properties of the water with which it is infused; on the degree of heat applied in the mashing; on the length of time the fusion is continued ; on the due manner of boiling the Avort, toge- ther with the quantity and quality of the hops employed: and on the proper degree of fermentation: to ascertain all which particulars, with precision, constitutes th^ great mystery of brewing, and can only be learnt by experience and repeat- ed observation. Mr. Mills, in his " System of Practical Husbandry" and Mr. Comb rune, in his " Theory and Practice of Breiring," give the fol- loAving directions for the choice of materials used in brewing, and for conducting the whole process: 1. Of the Water. Pure rain- water, as being the lightest, is es- teemed the most proper. Well and spring waters are commonly hard, and consequently unfit for drawing the tincture completely^ from any vegetable. River-Avater, in point of softness, is next to rain-water: and even pond-water, if pure, is equal to any other for brewing. 2. Of Malt. Those malts are to be preferred for brewing, Avhich have been properly wetted and ger- minated, then dried by a moderate heat, till all the adventitious mois- ture is evaporated, without being blown, vitrified, or scorched, by too hot or hasty fires. For, the better the malt is dryed, the sounder will be the beer brewed from it, and the longer it will keep. In order to ascertain the quality of this article bite a grain of it asunder, and if it tastes mellow and sweet, breaks soft, and is full of flour from one BRE BRE 385 •nd to the other, it is good ; which may also be known by its SAvim- ming on the surface, when put into the Avater. The best way of grind- ing it, is to bruise it in a mill com- posed of two iron cylinders. These break the malt without cutting its husk, so that the hot water instant- ly pierces its whole substance, and scon draws forth a rich tincture, with much less mashing than in the common Avay. 3. Of Hops. Experience has proved, that hops slack-dried, or kept in a damp place, are perni- cious ingredients for making beer; and likeAvise, that they yield their aromatic bitter more efficaciously, when boiled in wort than in Avater : hence, to impregnate the extracts from malt with a due proportion of hops, their strength, as Avell as that of the extract, should previously be ascertained. The newer the hops are, the better they always prove ; the fragrance of their flavour being in ttme degree lost by keeping, notwithstanding the care used in preserving them. Private families, who regard only the flavour and salubrity of their malt liquors, should use from six to eight bush- els of malt to the hogshead of their strongest beer. The quantity of hops must be suited to the taste of the drinker, and to the time the liquor is intended to be kept. From two to three pounds will be suffi- cient for a hogshead, though some go as far as six pounds....Mr. Mills is of opinion, that small beer should always be brewed by itself; in which case, two bushels and a half of malt, and a pound and a half of hops, are sufficient to make a hogshead. 4. Of the Vessels used in Brew- ing....Thc brew-house itself, and ©very vessel in it, ought to be per- fectly clean and sweet; for if the vessels are in the least degree taint- ed, the licmor put into them will contract a disagreeable scent and taste. A vessel of the most sim- ple and excellent contrivance, among the multiplicity of brewing utensils adapted to family purposes, is that of Mr. J. B. Bordley, Avho has described it in his " Essays and Notes on Husbandry and Rural Af- fairs." (Philadelphia, 1801.) He terms his process, by wvay of dis- tinction, a tripartite method of brewing; because the kettle-appara- tus, represented in the subjoined cut, is worked in three dhrisions. The whole vessel is 40 inches long, 20 broad, and 24 deep : namely, di- vision a, is thirteen; b, nine ; and c, two inches deep. The dotted lines are marked, where the per- forated moveable bottoms are placed. In a is the water or wort; b, contains the malt; and into c, the hot water is pumped up, or poured over from a to c, by means of the small pump, d; and thus passes through every particle of the malt; so that, by frequent agitation, the water in a manner washes out its whole substance, and extracts all its farinaceous and sac- charine ingredients. This opera- tion is repeated, occasionally stir- ring up the grains, till the liquor becomes clear, Avhen [it must be let 386 BRE BRE off into a kettle and boiled with hops, the proper proportion of which must be determined by ex- periment ; it must afterwards be let out into coolers.] Mr. Bord- ley ingenuously acknowledges, that a Swedish method of brewing in camp afforded him the hint for this invention. He also observes, that his tripartite kettle is made of copper, and the small pump of metal; though Ave are inclined to think that, for the latter, Avood, or pure tin, would be preferable to brass, in order to prevent the for- mation of verdigrise. At the bot- tom is a cock on one side of the vessel. On the whole, Ave consider this as the most proper and con- venient piece of machinery, ever contrivecl for family-breAving. [The Editor having no experi- ence of the method of brewing re- commended by Mr. Bordley, he cannot say any thing respecting its merits ; but wishes to knoAV from those Avho may try it,whether, if two mashings of a certain quantity of malt,' give ten gallons of beer when boiled in the old way, will the tri- partite mode give the same strength and quantity in one operation ?] 5. Of the heat of the water for Mashing. Particular care should be taken, that the malt be not put into the water whilst boiling hot. In order to bring the Avater to an exact heat, Mr. Combrune advises us, to put on the fire 22 quarts, gallons, or barrels, according to the quantity Avanted ; and when it has just arrived at the boiling point of the thermometer, to add 10 si- milar measures of cold water, which, when mixed with the for- mer, will be of a temperature not exceeding 161° of Fahrenheit: and this he considers as the most proper heat for mashing. He far- ther remarks, that Avater Avhich has endured the fire the shortest time, provided it be hot enough, will make the strongest extract. 6. Of Mashing. When the Avater is brought to a due heat, the malt is to be put in very leisurely, and uniformly mixed with it. 7. Of boiling the Wort. As the design of boiling the Avort is to clear the liquor of its impurities, and to obtain the virtue of the hop, a much shorter time than usual is sufficient. Long boiling of the hop is a most pernicious practice, and produces an austere, nause-, ous bitter, but not a pleasant aro- matic one. Instead of adding the hops to the wort, when this is put into the copper, or before it boils, they may be infused about fiAre mi- nutes before the Avort is taken off the fire: if this is not sufficient to give the desired degree of fragrant bitter, ten minutes may be taken, or as much longer as will be found necessary. Mr. Mills prefers putting the hops to the wort towards the latter end of the boiling, rather than at the beginning, because the continued boiling of the liquor is apt to dissipate their fragrance. 8. Of Fermentation. One gallon of yeast, in the coldest fermenting weather, is, according to Mr. Com- brune, sufficient to ferment the extract from one quarter of malt; and, if properly managed, will yield two gallons of yeast. Great care should be taken in the choice of yeasts, as they are liable to be soon tainted, and very readily communi- cate their infection to the liquors fermented. The whole process of fermentation should be carried on in the slowest and coolest manner; so that the temperature, which at the commencement was between 40 and 50° of Fahrenheit, should BRE B'R E 387 very gradually be raised to the 70th degree. [This is proper for a large quantity ; but for small, 66 is the best.] Fermentation will always succeed best where the air is purest. If too hot water has been employed for obtaining strong and fatty extracts, from the malt, fermentation will be retarded: on the contrary, in weak extracts, it is so much accelerated, that the whole soon becomes sour..... When the fermentation is at its height, all the feculent matter, or foul yeast, which rises on the sur- face, must be carefully skimmed off, Avhatever be the quality of the liquor. The beer as soon as it is tolerably clear, should be racked off into perfectly clean and sweet casks ; and when managed in this manner, will remain a long time in a state of perfection. 9. Of fining the Liquor. As the excellency of all fermented liquors depends, in a great measure, on their transparency,it often becomes necessary to resort to artificial means, in order to bring them to this state of perfection, if the pro- cess of fermentation has been mis- managed. Thus, a solution of isin- glass in stale beer, is used to fine and precipitate other beers : but, as this method has proved ineffec- tual in broAvn beers, we are in- formed by Dr. Combrune, that brewers " sometimes put one pound tf oil of vitriol into one butt though four ounces should never be ex- ceeded in that quantity." On this subject we refer the reader to p. 235 of our work. 10. Of the distempers of Malt Liquors. Among the distempers incident to beer, one, Avhich has been found most difficult to cure, is that of its appearing ropy. A bunch of hyssop put into the cask VOL. 1. will, however, effectually remedy this evil.... A satisfactory account of the different methods of recover- ing flat, tart, or sour beer, having been already given in this Ency- clopaedia, p. 256 and 257, it would be superfluous to repeat it in this place. It desenes to be remarked, that brown beer, made from Avell-dried malt, is, in the opinion of Mr. Com- brune, less heating than pale beer, brewed from slack-dried malt. If extracts from pale malt be made with very hot water, they will keep sound for a long time ; but those obtained from brown malt, with too cold water, will frequently turn sour. [Family brewing,and breAving in small quantities. An establishment for a moderate family may be thus : A Brew-house 20 feet by 15 on the ground plan. A copper with a brass cock at the bottom ; to hold not less than 40 gallons, to be set high. A mash-tun to hold twice as much as the copper, for the malt will occupy when wetted as much space as the water. The mash-tun should stand a little be- low the level of the cock of the cop- per ; so that the water of the cop- per can run into the mash. The mash-tun should have a false bot- tom on which the malt is placed, this should be bored Avith A inch holes, at about 3 inches distance ; the depth betAveen the solid bottom and the false moveable bottom 6 inches. A cock or plug should be fixed between the two bottoms, to let off the wort into the under- back ; this should hold as much as the copper. From the under-back, the wort is pumped up into the copper, to be boiled: when boiled, it is let into the 3 C 388 BR'E BRE Coolers : Of these there should be two, each to hold 45 gallons. They should be placed one under the other, and a little below the level of the cock of the copper ; that is on a level with the top of the mash tub. The AVort,when boiled, is to be let off into the first cooler, and then into the cooler underneath ; whence it runs into a working tun of the same size as the mash-tun : for tho' not more than 32 or 33 gal- lons of wort runs in at a time, yet the head, produced during the Avorking or fermentation, will oc- cupy a considerable space. The coolers should not be more than 6 inches deep....Thence the esta- blishment of utensils will be. A copper of 40 gallons, or 45. A mash-tun of 80 gallons. An under-back of 40 gallons. A working tun of 80 gallons. Two coolers 6 inches deep to hold each 40 or 45 gallons, 6 feet by 2 feet 6 inches each. A hand pump to pump the wort into the copper, unless it can be done by the Avater pump. Pales, Bowls, Sec. A stilling to set the casks on when full about ten inches high, and 14 inches wide in the clear. Four rum puncheons sawed thro' the middle, would answer tolera- bly Avell for almost all the utensils. One bushel of malt and lib. of sugar will make one barrel of good table beer, of strength between ale and small beer, if the first and se- cond worts are boiled and mixed together. This, exclusive of trou- ble, will not cost above Jg- of a dollar a gallon. The Brewhouse shold be placed on the north side of the buildings ; it should be open on three sides to let in air, and let out steam ; the three open sides should have hooks fixed to them, so as to hang on flap-boards, or slant- ing battens to keep out the wet. But there are many small fanviles, who cannot afford such an estab- lishment these may brew in small quantities as follows. Every family has a large kettle or vessel to boil their clothes in ; suppose this to contain about 3 gal- lons, this will serve for a copper. A common pail with a hole bored through the bottom, and set upon a stilling or some other contrivance to raise it, another pail may receive the wort, and may answer for a fermenting tun, and when the beer has worked so as that the head be- gins to fall, draw it off into a five gallon keg. Proportions for 5 gallons of ale. Malt 1 and -*- peck ; of sugar Alb. hops -A of a lb. malt amber colour- ed, or pale dried. Proportions for 5 gallons of por- ter, brewed in that quantity. Malt li peck ; sugar made into essentia lib. molasses Alb. hops Alb. ginger about a teaspoonful. The malt to be high dried, or else half amber and half high dried. These proportions, used acord- ing to the foregoing directions, will produce a good wholesome liquor, that the Avomen of the family may brew occasionally when they have not much else to do.] Of the Brew - House...... The following is an eligible con- struction where brewing is fol- lowed as a trade. " The cold li- quor* pump A.A. raises the wa; ter from the river or Avell B. which, as Avell as the wort pump M.M. is driven by a horse Avith proper ma- chinery, which likewise grinds the * Brewers call water, whether wTarmorcold, liquor. rise the term water. It is a fine among them to BRE malt used in the breAV-house. The grinding house is situated between the pumps, as may be seen by the mill-spout P. which conducts the malt from the mill into the mash tun H. The liquor from the river B. is pumped into the cistern or re- servoir C. Avhere it is ready at all timesduring the hurry of brewing ; and from the cistern it passes through the large pipe D. into the liquor copper E. where it may be stopped by a cock at the extremity of the pipe. The liquor Avhen Alarmed for mashing is let into the mash-tun II. by opening the cock V. in the bottom of the copper, and runs down the trunk Z. Avhich carries into the raising spout G. in the mash-tun II. this spout by a notch in the moveable or false bot- toms of the mash-tun, conducts the liquor between the moveable and real bottoms, which, by ascending, assists the mashing very much. " The extract or wort is let go, by turning the cock K. into the under- back L. and is from thence carried by the horse-pump M.M. into a leA-el with the wort copper O. and runs from the pump through the pipe N. N. into the wort copper. " When cold liquor is required for mashing, as is the case in small beer brewing, it is obtained from the cistern C. by the pipe Q. which communicates with it. " Thus these three very labori- ous parts of the business, viz. pumping the liquor from the river or wefl; mashing, and pumping up the Avorts into the copper, may be easily performed by two men; and they are able to mash a very con- siderable quantity of malt, and at- tend to the steeming of the casks, BRE 389 liquoring the backs, he. between the mashes. When all the worts are in the great copper O. and are boiled sufficiently, they are run off into the first back T. by turning the cock R. the spout W. conducting the worts from the drainer S. which detains the hops. This back com- municates with the two large backs Y.Y. which are sufficient to con- tain all the worts, and they may be laid at a greater or less depth, by using one or both these backs, stopping either of the pipes X. by putting in one of the plugs U.U. The situation of these two backs is higher than the fermenting tuns, anel by pipes the worts are conveyed into them below : and if there is conveniency, the tuns, when Clean- sing, ought to be high enough to fill the casks in the cellars by means of a leathern pipe." Of Brewing.....Take care that every utensil is made perfectly clean. Boil your licmor (water) ; Avhen boiled, reduce it to about the tem- perature of 175 of Fahrenheit'* thermometer. If the malt is new- ly ground, do not let the water go on, till it is reduced to 165°. If you have no thermometer, there are three rules Avhich may sen^e tolerably well. 1st. Let the boiling Avater be mixed Avith cold water, till you can perfectly see your face in it; or, 2dly. till it will just scald your fin- ger, unless you take it ou^ imme- diately. Or, 3dly. Add in winter 1 gallon of cold to 16 of boiling, and in sum- mer 1 gallon of cold to about 12 of boiling water, if you use rain or river water; for of these the tem- * Cleansing means filling the casks from the fermenting tub. 390 BRE perature varies Avith that of the at- mosphere. If you use well water, 1 gallon to 16 for your first wort throughout the year, will be about enough. Never use rain water, where the washings of the roof give it a bitter taste. Your first wort will require about twice as much Avater as the two succeeding ; for the malt imbibes and retains about one half of the whole quantity: never let the malt stand dry in the mash-tub. When the water is risen through the holes of the moveable bottom sufficient- ly, pour in yourmalt, and let a man stir it about with a rake while you pour it in. When the malt is tho- roughly wetted, stir it up with the oars, and raise the malt repeatedly from the bottom, and beat it about: this should be done for a quarter of an hour or 20 minutes. Then sprinkle some dry malt over the top, cover it with a cloth or mat to retain the heat, and let it remain 3 hours in winter, and 2 in summer. Then run it off: pour back the first runnings if they are muddy. A handful of hops put into the ves- sel in which the wort runs, is ad- vantageous, particularly in sum- mer; preventing the liquor from turning sour. While this first mash is about, fill your copper again and boil the water forthe nextmash, which may now be at 185, or 10 degrees hot- ter : rake and beat this as before, and let it stand one hour. For the third mashing, use Avater at about 190 ; let it stand also an hour: it is convenient to finish mashing by evening, in order to gain the cool- ness of the night for the wort..... When all the wort is extracted, put them together and boil them till you get the quantity you mean to have from the malt. The boil- B RE ing should be quick and fierce: the hops should be wetted and then broken in among the worts. The worts may boil from an hour to an hour and a half: the copper should have a sloping rim. The strength of the worts, and of consequence of the liquor, may be ascertained by an hydrometer; a mode first suggested by Richard- son, in his treatise on brewing..... Thus, if a Florence flask filled with water accurately, up to a mark in the neck, Aveighs 2 lbs. for instance, the same flask filled with wort pro- perly boiled for ale, and ready to be let off into the cooler, will weigh more. When you have once as- certained the weight of the wort which will make good ale, you may always know in future when your wort is sufficiently boiled ; for lit- tle evaporates but steam of water impregnated with the oil of the hops. When boiled, turn the worts into the coolers, and the instant they are cool enough, put them to ferment. Otherwise, especially in summer, they are apt to fox, as it is called ; that is they acquire a reddish colour and a disagreeable flavour. They are cool enough at 45 or 50, that is, for a large brewing, but for smaller brewing 60 to 62 degrees will be proper, and in family brew- ing 66 to 70, and in very cold wea- ther 76° will be the right tempera- ture. Fahrenheit's scale is allutled to. In winter, allow one gallon of yeast to the quarter of malt: in summer half a gallon. In winter put in the yeast at once, in sum- mer one half at first, or when the tun is about half full of wort, and the other half when the beer is fit to be cleansed, (that is filled up with wort). When the wort begins to BRE cream, stir it about and mix the yeast well with the liquor. In winter the beer should be cleansed when the head or froth is just be- ginning to become solid and thick- en. In summer, as soon as it be- gins to shew a white head. Generally, when the head be- comes brown, solid, and of a yeasty consistence, and seems just ready to fall back into the liquor, the beer should be put into the casks. Ne- ver suffer the head to break. Bet- ter fill the casks a few hours too soon than one hour too late. Strong beer if brewed in Small quantities, and ale in any quantity, should be tuned the second day. The casks, when well cleaned with hot water, (and if necessary also with lime or ashes to neutra- lize the acid absorbed by the wood), should be filled and put upon the stilling, or frame of about 12 inches high. Fill up the casks as they work over, once every hour for the first 6 or 8 hours : be sure to keep the casks filled till the fermentation has entirely subsided, which will be in a few days. Place vessels under the casks to collect the workings over, and the casks may be filled up with the clear part of these workings. Take great care, to keepyour cel- lar dry, and free from the drippings of the casks : if the cellar be damp and musty, your beer will be in ha- zard of smelling. When the beer has Avorked in the casks, bung it and remove it, if necessary, to the place Avhere it is to remain: then draAV the bung, and fill up Avith clear beer, scum- ming off the sediment that may be thrown up by rolling. Bung the casks tight; bore a vent hole, and put in a vent peg, Avhich should be BRE 391 rather slack while the beer is ob- served to be on the fret. If it runs out at the vent hole, draw off about a quart, to give it room and prevent the starting of the wood. When beer is drawn, take care never to leave the vent peg out, or loose : the best licmor may soon become flat and vapid by the care- lessness of servants in this respect. Take care also that the sides of the barrels, the stoops and the floor, are not suffered to remain wet Avith the beer spilled or mnning over. Dirtiness and moisture are apt to make the beer smell in the barrel. Of the proportions of Malt and other' Ingredients....... The following are about the aver- age proportions of malt, used in England : but the barley of Ame- rica is not equally good, nor is the process of malting carried to such perfection : hence, the same quan- tity of ale or porter will require about one fourth more of malt to make a liquor in America of equal strength. When nothing is used to make ale or porter, but malt and hops, it will require in England about three bushels of malt to make one barrel of ale of 32 gallons, or por- ter of 36 gallons. But this will be strong. For ale intended to be drank im- mediately, ? of a lb. of hops to the bushel, wrill suffice. If meant to be kept a twelvemonth, allow 1 lb. to the bushel : if longer 1A lb. Porter reepiires 1-| lb. of hops to the bushel, if no bitter but hops be used. Small-beer is usually brewed from the malt after the quantity of wort intended for ale is taken off: then a quarter (or 8 bushels) of malt, will make about one barrel of strong ale, and two barrels and a half of 392 BRE good small-beer : the hops used for the ale, kept in a net during boil- ing, will do with a little addition for the small-beer. But small-beer so made, is never so good as when it is run off by itself from a quantity of malt whol- ly appropriated to it. In this case about 1A or 1A bush- el of malt will make one barrel of good small-beer, with A of a lb. of hops to the bushel. But in all malt liquor, the addi- tion of a small portion of sugar, gives more strength to the liquor, and enables it to keep better; par- ticularly in summer time : hence the followingproportions seem pre- ferable in practice, for this country (America). Ale.....Malt (amber) three bush- els : hops 3 lbs.; good moist sugar 1A. lb. ; about A an ounce of cori- ander seeds will be an improve- ment. The addition of the sugar Avill nearly make up for the defici- ency in strength of the American malt. This Avill make one barrel of strong ale. For an account of Mash- ing Machine....see that article.] Having thus afforded an analy- tical view of this important subject, Ave shall conclude it with an ac- count of the latest patents, Avhich have been granted to those who have contributed, or attempted to improve, the Art of Brewing. In March, 1788, Mr. W. Ker, of Kerfield, Tweedale, received the King's patent for his improvement in brewing ale, beer, porter, and other malt liepjors, so as to save a considerable portion of hops, to pro- duce the liquors of a superior fla- vour and emality, and render them less liable to become acid or putrid. The steam which