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NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
Bethesda, Maryland
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THE
DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPAEDIA;
OR,
A DICTIONARY OF FACTS,
AND USEFUL KNOWLEDGE.
COMPREHENDING
mV concise view of the latest discoveries, inventions,
and improvements.
CHIEFLY APPLICABLE TO RURAL AND DOMESTIC ECONOMY.
TOGETHER WITH
DESCRIPTIONS OF'TIIE MOST INTERESTING OBJECTS OF NATURE AND ART J
THE HISTORY OF MEN AND ANIMALS, IN A STATE OF HEALTH OR
DISEASE ; AND PRACTICAL HINTS RESPECTING THE ARTS AND
MANUFACTURES, BOTH FAMILIAR AND COMMERCIAL.
•
ILLUSTRATED WITH NUMEROUS ENGRAVINGS AND CUTS.
IN FIVE VOLUMES.
VOLUME I.
BY A. F. M. WILLICH, M.D.
AUTHOR OF THE LECTURES ON DIET AND REGIMEN, iStc.iSfc.
/
FIRST AMERICAN EDITION; WITH ADDITIONS,
APPLICABLE TO THE PRESENT SITUATIO*N OF THE UNITED STATES:
BY JAMES MEASE, M. D.
AND FELLOW OF THE AMERICAN PHILOSOPHICAL SOCIETY.
PHILADELPHIA:
PUBLISHED BY WILLIAM YOUNG BIRCH, AND ABRAHAM SMALL,
NO. 17, SOUTH SECOND-STREET;
AND T. W J. SWORDS, NEW-YORK.
ROBERT CARR, PRINTER.
1803.
District of Pennsylvania: to viit.
Be it remembered, That on the eighth day of April, in the twenty-seventh
Year of the Independence of the United States of America, William Young
Birch, and Abraham Small, of the said District, have deposited in this Office the
Title of a Book, the Right whereof^they claim as Proprietors, in the words fol-
lowing, to wit:
" The Domestic Encyclopaedia; or A Dictionary of Facts, and Useful Know-
" ledge. Comprehending, a concise View of the latest Discoveries, Inven-
" tions, and Improvements; chiefly applicable to Rural and Domestic Eco-
" nomy. Together with Descriptions of the most interesting Objects of
" Nature and Art; the History of Men and Animals, in a State of Health
" or Disease; and practical Hints respecting the Arts and Manufactures, both
" familiar and commercial. Illustrated with numerous Engravings and Cuts.
" In Five Volumes. Volume I. By A. F. M. Willich, M. D. Author of the
" Lectures on Diet and Regimen, iSfc. Isfc. First American Edition; with
" Additions applicable to the present Situation of the United States. By
" James Mease, M. D. and Fellow of the American Philosophical Society."
In Conformity to the Act of the Congress of the United States, entituled, " An*
Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the Copies of Maps,
Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such Copies during the
times therein mentioned," and also, to an Act entituled, " An Act supplementary
to an Act, entituled, an Act for the Encouragement of Learning, by securing the
Copies of Maps, Charts, and Books, to the Authors and Proprietors of such
Copies, during the Times therein mentioned. And extending the Benefits thereof
to the arts of designing, engraving, and etching historical, and other prints."
( L. S. ) D. CALDWELL,
Clerk of the District of Pennsylvania.
PREFACE,
BY THE AUTHOR.
AS the nature and practical tendency of the
Domestic Encyclopaedia have, in some measure,
been anticipated, partly in the prefixed Title-page, a
few remarks on the origin and composition of this
Work, will suffice to convince the Reader, that it has
not been undertaken with a view merely to increase
the number of voluminous works already extant, and
of a similar complexion.
It has been generally supposed, that the rapid suc-
cession of Cyclopaedias, and Encyclopaedias, which
have appeared within the last twenty years, and which
often are more distinguished by their alluring title-
pages, than by their intrinsic merit, affords so many
proofs of the progress of Science and Literature, as
well as of the increasing spirit of inquiry. This con-
jecture, however, is extremely doubtful, if not totally
unfounded.
When it is considered, that the Editors of these
bulky Compilations have directed their chief attention
to the quantity of materials, rather than to a critical se-
lection offacts; that, with a few exceptions, such works
have been conducted by persons better qualified to su-
perintend a printing-office, or a bookseller's shop, than
iv
PREFACE.
to arrange or explain the immense circle of the Sci-
ences ; and that the auri sacra fames has almost uni-
formly been the principal object of these Speculators,
it will then be readily allowed, that their productions
afford only negative advantages to the social world.
Farther, the plurality of readers have conceived an
opinion, that, by the possession of an Encyclopse-
dia, or what is pre-eminently termed, " A Dictionary
of the Arts and Sciences," their library, however de-
ficient, at length becomes complete. But those who
are only in a slight degree acquainted with the gradual,
though daily, advancement both of the abstruse and
practical Sciences, will not be disposed to harbour a
notion alike contracted, and fraught with consequen-
ces highly detrimental to the acquisition of knowledge.
Nay, it may with equal truth be asserted, that the ear-
lier impressions of books, which have progressively
received additions and improvements, will answer the
purpose as well as the latest publications; because
they are comparatively cheaper, and fill a similar space
on the shelves—Such arguments may satisfy the An-
tiquarian Collector, but they are inconsistent with the
conviction of intelligent minds.
On the other hand, it cannot be denied, that many
attempts have been made to supply the Public with
works professedly commenced on a more economical
plan; by abridging the labours of others. Without
presuming to decide on their merits, we shall quote a
passage occurring in the Preface to the illustrious
Johnson's Dictionary, when he compressed his bulky
folios, or quartos, into an octavo form...." For these
PREFACE.
v
purposes (says that energetic writer), many dictiona-
ries have been written by different authors, and with
different degrees of skill; but none of them have yet
fallen into my hands, by which even the lowest ex-
pectations could be satisfied. Some of their authors
wanted industry, and others literature: some knew
not their own defects, and others were too idle to sup-
ply them."
In regard to the composition, and arrangement of
the Domestic Encyclopaedia, many circumstan-
ces might be pleaded, by way of apology, for occa-
sional inaccuracies and omissions; but, in a work,
consisting chiefly of practical information, and con-
taining, perhaps, a greater number of usefulfacts than
have ever appeared in the compass of four moderate
volumes, it is to be hoped, the discreet reader will na-
turally be inclined to qualify his strictures, by a large
share of candour and impartiality. Conformably to
his original plan, the Editor has spared no pains, trou-
ble, or expence, to render this Economical Dictionary
as complete as the present advancement of Agricul-
ture, Gardening, of the Familiar Arts and Manufac-
tures, as well as the imperfect state of Medical Science.,
would respectively admit. Many subjects, indeed,
might have been extended to greater length, and others
considerably abridged, had these volumes been pecu-
liarly calculated for the use of either town or country
readers. Such, however, was not his design; as the
Work now submitted to the Public, includes almost
every object, more or less connected with Rural, Do-
mestic, and Animal, Economy. Hence, the inq>isi
vi PREFACE.
tive Reader will find numerous experiments related,
many hundreds of which have not hitherto been pub-
lished in the English language.
To facilitate the mode of consulting this Work,
a Table of Contents, and an Index to the correspond-
ing Synonyms, or inversions of terms, have been pre-
fixed to each volume ; though a few provincial or ver-
nacular names, which are now obsolete, have purposely
been omitted, in order to avoid unnecessary repeti-
tion .
It will not, however, be expected that the Editor
should be responsible for the accuracy of the result
of those Experiments, which he has faithfully reported
on the authority of others, whose names have been quo-
ted on almost every occasion; but, in various instan-
ces where no vouchers have been adduced, the facts
are either self-evident, or the account of the subject is
given with a degree of diffidence, to induce attentive
readers to farther investigation.
Although the Editor has, in the commencement of
this arduous task, inserted the Latin names of subjects
in alphabetical order, and referred thence to the appro-
priate English terms; yet, as such a troublesome me-
thod promised no real advantage, he was induced to re-
linquish it, and to subjoin to the Fourth Volume a
complete Index to the Latin Names of Plants, Animals,
Minerals, Diseases, and other subjects occurring through-
out this Work,
Lastly, as numerous useful and valuable sugges-
tions, connected with particular subjects, are scattered
in different parts of this alphabetical Manual, it has
PREFACE.
vii
been deemed expedient to conclude with a General In-
dex of Reference, both for Economical and Medical
purposes; which is accordingly subjoined to the Fourth
Volume: thus, the Reader will be enabled to find, at
one view, whatever relates to the article under con-
sideration ; an advantage which few works of a similar
nature afford, and which cannot fail to be attended with
good effects.
" Ne tabulis fc? picturis domum tuam circumda, sed temperan-
tiam ipsam depinge. Jlludenim alienum est, et oculorum modo
jucunda prcestigiatio: hoc vero indelibilis, ceternusque domus
ornatus existit."
PREFACE
BY THE EDITOR.
IN presenting to the public, the First American Edition
•f the Domestic Encyclopadia, the Editor has great pleasure in think-
ings that it will diffuse a large portion of highly useful information
among his fellow-citizens. In the impressive language of Lord
Bacon, the subjects treated of in the work, " come home to every
" man's business and bosom;" and it will, no doubt, meet with a re-
ception justly proportioned to its extensive utility.
$
The original work contained a variety of articles relating to the
local customs, laws, police-regulations, mineral waters, Ifc. of
England, from which the people of this country could derive no
practical or useful information ; all these have been omitted in the
present edition, and other matter substituted, which it is hoped will
be found nearly connected with the interests, or domestic comforts
of the citizens of the United States.
Consistently with the original design of the author, the Editor en-
deavouring to keep in view the practical tendency of the work, has
avoided all theoretical discussions, except when they appeared
necessary to place facts in such a light as would tend to point out
relations and connections ttyat might otherwise have escaped notice ;
and thus as Dr. Anderson justly observes " by forming habits of
attention, call forth the discriminative powers, on the due exercise of
which all true knowledge, must ultimately depend."
It has been a principal object to direct the attention of the reader
to the native resources of .our country, whether they refer to medi-
cine, the arts, or to the general purposes of life; that by employing
them we may become less dependant on foreign nations.
vol. i. A
PREFACE.
In one respect the original arrangement of the author has been
partially departed from. Dr. Willich treats of plants under their
trivial names, referring to the Botanical names; and as whim, or
false judgment give rise to the former, which are not only vari-
ous in different countries, but in different parts of the same country,
it was thought better in all the additional articles to give the Latin
name first, referring to the numerous trivial ones. If this plan were
generally adopted, an universal language might soon take place, and
much confusion and embarrassment be avoided. The common objec-
tion to this plan, that it is difficult for those who are unacquainted with
the Latin language, to remember the names imposed by Botanists,
will be found unimportant, when we advert to the ease with which
many of those names are remembered by persons who are entirely
. ignorant of the language. Thus Anemone, Ranunculus, Convolvulus,
Daphne Indicum, isfc. are common, and others surely may be remem-
bered with as much ease as the absurd trivial names which are at
, present used. The " Sweet flag" of England is universally known in
Pennsylvania, by its proper name Calamus : indeed it only requires
a little Trouble by learning the botanical names at first, to render thera
as familiar as. the common appellations.
ERRATA.
Page 127, column 1, the additional article on Artichoke ought to have come in
at the conclusion of the first species mentioned.
——----.col. 1, line 25, for " to" read in.
---- 131, col. 1, line 26, dele" also wild ginger." line 27,for " catsfoot" read .
coltsfoot, wild ginger.
"-«— 135, col. 2, line 36, for " 29'.' read S2.
---- 1?1, col. 1, line 38, for these read banks.
---- 246, colt 1, line ^4, after dwarf chesnut tree read chinquapin.
-------------------- 15, dele chinquapin. •
■—'•------- 17, for Sutog read Aiton.
—— 248, col. 2, line 25, for Memorable read Memoirs. •
---- 302, col. 2,'line 34, for 178116. 4oz. read 1781b. 14oz*
---- 303, tol. 1, line 40, for detached read detailed.
---- 305, col. 2, lines 2h3,for "pulp of paper on .this last process. See &c."
read " pulp of paper.' On this last process*, see &c."
------------------43, for Philadelphia read Philosophical. •
---- 358, col. 1, line 19, for " be" read is.
---- 388, col. 2, line 38, dele the "crotchet.
---- 406, coL 2, line 41, after " appetite" addend. •
---- 416, col. 1, line 31, in some of the copiesj^/o? " Probing" read Probang.
---- 485, col. 1, lihe 21, for Pennsylvania read Peruvian.
---- 495, col. 1, line 3 from bottom, for Linnaeus, read Linnxi. *.
---- 500, col. 1, line 8 from bottom, for " or by" reafl ^rom.
CONTENTS
OF THE FIRST VOLUME.
PAGE
ABDOMEN, . . 1
Ablution, . . 3
Abortion, . . . 4
Abraum, . . ,6
Abridgment, . . ib.
Abscess, . . 7
Abstinence, , . .8
Acacia, . . 9
Acids, . .. .11
Acorns, . . ,12
Acre, . . .14
Actea Spicata, . , ib.
Acute Diseases . . ib.
Adder . . .15
Adulteration . . ib.
Advertisement . . ib.
Aether . . 16
Affliction . . . ib.
Agaric . . . 17
Age ... . ib.
Agitation . . . ib.
Agony .... 18
Agriculture . . ib.
» Agrimony, Common . 20
Ague . . . .21
Air .... 23
Ait-Bath ... 25
AiivJacket .... 26
Alabaster . . . , ib.
Alarum .... 27
AJbumcn . . . .ib.
Alcarrazas . . . * 28
Alchemy '. .. . ib.
Alcohol . . . •. . 29
Alder-Tree . . . ib.
Ale .... 30
, Alc-Aouse . . . .31
Aliment . . . ' *■ * //;.
• Alkalies .... 32
Alkanet..... 33
All-Hcal .- . • . - . 34
PAr.f
Allspice . . . . ib.
Almanack . . 35
Almond .... ib.
Aims-Houses ... 36
Aloe.....37 ,
Alum .... 39
Amber . . . 41
Ambergrise ... 42
Ambury . . . .43
Ammonia . . . . ib.
Ammoniac . ., *. 45
Amphibious Animals. . ". ib.
Amputation . . . * 48
Amusements . • . . ib.
Annagallis Arvensis 49
Anchovy .... 50
Ancient Languages- . . 51
Ancient Learning ... ib.
Ancient Times ... 52
Andromeda ... ib.
Anemonfeter . . . .53
Anemone . . i f ib.
Anemoscope (with a Cut) . • 55
Aneurism . . . *. 57
Angelica.....58
Anger .... 59
Angling . . F . .60
Animalcule . . . . 61
Animal Flower . . .62
Animal food . . ib.
Animal Kingdom . . .63
Animal Life . . . . 64
Animal Magnetism . . . "65
Animal Motion . . . ' ib.
Animal Economy . . 65
Animal Spirits . . ib.
Animation . . . . Jib
Anis . . . . ' . ' *68
Annealing .' 70
Annuity ..... ii. .
Ariodyne» .
73
xii CONTENTS.
PAGE PAGE
Anotta . 77 Assimilation . • 143
Ant ib. Asthma ib.
Ant-Hills . 79 Astringents . • 146
Anthrax . 80 Astrology 147
Antidotes . ib. Astronomy ib.
Antimony 82 Atamasco Lily 148
Antipathy . . . 84 Athletic Habit ". 149
Antiquities . . . 85 Atmosphere . ib.
Antiscorbutics . 86 Auction • 150
Antiseptics . . ib. Autumn . • ib.
Antispasmodics 87 Avarice • • 151
Anxiety . ib. Avens 152
Ape . 88 Aya pana 153
Aperients . ib. Avoirdupois ib.
Aphorism . 89
Apoplexy . ib. Baccharis Halimifolia 154
Appetite 91 Bachelor ib.
Apple-tree . 93 Bacon 155
Application 102 Badger 156
Apprenticeship . ib. Bag, in commerce 157
Apricot-Tree ib. Bag, in farriery ib.
Aqua Fortis . 105 Bagnio ib.
Aqua Regia 106 Baiting 158
Arable Lands . ib. Baker ib.
Aralia . . 108 Baking ib.
Archery . ib. Balance . 160
Architecture 109 Bladness 164
Argument 111 Ball 165
Arithmetic . . 112 Balls ib.
Aromatic 113 Horse Balls ib.
Arquebusade-Water . ib. Portable Balls ib.
Arrack 114 Balm, common 166
Arrangement • 115 Balsam '. ib.
Arrow ib. Balsamics ib.
Arrow-Grass ib. Balsamine . . 167
Arrow-Head ib. Bamboe Habit . . ib.
Arrow-Root 116 Bandage .... 167
Arsenic 117 Bandy-legs ib.
Art 123 Bane-berries . . 168
Artemesia Dracunculus 124 Bank .... ib.
Artery . . ib. Bank-fence . . 169
Artichoke 126 Banks of Rivers ib.
Artichoke, the Jerusalem ib. Banks of the Sea 171
Articulation 127 Barbel ib.
Artificer 128 Barbies, or Barbs 172
Artist ib. Barilla 173
Arvenusly (with a Cut) ib. Baring of Trees 175
Asafcetida 129 Bark ib.
Asarabacca 130 Barley 177
Ascarides 131 Barn 184
Ash 132 Barn-floors 186
Ashes . . 135 Barometer . 188
Asparagus 138 Barrel . . ♦ 195
Asphodel 141 Barrenness . ib.
Ass 142 Basaltes . . 196
Assembly . . . ib. Basilicon Ointment ib.
CONTENTS. xiii
PAGE page
Basket 197 Bismuth 283
Basket-salt ib. Bistort 284
Bat ib. Bite of a Mad Dog 285
Bath 193 Bitter 289
Bathing, in general 207 Bitumens 290
Baths, Dry ib. Black 291
Baths, Medicated, 209 Black-bird 292
Bath-Waters 210 Black-bird (Red winged) ib.
Bay-salt 211 Black Cattle ib.
Bay-tree 212 Black Canker 293
Bean 213 Black Fly ib.
Bean,the Kidney 217 Black Land ib.
Bear 218 Black Leather ib.
Beauty 219 Black Legs ib.
Beaver 221 Black Tin 294
Bed 222 Black Wadd ib.
Bed-room 223 Blackberry . • . ib.
Bed-stead ib. Blacking . . 295
Bed-time . 225 Bladder ib.
Bee ib. Bladder-nut Tree 296
Bee-hives . . 226 Blain 297
Bees-wax 243 Blanching . • ib.
Beech-tree 246 Blanket ib.
Beech-nut 247 Blast ib.
Beech-mast Oil . 248 Bleaching ib.
Beef ib. Bleak ib.
Beef-tea 251 Bleeding 305
Beer 252 Blend-water 306
Beestings 258 Blight ib.
Beet ib. Blindness, (with a Cut) 309
Beetle 261 Blindworm 312
Belles Lettres 262 Blister ib.
Bell-flower ib. Blite 314
Bellows 263 Blood . ib.
Belly-ach ib. Blood-hound 316
Bene-seed 264 Blood-shot Eyes ib.
Bent-grass ib. Blood-spavin 317
Benzoine ib. Blood-Stone ib.
Berberries ■ 266 Blood-letting ib.
Bere 267 Blood-vessels 319
Bergamot 268 Blood-wort ib.
Berne-machine ib. Blossom . ' . 320
Betony-Wood 269 Blow-pipe ib.
Bezoar ib. Blowing ib.
Biennial Plants . 270 Blubber 321
Bilberry 271 Blue . ib.
Bile " ib. Blue bird 322
Bind-weed 273 Blue Bottle ib.
Biography ib. Blueing ib.
Birch-tree 274 Board 323
Bird 276 Boat ib.
Bird-lime 278 Boat (Life) 324
Bird-cherry 281 Boat (Ice) 327
Birds-foot, Common ib. Body 328
Birth wort, Slender 282 Bog 329
Biscuit ib. Bohea * ib.
xiv CONTENTS.
PAGE PAGE
Boilers 329 Brute 416
Boiling 332 Bryony, the White 417
Boles ib. the Black 418
Bombast ib. Buck-bean 419
Bones - ib. Buck-thorn - ib.
Bone-spavin 336 Buck-thorn, the Sea 421 ib.
Book 337 Buck-wheat
Book-Keeping 339 Bucking 425 ib.
Boorcole 342 Buckram
Boot - ib. Bud 426
Borage 343 Buffalo 427 ib.
Borax ib. Bug
Botany - r Bottle 344 Bugle 428 ib.
- 346 Building
Bottling Botts ib. Bulb 435
ib. Bulfinch 437
Bounty Bow 348 ib. Bull Bullrush ib. 440
Bowels 349 Bui'dens - ib.
Box-tree 351 Burdock, or Clott-burr ib.
Boxing - ib. Burdock, the Lesser 441 ib.
Braces 352 Burgoo -
Brain ib. Burial ib.
Brake 354 Burnet - - - 442
Bramble ib. Burning 446
Bran ib. Burns - 448
Brandy 355 Burnt Grain ib.
Brass - 356 Bur-weed ib.
Brawn 358 Burying-Ground - 449
Bread ib. Bush-vetch 450
Bread-fruit Tree 376 Bushel ib.
Bream ib. Bustard 451
Breast 377 Butcher 452
Breath 378 Butter - - ib.
Breathing 379 Butter-burr 462
Breeches 380 Butter-cup ib.
Breeding of Cattle ib. Butterfly - 463
of Fish 382 Butterwort ib.
Good ib. Buxton Waters 464
Brewing 383 Buzzard 465
Briar 396 Cabbage 466
Brick ib. Cabbage, the Anjou 473
Bridge Brine 402 Cabbage-palm ib.
405 Cabbage-tree 474
Bristol, mineral water 406 Cage 475
Broad-cast Husbandry 407 Cajeput ib.
Broccoli 408 Cake 476
Brome-grass 409 Calamine - ib.
Bronze 410 Calamint ib.
Brook ib. Calandre ib.
Brook-lime ib. Calcareous Matter 477
Broom 411 Calcination ib.
Broth 412 Calculary - 478
Bruises - 413 Calender ib.
Brush 415 Calf 479
1 CONTENTS. XV
PAGE PAGE
CALLICARPA AMERICANA 482 Cancer 492
Calico - ib. Candle 495
Calkins ib. Canker 498
Calycanthus floridus ib. Canker Worm 499
Calx ... 483 Caoutchouc 502
Camblet ib. Caper - 503
Cambric ib. Capillaire - 504
Camphor ib. Caraway ib.
Canada Balsam 485 Cardamon - 505
Canal ib. Carline - ib.
Canary Bird 486 Carmine - - 506
Canary Grass 492 Carnivorous Animals. ib.
*** Additions by the Editor are enclosed in Crotchets.
PLATES IN THE FIRST VOLUME.
I. Mr. Dearborn's Improved Balance, p. 161.
II. and III. Floating Baths at Hamburgh....Plate II. p. 202.
Plate III. p. 204.
IV. Bedsteads for the Sick and Wounded, invented by Mr.
Lambert, p. 224
V. Ice-boats, newly invented by Mr. Thomas Ritzier, of
Hamburgh, p. 327.
VI. View of the Inside of a Brewhouse, p. 388.
INDEX
TO THE CORRESPONDING SYNONYMS, OR INVERSIONS OF TERMS,
OCCURRING IN THE FIRST VOLUME.
Abele-tree; see Poplar, the
White.
Acetite of Copper; see Verdi-
grease.
Agio; see Bank.
Argentine, the Common; see
Thistle, the Cotton.
Agriculture; see Husbandry.
Ale-hoof; see Ground-Ivy.
Almond-leaved Willow; see
Willow.
Alpine Bistort; see Bistort the
Small.
Apoplexy, in Farriery; see
Staggers.
Apple-Quince; see Quince.
-Rose; see Rose.
-tree, Coccus; see Coccus.
Arbutus, the Black-berried Al-
pine ; see Strawberry-tree.
Arcell; see Liverwort, the
Dark-coloured.
Archangel, the Red; see Dead-
nettle.
Archangel, the White; see
Dead-nettle.
Argol; see Orchal.
Arrow-grass; see Barilla.
Ash-weed; see Goutweed.
Asp; see poplar.
Asthma, in Farriery; see
Cough.
Balass; see Ruby.
Balm of Gilead; see Gilead.
Balsam of Copaiba; see Co-
paiba.
Balsamine-sage; see Sage.
Bank-cresses; see Mustard, the
Common Hedge.
Banstickle; see Stickleback, the
Common.
Barley-big; see Bere.
Bastard-cress; see Mithridate-
mustard.
Bastard Saffron; see Safflower.
Bath-cheese; see Cheese.
Beach-sumach; see sumach, the
Narrow-leaved.
Bear-berries, or Bear-whortle-
berries ; see Strawberry .tree.
Beetle; see Chafer.
Bidet; see Water-closet.
Bird-grass; see Meadow-grass*
the Roughish.
Bird's-foot Trefoil; see Trefoil,
the Common-Bird's-foot.
Bites of Dogs; see Dog.
Bitter-apple; see Cucumber.
Blackberry-bearing Alder; see
Alder Buckthorn.
Black-legs; see Quarter-evil.
Black-thorn ; see Sloe-tree.
Bladder, in Horses; see Dia-
betes and Stranguary.
Bladder Campion; see Spatling
Poppy.
Bladder-locks; see Sea-wrack,
the Esculent.
Blessed-thistle; see Thistle.
Blowing of Fish; see Fish.
Blue Hawk; see Hen-harrier.
Blue Ink; see Ink.
Branks; see Buck-wheat.
Breeze; see Gad-fly.
Brimstone; see Sulphur.
British Viper; see Viper, the
Common.
Broken-wind ; see Wind.
Bi-uisewort; see Soapwort, the
Common.
Brussels-Carpet; see Carpet.
Buck; see Deer.
Bucket; see Well.
Bugloss, the Greater Garden;
see Alkanet.
Bulbous Crow-foot; see Crow-
foot.
Bullace-plum; see Plum-tree.
Bunt; see Puff-ball, the Com-
mon.
Burn-baiting; see Burning of
Land.
Burnet-rose ; see rose.
Bur-reed ; see Bur-weed.
Cabbage-lettuce ; see Lettuce.
Cacoa-tree; see Chocolate-tree.
Calabash; see Gourd.
Calaguala; see Cough.
Cam-ho-tea; see Tea-tree.
Canal-coal; see Coal.
Carolina-poplar; see Poplar.
Caroline-thistle; see Carline.
THE
DOMESTIC ENCYCLOPEDIA.
ABD
ABD
ABDOMEN, or the lower belly,
is one of the most important re-
gions of the human body, not only
on account of its various contents,
but also from its exposed situation.
Although, to give a strictly ana-
tomical description of the different
parts composing the admirable fa-
bric of the animal frame, is not con-
sistent with the plan of this work,
yet, where the welfare and safety of
the body are essentially concerned
we propose to add a distinct expla-
nation of the organs liable to injury,
and, occasionally, to point out their
proper management in a healthy
state, together with a few hints for
treating complaints, the source of
which is frequently not suspected.
The abdomen extends, longitudi-
nally, from that cavity, or hollow,
which is usually called the pit of the
stomach, to the lower part of the
trunk : it is defended, in front, by
the abdominal muscles; behind,by
the vertebra: of the back ; and, on
both sides, by the false ribs.
Instead of perplexing the reader
with a minute account of the three
regions, into which the lower belly
is divided by anatomists, namely,
the upper, or epigastric ; the mid-
dle, or umbilical; and the lower,
VOL. I.
or hypogastric region ; we shall ra-
ther proceed to examine their dif-
ferent contents.
In the first place, it deserves to
be remarked, that the whole intes-
tinal canal forms one continued tube,
ofgreaterorlesscapacity,beginning
with the stomach, and terminating
at the anus. This canal is, gene-
rally, six times the length of the
whole human subject, in proportion
to the person's stature, and is by
Nature divided into tv/o distinct
parts ; namely, the anterior, or up-
permost, that is next to the sto-
mach, comprizing what are called
the thin, or small intestines, which
fill the middle, or fore parts, of the
belly ; and the posterior, or lower-
most, where we find the large intes-
tines occupying the sides, and both
the upper and lower parts of that
cavity. The former are again di-
vided into the duodenum, or twelve
inch gut; the jejunum, or empty
gut, and the ileum, or crooked gut;
and the latter, or large portion,
into the coecum, or blind gut; the
colon, or hollow gut, being the
largest of all the intestines ; and
the rect um,ov the straight excretory
gut, which terminates in the anus.
On openincr the abdomen, we ob-
15
ABD
ABD
serve its viscera and intestines in the
following situation: after having re-
moved the skin and the muscles,
we discover the peritoneum, or a
membrane which envelopes all the
viscera of the lower belly. This
being divided, the omentum, or
cawl, appears floating on the sur-
face of the intestines, which are
likewise seen in a moist and loose
state, making numerous windings
through the whole cavity. The vi-
scera next present themselves in
this order : on the uppermost part
of the belly, namely, under the
midriff, towards the middle, but
rather inclining to the right side,
lies the liver, and near its concave
surface is the gall-bladder ; some-
what to the left is the stomach, and
laterally, contiguous to it,the spleen.
The kidneys are placed about the
middle of the lumbar region, or
the loins, while the urinary bladder,
and the parts of generation, are si-
tuated in the lower division of the
belly ; in thai bony cavity which is
denominated the pelvis, or bason,
and the sides of which form what
are commonly called the hips.
The situation of these parts,
however, in a natural state, fre-
quently undergoes considerable va-
riations, especially that of the liver,
the stomach, and the spleen : and
these deviations, being produced by
various causes, as by a different
posture of the whole body ; disten-
tion of the stomach with an unusual
quantity of food, either in a solid or
liquid form ; or lastly, during preg-
nancy ; hence it may be understood
that,wijheverypreternaturalchange
of their respective positions, there
may arise ruptures, spasmodic con-
tractions, callosities, accumulations
of water, called dropsy, and many
similar complaints. To prevent such
disastrous consequences, we cannot
too strongly inculcate the necessity
of observing stricttemperance, par-
ticularly with respect to food, drink,
and exercise. This proposition may
be rendered more evident, by ap-
pealing to the experience of those
Europeans, who have long resided
in warm climates, and prudently
restrained their sensual appetites ;
in consequence of which, they have
seldom been attacked with diseases
of the liver; an organ which cannot
fail to become a prey to an irregular
mode of living.
The intestines have certain gene-
ral characters, though each of them
manifests its peculiarities. In the
former respect, we find that they
are all connected with the vertebrae
by means of the mesentery ; that
each of them consists of different
membranes, the innermost coat of
which terminates in the intestinal
canal itself, and forms semi-lunar
valves, inclining towards each other
contracting thetube of that passage,
and often appearing in several parts
more numerous and conspicuous
than in others. Each gut is, far-
ther, provided with small glands,
for the secretion of a viscid humour
and many small vessels for the ab-
sorption of certain fluids. Lastly,
all intestines possess, in common,
a certain creeping, called the peris-
tallic, or vermicular motion ; which
ir> occasioned by the contraction of
their muscular fibres, operating in
a spiral direction, or obliquely from
the upper towards the lower parts ;
and they are thus liable to alternate
contortions in their respective situ-
atioi
fused through the air,and to insinu-
ate itself into the pores of all other
bodies. Its existence, however, has
been denied by many, who assert,
that the air, by its tenuity and ex-
pansion, is fully sufficient for the
above-mentioned purposes.
Whatever conjectures may be
formed concerning the nature and
properties of this subtle fluid, there
is every reason to believe in the ex-
istence of a matter finer than the
air itself. Sir Isaac Newton has
observed, that heat is readily com-
municated through a vacuum,which
cannot take place withovit the inter-
vention of some other medium.....
This, being subtle enough to pene-
trate even throu gh the pores of glass,
may readily be conceived to be ca-
pable of pervading all other bodies,
and diffusing itself through every
part of space : and thus it conveys
acomplete idea of an aethereal fluid.
./Ether is now principally consi-
dered as a chemical composition....
It is a combination of vitriolic acid
and spirits of wine, and is used for
a variety of medical purposes. The
head-ach is said to have been often
cured by rubbing it on the temples;
and Dr. Ccnyers declares, that a
tea-spoon full applied to the affect-
ed jaw, and repeated till the pain
ceases, is a never-failing remedy for
the tooth-ach. It has also been used
in cases of rheumatism, gout, and
hooping-cough, with great success.
In a paroxysm of suffocating asth-
ma, and all those diseases where
the organs of respiration are affect-
ed, half a tea-spoon full of vitriolic
sether in a table spoon full of water,
quickly swallowed and occasionally
repeated,has often produced instant
relief. Even the simple evaporation
of this volatile fluid, a spoon full of
which may be placed at a time in a
shallow vessel contigious to the pa-
tient, has frequently been found of
great service, and alleviated the
most distressing shortness of breath.
A combination of spirit of sea-
salt with the flowers of zinc, pro-
duces the marine aether.
JEthusa Cynapium,T,. See Fool's
Parsley.
AFFLICTION, as opposed to a
state of joy and prosperity, cannot
be called a disease, though when
indulged to excess, it may be pro-
ductive of many mental and bodily
affections. For whatever tends to
excite anger, hatred, envy, 8cc.
cannot fail to bring on disorders
arising from tense or rigid fibres ;
as, on the contrary, fear, grief, and
excessive joy, engender those ma-
ladies which are the consequence
of relaxation.
Hence we cannot be too much
on our guard against the invasion
of passions, which may be truly
styled the greatest enemies of man-
kind. Lord Bolingbroke, in his
Letters " on the study and use of
history," gives the following perti-
nent advice : " Let us set all our
past and our present afflictions at
once before our eyes. Let us re-
solve to overcome them, instead of
shrinking from the contest, or of
wearing out the sense of them, by
AG A
A G I 11
long and ignominious patience.....
Instead of palliating remedies, let
us use the incision-knife and the
caustic ; probe the wound to the
bottom, and work an immediate
and radical cure." Uninterrupted
misery, continues this stoic philo-
sopher, has this good effect, that,
as it continually torments, it finally
hardens the sufferer.
After-birth. See Midwifery.
AGARIC of the oak, or the
Agaricus Quercinue, L. is well known
as a styptic, when applied to exter-
nal wounds. M. Adouillet, an
eminent French surgeon, has em-
ployed it, instead of ligatures, on
the arteries, in cases of amputation,
by applying small pieces of it to
the mouths of these vessels, and af-
terwards covering the stump with
lint.
This species of agaric may be
Usefully employed for the purpose
of dying silks of a black colour : to
succeed in the experiment, it ought
to be cut in small pieces, and boil-
ed in a solution of copperas, over a
gentle fire, till the dye be sufficient-
ly strong.
Another species of agaric, namely,
the common puff-ball, has, by far-
riers also, been used as a styptic :
and, in an experiment made upon
a horse, it completely stopped, in a
few minutes, a hemorrhage from
one of the largest arteries. The
wound afterwards healed, without
any further discharge.
We cannot, on this occasion,
omit to remark, that persons living
in retired situations, and particular-
ly those employed in husbandry, as
well as artizans working with sharp
instruments, ought always to be
provided with some styptic, which,
at a distance from medical aid, and
in a moment of emergency, may,
sometimes, save an useful animal,
VOL. I.
and even the life of a fellow-crea-
ture, by its timely application.
The efficacy of agaric, as a styptic
for external wounds, has, however,
been disputed by IJr. Neale, a
surgeon of the London Hospital,
who published some observations
on the subject, in the year 1757....
He asserts, that he has seen it used
on several occasions, and frequently
employed it himself, without effect,
nay, to the detriment of the patient.
Agaricus Muscarius, L. See
Musky Mushroom.
AGE signifies any period of du-
ration. It is indiscriminately used
to express many objects and situa-
tions, but is more frequently ap-
plied to the latter or advanced pe-
riods of human life ; and, in this
sense, is accompanied with the epi-
thet old.
Human existence has been di-
vided into four distinct periods, viz.
infancy, youth, manhood, and old
age. The gradation through these
successive stages is often slight and
imperceptible ; it may be either ac-
celerated or retarded, according to
the more or less prudent conduct
of the individual, the mode of life
which is pursued, and the various
rules and precautions observed in
diet, regimen, Sec.
Age, when accompanied with
other good qualities, is more espe-
cially entitled to respect and reve-
rence ; but if marked with igno-
rance and folly, becomes disgusting
and contemptible. See the article
Longevity.
AGITATION is the act of shak-
ing a body, or tossing it backwards
and forwards. In physics, this term
is often used for a commotion of
the parts of a natural body. Fer-
mentation and effervescence are at-
tended with a brisk agitation of the
particles.
D
18 AGR
AGR
Agitation is also one of the chief
causes or instruments of mixtion.
By the agitation of the parts of the
blood and chyle, sanguification is in
a great measure effected. Butter
is also made out of milk by the
same means ; a separation of the
oleous from the serous parts taking
place, and a combination of the for-
mer among themselves. Digestion
is supposed to be accomplished by
an insensible kind of agitation.
This term is also used in medi-
cine, to denote that species of exer-
cise, commonly called swinging ;
which has been found serviceable in
several complaints; and it is assert-
ed, that even the tooth-ach and deaf-
ness have sometimes been removed
by violent agitations of the body.
We propose to make some farther
observations on this species of exer-
cise, under the article Swinging.
AGONY is a term used to sig-
nify an extreme degree of pain, or
the last pangs of death. The ter-
ror of death appears, in a great de-
gree, occasioned by the contortions
and convulsions with which the ago-
ny seems attended ; though the ge-
neral opinion of physiologists is,
that in such cases the sensations
of pain are not very acute ; a course
of affliction during sickness, having
naturally indisposed the nerves for
any quick sensations.
Various means have been em-
ployed for mitigating the agonies
of death, such as opium, he.; but
these attempts are, by judicious per-
sons, generally discountenanced :
the conscious reflection of having
spent an active and useful life, is,
on this occasion, the most effectual
remedy which suggests itself to the
christian and the philosopher.
AGRICULTURE is the art of
cultivating the earth, so that it may
produce the vegetables we desire
in their greatest perfection. It may
be divided into two branches; name-
ly, theory and practice. The for-
mer particularly treats of the va-
rious means of preparing and ma-
naging the soil and manure, and of
the different kinds of vegetables
which are adapted to particular
soils, and most proper to be raised
for the consumption of men, cattle,
Etc. The latter relates to the im-
plements of husbandry, the various
methods of cultivating land, raising
crops, and feeding cattle.