arises from the boiling copper, is known to be BRE strongly impregnated with the es- sential oil of the hops, in which their flavour consists. Instead, therefore, of allowing it to escape and evaporate, as it does in the common mode of brewing, Mr. Ker contrives to preserve and con- dense it, by means of a winding- pipe fixed to the copper, similar to the worm of a still, or by a straight pipe passing through cold Avater, or any other cooling medium. The oil and water, thus obtained, are returned into the worts when boil- ed ; or the oil, after being separated from the water, along with which it had been exhaled, is returned into the worts after they are boiled; and the Avatery part, which, after the oil is separated, still continues im- pregnated with the aromatic taste and bitter of the hop, is returned into the next copper or boiling ves- sels, and so on, from one copper or boiling vessel into another. By this process, a considerable part of the hop and flavour, which is lost in the ordinary mode Of brewing, is preserved; the flavour of the liquor is improved by the preservation of the finer parts of the aromatic oil; and the ale and beer ate better se- cured from any tendency to acidity or putrefaction, and therefore must be fitter for home consumption and exportation. In June, 1790, Mr. John Long, of Ireland, obtained a patent for an improvement, Avhich he calls an entire new method, in all the essen- tial parts, of brewing good malt liquor. Though his method, in one respect, is similar to that adopted by Mr. Ker, yet as it compre- hends the whole procees of brew- ing, we shall lay it before our read- ers, nearly in the Avords of its author. B RE BRE 593 l. For the better extracting the ing-tun, instead of loosing its first virtues of malt, place near a mash- heat (which it does by the present tun a shallow copper, or other ves- practice), continues to increase in sel, that will readily heat, the curb heat every moment by conveying of which to be on a level with the the heated liquor through the tube tun, and to contain from two to six into the tun ; by which means, at hogsheads, according to the dimen- the end of two hours, the working sionofthe tun, more or less ; and, brewer can have the tun brought at the lower end of the copper, to any degree of heat he shall have a cock, from two to five inches think best suited to the different in diameter, to conduct the heated qualities of the malt. Persons who liquor from the copper into a tube, would wish to save expence, may which passes down the external part heat their mashing-tun at the side of the tun, and enters it through or bottom, by a large piece of me- an aperture about six inches from tallic substance made fire-proof, the bottom ; then forming two re- and fixed therein ; which, in some volutions, more or less, through the degree, will ansAver the end pro- body of the tun, and communicat- posed, but with great trouble and ing its heat to the wort as it passes delay. through the tube ; and then, at a 2. To prevent the wort- from convenient distance from the place receiving a disagreeable flavour, where it first entered, it runs from while in the under-back, a tube the tun into a cistern or tub, situate must be placed at the cock of the as near as convenient to the copper mashing-tun, to receive the wort as or heating-vessel. In the tub or it comes off, and convey it to a cistern is to be placed a pump, for great cistern, or refrigeratory, the purpose of conveying the cooler which is supplied Avith a stream of liquor back to the copper or heat- Avater. The wort, passing through ing vessel again, there to receive that medium in a spiral tube, soon the heat of 208 degrees, more or loses that heat Avhich so often less (which it will require after the proves prejudicial to the brewer first half hour), and then convey it in warm weather ; it is then pour- through the mashing-tun, as be- ed from the tube into a vessel in fore, anel in the same manner, as Avhich pumps are placed, to return long as the working brewer may the Avorts into the copper, for the think necessary, to raise the mash- purpose of boiling off. ing-tun to any degree of heat re- 3. As the great object of long quired. By adhereing to the fore- boiling the Avort is remedied, by going process, the first liquor may this invention of taking the extract with the greatest safety, be let upon from the hops in a separate manner the malt, from 20. to 30 degrees from the worts, Mr. Long boils the lower than the present practice; latter no longer than from fifteen by which means it operates Avith to twenty minutes ; and, by pur- gentleness, opens and expands the suing that method, he saves much malt, and prepares it for the recep- time and fuel, and regulates the tion of sharper or warmer liquor, length of time accordingly. so as to extract the Avhole of the 4. He steeps his hops, the pre- saccharine quality from the malt, ceding day to which they are to be By the foregoing method,the mash- used, in a copper or other vessel. 394 BRE BRE with as much fluid, blood-warm, as will cover the hops ; where it is to remain over a slow fire, at least four- teen hours, close covered; the copper, at the tenth hour, not to be of a greater heat than 175 de- grees, continuing slow until the last hour. Then he brings the copper gradually to a simmer, or slow boil; in which state he suffers it to re- main about ten minutes, and then runs off the fluid; and this he does at the same time the first wort is boiled off, that they may both pass together through the refrigeratory, into the fermentation or working- tun. Afterthe foregoing operation, he covers the hops again with other liquor, brings the copper to boil as soon as convenient, and lets it re- main in that state a considerable time, until the second worts are boiled off. Then he passes the hop-fluid with the wort, the same as in the first instance ; and, if there is a -third wort, he boils the hops a third time with small worts, and drains off the liquid as before ; by Avhich means, he gradually obtains the Avhole of the essential oil and pleasant bitter from the hops, which is effectually presented in the beer. 5. When the wort is boiled off, it is conducted from the cock of the copper or boiler into a tube of a proper dimension, which passes the wort from the cock to the large cis- tern or refrigeratory, and there per- forms several revolutions, in a spi- ral manner, through the same tube ; which is immersed in a constant supply of cold water, Avhere it loses the greatest part of its heat in a short time, and thence continues a straight course through the tube, a little elevated, and of a suitable length, placed in brick-work, until it meets a small refrigeratory, sup- plied with colder Avater from a re- servoir made for that purpose, at the head of the Avorks ; Avhence a continual stream runs on the surface of the tube down to the great refri- geratory, cooling the wort as it pas- ses, in order to enable the Avorking brewer to send it into the backs, or working-tuns, at whatever degree of heat he may think proper. The tubes may be made of lead, or any other metallic substance. 6. To* enable him to brew in the warm summer months, Mr. Long sinks the backs, or working-tuns, at least to a level with the ground, but if deeper the better, and covers them closely by an arch made of bricks, or other materials, that will totally exclude the atmospheric air. He then places them as near as pos- sible to a spring or sand-drain, as their depth will naturally draw the water thence, which must be so contrived as to pass or flow round the backs or tuns. Next, he intro- duces a large tube, which passes through the tuns, and keeps the wort several degrees lower than can possibly be done by the present practice ; by which means he pro- duces a complete fermentation, even in the dog-days. 7. Incold or frosty Aveather, if the tun and backs should lose the first heat, intended to be conducted through the process by the fore- going method, a supply of warm or boiling Avater may be conveyed by the tube, Avhich passes through the body of the backs or tun, com- municating its heat, which rises to any degree the working brewer shall think proper: by pursuing this method, in the coldest season, a fermentation may always be pro- cured. In February 1798, Dr. Richard Shannon obtained a patent for his method of improving the processes BRE BRE 305 of brewing, distilling, boiling, eva- porating, raising, applying and con- densing steamor vapourfrom aque- ous, spirituous, saccharine, saline, and other fluids. The principle of his invention consists chiefly in the following arrangement: By cover- ing and making the mash-tun air- tight, and casing it round, under and over, with asteam-tight casing, so that, during the mashing and soaking of the malt and grain used, the heat may be preserved, or raised and regulated to any pitch, by the application of steam, both in and between the casing of the mash- tun ; by which contrivance, the whole of the farina and substance of the grain may be as effectually extracted in one, or at most in two mashings, as is now done in three or four. The steam, conducted by a proper tube or pipe, is to be also employed for sweetening and clean- sing all the brewing, distilling, and vinegar-making utensils, and casks employed in each, Etc. so as in fu- ture to prevent furring, foxing, he. even in the inmost crevices. In June 1798, the same patentee, in partnership with Mr. Robert Burnett, of Vauxhall, procured another patent, for the discovery of a principle anel invention of a me- thod of improving the process of fermentation, by Avhich porter, beer, ale, malt and molasses Avash, wine, cyder, and all other saccharine and fermentable fluids, may be con- ducted with certainty through the vinous process of fermentation in mild, warm, hot, and cold weather, without being materially injured as heretofore, by the different changes of the atmosphere, 8cc.....But as these improvements depend on the application of an expensive pneuma- tic apparatus, which does not ap- pear to us adapted to the use of fa- VOL. I. nrilies, we refer the reader to the tenth and fourteenth volumes of the " Repertory of Arts and Manufac- tures," Avhere he will find a detailed specification of both patents. The last patent we shall mention, is that of Mr. Thornton, of East Smithfield ; which, being dated April 15, 1778, is earlier than ei- ther of the preceding, and does not strictly relate to the process of brewing, as his invention consists in a new method of reducing malt and hops to an essence or extract, from which beer may be made ei- ther at sea or in distant countries. The whole is managed by the trans- mitted heat of compressed vapour of boiling water, and a proper ap- paratus forthat purpose. This ap- paratus may be made of iron, tin, or copper : it consists of a boiler of any dimensions, a double vessel, and conducting tubes. The dou- ble vessel consists of one vessel placed within another, and fitted tight at their rims. The upper vessel forms the upper part of the under vessel, and contains the li- quor to be evaporated. The under vessel is every where inclosed, ex- cept at an aperture communicating with the boiler, and at another aper- ture commuuicating with the con- ducting tubes; and is constructed so as not to allow any part of the vapour condensed into drops within it to escape, except back again into the boiler: it is not so extensive as to act as a common refrigerato- ry, and yet is capacious enough to prevent the liquor boiling over. The aperture communicating with the boiler, is large enough to free- ly admit the vapour from the boiler into the under vessel ; and the aperture communicating Avith the conducting tubes, is of a proper size to alloAv of the vapour in the 3D 390 B R I BRI under vessel being compressed, to a degree capable of transmitting to the liquor to be evaporated a proper heat, and at the same time to serve as a passage for more heat than is necessary to keep up that degree of compression. The con- ducting tubes are to convey this su- perfluous heat or vapour, to be used for farther purposes, or im- mediately out of the building. Those of our readers who are desirous of farther information on the subject, may consult the last eelition of " Philosophical Princi- ples of Brewing," by Mr. Richard- son, of Hull, England; a Avork of acknowledged merit, and prac- tical utility. BRIAR, the SAveet, or Rosa ru- biginosa, L. by Hudson anel Duroi, called Rosa eglanteria, is a well known indigenous plant, found in hedges and on heaths. It grows to> the height of five or six feet, having green branches, armed Avith prickles. See W"ith. 466.....The varieties of this species are the common single-flowered, semi- double-floAvered, double-floAvered, blush double-flowered, and yellow- flowered. This shrub deserves to be cultivated in every garden, on account of the odoriferous property of its leaves. The best places for planting it, are the borders conti- guous to walks, where it will pro- fusely emit its refreshing fragrance. The young branches of the sweet- briar area rich addition to the odour of nose-gays and bough-pots. The blossoms of this shrub are con- stantly visited by bees, anel the leaves are used on the Continent, in tanning soft leather. Wild Briar, or Hep-Tree. See the more general name of Dog- Rose. BRICK, a mass of clay formed into oblong squares, and dried in the open air, or burnt in proper kilns, to serve the various purposes of building. English statute-bricks ought, Avhen burnt, to be nine inches long, four anel a quarter broad, and two and a half thick: they are com- monly used for paving cellars, sewers, sinks, hearths, Sec. There is, however, a great variety of bricks, in consequence of their different forms, dimensions, uses, and the method of making them. On comparing the strength and durability of modern bricks Avith those of the ancients, it is evident that the former are in every respect inferior; and that we are either unacquainted with the exact mate- rials of Avhich those admirable pro- ductions of art are composed, as Avell as with the proper manner of preparing them ; or that this use- ful manufacture has been shame- fully neglected, while our masons and brick-makers are little con- cerned about the quality of their materials, if they can obtain them in a cheap and expeditious manner. Such appears to be the tendency of the patents that have, from time to time, been procured by various scheming men, who are generally ignorant of the first principles of chemistry, on which the success- ful practice of this important branch of the arts chiefly depends. In or- der to afford a concise view of the subject, we shall premise an ana- lysis of the requisites of a proper clay for making bricks ; then state a few rules applicable to practice in all situations ; and conclude with a general account of the late in- ventions, for which the King's pa- tent has been granted : by whichv means the reader will be enabled to ascertain their respective merits* It is an erroneous notion, that bricks may be made of any earth B RI that is not stony, or even of •eaouse ; for those only will burn red, which contain iron particles. In England, they are chiefly made of a motley, yellowish, or some- what reddish, fat earth, vulgarly called loam. Those of Stourbridge clay, and Windsor-loam, are esteemed the most proper and dur- able bricks ; such as will stand the greatest degree of heat, without melting. In general, the earth for this manufacture ought to be suffi- ciently fine, free from pebbles, and not too sandy ; which would ren- der the bricks heavy and brittle ; nor too fat, which would make them crack in drying. Nor should it contain too many calcareous and ferruginous ingredients; as the former prevent the mass from be- coming firm in burning, and occa- sion the bricks to crumble, when exposed to the air ; while the lat- ter, or iron particles, retard the preparation of bricks, insomuch that it is sometimes impossible to give them due consistence : this inconvenience, however, may be remedied, by allowing the clay to lie for a considerable time under the influence of the atmosphere, then soaking it in pits, and after- wards working it Avell, in the usual manner......The common potter's clay, Avhich is also employed for the manufacture of bricks, is opaque, imparts a slight colour, sometimes yellowish, blueish, greenish, but more frequently of different shades of light-grey, excepting that of blue, Avhich is always dark : by kneading and spreading such clay, it becomes smooth and glossy ; it is soft, fat, and cold, though agree- able to the touch, slightly adheres to the tongue, and, Avhen of the best quality, it should neither be too light nor too heavy. Its con- ituents chemically examined, are B RI 397 found to consist of thirty-seven parts of pure argillaceous or clayey earth, and sixty-three parts of si- licious or flinty earth. Whoever is desirous of produc- ing the best and most durable kind of bricks, ought to attend to the following rules : 1. Clay of every description, whether fat or lean, whether more or less mixed Avith particles of lime, iron, &c. must be dug up after Midsummer, that is, between the beginning of July and latter end of October, before the first frost appears: it should be repeatedly worked with the spade, during the winter, and not formed into bricks till the following spring. 2. The clay, before it is put into pits for soaking, must be broken as small as possible, and allowed to lie at least ten days: every stratum of twelve inches should be covered with water, as in this manner it will be more uni- formly softened. 3. Two such pits, at least, will be necessary for every brick-manufactory, so that after having been suffered to re- main for five days, the second may be prepared, and thus the manu- facture carried on without inter- ruption. 4. The next step is that of treading and tempering the clay, which requires double the labour to Avhat is usually bestowed on it; as the quality of the bricks chiefly depends upon the first pre- paration. If, in tempering them, too much water be used, they be- come dry and brittle ; but, if duly tempered, they will be smooth, so- lid, and durable. Such a brick re- quires nearly as much earth as one and a half made in the common way, when too great a proportion of water is added ; in Avhich case the bricks becomes spongy, light, and full of flaws, partly through ne- glect in Avorkingthemproperly, and 398 B R I BRI partly by a mixture of ashes and light sandy earth (as is generally practised in the vicinity of Lon- don), with a view to dispatch and facilitate the Avork, as well as to save culm or coals in the burning. 5. Bricks made of proper earth, being more solid and ponderous, require a much longer time for drying than those made in the com- mon way ; they ought not to be removed to the kiln, till they have become lighter by one-half, and give a hollow sound on collision; because the proper drying of bricks will prevent them from cracking and crumbling in the kiln. 6. Of whatever materials the kiln be con- structed, each burning of from 6 to 10,000 bricks, requires that the fire be kept up for 24 hours, and double that time for a number of from 12 to 50,000. The uniform increase of heat deserves great at- tention ; the duration of it should be regulated according to the sea- sons ; and, during the last 24hours, the fire should be unintermptedly supported by means of flues ; but afterwards the kiln must not be suddenly closed, as there is always some danger either of bursting the flues, or more probably of melt- ing the bricks. It would be useless here to enter into particulars relative to the man- ner of burning bricks in the neigh- bourhood of London; we shall therefore only observe, that they are chiefly burnt in clamps built of the bricks themselves, after the manner of arches, in kilns, Avith a vacancy between each brick to admit the passage of the fire, but with this difference, that instead of being arched, the bricks project one over another on both sides of the space, for laying in the weed and coals till they meet, and are bounded by the bricks at the top. Th.e place for the fuel is carried up straight on both sides, till about three feet high, Avhen it is almost filled with wood, over which is laid a stratum of sea-coal, and then the arch is spanned over. Farther, sea-coal is also strewed over the clamp, be- tween all the rows of bricks ; and lastly, the wood is kindled, which also communicates Avith the coals; and when the whole is consumed, the manufacturer concludes that the bricks are sufficiently burnt. [Fire bricks are made in Phila- delphia of certain proportions of clay from the banks of the Dela- ware, a few miles beloAv Borden- ton, and the sand found near the lover bridge on the Schuylkill. Besides their great utility in the construction of furnaces,theyought to be used for lining the backs and sides of fire-places. See Fire- places.] Among the multiplicity of pa- tents lately obtained forthe making of bricks, it is someAvhat singular, that the inventors confine their lu- crative views chiefly to the forma- tion of this useful article, without paying much regard to the materi- als of Avhich it may be composed. Of this nature are the patents granted to the folloAving individu- als : 1. Mr. Edmund Cartwright, of Doncaster, England, for his in- vention of a newr principle, on which bricks, stones, or any other building materials to be substituted for those articles, may be so form- ed, as to be applied with peculiar advantage in the erection of walls, and in the construction of archer. (Dated April 1-1, 1795.) His im- provement consists in giving bricks such a shape or form as that, when in work, they shall mutually lock into, or cramp each other. The principle of his invention, he says, BRI B RI 399 will be readily understood, by sup- posing the two opposite sides of a common brick to have a groove or rabbet down the middle, a little more than half the width of the side of the brick in which it is made ; there will then be left a shoulder on each side of the groove, each of which shoulders will be nearly equal to one quarter of the width of the side of the brick, or to one-half of the groove or rabbet. ....Buildingsconstructed with bricks on this principle, will reeruire no bond-timber, one uniArersal bond running through, and connecting the whole building together; the walls of which can neither crack nor bulge out, Avithout breaking through the bricks themselves. When bricks of this simple form are used for the construction of arches, the sides of the grooves oc rabbets, and the shoulders, should be the radii of the circle, of Avhich the intended arch is to be the seg- ment. ' In forming an arch, the bricks must be coursed across the centre on which the arch is turned, and a grooved side of the bricks must face the workman. They may be either laid in mortar, or dry, anel the interstices afterwards filled, and wedged up, by pouring in lime-putty, plaster of Paris, grouting, or any other convenient material, at the discretion of the workman, or builder. It is ob- vious, that arches upon this princi- ple, having no lateral pressure, can neither expand at the foot, nor spring at the crown, consequently they will want no abutments, re- quiring only perpendicular walls to l.e let into, or to rest upon; anel they will want no incumbent weight upon the crown, to prevent their springing up ; a circumstance of great importance in many situa- tions, in the construction of bridges. Another advantage attending this mode of arching is, that the cent re s may be struck imm ediately; so that the same centre (which in no case need be many feet wide, whatever may be the breadth of the arch) may be regularly shifted, as the work proceeds. But the greatest and most striking advan- tage attending this invention is, the absolute security it affords (and at a very reasonable rate) against the possibility of fire ; for, from the peculiar properties of this arch, requiring no abutments, it may be laid upon, or let into com- mon Avails, no stronger than what are required for timbers, of which it will preclude the necessity, and save the expence....For a more particular account, we refer the reader to the third volume of the " Repertory of Arts and Manufac- tures," p. 84, and following, of which he will also find annexed two plates illustrating the subject. 2. Mr. Francis Farquhar- son, of Birmingham, England, obtained a patent (dated Feb. 20, 1798,) for machinery for making bricks and tiles ; and, 3. Mr. James Douglas, also, for a machine for making bricks, of the same date ; but we are not in possession of the specifications of the two last-mentioned patents. 4. A very important dis- covery has lately been made by Mr. Whitmore Davis, at Castle Comber, in the county of Kilken- ny, Ireland. He observed some persons in the vicinity of a colliery, to employ a mortar for the backs of their grates, which in a short time became hard. This substance he found, on examination, to be what miners term scat-coal, or that fossil which lies between coal 400 B RI and the rock. It has been sub- mitted to the investigation of Mr. Kirwan, who is of opinion, that it Avill, when mixed in due propor- tions with clay, produce a kind of bricks, capable of resisting the ac- tion of fire, and consequently well calculated for furnaces, or similar Structures. Mr. Davis has ac- cordingly employed it with suc- cess ; and he farther observes, that seat-coal, if properly prepared, will answer every purpose of tarras, for buildings beneath water. 5. Mr. Isaac Sandford, of Hartford, in Connecticut, [New- England,] on the 20th of January, 1800, received the royal patent for a method communicated to him by Mr. A. Kinsley, of the same place, for manufacturing bricks, tiles, and pottery-ware, in general, and for discharging the moulds used therein. The principle of this in- vention is amply detailed in the Specification, a copy of which is inserted in the 13th volume of the " Repertory of Arts," he. p. 148, and following, illustrated by a plate. [A fair trialof thisplanwas made by a company in Philadelphia, un- der the direction of the patentee. It Avas "found that the machine made bricks with great rapidity, and in this respect diminished labour to a considerable extent; but that in order to lay them on the ground to civ, and afterwards to carry them to the shed, as many hands were required as in the common mode. Hence the plan vv as given up.] To conclude, we shall only add, that the reasons why the modern bricks are so very inferior to those made by the ancients ; which, in their monuments, after having withstood the ravages of time for many centuries, are still in perfect BRI preservation, appear to be princi- pally the folloAving : In the pre- sent expensive state of society, the price of manual labour, though far from being adequate to the pressure of the times, is so consi- derable, that the manufacturer is under a kind of necessity to make choice of those materials which are the cheapest and most easily procured : thus, a mixture of the most improper earths and clay is often employed in the manufacture of bricks, without reflecting that two bodies specifically different in their nature, must necessarily re- quire different degrees of heat in the kiln, in order to produce an uniform hardness, and an intimate combination of parts. On the con- trary, the ancients not only select- ed the very best sort of clay, but combined it with other ingredients Avell adapted to form the most complete cement, such as coarsely powdered charcoal and old mortar added to the clay. Of this descrip- tion, likewise, were the bricks which Professor Pallas, on his last journey through the southern provinces of Russia, discovered in the stupendous Tartar monuments, and Avhich would scarcely yield to the force of a hammer. Another advantage peculiar to the bricks and tiles manufactured by our fore-fathers, arose from their me- thod of burning them uniformly, after being thoroughly dried. There is no doubt, that if all the defects before pointed out, Avere removed, and modern brick-makers were to pay more attention to their art, by digging the clay at proper seasons, working it better than is done at present, bestowing more care on the burning of them, and particu- larly by making them much thin- ner than what is prescribed by the BRI standard form, we might produce bricks of an equal strength and durability to those of our less en- lightened, but more provident and industrious, ancestors. Brick-layers, artisans whose business it is to build with bricks, and to perform brick-work ; such as tiling, Availing, chimney-Avork, and paving Avith bricks and tiles: in country places, they also under- take the masons' and plasterers' business. The London brick-layers were incorporated as a regular company in 1568, consisting of a master, two wardens, 20 assist- ants, and 78 of the livery. The art of brick-laying has been analysed in a particular treatise by Moxon ; in which he describes the materials, tools, and method of working used by bricklayers. Great care should be taken that bricks be laid joint on joint in the middle of the walls as seldom as may be. If they be laid in winter, let them be kept as dry as possi- ble ; if in summer, they ought to be Avetted, because they will then unite Avith the mortar better than if they Avere quite dry, and render the work much stronger. In large buildings, or where it is too troublesome to dip each brick separately, water may be thrown on every course after they are laid, as was judiciously done, when building the College of Physicians in London, on the suggestion of Dr. Hooke. If bricks are laid in summer, they should be covered, to prevent the mortar from drying too quickly ; because thus it will not be cemented so firmly as if it were left to dry more gradually. In winter also they ought to be well covered, to protect them from rain, snow, and frost, which last is the worst enemy to mortar, BRI 401 especially if the work has become wet before the frost happens. Oil of bricks, a singular pre- paration, formerly much esteemed in the cure of many diseases ; but now justly exploded as absurd and pernicious rather than useful. It is obtained by soaking fragments of bricks in olive oil, and after- wards distilling them in the usual manner. In the present improved state of chemistry, it has been found that, by this fanciful pro- cess, the oil of olives, so far from being impregnated with healing in- gredients, is necessarily cormpted. Brick-water, or water impreg- nated with the contents of bricks, is possessed of properties so pecu- liarly striking, and at the same time so pernicious in their effects, when used for culinary purposes, that we cannot, in justice to our readers, withhold from them the following curious experiment made by Dr. Percival, and stated in the first volume of his Essays. He steeped two or three pieces of common brick, four days in a bason full of distilled water, which he after- wards decanted off, and examined by various chemical tests. It was not miscible with soap ; struck a lively green with syrup of violets ; by the fixed alkali, and by a solu- tion of sugar of lead. No change was produced on it by an infusion of tormentil-root. Hence the Doc- tor justly concluded, that the lining of wells with bricks, a practice very common in many places, is ex- tremely improper, as it cannot fail to render the water hard and un- wholesome. Clay generally contains a variety of heterogeneous matters; and coloured loams often partici- pate of bitumen, and the ochre of iron. Sand and lime-earth are still more common ingredients in their 402 BRI BRI composition ; and the experiments of Mr. Geoffrey and Mr. Pott prove, that the earth of alum also may in considerable quantity be separated from clay. As, therefore, clay is exposed to the open air for a long space of time, before it is moulded into bricks and burnt, this process in many respects resembles that by which tbe alum stone is prepared. And it is probable, that the white efflorescence, Avhich is frequently observable on the sur- face of new bricks, is of an alumin- ous nature : indeed the combina- tions of the vitriolic acid with the earth of alum, may be sufficiently accounted for, partly from the long exposure of clay to the air, before it is moulded into bricks, and part- ly from the sulphureous exhalations of the pit-coal used for burning them, together with the suffocat- ing, bituminous vapour arising from the ignited coal. [The above experiments of Dr. Percival are highly interesting, anel deserve the serious attention of city corporations and private persons. The wells of pumps are in general only steined, that is, lined Avith dry bricks. Tavo disadvan- tages arise from this practice. The first, is the bad cmalities which it appears are communicated to the water by the bricks; the second, is tbe inability of these bricks to pre- ventthe filthy contents of drainsand privies from soaking through the ground into the wells, to vvhich cause may be fairly attributed the bad taste of the water in many pumps in Philadelphia, which Avere formerly proverbial for their excell- ence. Every privy and well ought to be lined Avith the valuable ce- ment of Capt. Hunn. It is easily made, and, if the work be Avell done, the cement will last for ever* See Cement.] BRIDGE, aconstruction of stone timber, or iron, consisting of an arch or arches, and built over a river, canal, See. for the convenience of passengers. A bridge built of stone is evidently the strongest and most durable : the proper situation for it is easily known; and the only circumstance necessary to be ob- served is, to make it cross the stream at right angles, that boats may readily pass through the arches with the current of the river. Those bridges built for a com- munication between high roads, ought to be so strong as to resist all accidents, and afford an easy passage to the Avaters: they should therefore be at least as long as the river is wide at the time of its greatest flood; because, by the ac- cumulation of the Avaters above, too great a fall may be occasioned, and the foundation of the piers, and abutments may thus be under- mined. The necessary requisites in a bridge are, that it be well designed, commodious, durable, and suitably ornamented. The piers of stone bridges should be equal in number that the central arch may be where the current is strongest. As the piers always diminish the bed of a river, it must be holloAved in pro- portion to the space occupied by them, especially where frequent inundations prevail, so that the waters may gain in depth, what they lose in breadth. It has been ascertained by experience, that Avhen the height of the piers is six feet, and the arches are circular, it is sufficient to build the former two feet more in thickness than the sixth part of the width of the latter; B R I BRI 403 t/r in other words, the thickness of the piers of an arch of 36 feet ought to be 8 feet; those of an arch of 48 feet, 10 feet, 8ec. Rectangu- lar piers are seldom adopted, ex- cept in bridges over small rivers. In all others they project by a tri- angular prism, which presents an edge to the stream, in order to di- vide the water, anel prevent the accumulation of ice, as well as to hinder vessels from running against them. When the banks of rivers are of a tolerable height, the bridge should be made quite level above, and all the arches of an eejual width ; but where the banks are Ioav, and, for the sake of navigation, a large arch is made in the middle of the stream, then the bridge ought to be more elevated in the centre than at the ends ; in which case the slope should be easy and gradual on both sides, so as to form one continued curve. The width of small bridges is generally thirty feet, but those near large towns usually have thirty feet clear carriage way, besides the foot- path : the parapet walls on each side are about eighteen inches thick and four feet high; they commonly project with a cornice underneath; sometimes ballustrades of stone or iron are placed upon the parapet, as at Westminster-bridge ; but this method is only employed where a bridge of great extent is construct- ed near a capital. Where stone bridges cannot be erected on account of the expence, very strong and durable bridges may be constructed of Avood : these ought to be so framed, that all the parts may press upon each other like an arch: and thus, instead of being weakened by the pressure of a heavy body in its passage over it VOL. I. they will become stronger. The method of forming a Avooden bridge is so well known to every architect, that it is needless to enlarge upon the subject. Among the Romans, the build- ing and repairing of bridges Avas committed to the pontifices, or priests ; and the care of these edi- fices was afterwards undertaken by the Emperors themselves. In the middle ages, the constructing of bridges was classed among the acts of religion, and a regular order of hospitallers was founded by Saint Benezet, towards the end of the twelfth century, who were denomi- nated pontifices, or bridge-builder?.; their office Avas to facilitate the progress of travellers, by making bridges, establishing ferries, and receiving strangers into hospitals, or houses, on the banks of rivers. Of all the bridges of antiquity, that built by Trajan over the Da- nube is allowed to be the most magnificent: the piers were 20 in number, built of square stone, and each 150 feet above the founda- tion, 60 feet in breadth, and 170 feet distant from each other. The piers of this vast structure still re- main. Among mcdern bridges, that built over the Thames at West- minster, may be considered as one of the most magnificent in the world : it consists of 13 large, anel two small arches, together with 14 intermediate piers : the two mid- dle piers are each 17 feet in thick- ness at the commencement of the arches, and contain 3000 cubic feet, or near 200 tons of solid stone : the middle arch is 76 feet wide. We cannot,in justice, avoid men- tioning the patriotic efforts of Mr. Burdon, .member for Durham, who in 1792 obtained an act for 3 E 404 BRI BRI the erection of a bridge across the river Wear, near Sunderland. This Structure is of cast iron, and con- sists of six ribs, at five feet distance from each other : the spandrils are composed of cast iron circles. The six ribs were put together over the river in the short space of ten days. The superstructure is of timber, planked over to support the car- riage-road, Avhich is composed of marl, lime-stone, and gravel, Avith a cement of tar and chalk upon the planks, to preserve them: the whole width of the bridge is 32 feet, and the arch is supposed to Aveigh upwards of 900 tons, of which 260 are iron. This magnificent structure is erected on improved principles, yet differing from those adopted by the Colebrook-Dale Company. Al- though adhering to the ancientcon- struction of bridges, by the subdivi- sion of the parts of the arch, in the manner of key-stones, Mr. Bur- don took advantage of the duc- tility and tenacity of iron, to pro- duce an arch of that metal, at least fifteen times lighter than a corres- ponding arch of stone, and most easily put together. The expence of constructing this bridge amounted to 26,0001. the whole of which, except 40001. Avas furnished by Mr. Burdon. This gentleman, in 1795, also obtained a patent for his invention of the manner of making and applying cast iron blocks, to be substituted in lieu of key-stones, in the con- struction of arches, which blocks, tubes, 8cc. he employed in the bridge above-mentioned. A patent was granted to Mr. Nash, of Dover-street, in 1797, for an invention somewhat similar tp that above-mentioned. He pro- tides hoiloAv masses of cast or wrought iron, which are to be filled with earth, sand, Sec and have the appearance of solid bodies. Ac- cording to this plan, the arch of the bridge is formed by hollow frames, or boxes, each consisting of four sides and a bottom. These boxes, after being properly arrang- ed in the manner stated by the pa- tentee, are then to be filled with sand, stones, 8cc. by Avhich means the arch becomes like one solid body cased with iron. A farther explanation of this invention may be seen in the sixth volume of the Repertory of Arts and Manufac- tures. The latest patent for bridges, was that granted in June 1800, to Mr. Samuel Wyatt, of Chelsea College, for his invention of a new method of constructing bridges, ware-houses, Sec. without the use of wood, as a constituent part. The principle of his discovery consists in the combination of pipes, tubes, or hollow pieces of cast iron, in a longitudinal direction, and plates or pieces of the same material, having sockets in them to receive the ends or shoulders of the pipes, placed transversely, and extending from one side of the bridge to the other, so that when the reciiiisite number of pipes, Sec. are put together, they form the arch so firmly as not to reepiire the aid of screws, bolts, cramps, or any iron fastening Avhat- ever; but the joints should be closed Avith lead or cement. When applied to ware-houses and other buildings, Mr. Wyatt's in- vention consists in forming arched cielings of cast iron, and support- ing them and the floors by hollow pillars, or cylinders, of the same material. It ought to be remarked, that the number of sockets in the transverse iron plates, should al- BRI ways correspond with the number of ribs in the arch. Various other kinds of bridges are constructed, according to the purposes to Avhich they are de- signed, such as pendent or hang- ing-bridges, draw-bridges, floating- bridges, and those made of copper, or wooden-boats, fastened with stakes or anchors, and covered with planks; but as the descrip- tion of them would swell this ar- ticle to an undue length, and as they are not immediately connected with subjects of economy, we shall con- tent ourselves with having given the preceding account of bridges in general. [The bridge Avhich Judge Find- ley, (near Union-town), had under- taken to erect across Jacob's Creek, at the joint expence of Fayette and Westmoreland counties, Pennsyl- vania, near Judge Meason's, on the great road leading from Union- toAvn to Greensburgh, is now com- pleted. Its construction is on prin- ciples entirely new, and is perhaps the only one of the kind in the world. It is solely supported by two iron chains, extended over 4 piers, 14 feet higher than the bridge, fastened in the ground at the ends, describing a curve line, touching the level of the bridge in the centre. The first tier of joists are hung to the chains, by iron pen- dents or stirrups of different lengths, so as to form a level of the whole. The bridge is of 70 feet span and 13 feet wide; the chains are of an inch square bar, in links from five to ten feet long, but so that there is a joint, where each pendent must bear. The projector, has made many experiments, to ascertain the real strength of iron, anel asserts, that an inch square bar of tolerable BRI 405 iron, in this position will bear be- tween 30 and 40 tons, and of course, less than one eighth part of the iron employed in the bridge, would be sufficient to bear the neat weight thereof, being about twelve or thirteen tons. Mr. Findley, embarked in this business at his own risk, and en- gaged that the work should endure at least 50 years (except what should be necessary for repairs of flooring) for the moderate sum of six hundred dollars: He further observes, that a bridge of the same width and 280 feet span, would be about 50 tons weight, the chains double as strong as the foregoing, the whole of the iron required, would then amount to six tons, and say the smith-work to half its va- lue. The piers 46 feet 8 inches high....These chains, so placed, would support 240 tons, decluct its own weight of timber, and so much of the iron, as falls between the piers, say 53 tons, remainder 237 tons.] BRINE, or Pickle, is water sa- turated with saline particles. It is either native, as the sea-water ; or factitious, when formed by a solu- tion of salt in water. Pickle made according to the common rule, that it should bear an egg, may be sufficiently strong to preserve substances intended for early use. A true pickle, however* for preserving meat, fish, and butter, during a long voyage, ought to be boiled down till the salt be- gins to crystalize, which is disco- verable by a thin scum on the sur- face of the liquid while it continues over the fire. The water being then completely saturated with salt, the pickle is perfect. In th: salt-Avorks at Upw;ck. in Worcestershire, a pit yields at th* 406 BRI BR r same ti ne three sorts of brine,-of different legrees of strength. This pit is worked by a pump, and the strongest salt first brought up from the bottom, is called first man ; the next, Avhich is of an inferior qua- lity, is denominated middle man ; and the third, or Aveakest, last man. Leach brine is Avhat drops from the granulated salt in drying: it is preserved and boiled a second time, being stronger than the brine of the pit.. The species of sand found in the Staffordshire brines, after coc- tion,tit is supposed by naturalists to be produced by that operation, as it Avas not previously found in the water. Brine-pan, a place where salt- water is confined and exposed to the heat of the sun, by which salt is obtained by evaporation. Brine-springs, those saline foun- tains Avhich yield water for the manufacture of salt. It is sup- posed that the saline spring at NamptAvich, in Cheshire, Avould be sufficient to yield salt for the consumption of the whole country. Besides this, there are several other remarkable brine-springs in England, particularly that of East- Chennock, in Somersetshire, Avhich rises twenty miles from the sea; and another at Barrowdale, near Keswick, in Cumberland. The latter rises in a plain near a bog, and sixteen gallons of the Avater yield one of pure salt, which is the more remarkable, as an equal quantity cannot be obtained from less than twenty-two gallons of the waters of the German ocean. There are several other salt- springs beside those above men- tioned, particularly at a place in Durham, called Salt-water Haug/i, where a multitude of saline springs rise in the river Wear, to the ex- tent of about forty yards in length? and ten in breadth. One of these, which issues from a rock is so strong, that in the space of a hot summer's day, the surface is cover- ed with pure crystalized salt. In these springs the Avater is strongest at the bottom, and richer in dry than in wet weather. They gene- rally yield four ounces of salt to a pound of brine. It is probable that there is an immense mass of fossil salt in the bowels of the earth in the counties where these springs arise. There are several other sub- stances dissolved in this water be- side salt, particularly sulphureous matter, an impure ochre which dis- colours the brine, but speedily sub- sides; and in most, a selenitic earth is found deposited at the bot- tom of the salt-pans. Brining of Corn....See Smut. [BRISTOL MINERAL WA- TERS, are near the town of Bris- tol, twenty miles north of Philadel- phia. Dr. De Normandie first analysed them, as appears by his paper in the 1st volume of the Transactions of the American Philosophical Society, and they were again subjected to a more critical examination by Dr. Rush ; both these physicians found them strongly impregnated with iron, and it is certain that they have produced very excellent ef- fects in all cases of general debili- ty, whether resulting from previous disease, or natural causes. They powerfully increase the appetite, in cases of jaundice, or of great weakness and derangement of the system, attended with chronic liver complaints, they have frequently been of great service. In a relax- ation of the stomach and nervers, which very often produce violent sick headachs, the Bristol wa- BRO B R O 407 ters when used in the way of a shower-bath, and also drank freely, are truly valuable. They have been highly useful in gravelly complaints : they must, however, be drank re- gularly, and aided by temperance, and the strict observance of such a diet as is found to agree best with the stomach. Prom half a pint to a pint, may be taken three times a day : when the cold bath is used, care must be taken to accommo- date it to the strength of the pa- tient. At first, the water may be a little warmed ; afterwards, the water should be used of its natural temperature. Bristol waters were formerly much used ; but they have latterly given way to the more fashionable places at Ball-town New-York, and the springs of Virginia.] BROAD-CAST, a term in hus- bandry, used to denote a particular mode of sowing corn, pulse, tur- nips, clover, grasses, and most field-plants. When seeds are scat- tered over the surface of the ground by the hand, they are said to be sown in broad-cast; by which this method is distinguished from drilling, and horse-hoeing, or the new husbandry. The comparative merit of the drill and broad-cast, has, by several experiments, been determined in favor of the former. One of the most practical details on this sub- ject, was communicated to the«So- cietyfor the Encouragement of Arts, Manufactures, and Commerce, by Mr. Boote, of Atherstone, who, in the year 1789, obtained the gold medal from that patriotic institu- tion, as an acknowledgement of his merit, in ascertaining this inte- resting point. Mr. Boote selected a piece of cold clay land of twenty acres, four of which were drilled with four bushels of wheat; and, at the same time, four acres adjoining, of a si- milar soil, were sown in the broad- cast way, with ten bushels of the same grain. In the beginning of April, 1788, the drilled wheat was first hoed, and again in the last week of the same month, when the broad-cast was also hoed, with hoes of a pro- per size for the purpose. At harvest, the crops were se- parately reaped and threshed, to ascertain the difference of each produce. That of the four acres drilled was one hundred and nine- teen bushels, one gallon, and four pints; and the four acres broad- cast yielded ninety-four bushels, two gallons,and four pints. Hence the difference in favour of the for- mer, was twenty-four bushels, se- ven gallons, valued at five shillings and six pence a bushel, together Avith six bushels of seed saved by drilling, which cost seven shillings anel four pence half-penny a bushel* amounting in the whole to nine pounds one shilling and three farthings. In this comparative experiment, a