Agriculture is one of those arts
which, from the earliest periods,
have been deservedly held in the
highest estimation. One of the first
injunctions upon our original pro-
genitor, after his dismission from the
garden of Eden, was, that he should
" till the ground." Subsequent ex-
perience has fully proved, that the
cultivation of this necessary art es-
sentially contributes to the prospe-
rity of mankind, and that it ought
to form a primary object in all mo-
ral and political regulations.
In the earliest ages, and among
those nations which have been ce-
lebrated for their refinement and
civilization, agriculture has been
highly prized, and carried even to
considerable perfection. Among
the Hebrews, high birth or rank
conferred no exclusive distinctions;
for it was then considered as the
most honourable of human em-
ployments. By this valuable art,
the Chaldeans discovered the means
of procuring excessive crops of corn,
which enabled them to remain sta-
tionary, and not migrate, as their
predecessors had formerly done, in
order to obtain subsistence for them-
selves and their flocks. So sensible
were many nations of its great im-
portance, that, according to the his-
tory of the ancient Persians, tlieir
AGR
AGR 19
kings, once in every month, divest-
ed themselves of regal pomp, and
ate with husbandmen. In China, a
day is still annually appointed, when
the emperor goes in solemn pro-
cession to a field, where he shews
his sense of the inestimable benefits
of agriculture, by undertaking, for
a short time the laborious occupa-
tion of directing the plough in per-
son. Among the Romans, the ru-
ral art was deemed so honourable a
pursuit, that the most distinguished
senators, at their leisure intervals,
applied themselves to the cultiva-
tion of the SOil. NUMA PoMPILIUS,
one of their first kings, was distin-
guished as much for his skill in
agriculture, as for his exemplary
piety ; and such was the amiable
simplicity of those times, thattheir
greatest warriors and legislators,
were often called from the active
labours of the field to the higher,
but not more dignified, offices of the
state. Cato, the censor,who had
governed and subdued many war-
like nations, did not consider it be-
neath him to write a treatise on agri-
culture ; and several valuable works
iiDon this subject, appeared at va-
rious periods of the Roman em-
pire.
In the year 1756, a period of dif-
ficulty and distress, France began
to pay particular attention to this
important subject. Prize questions
were annually proposed by the aca-
demies of Lyons, Bourdeaux, and
by the society instituted for the im-
provement of agriculture in Brit-
tany. About this time, also, it was
greatly encouraged in Russia, Prus-
sia, Sweden, Denmark, Germany,
and Italy ; in the last mentioned
country, a private gentleman, about
40 years ago, left his whole fortune
to the establishment and support of
an agricultural academy.
Whether we consider agriculture
as a means of procuring, as well the
necessaries as luxuries of life ; of
providing a security against the ag-
gregated calamities of scarcity, fa-
mine and disease ; or of engaging
the mind in active and extensive
pursuits of general knowledge, it is
one of the most useful and import-
ant of all the arts which have em-
ployed the attention of mankind.
Its theory is, in a great measure,
dependent on several branches of
science, such as natural history,
chemistiy, experimental philoso-
phy, and mechanics, all of which
may be successively applied to its
advancement; and without a com-.
petent knowledge of these, it can-
not be properly understood. Its
practical part, however, may be car-
ried on, independently of scientific
experiments. No person, therefore,
need be deterred from attempting
any improvements, because he is
not conversant with the more ab-
stract parts of physical knowledge.
The successful advancement of
the rural art depends upon two ciiv
cumstances ; the one, its improve-
ment by discovery or invention ; the
other, a more extensive practice of
such improvements, when fully de-
monstrated. The former is effect-
ed, by the contrivance of more per-
fect machines and implements of
husbandry, which facilitate the pro-
gress of labour; the introduction
of new articles of profitable culture,
and the most advantageous method
of treatingthose which have already
been cultivated, though in a defec-
tive manner. The latter, namely,
the practice, relates not only to fu-
ture improvements, but likewise
to those which, though generally
known, have been either wholly ne-
glected, or adopted only in particu-
lar places.
20 AGR
AGR
Agricultural pursuits will always
constitute one of the principal em-
ployments of the bulk of mankind;
it is, therefore, as well the interest,
as the duty, of the higher classes,
to contribute every comfort in their
power, towards alleviating the bur-
thens inseparable from the lot of
the husbandman. For, so long as
that valuable body of the people,
who cultivate the soil, were duly
stimulated to habits of industry, and
encouraged in the practice of do-
mestic virtues, we,find no example
in the pages of ancient or modern
history, that such a nation ever suf-
fered a general calamity.
[It has been justly observed, that
in America, in particular, agricul-
ture is the foundation of productive
industry, and the buiwrark of moral
habits. Throughout the United
States, the land is distributed among
a great number of proprietors ; and
these proprietors have the entire
disposal of their freeholds ; the ec-
clesiastical encumbrances of tythes,
and the feudal impositions of ser-
vices, which cramp and parahze
every effort made towards the im-
provement of this science, are un-
known ; and the improvements of
the farmer or planter, accrue to
themselves and their families, in-
heritable as a clear estate, or trans?
ferable at their option to any pur-
chaser. Where the soil is parcelled
out among millions of free citizens,
each has more at stake in the com-
munity, has greater importance and
higher responsibility, and as he va-
lues his actual enjoyment and future
projects of happiness, will become
convinced that the self-government
he exercises ■ought to be founded
on wwienn ai.ci virtu.. From these
causes may be deduced that inder
pendent spirit, that honest demea-
nour, that unsuspicious frankness,
and that unaffected patriotism,which
distinguish the sons of agriculture.
How worthy then of consideration
is this noble art! How laudable
the efforts of those who detect
its errors, or introduce improve-
ments ! Howparticularly commend-
able are those Americans who la-
bour and make experiments for
the instruction of their fellow-citi-
zens !]
For an account of the different
subjects connected with agriculture,
we refer the reader to the articles,
as they are classed in the order of
the alphabet.
AGRIMONY, Common; or
Agrimonia Eupatoria, L. It is re-
presented in the 6th and 7th plates
of Curtis's Flora Londinensis,
p. 317.
Ifi a medicinal view, the leaves of
this vegetable are said to be ape-
rient, detergent, and to strengthen
the tone of the viscera; hence they
have been used in laxity of the in-
testines, in scorbutic, and other dis-
orders arising from debility. Di-
gested in whey, agrimony affords
a diet-drink grateful to the palate
and stomach; though its leaves have
an herbaceous and roughish tastS,
accompanied with an aromatic fla-
vour. The leaves and stalks, toge-
ther with the closed flowers, afford
a dark yellow decoction, which
when previously impregnated with
a diluted solution of bismuth, im-
parts a beautiful and permanent
gold-colour to animal wool. We
are induced to state this fact upon
the authority of M. Dambourney,
who, in the year 1793, published
a volume of" Facts and Experi-
ments on genuine and permanent
Colours," printed at Leipzig, in the
German language.
The blossoms of the common
agrimony have also been occasion-
AGU
A G U 21
ally employed by tanners, for curing
soft and delicate skins.
[. /. Eupatoria is a native of the
United States. Kalm says, the
Canadians use an infusion of the
root in fevers with great success....
Varieties of thisspecies,are a.minor,
or white a....a. odorata, or sweet-
scented a.....The a. passiflorafis also
found in the United States.]
Agrostemma Githago, L. See
Corncockle.
Agrostis Spicaventi,L,. See Silky
Bent Grass.
AGUE is a general term for
those fevers which have periodical
intermissions, and are specifically
denominated quotidian,tertian, quar-
tan, according to the various pe-
riods at which the febrile paroxysm
returns.
The symptoms generally observ-
ed, during the cold fit in agues are,
strong shiverings, succeeded by
great heat, and the usual concomi-
tants of fever, such as thirst, quick
pulse, &c The hot fit is termi-
nated by a perspiration more or
less profuse, according to the habit
and constitution of the patient.
Several other symptoms occa-
sionally present themselves in the
different stages of the disease. Dur-
ing the interval of each paroxysm,
the patient apparently enjoys as
good a state of health, as previous
to the attack of this disease. Never-
theless, if it be suffered to continue
long-, it weakens and exhausts the
constitution, and occasions such ra-
vages as medicine cannot easily re-
pair ; producing general debility,
obstructions in the viscera, jaundice,
dropsy, he.
\Yv shall proceed to point out a
few of those remedies which have
been found effectual in this disease.
A tea-spoon full of powdered
snake-root mixed with a glass of
brandy and water, and taken be-
fore the approach of the fit, keeping
the body warm to induce perspira-
tion, has been of considerable ser-
vice. The following remedy is also
said to have been successfully em-
ployed in agues:
Two spoonsfuls of the juice of
sage, mi^gd with an equal quantity
of vineglP and taken at the ap-
proach or the fit.
The regular method of eradicat-
ing an ague, after the disease has
been properly ushered in, by a few
successive paroxysms, consists in
cleansing the first passages by pro-
per laxatives and emetics, as occa-
sion may require.
The patient, during the fit, should
drink freely ofwater-gruehand other
warm diluents. The Peruvian bark
may then be administered in any
form best suited to the patient's
stomach, either in decoction, infu-
sion, tincture, or in powder mixed
with Port wine. The last mode, as
being the most efficacious,«ought,
when practicable, always to be pre-
ferred.
Dr. Lysons has observed, that
his patients derived great benefit
from the use of the snake-root com-
bined with bark. His receipe is as
follows: two scruples of bark and
one of snake-root. He says, that
two or three doses rarely fail to ar-
rest the progress of a distinct ter-
tian, or quartan ague. Should a
farther repetition of this remedy be
requisite, it will be attended with
this advantage, that the disorder
will be less likely to return, than if
it were stopped by the bark alone.
Repeated shocks of the electrical
fluid have been said to cure agues;
but this is a precarious and hazard-
ous practice. Even that sovereign
remedy, the bark, has sometimes
been known to fail.
22 A G U
AGU
If no other means be found ade-
quate to the inveteracy of this com-
plaint, we cannot, in justice to Dr.
Fowler, omit to mention his mi-
neral solution, or ague-drops, so well
known to all our apothecaries, that
they require no farther description.
Yet, convinced of their vioklirt ef-
fects on the human s^tem, we
seriously recommend ife use of
the remedies above specified, be-
fore arsenic be employed as the
ultimate resource. ••
[In most cases it* is necessary to
give a gentle emetic, to clear the
stomach of bile before the bark be
taken. Ipecacuanha is the safest
emetic: fifteen or twenty grains
will answer for most persons: three
or four grains of calomel may be
joined with the ipecacuanha to open
the bowels. The bark may then be
commenced, and a tea-spoonful
taken every three hours during the
absence of the fever: beer is the
best vehicle to disguise the taste of
the bark, but milk answers the
purpose very well. It may also be
taken wrapped up in a wafer made
of flour and water, pressed between
two hot flat-irons, and in this way
proves less disagreeable to the sto-
mach.
After a few days use of the bark,
the stomach commonly nauseates
it; it may then be omitted for a
short time, and strong snake-root
and chamomile tea,or a decoction of
dogwood and black alder, to which
some shavings of sassafras root
have been added, may be substitu-
ted. The diet may be more gene-
rous than usual; and great care
taken to avoid any cause that may
bring on a return of the ague, par-
ticularly cold, damp air. Should
however,the usual symptoms of afit
come on, twenty drops of laudanum
must be taken, and the person co-
vered up in bed. The bark must
then be recurred to and steadily
taken. The complaint is very
apt to return, after being suspend-
ed for some time. To prevent this,
care should be taken not to go out
in the morning before the ground
be dry, or with an empty stomach: to
avoid the hot sun, and chilling
damps of the night. It often hap-
pens that a change of air, will prove
a cure, when no internal remedy
avails. A flannel shirt is highly
useful in fortifying the body against
the attacks of intermittents; and
after a long continued indisposition
always ought to be worn, and re-
gularly changed once a week.
In situations subject to intermit-
tents it is an excellent practice to
keep fires in the common sitting
rooms every morning and evening,
nay in the middle of the day, even
if it be necessary to keep the doors
open: for the air will be thus de-
prived of its unhealthy moisture,
and the walls kept dry. By this
practice I have known the health of
a family in the swamps of Dela-
ware, preserved during a whole
summer, while the neighbours were
all afflicted by agues.
In obstinate intermittents, a slight
salivation will prove a cure: blisters
applied to the wrists, will also check
the return of fits. Dr. Rush re-
commends the loss of some blood
when the disease is protracted to
the winter months, and I have
known the remedy frequently suc-
cessful.
Periodical head aches, sore eyes,
and pains in other parts of the body,
frequently proceed from the same
cause that produced the intermit*
tent fever, and may be cured by the
bark, or by the mineral solution of
AIR
Dr. Fowler. The following are
the doses for various ages:
Years. Drops.
5 to 7 from 5 to 7
8 12 7 \0
13 18 10 12
18 and upwards. 12]
AIR, in a pure state, is a colour-
less, transparent, compressible and
elastic fluid; and one of the most
important elements; whether we
consider its application to pur-
poses of general economy, or its
effects on animated nature. It is
the medium through which we
breathe, and without which we can-
not exist. WThen perfectly freed
from all extraneous and noxious
particles, it may be denominated
vital air, or oxygen; and in this
state is capable of invigorating and
supporting the human frame, in a
very eminent degree. Mixed with
the common ingredients, it is called
atmospheric air, or that by which
we are usually surrounded.
[Before the modem discoveries in
chemistry, the atmosphere was con-
sidered as one simple elastic fluid:
but it now appears that there are
four distinct elastic fluids found in
every portion of atmospheric air.
And these, for aught we know, are
totally independent of one another:
so much that if any one of them
were wholly withdrawn from the
surface of the earth, the rest would
not at all be affected by the circum-
stance either in their density or si-
tuation.]
In diseases of the lungs, and epi-
demics arising from a confined or
vitiated atmosphere, the adminis-
tration of air, in a pure state, has
been attended with singular suc-
cess; while, in such complaints, the
most powerful remedies have been
unable to compensate the want of
this necessary article.
AIR 23
Air vitiated by the different pro-
cesses of respiration, combustion,
and putrefaction, or which is suf-
fered to stagnate, becomes prejudi-
cial to the human frame: hence
large cities, public assemblies, hos-
pitals, burying-grounds, he. are
injurious to health, and often pro-
ductive ofxontagious disorders.
Plants'ftd vegetables possess the
wonderful property of restoring the
purity of airt This, however, takes
place only in the day-time, and
when they are exposed to the light
of the sun; for at night they dis-
charge their noxious particles, and
corrupt the atmosphere. Never-
theless, the disadvantage arising
from their impure exhalation dur-
ing the night, is far exceeded by the
benefits produced in the day-time;
as the former does not amount to a
hundredth part of the pure vital air,
which is generated by the same
plant, in the course of two hours of
a fine day. It has been asserted,
that the purity of air may be also
restored by wetting a cloth in wa-
ter mixed with quick-lime, hanging
it in a room till it become dry, and
renewing the operation so long as
it appears needful.
A mode of forwarding the distil-
lation of salt water at sea, has been
discovered, and consists simply in
blowing currents of air through
the distilled fluid. The same me-:
thod has also been successfully em-
ployed to take off the unpleasant
taste which is sometimes found in
milk.
Dr. Reich of Erlang, describes
a particular machine for the pur-
pose of extracting air from the in-
testines, and thus procuring instant
relief in a complaint called ty/npa-
nites, or the dry windy dropsy. A
small tube with a cock having a
▼alve on its side, and so constructed
24 AIR
AIR
as to turn quickly, is affixed to the
common clystering machine. Upon
each successive introduction, the
cock must be turned, in order to
admit the air into the tube, and then
quickly closed.
Air which is rarefied, ascends.
This is particularly exemplified in
the periodical sea and laud breezes
of hot climates; wherein conse-
quence of the reflection of the sun
from the earth's unequal surface,
the lower land-air becomes highly
rarefied, and rises into the upper at-
mosphere, while the sea-air, being
cool and dense, rushes in to supply
its place. Upon this principle, M.
\rANMARUM,aDutch chemist, has
discovered a method of purifying
assembly-rooms by a tin tube of
nine inches diameter, and ten feet
length, to the lower surface of
which lamps are suspended, for the
purpose of rarefying the air, and
urging it to ascend through the
ceiling of the room.
Dr. Hales has described the
useful effects produced in French
prisons, by long air-trunks fixed
through the ceilings of wards in
gacls, to carry off the foul vapours
which exhale from the prisoners :
he declares that it has not only pre-
served many of their lives, but pre-
vented them from communicating
infectious distempers to persons as-
sembled in the courts of judicature.
We are happy to add, that this
valuable improvementhas also been
adopted in this country.
An apparatus invented by Mr.
Salmon, of Canterbury, forthe ex-
pulsion of noxious air from wells,
has been employed with consider-
able success.
Air-baloons are constructed upon
similar principles; they continue to
ascend, so long as the inflammable
gas with which they are filled is
lighter than the atmosphere with
which they are surrounded.
Noxious and mephitic vapours,
arising from wells and other sub-
terraneous places, may be effectu-
ally corrected by simple ventilation,
or the admission of such portions
of vital air, as will render the whole
sufficiently respirable.
To ascertain whether the air of a
mine, well, cellar, or large cask,
be safe, a lighted candle, suspended
by a cord, ought to be conveyed to
the bottom, before any person ven-
ture to approach it. Should a slight
explosion take place, or the light
burn dimly, or even be extinguished,
the air is certainly noxious ; but if
the flame continue bright, no dan*
ger is to be apprehended.
Another easy expedient of puri-
fying foul air may be adopted, by
pouring several vessels of boiling
water into such receptacles, before
any person be suffered to descend.
A still better method of dispel-
ling the deleterious air from deep
wells or pits, is the following : take
a leather tube of sufficient length
to reach the bottom of the shaft or
cellar ; fix the nozle of a pair of
large bellows to the top, and work
them briskly for a few minutes :
thus fresh air will be introduced,
the flame of the candle, on trial,
will not be extinguished, and we
may descend without any danger.
[ This last is the plan recom-
mended by Mr. Robertson of Phil-
adelphia, in the Amer. Phil. Trans.
It is a tedious method; a much bet-
ter one will be described under the
article Well.]
Artizans who are employed over
charcoal-fire, such as dyers, gilders,
refiners of metals, Sec. are exposed
to considerable danger from the vi-
tiated state of the air : to avert the
injury to which their lungs are thus
A I R
exposed, it would be advisable to
place near them a flat-bottomed
vessel filled with lime-water, and
to renew it every other day, or so
often as a variegated film or pellicle
appear floating on such water.....
This powerfully attracts and ab-
sorbs the pernicious exhalations pro-
duced from the burning of charcoal.
Likewise, in the construction of
chemical laboratories, smelting-
mills, and similar offices, proper
attention ought to be paid to their
free and constant ventilation; as the
metallic fumes, and other noxious
vapours which they generate, are
highly detrimental to health.
In chronic diseases, especially
those of the lungs, a change of air
is strongly recommended. It has
sometimes, independently of any
other circumstance, proved highly
beneficial; inasmuch as patients
have breathed more freely, even
though removed to a damp and con-
fined situation.
In a late volume of the "■ Annates
de Cliimie, we meet with a memoir
by M. Deyeux, on the means of
purifying infectious air ; and which
is extracted from a work of M.Guy-
ton de Morveau, who made nu-
merous experiments with different
matters, in order to ascertain those
which were best calculated to pre-
vent the diffusion of contagious
atoms in the atmosphere. As, how-
ever, we cannot enter into an ana-
lysis of his experiments,' we shall
briefly state their results. Accord-
ing to these, the nitric acid is well
calculated to destroy the putrid ef-
fluvia ; but, as it cannot without
great difficulty be divested of nitrous
gas, the action of which is always
prejudicial to the health of those
who respire it, M. Morveau re-
marks, that the use of this remedy
u still attended with great inconve-
tol. i.
AIR 25
nience. He is, therefore, of opinion,
that the muriatic acid affords very
great advantages in dispelling con-
tagion, by the uncommon expansi-
bility of its vapours; which thus pe-
netrate every part of the substance
on which the operation may be per-
formed. Nevertheless, he conceives
oxygenated muriatic add to be su-
perior to every other remedy, both
for the celerity and facility with
which it is diffused, and likewise
for the certainty of its action ; in
consequence of which, it instantly
destroys all putrid miasmata, that
may either be floating in the air, or
be fixed upon bodies.
[With regard to Guyton's pub-
lication, the editor agrees with Dr.
Mitchell in thinking, that soap-
suds, alkaline lye, and lime-water,
properly used, by an active woman,
will much more effectually extin-
guish contagion and infection, than
any acid fumigations, whether ni-
trous or muriatic ; and that there is
no need of books, or chemical pro-
cesses, when the best possible me-
thods are in daily use already, and
only want to be carried rigorously
into execution. It is curious to ob-
serve that while Dr.C. Smyth, who
has lately been rewarded by the
British Parliament with 50001. for
the discovery, insists upon the effi-
cacy of the " nitrous vapour," Guy-
ton is equally positive that the suf-
focating fumes of the muriatic acid
are the most certain destroyers of
contagion. Both methods are at
variance with jthe common expe-
rience of mankind.]
Aha Cespitosa, L. See Turft
Hair Grass.
AIR-BATH, in its general ac-
ceptation, implies a contrivance for
the reception of fresh air. All per-
sons, but especially children, ought
to resort, at least for a short time,
E
26 AIR
ALA
every day to this method of enjoy-
ing the salubrious influence of that
universal agent.
To persons of a robust and vi-
gorous habit,we cannot recommend
a more brac;i>g and pleasant reme-
dy. In this place, however, we
shall give only an historical sketch
of the simple air-bath, without ex-
patiating on its nature and effects.
Its benefits were first pointed out
by the If to illustrious Franklin,
who describes it with his peculiar
simplicity, in the following words :
" Every morning at day-break I
get out of bed, and pass half an
hour, or an hour, in my chamber,
according to the season, in writing
or reading,without any clothes; and
this seems rather pleasant than
otherwise : and if I return to bed, as
is sometimes the case,before I dress
myself, I have an addition to my
night's rest of one or two hours
sleep, sweeter than you can ima-
gine."
The late Lord Monboddo, a man
of an amiable, though eccentric cha-
racter, was so decided an advocate
for the air-bath that he accustomed
himself to take violent exercise,
when quite undressed, in the open
air. In this practice he persevered
till within a few years of his death
(which happened in May, 1799) ;
he also annointed his body, like the
ancients, with aromatic oils, espe-
cially in a moist and heavy atmos-
phere. Whether by these singular
expedients, or by a frugal and phi-
losophic mode of life, he enjoyed
that extraordinary degree of men-
tal serenity and bodily energy, which
prolonged his existence to the 90th
year of age, we shall not pretend to
decide.
AIR-JACKET, a dress made of
leather, in which are contained se-
veral bags or bladders, composed of
the same materials, and communi-
cating with each other. These are
filled with air blown through a lea-
ther tube, having a brass stop-cock,
accurately ground at its extremity.
In order to confine this elastic fluid,
the jacket must previously be wet-
ted ; and thus the person is sup-
ported in the water without any ef-
fort, by the aid of these bladders
placed near the breast. Those who
are proficients in the art of swim-
ming, condemn such artificial as-
sistance as cannot always be readily
procured : in our opinion, the most
proper and easy method of acquir-
ing this useful talent, is that men-
tioned by Dr. Struve, in his Ger-
man treatise on the Physical Educa-
tion of Children, lately published,
with three Introductory Lectures
by the Editor of this Encyclopedia.
See the article Swimming.
Aix-la-Chapelle. See Mineral
Waters.
ALABASTER, is a species of
stone, the basis of which is calca-
reous earth. Mixed with any acid,
no effervescence takes place ; in
this respect it differs from marble,
but in its chemical properties it re-
sembles gypsum, selenite, and plas-
ter of Paris. There are three spe-
cies of alabaster: the white-shining;
the yellowish ; and the variegated,
a mixture of yellow and red. The
last, indeed, violently ferments with
aqua-fortis, and burns to a paje yel-
low. It was formerly brought from
Egypt, but is now obtained in se-
veral parts of England.
Mr. Boyle, speaking of the first
sort, says, that, if finely powdered,
and set in a bason over the fire, it
will, when hot, assume the appear-
ance of a fluid, rolling in waves,
yielding to the smallest touch, and
emitting vapour. On the departure
of the heat, it loses these proper-
ALA
ALB 27
ties, and again becomes a mere in-
coherent powder. So great is the
transparency of this stone, that it
has sometimes been employed for
windows, and at Florence a church
still receives its light through the
medium of alabaster. It is found
in the greatest abundance near Co-
blentz, in Germany ; near Cluni,
in France ; near Rome, in Italy;
and in some places of Lorrain.
Alabaster, or marble, may be
cleaned by the following process :
beat pumice stones to an impalpa-
ble powder, and mix it up with ver-
juice : let it stand for two hours,
then dip into it a sponge, and rub
the marble or alabaster, wash it
with a linen cloth, and fresh water,
and dry it with clean linen rags.
ALARUM, a term employed to
signify any instrument, or contriv-
ance, for the purpose of awakening
persons from sleep, at a certain hour,
or of alarming them when exposed
to danger. In the former sense, it
is generally a part of clock-work,
and deserves here no farther notice;
but, in the latter, we strongly re-
commend the utility of alarums to
every family, whether living in
towns, or in solitary situations in the
country.
Many ingenious suggestions have
been devised, for affording security
to the industrious, against the au-
dacious attempts of house-breakei s:
the most common of these are,
hanging bells to the windows, or
larger bells and rattles kept in rea-
diness for giving early notice to the
wa'chman absent from his duty, or
to the peaceful neighbour whose aid
is required.
In the year 1771, Mr. Henry
invented a curious alarum, which
was highly approved of by Sir John
Fielding. All burglaries being
perpetrated at night, this piece of
mechanism deserves peculiar en-
couragement. On being fixed up
by a bell-hanger, with wires fasten-
ed to the windows and doors, it will,
upon the least attempt to break
into the house, go off with a noise
sufficient to awaken the family. As
every clock-maker is acquainted
with the construction of this alarum,
we think it unnecessary to give a
particular description.
ALBUMEN, properly signifies
the white of an egg, but has lately
been used in chemistry to denote
likewise one of those elementary
constituents of vegetable bodies,
which, in its colour and properties,
bears an exact resemblance to the
animal substance known under this
denomination.
The white of eggs if taken warm
from the hen, especially in luke-
warm milk,is uncommonly nourish-
ing to the weak and infirm ; but,
when boiled hard, its nutritive qua-.
lity is in a great measure destroyed,
and it then becomes very difficult
of digestion.
If the white of a fresh egg be ap-
plied to burns, immediately after
the accident, it generally prevents
them from rising in blisters : it al-
so tends to abate recent inflamma-
tion of the eyes, when spread upon
soft linen, and placed over the parts
affected, Used as a lotion on the
face, it preserves it from sun-burn-
ing or freckles, in the heat of sum-
mer. On the contrary, a very snu'll
portion of the white of an egg, if
swallowed in a putrid state, is at-
tended with dreadful effects ; such
as nausea, horror, fainting, vomit-r-
ing, diarrhoea, and gripes, accom-
panied by heat, thirst and fever,
while it inflames or violently stimu-
lates the bile, and, not unlike the
plague, promotes a speedy dissolu-
tion of the humours.
28 ALB
ALC
It is remarkable that, according
to Boerhaave, the white of eggs
was employed bythe reputedPARA-
celsus, as a menstruum of extraor-
dinar;. properties; and which great-
ly contributed to his fame. When
boiled hard in the shell, and then
suspended in the air by a thread, it
dissolves and drops down into a
flavourless liquor ; which, though
destitute of acrid, oily, or sapona-
ceous ingredients, makes a more
perfect solution of myrrh than either
water, oil, spirits, or even fire itself
can effect.
In domestic economy, the white
of eggs is usefully employed for
clarifying ale, wine, Sec. for which
purpose it shoulci be mixed with the
liquor, and the w hole boiled toge-
ther : thus all the gross particles
of the latter will subside, or be car-
ried off' with the former, which, by
this processes reduced to a concrete
state, and is either precipitated, or
combined with, the feculent ingre-
dients of the liquid.
The vegetable albumen is one of
those primary constituents of plants,
which may be separated by chemi-
cal aid, without undergoing any
change of their native or inherent
qualities. It is found principally
in cresses, scurvy-grass, hemlock,
and most abundantly in the anti-
scorbutic and narcotic plants, where
it generally resides in the leaves.
Its existence may be easily disco-
vered, by mixing the freshly ex-
pressed juice of these plants with
spirits of wine, or by macerating
them with hot water, nearly to the
hoiling pomt: in both cases, the
albumen will be coagulated and se-
parated from the other fluids in the
form of cheesy matter. It is, per-
haps, superfluous to observe, that
this vegeto-animal production may
in times of scarcity serve as a pro-
per substitute for the white of eggs;
it being possessedof similar proper-
ties. See the article Eggs.
[ALCARRAZAS. A kind of
vessels used in Spain for cooling
water intended for drinking. As
they are exceedingly porous, the
water oozes through them on all
sides ; the air which comes in con-
tact with the water by making it
evaporate, carries off the caloric or
the principle of heat in the water
in the vessel, and by these means
renders it remarkably cool. The
most celebrated place for this spe-
cies of pottery is Anduxas in An-
dalusia. These vessels might be
easily imported from Spain, and
would be found of singular use in
the United States.]
Alcea rosea, L. See Hollyhock
and Paper.
Alchemilla vulgaris, L. See Com-
mon Ladies' Mantle.
ALCHEMY is the art of trans-
muting metals into gold, or chang-
ing the inferior into more precious
ores. It was formerly much culti-
vated, and held in high estimation
by fanatics, as well as by many
learned but deluded men : in latter
times, however, it has been almost
generally exploded, and is now pur-
sued only by crafty impostors.
The ruin which frequently at-
tended this popular delusion, be-
came so extensive, that alchemy
has, at various times, been proscrib-
ed in several states. The Romans
banished such persons as professed
it; and Dioclesian and Caesar
ordered all books, on this subject to
be publicly burned. In England it
has, at no period been much en-
couraged ; for the native good sense
of the inhabitants generally pre-
vailed, so that this useless art, has
by the more enlightened, always
been considered in its true colours.
ALD
ALCOHOL, in chemistry, sig-
nifies spirit of wine, in a more ar-
dent and purified state, obtained by
distillation. Its specific gravity is to
that of distilled water, as 815 to
1000. When diluted, in the pro-
portion of about twenty ounces to
seventeen of water, it is called
proof spirit, and is used for tinc-
tures, distilled cordials, Sec. See
the article, Spirit of Wine.
[The following method of rectify-
ing weak spirit of wine, will be
found very advantageous to artists.
Take well dried potash and pour
over it spirit of wine: the latter
will not unite with the potash, but
the water which it may contain
will be taken up by that alkali....
The spirit of wine is then to be
poured into another glass, and sub-
jected to the same operation as be-
fore. This process is to be repeated
till it is observed that the potash is
no longer very moist. Such spirit
of wine is exceedingly strong, but
rendered a little impure by the pot-
ash, as will appear from its yellow-
ish colour. It must therefore be
poured into a retort, having a re-
ceiver adapted to it, and distilled to
a fifth part over a slow heat. What
comes over is alcohol.]
ALDER-TREE, or the Betula
Alnus of Linnaeus, is sowell known
by the name of common birch, as
to require no particular description.
There are three.species, l.the alba,
or common; 2. the nana, or dwarf;
and 3. the lenta, or Canada-birch :
the last of which grows to a height
of upwards of sixty feet. The al-
nu8,or alder-tree, is,properly speak-
ing, another species of the Canada-
birch. When suffered to grow in
an open situation, it has an agree-
able appearance. Whenever any
soil be intended for pasture, the al-
der should by no means be encou-
ALD 29
raged, as it poisons the herbage, and
renders the soil moist and rotten.
The alba, or common birch, is
easily propagated; either from seeds
or layers, and will flourish in most
soils. While in the nursery, they
should, in dry weather, be con-
stantly weeded and watered. Ac-
cording to Hanbury, the best
method of producing them, and
preserving their varieties, is by dis-
tributing them in layers.
The wood of this tree was, in
ancient times, used for the con-
struction of boats, and at present,
on account of its hardness, is em-
ployed in the North of Europe for
making carriages and wheels. In
France, it is generally used for
wooden shoes; and in England for
women's shoe-heels, travelling box-
es, &c. ; it also affords very good
fuel. In Sweden it is employed for
covering houses, and is very dura-
ble. On deeply wounding,cr boring
the trunk of this tree, in the begin-
ning of spring, a sweetish juice ex-
udes in large quantities ; and one
branch alone will yield a gcilcn in
a day. This juice is recommend-
ed in scorbutic disorders, and other
impurities of the blood. Its most
sensible effect is in promoting the
urinary discharge. By proper fer-
mentation, and with the addition of
sugar, it makes a pleasant wine....
The plant itself is astringent, but
the bark of the black berry-bearing
alder, is affirmed to be the most
certain purge for horned cattle.....
The leaves, when eaten by cows,
are said greatly to increase their
milk.
[There are several species of al-
der peculiar to the L1 nited States.
The bark is used by dyers, tan-
ners, and leather dressers. It dyes
a yellow; and with a little copperas,
a yellowish gray, very useful in the
3Q ALD
ALE
demitints, and shadows of flesh in
tapestry. The shoots cut in March
will dye a cinnamon colour ; and a
fine tawny if they be dryed and
powdered. The fresh wood yields
a dye the colour of rappee snuff....
The catkins dye green. The bark
is also used as a basis for blacks; an
ounce of it dried and powdered,
boiled in three quarters of a pint of
water, with an equal quantity of
logwood, with solution of copper,
tin, and bismuth, six grains of each,
and two drops of solution of sul-
phate of iron (copperas) will dye a
strong deep boue-de-Paris, or Paris-
mud. The leaves have been some-
times employed in tanning leather.
The whole tree is very astringent.
The alder-tree thrives in swampy
ground. The wood of this tree is
in great esteem in Europe for ma-
chinery. The cogs for mill wheels
formed of it are deemed superior to
any other. It is commonly used
for bobbins. It resists water pow-
erfully, and hence is of great value
for pump trees, pipes, drains, con-
duits to reservoirs, piles under va-
ter, and all kinds of wood work,
kept constantly wet. In Flanders
and Holland it is raised for this
purpose.
The alder is highly useful as a
medicine. I have heard of a well
authenticated instance of the effica-
cy of an infusion of the catkins
or candles taken internally, having
effectually cured a boy of sore eyes,
which apparently proceeded from
ascrophulous cause, after a variety
of remedies had been used without
effect. A decoction of the barks
of black alder and dogwood (cornus
florida) is a commltm and success-
ful remedy in the United States for
intermittents. The roots of the
liriondendron tulifnfera, or tulip
poplar tree, and of the saaafrass
(laurus sasafrass) are sometimes
joined with the alder and dogwood.
Medical gentlemen who practise
in the country would render a ser-
vice to the public by stating the pro-
portions of each remedy, which
produce the best effect.]
ALE, a fermented liquor, ex-
tracted from malt by the process of
brewing. It differs from beer, in
having a less proportion of hops....
This beverage was first made in
Egypt, and used as a substitute in
those climates which were unfavor-
able to the production of the grape.
Among the Anglo-Saxons and
Danes, it was a favourite drink, and
they believed, that large and fre-
quent potations of it constituted one
of the chief enjoyments of those
who were admitted into the Hali of
Odin.
There are various kinds of ale,
particularly the pale and brown; the
former, being brewed from malt
slightly roasted, is esteemed more
glutinous and wholesome than the
latter, which is made from malt of
a drier nature. It may be prepared
in various ways, from wheat, rye,
millet, oats, barley, he. Its con-
sumption in England, was about
twenty years ago, computed at the
value of four millions sterling an-
nually, including Great Britain and
Ireland. See the articles, Beer,
and Brewing.
In cold countries, and to persons
who take considerable exercise, ale
may be of service, but in weak and
lax habits, it is often attended with
disagreeable effects, such as indi-
gestion, flatulency, Sec. When
drunk to excess, it has sometimes
occasioned clwlcra morbus, and se-
vere colics.
Various methods of preserving
this valuable liquor from turning
sour on long voyages, have been
ALI
ALI 31
proposed; of which the following
appears to be the most effectual: it
was first published by Dr. Stubbs,
in the 27th Number of the Philo-
sophical Transactions. For its dis-
covery we are indebted to an ale-
seller at Deal; and it was tried with
success in a voyage to Jamaica.....
" To every runlet of five gallons,
after being placed in a cask on ship-
board, not to be stirred any more,
put in two new laid eggs whole, and
let them lie in it; in a fortnight, or
little more, the whole egg shells
will be dissolved, and the eggs be-
come like wind-eggs, inclosed only
in a thin skin ; after this, the white
is preyed on, but the yolks are not
touched or corrupted, by which
means the ale was so well preserv-
ed, that it was found better at Ja-
maica than at Deal."
ALE-HOUSE, a public place of
resort for drinking ale or beer.
The utility of ale-houses has been
much questioned ; they certainly,
in some degree, encourage habits
of intemperance and dissipation ;
yet, we must acknowledge, that by
the subsistence which they afford to
a considerable part of the commu-
nity, the facility with which they
enable those who cannot brew for
themselves, to procure their liquors
at intervals,and in small quantities;
and the social relaxation they pro-
cure forthe weary traveller, as well
as the industrious peasant,they ma-
terially contribute to the ease and
enjoyment of a portion of society,
over whom the moralist may be
saf :Iy allowed to exert the sober
influence of persuasion, but with
whose amusements the legislature
should cautiously interfere.
ALIMENT. By this term is
understood the nutritive quality of
such substances as are dissolved and
mixed in the stomach, and convert-
ed into chyle, by the digestive pro-
cess. It may be considered rather
as the consequence of food taken by
a healthy individual, than as an ar-
ticle of food itself; for all kinds of
animal and vegetable bodies do not
furnish an alimentary supply, or at
least, not in the same proportion.
Of those articles which afford it
in the highest degree, animal food
is the principal; being most easily
digested, and furnishing a greater
quantity of that milky fluid, called
chyle. For this purpose, however,
a due mixture of vegetables must
be added, in order to correct its high
luxuriance, and to render it more
congenial to our nature.
Fresh air is one of those agents-
which are necessary to the digestion
of food, and the consequent produc-
tion of aliment: as, without a re-
newal of this salutary medium, the
most wholesome diet will be pro-
ductive of but little benefit.