bushel of wheat produced by the broad-cast Avas nearly equal in Aveight to a bushel of that obtained from the drill. Mr. Greenway, however, by an experiment made in the year 1787, found that the grain of his drilled crop Avas supe- rior to that of his broad-cast, not only in quantity -..:.. in quality, the former weighing two pounds per bushel more than the latter. But as his broad-cast crop was not hoed, n may be fairly inferred, that it did not arrive at full maturity, either in co.isequence of the injury doi.e to it by weeds, or for want of the soil being pulverized by the hoc- 408 B R O BRO The superiority of the drill me- thod, in the culture of turnips, was ascertained by Mr. Dann, of Gil- lingham, and the silver medal of the Society adjudged to him for his successful experiment. On the 6th of July, 1789, he drilled four acres of turnips, and, on the same day, in the same field, he sowed two acres broad-cast. A very considerable difference ap- peared in favour of the dri lied plants, from their first coming up, in con- sequence of which he soAved no more by broad-cast. The drilled turnips were ready for hoeing five or six days before those that were soAvn broad-cast on the same day. Besides drilled turnips being less liable to injury from frost, and less difficult to hoe, than those sown by broad-cast, about three-fifths of the seed used in the latter method, are sufficient for the ground when dril- led. When the turnips were come to maturity, Mr. Dann selected two perches from each of those cul- tivated according to the different methods before -mentioned, and found that the two perches drilled, produced 494 lbs. and those broad- cast only 446 lbs.....making a dif- ference of 48 lbs. in favour of the former method. It must be evident to the agri- culturist, that seed deposited from one and a half to three inches deep in the soil, will vegetate sooner, and grow faster, than that sown on the surface, Avhich is seldom buried deeper than from one-quarter of an inch to an inch....at a season, when moisture is particularly requisite for the growth of the plant. BROCCOLI, a species of the Brassica, or Cabbage-plant, culti- vated for the use of the table..... There are several kinds of this plant, particularly the purple, the white, and the black broccoli, &c* but the Roman, or purple species, is preferable to all others. The seeds of this vegetable should be sown about the latter end of May, or beginning of June, and when the young plants have germinated eight leaves, they should be trans- planted into beds. By this manage- ment, towards the latter end of July they will be fit to be planted out in some well sheltered piece of ground, at the distance of a foot and a half in the toavs, and two feet between each row. The soil proper for broccoli is rather light than heavy. The brown or black species, though in- ferior to the Roman is much har- dier. It should be sown in the mid- dle of May, and planted about two feet and a half asunder. Naples broccoli has a white head similar to the cauliflower, and is scarcely distinguishable from it in flavour. According to Dr. Darwin, the cultivation of broccoli and cauli- flower must be very similar, ex- cept as to the seasons of the year; for they are varieties of the same species. The following directions for the culture of this plant Avere transmitted to the Doctor by Mr. Tighe, of Ireland; Avhich for their practical utility, we shall lay before our readers. Broccoli may be so managed, as to supply the table with a delicious and salutary vegetable during se- ven months of the year, namely, from the beginning of November till the end of May. For this pur- pose, procure prime seed from Rome or Naples, both for early and late sowing. Sow at the cessation of the vernal snows, and repeat it once a month till the end of May, or longer. When three leaves ap- pear, transplant them; and whetf BRO six leaves appear, transplant them a second time. Afterwards in June, July and August, transplant them again two or three feet asunder, and let them remain. During Sep- tember and October, the ground must be loosened, repeatedly clear- ed from weeds and stones, and the plants earthed up, to preserve their roots from the frost, and to prevent their being injured by the equinoc- tial winds. Sprinkle the mould about them occasionally with wa- ter impregnated with dung. Care should be taken to sow and plant them at a distance from hedges, trees, and walls. The head of the broccoli is ge- nerally completed in five or six days from its first appearance, and should not be suffered to remain much longer; the stalk may be boiled with the flower, but should be peeled before it is brought to the table. Some kinds of Italian broccoli are said to produce bulbs at their roots, which are supposed to be for the purpose of supporting other stems. If such stalks appear, they should be broken off Avhen the principal stem is transplanted. In order to obtain good seed of the Naples broccoli, a few of the largest heads of the earliest growth must be reserved to run up to seed. All the under shoots should be taken off from time to time as they sprout, leaving only the principal stem to produce flowers and seed. By this management, if no other species of cabbage be permitted to seed near the broccoli, its seeds will be as good as those imported, and the propagation of the plant may thus be continued for many years. BROME-GRASS, or Bromus, L. a genus of plants comprehend- ing forty-six species. BRO 409 1. The Stcalinus, or Smooth Rye Brome-grass; the Polymorphu* of Withering ; which floAvers in July. Cattle are fond of this grass, the seeds of which are prevalent among rye, in a considerable pro- portion, and Avhen ground with the latter for bread, not only render it blackish, but produce a narcotic or stupifying effect. From its flower- bundles, as Bechstein informs us, a beautiful green dye may be easi- ly extracted. 2. The mollis, or Soft Brome- grass, Lob-grass or Oat-grass, is mostly found growing in corn- fields, though sometimes in mea- dows, pastures, hedge-banks, and even on walls: flowers in May and June. Bechstein affirms that this plant affords a very agreeable fod- der to all kinds of cattle, and that it deserves to be cultivated on sandy lands, as being well adapted to con- solidate the soil. But its merits and demerits, in an agricultural view, are not sufficiently ascertain- ed. Mr. Swayne says, that it is a troublesome weed in corn-fields, and therefore disliked by farmers ; while it is of little value in pastures and mowing grounds, where it ge- nerally sheds its seed before the time of mowing, and produces ve- ry feAV root-leaves. 3. The pinnatus (Festuca pin- r.ata, L.) or Spiked Heath Brome- grass is found groAving on heaths, and fields of a calcareous soil: it flowers in July. This grass is much relished by cattle of every de^c iption, but especially by sheep and goats. It deserves to be remarked, with respect to the different species of brome-grass, that, though they may be alloAved to grow in meadows and pasture grounds, their seeds should not be suffered to mingle with corn. To extirpate this noxious 410 BRO BRO weed from rye and wheat-grounds, the farmer Avill find it his interest to employ (as is frequently done on the continent) young people, or even children, in early Aveeding. Such an expedient should be parti- cularly adopted, when the crop of a promising field of Avheat is in- tended for seeel-corn ; as, by this precaution, not only the land may be cleared of the pernicious roots, but the farther propagation of this weed will be effectually prevented. Lastly, the seeds of brome-grass, Avhen mixed with corn, render it much lighter, and consequently of less value to those who purchase and sell grain by weight. BRONZE, a metallic compound of copper and tin, to which zinc and other substances are sometimes added. It is hard, brittle, sonorous and specifically heavier than the metals of Avhich it is composed. M. Tillet, in his memoir con- cerning the ductility of metals, ob- serves, that in bronze the colour of the copper is totally disguised by that of the tin, even though the proportion of the former be four- fifths to that of the latter. This compound is much more fusible than copper alone, and less liable to be covered Avith verdigrise. From the properties here enu- merated it appears, that bronze is well calculated for the casting of bells, cannons, statues, and other Avorks exposed to the air and Avea- ther. Bronze-colour, in imitation of the metal, is much used by the colourmen of Paris, Avho prepare two sorts of it, namely, the red bronze, and the yelloAv or golden : the latter is made solely of the very finest and brightest copper-dust; the former is prepared of the same material, by adding a small propor- tion of well pulverised red ochre. Both are applied, with varnishes, to the outside of substances, as gold leaves are in gilding. But, to prevent it from turning green, the bronzed work should, as soon as laid on, be carefully dried over a chafing-dish. BROOK, a little river, or small current of water. It is distinguish- ed from a river by this circum- stance, that in general it has a cur- rent only at particular seasons, whereas a river flows throughout the year. Considerable damage is some- times occasioned by the overflow. of brooks, in consequence of sud- den and heavy falls of rains. An inundation is caused by a stoppage of the water in its course, which prevents it from running off as fast as it comes in ; consecpiently, if the channel for the efflux be larger than that for the influx, the water will not overflow the banks. Thus, by opening the channel of the river Welland, at Harborough, in Lei- cestershire, England,to a consider- able distance beloAv the bridge, the river has never since overflow- ed the town, as it formerly did after sudden rain. The legislature has enforced the clearing of the channels of brooks near turnpike-roads, by enacting, that the commissioners shall give notice in writing, to the* overseers of the highways, of the several pa- rishes through which such brooks or rivers flow, to open their re- spective channels, that the Avater may have free passage. BROOK-LIME, the Veronica Beccabunga, L. a species of Speed- avell, growing in sIoav shallow streams, and near springs that sel- dom freeze. The whole of this perennial plant is smooth and sue- BRO BRO 4U culent; the stem creeping; the leaves are egg-shaped, flat, ser- rated Avith glands ; the blossoms Avhich are blue, appear in June and July....We have mentioned it as one of the neglected vegetables, which may occasionally be used for culinary purposes, and particularly as a salad. ^ BROOM, the Common, or S/?ar- tium scoparium, L. an indigenous plant, very common on sandy pas- tures and heaths, and requiring no particular description. When grow- ing of a large size, the broom de- serves a place among our flowering shrubs, on account of the profusion of its gold-coloured blossoms. Its use is very extensive, not only in domestic economy, but likewise in the arts, and in medicine. Although this vegetable is chiefly employed for making brooms, thatching houses, and covering stacks in pre- ference to straw, as it more readilv admits the air into the stack, and equally well secures it from rain ; yet it also serves as a substitute for the oak-bark, in the tanning of leather ; for which purpose both the twigs and branches are usefully employed. The old wood of the common broom furnishes the cabi- net-maker with most beautiful materials for veneering. In some places, the tender branches of this plant are mixed Avith hops in brew- ing ; but we doubt whether they are wholesome, as it is affirmed that sheep become intoxicated by browsing upon them. The flower- buds may be preserved as pickles, and eaten instead of capers. From the roasted seeds, a kind of coffee has been maele by the house-wife, though of inferior taste to that ob- tained from the roots of the carrot, beet, succory, &c. The macerated bark of the broom has been found sufficiently fibrous v ol . I. and elastic, to be manufactured into cloth....A tolerably pure alka- line salt is produced by burning the whole plant. In proof of the medicinal proper- ties of this vegetable. Dr. Mead relates the case of a dropsical per- son, who was recovered by taking half a pint of the decoction of green broom-tops, with a spoonful of whole mustard seed, every morn- ing and evening. The patient had been tapped three times, and had tried the usual remedies to no pur- pose. Dr. Withering, on this oc- casion, observes, that an infusion of the seeds, drunk freely, has been known to produce similar happy effects ; but whoever expects such benefit to follow in every dropsical case, will be greatly deceived. He has known them succeed in one case that was tmly deplorable ; but out of a great number of trials fairly made, this proved to be the only- instance, in which the medicine had a good effect. A strong lixivium of the ashes was used in the Sweed- ish army, in the year 1759, for the cure of dropsies consequent to a catarrhal epidemic fever. The urine became plentiful, and the pa- tients were soon restored to per- fect health. Broom, the Spanish, or Sparti- um junceum, L. an exotic shrub, which may be easily cultivated in our climate, by sowing it either in the spring or autumn : but as the plants will not succeed Avhen re- moved after attaining a large size, they should be transplanted before they are two years old....The twigs are employed for basket-AVork, and the flowers afford a plentiful sup- ply of food for bees : hence the cul- ture of this shmb is recommended near bee-hives. Broom-grass. See Brome- grass. 3 F 412 BRO BROTH, a liquor in Avhich the flesh of animals has been boiled ; and which is rendered palatable by the addition of herbs, Sec. If other ingredients be used, such as rice, pearl-barley, oat-meal, Sec. it is then generally called soup. We have already, in the article Beef-tea, pointed out the com- mon error, that broth is more easi- ly digested than solid food. And though we are countenanced in this opinion by the most enlight- ened physicians of the age, yet, we fear, that old customs and deep- rooted prejudices will continue to prevail, while supported by so many old women, beside those of the Faculty. Perhaps nothing but experimental conviction of the contrary, can produce a change of sentiments inbibed with the mo- ther's milk. Mutton-broth, veal- broth, and chicken-broth, are such comfortable things, Avhen the ap- petite is disordered, and the sto- mach fastidious, that they are ge- nerally administered in all states of fever, Avithout any regard to the nature of the disease, or the con- stitution of the patient. In this preposterous manner, the stomach is inundated, and the bowels are drenched, till all their tone and vigour are irrecoverably destroyed. Indeed, from the slight degree of attention paid to the subject of diet, an accurate observer may be led to conclude, that the stomach is destined for a certain time to serve the purpose of a laboratory, where the effect of medicines is to be ascertained, before the vessel to be used in this chemical process has acquired sufficient vigour to withstand the attack. Yet such is the infatuation of the multitude, that they would rather encourage the prosperous commerce in eme- BRO tics and purgatives, than listen to suggestions, which tend to con- fute spurious notions; and, by correcting their former errors, would eventually deprive them of many favourite cups and dishes. Thus, we are not vain enough to flatter ourselves with producing such a change on the prevailing manner of living, as to banish either teas or broths to their pro- per places...the apothecaries'shops; and to substitute in their room, more wholesome articles of nutri- ment ; though we are firmly per- suaded, from reason and daily ex- perience, that the physical order of things has also been perverted in the present age, and that the swal- lowing of drugs is not a primary, but a secondary, object in the cure of diseases. To return from this digression, which every friend of suffering hu- manity will readily excuse, we shall give a few directions for pre- paring broths from other substan- ces, beside those made of butcher's meat. Artificial Broth. Dr. Darwin observes, that all the mushrooms which are cooked at our tables, as Avell as the ketchup made by pre- serving their juices in salt and Ava- ter, possess an animal flavour. In proof of this, the following cir- cumstance may be adduced, which occurred in a family of invalids, who frequently wanted weak broth: the sagacious cook-maid repeatedly eleceived them, by administering a mixture of thin gruel with a small quantity of good ketchup, aeleling only a little salt, and a feAV shred- leaves of parsley. Fish-broth, though nourishing. is by no means equal to that made of Avholesome butcher's meat. Af- ter separating the heads of fish, BRO gutting, and carefully cleansing them from the gall, put them into an earthen pipkin, or a tin sauce- pan, and cover them with water, from half an inch to one inch above their surface, accordingly as the broth is intended to be weak or strong. Onions, parsley, or celery, may be added at pleasure, and the whole should be seasoned with pepper anel salt. After simmering the fish over a gentle fire, till they fall to pieces, add a proportionate lump of fresh butter well floured: when this is dissolved, and the li- quor strained from the bones, the broth is ready for the table ; and may be eaten with bread, either toasted or plain. The fish best adapt- ed for making this palatable soup, are mackerel, perch, roach, dace, gud- geons, bleak, or minnows. And though we do not recommend the preparation of such liquid dishes as eligible, either in point of health or economy, yet as fish in many places, especially near the sea- coast, are of easy purchase, they may occasionally serve as good sub- stitutes for more solid animal food, for Avhich we have lately submitted to pay an exorbitant and unreason- able price. Broth for horses, was formerly considered as an useful medicine for these noble animals, especially in all complaints of the bowels, or the colic. Some farriers also com- mended the use of broth made of ■ tripe, on account of its mucila- ginous quality, in fevers and other elistempers, Avhich prevent a horse from feeding. From later and more accurate observations, however, it appears that liquid animal food, being contrary to their nature, is pernicious to granivorouscreatures, and may generate such disorders as cannot be easily remedied. The B R U 413 use of broth should therefore be confined to the administration of clysters when a horse is costive: thus, by injecting two or three quarts of a fat and emollient de- coction, prepared either of tripe or other intestinal substances contain- ing fatty matter, the crude visci- dities of the bowels may be re- lieved. If the guts be very full, so as to require a strong stimulus, more or less common salt may be added to the clyster, without Avhich the operation will seldom succeed. BRUISES, or contusions, being frequently neglected at first, may produce consequences more alarm- ing than those of wounds. "Blows received on the head, pit of the stomach, hip, or the knee, are the most dangerous. A violent inflam- mation, in consequence of injured nerves, or the destruction of blood vessels, often occasions the morti- fication of those parts, which the most skilful treatment cannot re- trieve, if the accident be neglected for many hours or days. Instead, therefore, of listening to officious old women, or neighbours, an ex- perienced surgeon ought instantly to be consulted. We know a re- cent melancholy instance, of a most promising youth, Avho, when study- ing physic at Edinburgh, was so improvident as to suffer a slight contusion on the knee to pass un- noticed ; which, however, proved fatal to him a week after the acci- dent. When the contusion is slight/ fomentations Avith lukeAvarm vine- gar and water, repeatedly applied to the part, will generally relieve it: but if it be of'a more serious nature, either decoctions of the German leopard's bane (Arnica montana, L.) or arquebusade wa- ter may be preferably used........ 414 B R U BRU •Dr.BucHAN informs us, that he has often seen cataplasms of fresh cow-dung applied to violent con- tusions occasioned by blows, falls, bruises, Sec. and never knew them fail to have a good effect. In more violent cases of this nature, the pa- tient's diet and regimen ought to be in every respect similar to that suggested under the head of In- flammation. Bruises, if neglected, even in temperate climates, are often at- tended with painful effects; but 'they frequently prove fatal in hot countries....With a view to pre- vent inflammation, Dr. Dancer advises speedily to apply embroca- tions, consisting of opodeldoc ; of camphor and strong rum; or of both the last mentioned articles with a little soap; to which a small quantity of laudanum may be add- ed. Should the inflammatory symp- toms increase, he directs the fol- lowing saturnine solution to be employed: Let one or two tea- spoonsful of Goulard's extract, or from one to two drachms of sugar of lead, be combined with 8 oz. of water, 4 oz. of vinegar, and two tea-spoonsful of laudanum. Last- ly, to remove the debility which usually remains after contusions, or sprains of the joints, he recom- mends the affusion of cold water, or stimulating frictions, and elec- tricity. Bruises of dogs, which they of- ten receive either in hunting, or by ether accidents, may be cured, ac- cording to Professor Bradley, in the folloAving manner : If a bruise appear externally, anoint the SAvell- ing with a decoction of chickAveed and groundsel, boiled in strong ale ; which will assuage the pain, and reduce the tumor: but, if it be a wound, cut away the hair, and co\-er it with a plaster made of equal quantities of the roots of great comfrey, meliot, and oil of roses. As the latter, however, might be too expensive an ingre- dient, we recommend either to sub- stitute a little of the spirit of turpen- tine, or more simply, to lay two or three folds of the common black, adhesive plaster on the injured part, immediately after the acci- dent, so as to prevent bleeding, and to exclude the air. But, if there be reason to suspect that the bruise is imvard, give the dog a drench, composed of a pint of new milk, and a quarter of an ounce of spermaceti. Bruises on the withers of a Horse, arise from pinches of the saddle, and from want of care, often im- posthumate, and turn fistulous. Such tumors may be bathed three or four times a day with warm vinegar; and if this application proves ineffectual, either an ounce of the oil of vitriol, or half an ounce of white vitriol, dissolved in a little Avater, should be mixed with a quart of vinegar, which makes an excellent repellent lotion, and will frequently prevent the formation of an abscess. But when the swell- ing is attended with heat,smarting, and little watery pimples, the fol- lowing mixture may be preferally applied : take two ounces of crude sal ammoniac, boiled in a quart of lime-water ; or, instead of these, a handful of wood, or pearl-ashes, boiled in common water ; pour off the decoction, when settled, and mix it with half a pint of spirit of wine ; anoint the parts afterwards with lintseed oil, or elder oint- ment, to soften and smooth the skin. In critical swellings, however, tbe repelling method roust be BRU .avoided, and the swelling relieved by suppurating poultices. These tumors ought never to be opened before they are ripe, but suffered to break of themselves ; otherwise the whole sore will be spongy, dis- charge a bloody ichor, and soon degenerate into an ulcer. The openings, however, may be enlarg- ed, and the lips pared away, that the dressings maybe easily applied, taking care to avoid the ligament, which runs along the neck to the Avithers. If a suppuration appears on the opposite side, let it be treat- ed in the same manner. The open- ings should incline downward, to let the matter flow out easily. If the bones are foul, they must be dressed with tincture of myrrh, till they scale off. When the fungus is very troublesome, and the matter discharged is oily, yellow, and vis- cid, pleelgets soaked in the follow- ing preparation will be found be- neficial : take of blue vitriol, dis- solved in a pint of water, half an ounce; oil of turpentine, and rec- tified spirit of wine, of each four ounces ; white wine vinegar, six ounces; oil of vitriol, and ^Egyp- tiacum, of each two ounces. Let this be made hot, and the pledgets soaked in it, and then immediately applied to the part affected, taking , care to bathe the SAvelling round it Avith spirit of wine and vinegar. When the cavities are fistulous, the callosities must be cut out Avith a knife, where it can be done conve- niently, and the remainder be de- stroyed by corrosives. BRUSH, a domestic implement, consisting generally of a collection of hairs or bristles, fastened in a frame of wood, bone, or ivory ; with, or without a handle; and used for various purposes. This simple manufacture is capable of BRU 415 great improvement; as we seldom meet with brushes, the hair of which is so firmly cemented, or otherwise secured in the frame, as to ensure their constant use, until the hair itself is worn out by me- chanical friction. We shall, un- der the head of Cement, commu- nicate a few hints for remedying this defect. Flesh-Brush, an instrument fre- quently employed for increasing the circulation of the fluids in lan- guid habits, especially in paralytic and rheumatic cases, in order to relieve pain and uneasiness of me skin. Although Ave do not depre- cate, but rather strongly recom- mend, friction to the aged and se- dentary in particular, yet we are of opinion that this simple and use- ful operation may be performed with equal ease, and more atten- tion to cleanliness, by a piece of flannel, than by a flesh-brush ; be- cause the perspirable matter ad- hering to each hair of the latter, is thus spread from one part of the body to another: whereas the for- mer may be frequently turned, and afterwards washed, as often as is necessary. Stomach-Brush, a curious instru- ment which excited considerable attention about the middle of the last century. It was invented by the ancient physicians, but again brought forward by the surgeons of France and Germany, with a view to scower or cleanse the stomach, or remove foreign bodies fallen down the fauces and gullet. It consists of a piece of sponge fastened to a long whale-bone probe ; or is composed of soft hair, formed into a fascicle by twisted brass or steel-wire, the handle or stem of which may be invested with silk or thread. Previous to 416 BRU B RU its application, the patient drinks a small draught of warm water; then the brush, being moistened in some convenient liquor, is introduced into the gullet, and sloAvly pro- truded into the stomach, by twist- ing round its wire-handle. We doubt, however, whether many of our readers Avould submit to this painful operation, which we have mentioned here, on the authority of the Gentleman's Magazine for De- cember, 1750; where a medical correspondent farther advises the operator to draw the handle of this brush up and down in the stomach, and through the oeso- phagus, like the sucker in a syringe till it be, at length, wholly* extracted. He farther suggests the utility of plentiful drinking, while the brush is at work, and so long as any foul matters are discharged. Those readers who incline to try the experiment (which probably no modern surgeon would recommend, unless for removing material ob- structions in the throat, Sec.) will find a cut of this instrument in the Avork above-mentioned...See Gul- let, Windpipe, and [Probang.] Tooth-brush.....Many complaints prevail concerning the imperfect manner inAvhich these instruments are manufactured. We shall not presume to offer any advice to the mechanic ; having, in this respect, uniformly deprecated the use of either brushes or sponges. Regard- less of vulgarprejudices,we venture to recommend the application of the small finger to the gums, Avhen there are no interstices between the teeth ; or the use of a soft piece of calico: the former is a natural instrument, not liable to hurt the gums, as it has the advantage of being soft and pliable; and, by foeling the least pressure or resist- ance, will have no tendency to in- jure the teeth or gums. Nothing, therefore, but injudicious delicacy can oppose this simple substitu- tion. BRUTE, a general name for all animals, except mankind. Among brutes, the monkey kind bears the nearest resemblance to the human race, both in external shape, and internal organization. Investiga- tions relative to the structure and economy of brutes, form the sub- ject of what is called Comparative Anatomy. The essential characteristics of brutes, by which they may be dis- tinguished from man, have attract- ed the attention of many philoso- phers. By some, a brute is de- fined to be an animal not risible, or a living creature incapable of laugh- ter ; by others a mute animal. The peripatetics alloAved to brutes a sen- sitive power, but denied them a ra- tional one. The Platonists consi- dered them as possessed of reason and understanding; though, in a degree less pure and refined than that of man. Descartes main- tained that brutes are mere inani- mate machines, destitute not only of .reason, but of all thought and perception ; and that their actions are only consequences of the ex- quisite mechanism of their bodies. This opinion was probably adopted by Descartes' with a view to ob- viate two objections of great mag- nitude : one, against the immor- tality of the souls of brutes, if they be allowed to have any ; the other, against the goodness of God, in suffering creatures which had never sinned to be subject to so many miseries. The Cartesian system is far from being conclusive, be- cause, even admitting the argu- ments in its favour, to their utmost BRU extent, it only establishes the pos- sibility of brutes being inanimate, and that the power of God is capa- ble of producing various actions from inanimate machines, but by no means proves that he actually has done so ; besides which, it is defective, because it has no limits, as by the Cartesian method of ar- guing, every man might prove his neighbour to be an inanimate ma- chine, as well as a brute. The most rational opposers of the Cartesian system, maintain that brutes are endowed with a princi- ple of sensation, though of an in- ferior nature to ours. From this subject many disputes have origin- ated ; some persons insisting that the soul in brutes is merely sensi- tive, and that they are entirely des- titute of reason and understand- ing ; others, that they not only possess the power of reason, but employ it to greater advantage than men do. That bmtes are endow- ed only Avith sensation, and are destitute of all power of reason- ing, or reflection, cannot be main- tained upon good grounds, nor can it be asserted that their actions proceed entirely from instinct. It is proved by numerous instances, that education will overcome many of the natural instincts of brutes, which could never be the case, if they were absolutely incapable of reflection. On the other hand, it is certain that no brute has ever yet been sufficiently qualified by instructions, either to understand the use of fire, or to undertake the management of that element; a circumstance that alone seems to imply a total defect of rationality. There is a very ingenious trea- tise on this subject, published by the late Prof. Bergmann, entitleei, " Researches designed to sheAv B R Y 417 what the Bmte Animals certainly are not, and also Avhat they proba- bly are." He proves that they are not machines, without, hoAvever, considering them as beings whose actions are directed to moral ends, or as accountable creatures subject to future rewards or punishments. That brutes are capable of re- flection and sentiment, and are sus- ceptible of the kindly as Avell as the irascible passions, independently of sexual attachment and natural af- fection, is evident, from the vari- ous instances of regard and grati- tude daily observable in different animals, particularly the dog: of these and other sentiments, such as pride and glory, many surpris- ing and indubitable proofs are ex- hibited by the elephant, of which we shall give some account in its proper place. But, besides the qualities above alluded to, certain animals seem, on many occasions, to be inspired with a kind of presentiment, with respect to events unforeseen by the rational beings whom they con- cern ; and various instances of this faculty may probably occur to the recollection of most of our readers. By Divine Revelation, brutes are held out to us as objects of mercy : nothing, therefore, can be a greater reproach tohuman nature, than cruelty towards dumb and helpless animals. Of the differ- ent species of cruelty, none Avas more general in England, particu- larly in the metropolis, than that of bullock-hunting; but it is to be hoped, that by the late legal en- actments, together Avith the vigi- lance of the magistracy, this bar- barous practice will at length be entirely suppressed. BRYONY, the White, or more properly, the Red-berried Bry- 418 B R Y BRY Ony, or Wild-wine ; the Bryonia alba or dioica, L. The root is pe- rennial, large, often a foot in cir- cumference ; the stem is several yards" in length ; the leaves nearly hand-shaped ; the flowers of a yel- lowish green colour, appearing in May and June ; and the fruit is a smooth red berry, containing five or six seeds. Some curious persons have a method of carving these roots into human figures, and sel- ling them as mandrakes ; but this useful production may be converted to much better purposes. By long steeping, and cleansing in seA'eral waters, the roots may ultimately be deprived of all their acrimony and bitterness, so as to afford a to- lerable flour; from which (if credit be due to the late Rev.. Dr. Boh- mer, senior of the University of Wittenberg, in Saxony), M. Mo- rand has prepared both starch and bread. Although this is generally consi- dered as one of the poisonous na- tive vegetables, yet there is reason to believe that, especially in sum- mer, Avhen the bitter juice has in a great measure ascended from the root to the stalk and branches, it may usefully be converted into bread : and as it grows to a prodi- gious size, a little trouble would be Avell rewarded ....Mr. Holle- fear states, that two or three of the berries have been eaten Avith- out any observable effect. Bryony-root is purgative and acrid: its smell, Avhen fresh, is strong and disagreeable : its taste nauseously bitter. In spring, it abounds Avith a thin, milky juice, Avhich is so sharp as speedily to excoriate the skin ; but a great part of the acrimony, and almost the whole of the scent, is lost by dry- ing. In summer, the root is less juicy, and weaker both in smell and taste. An extract prepared in water, acts more mildly, and with greater safety, than the root in sub- stance. When given in a quantity from half a drachm to a drachm, or half an ounce of it infused in wine, it proves a gentle purgative, and likewise operates powerfully by urine. Hence small doses of its milky juice have been strongly re- commended by Bergius, for drop- sical and asthmatic complaints. A cold infusion of the root, in water, is externally used in rheumatic pains, or the sciatica. In the form of a cataplasm, it proves a most powerful discutient. Decoctions made with one pound of the fresh root, are the best purgatives for horned cattle. In short, observes Dr. Withering, the active vir- tues of this plant entitle it to more attention than is bestowed on it at present. BRYONY, the Black, or the Bryony lady-seal, the Tamus com- munis, L. It has a large root, sending forth several stems, large heart-shaped, dark green leaves; greenish flowers, and red berries. It blows from May to August, and is frequently found under hedges. According to Dr. Withering, its young shoots are good eating,when dressed like asparagus ; but horses refuse to eat the plant. Its root is like that of the white bryony, acrid and stimulating. The several exotic species of the bryony, as the Africana, the race- mosa, with a red olive-shaped fruit, the Cretica, or spotted bryony of Crete, the variegata, or American bryony, merit cultivation, on ac- count of their beautiful appearance, when full of fruit. BUC B U C 419 BUCK-BEAN, or Menyanthes, L. a genus of plants, comprising four species. 1. The trifbliata, or marsh tre- foil, water trefoil, marsh-cleaver, or trefoil buck-bean: it grows in moist, marshy places, in many parts of Britain, and its very beau- tiful flowers appear in June and July. This useful plant is, accord- ing to Bechstein, a very agreea- ble fodder to cattle : its cultivation is therefore recommended, for im- proving marshy lands. Dr. Wi- thering informs us that cows, horses, and swine refuse it. From experiments made at Upsal, in Sweden, it appears that though goats eat it, sheep will not always relish its leaves ; which, by some persons, are smoked instead of to- bacco. It is farther asserted by others, that such sheep as have a relish for the marsh trefoil are, by eating it, cured of the rot. In Lapland, the powdered roots of this plant are converted into bread, which, however, is not very palatable : and the country people of West-Gothland, in Sweden, em- ploy it for imparting a bitter to ale ; for which purpose two ounces are equally efficacious as one pound of hops. Dr. Darwin also recommends these leaves as a substitute for hops ; anel adds, that they might be equally wholesome and palatable. In dyeing they afford, according to Bechstein, a green and yellow colour. An infusion of the leaves is ex- tremely bitter, and is prescribed in rheumatisms and dropsies : one drachm of them, in powder, both purges and vomits ; and is occa- sionally given as a vermifuge. Dr. Lewis considers the Menyanthes as a powerful aperient and deob- VOL. I. struent, promoting the fluid secre- tions. It has of late gained great reputation in scorbutic and scro- phulous disorders. Inveterate af- fections of the skin, have been cur- ed by an infusion of the leaves taken at proper intervals, to the quantity of a pint in twenty-four hours, and continued for several weeks....Bo- er haave cured himself of the gout, by drinking the juice of this plant mixed with whey. Stubborn facts, like this, require great au- thorities. 2. The nymphaoides, or fringed buck-bean, or lesser yellow-water- lily, growing in large ditches and slow streams. The leaves of this species are heart-shaped at the base, rounded at the end, some- times spotted, about two inches long, and swim on the water. Its fine yellow blossoms appear in July and August. Bechstein relates, that the in- habitants of Japan, where the fringed buck-bean is also indige- nous, eat it as a pickle, simply prepared with salt; or, after sim- mering it in water, and removing the impurities from the top, they use it in broths. BUCK-THORN, or Rhamnus, L. a numerous genus of plants, consisting of 48 species. 1. The catharticus, or purging buckthorn, a shrub groAving in Avoods and hedges, very common in Shropshire, England. It at- tains, if cultivated, the height of 16 feet, flowers in May and June, and its fruit ripens about Michael- mas. Goats, sheep, and horses, eat the leaves, but cows refuse them. In our markets, the fruit of the black-berry bearing alder, and the dog-berry tree, have lately been substituted for those of the buck- thorn. But this species of fraud 3 G 426 BUG BUC may be easily discovered by open- ing the berries ; for the genuine kind have generally four seeds, those of the'alder two, and those of the dog-berry only one. Be- sides, buck-thorn berries alone, Avhen bruised on white paper, give it a green tint. The wood of this shrub is one of the finest for tur- nery, produced in this climate, as it sometimes grows to a size of six or eight inches in diameter. From the juice of the unripe berries, with alum, a yellow ; and from the ripe ones, a fine green dye is obtained: the bark also strikes a yelloAV and broAvn-red colour. The juice of the unripe berries is of the colour.of saffron, and is used for staining maps or paper : that of the ripe berries is the sap-green of minia- ture-painters, and is much esteem- ed ; but if they are gathered late in autumn, the juice is purple. Bechstein remarks, that the book-binders in Germany extract this colour by mixing the fresh juice Avith deep-red, or violet li- quids, with which they dye the most beautiful sorts of paper and leather. In medicine, buck-thorn berries have long been esteemed, and a syrup prepared from them is still kept in the apothecaries' shops, though seldom prescribed; as it occasions much sickness and grip- ing. In a late Latin treatise, pub- lished by Dr. J. G. Kolb, of Er- lang, 1794, the bark of the buck- thorn is much recommended as a mild, cheap, and efficacious reme- dy, in every respect preferable to the berries. After being exposed to the air,or soaked in water, this bark soon assumes a yellow, orange colour. It contains a considerable proportion of gummy ingredients, which render it a tonic, gently as- tringent, and antiseptic medicine. The resinous extract is acrid and astringent, strongly purgative and resolvent: but the bark, in pow- der, mixed with honey, gum ara- bic, or any other mucilage, as well as a watery decoction of it, operates mildly, when taken in small doses, for the cure of intermittents: it may also be beneficially employed in slow, putrid, or nervous fevers, and in general debility after chronic diseases. Externally applied, in green Avounds, laxity of the fibres, malignant foul ulcers, and in stop- ping the progress of mortification, this remedy possesses tonic, gently stimulating and healing proper- ties. The decoction is of great service in reducing inveterate in- flammations of the eyes, and curing the itch; as it cleanses the skin, and abates the burning heat, with- out repelling the humours. But it should never be employed in ulcers that have arisen in consequence of erysipelas, or the rose : in other cases, its application will always be more safe, and attended with better effects, when it is at the same time used internally. 2. \ihe frangula, or alder buck- thorn, or black-berry bearing alder, grows in Avoods and moist hedges; it generally attains a height of from six to ten feet. The wood of this shrub, Avhen young, is soft and yellow, but becomes hard and light- red with age : its external bark is dark-grey, with white spots, but internally yellow; the branches contain an orange-coloured medul- lary tube. Its yellowish leaves appear late in May, or June, and sometimes a second foliage comes forth in autumn. The berries are at first dark-green, then become red, and at length black, when ful- ly ripe ; containing a sweet, though BUC BUG 421 unpleasant juice. Goats devour the leaves with avidity, and they are also eaten by sheep : the flow- ers are particularly grateful to bees. The bark dyes yellow, and with iron, black. The berries gathered before they are ripe, dye" avooI green. Charcoal prepared from the wood, is preferred in making gun-powder. Dambourney made the following successful experi- ment with the ripe berries. He bmised them in cold water, and alloAved the whole to undergo the vinous fermentation, which took place in eight days. This liquor he boiled for half an hour, and then dyed wool that had been pre- viously prepared Avith bismuth: thus he obtained a very beautiful green colour, which he called a new, or native green, because it was not in the least affected either by strong vinegar, or a solution of potash. On adding a little sugar of lead to the dye, the vivacity of the colour was considerably in- creased. The rind, boiled in milk, is as- serted to be a safe and efficacious remedy for eruptions of the skin ; yet Ave do not advise the reader to try experiments Avith this, or simi- lar remedies without consulting a medical friend. Decoctions of the bark in table-beer, are very certain and brisk purgatives, in dropsies, or constipations of the bowels of cattle. Buck-Thorn, the Sea, or com- mon salloAV-thorn, the Hippopha rhamnoides, L. is a very important shrub, growing wild on sandy shores, in various parts of the Bri- tish coast, it sometimes attains the height of eight or ten feet. Its bark is light-brown the wood white, the small leaves of a sea- green colour, but silvery white be- low. The leaves appear early in spring; the yellow flowers in June and July ; the fine red ber- ries late in autumn. In situations contiguous to the sea-shore, or the banks of rivulets, this shrub eminently deserves to be cultivated, as it is Avell calculat- ed to bind a sandy soil, and to prevent the water from penetrat- ing through banks and fences. It may be raised from seeds, but more expeditiously by planting layers, or propagating it from the very abundant spreaeling roots..... On account of its thorny points, it affords excellent hedges, even on a sandy soil. Although cows refuse the leaves of the sea buck-thorn, yet they are broAvsed upon by goats, sheep, and horses. The berries are strongly acid, with an austere vinous fla- vour : in Lapland, they are pickled and used as spice, but the fisher- men of the Gulph of Bothnia pre- pare from them a rob, which, ad- ded to fresh fish, imparts a very grateful flavour. From the leaves of this shmb, M. Suckow obtained an agree- able dark-brown dye for wool and silk, first treated with vitriol of iron : Dambourney succeeded in producing a similar colour on cloth that had been previously steeped in a solution of bismuth. BUCK-WHEAT, the Polygo- num fagnpyrum, L. a species of the Persicaria, also called snake- weed, bucke,branks, French wheat, or crap. As this useful plant re- quires no botanical description, we shall proceed to state its most ap- proved method of culture, and im- portant uses in agriculture: both subj ects being intimately connected. 422 BUC BUC Buck-wheat was introduced into Europe nearly four centuries since; and, according to Gerard's Her- bal, cultivated in England, about the year 1597......It is a native of the northern parts of Asia. Dur- ing the last thirty years it has ex- cited the attention of able agricul- turists, who have furnished us with the following result of their ex- perience. This grain delights in a mellow, dry, loose, sandy soil, but does not thrive so well in a free loamy stone-brash, and should never be sown in wet, poachy ground. It requires little or. no manure, but frequent sun-shine.... On heaths newly ploughed up, the turf of which has been burnt, or that have been manured with Avood- ashes, its vegetation is luxuriant. The proper season for soAving is the last week in [July.] A shower of rain, after the seed is harrowed in, greatly promotes its groAvth, and it generally appears above ground in five or six days. Buck-wheat is in flower through- out the summer, and would yield much larger crops, if all the grains would uniformly ripen, and could be collected at the same time..... About half a bushel is sown on each acre, in this country ; and the Ger- mans calculate sixty pounds weight to every hundred square rods of land. [From seven to eight weeks] only are required for bringing it to maturity, and it produces from twelve to tAventy fold. In this state it affords an excellent substitute for hay ; and it is affirmed, that the German farmer obtains, at less ex- pence than by mowing and drying the whole in the usual Avay, ten times the quantity of corn. Another variety of this grain was, about a century ago, introduced in- to Germany, and has lately also been cultivated in Britain, knoAvri by the name of Siberian Buck- wheat. It possesses considerable advantages over the former; be- cause it is not only a fourth part heavier in the grain, but also more palatable, and, in this respect, re- sembles rice. It thrives in the poorest soil, is not affected by cold, and being more disposed to branch out and spread its stalks, requires scarcely one half of the seed ne- cessary for the culture of the pre- ceding species. From repeated experiments, made in this country, it appears that the culture of buck-wheat ought, in many cases, to be adopt- ed in preference to a summer-fal- lowing; as the crop produced is not only so much clear gain, but also affords a considerable quantity of straw for fodder and manure ; besides which, it is a more advan- tageous preparation for the next crop. There will be sufficient time to soav the land with buck- wheat after spring feedings, a crop of turnip-rooted cabbage or vetch- es. When sown in July, buck- wheat is an excellent sheltering crop to clover ; and two crops of this grain have,in favourable years, been obtained from the same land. Mr. Arthur Young, in the sixth volumn of the Annals of Agricul- ture, has inserted an instructive paper, communicated by the Rev. R. Moseley (Sept. 11th, 1786,) from which we leam the following valuable facts : That three crops were sown on the same ground, between autumn and autumn, with only three ploughings, namely, winter-tares in September, with one ploughing, which were reaped early in the succeeding summer; BUC BUC 423 then immediately buck-Avheat Avas sown, after one ploughing and har- rowing : in September the buck- wheat was ploughed in, and Avheat was sown on this one ploughing, the crop of which was great. Thus, says Mr. Young, as the spring ad- vances, and the sun becomes poAV- erful enough to exhale the humidi- ty of the land, the crop also ad- vances and screens it from the ac- tion of his beams. The weeds in the soil vegetating with the young tares, are either strangled by their luxuriance, or cut off with them, before they produce seed. This crop is cleared from the land so early, that the soil Avould remain exposed to the sun for three months, in the most scorching heat of the summer; and, if thus left exposed, the three ploughings would be hurtful to the soil, except that they might destroy some weeds. Hence to give one plough- in gwmfrfzafe/i/, and harrow in buck- wheat, saves expence; and the growing herbage shades the earth, when it most requires to be pro- tected : by this management, a dressing of manure is gained at the cheapest possible rate. In short, to introduce a system more com- plete, is not in the power of sci- ence. It appears to be undecided, whe- ther buck-wheat improves or im- poA-erishes the soil. There can be no doubt