It is asserted that substances have
been discovered, which have ena-
bled men to exist without proper
food, for a considerable length of ■
time ; and as a proof of this asser-
tion, the following instance of an
extraordinary powder, which was
given to six pensioners of the Royal
Hospital of Invalids at Paris, is re-
corded in the Gentleman's Maga^
zine for January, 1755. It is sup-
posed to consist of Turkey corn,
roasted, powdered, and mixed with
a small quantity of sea-salt: six
ounces of this composition, with less
than a pint of water, afforded suf-
ficient nutriment to one person for
twenty four hours. No other pro-
vision was taken for fifteen days,
during which time, it is said, these
invsflids continued well and hearty,
though one was seventy years of
age, and the other five were young
men, who had lost some of their
32 AL K
ALK
limbs. None experienced any in-
convenience, either from faintness
or hunger ; several of them being
employed in such bodily exercises
as were suited to their years ; and
they frequently did not eat the whole
of their allowance. To prevent any
deception, they were constantly
guarded by a centinel.
Previous to its administration,
the powder was prepared in the
manner as follows: six ounces of
it were shaken by degrees into boil-
ing water, and briskly agitated with
a spoon ; after having acquired the
consistence of a thin panada, it was
fit for use. The invention of it is
ascribed to M.Bouch, late surgeon-
major of a regiment in France. It
is recommended to an army on
forced marches, a besieged garri-
son, and to the poor at a time of
scarcity, or when other provisions
cannot be easily procured.
Among the articles of diet afford-
ing aliment in an uncommon pro-
portion, we may enumerate the
following, to which we refer the
reader, under the heads of Arrow-
Root, Rice, Sago, Salep-Pow-
der, Tapioca, &c. See also Food
and Drink.
Alisma Plantago, L. See Great-
er Water Plantain.
ALKALIES, in chemistry, sig-
nify those substances which possess
the following properties: viz. they
are 1. incombustible; 2. capable of
converting a vegetable blue to a
green colour; 3. they manifest a
hot and caustic taste; and 4. are
soluble in water.
Alkalies are divided into two
liinds.fixed and volatile. The fixed
are subdivided into vegetable and
mineral; the former being the pro-
duction of burnt vegetables in the
open air; and the latter have some-
times been found native in the
earth, though we generally obtain
our soda by the calcination of ma-
rine plants, chiefly from the differ-
ent species of the glass-wort, or
Salsola, L. as well as from other
saline vegetables growing near the
sea-shore....See the article Ba-
rilla.
Both the fixed alkalies endure a
very intense degree of heat, with-
out dissipation, and are used in the
composition of glass: the volatile
are produced by distillation from
animal substances; in their pure
state they are invisible, and so pun-
gent to the smell, that they can-
not be approached without great
danger.
All vegetable substances contain
fixed alkali, in greater or less pro-
portion. M. M. Deyeux and Vau-
quELiN have proved by recent ex-
periments, that one pound of the
ashesofhorse-chesnutsyieldsnearly
six ounces and a half of pot-ash;
nay, the same quantity of the burnt
husks produced more than six
ounces. But, according to an ac-
curate analysis made by these
chemists, the greatest quantity of
vegetable alkali is contained in the
fruit of the Spanish lilac, or sy-
ringa vulgaris, L. the ashes of
which yield more than one-half of
pure alkali, or in proportion of
eight ounces and three drachms to
a pound.
M. Jacobson, the editor of the
German Technological Dictionary,
asserts, that the dry or withered
leaves of the beech-tree, or the
Fagus sylvatica, L. afford the vege-
table alkali in great abundance, in-
somuch that ten pounds weight of
the ashes thence obtained, are equal
to thirty pounds of common wood-
ashes.... We have purposely men-
tioned the results of these experi-
ments, as the vegetables alluded to
A L K
may be readily procured, and sub-
stituted for the very expensive arti-
cles of pearl-ashes and soap. A far-
ther account of useful substitutes
will appear under the different
headsof So ap,Sod a, and Washing.
It is affirmed, that pestilential
fluids are rendered harmless and
inactive by alkaline substances; and
Dr. Mitchill, of New-York, in
two letters written to a young lady
has ingeniously and humourously
described their good effects. As
these refer to many articles of do-
mestic economy, which are more
or less composed of alkaline pro-
ductions, we shall present our read-
ers with an extract, nearly in the
author's own words....It is a stale
and indelicate subject of jesting
among men, how much time and
labour are consumed by women in
scrubbing, scowering, whitening,
and washing. These operations,
however, are not performed for
mere pleasure, but to prevent the
conversion of impurities to infec-
tion ; or to destroy it, if already pro-
duced. For this purpose, they em-
ploy pot-ash and its ley, soap, lime,
calcareous earth, Sec. to scower the
porous materials of their floors and
stair-cases; to purify garments that
have become soiled or contaminated
by long use, or wearing; and with
good reason, as these saline sub-
stances are capable of drawing forth
and rendering harmless, those ani-
mal exhalations which are ready to
be converted into pestilential poi-
son....The ladies have indeed prov-
ed from long established experi-
ence, that " infection is uniformly
prevented and extinguished by the
use of alkalies."
Dr. Mitchill also recommends
the use of pot-ash cakes for chil-
dren, to prevent the injurious ef-
fects of an acid upon their stomach,
VOL. I.
AL K 33
and mitigate the disorders to which
their bowels are liable. He ob-
serves, that those infants who have
been accustomed to eat cakes a
little tinctured with this excellent
ingredient, grow fat and healthy;
and concludes with advising alka-
line washes and powders as dentri-
fices; which, in his opinion, have
been beneficial only in proportion
to the alkali, of which they are
partly composed.
[For a large body of evidence in
favour of the antiputrefactive and
antipestilential properties of alka-
lies, and of their virtues in curing
various diseases, See the Medical
Repository of New-York.~\
ALKANET, Evergreen, or
Bugloss; the Anchusa sempervirens,
L. of eight species, the only one
which is indigenous; it is repre-
sented in Sowerby's. Engl. Bot.
45, p. 5....7.
The Anchusa officinalis, or great-
er garden-bugloss, is a native of
the warmer parts of Europe; but
will also thrive in Britain. The
flowers of this species, which blow
during the whole summer, have ob-
tained the name of cordial flowers,
as they moderately cool and soften
the palate and stomach. They are
much visited by bees....the young
leaves afford a good substitute for
early garden vegetables, and the
whole plant is an excellent fodder
for cattle....If the juice of the fresh
flowers be boiled with a solution of
alum, it yields a green colour,
which is used for dyeing.
The Anchusa lutea, or Onosma
echioides, L. is a native of France,
Italy, Switzerland, Austria, and
some parts of Russia. Its peren-
nial and woody root is, as it were,
externally varnished with a beau-
tiful carmine colour; hence the fe-
males of the last mentioned country
34 A L K
steep it in oil, for the vain purpose
of painting their faces.
Another species, the Anchusa
tinctoria, L. is imported from the
Levant, but unprincipled dealers
frequently dye the common gar-
den-bugloss iry& decoction of Bra-
zil wood, and substitute it for the
genuine root, which, as obtained
from Montpellier, is of a woody
texture, externally blood-red, but
internally white, without flavour,
and of an acrid taste. Dodonaeus
affirms that, when transplanted to
a cold climate, it loses its red co-
lour.
The Spanish wool, or Charta
hispanica, is said to be prepared of
this root: and Ruger, a late Ger-
man writer, gives, in his " Pocket-
book for Painters^" the following
directions for obtaining from it a
beautiful purple lacker: take two
ounces of the root finely powdered,
and boil it for a few minutes in
a lixivium made of pot-ash suf-
ficiently diluted: and, after the
liquor has grown cold, precipitate
the colouring matter with a strong-
solution of roach-alum. The pre-
cipitate thus obtained must not be
edulcorated or washed with water,
as is done in similar processes; be-
cause this ablution would carry off
too many of the colouring particles.
All the species of Anchusa may
be propagated by seeds, which
should be sown either in the spring
or autumn, upon a bed of light
sandy earth; and when the plants
are strong enough to be removed,
they should be planted in beds two
feet distant from each other, and
watered, if the season require it,
till they have taken root. The al-
kanet reared in this country, is
greatly inferior to that which is im-
ported from the Levant.
ALL
ALL-HEAL, Clown's, or,
Marsh Woundwort, the Stachy*
palustris, L. is ar> indigenous plant,
growing on the sides of rivers and
lakes, in low, moist grounds, and
sometimes in corn fields. It is re-
presented and described in Cur-
tis's Flora. Londinensia, pi. 8,
p. 248.
This plant has a fetid smell, and
bitter taste. Formerly it was em-
ployed in medicine as a vulnerary ;
but at present we shall confine our
account to its economical purposes.
Linnaeus, the illustrious author
of the prevailing system of botany,
informs us, in his account of escu-
lent plants, that the creeping roots
of the all-heal are sought after with
avidity by hogs; and that from
their farinaceous nature, they would
well repay the trouble of collecting
and converting them into flour, for
the purpose of making bread. In
the present distressing condition of
the industrious poor, Ave feel it our
duty to take particular notice of all
such substitutes as would, if pro-
perly and timely resorted to, in a
great measure tend to avert or re-
live a national calamity....See
Bread.
Allium. See Garlick.
ALLSPICE, Pimento, or Ja-
maica pepper. The berry, in its
smell, resembles a mixture of
cinnamon, nutmegs, and cloves,
whence it has derived its name. It
is milder than the East India pep-
per, and, when employed in whole
grains, makes an useful ingredient
in broth, and stewed dishes. In me-
dicine, it forms the basis of a dis-
tilled water, a spirit and an essential
oil; in which different forms it is
efficaciously employed as an aro-
matic, for cold and' phlegmatic
habits....See the article Spices.
ALM
ALMANACK, a term derived
from two Arabic words, at and ma-
nack, a diary; and is, as its name
imports, a table or register con-
taining a calendar of days and
months,the rising and setting of the
sun, the age of the moon, and the
eclipses of these luminaries. It is
also used to foretel the change of
seasons, the state of the weather,
the ebb and flow of the tide, &c.
A great number of such diaries
are annually printed in Britain; and
we understand, that of the celebrat-
ed Moore's Almanack, notwithstand-
ing all the superstitious notions per-
petuated in this popular book, not
less than 400,000 copies are, every
year, ushered into public notice....
It is, therefore, sincerely to be wish-
ed, that such publications as are ad-
dressed immediately to the bulk of
the people, may in future be render-
ed the vehicles of more useful infor-
mation. Hence we presume to re-
mark, that an annual publication,
conducted upon the plan of Poor
Richard's Almanack, in Pennsylva-
nia, would be attended with great
advantages, both to the husbandman
and mechanic, in this country. The
great FRANKLiN,whois said to have
edited that popular work for many
years, furnished it with various sen-
tences and proverbs, principally re-
lating to subjects of industry, do-
mestic economy, and frugality.
ALMOND, a tree, eminent both
for its fruit, and for the ornament
which it affords to a shrubbery. It
is the original of the ancient genus
amygelalus, and by the botanic cha-
racters of the flowers, comprehends
also the peach and nectarine. Bota-
nists admit but of one real species
of the common almond tree, which
they term Amygdalus communis....
\Tot being indigenous, we shall omit
its particular description, and pro-
ALM 35
ceed to state the properties and
effects of its fruit on the human
body.
Sweet almonds are supposed to
afford but little nourishment, and
are not easily digested, unless tho-
roughly triturated. Six or eight of
them peeled and eaten, sometimes
give immediate relief in the heart-
burn. In medicine, they are chiefly
used for preparing emulsions, as
they abound not only with an oil,
but likewise with a mucilage fit for
incorporating oil and water. We
have already observed that this fruit
is difficult of digestion, on account
of the oil it contains, which quickly
becomes acrid in the stomach;
hence it is particularly improper for
bilious constitutions. The various
preparations of almonds are liable
to similar objections: and it is there-
fore absurd to give almond milk as
a common diet-drink to febrile pa-
tients: for, as it consists entirely of
oily and insoluble parts, it not only
heats and vitiates the stomach, but
at the same time occasions an ac-
cumulation of bile.
Almonds, as well as nuts, ought
to be eaten only while fresh, and
without their skins. They should
be well chewed; for every piece
swallowed entire is indigestible.
The use of a little salt, however,
renders them miscible with our
fluids, as a saponaceous mass; but,
if indulged in to excess, they are
productive of alarming, and some-
times fatal disorders.
The expressed oil of bitter al-
monds,is, in cases of poison, recom-
mended preferably to all others;
but care must be taken not to use
the chemical, instead of the natural
oil, as the former is itself a poison.
Bitter almonds are now generally
disused. They have been found
to destroy some kinds of animals;
36 ALM
ALM
hence modern physicians prescribe
them with more caution; they are,
nevertheless, frequently employed,
for making orgeat and other liquors,
without producing any bad ef-
fect.
Although we have declined to
give a particular description of the
Almond-tree, yet as it is frequently
cultivated in shrubberies, both on
account of its beautiful flowers, and
also for its fruit, we shall here add
an outline of the manner in which
it should be managed.
Almonds are propagated by Ino-
culation, or budding on plum or
peach stocks, in the month of Au-
gust, at such height as may cor-
respond to that of the stem in-
tended to be raised: at the expira-
tion of two years, the trees may be
finally planted out. If the soil be
dry, this operation should be per-
formed in October, when the leaves
begin to decay; but, in case the
ground be wet, the proper season
is the month of February.
When the young trees are re-
moved from the nursery, Mr. For-
syth is of opinion, that they should
never be cut, or pruned, " till the
" new shoots begin to break;" and,
as these frequently perish during
severe winters, that succeed wet
autumns, when the wood is not
well-ripened, he directs them to be
cut down to the sound wood; care
being taken to extirpate with the
knife all cross shoots, so as to make
the tree open in the middle, and to
leave the principal shoots, accord-
ing to their strength, from six to
sixteen inches long. Those parts,
which are affected with theCANKER,
must also be cut out; and such ex-
pision ought farther to be extended
to all decayed wood.
Almond-trees being very deli-
cate, it wilj be advisable to place
them in a southern aspect, and in a
sheltered situation, either among
tall flowering-shrubs, or to thatch
their tops with fern, or other light
covering; in order to prevent the
blossoms from being killed, by the
frost, during the months of Febru-
ary and March. When the fruit
is set, and the leaves are sufficiently
long to cover it, such shelter ought,
if the weather be warm, to be re-
moved, towards the end of April,
or early in May; by which expe-
dient an abundant supply of almonds
may be obtained for the desert, both
in autumn and in the winter. The
fruit of the almond-tree ischiefly va-
lued on account of its kernels; it may
be preserved either in dry bran, or in
sand; but it ought previously to be
dried, on shelves or boards in an
open situation; as it is otherwise
apt to become mouldy, and conse-
quently the kernels will be unfit for
use.
ALMS-HOUSES are asylums
for the support and maintenance of
a certain number of poor, aged, or
infirm persons, during their lives.
When these institutions are of a
private nature, and limited in their
extent, they are certainly beneficial
to society ; yet it may on the whole
be doubted, whether such public es-
tablishments, especially as they are
generally managed under the abso-
lute controul of rapacious trustees,
do not in a great measure tend to
relax the springs of industry, and
encourage habits of indolence. For,
by accustoming people rather to
resort to eleemosynary sources,
than exert their own strength and
abilities, they cannot fail to degrade
the moral feelings of human nature,
and to destroy that independence
which constitutes its noblest sup-
port—See the articles Charity
and Hospitals.
A L O
ALOE is a beautiful exotic plant,
the flowers of which grow in um-
bels on the tops of the stalks, are
of an elegant red colour, and ap-
pear in the months of August and
September. It consists of ten spe-
cies, all of which are propagated
either by off-sets, or by planting
the leaves. The proper earth for
this vegetable, is one half of garden-
mould, or fresh earth dug from a
common; the other half consists of
an equal proportion of white sea-
sand, and sifted lime-rubbish. This
mixture should be made, at least,
six or eight months previous to its
use. The common aloe will live
in a dry green-house in winter, and
in summer may be placed under
shelter, in the open air ; but should
have very little water, and none on
the stem of the plant; the other
species require to be kept in an
airy green-house, in which there is
a stove to make a fire in cold wea-
ther.
Among the Mahometans, and
especially in Egypt, the aloe is held
in high estimation, and even dedi-
cated to religious offices. These
superstitious people believe, that it
prevents evil spirits from entering
their houses: for this purpose, both
Christians and Jews place it over
their doors; and whoever returns
from a pilgrimage, exhibits it as an
emblem of his having performed
that holy journey.
Its properties are various; and
applied to numerous purposes, both
medicinal and domestic. The leaves
of the Guinea-aloe, as described
by M. Adanson, in his voyage to
Senegal, are employed in making
very good ropes, not liable to rot in
the water.
Dr. Sloane describes two sorts
of aloe, one of which is used for
fishing lines, bow-strings, stockings,
A L O 37
and hammocks; the other produces
leaves capable of holding rain
water.
In Mexico, there is a species of
aloe called the Maguei, which is ap-
plied to almost every purpose of
life. Besides making excellent
hedges and inclosures for their
farms, its trunk serves as beams for
the roofs of their houses, and its
leaves instead of tiles. From this
plant, the natives make their pa-
per, thread, needles, and various
articles of clothing, and cordage;
while, from its copious juice, they
extract wine, honey, sugar and vi-
negar. Of the trunk, and thickest
part of the leaves, when baked, they
prepare an excellent dish. It is
likewise employed by them in se-
veral diseases, but especially in
those of the urinary passages.
In this country, aloe is princi-
pally known as a medicine in the
form of an inspissated juice, which
consists of three sorts : 1. the Aloe
pcrfoliata, or Socotrine Aloe; 2. the
Hepatica, Barbadoes, or Common ;
and 3. the Caballina, fetid or Horse
Aloe. The first of these is the pur-
est, and is brought from the island
of Socotora, wrapt in skins. It is
of a glossy surface, and in some
degree pellucid, of a yellowish red
colour,with a purple cast, and when
reduced to powder, of a bright gold-
en shade. In winter, it is hard and
friable, but in summer pliable, and
grows soft, when pressed between
the fingers. Its taste is bitter, ac-
companied with an aromatic fla-
vour ; the smell is not unpleasant,
and slightly resembles thatof myrrh.
Aloe is considered as a good
opening medicine for persons of a
lax habit, and those whose stomach
and bowels are loaded with phlegm
or mucus, and also for worms ; be-
cause, while it carries off viscid
33 A L O
ALO
humours, it serves by its stimulat-
ing qualities to strengthen and brace
the system. When given in small
doses of a few grains, repeated at
intervals, it not only cleanses the
alimentary canal, but tends also to
promote the menstrual discharge
in women : hence its use in the
green sickness, and all female ob-
structions. We must, however,
observe, that, though it be a good
stomachic laxative, it ought to be
employed with great precaution,
being an acrid and heating medi-
cine, and therefore not proper in
bilious complaints, or in a febrile
state of the body. Its continued use
sometimes produces the piles and
habitual costiveness. When given
in substance, without any mixture,
it frequently adheres to the coats
of the intestines, where it occasions
griping and uneasiness : for which
reasons, and in order to destroy its
viscid properties, it should be pre-
viously combined with some sapo-
naceous or resolvent medicine, such
as a small quantity of alkaline salts,
die yolk of an egg, Castile soap, or
mucilaginous vegetable extracts.
We have purposely given a more
minute account of the medicinal
effects of this plant, than the limits
of our work Aril! admit, on similar
occasions : this exception, however,
has not been made with a view to
encourage the sale of those aloetic
preparations, so generally known
and vended, under the name of
"Anderson's Pills;" which,like most
patent and quack medicines,have un-
questionably contributed to increase
the number of patients among those
credulous victims, who are frequent-
ly obliged to seek relief in public
dispensaries and hospitals. Con-
vinced of the mischievous tendency
thence resulting to the community,
we devoutly hope that the wisdom
of the legislature will, at length, be
effectually directed to the suppres-
sion of those destructive practices,
the pretended success of which, we
almost blush to say, is exultingly
related in our daily prints 1
With respect to the economical
purposes to which the aloe may be
rendered subservient, we shall in
this place relate only the principal.
It is asserted by an anonymous
writer, in the Gentleman's Maga-
zine for July, 1754, that a varnish
made of the extract of the Hepa-
tic aloe, turpentine, tallow, and
white lead, or Spanish brown, when
applied to the bottoms of ships, is
the most effectual means of pre-
serving them from the sea-worm :
the discoverer remarks, that a plank
covered with this mixture,was sunk
with a proper weight and ropes, to-
gether with another in an unpre-
pared state, both in an equal depth
of salt-water, where the worm
abounded ; and, upon raising them,
after they had remained there from
five to eight months, the former was
perfectly sound and untouched,
while the latter was eaten to a ho-
ney-comb. This hint was adopted
by a gentleman at Bermudas, who
observed the inhabitants employ a
few sliced leaves of the plants, from
which the hepatic aloe is extracted,
in addition to the oil and tallow,
which are boiled together and used
in careening their fishing-boats.
Another valuable property of the
horse-aloe, beside its being an ex-
cellent purgative for horses, is its
bitter principle, which renders it
eminently useful in watery solu-
tions, not only for preserving ten-
der plants from the depredations of
vermin and insects, but likewise for
preventing putrefaction in certain
vegetable and animal bodies, such
as .dried plants, stuffed birds, quad-
ALO
rupeds, Jkc. Proper care, however,
should be taken, that solutions or
mixtures made with aloe be not
exposed to be swallowed by dogs,
cats, or other domestic animals, as
to them the consequences would be
fatal.
Several species of this useful
plant have also been employed for
manufacturing a cloth, resembling
linen in its texture, and paper of
various qualities. Clusius made
shirts of it at Madrid, and Bour-
G0iNG,in his travels through Spain,
informs us, that the natives of that
country manufacture their horse-
bridles from the filaments of aloe-
leaves. Minasi, an Italian, pro-
duced from similar materials, dif-
ferent kinds of coarse and fine
paper.
Lastly, we find, in the " Experi-
ments and Observations" published
by Poerner, a creditable German
writer, in 1772, that a watery de-
coction, made of the resinous gum
of the aloe, Avithout any farther ad-
dition, produces a beautiful dark
cherry-brown colour on woollen-
cloth, by simple immersion. This
fact may be easily ascertained by
dyers.
According to M. Fabroni, the
leaves of the Socotrine aloe afford
a beautiful violet colour, which re-
sists the action of oxygen, acids,
and alkalies. He directs the juice
to be extracted from the freshleaves,
and then exposed to the air : thus,
the liquid will become gradually
red, and at length be converted into
a deep violet purple which is pecu-
liarly calculated for dyeing silk, a
stuff that readily imbibes the colour
without the aid of mordants. M.
F. observes, that such juice may also
be inspissated; in which state it
forms a beautiful transparent colour
for painting in miniature.
ALU 39
Alopecurus pratensig, L. See
Meadow Fox-tail.
Alopecurus agrestis, L. See
Slender Fox-tail.
Alsine media, L. See Common
Chickweed.
Althaa officinalis, L. See
Marshmallow.
ALUM is a concrete salt, trans-
parent, and of a very austere and
astringent taste. It is in general
a chemical preparation, being rare-
ly found in a natural state, or freed
from other ingredients. In Egypt,
Sardinia, Spain, Bohemia, Sec. it is
said to be sometimes discovered in
crystals.
There are various kinds, but that
which is called the Roman alum,
is preferable to any other. This is
usually to be found in small crystals,
and of a reddish colour, probably
owing to a small quantity of cal*
of iron, which, however, does not
in the least impair its qualities......
The other kinds contain a propor-
tion either of vitriolated tartar, or
sal ammoniac.
In medicine, it has been consi-
dered as an astringent, and is of
great service in restraining hemorr-
hages, and other immoderate se-
cretions. It is likewise externally
used in lotions and eye-waters: and
one scruple of burnt alum has been
found beneficial in removing vio-
lent coliopains arising from flatu-
lency, bile, or great relaxation of
the bowels; but in other cases it
may prove hurtful.
It is used for various purposes by
dyers to fix different colours upon
cloth; in the making of candles,
to give them a gloss and firm con-
sistence ; wood soaked in a solution
of alum, does not readily take fire ;
and paper impregnated with it, is
the most proper for the preserva-
tioji of gunpowder, as it also ex-
40 ALU
ALU
eludes the moisture of the air......
Tanners employ it to restore the
cohesion of those skins which have
been almost entirely destroyed by
lime ; and vintners in fining their
wines, Sec. Fishermen dry their
cod-fish by means of it; and it is
asserted, that bakers generally use
it as an ingredient in bread: the
truth of this assertion, however,
has been much questioned, and the
sole reason ascribed for its use, is,
that corrupt flour, being mixed with
good, thus acquire a proper degree
of cohesion, as the aluminous par-
ticles equally pervade the whole
mass and render it of a due con-
sistence. Although some writers
have maintained, that this styptic
salt " is entirely innocent, and now
seldom used" in the process of
making bread, yet we have but too
much reason to believe the contrary.
The English translator of Tissot's
excellent "Advice to the People in
general," he. very pertinently re-
marks, that the abuse of alum, and
other pernicious materials, intro-
duced by our bakers, may too justly
be considered as one lamentable
source of the numerous diseases
of children. The Monthly Review-
er of that book, for July 1765, adds,
with equal justice, the following
commentary: "Hence obstructions
in the bowels and viscera, feeble-
ness, slow-fevers, hectics, rickets,
and other lingering and fatal dis-
eases."
To discover such unlawful prac-
tices, requires no chemical skill:
on macerating a small piece of the
crumb of new-baked bread in cold
water, sufficient to dissolve it, the
taste of the latter, if alum has been
used by the baker, will acquire a
sweetish astringency. Another me-
thod of detecting this adulteration,
consists in thrusting a heated knife
into a loaf, before it has grown
cold; and if it be free from that
ingredient, scarce any alteration
will be visible on the blade ; but,
in the contrary case, its surface,
after being allowed to cool, will
appear slightly covered with an
aluminous incrustation. This me-
thod, we understand, is generally
preferred in the experiments made
by country-justices. It deserves,
however, to be remarked, that a
very small proportion of alum, such
as a few grains to a quartern-loaf,
cannot be productive of any serious
effects. In relaxed and scorbutic
habits, or to those persons who are
troubled with flatulency, bilious co-
lic, and jaundice, such medicated
bread may be conducive to the re-
covery of health ; while in others,
of a plethoric constitution, and a
rigid fibre, it cannot fail to aggra-
vate their complaints. In short,
such addition to a common article
of subsistence is, to say the least of
it, highly improper, and ought not
to be intrusted to the hands of a
mechanic.
One of the most important pur-
poses, to which this concrete salt
may be readily applied, is that of
purifying and sweetening water
that has become fetid and unfit for
use. On long voyages, or at a dis-
tance from clear rivers and wells,
each gallon requires, according to
its impurity, only from five to ten
grains of calcined alum, and dou-
ble or triple that proportion of pow-
dered charcoal, in order to render
the most offensive water perfectly
sweet and pellucid : both ingredi-
ents, however, ought to be preserv-
ed in close vessels, or otherwise
their efficacy will be considerably
diminished.
Alum has also been tried in the
boiling of salt, to render it of a firm
ALU
A M B 41
consistence,but the good which was
supposed to be derived from it, is
now solely attributed to the effects
of the slow and gentle heat, so that
in this process it has of late been
discontinued.
The manufacture of alum was
first invented in the year 1608, and
greatly encouraged in England, by
Lord Sheffield and other gentle-
men of the county of York. King
James the 1st assumed a monopo-
ly of tli at article, and prohibited its
importation.
Beside the methods of detecting
alum in bread, already stated, there
is a chemical process, that consists
in combining a little chalk with a
small portion of aqua fortis and
pouring the mixture on water, in
which the suspected bread has been
immersed for some time. If there
be any aluminous acid, its presence
will become evident, by a gypseous
or chalky mass deposited at the bot-
tom of the vessel: in the contrary
case no sediment will be formed.
In October, 1794 a patent was
granted the Earl of Dundonald
for his method of preparing alum,
vitriol of argil, and other saline sub-
stances. He directs aluminous,
vitriolic or pyrituous schist to be
mixed with sea water, or with solu-
tions of sea-salt, kelp, sandiver,
soap-boilers ashes, or any saline
matter, containing muriat of soda.
The liquor resulting fromsuchmix-
ture, is then boiled till it be suffi-
ciently concentrated for crystaliza-
tion ; after which it is mixed with
a due proportion of alum-schist,
clay or other argillaceous engredi-
ent. The materials are next dried,
pulverized, and submitted to the
action of heat, till the muriatic acid
be expelled : the result of these va-
rious processes, is alum. The sub-
stance remaining may, by repeated
vol. i.
washing and drying be used as a
pigment ; and, by collecting the
muriatic acid in proper vessels, and
combining it with volatile alkali,
Lord D. procures sal ammoniac....,
A more diffuse account of his inven-
tions, is inserted in the 4th vol. of
the " Repertory of Arts", he.
Alyssum sativum, L. See Gold
of Pleasure.
Amaranthus Blitum, L. See
Small Red Blite.
Amaurosis. See Gutta Se-
rena.
AMBER (Succinum) is a hard,
bituminous substance, possessing a
subacid resinous taste, and a fra-
grant aromatic smell. It is the pro-
duction of many countries, but the
best sort is that which is found in
various parts of England, especial-
ly in the clay and gravel-pits be-
tween Tyburn and Kensington, as
well as behind St. George's hospi-
tal, near Hyde-Park Corner, where
fine specimens of this concrete are
occasionally discovered. Prussia
possesses it in great abundance,
and the king derives from this ar-
ticle alone an annual revenue of
26,000 dollars; on which account
the late Frederic professed him-
self to belong to the trade olamber-
turners.
Those parts of the earth which
produce this bitumen, are generally
covered with a soft slaty stone, and
abound with vitriol. Its most re-
markable properties are, that it at-
tracts other bodies to its surface,
such as paper, hair, wool, Sec. and
that it presents a luminous appear-
ance in the dark. In its native form,
under ground, it resembles various
substances, such as pears, almonds,
peas, &c. but, when broken, leaves,
insects, and other small objects,
frequently appear inclosed : hence
it has been supposed, that amber
G
42 A M B
was originally in a fluid state, or
that from its exposure to the sun,
it became softened, so as to be sus-
ceptible to those impressions- As
these insects are never found in its
centre, but always near its surface,
the latter seems the more probable
conjecture. Animals of all kinds,
are extremely fond of it, and pieces
are frequently discovered in their
excrements. Several centuries be-
fore the Christian aera, it was in
high esteem as a medicine; and
Plato, Aristotle, and other
writers, have commended its vir-
tues : among the Romans it was
valued as a gem, and in the reign
of NERO,brought in immense quan-
tities to the capital, where it was
highly prized by the fashionable la-
dies, who decorated themselves with
trinkets made of that substance ; a
custom which is still prevalent at
Munster in Westphalia, and other
catholic countries, Avhere it is con-
verted into amulets, crosses, &c.
As a medicine, amber is at pre-
sent but in little repute, though it
is still given in fluor alb us, hysteric
affections, and in those diseases
which proceed from debility. For-
merly it was used in a variety of
preparations, but of late, an aro-
matic balsam, a powder, and an
essential oil, are the only forms in
which it is employed.
Lastly, this bituminous matter
constitutes the basis of several kinds
of varnish. It is used for the coat-
ing of various toys, for staining
the papier mache, and for the var-
nishing of carriages ; for which last
purpose, however, it is more pro-
fitable to dissolve the gum copal.
A method of making artificial
amber har; lately been discover-
ed by Prof. Hermbstaedt, of Ber-
lin. He placed rectified petroleum,
about one line in thickness, on wa-
AMB
ter, in a china saucer, which wa?
exposed to the rays of the sun, for
several months, beneath a glass-
bell containing oxygen. At length,
the petroleum had absorbed the
oxygen and sunk a little beneath
the sarface: the glass was remov-
ed ; when after pouring off the wa-
ter, and evaporating by a gentle
heat, that part of the petroleum
which retained its fluidity, the con-
densed residuum was found to pos-
sess all the properties of amber.....
Such mode of preparing that valua-
ble bitumen, however, would be too
tedious to be generally adopted j
but Prof. H. from this ingenious
experiment, justly infers, that am-
ber originates from petroleum,oxy-
genated and inspissated by its con-
tact with the atmosphere, under
the action of the sun. See Varn-
ish.
AMBERGRISE, or Grey Am-
ber, is a solid ©pake, bituminous
substance, of a greyish or ash co-
lour, usually intermixed with yellow
and blackish veins. This concrete
is found floating on the sea, or
thrown on the shores, and is pro-
duced in the greatest quantity by
the Indian Ocean. It has been
sometimes also discovered by fish-
ermen in the bellies of whales, in
lumps of various sizes, from half an
ounce to one hundred pounds in
weight. Hence it is supposed to
be an animal production. Clusius,
however, asserts that it is an indu-
rated and indigested partof the food
collected by these fish, and forms a
similar concretion with that of the
b"~oar found in the stomach of
other animals. When pure, it sof-
tens between the fingers; melts in-
to an oil, in a moderate degree of
heat, and, in a stronger one, proves
highly volatile. Slightly warmed,
it emits a iragrant odour, and when
A MB
AMM 43
-set on fire, smells like amber. It
dissolves, though with difficulty, in
spirits of wine, and essential oils,
but not in those which are expres-
sed from vegetables, nor in water.
In Asia, and part of Africa, am-
bergrise is not only used in medi-
cine, and as an article of perfumery,
but also applied to the purposes of
cookery, by adding it as a spice to
several dishes. It is valued by the
Turks as an aphrodisiac, and er-
roneously supposed to promote
longevity-
It was formerly esteemed a cor-
dial, and to be of great service in
disorders of the head, and nervous
complaints; but it now chiefly
serves as an agreeable perfume, and
is certainly free from many of those
inconveniencies which usually ac-
company substances of this .de-
scription.
Ambergrise may be considered
as genuine, when it emits a fragrant
smelh on thrusting a hot needle in-
to its substance, and melts like fat,
of an uniform consistence.
AMBURY, in farriery, signifies
a tumour, or wart which is soft to
the touch, and full of extravasated
blood. It is a disorder incident to
horses, and may be cured by the
following method.
Tie a strong hair very tightround
the part affected ; and, alter it has
spontaneously fallen off, which
usually happens in about eight days,
sprinkle powdered verdigrise on
the place, to prevent a return of
the complaint, When, from its
local situation, it cannot be tied, it
may be either cut out with a knife,
or burnt away with a sharp, hot
iron ; or, where this.cannot be prac-
tised with safety, for instance, in
sinewy parts, it may be removed
by applying oil of vitriol, or corro-
sive sublimate to the tumour. Dur-
ing the cure, the animal must be
kept quiet, and free from every ex-
ertion.
AMMONIA signifies a salt, of
which there are two sorts, the na-
tive and the factitious. The for-
mer, described by Pliny, and Dio-
scorides, was generated from the
urine of camels, in the inns, or cara-
vanseras, where the pilgrims, re-
turning from the Temple of Jupiter
Ammov, used to lodge ; whence it
derived its name. The latter is a
chemical preparation,formed either
of the acetous or muriatic acids,
combined with volatile alkali. A
salt nearly of the same kind is
thrown out by Mount Etna. The
ancient sal amoniac was said to pos-
sess the properties of cooling wa-
ter, and dissolving gold.
Great quantities of this concrete
were formerly brought from Egypt,
where it was originally prepared
by sublimation, from the soot of
animal .dung; though at present
we are principally supplied from
our own manufactories, several of
which are established in .different
parts of Britain ; but that in the vi-
cinity of Edinburgh is ,one of the
most extensive.
Although the cheapest and most
convenient method of preparing it
is not generally know u, yet it is
conjectured to be chiefly formed of
a combination of sea salt and soot.
It is commonly crystallized in the
form of large, round cakes, and
sometimes in conical kuves. The
best sort is colourless, almor.t trans-
parent, and free from visible impu-
rities. The taste of this salt is very-
sharp and penetrating. It dissolves
in rattier less than thrice its weight
of water; mid upon evaporating, a
part of the liquor concretes a^ain
into thin shining spicules, or plates,
like feathers. In fio-ity weather
44 A M M
AM M
these are remarkably beautiful, and
resembles trees, plants, &c
Sal ammoniac, when pure, pro-
motes perspiration, and in some
cases, increases the secretion of
urine. A drachm of it, dissolved
in water, if the patient be kept
warm after taking it, generally
proves sudorific. By moderate ex-
ercise in the open air, it benefici-
ally operates on the kidneys; given
in a large dose, it proves aperient;
and in a still larger, acts as an
emetic.
As a cooling and diaphoretic me-
dicine, the sal ammoniac dissolved
either in vinegar and water, or
combined with small doses of the
Peruvian bark, has often been at-
tended with the best effects, when
taken in fevers, and especially in
intermittents, after the intestinal
canal has been properly evacuated.
Mr. C Lynam, a medical practi-
tioner in the metropolis, has "for-
merly favoured the editor of this
work with an account of a cheap
and expeditious manner of saturat-
ing the common solution obtained
by dissolving this salt in vinegar,
with fixed air, or carbonic acid gas ;
which is a valuable addition to that
liquor. His method is in effect as
follows; take one ounce of pure
sal ammoniac, and one pint and a
half of distilled vinegar; put the
latter in a decanter provided with
a close glass-stopper; then intro-
duce the salt, previously broken
into lumps, but not too small; as
by plunging it too suddenly into
the liquor, the extrication of the
gas would be too quick, and a quan-
tity of it be dissipated. Next, the
r.topper of the bottle should be tied
over with a piece of leather, and
the whole be k-ft undisturbed. It
would farther be useful, to add, on
fhe top of the bottle, some wreight
or pressure, by which means' the
combination of the carbonic acid
gas with the water will be greatly
facilitated. After having stood a
few hours, the ammonia will be dis-
solved, and the carbonic acid ab-
sorbed by the liquor.
By this simple process, the ace-
tated water of ammonia becomes
strongly impregnated with fixed
air, while it is almost entirely de-
prived of that disagreeable taste
which is peculiar to this medicine,
when prepared in the usual way.
Mr. Lynam speaks from expe-
rience, of the superior qualities this
preparation possesses as a febri-
fuge ; beside the very great advan-
tage, that it tends to keep the bow-
els open, even under the immediate
influence of opiates. It likewise,
generally, agrees with weak and
irritable stomachs, which can re-
tain scarcely any other medicine.
This salt has also been employed
externally in lotions and embroca-
tions, for scirrhous and other indo-
lent tumours ; for removing warts
and other excrescences, and in gar-
garisms, for inflammations of the
tonsils.
Ammonia pura, or the caustic
vegetable alkali, possesses uncom-
mon alexiteric powers, in the cure
of persons bitten by snakes, and
other venomous animals. Sixty
drops of it, sufficiently diluted with
water, make a moderate dose,
which ought to be repeated accord-
ing to the urgency of the symp-
toms. At the same time, the wound
should be washed with a similar
mixture.
It is positively asserted, that such
treatment has been attended with
uniform success, when the patient
was able to swallow the medicine.
[.Mr. John Williams in a late pub-
lication speaks in the most positive
AMM
AMP 45
manner of the good effects of the
volatile alkali, (spirits of hartshorn,
orspiritsal ammoniac) in curing the
bitesofvenomous snakes in the East
Indies. The cure consists in the
immediate application of a bandage
around the limb bitten, in wash-
ing the wound with volatile alkali,
and in the repeated administration
of the same medicine, in doses of
from 30 to 60 drops, in water,
every five, eight, or ten minutes,
till the* patient is completely re-
lieved. Though the medicine is
directed to be administered imme-
diately, yet one instance occurs of
its obviating the effects of a bite
which had been inflicted more than
an hour. Relief is given in a few
minutes. As this remedy is kept
in most families, an opportunity is
afforded of trying its effects in the
case of a bite of our American cro-
talus horridus or rattle snake.]
[For a very interesting account
by Dr. Mitchell, of the anti-
pestilential quality of vol. alkali
See the Medical Repository, parti-
cularly vol. 4, p. 257.]
AMMONIAC is a concrete,
gummy-resinous juice, usually
brought from the East Indies in
large masses composed of lumps
or tears of a milky colour, but on
exposure to the air, it quickly ac-
quires a yellowish appearance.
Hitherto we have no certain ac-
count of the plant which affords
this juice, but it has, and with some
probability, been asserted, that it
is a species of the ferula, from
another species of which is also
produced the asa fatiela....it is
said to grow in Nubia, Abyssinia,
and the interior parts of Egypt.
This gum has a nauseous sweet-
ish taste, succeeded by a sensation
of bitter; and a smell somewhat re-
sembling, but more grateful than,
galbanum. When chewed, it sof-
tens in the mouth, and becomes of
a white colour. It may be partially
dissolved, in water, or in vinegar,
with which it assumes the appear-
ance of milk, but the resinous part,
amounting to about one half, sub-
sides when suffered to rest. A si-
milar composition, but much infe-
rior in virtue, is frequently sold
under the name of strained gum
ammoniac. Those tears which are
large, dry, and free from little
stones, or other impurities, should
be selected and prepared for in-
ternal use; the coarser kind may
be purified by solution and strain-
ing, but unless this be carefully
managed, it will lose a considerable
portion of its fine and more volatile
parts.
In medicine, it is prescribed for
removing obstructions of the abdo-
minal viscera; in hysterical com-
plaints occasioned by the deficiency
of periodical evacuations, and in
long and obstinate colics, proceed-
ing from viscid matter lodged in
the intestines. A solution of it, in
vinegar of squills, has proved of
considerable service in the humid
chronic asthma of the aged and
decrepid. The most convenient
form for its exhibition, is that of
pills; a scruple may be given every
night, or oftener. Externally it is
used for softening and ripening in^
dolent tumours; and with a mix-.
ture of squill vinegar, forms a plais-
ter which has sometimes been sue-.
cessfully recommended for white
swellings. A solution of it, in
pei-ny-i-oyal water, is usually kept
in the shops, under the name of
ammoniac milk.
AMPHIBIOUS ANIMALS are
so called, on account of theirliving
partly on land, and partly in the
water.
46 AMP
AMP
We cannot, consistently with our
plan, enter into a disquisition re-
specting their nature and functions;
and shall therefore content our-
selves with observing, that in their
structure, they are principally dis-
tinguished from land-animals, by
having red cold blood, and instead
of lungs, either gills or branchia, as
is generally observed in snakes,
eels, and fish, which chiefly inhabit
the water. Sometimes, however,
they have the oval hole open be-
tween the right and left auricles of
the heart; and, in many, the arterial
canal is also free. This is a dis-
tinguishing character of the phoca,
or such animals as enjoy their chief
functions on land, for instance, ot-
ters, beavers, frogs, crocodiles,
seme kind of rats, birds, he. While
these remain under water, where
they may safely continue for seve-
ral hours, their respiration is inter-
rupted ; and the blood not finding a
free passage through the pulmo-
nary artery, rushes through the
hole from the right to the left au-
ricle, and partly through the arte-
rial canal; having but a short course
to the aorta, the largest of all the
blood vessels,and thencecirculating
to every part of the body. But, on
rising to come ashore, the blood
makes its way again through the
lungs, as soon as the animal begins
to respire.
As in all land animals a large
portion of the mass of blood conti-
nually circulates through the lungs,
which would be stopped, if the free
access of air were excluded; so
we find in fish a great number of
blood-vessels passing through the
gills, which must be perpetually
v.'ct, lest the blood should, in like
manner, be checked, and conse-
quently stagnate in its progress.
Hence,when the latter are removed
from their natural element, the
branchia very soon grow crisp and
dry, the vessels become corrugat-
ed, and the blood finds no outlet;
likewise, when land-animals are im-
mersed under water, or in any
other manner deprived of respira-
tion, the circulation ceases, and the
animal inevitably dies.
Inquisitive physiologists have ad-
vanced, that man may, by art, be
rendered amphibious, and enabled
to live under water, as well as the
beaver, or turtle; because the foetus
in utero lives without air, and the
circulation is continued by means
of the oval hole: if, therefore, this
important opening coidd be pre-
served after the birth of the child,
the same useful faculty might still
remain.
This proposition is plausible; and
we do not hesitate to declare, that
in a maritime country, such attempts
ought by all suitable means to be
encouraged: for the advantages re-
sulting from a successful applica-
tion of the theory, would indeed be
incalculable. In its support, and
as an instance of the wonderful
power we possess over the organs
of respiration, it may be urged, that
expert divers feel no inconvenience
from remaining for several minutes
under water, at a considerable
depth; that individuals affected with
asthma (among whom the writer
of this article is a living evidence)
have by mere force of habit obtain-
ed effectual and permanent relief in
that distressing complaint, by ac-
customing themselves from the
commencement of it, to respire
principally through the nostrils,
whether in a waiting or sleeping
state ; and lastly, that none of the in-
terior organs possess a flexibility
AMP
AMP
47
and power of expansion (unattend-
ed with loco-motion) equal to those
of respiration.
After this short digression, we
shall proceed to state the means by
which that desirable faculty of re-
spiring under water, may be ac-
quired by the human subject.
It should previously be remark-
ed, that the lungs of the embryo
are compressed during its confine-
ment, so that the pulmonary blood-
vessels are impervious, and conse-
quently the circulation must take
place through the oval hole, and
the arterial canal before-mention-
ed: hence the amphibious animal
and the fetus in utero are so far
analagous in their nature; and
though this hole generally closes
at an early period of infancy, yet
there are instances, Avell attested
by anatomists, where it has been
occasionally found not quite closed
in human subjects, who have died
at an advanced age. There is,
however, one material difference
between them: the foetus never
having respired, is sufficiently nou-
rished by the maternal blood circu-
lating through its whole body,
which progressively grows, till its
birth, without feeling the want of
respiration during the whole period
of pregnancy; on the contrary, ter-
raqueous animals having respired
from the moment of their birth,
cannot support life for any length
of time without it; because both
the hole and canal above alluded to
would be closed, or at least con-
stricted in them, as is the case in
land animal?, if they did not in-
stinctively, soon after the birth of
the cub, instruct it in the exercise
of that \ital function. This is ef-
fected, by frequently carrying it into
the water....a practice by which
(hose passages are kept open dur-
ing life, and the creatures enabled
to procure that kind of food which
is designed for them by the provi-
dential care of Nature.
Thus we may easily conceive
that, in infants, the oval hole, by
proper expedients and persevering
exertions, might, without much dif-
ficulty, be preserved in an open
state ; for instance, by gradually
accustoming young children, soon
after their birth, to suspend their
breath once, or oftener in a day,
increasing the duration of the ex-
periment with every attempt, so
that the blood may at length be di-
rected to circulate through its ori-
ginal passage, which, by several
trials, cautiously repeated, would
no doubt remain sufficiently lubri-
cated, and never again be closed
in the manner we generally find it
in the deceased body.
That these are rational, and, we
may venture to add, well founded
conjectures, few will dispute ; es-
pecially if it be considered that or-
dinary divers, without having been
trained to this practice from early
infancy, are capable of retaining
their breath, and continuing much
longer under water, than persons
in whom that primitive organ of
respiration, having never been ex-
ercised, has become unfit to act as
an useful substitute for the lungs,
while immersed under water. Nay,
there are well authenticated in-
stances of persons who were in the
full possession of the uncommon
faculty here described : of others,
we shall relate only that of a Sici-
lian, named the Fish-Colas, who
possessed it in so eminent a degree,
" that he lived rather after the man-
ner of a fish than a man," in con-
sequence of having from his youth,
and by an assiduous practice, suc-
cessfully acquired the habit of living
48
AMP
AMU
in water, and thus effected a com-
plete change of his physical nature.
AMPUTATION is a term in
surgery, and signifies the cutting
off a limb from the body. It is
sometimes rendered necessary,
when a part is so diseased as either
to be wholly useless, or threatening
danger, if not removed. The cases
in which this operation is usually
performed, are, severe, compound
fractures of the bones, attended
with splinters; extensive lacera-
tions, and contusions of wounds,
with great loss of substance, and
pouring forth a profuse discharge;
wide.-spreading mortifications ;
white swellings of the joints ; can-
cers, or other incurable ulcers ; ex-
ostosed,carious and distorted bones,
Sec. Sec.
Amputation is one of the most
important operations in surgery,
and has lately been brought to the
highest perfection. Previous to the
invention of the tourniquet, and the
method of securing the blood-ves-
sels from hemorrhages, by liga-
tures, it was rarely undertaken,
and a great proportion of those
who submitted to it, afterwards
died. But in consequence of mo-
dern improvements, there seldom
happens more than one death in
twenty or thirty cases. In per-
forming this operation, some par-
ticular cautions are necessary, viz.
to make the incision at a proper
place ; to save a quantity of skin
and cellular substance, sufficient to
cover the muscles and bone com-
pletely, without being stretched ;
to prevent hemorrhages ; to secure
the arteries carefully, without in-
cluding the nerves, or any of the
contiguous parts ; and to prevent
the retraction of the integuments.
Where part of a limb is either car-
ried off, or much shattered, it will
be necessary to amputate above the
diseased surface, to ensure a spee-
dier and safer cure. Should morti-
fication have previously taken place,
every other remedy ought to be
timely and vigorously employed,
till its progress be arrested; the
first symptom of which will be, an
inflamed circle separating the dis-
eased from the sound parts: as
soon as this has taken place, no
time should be lost in resorting to
the operation, lest the patient suffer
from the absorption of putrescent
matter, which readily occasions a
hectic fever.
As the privation of a limb, and
the great destruction of animal
parts, are often attended with fatal
consequences, nothing but extreme
necessity, or the failure of all other
means, can justify the choice of this
formidable expedient. Some emi-
nent authorities have altogether
questioned its utility ; and M. Bil-
guer, late surgeon-general to the
Prussian armies, in his observations
on this subject, declares, " that the
cases in which amputation is ne-
cessary, are less frequent than has
hitherto been supposed." He says,
that during the late war, it proved
unsuccessful in a variety of instan-
ces ; and that he himself had, with-
out resorting to operations, cured
many patients, whose limbs had
been so much bruised and shatter-
ed, that the ablest surgeons thought
it advisable to employ their instru-
ments. See Tourniquet.
AMUSEMENTS, may be divid-
ed into public and private; and
they are "either of an active or se-
dentary nature. The former usu-
ally consist of balls, plays, enter-
tainments, &c. the latter, of the
various diversions of cards, chess,
back-gammon, and other games of
chance or skill,,
AMU
ANA 49
Those of an active kind ought
always to be preferred, as they not
only relieve the mind, when wearied
with intense application, or de-
pressed Avith grief; but by their
agreeable variety,together with the
advantages of air, exercise, &c.
they are highly conducive to health.
On this account, they are particu-
larly serviceable to such persons as
are subject to nervous and hypo-
chondriacal complaints, and to all
those Avho lead a confined or se-
dentary life. Private amusements,
on the contrary, are principally em-
ployed with a view to consume
time, and frequently require more
application than either study or bu-
siness. Those amusements which
afford the most violent exercise,
and ought, therefore, to be pursued
only by the healthy and robust, are
hunting, shooting, cricket-playing,
hand-ball, and similar games......
When these are undertaken.with
the necessary adaptation to the
strength of the individual, they pro-
mote perspiration and other secre-
tions, expand the lungs, and give
firmness and agility to the whole
frame. SeeG a m i n g , and T hkatre.
With respect to the amusements
of children, we shall here only re-
mark, that they may be compared
tothelabours and pursuitsof adults;
and that their influence, as well on
health, as on the future inclinations
and desires of the individual, is
much greater, and more perma-
nent, than is generally supposed.
Hence we should advise parents
and guardians to encourage no
games, or play-things, which have
a tendency to impair the constitu-
tion, or deprave the morals, of their
offspring ; of this nature are, im-
proper and unnatural postures, or
gesticulations of the body; wanton
jumping up and doWn high places ;
VOL. I.
forcible exertions of muscular pow-
er, by lifting great weights and
carrying ponderous bodies ; the
partial exercise of one arm or leg ;
sedentary plays of long duration ;
the standing for hours on their legs;
musical wind-instruments ; toys
manufactured by common potters,
or made of plaster of Paris ; drink-
ing-vessels of lead, pewter, white
iron, bell-metal, or earthen-ware
imperfectly burnt and glazed ; play-
things coloured or painted with
noxious metallic preparations, such
as verdigrease, orpiment, minium,
as well as those devices and similar
trifles produced by the confection-
er, &c. he. On this interesting sub-
ject, which cannot fail to engage
the attention of every judicious pa-
rent, we presume to refer the reader
to a work lately published, from
the German of Dr. Struve, enti-
tled, "A Familiar Treatise on tn-
Physical Education of Children;''
with three Introductory Lectures,
and Notes, by the Editor of this En-
cyclopaedia. [See also " Eelg. worth
on Education" 2 vols.]
Amygdalus. See Almond.
[ANAGALLIS ARYENSIS,L.
or,CommonPimpernel,h&s two strong
varieties, a, fiore caruleo, b, flore
phxniceo : these have been distin-
guished by late botanists as distinct
species, leaving the name arvensis
for a, or calling it coerulea ; b, is
their phomicea. The coerulea I
have not seen, the phoenicea is com-
mon, perhaps a native. (Dr. Muh-
lenberg in a letter to the Editor.)
This plant affords another in-
stance among many others, with
which the records of medicine
abound, of remedies obtaining a
high character without the small-
est pretensions thereto. Crowned
heads and republics, have passed
laws to preserve it fromdestructiom
H
50 ANA
ANC
and learned doctors have celebrat-
ed in classical Latin, its imaginary
virtue in preventing the effects of
the bite of mad dogs. In this country
it has long been celebrated among
the Germans, two of w hom kept
the same remedy a great secret.
One of these persons, a Mr. Ket-
tering, of Dauphin County, com-
municated the knowledge of the
plant to the legislature of Pennsyl-
vania last year. It failed in the
case of a child of a citizen of Phila-
delphia, and in that of a Mr. Iiu-
bkr of Lancaster, both of whom
died last summer. To the latter
it was given both as a preventive
andasacure. The Rev.Dr.M.Muh-
lenberg of Lancaster, who thought
well of the remedy, nevertheless
candidly informed me, that he heard
of one case in which it failed......
Prof. Murray, in his excellent
work,a/iparatus medicaminum, gives
a long account of this plant, and of
the authorities by which its cha-
racter was supported, but he doubts
its efficacy, andsays that J.Bauhan
also disbelieved its supposed vir-
tues. " At Viriscum too in the
hands of the celebrated Roulet, it
failed to save the life of a woman.
At Marseilles there were two cases
of similar failure, although other
remedies against this dreadful dis-
ease were prescribed at the same
time. Another case is recorded,
where, notwithstanding tfie anagal-
lis had been given, the hydropho-
bia came on and proved fatal. To
the celebrated Tissot also, after a
laborious investigation, it appeared
of a very doubtful nature." It ar-
gues little short of madness to trust
this remedy.
The causes producing the repute
of this and other nostrums for this
disease, shall be fullydiscussed.Avhen
we come to the article " Biteofamad
dog."1
Ananas. See Pine-Apple.
ANCHOVY, or Clupea encrasi-
colus, L. a small fish of the herring-
kind, taken in immense quantities
on the coast of the Mediteranean
Sea, whence they are imported into
Britain, in a pickled state. They
are in general from 3 to 4 inches
in length, have a pointed head, a
wide mouth, destitute of teeth, and
the gums are uncommonly rough.
According to Collins, these dimi-
nutive fish are, likewise, found in
abundance, on the western coasts
of England and Wales.
The fishing for anchovies is prin-
cipally carried on during the night;
when a light being affixed to the
stern of a small vessel, the ancho-
vies are thus attracted, and caught
in nets. It is, hoAvever, asserted,
that they are neither so good, firm,
nor so proper for pickling, as those
taken without this stratagem. After
having secured these delicate fish,
their heads are cut off; the intes-
tines extracted; and the bodies salt-
ed, and deposited in barrels.
In the choice of anchovies, such
as arc small, round-backed, fresh
pickled, white on the outside, and
red within, deserve to be preferred ;
because those of a flat, or large
form, are frequently a spurious sort,
called Sardinias. Independently of
these qualities, the pickle should
possess a fine taste and flavour.
Anchovies are variously prepar-
ed : after boning them, and taking
oflf the tails and fins, thev may
either be eaten with oil arxl vinegar;
or, by mincing them Avith pepper,
he. be formed into sauce for other
fish. They are likewise packed in
earthen vessels, closely covered, so
as to exclude the air : by this sim-
ple precaution, their flavour may,
for a long time be preserved. But
the most effectual method of keep-
ANC
AN C
51
ing these fish in a concentrated
state, is that of reducing the fleshy
part to a soft pulp, of the consist-
ence of butter; and, after adding
pepper or other spices, the extract
of anchovies thus prepared, should
be put in gallipots, first covered
with a round piece of fine writing
paper, or hog's bladder; and then
melted beef suet in a luke-Avarm
state, must be pouredoverthe whole,
so as to leave about half an inch
space between this air-tight cover-
ing and the top of the vessel, which
is again secured with strong paper.
Anchusa sempervirens, L. See
Evergreen Alkankt.
ANCIENT LANGUAGES are
those which are no longer spoken
by a living people, such as the He-
brew, Greek and Latin : they ge-
nerally form a part of the education
of those students Avho are intended
for the learned professions. The
utility of employing so much of the
time of children at schools, in clas-
sical pursuits, and the study of the
dead languages, has been much
questioned : upon this subject, a
humorous Avriter thus expresses
himself: "Who can patiently en-
dure to see persons so studiously
going back two thousand years, in
search of that perfection which lies
so plainly still before them ? To
see men of sense and learning
spending their whole time and at-
tention about ^Eolic Digammas, the
use of accents, or the meaning of
a passage in Horace, whilst, at the
same time, they are suffering the
finest language in the world, their
own, to lie entirely uncultivated,
unless by the laudable and occasion-
al efforts of some individual ? Had
the Same been practised by the
Greeks or Romans....had they stu-
died nothing but Fgyptian hiero-
glyphics, we might,at this day,have
been obliged to travel to the Pyra-
mids to read the Classics, whilst all
the letters in the world would have
been nothing more than the ill-imi-
tated forms of men, animals, imple-
ments, S;c. If we think that they
did right, why do we not imitate
their example ? What possible
reason can be alledged why the En-
glish might not, by similar care
and attention, be made as good a
language as either the Greek or
Latin ? Had we the address of
Savift, or Addison, Avhat a peti-
tion might we draAV up in favour of
our poor mother tongue, setting
forth the many hardships she has
long endured ; the various insults
and barbarous injuries she, from
time to time, has suffered, and is
still obliged to undergo, from the
undutifulness of her own children,"
he. [See this subject fully-and ably
discussed by Dr. Rush, Miscella-
neous Essays: Philadelnhin, 1798.]
ANCIENT LEARNING sig-
nifies a thorough acquaintance with
the Avritings of the ancients. A
very great and illiberal prejudice
has for some time since existed,
Avhich has induced us to give a con-
stant preference to the ancients, for
their genius, as well as their virtue.
Their innocence, courage, and skill
in writing, have been extolled as
superior to our modem acquire-
ments, and proposed to us as a
standard of real perfection. FeAv
authors, indeed, have been suffered
to wear their laurels during life ;
these have been generally reserved,
either to croAvn their statues, or en-
twine around their tombs. Hom ef ,
in his days, Avas considered as a
mei e ballad singer ; he is now a
b.uu. Shakspeare lived a pre-
carious hireling. Milton's divine
poem lay long neglected, and was
sold for a song. Or way lived and
52 ANC
AND
died in a corner; Cervantes pas-
sed his days in poverty ai'd obscu-
rity, a living reproach to Spain ;
and the first of our English philo-
sophers, the immortal Newton,
wasindebtedtotheofficiouskindness
of a Barrow, to announce his me-
rit to the world. Praise is slower
than censure, because the former is
retarded by envy and contention,
which time alone, the final subduer
of all things, can effectually remove.
'Tis the same in the moral as in the
natural Avorld: the sun exhibits
the largest disk, when about to quit
our hemisphere. The ancients
have acquired a prejudged heredi-
tary admiration, and their only solid
grounds of preference are, that they
had the good fortune to come first
into the Avorld. Thus, by the laws
of primogeniture, the eldest son
inherits the patrimony, to the de-
triment of the rest of the family.
It cannot, however, be disputed,
that the ancient Avriters have left
us performances which would re-
flect the highest honour on any age,
or nation ; but to allow them the
merit of exclusive excellence, is
injustice to their competitors. A
principle of tenderness has been
urged as a plausible reason for en-
tertaining a partiality for the an-
cients, and that the infant state of
learning ought to experience the
same flattering indulgence which
is shewn to young children. The
weakness of this plea is evident:
and candour obliges us to declare,
that it is equally unjust and impro-
per to consider the Greeks and Ro-
mans, with all their inaccuracies
and defects, as perfect models of
imitation. Many an ancient writer,
whose real beauties have been just-
ly admired, has also frequently
been praised for his faults: thus
ius reputation has been sullied ; in-
stead of being indebted to his pane-
gyrists, he has excited doubts and
censures, where he had least de-
served them.
The remarks made in the pre-
ceding article, may with equal pro-
priety be applied to the present
subject: but we shall content our-
selves with observing, that those
persons who have imbibed an early
prejudice for the learning of the
ancients, are generally deficient in
active discernment, and incapable
of ascertaining the merits of modern
improvements.
ANCIENT TIMES are those
which refer to remote periods of
antiquity.
The degeneracy and corruption
of modem times, as opposed to
those of the ancients, have afforded
a fruitful source of peevish invec-
tive, and an endless cause of que-
rulous complaint, to both the learn-
ed and the illiterate. It has been
the constant custom, at all timesr
to declare every succeeding age
more wicked than the former; to
represent the world as perpetually
increasing in vice and folly ; to la-
ment the good old days that are
past, and to anticipate nothing but
misery from the future. Yet, how-
ever corrupt or vicious may be the
age in Avhich we live, let us but im-
partially compare the history of past
times with those of our own, and we
shall find no great reason to unite
in the general outcry : on the con-
trary, it is highly probable, that
our successors Avill attribute more
virtues to us, than are possessed by
themselves ; though, perhaps, nei-
ther may be less virtuous, or more
depraved, than the most celebrated
nations of antiquity.
[ANDROMEDA. Sorrel tree,
Indian Pipe Stem, TVickie. An ex-
tensive genus many species of which
A N E A N E 53
abound in the United States, they
occupy lands of similar soil and
situation with the heaths in the old
continent. He-whortleberry is the
most common trivial name in the
United States for all the species,be-
cause they bear no berries, and re-
semble the wortle berry bushes.
They are all handsome flowering
shrubs, the a. formosissima of Bar-
tram or Indian pipe stem, is the
most beautiful. It is an evergreen.
The Creek Indians set a high va-
lue upon the shoots two years
old, for making tlieir pipe stems,
being very straight, and from 12
to 15 feet long. Dr. Barton in-
forms us, that a decoction of the A.
mariana, or broad leaved moor-
wort, is used as a wash, in a disa-
greeable ulceration of the feet at-
tended with an intolerable itching,
which is common among the ne-
groes of the southern states. The
plant is there called " wickie". It
is suspected to be poisonous, and
Shoepf says, that it is hurtful to
sheep: no doubt he spoke from the
information of our farmers.]
ANEMOMETER signifies a
mechanical instrument for ascer-
taining the power and velocity of
the wind.
Successful methods have been
discovered to determine, with pre-
cision, the various properties of the
air, its temperature, humidity, and
weight, by means of the thermo-
meter, the hygrometer, and the
barometer; but, till lately, no at-
tempts have been made to ascer-
tain the force of the wind. Seve-
ral instruments for this purpose
have, indeed, been contrived ; but
they are in general more compli-
cated, and less to be depended on,
than the machine which we shall
describe under the head of Ane-
moscope.
ANEMONE, or Wind-Flow-
er, is the name of a plant chiefly
distinguished on account of its
beautiful flowers, which by the
Greeks, were supposed not to open
till the wind blows ? whence it has
received its original name. Lin-
naeus enumerates tAventy-one spe-
cies, of which the following five
deserve particular notice, though
the first of these is not indigenous.
1. Anemone pralensis, L. the
dark-flowered, or MeadoAV Ane-
mone, as described and represent-
ed in Dr. Woodville's Medical
Botany,\ol. iii. p. 400, plate 148....
It produces beautiful dark violet,
or almost black flowers, which blow
in March and April*, and never
expand.
In its recent state, the meadow-
anemone is almost flavourless,
though its taste, when chewed, is
extremely pungent, and corrodes
the tongue and fauces ; a property
also manifested in a slight degree
by the dried leaves. Hence we may
conclude, that this plant possesses
considerable medicinal virtues; a
supposition amply confirmed,
though often contested, by various
practitioners of great respectability.
Chemists, hoAvever, have proved
by experiment, that one of its con-
stituent parts is camphor, which
has been obtained in the form of
crystals. Hence it has been suc-
cessfully employed in the cure of
chronic affections of the eyes, espe-
* Some botanical writers confound this plant with the Anemone Pulsatilla, L, which
is a distinct species. The Anemone prateiuis, L. is a native of Germany, where it flow-
ers in the beginning of May : it was thence imported into England, and cultivated
in our gardens by the late, aud justly celebxated>pMifci.KK, about the year 173 L
54 A N E
ANE
dally in gut la serena, cataract, and
opacity of the cornea. But, on ac-
count of its singular efficacy, it
has generally been used in external
applications, as an excellent aperi-
ent, detergent, and vulnerary me-
dicine, with whose Arirtues the an-
cieuts were well acquainted, though
they accounted for such effects
from superstitious notions.
The juice of the anemone root,
chewed in small quantities, stimu-
lates the salival glands, and fre-
quently affords sudden relief in ex-
cruciating tooth-ache, if it proceed
from an acrimony or superfluity of
humours, in phlegmatic habits.....
When boiled in rich wine, and ap-
plied as a cataplasm, it not only
abates inveterate inflammations of
the eyes, but also cleanses indolent
and foul ulcers. Its leaves and
stalks, slowly simmered in ptisan,
and occasionally eaten, are said un-
commonly to increase the maternal
milk. If credit be due to the an-
cients, they also cure that frequent
and destructive complaint of young
females, called chlorosis; and,
when beaten up with a mixture of
bees-Avax and turpentine, so as to
form a pessary, tend to restore the
catamenia. We doubt, hoAvever,
whether the numerous other vir-
tues ascribed to this vegetable, be
founded on truth; yet we believe
that external applications of it, pro-
perly repeated, especially the leaves,
bruised together with marshmal-
Ioav root or other cooling herbs,
may cure paralytic attacks in their
commencement, herpetic eruptions,
and even the leprosy ; though we
would not rely upon its efficacy in
true syphilis, in caries or mortifi-
cation of the bones, and still less,
in cases of melancholy, or mania.
The dark violet leaves of this
species, when boiled together with
those of the Serratula tinctoria, L.
or common saw-wort, and a pro-
per addition of alum, afford, ac-
cording to Prof. Pallas, an excel-
lent water-colour for landscape and
other paintings.
2. Anemone Pulsatilla, L. or
Pasque ] "loAver, so called because
it generally blossoms about Easter,
when it adorns some of our dry,
chalky-hills. In April it bears
beautiful bell-shaped flowers, of a
purple or reddish colour. A de-
scription and representation of it
may be found in Soaverby's Eng-
lish Botany, p. 4. 3....5 1.
Although this species may not be
possessed of healing virtues similar
to the preceding, yet it is asserted
that its flowers are of great efficacy
in curing inveterate ulcers, in man
and cattle. As it is a poisonous
plant, the inhabitants of Kamtschat-
ka use its leaves for staining their
arrows ; which unless the Avound
be immediately cleansed, and the
communicated virus extracted by
the mouth, are said to prove inevit-
ably fatal: in like manner, these un-
tutored savages destroy the Avhales
which frequent their coast.
Both the flowers and leaves of
this species are employed by fo-
reign dyers for green colours of
various shades. From the expres-
sed juice of the leaAes, a green ink
may be prepared; and if the florets
only be used, it will be a lighter
shade, but from the whole flower,
the colour will be much deeper....
Relying on the authority of Da.m-
bourney, Ave shall add, that animal
wool previously immersed in a so-
lution of bismuth, acquires a pleas-
ing light vigogne colour.
3. Anemone nemorota, L. or the
Wood-Anemone; another wild sort,
bearing only one white, or some-
times purplish, flower on a plant.
....See Curtis's Flor. JLond. ii.
38.
AN E
A N E
55
In medicine this plant may be
usefully employed as a substitute
for cantharides, or Spanish flies ; for
it produces not only a more speedy,
but less painful effect. Its juice is
so extremely acrid, that it has been
justly suspected to occasion the
dysentery among ca*tk\ and inflam-
mation, accompanied with a dis-
charge of bloody urine, in sheep.
fTe:ve the necessity of guarding
these animals against the cause of
distempers, which are frequently so
formidable in their consequences,
as to deprive the u.a wary husband-
man of a great portion of his most
valuable live-stock.
4. Anemone ranunculoides, L. or
the YelloAV Wood-Anemone. See
p. 5. Gerard's Herbal, 333. I.
On account of its corrosive acri-
mony, the juice of this vegetable is
also used by the inhabitants of
Kamtschatka, for a similar delete-
rious purpose as is mentioned of
the second species.
[ In the United States, we have,
1. Anemone Virginiana,
2. A. Pennsylvanica,
3. A.Quinquefolia,
4. A. Thalictroides. This last
grows near the city of Philadelphia
in the woods, and deserves to be
cultivated for its elegant simplicity.]
ANEMOSCOPE, a mechanical
instrument for determining the
course' and velocity of the wind.....
That part which exhibits the for-
mer, or shews from what point of
the compass the wind blows, con-
sists of an h dex, moving round an
uoright circular plate, like the dial
of a clock ; on which, instead of
the hours, the thirty-two points of
the compass are represented. The
index which points to the divisions
on the dial, is turned by a horizon-
tal axis, having a trundle-head at
its out .vard extremity. This trun-
dle-head is moved by a cog-wheel,
on a perpendicular axis ; at the top
of which is fixed a vane, moving
with the course of the a, ind, and
imparting motion to the whole ma-
chine. The contrivance is extreme-
ly simple, and requires in its con-
struction only, that the number of
cogs in the wheel, and rounds in
thetrundle-head.be equal; because
when the vane moves entirely round,
the index of the dial should also
make a complete revolution. An
anemoscope of this cour.truction is
placed in one of the turrets of
Buckingham-house, the residence
of Her present Majesty.
The anemoscope invented by
Mr. Pickering, and published in
the Philosophical Transactions,No.
473, is a machine four feet and a
quarter high, consisting of a broad
and weighty pedestal,apillar, attach-
ed to it, and an iron axis, about half
an inch in diameter, fastened into
the pillar. Upon this axis turns a
wooden tube ; at the top of which
is placed a vane, of the same ma-
terials, twenty-one inches long,
consisting of a quadrant, graduated,
and shod Avith an iron ring, notch-
ed to each degree ; and a counter-
poise of wood on the other, as re-
presented in the figure. Through
the center of the quadrant runs an
iron pin ; upon which are fastened
two small round pieces of wood,
serving as moveable radii to des-
cribe the degrees upon the quad-
rant, and as handles to a velum or
sail ; the pane of which is one foot
square, made of canvas stretched
on four battens, and painted. On
the upper batten, next to the shod
rim of the quadrant, is a small
spring, Avhich catches at every
notch, corresponding to each de-
gree, as the sail may be raised on
the pressure of the wind, and thus
56 ANE
A N E
its falling back prevented, when
the force of the Avind decreases.....
At the bottom of the wooden tube
is an iron index, which moves round
a circular piece of Avood fastened to
the top of the pillar, on the pedes-
tal, where the thirty-two points of
the compass are described. We
have annexed a representation of
this machine : a is the pedestal; b
the pillar on which the iron axis is
fitted ; c, the circle of avoocI repre-
senting the points of the compass ;
e, the wooden tube upon its axis ;
f, the velum; g, the graduated
quadrant; h, the counterpoise of
the vane. The subjoined figure
represents the velum, which may
be taken off; a is the plane of the
velum; b, the spring; cc, the avoocI-
en radii; d, d, the holes through
which passes the pin, in the center
of the quadrant.
This instrument serves the fol-
lowing useful purposes.
1. Having a circvdar motion
round the iron axis, and being fur-
nished Avith a vane at the top, and
an index at the bottom, as soon as
the artificial points described on
the round piece of wood on the pil-
lar are fixed to the corresponding
quarters of the heavens, it faithfully
points out the quarter from which
the wind bloAvs.
2. Being furnished Avith a velum,
or sail, elevated by the wind, along
the arch of the quadrant, to an
height proportionate to the power
of the column of wind pressing
against it, its relative force and its
comparative poAver, at any two
times of examination, may be ac-
curately taken.
3. By means of a spring fitted to
the notches of the iron, Avith which
the quadrant is shod, the velum is
prevented from returning upon the
fall of the wind; and the instru-
ment, without the trouble of watch-
ing it, ascertains the force of the
ANE
highest blast, since the last time of
examination.
This machine may be confidently
depended upon, as the velum is
hung so nicely, that it is suscep-
tible of the most gentle breeze, and
will also- describe the force of the
wind in a violent storm. There is,
however, reason to apprehend, that
by exposing the anemoscope to all
winds, especially to irregular blasts
and squalls, for a length of time, it
may become inaccurate. The ob-
server ought, therefore, to take the
tube with its vane and velum, in his
hand, with a view to learn the force
of the wind; and, after having made
his observation, he should return
with the machine into the house,
till the violence of the storm sub-
side.
ANEURISM, in surgery, sig-
nifies a throbbing tumor, occasion-
ed by the dilation or rupture of an
artery: it consists of three kinds,
viz. the true or encysted, the false
or diffused, and the varicose.
The true aneurism, Avhen situa-
ted near the surface of the body,
produces a tumor, at first small
and circumscribed, but, Avhen press-
ed by the finger, it manifests a dis-
tinct puteation. By degrees it in-
creases, and becomes more pro-
minent; still, however, the patient
does not complain of any pain. As
it grows larger, the skin turns
more pale than usual, also more
phlegmonous, or swollen, and at
length assumes a livid and gangre-
nous appearance. A bloody scrum
now oozes through the integu-
ments; the skin cracks in several
places; and the artery, being de-
prived of the usual resistance, dis-
charges its blood Avith such velocity,
as to occasion almost instantaneous
death.
VOL. i.
ANE 57
The false aneurism consists of a
wound or rupture of an artery, and,
by the extravasation of blood, pro-
duces a SAvelling of the contiguous
parts. If not improperly treated by
constant and close pressure, it ge-
nerally remains nearly of the same
size, for several weeks. Instances
have occurred, where the blood has
diffused itself over the Avhole arm
in a few hours; as,on the contrary,
SAvellings of this kind have been
months, nay, even years, in arriving
at any considerable size.
The varicose aneurism is that
which arises from the puncture of
an artery, and sometimes happens
in blood-letting. This circumstance,
it is hoped, will point out the ne-
cessity of persons applying to regu-
lar practitioners, Avho are acquaint-
ed with the situation of the blood-
vessels, and not employing, as is
too frequently the case, ignorant
and unskilful pretenders, for the
performance of this important oper-
ation: soon after the injury has
been committed, the vein Avhich
immediately communicates with
the wounded artery, begins to swell,
and gradually to enlarge. Upon
pressure, the tumor disappears, be-
cause the blood contained in it is
pushed forwards in its circulation
to the heart; and Avhen large, there
is a singular tremulous motion, at-
tended Avith a hissing noise, as if air
were passing through a small aper-
ture.
The causes which generally pro-
duce aneurisms, are a peculiar pre-
disposition of the arteries, when
they are in a relaxed state; a par-
tial debility of their coats; exces-
sive bodily exertions; stooping, and
lifting great weights; acrid matter
contained in a neighbouring sore;
intemperance, &c. Where they
58 ANG
A NG
arise from any external accident,
an operation may be attended with
success; but, in all other cases, art
can afford but iittle assistance.
In a complaint of this nature, it
is presumed that the earliest ap-
plication Avill be made to profes-
sional men; and as the narrow li-
mits of this work do not permit us
to enter into a more minute inves-
tigation, Ave shall close this article
with describing a new method of
treating an aneurism, recommend-
ed by Mr. Lambert, surgeon at
Newcastle upon Tyre, in a letter
to Dr. Hunter. This Avas suc-
cessfully practised, by passing a
steel pin, one-fourth of an inch in
length, through the lips of the
wounded artery, and then securing
it in the same manner as in the
operation for the hare-lip, by twist-
ing a thread round it. It Avas per-
formed on the 15th of June, 1763,
and on the 19th of the following
month, the patient was dismissed,
perfectly well; the pulsation of that
arm remaining nearly as strong as
in the former.