that it will produce the latter effect, like all plants that are suffered to run to seed ; and, on the contrary, that it renders the soil more fertile,when ploughed in, before the seeds are formed. Such at least, is the opinion of Mr. Bordley and Mr. Farrer a con- siderable corn-factor in London. But Mr. Young, whose knowledge and reputation are equally great, observes, on the strength of his own experience, that this plant ameliorates the soil insomuch, that the farmer may have any crop after it, especially wheat; for which reason it is (1784) commonly culti- vated about Norwich, England. One of the principal uses of buck-wheat in this country, is that of feeding horses. Mr. Farrer advises it to be mixed with bran, chaff, or grains, either whole or broken in a mill. When consum- ed in the state of grass, it flushes coavs with milk ; hence it is pre- sumed, that the meal mixed with grains would have the same good effect, and enrich the milk. One bushel of it is equal to two bushels of oats, even mixeel with beans, and four times the quantity of bran; it will be full food for a horse a- Aveek, and require much less hay. According to his experience, eight bushels of buck-wheat meal will go as far as twelve bushels of barley meal. But the American farmers assert, that it is an improper food for horses on a journey, or employ- ed in active labour; though its meal, when mixed with other com, or cut straw, answers well even for horses in a slow draught. It is unquestionably a cheap corn, sub- servient to many good purposes, and peculiarly excellent for fatten- ing hogs and poultry : the former are said to become intoxicated by eating the whole plant; but no such effect takes place from the seeds alone. Dr. Withering observes, that sheep feeding upon this vege- table, become unhealthy ; but it is relished by cows and goats. [Hogs feeding upon this vegeta- ble are very liable to scabby erup- tions. Buck-Avheat should be sown thin, because the top blossoms are very 424 BUC BUC apt to be burnt by the sun, in which case, the under ones will be saved, as they spread out and protect one another from the sun. If sown tliick, the plants cannot throw out under branches. If the grain stands, when ripe, it may be cra- dled ; but Avhen it has fallen, the scythe must be used, and the crop permitted to lie three days....then raked while the dew is on, to. pre- vent the grain shedding....then threshed by horses. Buck-wheat answers very well with clover. Sow the buck-wheat first and harrow, then sow the clo- ver seed, and let the roller follow immediately. In this way the land Avill be sown even, and the ground made level for the cradle. The advantages of the buck-wheat are, that it preserves the moisture of the land, in case a dry season should follow; shelters the clover till the month of Oct. when the buck-Avheat is cut: after which, the sun can no longer injure the clover, but gives it a due por- tion of warmth, and pushes it for- Avard until the cold of winter locks up all vegetation. With respect to the question, Avhether buck-Avheat is, or is not an exhauster of the soil, a positive answer may be given. A field in- tended for barley, Avas partly sown with buck-Avheat, and when in blos- som in Sept. it Avas ploughed in ; the other part of the field was left falloAv until seed time. In the suc- ceeding season, the barley groAving on the part in which the buck- Avheat had been ploughed, Avas evi- dently superior to that Avhich grew on the fallow part. This experi- ment, made by a plain farmer, on the German-toAvn road, with a lau- dable Aiew of determining the question, leaves no room to doubt, that buck-wheat ploughed in when in full blossom, acts as an excellent green dressing manure. The straw of buck-wheat is but little esteemed. Sheep, however, feed on it. It also makes good manure when thrown into the farm yard.] For culinary purposes, also, the grain of the buck-wheat is used in various forms, anel affords a nutri- tious meal, which is not apt to turn sour on the stomach. Mixed with barley, it is in Tuscany, baked in- to bread, which possesses the pro- perty of retaining its moisture much longer than that of pure wheat; and though of a darker co- lour, it is equally nourishing..... In Germany, a very palatable grit, or a granulated meal, serving as an ingredient in pottage, puddings, Sec. is prepared of buck-wheat; and if the seed be pure, the pro- duce of each bushel is ten pecks. In the electorate of Brandenburgh, not only ale and beer is brewed from a mixture of it with malt, but likewise a veiy excellent spirit of a blueish shade is obtained by dis- tillation ; the flavour of which re- sembles that of French brandy. The taste and colour of stale beer, may be much improved by addifig a small quantity of the flour of this grain. From this, as well as the pre- ceding species of buck-wheat, the Tartars prepare a delicious food, by simply blanching the seeds, with- out mills or ovens, in a manner very ingenious, and applicable to most other species of grain. They first pour cold water on the seed, and stir it well, in order to bring the light and imperfect grains to the top, Avhich are thrown away with the water. Then the wet com is put in sacks, where it is suffered to BUC BUC 425 remain from ten to twelve hours : thus, after swelling a little, it is roasted over a slow fire in iron pans, and continually stirred till the grain becomes tolerably hard, so that it feels tough and elastic, between the teeth. In this manner, the husks soon crack, and may easily be se- parated from the kernel, in one of the plainest domestic implements, a wooden mortar, or a bruising ma- chine made of the hollow trunk of a tree. By this process, the grain acquires a yellow transparent ap- pearance, and is much improved in taste. [Buck-Wheat reduced to flour, mixed with water, and a little yeast, will rise in the course of two hours, if placed near a fire, and being then baked upon a hot iron, previously greased, forms very pleasant cakes, which when buttered, constitute part of the diet of many persons in the U. States during the winter. By depriving the grain of its husk before grinding, the flour is render- ed white, and is much esteemed.] From the fresh blossoms of these plants, Dambourney dyed wool, prepared with bismuth and tin, of a beautiful brown colour; and, from the dryed floAver-bundles, different shades of green. Those of the Si- berian species, in particular, yield- ed a fine yellow, which, on boiling the wool still longer in the dye, changed into a golden tint, and at length assumed a brilliant yellow. There is a third species of buck- Avheat, thecultureof which has late- ly been strongly recommended by Professor Pallas, and Dr. Wi- thering ; and which we shall pre- sently describe. Buck-Wheat, the Climbing, black bindweed, or climbing snake- weed ; the Polygonum convolvulus, I., a native vegetable, groAving about corn-fields, gardens, and hedges ; it floAvers in June and July. Its seeds are as good as those of the two preceding species, are produced in greater quantity, may be more easily collected, as they ripen more uniformly, and the plants bear cold better than the ex- otics before mentioned. Accord- ing to Linnaeus, cows and goats eat it, but sheep, swine, anel horses, refuse it. Its culture in fields, is, however, attended Avith this inconvenience, that its creeping stalks must be supported by brush-wood, and it is consequently better adapted for be- ing cultivated in gardens. It is remarkable, that most Bri- tish and foreign Avriters indiscri- minately recommend the culture of the buck-wheat, likeAvise, on ac- count of its flowers, which are very grateful, and beneficial to bees ; and that Dr. Darwin, in particu- lar, (see page 243 of this Encyclo- paedia), mentions a species of buck- wheat, the Polygonum melampirum, of which we can find no account in the botanical works of this country: with deference to his profound knowledge of natural history, we are almost inclined to think, the Doctor alludes to a very different species of buck-Avheat (perhaps cow-wheat) that is not cultivated in Britain. BUCKING, one of the opera- tions performed in the Avhitening of linen cloth,or yarn.....See Bleach- ing. BUCKRAM, is coarse linen cloth, stiffened with glue, and used in the makingof garments, to keep them in proper form. It also serves for av rappers to cover cloths, serges, and other articles,of mer- chandize, in order to preserve them from being soiled, and prevent their 426 BUD colours from fading. In general, old sheets and pieces of cloth are converted into buckram ; but some- times new ^pieces of linen cloth are used for that purpose. Buckrams are sold wholesale by the dozen of remnants, or small pieces, of about four ells long, and of different breadths. BUD, in botany, the embryo or rudiment of a plant, growing on the stems anel branches of trees, and covered with scales, or with a resinous varnish, to protect it from the winter cold, and from the de- predation of insects....Buds proceed from the extremities of the young shoots, and along the branches, sometimes single, sometimes two by two, either opposite or alternate, and sometimes collecteel in greater numbers. In general, we may dis- tinguish three kinds of buds : the leaf-bud, the flower bud, and that containing both in one covering. The first species contains the rudi- ments of several leaves, which are variously folded over each other, and surrounded by scales. The second species, or flower bud, con- tains the rudiments of one or seve- ral flowers, folded and covered in a similar manner. This bud is called by Pliny oculusgemma, or the eye of the bud, and is employed in that species of grafting, called inoculation. The third sort, which is the* most common of any, pro- duces both flowers and leaves. Buds, together Avith bulbs, Avhich are a species of buds, generally seated on, or near the root, are very properly called by Linn^us hybernacula, a term signifying the winter-quarters of the embryon shoot. As plants are supposed to bear a striking analogy to animals, they may, not improperly, be reckoned BUD both v iviparous and oviparous ; in Avhich view, seeds may be consi- dered as vegetable eggs ; buds, as living foetuses, or infant plants, which renew the species as certain- ly as the seed. As each bud contains in itself the rudiments of a plant, and would, if separated from its parent vege- table, become in all respects similar to it, Linnaeus, to shew the won- derful fertility of Nature, has made a calculation, from which it appears, that in a trunk scarce exceeding a span in breadth, no less than ten thousand buds may be produced. How great then must be the num- ber of plants, which are capable of being raised from one large tree! .....See the article Leaves. Flower-buds of many trees, says Dr. Darwin, arise immediately from the terminating shoots or spurs of the preceding year, and are either accompanied with leaf buds or separately, as in apple and pear-trees. Others proceed from the shoots of the present year, al- ternately with leaf-buds, as those of vines, and form the third or fourth buds of the new shoots. They differ from leaf-buds, because they perish when their seeds are ripe, without producing any addi- tion to the tree ; the leaf-buds, on the contrary, decay in autumn, and their caudexes are then gradually converted into alburnum, or sap- wood ; over which the new leaf- buds shoot forth their caudexes and radicles, or insert them into it, and gradually fabricate the new bark and root fibres. Some of the disciples of Lin n;&• us are of opinion, that about Mid- summer leaf-buds may be changed into floAver-buds, orflower-buds into leaf-buds ; and this may be effected even after the vegetable embryons BUG are generated, by weakening or strengthening the growth of the last year's buds. Hence, if some inches of a branch be lopped off at Midsummer, which is sometimes done by unskilful gardeners, the remaining buds on that branch will become more vigorous, and produce leaf-buds instead of flower-buds. But the contrary effect will take place, if a vigorous branch of a wall-tree be bent beneath the hori- zon, so as to impede the generation of new caudexes. Budding. See Engrafting. [BUFFALO.....Some successful attempts have been made in the Western Country to domesticate this very powerful animal. When taken young they are broken to the yoke with as little trouble as common steers. Considering the uncommon strength of this animal, which is twice as great as that of oxen, and the great numbers that are annually killed by the hunters, in the wilds of the Western World; it is surprising that they are not upon every farm on the Mississippi and Ohio. It is very probable that a cross with a common cow might produce a highly valuable breed, and it h an experiment worthy of the numerous enterprising charac- ters residing in that extensive coun- try.] BUG, in zoology, a species of cimex, too well known to need any description. Of the various recipes for the extirpatidi. anel prevention of these vermin, the following have been found by experience, to be the most effectual: 1. Take of the highest rectified spirit of wine, half a pint; newly distilled oil, or spirit of turpentine, half a pint: mix them together, and crumble into it half an ounce vol. i. BUG 427 of camphor, which will dissolve in a few minutes: shake the whole well together, and with a piece of sponge, or brush dipped into it, anoint the bed, or furniture, in which those vermin harbour and breed ; and it will infallibly kill and destroy both them and their nits. Should any bug, or bugs, happen to appear after once using it, the application must be repeat- ed, and at the same time some of the mixture poured into the joints and holes of the bedstead and head- board. Beds that have much wood-work, require to be first taken down, before they can be thoroughly cleared of these ver- min ; but others may be perfectly cured without that trouble....It is advisable to perform this work in the day-time, lest the spirit con- tained in the mixture take fire from the candle, while using it, and oc- casion serious damage : 2. Or, Take an ounce of quick- silver, and the whites of six or eight eggs ; beat them together till the quicksilver appears like a black sediment at the bottom of the ba- son ; then rub it over all the joints and crevices of the bed with a painter's brush. This will have the desired effect, while it gives a varnish to the furniture, and im- parts no disagreeable smell. 3. Or, mix the pulp of the bitter apple with a solution of vitriol, and apply the composition carefully to all the crevices, Avhich serve as a nursery to the bu> at present, used in our daily food, chiefly on account of its agreeable taste, Ave shall first speak of its physical proper- ties....To render it less hurtful, it ought to be perfectly fresh, and free from rancidity; which it easily acquires, if the butter-milk has not been completely separated. Fried, or burnt butter, is still more detri- mental to health ; as it is thus con- verted into an acrid, and even caus- tic fluid, which cannot fail to dis- order the stomach* to render di- BUT BUT 453 gestion difficult and painful, to excite rancid belchings, and ulti- mately, to taint all the fluids with a peculiar acrimony. Hence, toast and butter should never be eaten by persons who value their health; as there are many who, even by fresh butter, are affected with those inconveniencies. Nor can we re- commend the prevailing custom of melting butter with flour and wa- ter; for, in this manner, it forms a compound more indigestible,than sweet butter is in its natural state. Butter, forms a considerable ar- ticle of trade. It is affirmed that not less than 50,000 tons are an- nually consumed in London; of which the counties of Cambridge and Suffolk are said to furnish .50,000 firkins, each containing 561b. None, however, is equal to that produced in Essex, and known by the name of Epping but- ter, which Avas formerly sold at from 12d. to 14d. per pound avoir- dupois ; but, lately, at the exorbi- tant price of Is. 8d. With respect to the various me- thods of making butter, we shall state only those practised in Essex; to enable the reader to select the most useful parts of the different processes, and apply them to par- ticular situations. The Epping method has been describedby Mr. Josiah Hazard; from whose directions Ave extract the following particulars : After having stated the proper requisites for a Dairy-house, which we shall communicate under that hcael of the alphabet, he observes, that a good milch-cow may be worth from 7 to 101. a year, whereas an indifferent one will bring in no more than from 5 to 61. during the same period: hence the farmer ihou'.d never keep any but such as afford an abundance of milk. No milk must be suffered-to remain in the udder, as by this neglect the coav will give less every meal, till at length she becomes dry before her proper time, and, the next season, will scarcely give suffici- ent to repay the expences of keep- ing her. If a cow's teats are scratched, or Avounded, her milk will be foul, and should not be mixed with that of other cows, but given to pigs. In warm weather, the milk should remain in the pail till it is nearly cool, before it is strained ; but, in frosty weather, this should be done immediately, and a small quantity of boiling water mixed with it; which will produce cream in abun- dance, especially in pans, or vats, of a large surface. During the hot summer-months, the milk should stand only 24 hours, and the cream be skimmed from it, either early in the morn- ing, before the dairy becomes Avarm ; or jn the evening, after sunset. In winter, the milk may remain unskimmed for 3-6, or even •48 hours ; the cream ought to be preserved in a deep pan, kept, dur- ing summer, in the coolest part of the dairy, or in a cool cellar where a free air is admitted. Dr. An- derson (whose aphorism on this subject we shall quote at the con- clusion of the present article), is of opinion, that the temperature of a dairy should, if possible, be kept between 50 and 55* of Fahrenheit; Avhich is nearly about the average temperature of a building secured from the external air, in the man- ner he has proposed ; and a deli- neation of which the reaelerwill find under the article Milkhouse. Those, Avho have not an oppor- tunity of churning every other 454 BUT BUT day, should shift the cream daily into clean pans, in order to keep it cool; but they should regularly churn twice a Aveek in hot wea- ther, and this in the morning be- fore sun-rise, taking care to fix the churn in a free draught of air. Nor should this vessel be exposed to a fire so near as to heat the wood in cold seasons, as by this means the butter will acquire a strong rancid flavour. A correspondent in the Papers of the Bath and West-qf-England Society, observes, that the opera- tion of churning may be much facilitated, by adding a table- spoonful or two of distilled vinegar to a gallon of cream, but not till after the latter has undergone consi- derable agitation. When the butter is churned, it should immediately be washed in several waters, till it be perfectly cleansed from the milk ; but a warm hand will soft- en it, and make it appear greasy. Hence it is advisable to employ two pieces of wood, such as are used by cheese-mongers ; an ex- pedient by which those who have naturally a very warm hand, might render their butter more saleable. See Churning. In many parts of England, but- ter is artificially coloured in Avin- ter ; though this process adds no- thing to its goodness. The far- mers in and near Epping, take sound carrots, the juice of which they express through a sieve, and mix Avith the cream, when it enters the chum ; which makes it appear like May-butter. There is very little salt used in the best Epping butter ; but it is a fact, that a cer- tain proportion of acid, either na- tural or artificial, must be used in the cream. In order to ensure a successful cfiurniu^ some keep a small quantity of the old cream for that purpose; some use a little rennet, and others a few tea- spoons* ful of lemon juice. Cleanliness in the dairy is, at all times, an essential requisite. The Lancashire method of pre- paring milk for butter, is as fol- lows : The whole milk is divided into two parts ; the first drawn be- ing set apart for family use, after being skimmed; the cream of which is put into proper vessels, as also the Avhole of the second, or last drawn milk, provincially called afterings. These two, being mix- ed together, are stirred, but not to a great depth, to prevent the bad effects of foul air accumulating on the surface, anel kept according to the season of the year, exposed to the fire, for promoting the acetous fermentation, which is accelerated by the acid remaining in the pores of the vessels. For this reason they are not scalded, except after hav- ing contracted some taint; and, in this case, they are sometimes very expeditiously rinsed out with sour butter-milk : during this prepara- tion for souring, the milk is kept ready for the churn ; and, in con- sequence of such judicious treat- ment, more butter is obtained, and of a better quality, than if the milk were churned in a sweet state> Decisive experiments have been made, in order to ascertain whether it be more profitable to churn the Avhole milk, or only the cream Avhich the milk produces; it Avas found that one day's milk of a par- ticular coav, churned by itself, yielded only 12oz. of butter; and the cream of two days milk pro- duced 31b. 2oz. Hence it appears to be more profitable to collect the cream, and chum it, than to churn BUT the whole milk. Cream-butter is, likewise, the richer of the two, ihough it will not keep so long sweet. In justice to Dr. James Ander- son, who has favoured the public with an excellent Essay " On the Management of the Dairy." inserted in the correspondence of the Bath and West -of-England Societij, we shall communicate a few of his aphorisms: 1. The first milk drawn from a cow is ahvays thin- ner, and of an inferior quality to that Avhich is afterwards obtained ; and this richness increases pro- gressively, to the very last drop that can be drawn from the udder. 2. Tin.' portion of cream rising first to the surface, is richer in quaiitv, and greater in euiantity, than what rises in the second equal space of time, and so forth : the cream con- tinually decreasing, and growing worse than the preceding. 3. Thick milk produces a smaller proportion of cream than that which is thinner, though the cream of the former is of a richer qua- lity. If, therefore, the thick milk be diluted with water, it will af- ford more cream than it would have done in its pure state ; but its quality will at the same time be inferior. 