Anethum Foeniculum, L. See
Common Fennel.
ANGELICA, is a plant of which
there are seven species, though
only two of them may be ranked
among the indigenous.
1. Angelica Archangelica, L. or
the Garden Angelica, is a large
umbelliferous plant. An accurate
botanical description and delineation
of it may be seen in Dr. Wood-
ville's Medical Botany; vol. i. p.
138. pi. 50. The stalk of this magni-
ficent plant, when properly cultivat-
ed in a moist soil, rise to the height
of seven or eight feet; its flowers
are of a greenish white colour,
or sometimes yellow.
Every part of this useful vege-
table, the root, stalk, leaves, and
seeds, partake of the aromatic pro-
perties ; whence the Germans de-
nominate it angel-root, or breast-
root, being one of the most spicy
plants of European growth. Its
resinous root, and the seeds, are
chiefly esteemed in medicine, and
the former, when fresh, affords by
distillation a strong and fragrant
spirit, and an essential oil, in the
proportion of a whole drachm, and
upwards, from one pound. A
tincture made of one ounce digest-
ed in twelve ounces of proof spirits,
yields, on evaporation, two drachms
of a very pungent and spicy ex-
tract. This is generally preferred
by the Medical College of Berlin;
a valuable member of Avhich, the
late Dr. Gleditsh, giA-es the fol-
lowing account of its effects:
Fifteen grains of this extract,
which are equal to one ounce, or
two table-spoonsful, of the tincture,
dilated with Avater, and taken three
times or oftener in a day, prove a
gently stimulating medicine, well
calculated to strengthen the solids,
and especially serviceable for dis-
pelling flatulency, removing pec-
toral complaints, and affording ef-
fectual relief in hysterics. The oily,
spiritous and resinous part of it,
tends to resolve viscid humours,
while its gummy and balsamic
constituents beneficially act on the
fluids. Being very mild in its oper-
ation, the angelica deserves the
preference to many other roots of
this nature, and may therefore be
usefully employed in flatulent co-
lics, obstructions of the breast, and
uterus, malignant fevers, and the
true scurvy, in doses of two
drachms in substance, conveyed
either in tea, or mild Avine. Exter-
nally it may be applied to scorbutic
gums; and, when boiled in water,
it affords a good gargle for swell-
ANG
A N G 59
mgs of the throat and fauces, as
well as for cleansing ulcers. It
may farther be used with advan-
tage in a bruised state, as an ingre-
dient in cataplasms and fomenta-
tions on the abdomen, to relieve
painful distensions of the bowels,
or to strengthen a Aveak and disor-
dered stomach, if the patient at the
same time pay proper attention to
diet and regimen.
2.^'ngelica Sylvcstris, L. or Wild
Angelica, is a much smaller plant,
of a thinner and less succulent
stem than the former. It grows in
marshy woods and in hedges, flow-
ers in June or July, and is repre-
sented in Gerard's Herbal, 999. 1.
This species, however possesses,
but in an inferior degree, the medi-
cinal properties of the preceding,
which may always be more readily
procured.
Both the garden and wild an-
gelica, delight in a moist soil; the
seeds should be soavti immediately
after they are perfectly ripe. As
the leaves of the young plants spread
wide, and require much ground,
they should be transplanted at a
considerable distance, when they
are about six inches in height.
Unless the roots be thoroughly
dried, they are apt to grow mouldy,
and be preyed upon by insects :
hence the necessity ofkeeping them
in a dry place, Avhich should be
frequently aired. It has been sug-
gested, for the preservation of
these useful roots, that they should
be dipped in boiling spirit, or ex-
posed to its steam, in a dry stale.
We believe, however, thai this ex-
pensive process may be rendered
unnecessary, by gathering the root
in a dry season, suspending it in
an airy room, upon threads, and
guarding against the attacks of ver-
min.
Cattle are exceedingly fond of
eating the fresh spring leaves of the
wild angelica, which to them are
a good cleansing and strengthening
medicine : bees visit its white flow-
ers, and extract from them a more
balsamic honey. Hence its growth
should be encouraged, and even
artificially promoted, especially as
it is one of those plants which have
lately been used with success as a
substitute for oak-bark, in tanning
leather, and particularly in prepar-
ing a kind of morocco from sheep,
calf, and goat-skins.
Lastly, Dambourney asserts,
that, from the leaves of the last
mentioned species, he produced a
beautiful and permanent gold co-
lour, in dying avooI properly pre-
pared by a solution of bismuth.
[We have some species of An-
gelica in the United States, a.
spino^a, a. atropurpurea, or purple
angelica, a. lucida, or shining, a.
sylvestris, or Avild angelica. The
latter dyes a good yellow.]
AMGER may be defined to be
a violent passion of the mind, aris-
ing from a sense of personal injury,
and attended with an ardent desire
of revenge.
It is either delib? ntive or in-
stinctive; in the latter case, it is
rash and precipitate, and blindly
operates, regardless of the present,
or of future consequences; in the
former, it anticipates the moment
of revenge, and nudi'tates retalia-
tion, it is not always, r.owever, a
selfish passion, since it is as fre-
quently excited by injuries offered
to others as to ourselves, and is
of en the distinguishing character-
istic of a susceptible and vigorous
mind.
Indulged to excess, and excited
by every petty provocation, it be-
comes habitual, and is sometimes
60 AN G
ANG
productive of the most fatal effects.
Independent of its moral conse-
quences, excessive anger produces
spasmodic contractions, and stagna-
tion in the liver and its vessels ;
and, by these means, renders them
schirrous, often generating stones
and gravel in the gall-bladder and
biliary ducts. When accompanied
with affliction, it usually occasions
paleness of the countenance, pal-
pitation of the heart, faltering of
the tongue, trembling of the limbs,
and jaundice. When the hope of
revenge is the predominant feature
in anger, it causes violent commo-
tions of the Avhole system, strong
pulsation of the arteries, and a
quick circulation; the vital spirits
flow rapidly and irregularly through
the whole body; the muscles are
contracted, and some of them ap-
pear almost palsied ; the cheeks
are flushed, the eyes sparkle with
additional lustre, and the whole
frame feels unusual animation, and
a desire of motion.
Anger is particularly injurious to
infants, Avho, from the sensibility
of their frames, are extremely sus-
ceptible of this passion, and are
sometimes so severely affected as
to die suddenly in convulsions, or
to retain, ever after, an imbecility
of mind and body, arising from its
powerful impression. Persons of
an irritable habit are more fre-
quently liable to its aitacks ; hence
il generally appears in individuals
Avho are troubled Avith nervous,
hysterical, andhypochondrical com-
plaints. Those of a hot and dry
temperament, of strong black hair,
and great muscular strength, are
likewise much exposed to its in-
fluence.
We ought, as rational agents, to
beware of encouraging such de-
structive emotions; for it is certain,
that men and women, possessing
an irascible temper, generally die
of pulmonary consumptions ; and
young persons, especially females,
should be informed, that indepen-
pently of its moral turpitude, it de-
forms the face, steals the rose from
the cheek of beauty, and not only
tends to extinguish the most tender
affections, but sometimes even pro-
duces aversion.
On its first approach, persons
subject to the invasion of this tur-
bulent passion, should, as much as
possible,divert their attention from
the cause, by an application to
some other object. A propensity
to anger is increased by Avant of
sleep, stimulant food, spices, Avines,
and such things as have a tendency
to inflame the blood. Hence they
ought to make use of diluent, aci-
dulated, and gently aperient drink;
and in every respect observe the
most rigid temperance: they should
allow themselves more sleep, em-
ploy the hike-warm bath, and in-
dulge in the eating of fruit, butter-
milk, whey, vegetable aliment, &c.
...See Grief, Passions,Revenge,
Terror.
ANGLING, among sportsmen,
is the art of fishing with a rod, to
which are fitted a line, hook, and
bait. The season for this amuse-
ment commences about the month
of June, and the proper hours are,
at the dawn of day, and about three
o'clock in the afternoon ; at which
times the fish, in ponds and small
rivers, are accustomed to feed.
Easterly winds afford but little
sport to the angler ; for those bloAV-
ing from the south, are the most
conducive to his purpose ; and a
Avarm, but lovvring day, is of all
others the most propitious. A
cloudy day following a bright moon-
light night, is always an auspicious
ANG
AN I 61
omen ; as the fish do not love to
seek for food in the moon-shine,
and are, therefore, always hungry
the next morning. The observa-
tion of small fish, confined in ajar,
either refusing or taking food, af-
fords a good criterion of the most
convenient season.
Upon taking his stand, the angler
should shelter himself under some
tree or bush, or remain at least so
far from the brink of the water,
that he may just discern his float;
as the fish are timorous, and easily
frightened away. The rod must be
preserved in a moderate state,
neither too dry nor too moist, as
in these cases it Avill be either brit-
tle or rotten. Various baits are
used; such as worms, artificial flies,
paste made of boiled cheese, beat
up with poAvdered quick-lime, £cc.
when these last are employed, it
will be proper to cement them Avith
a little tow, and rub them over with
honey. The best method of using
the ily, is down the current of the
stream; and half a dozen trials
will be sufficient to determine,
whether the fish will take or refuse
the bait.....With respect to the ha-
bitations most congenial to particu-
lar kinds of fish, it deserves to be
noticed, that bream are to be found
in the deepest and most quiet
places; eels, under the banks of
rivers ; perch and roach, in a pure,
swift stream ; chub, in deep, shad-
ed holes ; and trout, in clear, rapid
brooks. Situations abounding in
weeds, or old stumps of trees, often
harbour numbers of fish, which
bite freely ; but there is great
hazard of breaking the line, or en-
tangling the hook. The openings
of sluices and mill-dams always in-
vite them up the current, to seek
for the food which is conveyed Avith
the stream ; and angling in these
places is generally successful....See
Fishing.
ANIMALCULE, in its general
acceptation, merely signifies a little
animal, but is usually applied to
those living objects, which are in-
visible to the naked eye, and can be
discoverable only by the assistance
of glasses.
By the invention of the micros-
cope, we haAre become acquainted
with a variety of animals, which,
from their minuteness, Avould other-
wise have escaped our observation;
and there is reason to believe that
myriads of them exist, both in the
atmosphere and on the earth,which
elude the human eye, even Avhen
assisted by this instrument. They
are of various kinds, and to be met
with in different natural bodies. By
the assistance of magnifying glasses,
they may be seen in water, vinegar,
beer, milk, Sec. they are also found
in corn, paste, flour, and other fa-
rinaceous substances.
In the year 1677, M. Leaven-
hoeck first discovered their exist-
ence in the human semen, and that
of the lower animals ; their num-
ber is inconceivable. On vieAving
with a microscope the milt or seed
of a male cod-fish, he found them
in such SAvarms, and of so diminu-
tive a size, that he supposed 10,000"
of them, at least, capable of being
contained in the bulk of a grain of
sand ; whence he concludes, that
the semen of this fish produces
more animalcule than there are
found living persons in the whole
Avorld. They appear to be very
vigorous and tenacious of life, as
they continue to move long after
the animal, from which they are
taken, is dead. They also have
this peculiarity, that they are in
62 AN I
AN I
constant motion, without intermis-
sion, provided there be sufficient
fluid, in which they may SAvim.
Great numbers of animalcule,
some of which are of an oval
figure, and others resemble eels,
are to be found in the whitish mat-
terthat adheres between the human
teeth; but they have never hitherto
been discovered, either in the blood,
saliva, urine, bile, or chyle.
Animalcule are generated by
putrefaction, and are supposed to
produce many diseases, such as the
plague, typhus, marsh miasma, &c.
The small-pox, measles, and other
cutaneous eruptions, are also by
many conjectured to owe their
origin to this source.
The existence of animalcule in
the semen, has by several authors
been denied, and among others by
Mr. Needham, who, in an inqui-
ry into the generation or produc-
tion of animals, observes that seeds
macerated in water, first disunite
into small, motionless, and ap-
parently inert particles, but that
these afterwards possess power of
motion, and seem alive, though in
reality they are not so. Fie asserts,
thatthere are no pre-existent germs
formed for the production of ani-
mals, or vegetables, but that mat-
ter, organized in a peculiar man-
ner, in its minute assemblages,
produces them. In this opinion
he is supported by M. Buffon,
Reaumur, Maupertuis, and
other French Naturalists.....See
Generation and Microscope.
ANIMAL FLOWER (Actinia
Sociata) from its supposed property
of stinging, was formerly called
Sea-Nettle, or Sea-Anemone, but
by late English writers has receiv-
ed its present name. This singu-
lar animal was found in some of the
islands, which were ceded to this
country in the late treaty of peace
with France. It is of a tender,
fleshy substance, Avhich consists of
many tubular bodies, gently swell-
ing towards the upper part, and
terminating like a bulb, or very
small onion : its only orifice is in
the centre of the uppermost part,
surrounded with rows of tentacles,
or claws, which, when contracted,
appear like circles of beads. This
opening is capable of great exten-
sion, and it is amazing to see what
large fish some of them can swal-
Ioav, such as muscles, crabs, 8cc.
When the animal has scratched
out the fish, it throws back the
shells through the same passage.
From this aperture likewise, it pro-
duces its young ones alive, already
furnished with little claws, Avhich
they extend in search of food, as
soon as they are fixed. At Ioav
water, they are found on the rocky
coasts of Sussex and Cornwall, at-
tached in the shalloAvsto some solid
substance, by a broad base, like a
sucker. This base is Avorthy of
notice....the knobs observable on it,
are formed into several parts, by its
insinuating itself into the inequali-
ties of rocks, or grasping pieces of
shells, part of which frequently
remain in it, covered with the
fleshy substance. By its assist-
ance, they are enabled to preserve
themselves from the violence of
the weaves, and withstand the fury
of a storm. Animal flowers very
much resemble the exterior leaves
of the anemone, and their limbs
are not unlike its shag, or inner
part. They are said to possess, in
an extraordinary degree, the power
of re-production, so that to multi-
ply them at pleasure, nothing more
is necessary than to cut a single
one into several pieces.
ANIMAL FOOD. See Food.
ANI
A N I 63
ANIMAL KINGDOM, an ex-
pression which includes all orga-
nized living bodies capable of sen-
sation and voluntary motion : and
essentially differing from plants
and minerals, which have neither
organs of sense, nor the poAver of
loco-motion.
Another circumstance affords a
criterion to distinguish animals
from vegetables and fossils; which,
in many instances, so closely border
on each other, especially the two
former, that naturalists have fre-
quently hesitated, to which of
these kingdoms certain marine
productions, for instance, the po-
lypus, may Avith the greatest pro-
priety be referred.....See Vegeta-
ble and Mineral Kingdoms.
The circumstance alluded to is the
following :
1. All bodies which grow from
without, that is, derive their origin
and increase in such manner as to
approximate to themselves certain
foreign and inert particles, and are
incapable of motion, consequently
inanimate, are called minerals or
fossils.
2. Bodies having no aggregate
form, but groAving from within,
being proA-ided with certain tubes
or vessels adapted to the circulation
of fluids, which afford them nou-
rishment and promote their exten-
sion, may be said to enjoy a pas-
sive life, and are therefore termed
vtgetables, or plants.
3. Living creatures which like-
wise grow from within, and are en-
doAved not only with those A'essels,
but also Avith organs of sense, the
faculty of loco-motion, and the
power of distinguishing one external
object from another, yet do not en-
joy the advantages of reason, are
generally denominated animals.
Hence arise the three divisions
of natural bodies, consisting of the
Animal, Vegetable, and Mine-
ral Kingdoms.
Although naturalists, in general,
have included man in the first of
these kingdoms, yet the propriety
of this classification may justly be
doubted. He possesses, indeed,
organs and faculties in common
with the brute creation, yet no in-
stance has been discovered, w hich
evinces that the inferior animals
enjoy thai noble and most import-
ant of all the gifts of Providence,
" reason."
On account of this distinguish-
ing characteristic, we are irresisti-
bly induced to separate man from
the ape, the elephant, the lion, and
all irrational animals, over which
no other than the reasoning faculty
could confer upon us the exclusive
dominion. Trusting, therefore,
that naturalists will, without hesi-
tation, agree with us in the neces-
sity of rescuing the human race,
however at present depraved, from
the humiliating situation in which
it is placed among the inferior ani-
mals, Ave venture, with due defer-
ence to their judgment, to exclude
our species from the subsequent
division of the animal kingdom,
which consists of sixdistinctclasses.
I. Mamillary Animals are furnish-
ed with a heart of two ventricles
and two auricles ; have a red, Avarm
blood, breathe through lungs, pro-
duce living young ones, and suckle
them with their milk.
II. Birds likewise have a heart
of four cavities, red, Avarm blood,
respire through lungs, deposit eggs,
and are uniformly provided Avith
beaks and wings.
III. Amphibious Animals possess
a heart, but it has only one ven-
64 AN I
tricle and one auricle ; thie those which were former-'
ly said to be produced by magic.
Animation may be either dimi-
nished, or suspended without in-
juring or destroying the living prin-
ciple. The former eflcct may be
seen in those persons A^ho have
suffered ficiu long and close con-
finement in prisons, hospitals,
croAvded and heated assemblies, as
vch as in fevers, consumptions,
and ether chronic complaints. In
these cases, a proper and moderate
application of the necessary sti-
muli, such as air, exercbe, a
nourishing diet, he. will generally
accomplish, either its partial or
complete restoration. Of the lat-
ter, various instances have lately
happened: persons who were ac-
cidentally suffocated or droAvned,
have, by timely and proper means
(particularly those recommended
by that excellent institution, the
Royal Humane Society), been suc-
cessfully re-animated, when life it-
self seemed on the eve of depart-
ing.
Among those causes which prin-
cipally tend to preserve and increase
animation, are temperance, gentle
exercise, nourishing diet, wine,
moderate gratifications, and con-
stant activity, both corporeal and
mental;
Various methods have, at differ-
ent times, been recommended to
restore animation when suspended,
either from suffocation or drown-
ing. In Spain, they first lay the
body with its head downwards,
near a fire, till it begins to feel
warm, and eject water from the
trachea, or Avindpipe; they then
foment the Avhole breast, and seat
of the heart, with spirits of wine,
brandy, or bread dipped in strong
wines. By these means, if the
vital principle be not extinct, the
circulation of the blood is usually
restored....The French Academy
advise tobacco-smoke to be forci-
bly injected into the anus and
lungs, after which a vein to be
opened in the arm and foot: it is
asserted, that by this method, per-
sons Avho have lain many hours
under Avater, have been happily re-
suscitated.
In the Journal Historique sur lea
matieres du terns, for Dec. 1753,
a case is related by Dr. Du Mou-
lin, Avho succeeded in recovering a
young woman, after she had lain
for several hours under water. All
pulsation having ceased, he consi-
dered it as a desperate case, and
was induced to try a method he
had frequently observed to be suc-
cessful with flies and other insects,
which, when droAvned or apparently
dead, had been revived by half
burving them in ashes or salt. He
accordingly ordered a quantity of
dry pot-ashes to be strewed, about
68 AN I
ANI
three inches deep, on a bed: upon
this layer his patient Avas placed,
and another, about two inches in
depth Avas spread over her. The
head Avas covered with a cap con-
taining some of these ashes; and
a stocking filled with the same ma-
terial Avas placed round her throat.
Blankets were then laid on the
bed; and in half an hour her pulse
began to beat; after Avhich she
quickly recovered. If pot-ash can-
not be readily procured, dry salt
may be used as a substitute.
In Russia, the common people
are frequently deprived of sensa-
tion, by pestilential vapours arising
from the folloAving cause. Persons
of rank, in that country, have dou-
ble AvindoAvs to their houses in
winter, but those of the poorer
classes are only single. During
frosty Aveather, an incrustation is
formed on the inside of those win-
dows, from a condensation of the
breath, perspiration, &c. of a
number of persons living together
in the same room. This mephitic
crust is mixed with the noxious
fumes of candles, and of the OA^en
with which the chamber is heated.
When a thaw succeeds, and this
plate of ice is converted into water,
a deleterious principle is disen-
gaged, which produces effects si-
milar to those arising from the
fumes of charcoal. The method
of recovering persons affected by
this effluvia, is as follows: they
are immediately carried out of
doors, and placed on the snow,
Avith no other covering but a shirt
and linen drawers. Their temples,
and the region of the stomach are
then Avell rubbed Avith snow ; and
cold water and milk is poured
down their throats. The friction
is continued till the livid hue of
the skin disappears, and the surface
acquires its natural colour.
In cases of apparent death, from
droAvning, it is necessary to rub
the breast and temples for a consi-
derable time with salt, and all the
other parts with warm cloths.
Bladders filled Avith warm water,
or bricks heated and wrapped in
flannel, should be applied to the
soles of the feet, under the arm-
pits, and between the thighs. The
head should be covered with blan-
kets, to preserve the lungs from
too sudden an ingress of the air,
on the renewal of respiration.
When symptoms of returning ani-
mation appear, a few ounces of
blood may be taken from the arm.
Farther directions for the ma-
nagement of bodies in that unfor-
tunate situation, we propose to
communicate under the articles of
Droavning, Suspension by the
cord, Lightning, £cc.
As a proof of the success which
has attended the exertions of medi-
cal men in this country, who have
liberally co-operated with the be-
nevolent design of the Royal Hu-
mane Society, under the immedi-
ate patronage of our august Sove-
reign, we shall adjourn this sub-
ject, in the words of our wor-
thy friend, the philanthropic Dr.
Hawes, a gentleman whose inte-
grity and disinterested activity de-
serve equal commendation: " Ani-
mation (says this noble veteran),
has been given to thousands since
1774, the birth of our life-saving
labours."
ANISE,or Pimpinella, in botany,
is an annual, umbelliferous and
aromatic plant, of which there are
ten species.
The Common Burnet Saxifrage,
orthePimpinella Saxifraga, L. grows
ANI
AN I 69
on a dry, calcareous, gravelly soil,
blossoms in July and August; and
is described in Dr. Withering's
Arrangement of British Plants, p.
311, and Eng. Bot. T. 407.
Every part of this useful plant
has a fragrant smell and taste, and
is subservient to many beneficial
purposes.
The white root of the burnet-
saxifrage is of a very hot, pungent,
bitterish taste, which may be en-
tirely extracted in rectified spirits
of wine, and affords a medicine of
great efficacy in scorbutic and cu-
taneous disorders in general, but
especially for dropsical and asthma-
tic complaints, in which it has been
administered by the great Boer-
haave, with singular success. Al-
though he directs it to be taken on-
ly in a Avatery infusion, yet we
would prefer the tincture, as pos-
sessing in a superior degree the me-
dicinal virtues of the root. In short,
the physicians of Germany fre-
quently prescribe it in cases where
emollient, resolvent, detergent, diu-
retic, and stomachic remedies are
indicated, as well as for removing
tumors and obstructions in the
glands.
Frederic Hoffman asserts,
that this vegetable is an excellent
medicine for promoting the men-
ses ; while other writers recom-
mend it in all cases Avhere pituitous
humours are supposed to prevail,
such as catarrhal coughs, hoarse-
ness, and humid asthma, but
particularly in a symptomatic
sore throat, called the mucous
quinsy.
There is a variety of the burnet-
saxifrage growing av ild in Branden-
burgh, and denominated by Els-
holz, a Prussian botanist, the
Pimpinella coerulea or the blue
pimpinella; as it differs from the
former only, by yielding a blue
colour in rectified spirit, a similar
oil on distillation, and a fine blue
juice on expressing the fresh root.
For this reason, we have men-
tioned it, as it may probably afford
a proper substitute for indigo, in
remote places where that cannot
readily be obtained.
The young leaves and shoots of
this species are very palatable, and
are eaten as sallad : small bunches
of them tied together, and suspend-
ed in a cask of table-beer, or ale,
impart to it an agreeable aromatic
taste; and, it is affirmed, that they
likewise tend to correct tart and
spoiled wines, which, by this sim-
ple expedient, may be restored to
their former briskness.
As the herbs of this plant are
acknowledged to be a very Avhole-
some fodder for cows, to increase
their milk, and to preserve them
against epidemics, we presume to
recommend its culture to the far-
mer and grazier.
The Great Burnet-Saxifrage, or
the Pimpinella magna, L. delights
in shady places, on a calcareous
soil, also floAvers in July and
August; and is described by YY i-
thering, p. 313, and Eng. Bot.
T. 408.
It is stated to possess properties
similar to the former, though cat-
tle refuse to browze upon it, on
account of its hard stalks, Avhich
often attain the height of four feet.
The Dwarf I'urnet-Saxifrage, or
Pimpinella dioica, L. only grows on
hilly pastures and calcareous soils,
for instance; on St. Vincent's Rock,
near Bristol, and above Uphill, in
Somersetshire.
It bears flowers in May and June;
is described by Witetking, p.
313 ; and delineated in Gerard'*
Herbal, 1054. 3.
70 ANN
ANN
Its properties are not sufficiently
ascertained ; but being a dAvarfish
plant, the two preceding species in
every respect deserve the prefer-
ence.
ANNEALING, by artificers call-
ed nealing, is a part of the process
of making, or finishing, glass ; and
consists in placing bottles and other
vessels, Avhile hot, in a kind of oven
or furnace, where they are suffered
gradually to cool.
The difference between unan-
nealed, and annealed glass, is very
remarkable. When a glass vessel
that has not undergone this process,
is broken, it often flies into a small
powder with a violence apparent-
ly disproportionate to the stroke
which it received. In general, it
is in greater danger of being broken
from a very shgnt blow, than from
a more considerable one. Such a
vessels will often resist the effects of
a pistol bullet dropt into it, from
the height of two or three feet, yet
a grain of sand falling into it, will
break, it into small fragments. This
sometimes takes place immediately
on dropping the sand into it, but
the vessel will frequently remain
apparently sound, for several mi-
nutes after ; when, .without the
least touch, it will suddenly fly to
pieces. If the glass be very thin,
this effect does not take place ;
and, on the contrary, it seems to
possess all the properties of such as
are annealed.
Glass isoneof those bodies Avhich
increase in bulk, on passing from a
fluid to a solid state. When it is
allowed to crystalize regularly,
the particles are so arranged, that
it has a fibrous texture ; but, when
a mass of melted glass is suddenly
exposed to a cold temperature, the
surface crystalizes, and forms a
firm shell round the interior fluid
parts, by Avhich they become solid,
and are prevented from expanding.
By the process of annealing, the
glass is preserved for some time in
a state approaching to fluidity ; the
heat increases the bulk of the crys-
talized part, and renders it so soft,
that the internal fibres have an op-
portunity of expanding and forming
a regular crystallization.
A similar process is now used for
rendering kettles, and other ves-
sels of cast iron, less brittle ; Avhich
admits of the same explanation as
that above stated. The greater
number of metals diminish in bulk
when they pass from a fluid to a
solid state. Iron, on the contrary,
expands.
ANNUITY implies a sum of
money payable yearly, half-yearly,
or quarterly, to continue for a cer-
tain number of years, for life, or
for ever.
An annuity is called an arrear,
when it continues unpaid after it
becomes due ; and is said to be in
reAersion, Avhen the purchaser,
upon paying the price, does not
immediately enter upon possession:
the annuity not commencing till
some time after.
The interest upon annuities may
be computed either in the simple
or compound manner. But the
latter, being most equitable, is ge-
nerally preferred.
In the first class, viz. in those
which extend for a limited period,
the principal considerations are, the
annuity, rate, and time being given,
to find the amount, or sum of
yearly payments, and interest.
These are readily ascertained, by
a series of algebraical calculations.
In freehold estates, the principal
circumstances to be attended to, are:
1. The annuity or yearly rent.
2. The price, or present value; and,
ANN
ANN 71
S. The rate of interest.
The value of life-annuities is de-
termined by comparative observa-
tions and calculations derived from
the bills of mortality. Several
computations have been made for
this purpose ; the most esteemed
of which are those by Dr. Hal-
ley, Mr. Simpson, and M. De
Moivre.
Breslaw, the capital of Silesia,
being a central place, and not much
crowded, was fixed upon by Dr.
Halley, who had recourse to the
bills of mortality, when he com-
posed his table. He selected 1000
persons, all born in one year, and
observed, how many of these re-
mained alive every year from their
birth, to the extinction of the last;
and, consequently, ascertained the
number which died in each year,
as follows:
Persons Persons
Age. living. Age. living.
1 1000 24 573
, 2 855 25 567
3 798 26 560
4 760 27 553
5 732 28 546
6 710 29 539
7 692 30 531
8 680 31 523
9 670 32 515
10 661 33 507
11 653 34 499
12 646 35 490
13 640 36 481
14 634 37 472
15 628 38 463
16 622 39 454
17 616 40 445
18 610 41 436
19 604 42 427
20 598 43 417
21 592 44 407
22 586 45 397
23 579 46 387
Age. Persons liA-ing. Age. Persons living.
47 377 70 142
48 367 71 131
49 357 72 120
50 346 73 109
51 335 74 98
52 324 75 88
53 313 76 78
54 302 77 68
55 292 78 1 58
56 282 79 . 49
57 272 80 41
58 262 81 34
59 252 82 28
60 242 83 23
61 232 84 20
62 222 85 15
63 212 86 11
64 202 87 8
65 192 88 5
66 182 89 o o
67 172 90 1
68 162 91 0
69 | 152 _
As there is allowed to be a
greater disparity between births
and burials in the city of London,
than in any other place, Mr. Simp-
son selects 1280 persons, all born
in the same year, and records the
number remaining alive each year,
till none be left, in order to form a
table particularly suited to this po-
pulous city.
The following is Mr. Simpson's
table on the bills of mortality, at
London:
Age. Persons living. Age. Persons living.
0 1280 5 580
1 870 6 564
2 700 7 551
3 635 8 541
4 600 9 532
72 ANN
ANN
Age. Persons living. Age. Persons living.
10 524 53 180
11 517 54 172
12 510 55 165
13 504 56 158
14 493 57 151
15 492 58 144
16 486 59 137
17 480 60 130
18 474 61 123
19 468 62 117
20 462 63 111
21 455 64 105
22 448 65 '99
23 441 66 93
24 434 67 87
25 426 68 81
26 418 69 75
27 410 70 69
28 402 71 64
29 394 72 59
30 385 73 54
31 376 74 49
32 367 75 45
33 358 76 41
34 349 77 38
35 340 78 35
36 331 79 32
37 322 80 29
38 313 81 26
39 304 82 23
40 294 83 20
41 284 84 17
42 274 85 14
43 264 86 12
44 255 87 10
45 246 88 8
46 237 89 6
47 228 90 5
48 220 91 4
49 212 92 3
50 204 93 2
51 196 94 1
52 188 95 0
But these tables, however per-
fect they may be in themselves,
must be considered only as proba-
ble conjectures, founded on the
usual period of human life, which
is estimated as follows :
1. The probability that a person
of a given age may live a certain
number of years, is measured by
the proportion which the number
of persons living at the proposed
age bears to the difference between
the said number, and that of per-
sons existing at the given ages.
Thus, if it be required to know
what chance a person 40 years of
age may have to live seven years
longer, the reader should refer to
Dr. Halley's table, and from 445',
the number of persons living at 40
years of age, subtract the number of
persons living at 47 years of age, and
the remainder, being 68, will be the
number of those who have died dur-
ing those seven years. The proba-
bility, that the person in question
will live these seven years, is in the
proportion of 377 to 68, or nearly as
5i to 1. By Mr. Simpson's table,
the chance is somewhat less than
that of 4 to 1.
If it be desirable to ascertain the
year, Avhich a person of a given
age has an equal chance of attain-
ing, the inquirer ought to find half
the number of persons living at
that given age, in the tables ; and
the year required will appear in the
column of ages.
The premium of insurance upon
lives may also, in some degree, be
regulated by these tables, as follows:
The chance which a person of
25 years has to live another year,
is, by Dr. Halley's table, as 80
to 1 ; but the chance that a person
of 50 years has to live a year long-
er, is only 30 to 1 ; and conse-
quently, the premium for insuring
the former ought to be the pre-
mium for insuring the latter for
one year, as 30 to 80, or as 3 to 8.
A NO
Life-annuities are commonly
bought or sold at a certain number
of years' purchase. The value of
an annuity of one pound for an age
of 50 years, at 3 per cent, interest,
is about 121. 10s. or twelve and a
half years' purchase.
Among those w ho have written
on this subject, none is more de-
servedly celebrated than Dr. Price,
the author of Observations on Re-
versionary Payments, Annuities,
Sec. published in 1771 ; and his
curious remarks on this subject,
inserted in the LXVth vol. of the
Philos. Transactions, for 1775, p.
424, are wellAVorthy of perusal and
attention.
In our opinion, life annuities,
when granted by individuals Avhose
property is already involved, or
who by such an expedient injure
the just expectations of their rela-
tives, ought not to be connived at
in a Avell-regulated state....Viewed
in a commercial light, this species
of gambling, in a certain degree,
resembles the furious rage for the
hazard or pharo-table ; to which
all those adventurers and avaricious
money-lenders generally resort,
who are anxious to amass large
sums of money, which, by mo-
derate legal interest, could not*be
realized.
ANODYNE, is a term applied
to medicines Avhich have a tendency
to assuage pain. This desirable
purpose may be attained in three
different Avays : 1. By paregorics,
or such remedies as are calculated
to ease pain; 2. My soporifics, Avhich
relieve the patient by causing arti-
ficial sleep ; and 3. By narcotics, or
such as stupify, by their action on
the nervous system.
This division, though sanctioned
by general authority, is very im-
perfect; and we shall attempt to
VOL. I.
AN O 73
explain the subject in a manner,
perhaps, more consonant vrith just
principles of animal economy.."not
from the result, but from the cause
by Avhich a proper application of
anodynes induces certain changes
in the human body. In order to
giAre a distinct view of the subject,
we shall arrange them under three
classes ; namely,
I. Such remedies as tend either
to remove the offending cause, or
prevent the part affected from re-
ceiving a sensible and painful im-
pression, viz. in consequence of the "
amputation of a limb; the draw-
ing of a tooth ; the burning of
parts either by the cautery, or by
means of a red-hot iron ; the ap-
plication of the tourniquet, a tight
ligature, compresses, Sec. To this
class also belong opiates, and other
stupify ing medicines, administered
for the suspension of pain ; but
which may be justly termed, " poi-
sons of the sensitive faculty." How-
ever liberally others may explain
the effects of opium on the organs
of the mind, Ave cannot avoid ob-
seiwng, that its operation on the
sensorium communeis ahvays attend-
ed with violence, and that so poAV-
erful a medicine ought not to be in-
trusted to the hands of those Avho
are but little acquainted Avith its
nature. Nay, we are of opinion,
that even medical men cannot be
too carefui in its exhibition ; but far
from wishing to deprecate the use
of this invaluable drug, which
cannot, in the present state of me-
dical science, be excluded from the
list of medicinal substances, we shall
here venture to suggest a few ideas
respecting the propriety, and great-
er safety, of its external use.
In very painful wounds, excruci-.
ating rheumatism, contractions,
and parah tic affections arising from
L
74 A N O
ANO
frecjuent spasms and strictures, the
external use of opium is both safe
and beneficial, especially if com-
bined Avith antispasmodic and emol-
lient remedies, such as camphor,
lint-seed oil, marsh-malloAvs, Sec.
These alone are frequently suffi-
cient to relieve distressing pain,
Avithout the assistance of anodynes
properly so called; as the latter
generally determine the circulation
of blood towards the head, and oc-
casion giddiness, stupor, and a re-
laxation of the nerves. With the
above additions, hoAvever, opium
may be advantageously employed
in the form of baths, fomentations,
ointments, cataplasms, and parti-
cularly in clysters.....[See the arti-
cle Abdomen, o. 5. laudanum.']
When the pain is in the interior
organs, and its seat cannot be pre-
cisely ascertained, or when it arises
from causes Avhich neither the pa-
tient nor physician can discover,
we would prefer the following ano-
dyne liniment, a timely application
of which has frequently procured
immediate relief: take one ounce
of the dried leaves of the common
henbane, or four ounces of the
green plant, and half a pint of
sweet olive oil, digest them near a
fire for a few days, then express
the leaves through a coarse piece
of linen, filter the decoction, and
preserve it in a vessel closely
stopped. This preparation, if ap-
plied warm, or rubbed into painful
parts, has, according to cur oavii
experience, proved of singular ef-
ficacy.
II. Those remedies which are
calculated to change, suppress, or
evacuate the material cause of pain,
and are therefore the most rational,
though, unfortunately, not always
Avithin the reach of the medical
practitionet:. Thus, if the intes-
tinal canal be obstructed, or the
stomach clogged with acrid matter
that cannot fail to produce violent 4t
coucs, and other disorders, the
principal aim Avill'be to evacuate it
by purgatives, or emetics, and
thereby not only cure the com-
plaint, but, at the same time, save
the patient's life, Avhich, by means
of opiates, given either by the
mouth or clyster, without such
previous e\*acuations, would be ex-
posed to imminent danger. Hence
Ave are induced to express our opi-
nion decidedly in favour of those
Avho, from a conviction of the great
importance of the trust reposed in
them, seriously hesitate to employ
anodynes, so long as there is a pos-
sibility of dispensing Avith such
precarious remedies. But, in cases
where the morbid matter cannot be
expelled, a skilful practitioner will
endeavour, at least, to deprive it of
its activity, or to neutralize it, while
in the human body. In this man-
ner, pains arising from acrimonious
humours, are reiieved by drinking
bland, diluent, and saccharine
liquors; from intestinal worms
(though resisting every vermifuge),
by remedies which destrov them
before they are carried off by the
feces ; from a pleurisy, by such
means as resolve the stagnant
fluids, and promote their circula-
tion through the constricted capil-
lary vessels ; from stones in the
bladder, if they be too large for
expulsion, by the use of lime-
water, which tends to bhmt their
edges, he. These illustrations,
however, might be acccn.-pa.nied
with a variety of practical hints and
precautions, if we did . not intend
to reserve such observations, till
we have occasion to treat of the
different acute and ptinful diseases,
under then respective heads.
AN O
ANO
75
Til. The last class of anodynes
comprehends all those which, by
exciting impressions and represent-
ations of a different kind, either
counteract or subdue the pain.