4. Milk carried about in pails, or other vessels, agitated, and partly cooled, before it be poured into the milk-pans, never throws up such a good and plentiful cream as if it had been put into proper vessels immediately after it came from the cow. [From these fundamental facts, says Dr. Andfk son,respecting the dairy; many very important coroll- aries, serving to direct the practice, may be deduced ; among which we shall only take notice of the fol- lowing: BUT 455 First. It is evidently of much importance, fhat the cows should be always v.iilked us near the dairy as possible, to prevent the necessity of carrying and cooling the milk before it be put into the dishes ; and as cows are much hurt by far driving, it must be a great advan- tage in a dairy farm to have the principal grassfields as near the dairy or homestead us possible..... In this point of view also, the prac- tice of feeding cows in the house rather than turningthem out to pas- ture in the field, must, appear to be obviously beneficial. Second. The practice of putting the milk of all the cows of a large dairy into one vessel, as it is milk- ed, there to remain till the whole milking be finished, before any part is put into the milk-pans, seems to be highly injudicious, not only on account of the loss sustained by the agitation and cooling; but also, and more especially, because it prevents the owner of the dairy from elis- tinguishing the good from the bad cow's milk, so as to enlighten his judgment respecting the profit that he may derive from each. With- out this precaution, he may have the whole of his dairy produce greatly debased I y the milkofotv bad cow, for years together, with- out being able to discover it. A better practice therefore Avould be, to have the milk drawn from each cow separately, put into the cream- ing-pans as soon as milked, Avithout being ever mixed with any other: and if these pans were all made of such a size as to be able to contain the Avhole of one cow's milk, each in a separate pen. so tlpt the care- ful dai (an evcellcnt i -• rovincial word denoting the person who has the chief concern in a eh.iry) vvould thus he able to remark, without 456 BUT BUT any trouble, the quantity of milk afforded by each cow every day, as Avell as the peculiar qualities of the cow's milk. And if the same cow's milk were always to be placed on the same part of the shelf, •having the cow's name Avritten be- neath, there never could be the smallest difficulty in ascertaining which of the cows it would be the owner's interest to dispose of, and which he ought to keep and breed from. Third. If it be intended to make butter of a very fine quality, it will be advisable, not only to reject en- tirely the milk of all those cows which yield cream of a bad quali- ty ; but also, in every case, to keep the milk that is first drawn from the cow at each milking, entirely separate from that which is got last; as it is obvious, if this be not done, the eiuality of the butter must be greatly debased, without much augmenting its emantity. It is also obvious, that the quality of the butter -will be improved in pro- portion to the smaliness of the quantity of the last draAvn milk which is used, as it increases in richness to the very last drop that can be drawn from the udder at that time, so that those who Avish to be singularly nice keep for their best butter a very small proportion only of the last drawn milk. It is a matter of some import- ance, to determine in what way the inferior milk which is thus set apart, when fine butter is av anted, can be employed with the greatest profit. In the highlands of Scot- land, the people have adopted a practice merely from considera- tions of convenience and economy, without thinking of the improve- ment of the butter, which answers r.iai'y jjood purposes. As the rear- ing of calves is there a principal object with the farmer, every covf is allowed to suckle her calf Avith a portion of her milk, the remainder only being employed for the pur- poses of the dairy. To give the calf the proportion allotted to it re- gularly, it is separated from the cow, and put into a small inclosure made for the express purpose, on every farm, of confining all the calves belonging to that farm. At regular times the cows are brought to the door of this enclosure, Avhere the young ones fail not to meet them. Each calf is then sepa- rately let out, and runs directly to its mother, Avhere it is allowed to suck till the dairy maid judges that it has had enough ; it is then se- parated, the legs of the mother having been previously shackled, by a very simple contrivance, to oblige her to stand still, and the dairy maid milks off what was left by the calf. They proceed in this manner till the whole of the cows are milked, and thus do they obtain a small quantity of milk, it is true, but that of an exceeding rich qua- lity ; which, ir the hands of such as know how tr. manage it, is ma- nufactured into the richest mar- rowy butter that cvn be ;uiy where met Avith. This richness of the highland butter has been long re- marked, arel has beev vi.rversally ascribed to the rid grabs that the cows feed upon in those remote glens ; but it is in fact chiefly to be attributed to the practice here des- cribed, Avhich \>s long prevailed in those districts. Other secondary uses might be found for the milk of inferior qua- lity. It might be converted into butter of a stcondary C|uality; or might be sold SAveet, where the si- tuation of the farm is within reach BUT of a town; or it might be convert- ed into cheeses, Avhich by being made of sweet milk, if made with care and skill, might be of a fine quality.] Dr. Anderson, in the same paper, imparts the folloAving judi- cious hints : The milk should be forced out of the cavities of the butter with a flat, Avooden ladle, or skimming dish, provided with a short handle ; and this, should be dexterously performed, with as little working of the butter as pos- sible ; for if it be too much beat and turned, it will become tough and gluey, which greatly debases its quality. To beat it upby the hand, is an indelicate practice. [When butter is first made, and just taken out of the butter-milk, get out of it as much of the butter-milk as you can; then spread it thin over a mar- ble-stone, or plate of clean iron, and soak up the remaining moisture by patting it with dry towels. This will tend to keep it sweet longer than otherwise.] It is also very detrimental to pour cold water on the butter, during this operation. If the heat should be so great, as to render it too soft to receive the impression of the mould, it may be put into small vessels, allowed to SAvim in the trough of cold water under the table ; preventing, how- ever, the water from touching the butter : thus it will, in a short time, acquire the necessary degree of firmness, especially if a small piece of ice be put into the vessel. The Doctor, on this occasion, severely censures the practice that prevails in many private families, of keep- ing fresh butter in water, and thus bringing it to table in aglass vessel. If coolness only is Avanted, he ac'- tises to put the butter into a dry BUT 457 glass, and immerse this into cold Avater : and if it be taken out im- mediately before it is used, such butter will, in our climate, always have sufficient firmness. After the butter has been beaten up and cleared from the milk, it is ready for being salted. The ves- sels intended for this purpose, be- ing rendered perfectly clean, should be rubbed in the whole inside with common salt; and a little melted butter should be poured into the cavity, between the bottom and the sides : thus prepared, they are fit to receive the butter. The following methoel of prepar- ing butter is advantageously prac- tised in Holland. W hen the cows are milked, the fluid is not poured into pans, till it becomes perfectly cold ; it is then stirred two or three times in the day, so that the cream and milk may more intimately com- bine, and if it be agitated till a spoon will nearly stand upright, the but- ter thus obtained is held in high esteem. As soon as the milk ac- quires a proper consistence, it is poured into a churn, Avorked for an hour, anel Avhen the butter begins to form, one or two pints of cold water are added, in proportion to the capacity of the vessel; with a view to separate the milk with greater facility. After the butter is taken out of the chum, it is repeatedly washed and kneaded, in pure water, till the last affusion be clear and free from milk. In this simple manner, a larger portion of butter is gained from an equal proportion of milk, and which is not only more firm and sweet, but also remains fresh for a longer time than that usually made in England, while the butter- milk is more palatable. 458 BUT [Dr. Anderson observes that wooden vessels are most proper for containing salted butter. They should be made of cooper work, and joined with wooden hoops. It will be advisable to make them strong where they are to be return- ed to the dairy ; for as it is a mat- ter of considerable difficulty to sea- son new vessels so well, as that they shall not affect the taste of the but- ter, it is always advisable to employ the old sound vessels, rather than make new ones. Iron hoops should be rejected ; as the rust from them will in time sink through the wood, though it be very thick, and injure the colour of the butter: one iron hoop may be put at the top, and another below and beyond the bot- tom ; the projection below the bot- tom being made deep for the pur- pose. An old vessel may be prepared for again receiving butter by the or- dinary process of scalding, rinsing and drying ; but to season a new vessel requires greater care. This is to be done by filling it frequently with scalding Avater, allowing it to remain till it slowly cools. If hay, or other SAveet vegetables, are put into the vessel with the Avater, it is sometimes thought to facilitate the process. A considerable time is required before they can be render- ed fit for use.] Although common salt is gene- rally employed for preserving but- ter, yet Dr. Anderson has found by experience, that the following composition not only preserves the butter more effectually from any taint of rancidity, but makes it also look better, taste sweeter, richer, and more marrowy, than if it had been cured with common salt alone. Best common salt, two parts; salt- petre, one part; sugar, one part : BU T beat them up together, so that they may be completely blended. To every pound, or sixteen ounces of butter, add one ounce of this conn position. Mix it well in the mass, and close it up for use. Butter prepared in this manner, will keep good for three years, and cannot be distinguished from that recently salted. It should, however, be re- marked, that butter, thus cured, does not taste well till it has stood a fortnight, or three weeks. In the opinion of Dr. Anderson, such butter would keep sweet during the longest voyages, if it were so stowed, that it could not melt by the heat of the climate, and occasion the salts to separate from it. Hence the butter ought to be previously freed from its mucilage, which is more putrescible than the oily parts. In order to prepare it for a distant voyage, let it be put into a vessel of a proper shape, which should be immersed into another, contain* ing water. Let this be gradually heated, till the butterbe thoroughly melted, in which state it may re- main for some time, and then be allowed to settle. Thus, the muci- laginous part will fall entirely to the bottom, and the pure oil will swim uppermost, perfectly trans- parent, while hot; but, on cooling, it becomes opaeme, assumes a co- lour somewhat paler than the origi- nal butter, before it was melted, and acejuires a firmer consistence ; by which it is better enabled to re- sist the heat of tropical climates. When this refined butter is become somewhat firm, yet soft enough to be handled, the pure part should be separated from tbe dregs, then salted, and packed in the usual manner. There is another, still more cu- rious way of preserving this refined BUT BUT 459 butter, stated by Dr. Anderson. After it is purified, add to the but- ter a certain portion of firm honey, mix them well, and they will tho- roughly incorporate ; this mixture, when spread on bread, has a very pleasant taste, and may be given to aged persons, if they relish it, in- stead of marrow; and to others, as being useful for coughs and colds. The proportion of honey employed was considerable ; and the Doctor remarks, that this mixture has been kept for years, without acquiring the least degree of rancidity ; so that there can be no doubt that but- ter might thus be safely preserved during long voyages. Besides the different modes of curing butter already described, it may be easily preserved in a sweet state, by melting it down in large vessels over a slow fire ; care being taken to remove the scum that rises to the surface. This method be- ing adopted by the Tartars, we have inserted it on the authority of Mr. Eton, who states, in his late inte- resting " Survey of the Turkish Em- pire," he. 8vo. that he has used butter, thus boiled, anefthen salted, as is usual in Britain ; in which state it remained perfectly SAveet for the space of two years. [Butter has been sent from Phi- ladelphia to the W. Indies in sum- mer, and kept well, by packing it in a stone jar, and pouring a strong pickle on the top, about two inches deep. The cover of the jar was se- cured by a cloth, and over this there Avas a covering of Plaister of Paris (C\ ;,sum).] The food of coavs very often af- fects the taste of butter. Thus, if wild garlic,chavloc, or May-weed, be found in a pasture ground, cows should not be suffered to feed there, before the first grass has been mown, vol.. l. when such pernicious plants will not again appear till the succeeding spring ; but milch-cows must not partake of the hay made of those plants, as it will likewise communi- cate their pernicious influence. Cows should never be suffered to drink water from stagnant pools, in which there are frogs, spawn, Sec ; or from common sewers, or ponds that receive the drainings of stables ....all which are exceedingly im- proper. As turnips and rape imp" a dis- agreeable taste to milk and butter, Mr. Arthur Younxj directs the dairy-man to boil two ounces of saltpetre in a quart of water ; to bottle the decoction; and, when cold, to put a large tea-cupful of the mix- ture into ten, or twelve quarts, of neAv milk, immediately after it comes from the cow. As the tur- nips become stronger, the propor- tion of nitre may be increased..... A shorter, and equally effectual me- thod, is, to scald the pans, or trays, with boiling water, just before the milk is poured in, and [add one quart of boiliig water to eight of milk.].....But it is not generally knoAvn that the bad flavour, or ran- cidity of turnip-butter, arises solely from the green food, or the tops of that plant. By previously cutting these away, the evil is completely prevented. Lord Egremoxt has adopted this expedient: he fed from 25 to 30 cows, for the greatest part of the winter, with turnips, the tops of which were carefully separated : and the butter prepared from their milk was equal to the very best of the kind. For removing, or rather prevent- ing, the bitter taste of barlev-straw butter, as well as the rancidity of turnip-butter, Mr. Marshall sug- gests the following simple, and ra- 3 M 460 BU T tional means : Instead of putting the cream, immediately after it is skimmed off the milk, into the jar, or other retaining vessel, it is first poured upon hot water, and having stood till cool, it is again skimmed off the water. According to experiments ac- curately made by Mr. Joseph Wimpey, to determine the com- parative value of butter and cheese, 105-1 gallons of milk, properly dis- posed in pans for skimming off the cream, produced 361b. of butter, and 60lb. of skimmed cheese..... From a like quantity of milk Avere made 1061b. of raw-milk cheese, and 6lb. of whey butter. After selling the cream-butter at 8|d. and the skimmed-cheese at 2d. the pound, when the raw-milk cheese, two months old, was worth 3|d. the pound, and the Avhey-butter 7d. it appears that a small advan- tage of about three per cent, lies on the side of butter and skimmed cheese. Many abuses are practised in the packing and salting of butter, to increase its bulk au * weight,against which we have an express statute. Lumps of good butter are frequent- ly laid, for a little depth, at the top, and Avith an inferior quality under it; sometimes the butter is set in rolls, touching only at top, and standing hallow at bottom. To prevent such deceptions, the fac- tors at Uttoxeter, in Staffordshire, a market famous for good butter, employ a surveyor, who, in case of suspicion, tries the cask, or jar, with an iron instrument, made not unlike a cheese taster, and which he thrusts in obliquely to the bot- tom. But Ave understand that the greatest frauds are committed Avith the Irish butter, imported in fir- kins. One of our sagacious cor- BUT respondents has suggested to us the propriety of communicating the marks, Avhich the butter-casks ought to have on them, to distin- guish their real goodness, before they are exportad from Ireland : such information might be a guide to private families, who purchase a whole, or half a firkin at a time. On particular inquiry, we could only learn from several eminent butter-men, that the name of Bel- fast, or some other town in the north of Ireland, is usually mark- ed on the cask, with an additional cross, and either one or more inci- sions under it, according to the su- perior quality of the butter. We trust, however, that no person will be disposed to purchase so preca- rious an article, without previously examining the contents of the vessel. Lastly, we cannot omit to ani- madvert upon the pernicious prac- tice of keeping milk in leaden ves- sels, and salting butter in stone jars, which begins to prevail, from a mistaken idea of cleanliness. But, in the hands of a cleanly per- son, there*surely can be nothing more wholesome than wooden dish- es. We fully agree with Dr. An- derson, that vessels made either of solid lead, or badly glazed, are alike destructive to the human con- stitution ; that we may doubtless attribute to this cause the frequen- cy of paralytic complaints, which occur in all ranks of society ; and that the well known effects of the poison of lead, are, bodily debility, palsy....death. ' Milk-Butter is principally made in Cheshire; where contrary to the usual practice in other parts of the kingdom, the Avhole of the milk is churned, without being skimmed ; preparatory to which BUT BUT 461 ©peration, in summer, immediately after milking, the meal is put to cool in earthen jars, till it becomes sufficiently coagulated^ and" has ac- quired a slight degree of acidity, sufficient to undergo the operation of churning. This is usually per- formed, during the summer, in the course of one or two days. In win- ter, in order to forward coagulation, the milk is placed near a fire; but, in summer, if it has not been suffi- ciently cooled, before it is added to the former meal, or, if it has been kept too close, and be not churned shortly after it has acquired the ne- cessary degree of coagulation and acidity, a fermentation Avill ensue; in which case, the butter becomes rancid, and the milk does not yield that quantity, which it would, if it had been churned in proper time. This is also the case, when, in win- ter, the jars, or mugs, have been placed too near the fire, and the milk runs entirely to whey. No peculiar process attends the mak- ing of this kind of butter. Whey-Butter is so called, from its being made of whey, which is either green or white. The for- mer is taken from the curd, out of the cheese-tub ; the white whey is pressed out of the curd, by the hand or otherwise, after having been put into the cheese-vat. This kind of butter is made as follows : Sometimes the white Avhey, or, as it is called in Cheshire, the thrust- ings, is set in cream mugs, to ac- quire a sufficient degree of coagu- lation, and acidity for churning, either by the warmth of the season or of a room, in the same manner as above described, for making milk-butter. In other instances, the green and thj white whey are boiled together, and turned by a lit- tle sour ale, or other acid, Avhich produces fleetings. See scalding Whey. In this case, when the green whey is boiled alone, it is necessary to keep up such a fire as will make the whey as hot as possible, without boiling it ; and, Avhen it has acquired that degree of heat, the butyraceous particles, which it contains, will break and se- parate, and rise to the surface, which effect usually takes place in the space of an hour. Care should be taken to rub the boiler, if of iron, Avith butter, to prevent the whey from acquiring a rancid taste. In other respects, the process of making whey-butter differs little from that of milk-butter. But the former will keep only a few days, has a marbled appearance, and does not cut so firm, or clear, as butter made of cream. One of our correspondents observes, that, in the year 1794, whey-butter was sold by contract, for the whole year, at lOd. per pound, and car- ried 20 miles to Manchester : he further remarks, that thefleetings are " nice eating," with sugar, though some epicures adel wine or brandy. BuTTER-MiLKisthatpartofthe milk which remains after the butter is extracted. Curds of butter-milk are made by pouring into it a quantity of hot new milk. The * quality of butter-milk greatly de- pends on the manner of managing the process of churning. If it be obtained according to the Lanca- shire mode, above-described, it be- comes an excellent food for man, being both wholesome and plea- sant ; though it is in many English counties, given to hogs. Good butter-milk is refreshing and cooling : hence it is often re-: commended in hectic fevers, for abating preternatural heat and 462 BUT flushings of the face. In spring, if drank freely, it is said to pro- duce a favourable change on the fluids, when they are in a state of acrimony, and, though modern physicians smile at the idea of sweetening, or purifying the blood, yet the good effects of butter-milk, as well as sweet Avhey, in proper cases and constitutions, have too often been experienced, to admit of any doubt, in consequence of an unsettled theory. BUTTER-BURR, the Com- mon, or Coll's-foot, the Tussilago Petasites, L. grows in moist mea- dows, pastures, and banks of rivers. Its leaves are the largest of any plant in Britain, and, in heavy rains, afford a shelter to poultry, and other small animals. Its flowers appear in April, before the leaves, as in most other vernal plants. The root, dug up in spring, abounds with a resinous, aromatic matter : it has a strong smell, and a bitter- ish, acrid taste. In Germany, the leaves of the butter-burr are bruised, and mixed with chaff, or cut straw ; in which state they are fondly eaten by cattle. Formerly, the root of this plant was highly esteemed as a sudorific, and alexipharmic, for which pur- poses a drachm of it was given for a dose ; but, as it has been found to possess those virtues in no very eminent degree, it has again been neglected in the shops. The late Sir John Hill, however, in his " Virtues of British Herbs," pub- lished in 1770, calls the common butter-burr an admirable medicine in fevers of the worst kind ; as, when taken early, it prevents the mischiefs that often arise naturally in the disease; and oftener from the errors of physicians. Sir BUT John farther informs us, that, about the middle of the last cen- tury, when a disease of the putrid kind prevailed in England, the same fever raged also in Germany; and while the English died by bleedings, and by chemical medi- cines, the Germans lived by the use of the butter-burr. He also very seriously speaks of a heavier visitation, and if the greatest of all calamaties should come, there are few things from which we might expect so great relief as this herb. The Greeks used it with the great- est success ; and the very name of the plant among the Germans, is pestilence-wort.....We trust, how- ever, there will be no necessity for putting Sir John's assertion to the test of experience ; as we should be apprehensive of the re- sult. BUTTER-CUP, Butter-flow- er, or Upright Meadow Crow- Foot, the Ranunculus acris, L. a very common weed, abounding in meadows and pastures: it has hairy leaves and leaf-stalks ; and bears yellow flowers in June and July. Many continental farmers attri- bute the sudden death of cattle, which is often inexplicable, to their feeding on this plant; and therefore carefully extirpate it from fields and meadows....It is, how- ever, certain, that the seed-buds of the butter-cup are extremely acrid, and may therefore be employed for vesicatories, instead of the Spanish fly ; though its blossoms are ea- gerly visited by bees. Indeed, the Avhole plant is very acrid, and ea- sily blisters the skin. Neverthe- less, it is eaten by sheep and goats, but- refused by cows, horses, and swine, let their pasture be ever so bare. When made into hay, the BUT butter-cup is perfectly harmless, nay, even nutritious to cattle. For this important discovery we are indebted to Dr. Pulteny, (Trans- actions of the Linn aan Society), who extends the^ame observation to the lesser Spearwort, the Bulbous, the round leaved Water and the common Crow-foot : He farther remarks, that the avidity with which sheep, cows, and horses, eat the last mentioned plant, is an excep- tion to the commonly received opinion, that animals are led by instinct to reject what is noxious. BUTTERFLY, or Papilio, in zoology, a well knoAvn insect, of which there are 273 species, prin- cipally distinguished by the colour of their wings. The beauties of this elegant part of the creation, excite the admira- tion of every contemplative mind. Many persons, who conceive but- terflies to be of a poisonous nature, are frequently under apprehension lest they should eat them with herbs and salads ; but such alarm is groundless, as they are perfecly harmless, and equally eatable as snails and oysters. Mr. Edwards, in his " Natural History of Birds," gives the fol- lowing curious directions for tak- ing the figure of these insects: Take butterflies, or field-moths, clip off the wings close to their bodies, and lay them on clean pa- per, in the form of the insect Avhen flying; then have ready prepared gum-arabic, which has been some time dissolved in Avater and is of a thick consistence; then pour a drop of ox-gall into a spoonful of this liquid, mix it well together, and spread a little of it on a piece of thin, white paper, wide enough to take both sieles of the fly ; when it begins to feel clammy, the paper BUT 463 is in proper order to lake the doAvn from its wings ; lay the gummed side on the wings, and it will ad- here so as to take them up; then double the paper, so as to have all the wings between it; lay it on a table, pressing it close with the fingers, or it may be rubbed gently with something hard and smooth ; after which, on opening the paper, the wings will come forth transpa- rent ; the doAvn of the upper and under sides, adhering to the gum- med paper, forms an accurate like- ness of both sides of the Wings, in their natural shape and colour. When the gummed papers have been opened, the bodies of the flies should be copied from the na- tural ones, upon stiff, and separate paper, painted in Avater colours, and fixed between the representa- tions of the wings. As the larvx or grubs, and chrysalids, or butterflies, do exten- sive injury to fruit trees, Mr. For- syth directs them to be carefully collected and destroyed: after which the trees must be washed with a mixture of lime