These are generally resorted to,
when neither the affected organs
can be locally relieved, the mate-
rial cause removed, nor the senses
stupified by narcotics. Hence phy-
sicians are frequently obliged to
employ such expedients as may
suppress the partial affection, by
exciting feelings of a different na-
ture, and perhaps to a more intense
degree than those occasioned by
the original complaint. These re-
medies, however, require equal in-
genuity and nrecaution. Thus, for
instance, violent head-ach, tooth-
ach, pains cl the breast, he. may
be alleviated by blisters, or cata-
plasms made cf onions, garlic,
mustard-seed web vinegar, horse-
radish, and similar stimulants ;
rheumatic and gouty affections, hy
early friction with flannel, which
for many reasons, is jfreferable to a
flesh-brush. All these applications,
nevertheless, ought to be maturely
considered, previous to their use,
Avith respect to the place, strength,
and duration, of trie stimulus.
To this class may also be referr-
ed, diversions of the mind ; incli-
nations and passions artificially ex-
cited, in order to direct the atten-
tion of the patient to a different ob-
ject : sv.ch expedients are frequent-
ly of excellent service, especially
in chronic diseases, and to invet-
erate hypochondriacs. In a similar
manner, terror and anger some-
times instantaneously suppress the
painful sensations of gouty and
rheumatic patients. Thus, the
pleasures of conversation, a coun-
try-life, theatres, music, dancing,
hunting, and similar amusements,
are often more effectual anodynes
than wine, brandy, or laudanum :
the former agreeably cozen and
delude the mind ; the latter al-
ways, sooner or later, aggravate
the complaint.
Having given this concise view
of the subject, we shah acid only
a few general observations relative
to the manner of determining,
whether, and when a patient may
with safety resort to anodynes ; be-
cause, in this place, Ave cannot en-
ter into particulars, which it Avould
become necessary to repeat, when
treating of "^^se substances them-
selves.
If a person be suddenly seized
with violent pains, the cause or
source of which cannot be clearly
ascertained, it will be of the first
consequence to inquire, whether
the patient be at the same time
subject to febrile heat,- accompa-
nied by an unusual determination
of blood tOAvards the head, and a
strong, full pulse. In such case,
if the pain should not abate on the
friction of the parts afiected, or on
plunging the legs in warm water, it
would be proper to take a few
ounces of blood from the arm or
foot. In many instances of acute
pair, however, the pulse is con-
siderably depressed, and the circu-
lation of the fluids in general so
languid, that the extremities ap-
pear rather pale and cold : yet,
under these circumstances also, it
may frequently become necessary
to bleed the patient without delay,
in order to restore an uniform
action of the vessels ; a point to be
determined by the judicious practi-
tioner.
From whatever cause an internal
or deep-seated pain may arise, it
wiil always be useful to allow the
patient considerable portions of di-
76 ANO
luent drink, such as luke-warm
water mixed with a fourth part
of milk, or decoctions of barley,
blanched oats, rice, Sec. to admi-
nister emollient clysters, consisting
of six parts of warm water, two of
oil, and one of soft sugar; to wrap the
suffering part in soft flannel, or, if
it can bear the application of heat,
to cover the whole Avith a common
poultice, made of the crumb of
bread boiled in milk, Avith the ad-
dition of a little sweet oil; to place
the patient, if his peculiar situation
and circumstances admit of this
practice, in a tepid bath, of a tem-
perature not exceeding 98° of Fah-
renheit; and, lastly, if none of
these expedients should afford the
desired relief, to resort to opium, or
laudanum, as the last resource : one
grain of the former, or twenty
drops of the latter, Avith a proper
quantity of diluent beverage, is
generally a sufficient dose, to per-
sons not accustomed to its use. But
let us here observe, that even in
very desperate paroxysms of pain,
there is no necessity of giving an
indiscriminate preference toopium,
till every other method has been
previously tried: thus, for instance,
the most excruciating head and
tooth-ach, have often been sudden-
ly dispelled, by applying horse-rad-
ish in fresh shavings, or bruised
garlick, between two fine pieces of
muslin, to the bend of both arms,
or the hams.
Another simple remedy, of equal
efficacy, in periodical head-achs,
especially in the morning, is a thin
piece of fresh lemon-peel freed
from the soft fibrous part, and plac-
ed on each of the temples, before
the volatile oil be evaporated.....
These external applications are
perfectly safe; for, as their action
is confined to the part which they
ANO
stimulate, they occasion a degree ,
of irritation different from the ori-
ginalcomplaint, and thus produce a
cessation of pain. In the last-men-
tioned case, we Avould also recom-
mend the timely application of a
feAV leeches, either to the temples,
or rather to the lateral part of the
neck, behind the ears, Avhere the
effect is almost instantaneous.
Lastly, opium may be called an
almost divine remedy, when judi-
ciously administered, in gan-
grenes, after painful amputations,
fractures of bones, and, in short,
every operation attended with
spasms and great prostration of
strength; but especially in diseases
of the eyes, such as the cataract,
or gutta serena.
[The apprehensions expressed
by Dr. Willich, with respect to
the bad effects of anodynes are in
a great measure groundless; and
the substitutes he recommends,
will do more injury than the opium,
by their inefficacy in relieving the
system, fromu/iolent pain, Avhich an
anodyne might soon dispel. Thus
in very violent colics it is always
more advisable to take an anodyne,
when first seized, and afterAvards
to purge, and bleed, if necessary....
(See Colic) In the head-ach also,
commonly termed nervous, but
which most frequently is caused
by affections of the stomach, 15,
20, or 30, drops of laudanum, taken
on the first attack, will nine times
out of ten, remove the disease,
Avhich, Avith any, substitute, might
be protracted for two'or three days;
a cup of coffee, witiiout sugar
will relieve the sickness and unplea-
sant sensations which commonly
follow the use of opium. It must
be acknoAvledged, hoAvever, that
cases often occur where anodynes
cannot be safely given internally,
ANO
ANT 77
in consequence of the derangement
they create in the system; in such
cases, opium may be safely appli-
ed externally, in the form of lauda-
num, with great advantage ; or the
following prescription may be
used:
Take opium, in fine powder,
half a drachm.
Camphor, four grains.
Hog's fat, four scruples.
Olive-oil, one drachm....Mix.
This mixture may b% rubbed on
the inside of the legs and thighs,
as often as the symptoms require.
In the course of this work, the va-
rious cases in which anodynes may
be given with safety, shall be point-
ed out.]
ANOTTA, is an elegant red
colouring substance, prepared from
the pellicles, or pulp, Avhich sur-
round the seeds of the Arnotto
Tree, or Bixa, L. a native of South
America.
According to Labat, the Indians
prepare an anotta far superior to
that imported into Britain : it is of
a bright, glossy, red colour, little in-
ferior to Car mink. For this pur-
pose, instead of steeping and fer-
menting the seeds in Avater, they
rub them with the hands, previ-
ously immersed in oil, till the pel-
licles are separated, and reduced
to a clear paste ; which is then
scraped off Avith a knife, and ex-
posed on a clean leaf in the shade,
Avhere it is gradually dried.
Anotta is chiefly used for im-
parting to wool or silk a deep,
though not permanent, orange
hue. Considerable quantities of
this dyeing drug are likeAvise em-
ployed in the colouring of Cheese ;
and also as an ingredient in var-
nishes, for communicating an
orange shade to the simple yellows.
From the wax or pulp, in which
the seeds of the arnotto-tree are in-
cloaed, the Indians and Spaniards
prepare a cool, agreeably rich cor-
dial, which they mix with their
chocolate, for improving its fla-
vour, and heightening its colour1.
The roots possess nearly similar
properties, but operate more pow-
erfully by the urinary passages....
they are employed by the natives
in broths, and answer all the pur-
poses of the pulp, though in a
weaker degree.
ANT, or Formica, in zoology,
is a genus of insects belonging to
the sixth class of the animal king-
dom. The characters of this insect
are, that there is a small scale be-
tween the breast and belly ; and
the joint is so deep, that the animal
appears as if it Avere almost cut
through the body. The females
and the neuters, or Avorking ants,
Avhich have no sexual characteris-
tics, are furnished Avith a secret
sting; and both the males and fe-
males have Avings, but the neuters
have none. There are eighteen
species, which are in general dis-
tinguished by their colours.
These insects cohabit in nume-
rous parties, and maintain a sort
of republic, not unlike that of the
bees. Their nests are in the form
of an oblong square, and contain
paths which lead to different ma-
gazines. Their method of con-
structing these habitations is truly
wonderful. Some of the ants are
employed in making the ground
firm, by mixing it with a kind of
glue, to prevent its crumbling, and
falling upon th'em: others may be
seen gathering several twigs, which
they use for rafters, by placing them
over the paths to support the co-
vering : they lay others across, and
78 ANT
npon tbese, rushes, Aveeds, and
dried grass, which they form into
a double declivity, and thus conduct
the water from their magazine.
For provisions they secure every
thing which, to them, is eatable,
and Ave may often observe one
loaded with a dead fly, sometimes
several together Avith the carcase of
a may-bug, or other large insect;
and, if they cannot transport it,
they consume par': of it upon the
spot, at least so much as may re-
duce it to a hulk adequate to their
strength. They lay up hoards of
wheat and other corn: and, for
fear it should sprout from the
moisture of their subterraneous
cells, they gnaAV off the end Avhich
would produce the blade. It is re-
markable, that if one ant meets
another Avhich is loaded, it ahvays
gives way, or will help it, if it
be over-burthened. Indeed, the
strength of this little animal is
astonishing, as one of then* will
frequently drag a burthen many
times heavier than itself 1
On depriving a mouse or other
little animal of its skin, and placing
it on an ant-hill, in a little box,
perforated in several parts, so as to
admit a free passage for the ants, it
will be found, in a feAV days, con-
verted into the most perfect skele-
ton.
The ant deposits her eggs in the
manner of the common flies, and
from these eggs are hatched the
larva, a sort of small maggots, or
worms Avithout legs; which, after a
short time, change into large white
aurelia, or chrysalids, usually call-
ed ant's eggs.
Although ants are considered as
injurious to husbandry, by making
their hills, and impairing the grass
upon pasture land, yet they are
unjustly reproached with damaging
ANT
fruit-trees. In Switzerland, they *
are made subservient to the de-
struction of caterpillars, by hang- v*£
ing a pouch filled with ants upon '#£
a tree, whence they are suffered */V
to make their escape, thi^u^L an
aperture, and over-run all its
branches, Avithout being able to
reach the ground- as the trunk has
been previously smeared wi>h wet
clay, or soft pi'xh, in consequence
of which, impelled by hunger, they
fall upon the caterpillars, and de-
vour them.
Ants have also been successfully
used in medicine. By distillation,
they afford an acid liquor,, which,
when mixed with brandy, is by
many considered as a strengthen-
ing nervous cordial; they have also
been added to Avarm baths, when
used for the gout and sprained
limbs.
We shall now proceed to state
several methods of destroying this
numerous insect. Themos' simple
of these is, to pour boiling water
into the apertures of their hillocks.
By mixing soot with cold water,
and pouring it at the roots of trees
infested by them, they will speedily
be destroyed. Besides that already
mentioned, there is another simple
expedient, to prevent them from
descending a tree which they visit.
Nothing farther is required than to
mark with a piece of common chalk
a circle round its trunk, about two
feet from the ground, and about an
inch or two in breadth : as soon as
the ants arrive at this ring, not one
will attempt to cross it. This cu-
rious experiment, hoAvever, should
be performed in dry Aveather, and
the ring must be renewed, when
partly washed off by rain.
The small garden-ants,which are
supposed to devour the young shoots
of fruit-trees, may be destroyed,
ANT
ANT 79
by placing among them a number
of large ants, which are commonly
found in the Avoods ; as there pre-
vails between these two species ot
insects so strong an antipathy, that
the larger sort attack the smaller,
and never relinquish the combat till
they have extirpated, or driven
their antagonists from the neigh-
bourhood.
Mr. Clutterbuck, jun. of
Watford, washed the walls of his
hot-house with a painter's brush,
dipped i.i a solution made of four
ounces of sublimate, in two gallons
of water; and since that application,
neither the red spider, against
Avhich this remedy Avas employed,
nor ants have made their appear-
ance.
One of the most effectual me-
thods of dispersing these trouble-
some insects from plantations and
gardens, we believe, is that men-
tioned in the Encyclopadia Britan-
nica ; on the authority of which
we shall communicate it to our
readers : " A small quantity of hu-
man feces, when placed in their
hills, Avill not only destroy great
numbers, but expel the rest from
their habitations."
A new method of exterminating
these insects, is recommended by
Mr. 1 orsyth ; with a view to pre-
vent them traversing walls, and in-
juring fruit. I Le directs a hole to
be drilled in the ground, with a
sharp-pointed Avooden stake, close
to the side of the wall, and at such
depth as the soil will permit. In
consequence of the earth being stir-
red, the insects will be induced to
move about: the sides of the hole
are then to be made smooth, so
that the ants, on approaching the
edge of the orifice may fall in, and
be unable to climb upwards. When
a considerable number is collected
at the bottom, water may be poured
on them, and thus thousands may
be drowned. Great numbers may
likev/ise be killed Ly strewing a
mixture of quick lime and soot,
along such pi teee- as are much fre-
quented by ants : they may further
be banished from trees by scatter-
ing a little pulverised Staves-acre
on the ground, around their stems:
but, where it is practicable, it is
best to open the nest of these
insects, and throw in them a piece
of quick lime Avith a sufficient
quantity of Avater for slacking it;
when the heat, together with the
suffocating air thus evolved, will
certainly destroy them.
Antelope. See Deer.
Anthemis. See Chamomile.
Anthcricum. See Spiderwort.
ANT-HILLS are so well known,
that they require no additional de-
scription to that given under the
article ANT....They are very inju-
rious to dry pastures, not only by
wasting the extent of soil which
they cover, but by impeding the
scythe at the time of mowing, and
yielding a poor food, pernicious to
cattle. The manner of reducing
them, simply consists in cutting
them into four parts, from the top,
and then digging deep enough to
take out the cere beloAV, so that
when the tdrf is replaced, it may
be somewhat lower than the level
of the rest of the land: thus the
place will be more wet, and the
ants prevented from returning to
their former situation. The earth
taken out should be scattered, or
removed to a considerable distance,
lest they might collect it, and soon
form another hill. This useful kind
of work ought to be performed in
winter; for if, at that season, the
places be left open, the frost and
succeeding rains will destroy those
80 A N T
ants which are in the lower part of
their habitation. In Hertfordshire
and Somersetshire, a particular
kind of spade is used for this pur-
pose ; its blade is very sharp, and
so formed, that the Avhole edge
describes about three-fourths of a
circle.
St. Anthony's Fire. See Ery-
sipelas, or Rosk.
[ANTHRAX, or Carbuncle....A
large inflamed painful tumour ; it
commonly seizes the backs of old
people. Several cases of this com-
plaint have occurred in Philadel-
phia Avithin a feAV years past. I
have seen a dreadful case in Avhich
the muscles of the back Avere as
completely laid bare, as if dissected
by a surgeon's hand. It was cured
by the late eminent Dr. J. Jones
of this city, by emollient poul-
tices frequently renewed, bark,
wine, and generous diet duly regu-
lated, and opium : and by removing
the mortified edges when their se-
paration from the living parts did
not go on fast enough, or Avhen the
edges of the sore were left Avith
large flabby irregular lips which
gave room for matter to lodge and
preA'ented a reunion. The dis-
charge of matter Avas very great, to
prevent the smell of Avhich a large
cloth dipped in brandy Avas put over
the dressings, and frequently re-
newed. See another case described
by Dr. Jones in the transactions of
the College of Physicians of Phila-
delphia.
As a violent inflammation is al-
ways the first symptom, might not
the application of tAventy or thirty
leeches to the part, prevent the pro-
gress of the disease ? They might
be renewed if 'necessary.]
Anthoxanthum odoratum, L. See
Sweet-scented Spring-grass.
ANT
Anthyllis vulneraria, L. See
Kidney-vetch. *f!fl
ANTIDOTES, are medicines-Sl^
which prevent or cure the effects of''■*%&
deleterious substances, either taken pjfo:
into the stomach, or externally ap- :'
plied to the human body.
Of those poisons Avhich general-
ly prove mortal, when SAvalloAved,
the principal are, arsenic, corrosive
sublimate, glass of antimony, ver-
digrease, and lead. Mineral poi-
sons apparently attack the solid
parts of the stomach; and, by
eroding its substance, occasion
death. Antimonials rather injure
the nerves, and destroy by produc-
ing convulsions. Most vegetable
poisons seem to operate in this
manner; but fatal accidents more
frequently happen from the former.
In the'year 1777, M. Navier
advised large quantities of milk to
be administered to persons who had
SAvallowed arsenic ; a metal, the
virulence of Avhich is effectually
counteracted by this liquid, as it
allays the irritation of the viscera,
and prevents the inflammation of
the intestines. The patient is af-
terwards directed to take a drachm
of the liver of sulphur, in a pint of
Avarm Avater; but when this can-
not be procured, he may substitute
a gently alkaline lixivium, or soap-
water, a solution of iron in vinegar,
or any other acid, or even a por-
tion of ink, if nothing else can be
readily procured. The cure may
be completed by the constant use
of milk and Avarm sulphureous wa-
ters....See Arsenic
The remedies most suited to ob-
viate the effects of corrosive subli-
mate, are different preparations of
the liver of sulphur, which decom-
poses or resolves the mercurial salt;
and, by the addition of the alkali
ANT
ANT 81
to the acid, forms an inoffensive
neutral salt. Acids, therefore, even
of the mildest kind, are fatal, if ap-
plied to counteract this poison, as
they render it more active: thus,
even lemonade, or treacle, are per-
nicious, as they contribute to in-
crease pain and danger. Common
salt dissolved in water, readily pre-
cipitates the mercury, and thereby
greatly abates its virulence. This
article being ahvays ready, it ought
to be resorted to preferably to any
other : especially as, Avhen taken in
a large quantity, it operates as an
emetic, or carries off the mercury
by stool.
Volatile and fixed alkaline salts
and spirits, also precipitate mer-
cury, such as spirits of hartshorn,
or sal ammoniac, salt of tartar,
wormAvood, 8cc. but, as these can
seldom be obtained on an emer-
gency, the following articles may
be substituted, viz. pot-ashes dis-
solved in warm or cold water, but
the lixivium should not be too
strong. When pot-ashes are not
at hand, warm water may be strain-
ed through ashes of bean-stalks,
broom, straw, or any other vege-
table that can be most readily burn-
ed. White or black soap should be
injected by way of clyster, and like-
wise dissolved in all the Avater that
is drunk.
Those poisons which may be
called culinary, are perhaps the
most destructive ; because they are
generally the least suspected. No
vessels, therefore, which contain
copper in their composition, should
be used in cookery, Sec. In cases
where the poison of verdigrease
has been recently swallowed, eme-
tics should first be given, and af-
tei-Avards cold water gently alkalis-
ed, ought to be drunk in abund-
ance.
vol.. I.
Though lead may not be consi-
dered as corrosive poison, its ef-
fects are nevertheless deleterious,
and may be corrected by the re*
medies already suggested, namely,
by drinking large quantities of aci-
dulated liquors, or solutions of the
liver of sulphur, and completing
the cure by gentle laxatives; but,
in the commencement of the com-
plaint, drastic purgatives should be
carefully avoided.
The poisonous effects of mineral
acids may be counteracted by the
administration of calcined magne-
sia. M. Desgranges relieved a
soldier in the agonies of death, Avho
had swalloAved a glass of the sul-
phuric acid, or oil of vitriol, by
prescribing the folloAving antidote,
viz. a dram and a half of the car-
bonate of magnesia (magnesia usta
aerata,) dissolved in a tea-cupful
of pure water. This dose pro-'
duced excessive vomiting. He re-
peated the magnesia in the quanti-
ty of half a dram every half hour,
giving at intervals a solution of
gum-arabic and sugar till the cure
was accomplished.
To obviate the ill effects of
opium, emetics should be given as
speedily as possible. If the first
symptoms only appear, Avhich are
the same as those of intoxication,
the folloAving emetic Avill be of ser-
vice, viz. Simple spearmint Avater
and oxymel of squills, of each one
ounce, and half a scruple of ipeca-
cuanha : frequent draughts of Ava-
ter-gruel should be given, to assist
the operation. If the poison has
been SAvallowed in a liquid state,
Avhich may be ascertained from the
smell of the first discharge, four or
five vomitings may be sufficient;
but if in a solid form, two or three
more must be procured, by giving
fresh doses. Should the symptoms
M
82
A N T
AN T
continue violent, it will be neces-
sary to increase the quantity of the
medicines, in proportion to the ur-
gency of the case, and the strength
of the patient. The principal ob-
ject to be kept in vieAV, according
to Dr. Seaman, of New-York, is,
to produce such a degree of irrita-
tion, as may counteract the narcotic
effects of this deleterious drug....
Hence it is very useful to stimulate
the nostrils with spirits of hartshorn,
and to apply friction with salt over
the Avhole body. [The Editor has
known copious bleeding save a per-
son, who was labouring under the
effects of a very large dose of laud-
anum.]
Lemon juice, a solution of white
vitriol, and other acid substances,
have long been considered as effec-
tual antidotes against opium ; but
they do not afford sufficient secu-
rity.
As we seriously advise all per-
sons in this unfortunate situation,
immediately to avail themseh'es of
medical assistance, it would be
needless to expatiate farther on the
subject: we shall only observe,
that there is a remedy at once sim-
ple and effectual for all kinds of
poisons, to be found near every cot-
tage, as Avell as in the palaces of
the great. This is pure Avater,
which, when taken at an early pe-
riod, and in sufficient quantity, has
the beneficial tendency of diluting
and neutralizing most of the poi-
sons introduced into the stomach.
With respect to those vege-
table substances Avhich sometimes,
though rarely, requireantidotes, we
shall in this place mention the fol-
lowing : 1. Camphor; 2. ylrnica,
or German Leopard's bane; 3.
Coccului Indian, or India berry ;
4. Gamboge; 5. Datura stramo-
nium, or Thorn-apple; 6. Vera-
trum album, or White Hellebore ;
and 7. Mezereum, or Spurg Olive.
Against the violent operation of
these medicinal drugs, Professor
Hufeland, of Jena, at present
physician to the King of Prussia,
has from experience found, that
the first is most effectually coun-
teracted by taking internally pro-
portionate doses of opium; the se-
cond, by the copious use of vinegar;
the third, by moderate portions of
camphor; the fourth by swallow-
ing alkaline solutions in water; the
fifth, by either vinegar, or the acid
of lemons; the sixth, by strong
decoctions of coffee; and the seventh
by camphor.
There are, however, many other
vegetable, animal, and mineral sub-
stances, sometimes taken by mis-
take, or administered from malig-
nant motives, and the fatal effects
of which may be obviated by a
timely use of their respective anti-
dotes....In order to conclude this
article, Avithin its due limits, we are
obliged to refer the reader to the
following heads, where he will find
each subject discussed as it occurs
in the order of the alphabet, viz.
Balsamine Seeds, Cassava, Co-
loquintida, Water-Crowfoot,
Wild Cucumber, BfardedDar-
nel,Euphorbium,Spanish Flies,
Foxglove, Glass,Gypsum, Hel-
lebore, Hemlock, Henbane,
Lead, Leadwort, Lime, Lob-
ster s,PutridMe at, Metallic,
Pointed Substances, Muscles,
Deadly Nightshade, Nux vomi-
ca, Oysters, Meadow Saffron,
Saltpetre, Scammony, Sow-
bread, Stavesacre, Wolf's-
bane, and Poisons in general.
ANTIMONY is a heavy, brittle
semi-metal, composed of long
bright streaks, resembling needles,
of a dark lead colour, and without
ANT
taste or smell. It is found in Ger-
many, France, and also in Eng-
land. The impurities which are
found in the foreign sorts, are of
the infusible stony kind, and are
extracted by melting the antimony
in vessels, the bottoms of which are
perforated with small holes, so that
the lighter and drossy matter rises
to the surface, Avhile the more pure
and ponderous sinks, and is receiv-
ed into conical moulds. This mine-
ral, Avhen analyzed, is found to con-
sist of a metal united Avith common
sulphur.
[It is found in nature in the metal-
lic state ; in the state of calx miner-
alized, most generally with sulphur,
called, Crude Antimony.
a. Native Antimony, usually mix-
ed with iron and arsenic. It con-
tains so large a proportion of the
latter, that by fusion Avith sulphur,
the product resembles realgar,or red
arsenic, found in a matrix of calca-
reous spar or limestone.
b. Muriate of Antimony, more
rarely occurs....White antimonial
ore : combined w ith muriatic acid,
of a greyish white colour, found in
oblong, rectangular four-sided la-
in inrc.
c. Sulphurised Antimony....Its co-
lour is bluish or steel grey, cor-
responding to that of the common
antimony of the shops, which is in-
deed nothing else than this ore se-
parated from its impurities by means
of fusion. It is of metallic lustre,
and often variegated on the surface.
It occurs in lumps, interspersed, or
more or less crystalized. In the
mass its texture is either compact,
granular or foliated, more common-
ly, however, divergingly striated,
or fibrous; when crystalized, its
form if determinate, is that of com-
pressed hexahedral prisms, Avith
obtuse tetrahedral pyramids, which
ANT 83
are either comparatively large,
massy, and longitudinally grooved,
or more frequently in lengthened
needle-like, or capillary prisms di-
verging from different centres and
variously decussating each other.
It is opake, brittle, very easily-
scratched with a knife, sometimes
so soft as to soil the fingers....gives
a blackish poAvder: it is very easily
fusible, giving out a white sulphur-
ous smoke ; on the dissipation of
its sulphur by a more gentle heat
it leaves grey verifiable oxyde,
equivalent, according to Bergman,
to about 74 per cent, of regulus....
It is frequently found in limestone,
indurated clay, and iron pyrites,
but most commonly associated
with different forms of quartz....
The French regulus of antimony
according to the experience of
Messrs. Binny and Ronaldson of
this city, is 15 per cent, better for
types than the English. Antimony
being of very great use in medicine
and the arts, particularly in the
very important manufacture of
types, which are now made by the
above mentioned ingenious men,
in every respect equal to those im-
ported, it Avould be of immense
consequence to discover a mine of
antimony in the United States....
A few years since, a large lump of
this metal was brought to an apo-
thecary of this city, to sell for
plumbago, or (black lead) Dr. Sey-
bert analyzed it, and found it a
rich ore of antimony. The apo-
thecary now forgets whence the
specimen came.
Antimonial Wine, is prepared by
simply infusing either the crocus
or ant. vit. in wine : from ten to
fifty or sixty drops of which are
usually prescribed as an alterative
and diaphoretic. In larger doses,
it acts as a diuretic and cathartic}
84 ANT
ANT
and three or four drams prove, in
general, vioknt.y emetic. For this
last purpose, it has been frequent-
ly employed in madness and apo-
plexy.
It is, hoAvever, a very uncer-
tain medicine, because the more
acid the wine, the stronger Avill
the tincture prove. Hence scarce-
ly two preparations of antimonial
wine, are of equal strength: ten
drops from one shop will sometimes
vomit more than a tea-spoonful
from another shop. It ought to be
given up, and tartar emetic in mi-
nute doses, substituted.]
Dr. James Walker, late sur-
geon to the navy, gives a remark-
able account of the effects produced
by a large quantity of antimonial
Avine. Having ordered some whey,
in consequence of a cold, that wine,
in a mistake, was used instead of
Lisbon. Of this whey, he drank a
full English pint, in which was con-
tained not less than a gill and a half
of antimonial wine; but, instead
of producing the effects which
might naturally be expected, it was
attended with an unusual propensity
to sleep, Avith a lassitude and numb-
ness of the limbs. His two medi-
cal pupils, Avho had eaten the curd,
were affected in a similar manner.
He consequently asks, "Whether,
if its emetic quality be destroyed
by its combination Avith milk, and
exchanged for that of a narcotic
kind, some useful hints might not
be draAvn from this case, and intro-
duced into medical practice?"
An improvement in the prepar-
ation of the antimonial powder,
which is substituted in regular
pharmacy, for Dr. James' Fever
Powders, has lately been proposed
to the Royal Society, by Mr. Che-
venix. lie directs equal parts of
phosphat of lime and pulverized
algaroth to be dissolved in the
smallest possible quantity of mu-
riatic acid; some caustic ammonia
must then be mixed with distilled
water, and the muriatic solution
dropped gradually into the mixture:
the result of such combination v. ill
be a copious Avhite precipitate;
which, by Avashing and crying,
is rendered fit for use. This rnedi-
cine,has already been administered,
by some eminent pi actitionei s; ai d
according to the account of Mr. C.
it possesses the valuable properties
of the antimonial powder, though
in a less concentrated form, so that
the former may be exhibited in
doses of less than eight grains,
without exciting A'omiting.
ANTIPATHY, in physiology, is
used to express the natural aversion
which an animated or sensitiv e be-
ing feels at the real or ideal pre-
sence of any particular object....
Such are the reciprocal hostilities
subsisting between the toad and
the weasel; between sheep and
wolves, and the aversion of particu-
lar persons against cats, mice, spi-
ders, Sec.
This prepossession is sometimes
so violent as to induce fainting,
even upon beholding their natural
enemies. Most animals likewise
evince a remarkable antipathy to
the sight of the blood of their own
species.
To explore this subject, without
prejudice, it will be necessary to
exclude those antipathies which are
not authenticated, such as those be-
tween the weasel and toad, which
can be extinguished or resumed at
pleasure; or those, the causes of
Avhich are ev ident.,..we shall then
be inclined to admit but a very in-
considerable number.
The aversion which prevails be-
tween the sheep and the wolf, can-
ANT
not certainly be called an antipathy,
as its origin is obvious; the latter
devours the former, and every ani-
mal naturally shuns pain, or de-
struction. From similar causes
proceeds that dread which many
persons feci of seipents and rep-
tiles. During the period of infan-
cy, pains are taken to impress the
mind with the frightful idea that
these animals are of a venomous
nature, and that their bite is mor-
tal. Such apprehensions are ag-
gravated by the relation of dismal
tales, which often make a lasting
impression. When others, at their
approach, have exhibited symptoms
of terror, we have been persuaded
to avoid them ; and hence it is not
surprising that we should entertain
an aversion for such objects. Our
emotions at the sight of what we
fear, being excited while we are
unprepared, Avill be in proportion
to the sensibility of our frame, and
the irritability of our nerves.
A person, who formerly had no
dislike to particular objects, by as-
sociating with those who are sub-
ject to such idle fears, often ac-
quires an unfavourable bias against
things which, prior to those con-
tagious examples, he beheld with
perfect indifference. Thus, many
evince an aversion to eels, which,
however, arises chiefly from their
resemblance to serpents.
There are other antipathies, which
do not originate from the source of
the imagination, but from some
natural loathing, such as is often
perceptible in children, for particu-
lar kinds of victuals, Avhich, though
not distasteful, yet, from a weak-
ness of the digestive organs, are
disgorged as soon as swallowed.
Antipathies, in general, owe their
origin to objects Avhich are con-
ceived to be dangerous; to a terror
ANT 85
of imaginary disasters; toa squeam-
ish delicacy; and of a rooted dis-
like to things supposed to be detri-
mental. Those of children are to
be conquered by teaching them the
means of defence and security, or
the methods of avoiding the influ-
ence of noxious agents; and when
age has strengthened the judgment,
by demonstrating to them the na-
ture and properties of those natural
bodies, or phenomena, Avhich they
fear, they will thus gradually over-
come their early prejudices and
antipathies....See Sympathy.
ANTIQUITIES, is a term sig-
nifying those testimonies, or au-
thentic records of the early ages,
which are transmitted to posterity
by tradition.
The study of antiquities forms a
very extensive science, including
an historical survey of the ancient
edifices, magistrates, officers, ha-
biliments, manners, customs, cere-
monies, religious institutions, &c.
of the vrarious nations of the earth.
It is equally useful and interesting
to the laAvyer, physician, and divine.
Antiquarian science may be di-
vided into sacred and profane, pub.
lie and private, universal and par-
ticular.
The antiquities of Greece and
Rome attract the curiosity of every
scholar; and though including thq
history of the JeAvs, Egyptians,
Persians, Phoenicians, Carthagem-
ans, and in short, every celebrated
nation, they, by no means, contain
the whole of this branch of learn.
ing. For, if to the general be
added a particular acquaintance
with statues, bas reliefs, medals,
paintings, and the venerable re-
mains of ancient architecture, this
aggregate information constitutes a
very interesting and extensive sci-
ence.
86 ANT
ANT
To acquire a knoAvledge of the
works of sculpture, statuary, grav-
ing, painting, he. which are called
antiques, strict attention ought to
be paid to the substance, on which
the art has been practised : as wax,
clay, wood, ivory, stones, marble,
bronze, and every kind of metal:
because, on comparing this with
the subject, it frequently serves to
discriminate the true from the coun-
terfeit specimens.
Many of our great antiquaries
(Avho are not the most skilled in
designing)frequently grant the pre-
ference to the ancients, rather from
prejudice than judgment. That
striking peculiarity which to them
appears so marvellous in the works
of antiquity, is often a mere chi-
mera: for most of the antique fi-
gures and statues are totally void
of expression, and we can only
fancy their characters.
We are, however, greatly in-
debted to the persevering exertions,
and the laudable spirit of enquiry,
Avhich have lately been displayed by
the Royal Antiquarian Society, in-
asmuch as the members of that
learned and patriotic body have in-
dividually and collectively contri-
buted to the acquisition of those
valuable materials which are now
converted into their proper use.....
Mr. Burgess, in his ingenious Es-
say " On the Study of Antiquities"
printed in 1783, justly observes,
that "this study, once far removed
from all the arts of elegance, is now
become an attendant on the Muses,
and a handmaid to History, Poetry,
and Philosophy.
Antirrhinum. See Snapdragon,
Fluellin, and Toadflax.
ANTISCORBUTICS, signify
those applications and medicines
which are found useful in the cure
©f the scurvy, such as pure air,
gentle exercise, milk, vegetables,
fruit, he.....See Scurvy.
ANTISEPTICS, a term applied
to those substances which resist or
check putrefaction.
Numerous trials have confirmed
Sir John Pringle's opinion of the
antiseptic properties of alkaline salts,
though they appear to be inferior
to some resinous substances, and
other vegetables. Thus myrrh, in
a watery menstruum, has been
found twelve times more antiseptic
than sea-salt. Two grains of
camphor were a better preservative
of flesh than sixty grains of com-
mon salt. An infusion of a few
grains of powdered Virginian snake-
root, exceeded in antiseptic pro-
perty twelve times its Aveight of
chamomile floAvers ; and the Peru-
vian bark possesses nearly the same
extraordinary quality. These balsa-
mic vegetables are the more valu-
able, as they are usually free from
acrimony, and may be taken in
much greater quantity than either
spirits, acids, resins, or even neu-.
tral salts.
To the class of antiseptics we
may also add fermented liquors,
acids, vinous spirits, and even those
plants called ant-acids, which for-
merly were erroneously supposed
to accelerate putrefaction, particu-
larly the scurvy-grass and horse-
radish.
Antiseptics are prescribed in
all putrid and malignant diseases,
though not without due precaution,
as to the proper time for their exhi-
bition, and the different stages of
the disorder. Thus, for instance,
bark is a specific in mortifications,
or gangrene, when the vessels are
relaxed, and the blood disposed to
putrefy; but will be unavailing,
when the intestinal canal is ob-
structed, or if there prevail a pre-.
AN X
ANX 87
ternatural tension and fulness. In
cases where astringent remedies
cannot be employed Avith safety,
'contrayerva, snake-root, camphor,
8cc. may serve as excellent substi-
tutes....[For an account of the anti-
septic properties of alkaline salts,
See the Medical Repository of N.
York.~\ See also Putrefaction.
ANTISPASMODICS are those
medicines, which are calculated
to relieve persons afflicted with
cramps, spasms, or convulsions :
such are opium, Peruvian balsam,
and the essential oils of different
vegetables. The most speedy an-
tispasmodic, with respect to its im-
mediate effects, is doubtless the
juice of the poppy ; but the Peru-
vian balsam produces more per-
manent benefit, and has frequently
been of eminent service, after
opium had failed to afford any relief.
Essential oils act principally on
some particular part, rather than
on the system in general; and
are seldom attended with any so-
porific effects. But, beside these
internal medicines, there are some
which instantly remove spasmodic
contractions by contact; for in-
stance, cream, oil of almonds, and
asses'-milk; white sulphur, sal
ammoniac, nitre, 8cc. mitigate
these painful complaints, by di-
minishing heat. Where, however,
spasms originate from inanition,
and a defect of vital heat, the best
antispasmodics are, valerian, musk,
and castor; because these medi-
cines tend to restore the animal
spirits, and at the same time ope-
rate as corroborants.
ANXIETY, is that state of the
mind in which it is uneasy about
some future event; either from an
■^apprehension of danger, or a soli-
citude of being relieved from sus-
pense.
The causes of anxiety may be
various ; but, in general they arise
either from too long continued and
forcible an impression of external
objects, or a diseased state of the
nerves, in which they are liable to
be too powerfully affected by the
usual action of such objects.
Concerning the effects of this
mental disorder on the human sys-
tem, Ave agree in opinion with the
late Dr. W. Battie, that they are
particularly obvious from the spas-
modic strictures which seldom fail
to accompany persons subject to
that afflictive passion ; hence palsy,
asthma and similar complaints.
When the body is thus constantly
influenced by an excess of sensa-
tion, it may be easily conceived
that its consequences on a torment-
ed mind, or deluded imagination,
must frequently be serious and in-
curable.
Dr. Arbutiinot appears to con-
found the cause, with the effect, of
anxiety, when he advises to al-
low febrile patients, troubled with
anxieties, " a warmer regimen, af-
ter the cold fit is over;" while he
recommends " spices as useful, be-
cause anxieties often happen by
spasms, from wind." The futility
of this advice is evident; for though
aromatics, or carminatives, will un-
doubtedly afford a temporary relief
from flatulency, yet the cause Avill
not only remain, but even be more
deeply rooted into the system, by
this mode of treatment.
A more effectual remedy for ob-
\-iating the causes of anxiety, in a
healthy state of the body, is per-
haps the following : When persons
of a settled age are too anxious in
all their expectations and under-
takings, it will only be necessary
to enlighten their contracted minds,
by teaching them to form a proper
88 APE
APE
estimate of those things which, in
a moral point of vieAv, are of little
consequence to human happiness.
Thus instructed, they will learn
more reasonably to appreciate their
own merits; and, by comparing
these Avith the frequent failure of
success in others, Avho have ex-
celled them in Airtuous as well as
in useful deeds, they Avill gradually
be enabled to reduce their OAvn ex-
pectations to a proper standard.