and tobac- co-water. BUTTERWORT, or the Ph- guicula, L. a genus containing six species, of which the most re- markable is the vulgaris, or com- mon butterwort, or Yorkshire sa- nicle, growing on bogs, or low, moist grounds, in England and Scotland. Its leaves are covered with soft, upright, pellucid prick- les, secreting a glutinous liquor ; the blossoms violet, purple, and reddish, with white lips and an ash-coloured woolly spot on the palate : its flowers appear in May and June. Linnaeus informs us, that if the fresh gathered leaves of this plant be put into a strainer, through which the milk of the 464 B U X rein-deer is poured while warm, and set by for a day or two, to be- come acescent, it acquires such a degree of consistency and tenaci- ty, that neither whey nor cream, separate. The inhabitants in the north of Sweden eat this coagulat- ed milk, as a very grateful food.... When the leaves have been once used, it is not necessary to have recourse to them again ; for half a spoonful of prepared milk, mix- ed Avith a fresh quantity of other milk, will ahvays effect the pur- pose : but Mr. Hawes, who tried this experiment with cow's milk, did not succeed. The juice of the leaves of com- mon butterwort kills lice in men and brutes; and likewise cures chaps in coav's udders. Neither sheep, cows, horses, goats, nor swine, will feed upon the plant; though it is erroneously believed that it occasions the rot in sheep. External applications of the root, are, according to Bechstein, a good vulnerary ; and, if credit be due to him, decoctions made of the whole plant, tend to restore the hair to a bald head. BUXTON WATERS are those Avarm mineral springs which rise in a village of that name, in Der- byshire, England, and have long been celebrated for their medicinal properties. One of the earliest treatises on the virtues of this spring, Avas published in the year 1752, by Dr. Jones, of Derby: at Avhich period Buxton appears to have been a place of great resort. With respect to its sensible pro- perties, the Buxton Avater cannot be distinguished from common spring Avater, when heated to the same temperature. It is clear and colourless, and does not become turbid on being exposed to the air; BUX it leaves no sediment, nor does it form any incrustation on the pipes, or stones, through which it flows. Its temperature in the gentlemen's bath is invariably at 82°. During the cool of the morning and even- ing, a thin column of steam is per- ceptible over the surface of the bath; but, if this continues through- out the day, it is considered as an indication of approaching rain..... The principal peculiarity in the ap- pearance of this spring, is a large quantity of elastic vapour that rises and forms bubbles, which pass through the "rater, and break as soon as they reach the surface. The air of these bubbles was ascer- tained by Dr. Pearson, to consist of azotic gas, mixed with a small proportion of atmospheric air..... By evaporation to dryness, he found that a gallon of the water contained only 15 grains of residuum, of which he estimated 1-| grains to be muriat of soda, 2£ sulphat of lime, and 101 carbonate of lime. As the temperature of 82ais several degrees below that of the human body, a slight shock of cold is felt on the first immersion into the bath; but this is almost imme- diately succeeded by a pleasing glow over the whole system. It is therefore proper for very delicate and irritable habits. The cases which derive most be- nefit from the external use of Bux- ton waters, are those in which a loss of action, and sometimes of sensation, affects particular limbs; in consequence of long-continued, or violent inflammation, or exter- nal injury. Hence,, the chronic rheumatism, succeeding the acute, and where the inflammation has been seated in particular limbs, is often wonderfully relieved by this bath. The internal use of the wa- BUZ BUZ 465 ter has been found to be of consi- derable service in symptoms of de- fective digestion, and derangement of the alimentary organs. A judi- cious use of this simple remedy will often relieve the heart-burn,fla- tulency, and sickness ; it will in- crease the appetite, animate the spirits, and improve the health. At first, hoAvever, it sometimes oc- casions a diarrhoea, which is rather salutary than detrimental. It also affords great relief, when taken in- ternally, in painful disorders of the bladder and kidneys; and has like- wise been recommended in cases of the gout; but when taken for these complaints, Dr. Denman ad- vises the addition of some aroma- tic tincture. BUZZARD, or the Buteo, a spe- cies of the Falco, or eagle, is the most common of the hawk-kind in England. It breeds in large woods, and lays two or three eg£s, which are either perfectly white, or spot- ted with yellow. This bird is of a sluggish anel inactive disposition, as it will remain perched upon the same bough for many hours, and is generally found in one place. It feeds on small birds, rabbits, moles, and mice ; but it will also eat frogs, worms, and insects. The colour of the buzzard is various: the breast and belly of some are brown, but more frequently the former is of a yellowish white, with oblong rust- coloured spots : the back of the head, neck, and coverts of the wings, are of a deep brown, edged with a pale rust colour ; the tail is barred either with black, or ash colour. There is another species, the aruginosus, or moor-buzzard, with, a greyish body, and yellow legs. It makes its nest in a tuft of grass or among mshes, is a fierce andvo- racious bird, and a great destroyer of rabbits, young ducks, anel other water-fowl. c. CAB CABBAGE, or Brassica, L. a genus of plants comprising six- teen species, of which the follow- ing are the principal: 1. The campestris, or field-cab- bage, which is also a native, and grows on the sea-shore near Do- ver. The severest winters do not injure this plant, Avhich becomes peculiarly useful when every other species is destroyed. It is more generally known under the name of cauliflower, and its culture has been much improved in Britain, where it has become a source of national wealth ; the greater part of Europe being supplied thence with seeds, and, till lately, Holland almost wholly with plants. 2. The Napus, or rape, or cole- seed cabbage, which is indigenous, and also reared in various parts of England, especially in the Isle of Ely, for its seed, from Avhich rape- oil is extracted ; the refuse is called oil-cake, and is useful for the fat- tening of oxen, and other cattle. The most piercing frost affects not this hardy plant, which, in severe Avinters, is of no small service in feeding eAves ; when, from the in- tenseness of the cold, the ground is so frozen that no turnips can be taken up. In the county of Nor- folk, the cakes are broken to pieces and streAved on the land as manure, for Avhich purpose it is considered CAB particularly efficacious. The cul- tivated variety, though it has a stronger taste, may be eaten like the turnip. 3. The rapa, or turnip-cabbage. This is a native of Britain, and grows principally in corn-fields : it is eaten either boiled, roasted, or raw, generally with the addition of pepper. The importance and va- lue of this species, forthe fattening of cattle in particular, have not been generally known or ascertained till within these few years. The soil intended for planting, ought to be manured and tilled in the same manner as for the common turnip, the necessary extent of old pasture- grounel being previously breast- ploughed and burnt. ' The land should be dug as shallow as possi- ble, and the ashes turned in: about midsummer, or sooner, should the Aveather be favourable, the planting ought to be commenced; two perches, if well stocked with plants, being sufficient to supply an acre. Independently of the utility of this plant, as a fodder for cattle during the winter season, it hr.s been much recommended as a sea- store, from the facility with which it may be preserved on ship-board: and as it furnishes an agreeable and wholesome food for sailors on long voyages, at a time when every CAB CAB 467 ether fresh vegetable is entirely ble-dung which may be prevented spoiled. from pressing on it, by placing a 4. The Oleracea, or sea-colewort, feAV sticks in the form of a cone sea-cabbage, or common cabbage, over each root; it should then be is also indigenous, and grows prin- covered Avith long litter to the cipally on cliffs near the sea-coast, height of two or three feet. About Early in the spring, this species is the beginning of January it may preferred to those that are culti- be gathered, and the cutting conti- vated ; but, when gathered on the nued till May, one bed being kept sea-coast, it is requisite that it be under another. It should be boil- boiled in two waters, to deprive it ed, and sent up on toast, like aspa- of its saline taste. The roots may ragus. be eaten like those of the preceding To this species also belong those species ; but they are by no means varieties of the brassica, denominat- so tender. All the various kinds ed the turni/ -rooted cabbage, and of garden-cabbage in use at our the drum-headed cabbage. The tables, originate from this. The former is generally supposed to red cabbage is chiefly used for have been brought from Lapland, pickling. In some countries, the and is found to be well calculated white cabbage is buried in autumn, for uplands and wolds. It delights when full grown, and is thus pre- in a dry, sandy, mixed soil, which served during the whole winter, is prepared in the same manner as See Yv'ithering, p. 592. They for turnips. The seed is usually are cut in pieces by the Germans, sown in the beginning of June, and who, mixing them with some aro- yields so abundantly, that half a matic herbs and salt, press them pound of it, if soavh on a seed-bed closely down in a tub, where they ' two or three perches square, will soon ferment, and are eaten under produce plants sufficient to stock an the name of sauer kraut. acre. But if they run too much to Dr. Darwin observes, that Sea- stalk,care must be taken to trans- Cale is much esteemed for the de- plant them, and thus to check their licacy of its taste, which is superior luxuriant vegetation. This plant to most kinds of broccoli. It ap- is very hardy, and its bushy tops pears that this species of the cab- furnish a most excellent and abun- bage should be soAvn the latter end dant food for cattle during the of March, or the beginning of spring. It is principally raised for April, in drills, and afterwards feeding oxen, cows, hogs, and earthed up. In autumn, it should horses ; but, if given to sheep dur- be transplanted into high beds, one ing Avinter, it occasions a species of row of roots in each bed, about a white flux, of which, however, they foot asunder; and, in Avinter, it soon recover on a change of food; should be covered up. The beds and which is seldom, if ever, at- should be made in dry ground, and tended with any dangerous conse- the produce will not be fit for the quences. table till the third year after sow- 1 he drum-headed cabbage is ing. The year before it is cut for usually sown on a bed towards the eating, it must be covered in the end of February or March ; but beginning of Avinter, first with sta- sometimes also in August, in which vol. i. 3 N 463 CAB case the plants* are set out in No- vember, and transplanted in July. A hardy variety, of a deep green colour with purple veins, and of the same size as the drum-head, has been produced from this cab- bage, by planting it alternately with the red kind; and when the pods were completely formed, by cutting dovvn the red and leaving the other for seed. This variety is particularly useful in the feeding of cows or ewes ; as it affords an increase of milk, far superior to that produced by turnips : and is equally excellent for the fattening of cattle, Avhich it does six weeks sooner than any other vegetable. Although these plants are gene- rally supposed to impart a disa- greeable flaAourtobutterand cheese made from the milk of cows fed upon them, yet this may be easily prevented, either by putting one gallon of boiling water to six gal- lons of milk, when it is exposed in the leads; or by dissolving one ounce of nitre in a quart of spring- water, and mixing about a quarter of a pint of it Avith ten or twelve gallons of milk, when warm from the cow. By breaking off the loose leaves, and giving only the sound heart to the cows, this disagreeable quality may also be obviated ; as other cattle will eat the leaves without injury. 5. The muralis) or wall-cabbage, which is usually found on old walls and rubbish. This plant is a native of Britain ; all its parts are consi- derably acrid, and have a rank, disagreeable smell: it is, there- fore, never cultivated. 6. The Alpina, or Savoy. This is an exotic, and is chiefly propa- gated for winter use ; being gene- rally preferred when nipped by the frost- It is sown towards the lat- C AB ter end of April, and the culture of it varies but little from that pur- sued Avith respect to the common Avhite cabbage ; the only difference being, that the latter species may be set more closely together thai* the former ; for, if planted in close places, it is subject to be almost consumed by caterpillars or other vermin. To these species may be added the Scotch cabbage, so denominat- ed from being more particularly7 cultivated in Scotland, where it con- stitutes a very considerable article of food for cattle. The variety in- troduced into England a few years since, is the green Scotch cabbage, Avhich will grow extremely Avell on moor-lands, and, if cut just before the frost sets in, and hung up under cover, forms a food so peculiarly agreeable to cattle, that, when once they have tasted it, they will rarely relish any other. There is another species of the Brassica, denominated the mowing cabbage (choux afoucher). It ap- pears to be a native of Germany, but has been cultivated with consi- derable success in France, both as a pulse for mankind, being free from the bitter herbaceous taste of the other cabbages, and as a fodder, equally good and abundant for cattle* This plant is reared from seed, and will admit of being cut four, five, or six times in the year it is sown ; after which it is left for the winter. In the month of Fe- bruary it shoots forth, when its leaves may be cut again ; in April it begins to grow up, and produces stalks and seed, which may be ga- thered in June. During the first year of its groAvth, this plant does not send forth any stalks ; its leaves appearing to rise immediately out of the ground, from Avhich circum- C AB -stance it may be cut like grass, and dried in a similar manner for hay. It will also yield oil, far superior to that of cole and poppy seed, and equal to that expressed from olives. Culture. The different modes of cultivating this plant do not, in general, vary much. The soil best calculated for cauliflowers, is a spot of ground tolerably rich, and well defended from the north, east, and west Avinds, by hedges, pales or walls, the first of Avhich, especial- ly if constructed Avith reeds, are most preferable, as they meet the Avind, which, by falling on them, cannot reverberate, as is the case with the latter. But, should the soil selected for this purpose, be natu- rally wet, h will be requisite to raise it up in beds two feet and a half, or three feet broad,, and about four inches above the level of the ground. -On the contrary, if it be dry, no embankment is necessary. [To produce early cabbages....ln the spring, as soon as the sprouts on the cabbage-stalks have grown to the length of a plant fit for set- ting, cut them out with a small slice of the stalk, about two inches long ; and, if the season permit, plant them in a garden, and the .usual care will produce good.cab- bages. A gentleman in the vicinity of Philadelphia pursued the following plan: He sowed his seed in Au- .gust, and set out the plants in autumn, letting them remain out all winter* If very cold, he co- vered them with straw ; of 500 plants, 300 commonly lived and headed very early : the rest an- swered for greens. Dr. Darwin says, that in trans- planting cabbages, it is better to pluck them than dig them up ; as CAB 469 by that means more of the root fibres are torn off, and the plants become almost totally oviparous. Mr.Deane(N.England farmer) says, cabbages require a rich soil, rather -moist than dry. A clay soil well mixed with other matters, is very proper .for them. They are said to grow well indrained swamps, without manure. Hog-dung Avell rotted, door-dung and ashes are suitable manures for them.....Each plant should have at least four feet of ground: in other words, the plants should be two feet asunder. In gardens and small yards, this is a good distance: but in fields, Avhere they are to be cultivated.by the plough, a greater distance is necessary. The rows may be three feet apart, and the plants two feet in the rows. Some think cabbages will not answer morethan one year on the same spot. But this is an erroneous opinion. I have raised them for eighteen years in the same part of my garden, being an unfavourable soil, dry and gravelly: and the crops are better than they were at first, though the ground has been but little manured. Though cab- bages seem to require much nour- ishment, they do not impoverish the soil. This is so well knoAvn to Europeans, that they call cabbages a fallow crop, meaning a crop which answers instead of fallow- ing. They form so close a covering for the surface of the ground, as to cause a putrefaction of the soil, which increases its fertility. Some set the seeds where the cabbages are to grow. By this they escape being stinted by transplant- ing. For winter cabbages, the latter part of May is early enough to put the seed into the ground, whether the.plants are to be remov- 470 CAB ed or not. I have tried both ways, and on the whole, I prefer trans- planting. They are otherwise apt to be too tall, and to have crooked stems. Wet weather is favourable for transplanting them; and the holes should be filled with Avater before the plants are set, unless the ground be naturally very moist. This has a better effect than pour- ing a much greater quantity of water on them afterwards. Suds would be better than clear water for wetting the plants.....Covering of plants with leaves is not a good practice. They will be much heat- ed through some sorts of leaves; the free circulation of air about them will be prevented, and their perspiration partly obstructed. If a hot sun cause them to droop, a shingle stuck into the ground will be a sufficient shelter if it be on the south side of the plants. I com- monly allow each plant two shingles, one on the south-east side, and one on the south-west. The principal things Avhich pre- vent the groAvth of cabbages, are, the fumble-foot, so called, grubs, and lice. Manuring Avith ashes and lime tends to prevent the first, as the roots become misshapen by means of being Avounded by insects, to Avhich the hot qualities of ashes and Jime are antidotes. The gmb, orblack-AVorm, travels in the night from plant to plant, eats off the stalks just above the ground, and buries itself in the soil when the sun is up. To guard against this worm, a little circle pf lime, or rock-weed round the plant is of service. To destroy lice on cabbages, they should be washed with strong brine, or sea-water, or smoke should be made among them with strawr, sul- phur, tobacco, Sec. But the hard CAB frosts in autumn do not fail to sub- due them. If cabbages grow near to a barn- yard, or other yard where cattle are lodged, the under leaves, when they begin to decay, may be taken off", and thrown to them. The plants will not be at all injured, and they are an excellent food for cattle, and will increase the milk of cows. But the least decayed of them should go to the coavs, lest they give the milk an ill taste. Much ac- count is made of cabbages in Eng- land for feeding cattle in the win- ter. But the difficulty of preserving them alters the case with regard to us. They can gather them there as they have occasion to use them, through the winter. Preserving cabbages through the winter for the table, is a matter of some difficulty in this country. My method is, to pull them up in windy, dry weather, and let them lie a few hours Avith the roots upwards, to drain. The later they are taken up, the better, while the ground continues open. I let as much soil remain on the roots as I can, and set them upright together in a cel- lar, which is so cold as to admit of some degree of frost; and I seldom fail of making them keep till April. In very Avarm cellars they will soon decay. But that I may have a few yet later in the spring, I make atrench in the driest sandy ground, nine inches Avide, and of equal depth ; in which I place a toav of cabbages, roots upAvards, contiguous to each other; fill the cavities about them Avith some dry straw ; and then shovel the earth up to the stalks oh each side, almost as high as the roots, shaping it like, the roof of a house. The cabbages Avill come out in May as sound as when they CAB CAB 471 were put in, and the outer green leaves will be turned quite Avhite. As they are not apt to keep vrell after they are taken out, two or three at a time may be taken, as they are wanted for use, and the breach immediately closed up with straw and earth as before.] With respect to the other species of cabbage, with a few exceptions, they delight in situations rich,open, and dry, yet not too much exposed to the inclemencies of our variable climate ; care being taken at the same time not to plant them too near, especialh/ when intended for seed ; as, independently of their mutually obstructing the groAv th of their roots, by the commixture of their effluvia, they will produce a mixture of kinds. This is particu- larly the case with respect to the planting of Avhite and red cabbages together, and of Savoys Avith either of those species. In fact, it is to this cause Ave owe the continual importation of fresh seeds from abroad, our gardeners rarely saving any good red cabbage-seed; where- as, if a contrary conduct were pur- sued, they might continue the species as good in Britain as any other part of the Avorld. In whatever light Ave A'iew this plant, whether as an article of food for man, or as fodder for cattle, it fully merits all the attention Avhich of late years has been bestowed upon it. It amply repays the care and diligence which the industrious cultivator confers on it, each species being equally fruitful. And it is a fact, though not generally known, but which deserves greater publici- ty, that when the common garden cabbage is in perfection, and we wish to cut it, if, instead of sever- ing the whole from the stalk, as is Usually done, the loaf, or heart only be scooped out, and all the large lower leaves left entire, a young cabbage will, in due time, be produced, superior in flavour, if not equal in size, to that of the first groAvth. Upon the whole, from a compa- rative estimate, and from the con- current testimony of the most ex- perienced cultivators, #it appears that the success of cabbages de- pends much on their being planted in a rich soil; for, as this plant is extremely vigorous, its roots strike deeply into the grounel, so that it is well calculated for improving the fertility of the soil: it demonstrates the advantage of manuring and fal- lowing, as also the very great profit of applying the best land of a farm to its culture. From the earliest stage of its growth, the cabbage becomes the prey of a variety of insects, none of which is more formidable than the caterpillar. When young, its principal enemy is the Chrysomela saltatoria, or turnip-fly, and as it ap- proaches nearer to maturity, the Papilio Brassica, or cabbage-but- terfly. To expel the former, Dr. Withering directs the ground to be strewed Avith soot. He also adds, that if the plants be Avhipped with the green boughs of alder, [elder,] the latter Avill not touch them...... With respect to caterpillars, it has been recommended as a certain remedy forthe mischief they cause, that all the borders of the ground, Avhere it is intended to plant cal>- bages, be soAvn with hemp; and, however, the vicinity may be in- fested Avith those insects, the ground enclosed will be found to be perfectly free from them ; no vermin will approach i'. There 472 CAB CAB is also another remedy prescribed, which, though somewhat more complex than that above-mention- ed, has nevertheless been of con- siderable efficacy in exterminating those insects from cabbage planta- tions: for an acre of ground, two ounces of common asafoetida are directed to be taken and boiled i« a small pot of -dung-juice, till the Avhole is dissolved. This decoction is to be emptied into a shallow tub, with the addition of a pint *.- * ■ «■• ■ * ^ -- >r'J'^"i- *AZs 1 *# V;- A^m'-JxW^ ,.. if. *J *'/£' • . * i \ "1L> ■ • ■ ji ■ -'. . •., '• • 'ti£\- * ''■■*',< s ■■,##■* If •Y / • v ■• •■' «,* ••'• 'is'. ^ ' •'•,£. .''^ • *» >.k' •'■.■ ■■ F$p. r. > 'S* i . "*&;*••• i . .jr.*.,. tV t V^5-.J'£ PJ&FF ■ «-.v£;' a►•'''• ■^•- ■■ *; ■'■•■ -'/3$>2 iff* '•/• ' • v'u ■ • ■'■ FFii- JES '■\: -'FF: mm^e A*i ^v^ A "5-C !.«E», F*fi. ■ .' <.^v/.-T» *:.•■:. ACS .'♦V. ;j.> - ->*' A>V '>-*\' ;• i •.-;t*.,\