APE, in zoology, an animal of
which we find more than fifty spe-
cies ; it is more remarkable on ac-
count of its peculiar instincts, bodily
structure, and habits of life, than
from either its dangerous or useful
tendencies.
Apes were formerly considered
as a degenerated cast of mankind,
because some of them, such as the
troglodytes, or the African wood-
man, and the ourang-outang, bear
a great resemblance to the human
form. These creatures, and espe-
cially the former species, are grega-
rious, inhabit the thickest forests,
are from four to five feet in stature,
very ferocious and strong, and do
not hesitate to attack even men.
Several of those audacious bipeds
possess such a degree of muscular
strength, that ten unarmed per-
sons are inadequate to the task
of reducing one of them to obe-
dience.
On a close examination of their
external shape, howrever, and par-
ticularly of the head, it clearly ap-
pears that their structure is essen-
tially different from that of our
species. From the natural constitu-
tion of their bodies, they are not
only deficient in the organs of
speecii, hu do not even display the
sagaci.y of dogs, not to mention
that dignified criterion between man
and the inferior animais....reason.
As an instance of their deficiency
of judgment, we shall only men-
tion, that, notwithstanding their
excessive fondness of enjoying the
Avarmth and light of a fire in the
woods, made by the natives, who
seldom take the trouble of extin-
guishing it, those whimsical imita-
tors have not even the ingenuity of
supplying it with fuel; and there-
fore afford no proof of their reason-
ing poAvers.
Nevertheless, they are justly en-
titled to the next place to man,
Avhen we consider some extraordi-
nary qualifications with which they
are preferably endowed. Of this
nature is their uncommon talent of
imitation, which to them, is so far
from being advantageous, or con-
ducive to their safety, that it is
ingeniously employed for ensnaring
them into captivity. Thus the In-
dians wash their faces in the pre-
sence of apes Avith water, for which
they substitute a solution of glue,
or gum arabic : on leaving the ves-
sel with this seductive liquor, the
animal, Avithout suspicion, imitates
the natives, and being neither sen-
sible of the danger attending this
experiment, nor the means of pre-
venting the effect, its eyes are soon
pasted vjp, and it is exposed to the
mercy of its enemy.
Besides making good use of their
teeth and nails, apes defend them-
selves Avith branchesof trees, stones,
and the like.....Their maternal af-
fection is -sq great, that they fre-
quently smother the dearest of their
offspring ; and hence it has been
proverbially applied to mothers who
spoil their children, by excessive
indulgence in the articles of food
and drink.
APERIENTS, in medicine, sig-
nify those substances which possess
a gentle, purgative quality, and fa-
APO
APO 89
cilitate the circulation of the fluids,
by removing obstructions.....See
Laxatives.
Aphanes Arvensis, L. See Pars-
LEY-PIERT.
Aphernously. See Arve-
NUSLY.
Aphis. See Plant-louse.
APHORISM, is a term used to
denote either an unconnected
maxim, or a short pointed sen-
tence, comprising much in a few
words. It is at present chiefly
used in medicine, and law: thus
we say, the Aphorisms of Boer-
haave, Hippocrates, of the Civil
Law, &c
It Avould be highly conducive to
the progress of learning, if all ele-
mentary works, whieh treat of any
particular art or science, were
written in an aphoristic form, so
that every detached fact, or asser-
tion, might be reduced to a dis-
tinct proposition.
Apium graveolens, L. See Smal-
lage.
APOPLEXY is a disease in
which the patient is suddenly de-
prived of sensation, and incapable
of voluntary motion. It is usually
divided into two kinds, the sangui-
neous and the serous. The symp-
toms which distinguish the form-
er are, a sound sleep, preceded
by giddiness, and attended with
snorting, noise in the ears, confis-
cations before the eyes, and redness
of the face- If any thing be put
into the mouth, it is immediately
returned through the nose; nor can
it be swallowed unless the nostrils
be closed, in which case there is
danger of suffocation. If the patient
appear insensible, there is but little
hope of his recovery. Sometimes
the consequence of this attack is
heiniphlegia, or palsy of one side of
the whole frame, which is evident
VOL. I.
from a distortion of the mouth to-
wards the sound side, a contraction
of the tongue, and stammering of
speech.
The general cause of sanguineous
apoplexy, is a plethoric habit, with
a peculiar determination of blood
towards the head. Whatever tends
to accelerate the circulation, such
as surfeits, intoxication, immode-
rate exercise, and violent passions
of the mind, may sooner or later
occasion this disease. It seldom,
however> occurs till persons haAre
passed the age of sixty, and after
a fulness of the veins has for a long
time prevailed in the system. In
many instances, it proves fatal on
the first attack ; and few survive a
repetition of the fit. Those who
apparently recover, are frequently
carried off, without being warned
of its approach.
The usual method of treatment
consists in placing the body in an
erect posture, and supporting the
head in that situation ; in copious
and repeated bleedings from the
jugular veins and temporal arteries,
cupping, and the application of
blisters to the head, or between the
shoulders.
In the serous, or watery apo-
plexy, the pulse is small and fee-
ble, the complexion pale, and there
is a diminution of natural heat.....
Upon dissection, the ventricles of
the brain have been found to con-
tain a larger quantity of fluid than
they ought in a natural state. This
species is equally fatal as the other,
and may arise from any cause which
induces a debilitated state, such as
mental depression, excessive study,
long Avatching, 8cc. In this alarm-
ing complaint, bleeding cannot be
attempted Avith safety : acrid, sti-
mulating purgatives, and emetics,
have been employed with a view to
N.
90 APO
APO
carry off the superabundant serum ;
but, in debilitated habits, they are
liable to strong objections. Vola-
tile salts, cephalic elixirs, and cor-
dials, are usually prescribed which,
if a hemiphlegia supervene, may be
aided by cathartics, and sudorifics,
gentle exercise, especially in a car-
riage ; blisters, and such other sti-
mulating medicines, as are proper
in paralytic affections.
The opinion, that the immediate
cause of apoplexy is an extravasa-
tion of fluids, or a preternatural
fullness of the vessels, has afforded
a subject of much controversy
among medical Avriters. To re-
fute tins conjecture they have quot-
ed an instance of the hydroce-
phalus, or dropsy of the brain,
Avhere the head Avas increased to
more than double its natural size,
Avithout producing one apoplectic
symptom. Le Cat, in his inge-
nious Reflection, published in the
Philosophical Transactions, relates,
that, when he opened the head of
M. De Frecu:iennf,late president
of the Parliament of Paris, Avho
died of an apoplexy, he found
about a tea-spoonful of blood ex-
travasated between the third and
fourth ventricles of the brain: hence
Le Cat deduces the impossibility
of so trifling a quantity being capa-
ble of pressing on the origin of the
nerves, so as totally to interscept
the course of the animal spirits.
According to thi; writer, the ex-
travasated blood, usually found in
the brain of a person dying of an
apoplexy, so far from being the
cause of death, is an accident OAving
to the convulsive motions of the
dura mater (a strong membrane,
covering all the cavity of the cra-
nium) as well as the vessels of the
whole basis of the scull; and that,
in general, it is occasioned by the
matter of gout, or rheumatism, set-
tling on this source of the nerves.
The sAvelling and distension of the
dura mater, causes a stagnation of
the blood vessels of the brain, some
of the weakest of which burst,
while all the canals of the nerves
become constricted and closed ; a
circumstance which sufficiently ac-
counts for the consequent fatal
event. It will not surely be con-
tended, that these ruptured vessels
concur in the production of those
spirits which impart motion to the
heart, as it is Avell known that this
organ receives the influence of nu-
merous nerves at a time, all which
ought to share in an accident con-
sisting merely in the rupture of a
capillary vessel.
These reflections are here offer-
ed, to repress that hypothetical con-
fidence Avhich many practitioners
profess for their theories; and to
discountenance the precipitate and
excessive use of the lancet. This
practice is plausibly suggested by
an idea, that it is too great a pro-
portion of blood which destroys the
patient; but, besides that so ill-
founded an opinion may prove fatal
to those persons who are liable to
apoplectic attacks, a prejudice in
favour of the theory may prevent
others from inquiring into the true
cause, and discovering the reme-
dies adequate to the cure of that
fatal disorder.
In Heister's Medical Observa-
tions, a case is related, of a person
who died of an apoplexy, in con-
sequence of his being constantly
exposed to the scent of three or
four floAver-pots of Avhite lillies,
which were kept in his chamber.
This melancholy fact should deter
those to Avhom such odours are
APO
APP 91
sensibly prejudicial, from continu-
ing long within the sphere of their
deleterious influence.
[The distinction of this disease
into sanguineous and serous, is now
■usually given up, and the gene-
ral state of the system attended to,
in forming our indications of cure
In nineteen cases out of twenty,
the disease is attended with a. full,
strong, and eloio pulse: and requires
copious bleeding for a cure. The
sooner bleedhn: is performed after
the attack, the better. The quan-
tity of blood to be taken aAvay,
must be in proportion to the vio-
lence of the symptoms: but, in
strong vigorous persons, accus-
tomed to full living, from two to
four pints may be safely drawn in
the course of the first twenty-four
hours, at two or more bleedings....
Powerful purges of jalap and calo-
mel (15 of the former, and 10 of
the latter), ought also to be given,
and purging clysters frequently
administered. The head must be
shaved, and cold water applicdtoit by
means of cloths. Cupping the head
and back of the neck, is also pro-
per to relieve the vessels, and
may be useful, when general bleed-
ing is deemed improper, owing to
the pulse sinking: when leeches
can be had they may be substituted.
A blister applied over the whole
surface of the head, is often of great
service; it must be kept on twenty-
four hours, and prevented from
healing, by mixing some cantha-
rides Avith the ointment used to
dress the blister. All tight liga-
tures must be removed from about
his body, and the head well raised.
The air of the room should be fre-
quently renewed, and no ]>■.■♦ ;ons
admitted but those necessary to ad-
minister to the sick. To prevent a
a return of this disease, it will be
highly necessary to guard against
too much fullness in the system,
by proportioning the quality and
quantity of diet to the exercise
taken; to avoid intense application
of the mind to any one subject,
great fatigue of body, violent an^er,
indigestible food, especially at
night, and wet feet: As the disease
seldom comes on without some
premonitory symptoms, attention
ought to be paid to them, and the
proper remedies administered in
time. These symptoms are a gid-
diness, dimness of sight, herd-ach,
faultering of the tongue, or drowsi-
ness. When any of these appear,
some blood should be taken away,
a purge given, and lew diet enjoin-
eduiuh the danger be OA'er. No usual
evacuation ought to be suppress-
ed, without supplying its place by
means of an issue in the arm....]
See Dropst of the Brain, and
Epilepsy.
APPETITE, in general, signi-
fies the natural instinctive desire,
by which the animal is led to pur-
sue the gratifications of sense. In
the present instance, however, we
shall confine its meaning to the
craving for food. In this respect the
appetite of man may be divided in-
to three different species though
that evinced by inferior animals is
naturally simple, because it is not
impaired by ai t. Thus, if children
were never enticed by weak pa-
rents, and igncrant nurses, to eat
more than their own inclination di-
rects them, or to partake of highly
flavoured artificial dishes which sti-
mulate the palate, and pretematu-
rally distend the stomach, there is
every reason to believe that the fol-
lowing classification would be un-
necessary.
1. The natural appetite, which
is contented, as wellAvith the most
92 A P P
APP
simple as the most compound and
delicious dishes: such is that of
country people employed in hard
manual labour; of children who
have not been mismanaged in the
nursery; and of every rational per-
son wno is convinced of the advan-
tages resulting to both mind and
body, from a simple and a frugal
diet.
2. The artificial appetite of the
epicure, the hypochondriac, and
the tipler; all may be ranked under
the same class. It would be need-
less to add in this place, any other
remark, than that such an inclina-
tion for sensual enjoyment remains
only so long as the operation of
these exquisite stimulants conti-
nues. When the papillary nerves
of the palate can be no longer in-
fluenced by such excitement, the
sensualist loses his appetite, and is
punished Avith all the concomitant
symptoms of indigestion.
3. The habitual appetite, though
partly acquired is not liable to
those serious objections which ap-
ply to the latter species; nor is it
attended with any other disadvan-
tages than those arising from long
fasting, or an undue allowance of
food on particular occasions. Thus
after fatiguintr exercise, when the
fibres of the digestive organs are
already weakened, and the circula-
tion of the blood to those parts
is unusually increased, the nourish-
ment then received can be digested
only Avith great difficulty, and to
the detriment of the body.
Want of appetite may proceed
either from a defective energy of
the stomach, originating more fre-
quently from an immoderate quan-
tity, than the improper quality of
food ; or it may be occasioned by
the sympathy of other diseased
parts, such as the iiver, boAvels,
uterus, Sec. or by intestinal worms,
obstructions of the mesentery, and
many other causes. Hence it will
be understood, that there can be no
specific remedy su ggested to remove
the complaint; but that the treat-
ment must be regulated by the na-
ture of the case, and the constitu-
tion of the patient. In general,
hoAvever, the following hints de-
serve attention. When .the stomach
loathes Avholesome food, and is
troubled Avith habitual flatulency,
and eructations, of a bitter, rancid,
or saline taste, it should be previ-
ously ascertained, av hether an eme-
tic be proper, or necessary, to eva-
cuate its foul contents. Yet to
determine this point, requires a de-
gree of skill and experience Avhich
few persons in common life pos-
sess : on the other hand, the ad-
ministration of a simple emetic may
be attended with serious conse-
quences. For this reason, we Avould
preAiously recommend a change
of air and diet; early rising in the
morning ; gentle exercise ; absti-
nence from all hot drinks, particu-
larly tea, punch, and hot broths,
fat or hard meat, spirituous liquors,
tobacco, &c. to avoid the influence
of depressing passions, such as ex-
cessive grief, fear and anxiety ;
ano, if this treatment, after having
been rigorously pursued for several
days or weeks, produce no change
in the appetite, then to have re-
course to gentle emetics, or rather
to the operation of nauseating me-
dicines. According to our expe-
rience, the powder of ipecacuanha,
in the smallest doses of a quarter
or sixth part of a grain, in a little
cold Avater, repeated every ten mi-
nutes for two or three hours to-
gether, before breakfast, stands
eminently recommended in disor-
ders of this nature, and has seldom
APP
APP 93
failed to be of service to phlegma-
tic or corpulent individuals, when
continued for several mornings.....
But if there appear to be great ful-
ness of the stomach, or bowels, at-
tended Avith the symptoms before
described, it avill sometimes be ne-
cessary to give such an emetic as
may, according to circumstances,
at the same time relieve the boAV-
e. . A mixture of two parts of
ipecacuanha wine, and one part of
antimonial wine taken in single tea-
spoonfuls every quarter of an hour,
w ithout any farther drink till it be-
gins to operate, generally produces
the desired effect.
Alter the stomach and bowels
have, by such, or similar means,
been evacuated, it will be useful to
strengthen the tone of the fibres, by
drinking small draughts of cold
chamo mile-tea, or an infusion of
quassia, or simple toast and water
well prepared, Avhich last may be
justly considered as one of the
mildest and most grateful corro-
borants.
An insatiable appetite may arise
from two great a distention of the
stomach in early infancy ; from an
over-abundant secretion of the gas-
tric or digestive liquor; from
drinking large quantities of stimu-
lating acid beverage, such as cyder,
perry, butter-mi ik, he. but espe-
cially from a bad habit of fast eat-
ing, without properly masticating
hard substances. Hence the first
maxim in diet should be, to eat
slowly, in order to prevent a sudden
distention of the digestive organs,
and to allow sufficient time for the
food to be duly prepared, and gra-
dually mixed with the gastric juice.
It would be superfluous to add any
other suggestions, respecting the
treatment and cure of this trouble-
some complaint, which in the pre-
sent times of frugality, cannot fail
to find its own remedy.
The appetite for certain whimsi-
cal dishes, peculiar to females in
particular states of the body, be-
longs to the articles, Green-Sick-
ness and Pregnancy.
APPLE-TREE, the common,
or Pyrus malus, L. is too well
known in this country, to require a
minute description. It frequently
grows to the height of tAventy or
thirty feet, and produces a consi-
derable variety of fruit. Botanists
are of opinion, that the Avilding,
or crab-apple of the woods and
hedges, is the original kind, from
the seeds of which the apple now
cult'iA-aled was first obtained.
The varieties of this species are
multiplied to some hundreds, in
different places, all having been
first accidentally procured from the
seed or kernels of the fruit, and
then increased by grafting upon
crabs, or any kind of apple^stocks.
Notwithstanding the numerous
sorts, not above forty, or fifty, are
reared in the nursery. Their fruit
arrives at full groAvth in successive
order, from July to the end of Oc-
tober, but comes to maturity only
after gathering ; and several of the
winter kinds, may be preserved for
many months.
Apples serve as excellent fruit
for the dessert, the kitchen, and
for making cyder. The folloAving,
which are most esteemed for eat-
ing, are ranged according to the
successive order in which they
ripen: the white junicating, marga-
ret apple, summer pearmain, sum-
mer queening, embroidered apple,
golden rennet, summer white cal-
ville, summer red calville, silver
pippen, aromatic pippen, la reinette
grise, la liaute bonte, royal russet-
ing, Wheeler's russet, Sharp's rus-
94 APP
APP
set, the spine**apple, golden pippen,
nonpareil, and pomme d'api. Those
for culinary use, are, the codling,
summer marygold, summer red
pearmain, Holland pippen, Kentish
pippen, courpendu, Loan's pear-
main, the French rennet, French
pippen, royal russet, monstrous
rennet, Avinter pearmain, pomme
violette, Spencer's pippen, the stone
pippen, and oaken pippen. Those
most esteemed for making cyder,
are, the Devonshire royal Avilding,
red-streak apple, whitesour, Here-
fordshire under-leaf, John-apple,
or deux ames, everlasting hanger,
and gennet moyle.
Among all the fruit growing in
this country, says a celebrated bo-
tanical Avriter apples justly deserve
the preference. In raising these
useful trees for orchards, or fields,
Avhether for cyder or baking, the
Avlld crab-kernels are the most
suitable, as they yield hardy stocks,
which are better able to endure
cold and coarse lands, take firmer
root and produce larger trees.....
Where these seeds cannot be con-
veniently procured, the kernels of
common apples may be substituted,
especially with a view of ingrafting
them. Although the former do not
bring forth trees bearing the same
kind of apples, yet they thrive Avith-
out grafting, and their hard fruit
may, notwithstanding its astringent
and acid properties, be advantage-
ously converted into cyder.
Culture....The method of propa-
gating the cyder fruit-trees in He-
refordshire, is by grafting. Very
large, and even old trees, may be
grafted, so as to bear fine heads
of other sorts ; and thus they Avill
produce a crop of fruit quicker
than by any other method. New
orchards are raised by planting
well-groAvn crab-stocks, and graft-
ing them the year after.
If the trees are full sized, the
tops of them must be cut off in
Avinter, otherwise Avhen grafted,
they Avill, as it is termed, bleed so
much, that the grafts will not suc-
ceed. The trees should not be cut
down to the trunk, but as many
branches must be left as look kind
above, Avhere it branches out about
the thickness of one's arm ; the
tops of these must be taken off,
about two or three feet above the
part where they project from the
trunk. Good crab-stocks, for rais-
ing new orchards, generally cost
from 1 s. 6d. to 4s. each, according
to their quality.
Linnaeus considers the' apple
and the quince as species of the
pear-tree, or Pyrus, all the varieties
of which are hardy, and will suc-
ceed in any common garden soil,
if planted in a free situation. They
are propagated by grafting and
budding upon any kind of pear-
stocks, occasionally upon quince,
and sometimes upon Avhite-thorn
stocks.
Apples of every kind may be
reared in the manner above des-
cribed ; and, according to Dr.
Anderson, the pure paradise-
stock is the best graft. They will
not thrive, however, in a low and
moist soil, where they are apt to
canker, and speedily decay. In a
friable loam, they generally prosper
extremely Aveli.
Pruning.....If a tree be very old,
and much incumbered, the stumps,
Avith all the decayed, rotten, and
blighted branches, should be care-
fully removed : but instead of de-
laying this operation till the trees
become too old, it ought to be
commenced even in the nursery,
APP
APP 95
and regularly continued ; as, by
the use of medications, the wounds
will heal, without causing any
blemishes.
When the trees are so luxuriant,
as not to bear those prolific spurs
from Avhich the fruit proceeds, the
too abundant flow of their juices
must be checked by the folloAving
method : the tops of most of the
shoots are to be pruned off in Au-
gust, the bark perpendicularly
slitted in different places, and the
trunk cut about one-third through
with asaAv, but so as not to injure
the heart. For the first year, or
two, after this experiment, the
tree will not bear more fruit than
usual, but afterwards its produc-
tion will be adequate to every ex-
pectation.
From this operation, a still fur-
ther benefit may be derived. When
there is a superabundance of moist-
ure, the trees are liable to be cover-
ed Avith moss, which affords shelter
for caterpillars and other insects ;
but this process in a great measure
cures it, especially if the moss be
carefully scraped off, or rubbed
vvith a coarse, wet cloth.
The pruning of the tops diverts
the channel of circulation, and ac-
celerates the groAvth of the fruit-
bearing shoots ; Avhile the cutting
of the trunk, across, moderates the
great rise of nourishment, or sap.
Thus the saAved part will overgrow
in so complete a manner, that it
cannot be discerned, except from
the freshness of its bark.
Apple Blossoms are, in some
seasons, injured by the devastations
of an uncommon number of in-
sects, produced from a species of
black flies which deposit their eggs
in the bud, at its first opening ;
and which, by feeding on the heart
ef the bud, soon occasion it to con-
tract, and drop. To remedy this
fatal effect, Mr. C. Gullett ad-
vises to collect heaps of long dung,
wet straAv, Aveeds, &c. to dispose
them in different parts of the
orchard; and set fire to the heaps
in that quarter fromAvhich the wind
blows, so that the smoke may tho-
roughly fumigate all the trees.
Thus the insects, which are sup-
posed to be brought by the Avind,
will be preA^ented from depositing
their eggs.
As very serious apprehensions
were lately entertained in the cyder
counties, that the moss growing on
apple-trees, and the millions of
insects which harbour in it, might
be destructive to orchards, we shall
here insert another remedy disco-
vered by Mr. Tench of the Mi-
nories : " Take a quantity of un-
slacked lime, mix it Avith as soft
water as your situation will furnish,
to the consistency of very thick
Avhite-wash ; this mixture, with a
soft paint-brush, apply to your ap-
ple-trees, as soon as you judge the
sap begins to rise, and wash the
stem and large boughs well Avith
it, observing to have it done in dry
Aveather, that it may adhere and
Avithstand rain: you will find, that
in the course of the ensuing sum-
mer, it will remove all the moss
and insects, and give to the bark a
fresh and green appearance, and
that the tree will shoot much new
and strong Avood; at least, it did so
in Nova Scotia. The trial is sim-
ple, and can neither be attended
with much expence, trouble, or
danger."
Injustice to Mr. Forsyth, His
Majesty's gardener at Kensington,
we cannot omit to mention his
composition used for the same
purpose, and, perhaps, of superior
efficacy, if the nature of its iiigre-
96 APP
dients be considered: To one hun-
dred gallons of human urine, and
one bushel of lime, add cow-dung
sufficient to bring it to the con-
sistence of paint.....After having
carefully brushed off all the moss,
the infected trees should be anoint-
ed with this mixture, about the lat-
ter end of March; which simple
precaution, it is said, fully answers
the desired effect.
Concerning the physical proper-
ties of apples, it deserves to be stat-
ed, that beside their aromatic qua-
lities, they are wholesome and lax-
ative, when fully ripe. In diseases
of the breast, such as catarrhs,
coughs, asthmas, consumption, &c.
they are of considerable service:
for these beneficial purposes, how-
ever, they ought not to be eaten
raw, but either roasted, stewed, or
boiled : they also may be usefully
employed in decoctions, Avhich, if
drank plentifully, tend to abate fe-
brile heat, as well as to relieve
painful strictures, in pectoral com-
plaints.
With regard to their sensible
properties, apples have been divid-
ed into spicy, acidulated, and wa-
tery. To the first class belong the
various species of rennet, which
possess a most delicate flavour,
contain the least proportion of wa-
ter, and, on account of their vinous
nature, are not apt to excite flatu-
lency. Pippens, on the contrary,
though affording more nutriment
than the former, are more fibrous,
and consequently require a more
vigorous stomach to digest them :
hence they may be ranked under
the second class. Lastly, those
sweet and tender apples which are
very juicy and palatable, are the
least fit to be eaten in a raw state,
unless with the addition of bread or
biscuit: when baked, or dried in
APP
the open air, they make an ex-
cellent substitute for raisins or
plums, in puddings, pyes, and othef
dishes prepared of flour.
Sour apples may be much im-
proved, both in taste and quality,
by either baking, or digesting them
in a close vessel by steam, over a
very slow fire : thus the saccharine
principle is disengaged, and they
undergo a speedy and complete
change.
As apples are very liable to de-
cay, especially in hard winters, va-
rious methods of preserving them
have been tried, with different de-
grees of success.
One of the best expedients to
preserve them for Avinter use, is,
to let them remain upon the trees
till there be danger of frost; to ga-
ther them in dry weather, and lay
them in large heaps to sweat, for a
month, or six weeks. At the end
of that time, they should be care-
fully examined, those Avhich have
the least appearance of decay re-
moved from the others, the sound
fruit wiped dry, and packed in large
dry jars, and then closely stopped,
in order to exclude the access of
air. If this plan be properly follow-
ed, the fruit Avill keep sound for a
long time: it is, however, frequent-
ly impossible to procure a sufficient
number of jars for this purpose;
hence, in considerable quantities,
the folloAving methods are general
ly adopted:
In North America, as well as in
Germany, apples are often pre-
served during the most seA'ere
frosts, by placing them in an apar
ment immediately under the re
of the house, but Avithout a fire ;
linen cloth being thrown over the?
before the frost commences. T'
experiment, however, lias not *:
ceeded in Britain.
APP
In some parts, a coarse linen
cloth is spread upon the floor of an
upper room, and a layer of apples is
placed on it; this is covered with a
cloth of a similar texture, on Avhich
another layer is spread, and again
covered : in this manner the pile
may be increased to any height,
with alternate strata of linen and
fruit; after which a cloth, of suffi-
cient dimensions to communicate
with the floor on every side, is
throAvn over the whole heap. This
practice has been attended Avith
success.
Anothermethod is, to put a layer
of apples, and a layer of dried fern,
alternately in a basket, or box (the
latter is considered the best, as it
admits less air,) and cover them
closely. The advantage olfern, in
preference to straw, is, that it does
not impart a musty taste.
- Apples, in small quantities, may
be preserved for a greater length
of time by the following, than by
any of the before-mentioned pro-
cesses.....First, completely dry a
glazed jar, then pUt a few pebbles
at the bottom, fill it with apples,
and cover it with a piece of Avood
exactly fitted, and fill up the in-
terstices with a little fresh mortar.
The pebbles attract the moisture
of the apples, Avhile the mortar
excludes the air from the jar,
and secures the fruit from pres-
sure.
This useful fruit may likewise be
occasionally preserved from frost,
by placing one or two tubs, or pails
of water, in the room Avhere apples
are stored, taking care daily to
break the ice, and, if thick, to re-
new the water, which, having a
much stronger attraction for cold,
protects the apples.
Gathering.....This fruit should be
gathered with the hand, and «are-
VOL. I.
APP 97
fully placed in baskets; rejecting
those which spontaneously fall, as
unfit for long keeping. Moving
the apples, in order to examine
them whether sound, is likewise
injurious to their presentation.
[Apples abound in Pennsylva-
nia, and in every state in the
union except in the maritime dis-
tricts of the Carolinas and Georgia,
which are sandy and level, and the
air replete with humidity....In
Pennsylvania Ave have a very great
variety of apples, many of which
are equal in size, beauty and fla-
vour, to any found in the world.
Some begin to ripen in June, after
harvest, and others ripen in succes-
sion until frost. A particular ac-
count will be given of the Ameri-
can apples when Ave come to the
article " fruit trees."
A very interesting paper by W.
Denning, Esq. on the subject of
the alarming decay of apple-trees
is inserted in the 1st. vol. of the
transactions of the N. York Agricul-
tural Society : from Avhich it ap-
pears, that on cutting doAvn some
apple-trees which Avere far decay-
ed, he discovered two worm holes
running perpendicularly from the
tap root through the heart ;
these holes were large enough to
admit a pipe stem and reached
about fourteen inches above the
surface, and from each hole a Avorm
was taken. In some trees eight
or ten holes Avere found. They
resembled the peach-tree worm.
Mr. D. proposes no remedy, but
as it is probable that the worm first
penetrates the tree from Avithout,
and then takes a perpendicular di-
rection, the only way to save the
tree will be : either to destroy the
egg when deposited on the bark by
the fly, by frequently washing the
trunk during the summer with
O
98 APP
warm urine, or warm soap suds ;
or to take out the Avorm at an
early period When the worm
has entered the tree, it may be dis-
covered by uncovering the root,
and searching for the spot Avhere
the gum exudes : this will be
found to be the entrance of the
worm; to discover Avhich a knitting
needle must be used to perforate
the hole. If the cavity be horizon-
tal the Avorm may be easily bored
out; but if the direction of the
wound be round the root,the Avhole
course of the worm must be laid
open with a pointed small knife
until it be discovered. The wound
made, must be filled up by melted
wax and oil, or by Forsyth's com-
position.
Several species of cerambyx or
goat beetle, likeAvise prove very
destructive to apple-trees. They
'attack the trees about the surface
of the earth. The female when in
the perfect or beetle state lays her
egg on the bark, Avhere it is hatch-
eel ; and, gradually gnawing, the
insect Avorks itself inwards: as it
increases in size and strength, it
perforates the trunk, from side to
side in various directions, Avhich
venders it porous and hollow; the
tree becomes sickly, the leaves
small, of a yelloAvish green colour
and blotched; the extremities of
the branches decay, and soon
after the whole tree dies as it
stands: at other times it breaks off
even Avith the surface of the earth.
Young trees attacked in this man-
lier seldom recover, but after the
trunk arrives to the diameter of 12
inches, they seem to be able to re-
sist the assaults for some years lon-
ger. The entranceof theinsectmay
be discovered by a powder like saw-
dust issuing from the hole: this may
be perforated, and the insect taken
APP
out: the wound made in the tree
must then be carefully filled up. ■
As insects have increased'
greatly since the birds have been
thinned by the increased number of
sportsmen, and as Ave know that
insects are the favourite food of al-
most all kinds of birds, particular-
ly of the smaller kind ; (See Bird),
" let us" says the amiable Wm.
B a r t r am "recall those benefactors,
and put them again in possession
of their natural rights and privileg-
es ; let them at least for a time
be protected by law."....Let. to
the Editor.
Dr. Anderson describes an in-
sest of the coccus tribe, that lh-es
upon apple-trees, and throws out
such a quantity of cotton-like mat-
ter, as sometimes to cover eve-
ry twig of the young trees. It
communicates a corrosive ichor,
that affects the tree, after the in-
sect itself is removed, like a gan-
grene ; so that the tree becomes
blotched, uneven in the bark, and
full of deep holes that soon pro-
duce decay and death. When
these insects are discovered, they
should be rubbed off, and the limb
covered Avith cow dung and urine
by means of a paint brush.
Dr. Mitchell, in the 1st. vol.
of the transactions of the Agricul-
tural Society of NeAV-York, des-
describes aphalcena, or miller,which
conceals itself during the day in
holes, and spaces under the loose
bark of apple-trees, and may be
easily found by searching. The
male has Avings, but the female ap-
pears to have none : They Avere
seen as early as the 25th of March
in the state of NeAv-York, crawling
towards the extremities of the twigs
to deposit their eggs. Thus as soon
as the leaves unfold and sprout forth,
the worm bursts from the egg. The
APP
APP 99
insect preys upon the leaves, blos-
soms and fruit.
The method of preventing the
destruction caused by these millers,
will be, to keep the female from
ascending the tree: for this purpose
the tree may be encircled by a
streak of tar early in the spring;
but probably a more certain remedy
will be found in the foiiovving ob-
servations.
A Avriter under signature " Vi a-
" tor" who dates from Hartford
County, August, 17'.>2, and Avhose
paper is preserved in Carey's Ame-
rican Museum, says, " Canker
worms never destroy apple-trees
Avhich suu.d on a stiff clay, or in
low ground, where Avater stands
long in the spring. The reason
for this is -obvious. The canker-
worm al>out the tenth of June de-
scends into the earth, there to lie
till the next spring, when the mil-
ler (phaloena) rises and ascends the
trees. This worm is not strong,
nor furnished Avith the necessary
instruments for digging into a hard
stiff clay : of courr.e it cannot bury
itself in clay, and is not fond of
L-ravtl. The writer therefore prc-
jiv>ses to lay a covering of stiff clay,
round trees which stand on sand,
or other light earth. This cover-
ing or layer, may be thrown upon
the top of the natural soil, which
men be renewed to the depth of a
few inches. If the clay be laid on
in summer or autumn, after the de-
scent of the worm ; it may prevent
the miller from rising in the spring;
if when the worm is upon the tree,
it may prevent its finding a lodg-
ing ; hut as in the latter case, the
worm might travel some distance
Ixvond the limits of the layer,
it mie,ht be better to form the lay-
er round the tree after the descent
of the worm in June."
From some expeliments of Dr.
Mitchell, (Medical Repository
v. 3.) it appears, that apple-trees
may be barked with safety and in-
deed apparently with advantage....
The farmers say, that taking off the
bark will make old trees young
again. By an extract from the
Miscellanea Berolinensia, in the
Medical Repos. v. 4. p. 102 ; the
advantage of decorticating trees is
confirmed. Whenever it was ap-
prehended, the growth of the tree
was impeded by a disease of the
bark, the practice was "to .strip it
off; a neAV and healthy bark suc-
ceeded. Pear and cherry-trees
were treated in the same way. The
summer solstice was the period for
performing the operation.
Apple-trees have not succeeded
so well, in the course of the last
eight or ten years, as formerly. Be-
sides the worm, the decay may be
owing to the winters becoming
more mild, Avhich occasions an ear-
lier circulation of the sap, and thus
disposes the fruit buds to be de-
stroyed by late frosts; formerly,
when the winterswere cold and long,
the vegetation was retarded until
the danger of frost Avas passed.....
Another reason may be, the neg-
lect of pruning; for it is well known
that this important operation is sel-
dom performed upon our trees, and
hence they are overgrown Avith old
and decayed wood, and after bear-
ing thirty or forty years, they die,
or cease to bear. In this situation
are most of the old orchards near
Philadelphia. Those in the remote
counties of the state, Avhich have
been recently planted, bear Avell,
but in a few years they will be in the
same situation Avith the former, un-
less attention be paid to them. Be-
sides pruning, the moss should be
rubbed off, and manure put round
100 APP
the roots every year or two. This
manure may consist either of Avell
rotten stable dung, or the blood of
all slaughtered animals, which is
too commonly thrown away ; or
the black Avater from the manure
heap, which is shamefully permitted
to go to waste, though abounding
with the very essence of the food
of plants.
The following directions are
abridged from Mr. Forsyth's trea-
tise on fruit-trees.
CHOicF.,.In choosing apple-trees
from the nursery, observe that they
haAestrong,straightandclean stems.
In heading old, decayed apple-
trees, cut at the forked branches, as
near as can be to the upper side
of the fork, in a sloping manner,
and round off the edges. Begin at
the lower branches, and proceed up-
wards, cutting from one to six
joints or forks according to their
strength. Cut away cankered parts:
....apply the composition to all the
cut limbs, and finish with the
ashes, and burnt bones. A tree
thus prepared, will, in the course
of three or four years, produce
more and finer fruit than a maiden
tree, that has been planted up-
wards of twenty years.
Never shorten the youngbranches
except they are very thin, Avhen it
will be necessary to do so, to fill
the trees w'ith young Avood; nor
prune any of the young shoots the
second year (that is the year after
they are cut,) as many of the
eyes almost to the end of the shoot,
will, if it be strong, become fruit-
buds next year; and so on every
yea:.
In the month of May, in the first
year after the trees have been so
cut, it will be necessary to go over
them, and rub off all superfluous
young shoots, leaving from three to
APP
six eyes on each shoot, according
to the size and strength of the
branch cut. These shoots will
bear from three to four years, by
Avhich time they will be pretty^ ;£' ,
much exhausted, by the great quan-
tity of fruit produced from them;
they should then be cut down to tAvo
eyes, to produce neAv wood.
Mr. F. ahvays leavesthe branches . j
of three different years on the trees,
and thus keeps them in a constant
bearing state, Avhereas, if left to na-
ture, they would only produce a
crop of fruit once in two or three
years, as almost constantly happens
in the United States. When the
shoot has done bearing, cut it off,
apply the composition imme-
diately, and rub off the shoots where
they are too numerous.
PRUNiNG....The best time to
prune apple-trees in the United
States, is in the month of March.
The small shoots that cross each
other, should be cut off, leaving the
strongest to fill up the tree, and
make a handsome head. Grub up
suckers from the roots. Pare away
knobs where branches have been
cut off, leaving the surface of the
tree as smooth as possible; and ap-
ply the composition.
Apple-trees Avhich grow in low
situations, or within fifty miles of
the sea coast, and have not the
soil tilled round them, are subject
to be overgrown with moss, which
in a feAv years, Avill cause the trees
to become bark bound, and greatly
diminish their growth and produce.
To cure these effects, and prevent
their return, Mr. N. Ogden, of
Flushing, Long-Island, keeps the
ground of his orchard ploughed;
and scrapes off the moss from the
trunks and branches of the trees
Avith a hoe or drawing knife, and
then spreads over them a smaH
APP
APP 101
quantity of new, strong, soft soap,
by means of a long haired brush....
The soap destroys the moss and
softens the bark; and Avhen Avashed
off, by rain, acts as a manure to the
roots. When Mr. Ogden began
this process his trees Avere covered
Avith moss, and old scaly bark, and
bore bad crops; but, in two years,
all the old bark dropped off,
and the bodies became as smooth
as a young poplar. The soaping
may be done at any season, and re-
peated if necessary. When the
tree is bark bound, it will be neces-
sary to slit the bark in two or three
places down the bodies, observing
not to let the knife wound the wood
of the tree; the best season for this
work is early in the spring.
Apple-trees raised from thepum-
mice, if transplanted in time, nip-
ping off the end of the top root,
may be fit for grafting one or two
seasons earlier, than if left in the
place Avhere sow n This obser-
vation is the result of the expe-
riments of the Agricultural Society
of Nova Scotia.
The following inestimable obser-
vations were communicated to the
Editor, by Mr. J.Cooper of New-
Jersey, and Avill therefore command
serious attention....They refer in
part to subjects already mentioned,
but it Avas deemed best to insert
them unconnected with the obser.
vations of others.
" Experience for more than fifty
years has convinced me, that altho'
seedlings from apples will scarcely
ever produce fruit in New Jersey,
exactly similar to the original, yet
many of them will produce excel-
lent fruit: some will even be supe-
rior to the apples from which the
seeds were taken. Thi< fact has
led me to plant seeds from the
largest and best kinds of fruit, and
from trees of a strong and rapid
growth; and to lei all young trees
bear fruit before grafting, which
produced an u.veonn .on strong
shoot, or large rich looking leaf....
I have seldom known them fail of
bearing fruit having some good
quality ; at all events they make a
stock to put any gcod kind on Avhich
may afterwards present itself."
" In grafting or budding apple-
trees, it is best to perform the
operation within or near the earth,
if of such kinds as produce an erect
strong stem ; but on such kinds as
incline horizontaliy, or small weak
shoots, the preferable mode is, to
insert the bud or graft hi^h enough
to form a top.
" I have in numerous instances
seen the stock have great influence
on the fruit grafted thereon, in re-
spect to bearing, size, and flavour;
and, also, on the durability of the
tree, particularly in the instance of
a number of vandevere apple-trees,
the fruit of which was so subject
to the bitter rot as to be of little use.
They were ingrafted fifty years ago,
and ever since, those of them hav-
ing tops composed oi several differ-
ent kinds, though they continue to
be more productive c( fruit than
any others in my orchard, yet are
subject to the bitter rot, the origin-
al and well known :.flection of the
fruit of the primitive stcek. I
have had frequent opportunities of
observing the same circumstance,
in consequence of receiving many
scions from my fr'nnds, which after
bearing I have engrafted, and the
succeeding fruit uniformly pai to. k
in some degree of the qualities of
the former, even in their dkrosi-
tion to bear annually or biennially.
" Pruning is an affair requiring
great care and judgment, as the
future prosperity of the tree grea*
102 APP
ly depends thereon. In the first
place young fruit trees should not
have the side shoots cut close to
the stem, as the Avhole groAVth
is thereby forced to the top,
Avhich soon becomes so weighty
as to bend and spoil the tree. 1
have found it better to cut the ends
of the side shoots so as to keep the
tree in a spiral form which will en-
courage the growth of the trunk,
until it acquires strength to sup-
port a good top. The side shoots
may then be trimmed close. In
forming the top, I have found it
necessary to lighten the east and
north-east sides, as fruit-trees gene-
rally incline that way ; and to en-
courage the branches on the oppo-
site quarters to keep the sun from
the trunk, otherwise the rays of
that luminary, when striking at
nearly right angles Avill kill the
bark, bring on canker, and ruin
the tree. The best method that
I have found to heal such wounds
is a composition of resin, tallow,
and bees-wax of a proper consist-
ence to stick, applied after taking
oil' the dead bark, and if suckers
shoot out below the Avound, they
i.ught to be trained so as to
shade the affected part, until the
branches above will answer the pur-
pose. By these means I have re-
covered many trees which would
have perished if neglected....I also
endeaAour to prevent acute angles
in any part of the tree, as the
growth takes in bark which is the
general cause of the branches
breaking off or splitting from the
weight of fruit or from high
Avinds."
APPLICATION, in a general
sense, signifies the art of bringing
things together, in order to disco-
ver their mutual agreement or re-
lation to each other. It is also fa-
APR
miliarly used to express the study
or consideration of any subject,
and includes the idea of assiduity
and persevering attention.
In the Economy of Human Life,
we meet Avith the folloAving short
sentence, in praise of application :
" Since the days that are past, are
gone for ever, and those that are to
come, may never appear, it be-
hoveth thee, oh! man, to employ
the present time without vainly re-
gretting the loss of that Avhich is
past, or too much depending on
that Avhich is to come. This in-
stant is thine ; the next is in the
womb of futurity ; and thou know-
est not Avhat it may bring forth."
APPRENTICESHIP, is the
binding of a person by covenant,
to serve his master for a limited
period, on condition of being in-
structed in his trade or occupation.
Its usual duration is for the term
of seven years, afjter Avhich the ap-
prentice himself is entitled to be-
come a teacher, and to engage pu-
pils to serve under him.
Apprenticeships were unknown
to the ancients. The Roman law
makes no mention of them ; nor
is there any Greek or Latin word
which expresses the idea now an-
nexed to this appellation.
APRICOT-TREE, the Prunus
Armeniaca, L. is a species of the
plum, or cherry-tree. Although
Linnaeus has reduced these dif-
ferent trees to one genus, which he
calls Prunus, yet Ave shall in this
place enumerate only the varieties
known under the name of apri-
cot :
1. The male, or early apricot,
which produces a small, round,
reddish fruit; has more stone than
pulp, ripens in July, and has but
an indifferent flavour. As this tree
blossoms early in spring, it is liable
APR
APR 103
tobeinjurcd by night-frosts, against
which it ought to be protected, by
placing contiguous to it shallow
vessels filled Avith water.
2. The white apricot is oblong,
flat at both ends, and of a pale co-
lour : its tree is not only less influ-
enced by cold, than any other sort,
but also bears fmit in greater
abundance.
3. The orange apricot acquires,
when ripe, a deep yellow colour, is
distinguished by a sweet kernel,
but its fmit is more fit for preserv-
ing, drying, and using it in pas-
try, than for the dessert.
4. The red apricot is of an oval
size, its pulp likewise reddish and
juicy, and the kernel sweet like a
hazle-nut: the leaves of this tree
are longer than those of any other
variety.
5. The large, or Turkey apricot,
exceeds in size and beauty all the
other sorts, has a deep yellow pulp
and sweet kernel, but is not pro-
ductive.
6. The Breda apricot, a native
of Africa, is one of the finest and
most delicious: its fruit is large
and round, externally of a deep
yellow, and internally of a golden,
colour. Its kernel is the largest of
the kind ; and if this fruit arrive at
maturity in an airy situation, it de-
serves an unqualified preference.
7. The Brussels apricot is of a
middle size, somewhat oval; on
its southern exposure red, with
many dark spots, and greenish or
deep yellow on the opposite side.
Its fruit is firm, and of a delicious
taste ; the skin is apt to burst be-
fore the fmit is mature, and it sel-
dom ripens until August or Sep-
tember. Some amateurs even pre-
fer it to the preceding species.....
Lastly:
8. The peach apricot is more
spherical and larger than any other
species; Avhile it possesses the
sweetness of the apricot combined
with the acidulated vinous taste of
the peach. This tree, however,
requires a temperate climate, and
will not thrive in the open air of
this country.
Culture.....All the* varieties of
apricot-trees have originally been
raised from their stones: they
Avere then propagated by budding
or grafting on any plum-stock.
The soil most congenial to.their
nature, is a rich black mould ; for
they will not prosper in a loamy,
sandy, gtavelly, clamp, or cold
ground. As they are generally
placed near walls, an eastern aspect
will be the most eligible and pro-
per, because they are apt to grow
mealy, from the strong and con-
stant heat of the sun, in a southern
direction. In a luxuriant bottom,
they may be planted at a distance
of sixteen or twenty feet from each
other ; but in an inferior soil, from
twelve to fifteen. When transplant-
ed in the month of October, no
other branches ought to be pruned
off, except such as cannot be fixed
to the Avail. After the tree has
been properly set in the ground,
its branches should be loosely tied,
and the surface of the soil sur-
rounding the stem covered Avith
good manure, partly to prevent in-
jury from frost, and to afford more
nourishment to the roots. Towards
the end of February, or beginning
of March, the branches must be
untied, and the top of the tree cut
off, Avhile the operator's foot should
be placed close to its trunk, and
only four or five eyes are to be left
aboA'e the place Avhere it has been
grafted : taking care that the ob-
lique side of the cut be turned to-
wards the wall.
104 APR
APR
During a dry spring, the roots
may be occasionally watered, and
covered with a little straw or grass
plats, in order to protect them
against night-frosts, and afford them
additional moisture in summer.
All the young shoots should be
trained horizontally. About the
end of September, the branches are
again to be loosened, and pruned,
so that two only may remain, one
of a larger size, from eight to nine,
and an inferior one, from five to six
Fiches long.
In the second summer, all the
straight shoots ought to be remov-
ed, as in the first, while the neAV
sprigs are transversely fastened
close to the a\ all, so that the trunk
of the tree remain free : the prun-
ing, however, should not be at-
tempted later than in the course of
April. About the 28th September,
the young shoots are again to be
dressed, as in the preceding year ;
and the most vigorous left from
eight to ten, but the weaker ones,
only six or se\'en inches long.
A similar treatment must be pur-
sued in the third and following
years. It deserves farther to be
remarked, that apricots bear their
buds and blossoms not only on the
branches of the preceding year, but
likewise on the young shoots and
tops of these branches : hence the
dressing of them, during summer,
ought to be performed with addi-
tional care.
Uses....Vvom the Acinous and sac-
charine nature of this fruit Ave may
readily conclude, that it is possess-
ed of antiseptic, cooling, and nu-
tritive properties ; yet, unless fully
ripe, it is apt to ferment and turn
acid in weak stomachs, especially
those of persons who are subject to
flatulency and eructations : hence
apricots ought to be eaten in mo-
deration- with the addition of a lit-
tle bread, and rather before, than
after meals. In short, they are
more useful to bilious and ple-
thoric, than to phlegmatic and hys-
terical individuals, or those trou-
bled Avith hypochondriacal com-
plaints.
In France and Germany, the
orange apricot is usually preserv-
ed in a dry state, for the winter,
Avhenit forms a delicious ingredient
in pyes, tarts, Sec.
The kernels of several species
of apricots contain a sweet oil, on
account of Avhich they Ave re for-
merly, like sweet almonds, used
in emulsions, and considered as
vulnerary and anodyne : at pre-
sent, however, their use is confin-
ed to external applications, in
which the expressed oil of these
kernels has sometimes been of ser-
vice, for a contracted and chapped
skin of the hands and lips, sore
nipples, painful ears, and similar
cases.
[Dr. Willich recommends an
easterly aspect for apricot trees :
but in the United States, an east-
erly, north, or n. easterly exposure is
highly injurious to this fruit. Apricot
trees should be screened by a high
Avail, fence, or building, from the
winds of those quarters, othenvise
the trees' will not bear, though they
may grew large.
The best time for planting apri-
cots, according to Forsyth, is in
autumn, as soon as the leaf is ob-
served to fall. Choose trees with
the strongest and cleanest stems.
The ground must be a light, fresh
loam. When the trees are plant-
ed, they should, by no means, be
headed doAvn till they begin to
throAv out fresh roots. Strong trees
should then be cut a foot from the
ground, and those that are wealc
AQU
AQU 105
about half that length.....In back-
Avard seasons, they should not be
headed doAvn until the buds are
fairly broken ; always observing to
cut sloping towards the wall, and
as near to an eye as possible, that
the young leading shoot may cover
the cut.....The shoots then thrown
out, must be trained horizontally,
to cover the wall, or attached to a
railing near'the border. The num-
ber of shoots left out ought to be
from three to six on each side, ac-
cording to the strength of the main
shoot, taking care to rub off the
four right shoots all over the tree,
except a few which may be want-
ed to fill up the wall near the body
of it.
Apricots, and other stone fruits,
thrive best in paved yards, or Avhere
the ground is permitted to remain
undisturbed round theroots....They
succeed no where better than in
confined paved yards in our cities.]
AQUA FORTIS, the nitrous
acid of a certain strength, and so
called from its dissolving power;
but, when in a concentrated and
smoking state, it is denominated
spirit of nitre. It is made by dis-
tilling equal parts of crude nitre
with calcined vitriol ; or by care-
fully mixing one part of oil of
vitriol with nine of pure spirit of
nitre.....See Acids.
As this poAverful liquid is used
for various purposes in the arts and
manufactures, but chiefly by dyers,
brass--founders,, hatters, £cc. great
caution should be observed, both
in preparing and employing it, be-
cause it possesses a very caustic
property, and its fumes are highly
deleterious to the organs of respi-
ration. Hence those artisans fre-
quently become subject to convul-
sive coughing and blood spitting,
paralyticaffeclions,trembling, pak-
VOL. \.
ness of countenance, loose teeth,
the loss of smeli and taste, and at
length, pulmonary consumption.
In order to prevent these fatal ef-
fects, we seriously advise them to
make use of oily and bland nourish-
ment, and externally to secure the
mouth and nose, by tying a hand-
kerchief round those parts, while
they are exposed to the fumes of
this volatile acid.
But in casualties where a person
has, by mistake, swallowed a por-
tion of aqua-fortis, the following
treatment will be the most proper
for averting the imminent danger
of suffocation. Immediately after
the accident, luke-warm water
ought to be drunk in the greatest
possible quantity, even to the
amount of several gallons, to weak-
en the causticity of the poison.
Next, a solution of half an ounce
of salt of tartar, or clean pearl-
ashes, in one pint of water, should
be taken in about six or eight small
draughts ; and as the effervescence
thus occasioned in the stomach,
greatly tends to weaken that organ,
it Avill be necessary to make use of
more water, and other diluent,
oily, or mucilaginous drinks.
We are of opinion, that a solu-
tion of borax, or tincal, in the pro-
portion of three drams to a pint of
water, forms a more effectual anti-
dote than the vegetable alkali; be-
cause the former, by uniting with
acids, causes no effervescence.....
There are instances of persons
having completely obviated the ill
effects of this poison, simply by
drinking small portions of swreet
oil, frequently repeated, for three
days successively.
If, however, the sensation of a
burning pain in the stomach and
boAvels should not subside, after
plentiful vomiting, large draughts
106 A R A
AR A
of SAveet coav's milk must be swal-
lowed, Avith the addition of one
drachm, or sixty drops of liquid tar-
tar, usually called oil of tartar, to
each pint. But previously to the
expulsion of the poison by vomit-
ing, or the neutralizing of it with
alkaline solutions, neither milk,
oily, nor saponaceous draughts can
be taken with advantage. Hence
these ought to conclude the cure ;
during Avhich the patient may fre-
quently use gargarismsand clysters
of the same liquids, Avhich are di-
rected to be taken internally. In-
deed, after the poisonous fluid has
left the stomach, and entered the
intestinal canal, the principal be-
nefit will be derived from emollient
and balsamic injections.
AQUA REGIA is a compound
of the nitrous and marine acids, in
different proportions, according to
the purpose for which it is required;
and usually made, by dissolving sal
ammoniac, or common salt, in ni-
trous acid. When the former is
employed, the usual proportion is
one of this salt to four of the acid ;
but equal parts Avill be ncessary to
dissob'e platina.
Aqua regia is used as a men-
struum for gold ; it likewise dis-
solves all other metals, silver alone
excepted. The best kind for the
above-mentioned purpose, is a pre-
paration of three parts of the pure
marine, with one of the nitrous,
acid. One hundred grains of gold
require for their solution, two hun-
dred and forty-six of this mixture.
Concerning the nature and cure of
those casualties which may arise
from an improvident use of this
powerful solvent, we refer to the
preceding article.
Ai/uil'gia. See Columbine.
ARABLE LANDS, in general,
are those naturally fit for tillage, or
which may, by proper means, be
prepared for the production of
grain.
The just proportion between ara-
ble and pasture lands, has in this
country, of late years, been much
exceeded in favour of the latter....
It is asserted by competent judges,
that though the prevailing rage for
breeding cattle of the finest quality ;
and to the greatest extent, has
doubtless benefited the grazier, and
the'lord of the manor, yet this prac-
tice must certainly be attended with
disadvantages to the community at
large. We cannot, in this place,
enter into a minute discussion of
this important subject; but it clear-
ly appears, from the present prices
of com, when compared with those
of animal food, that they bear no
just proportion to each other.
With respect to the general me-
thods of improving arable land, we
are induced to avail ourselves of
the excellent remarks of M. Duha-
mel, who maintains that it is much
more profitable to increase the fer-
tility of land by tillage, than ma-
nure: 1. Because only a certain
quantity of dung can be had ; the
produce of twenty acres being
scarcely sufficient to dung one ;
whereas the particles of the earth
may be pulverized and divided at
pleasure : 2. Plants reared in dung,
do not possess the fine flavour of
those produced by a natural soil:
3. The plough not only separates
the particles in a manner exactly
similar to the fermentation occa-
sioned by dung, but also changes
their situation, by turning up the
earth, and thus exposing the whole,
at different times, to the influence
of the sun, air and dews; all Avhich
greatly conduce to render it fertile:
4. Dung breeds and harbours in-
sects, Avhich afterwards feed upon
AR A
A R A 107
and spoil the plants. To remedy,
this inconvenience, he recommends
the following expedient: " Let a
reservoir of quick-lime be kept in
a very dry place. When you be-
gin to make your dunghill, sprinkle
each layer of dung with quick-lime,
till the Avhole is finisheu. This
lime kills most insects, perhaps en-
riches the manure, and renders it
more serviceable, It will likewise
destroy the seeds of weeds, which
are generally in dung, and hurt the
wheat when they shoot up."
Various methods of improving
poor arable land, have been sug-
gested by different writers. But
as we consider old Duhamel's
plan of ploughing, and then pulve-
rizing the soil properly by the har-
row, the most effectual, Avhere suf-
ficient manure cannot be procured,
we shall only relate two sugges-
tions which deserve notice, chiefly
on account of their originality.....
John Mordant, in his " Com-
plete Steward," published in 1761,
advises a method of improving
poor, worn-out land, as he terms
it; which not being an expensive
one, may well deserve a trial: " A
pound of turnip-seed sown, after
harvest, upon an acre of light,
sandy, or gravelly land, that is poor
or worn out by over-ploughing, and
Avhere manure is wanting (the crop
of which being ploughed in, when
groAvn high,) Avill, in two months'
time, die away and rot, and enrich
the land, so as to prove as good
a manuring as tAventy loads of
dung, or more, upon an acre".....p.
457.
Another manner of recruiting
worn-out lanel, is that proposed by
Mr. Randall, in his "Seuu-Vir-
gilian Husbandry," which appeared
in 176t. We likewise communi-
cate it in the author's own Avords:
" The loam, immediately after har-
vest, is to be turned up ; and as Ave
shall suppose it will alloAV the
ploughman to go very deep, this is
a point to be obtained at any rate,
for a worn out soil. In order to
effect this, one plough is to go the
usual depth, and another plough to
folloAV at the same depth, and in
the same furrow, Avhich will throAv
the mould over it, and bury the
stubble. In this case, the field will
lie under the advantage of being
turned upside-down, as if it Avere
double spitted, more than a foot
deep, and the stubble Avill be soon-
er rotted. When this is done, the
harrows must make the ground as
fine as the bad condition of it, or
the season, will permit"....p. 12.
We shall conclude this article
with an useful hint, given by Mr.
R. Price, of Knelworth, Herts,
to the Society for the Encourage-
ment of Arts, Manufactures, and
Commerce; respecting the damage
elone to arable land, by carrying off
the small stones and flints from the
surface, for the purpose of making
turnpike -roads. This practice is
highly detrimental to almost every
kind of ploughed land, but particu-
larly to what are called thin stapled,
or light soils. Mr. Price justly
observes, that k' stones are of sur-
prising and manifold uses : for in-
stance, they greatly assist the
plough in working the land ; they
also prevent land of a binding quali-
ty from running together, and hard-
ening, like mortar in a Avail; they
screen the tender blade from blasts
and blights ; they not only prevent
the crop, where the staple is thin,
from being scorched up in summer,
but also the exudations of the eai th
from evaporating; and by that
means greatly promote vegeta-
tion."
108 ARC
ARC
It is almost superfluous to add,
that this reasoning is equally appli-
caoie to fields and gardens.....See
also the articles Husbandry,
Lands, Soil, and Tillage.
Arachis hypogaa.....See Earth
or Ground-Nut, and Choco-
late.
[ARALIA. Four species grow
in the United States.
1. Arulia Spinosa, Angelica
tree, prickly a--h, tooth-ach tree. A
decoction of its bark and root has
often succeeded when taken inward-
ly, in removing rheumatic com-
plaints. It encites a gentle perspi-
rano. . The berries are used to
put into a hollow tooth Avhen ach-
ing. A tincture of them in spirits
is also used for the same purpose.
2. A racemosa, Spikenard, Wild-
Liyuoriec, Berry-bearing A....Vak-
KiNsoNssiys, the berries are eaten in
Canada, and both leaves and roots
are used as saliads and pot-herbs,
by the natives.
3. A. r.udicaulis, Sarsaparilla....
The roots are used as a substitute
for sarsaparilla. A decoction is
used in the country, for that erup-
tive complaint called the shingles.
It is also esteemed as a remedy to
restore the tone of the stcma-h.
4. A. hisfida....The root of this
is highly emetic]
Arena; gel, FeYifc.■:'....See Wea-
se l-Snout.
ARCHERY, is the art, or exer-
cise, of shooting with a bow and
arrow.
Among ancient nations, the bow
Avas the principal instrument of
war; and the &k:ll of the archer of-
ten decided the fate of battles and
of emp'u es.
The Eji.ll:tii Avere particularly
expert in the use of this instru-
ment; and their ever memorable
victories at the battles of Cressy
and Poictiers, Avere chiefly ascribed
to their valiant archers.
James the First of Scotland, Avho
had seen and admired the dexterity
of English archers, and was him-
self a skillful bowman, endeavoured
to revive that exercise among his
own subjects, by Avhom it had
been neglected; but the untimely
death of that excellent prince, pre-
vented the effectual execution of
this useful project.
In the time of Edavard the
Third, there Avas an act of parlia-
ment, which obliged the English
archers, even in times of peace,
to erect butts in every parish, and
to shoot on Sundays and holidays.
By this constant practice, the Eng-
lish armies possessed an exclusive
advantage over their enemies.
Charles the first of England,
from a treatise entitled "The Bow-
man's Glory," also appears to have
been an archer. In the eighth year
of his reign, he issued a commis-
sion to the chancellor, Lord Mayor
and Privy council, to prevent the
fields near London from being so
much enclosed, as "to interrupt the
necessary and profitable exercise of
shooting."
The use of the long-bow continu-
ed in estimation for -nore than two
centuries after the introduction of
gun-powder; which was proh ,hly
owing to the weight and unwLful-
ness of muskets.
The distance to which an arrow
may be shot from a long-bow, de-
pends, in a gre:»t degree, on the
strength and size of the archer, but
in general is reckoned from eleven
to twelve score yards.
Archers consider an arrow of
foui twenty to twenty -four drachms
Aveight, tobe tiie best for flight, or
hitting a mark at a considerable
distance; and yew, the best mate-
ARC
ARC 109
rial of which they can be made....
The feathers of a goose are gene-
rally preferred; two out of three
are commonly white, being taken
from the gander; the third is
brown or grey; and this difference
of colour informs the archer Avhen
the arrow is properly placed. The
long bow is of the same height as
the archer himself: and in Eng-
land a peculiar method is practised,
by drawing the arrow to the ear,
and not towards the breast; Avhich
is doubtless more advantageous
than that adopted among other na-
tions.
Thfc force Avith which an arrow
strikes an object, at a moderate dis-
tance, may be conceived, from the
account given by King Edward
VI. in his Journal, where he says,
that one hundred archers of his
guard, discharged in his presence
two arrows each; that they shot
at an inch-board, and many of them
pierced it quite through- though
the timber was weii seasoned.
It may perhaps be a subject
worthy the consideration of go-
vernment, whether the revival of
archery, by uniting military disci-
pline Avith manly exercise, might
not beonue an additional means,
both of preserving health, and pro-
tecting us against foreign enemies.
According to Neade, an archer
might shoot six arrows in the time
of charging and discharging a
musket; and an ounce of fire-work
may also be discharged upon an ar-
toav, to the distance of 240 yards.
The earliest histories of archery
in England, are those by Ascham,
ay ho Avrote his Toxophiius in the
reign of Henry A III; Mark-
ham's Art of Archery, Avhich ap-
peared in 1634; and Wood's
Bowman's Glory, in 1682 : but
the latest, and most complete Avork
on the subject, is, " An Essay on
Archery," describing the practice
of that art, in all ages and nations ;
by W. M. Moseley, Esq. 8vo.
pp. 348. 7s. boards. Robson, 1792.
In this classical treatise, the author
considers bows, arrows, quivers,
butts, targets, and cross-bews, un-
der different heads; and his ac-
count is illustrated by plates. Ease
and perspicuity ; richness without
verbosity ; and elegance untainted
with affectation, are the characters
of this entertaining work.
Archery continues to be . prac-
tised by the inhabitants of Geneva,
and in many parts of Flanders. In
Britain there are seA-eral societies of
archers, the principal of which are
the Woodmen of Arden, the Toxo-
pholite, and the Royal Company of
Archers of Scoiland....'6ee also, Ar-
row.
ARCHITECTURE, a term
which denotes the art of building
in general, though chiefly applied
to the construction of edifices ap-
propriated to the purposes of civil
life, such as houses, churches,
halls, bridges, &c Sec.
The origin of this art is involved
in obsc.u-ity. All regular build-
ings, however, hath, by several
authors, been generally, and very
plausibly deduced from the con-
struction of the meanest huts.
These wrere, at first, probably made
of a conic figure, Avhich is the
simplest in structure, but being in-
convenient on account of its in-
clined sides, both the figure and
construction of the huts Avere
changed, by giving them a cubical
form.
At length, mankind insensibly
improved in the art of building,
and invented methods of rendering
their habitations durable and hand-
some, as well as convenient. They
110 ARC
deprived the trunks of trees of their
bark, and other inequalities of sur-
face, raised them above the wet, or
humid soil, by means of stones,
and also covered each with a flat
stone, or slate, to exclude the rain.
The interstices between the ends
of the joists, were closed with wax,
clay, or similar substances : the
position of the roof was likewise
altered ; and, as on account of its
level surface, it was unfit to carry
off the abundant rain-water, they
elevated it in the middle, by placing
rafters on the joists, to support the
earth and other materials of the
covering. From this simple con-
struction, the orders of architecture
undoubtedly took their origin ; for,
when the rude builder began to
erect stately edifices of stone, he
imitated those parts which, from
necessity, had composed the
primitive huts. Thus, the upright
trees, Avith stones at each end,
Avere the origin of columns, bases,
and capitals ; and the beams, joists,
rafters, he. Avhich formed the co-
vering, gave rise to architraves,
frizes, trigliphs, cornices, Sec.
Although the first buildings were
rough and uncouth, because the
artificers of those remote ages pos-
sessed neither skill, experience,
nor tools, yet, Avhen by length of
practice, certain rules had been
established, and many new instru-
ments invented, the art rapidly
advanced tOAvards perfection: a
variety of style, or different me-
thods of building, were discover-
ed, Avhich, by succeeding genera-
tions, have been held in the greatest
esteem.
The Egyptians, from the ear-
liest ages of antiquity, have been
considered as the inventors of arts;
and, among other contrivances, may
be numbered that species of o 'igi-
ARC
nal architecture, in Avhich the
strength of the fabric was more re-
garded than either its elegance, or
symmetry. The Greeks, whose
sublime and penetrating genius
prompted them to combine ele-
gance Avith convenience, derived
their first ideas of building from the
Egyptians.
The orders, as now executed by
architects, are five, viz. 1. the
Tuscan; 2. the Doric; 3. the
Ionic ; 4. the Corinthian ; and 5.
the Composite. The first, from
its robust appearance, is used in
works Avhere strength and sim-
plicity are the essential reemisites;
the second is nearly similar to the
Tuscan in strength, but is enli-
vened by its peculiar ornaments ;
the third is more delicate than ei-
ther of the former ; but the fourth
displays more beauty and ornament
than the others, and is therefore
frequently used for the internal de-
corations of stately rooms ; the fifth
order is nearly the same as the Co-
rinthian.
In the 12th century, architec-
ture revived, and experienced very
great improvements, in conse-
ejuence of the religious zeal of the
clergy ; and, in the 15th and 16th
centuries, the chaste style of the
Greeks and Romans was displayed
in Britain. For, though the Itali-
ans for a long time maintained
their superiority, in this as avcII as
in other arts, over all the European
nations, yet as men of genius from
distant parts constantly resorted to
Italy for the purpose of improve-
ment, since that period architects
have arisen in Britain, equal to
any that ever appeared on the clas-
sical ground of Italy.
The latest and most splendid
publication on this subject, which
is intended as a Supplement to that
ARC
magnificent work, " Vitruvius Bri-
tannicus," and which contains the
studies of themostcelebrated artists
of the present day, is the following :
" A Collection of Plans and Eleva-
tions of modern Buildings, public
and private, erected in Great Bri-
tain, he." It is engraved in aqua-
tinta, from original drawings by
G. R. Richardson, architect.
Seven numbers, at 10s. 6d. each,
are already published, and the
whole is to be completed in ten
such numbers.
Another very useful work has
lately appeared, under the title,
" Hints for Dwellings, he." By
D. Laing, architect and surveyor,
4to. 34 plates, 11. 5s. Taylor, 1800.
It consists of original designs for
cottages, farm-houses, villas, Sec.
plain and ornamental: with plans
to each, uniting convenience and
elegance with economy. The
Monthly Reviewers say : " We
recommend the present work, as
one of the best of that kind, to the
attention of those who Avish to
amuse themselves with brick and
mortar."
Beside these, we shall mention
the following architectural works,
which reflect credit on the artists
of this country: " The Rudiments
of Ancient Architecture, Sec." royal
8vo. edit. 2d. price 6s. boards,
published for Taylor, in 1794.....
" Sketches in Architecture, ;" by J.
So ane, architect, Sec. 54 folio plates,
21. 12s. 6d. half bound, 1793....."A
Treatise on the decorative part of
Civil Architecture ;" by Sir Wm.
Chambers, Sec. edit. 3d. Imperial
folio, price 31. 3s. Cadell, 1791.
Architecture, being an useful
and elegant art, is carried on in
three different ways : first, for uti-
lity ; secondly, for ornament; and,
thirdly, for the construction of such
ARG 111
buildings as require the combined
effect of both.
Buildings of such a nature only,
are compatible with our plan, and
of these we shall give a more par-
ticular account under the article
Building.
Arctium. See Burdock.
Areca. See Faselnut, Cate-
chu, and Cabbage-Palm.
Armaria. See Sandwort.
Argemone. See Prickly Poppt.
ARGUMENT, when applied to
logic, signifies an inference drawn
from premises, the truth of which
is either indisputable,or highly pro-
bable. In matters of literature, it
denotes the abridgement, or heads,
of a book, history, chapter, Sec.
Considered in the former sense, in
which it solely relates to reason,
and to the investigation of truth,
it is, in its principles, of a simple
and homogeneous nature ; and re-
quires no particular explanation.
For, pleasure being the chief end
of poetry, and persuasion that of
eloquence, the real constitution of
things is often perverted, or dis-
guised, and compelled to adapt
itself to the imagination and the
passions ; but truth, being the ulti-
mate object of argument, stands in
need of no dazzling colours, or the
figurative language of rhetoric.
It is not, however, unusual (both
in private life and in the senate)
to draw from an argument, a con-
clusion very different from what it
really implies. Cunning and bold
disputants frequently avail them-
selves of ambiguous expressions,
which easily engender a confusion
of ideas ; and thus the fallacy of
their incongruous reasoning but
too often escapes detection, as it
remains involved in sophistical per-
plexity.....For a farther considera-
tion of this intere sting subject, we
112 ARI
ARI
refer our readers to the article of
Logic, where it will be more ap-
plicable than under the present.
Arislolochia. See Birthwort.
ARITHMETIC, is a science
which teaches the method of com-
puting numbers, and explains their
nature and peculiarities. At Avhat
time it was invented, is altogether
unknown; though the four first
fundamental principles, viz. addi-
tion, subtraction, multiplication,
and division, have always, in a cer-
tain degree, been practised by dif-
ferent nations.
The Greeks were among the
first who brought arithmetic to per-
fection ; and they are supposed to
have originally made use of pebbles
in their calculations. The most
complete method of numbering
now used in this country, Avas in-
troduced into Europe by the Ara-
bians, Avhen they were in possession
of Spain. These people, however,
acknowledged that they derived
their information from the Indi-
ans. How the latter became ac-
emainted with it, Ave are entirely
ignorant. The earliest treatises
extant upon the theory of arithme-
tic, are, the 7th, 8th, and 9th books
of Euclid's Elements, in which
he treats of proportion ; of prime
and composite numbers. Nicoma-
chus, the Pythagorean, also wrote
concerning the distinction and di-
visions of numbers into classes, as
plain, solid, triangular, Sec. in
which he explained some of the
leading peculiarities of the several
kinds.
As learning advanced in Europe,
the knowledge of numbers also in-
creased, and the writers on this
subject soon became numerous.
Ramus Avas the first Avho, in his
Treatise on Arithmetic, published
in 1586, used decimal periods, for
reducing the square and cube
roots to fractions ; but the greatest
improvement which the art of
computation ever received, was
from the invention of logarithms,
the honour of which is due to John
Napier, Baron of Merchiston, in
Scotland, who published his disco-
very about the beginning of the
17th century.
Arithmetic may now be consi-
dered as having advanced to a de-
gree of perfection which, in former
times, could scarcely have been
conceiA'ed, and to be one of those
few sciences which have left little
room for farther improvement.
It is, however, a serious and al-
most general complaint, that few
children, while at school, make any
tolerable progress in arithmetic ;
and that the generality, after hav-
ing spent several years under the
tuiton of a master, are incapable
of applying the few rules which
they may have learned, to the use-
ful purposes of life. A little re-
flection will suffice to convince us,
that not much benefit is to be de-
rived from the usual mode of in-
struction. A few elementary prin-
ciples are acquired by rote, and
therefore quickly forgotten; be-
cause the most essential particu-
lars, viz. the reasons on Avhich
these rules are founded, and their
extens'iA'e use in the A'arious con-
cerns of society, are generally
omitted. Teachers, as well as
writers, cannot be Avholly exempt-
ed from the charge of having, in
some degree, contributed to this
evil; for, by stating the rules with-
out their corresponding reasons,
they act upon mechanical princi-
ples, and thus encourage the idea,
that demonstrations in every in-
stance are useless, and in some, im-
possible.
ARI
ARQ 113
1 Ivery young arithmetician should
remember, that before he forms
any particular question or numeri-
cal proposition, it is absolutely ne-
cessary to consider Avhether the
terms be directly proportionate to
each other; for otherwise he will
be liable to commit gross errors.
Although in buying and selling, the
price increases or decreases in the
same relative proportion as the
quantity of goods, yet in geome-
try, natural philosophy, Sec. those
things which at first sight appear
to be in simple proportion to each
other, may, on a mature investi-
gation, prove the contrary. Pre-
viously, therefore, to the solution of
questions respecting these sciences,
he should be made acquainted
with those elementry principles
on Avhich they are founded.
Another material error commit-
ted in the inferior schools, is the
admission of boys under the age of
ten or twelve, often for the sake
of early fees, though they are inca-
pable of being instructed by rea-
soning with them. Hence we are
decidedly of opinion, that this is
one of the negative, modern im-
provements ; and that the earliest
periods of fixing the attention of
youth on scientific objects, is, ac-
cording to their individual capaci-
ties, from the twelfth to the fif-
teenth year of their age.
Among the latest, and most in-
structive works on this subject, Ave
enumerate the following:...." An
Introduction to Arithmetic and Al-
gebra ;" by T. Manning, two vo-
lumes, 8vo. 10s. boards. Riving-
tons, 1798....." Arithmetical Ques-
tions, on a N-w Plan ;" by W.
Butler, 8vo. edit. 2d. 4s. boards.
Dilly, 1797....." The Arithmetician's
Guide ;" by W. Taylor, 12mo.
2s. 6d. bound. Baldwin, 1788.
VOL. I.
[To this list may be addedPiKE's
Arithmetic, a work originally pub*
lished in the U. States, and esteem-
ed by competent judges, one of the
best on the subject.]
See also,EDucATioNandBlind-
ness.
Arnica montana, L.....See Ger-
man Leopard's Bane.
AROMATIC, an epithet given
to such substances as yield a strong
fragrant smell, and impart a warm
taste. In this class are included
the various spices, such as nut-
megs, cloves, cinnamon, mace,
Sec. Some of them have a sweet-
ness mixed with their aromatic
principle; such as the angelica
root, anise seed, and fennel ; some
are astringent, as cinnamon; others
afford a strong mucilage, as the
Cassia lignea ; and again, others a
bitterness, as orange and lemon
peel.
The aromatic ingredient is ex-
tracted in different proportions
from various substances, by recti-
fied spirits of wine ; though it is
sometimes obtained by mere infu-
sion with Avater.
Aromatics form an useful and
agreeable ingredient in many arti-
cles of cookery, but especially in
dishes prepared of Avatery and fla-
tulent vegetables, of which they
are the best correctors : they warm
the stomach, and stimulate the
whole system ; raise the pulse, and
cuiicken the circulation. In cold,
languid habits, anel a relaxed state
of the solids, they support the ani-
mal spirits, or increase vital ac-
tion, and promote the salutary se-
cretions : but to hot, bilious tem-
peraments, full habits, and inflam-
matory dispositions, they are cer-
tainly pernicious.
ARQUEBUSADE WATER, a
medicinal preparation, whick has
Q
114 ARR
ARR
received this name, from its great
efficacyin healing gun-shot wounds,
though it is, at present, with more
propriety, applied to bruises, tu-
mors arising from blows, and par-
ticularly to suggillated parts con-
taining coagulated blood.
Various mixtures are used for
this purpose, but according to our
experience, the following deserves
the preference, both on account of
the easy manner of preparing it,
and its superior virtues: " Take
distilled vinegar and rectified spirit
of wine, of each one pound and a
half, double refined loaf-sugar, half
a pound, and five ounces of com-
mon oil of vitriol. This composi-
tion may be applied to the injured
parts in a cold or lukewarm state,
and the compresses should be kept
continually moist, for as soon as
they become dry, the pain is liable
to return. By its astringent pro-
perty it contracts the skin ; and the
sugar Avhich settles on it, not un-
like a coating of glue, ought to be
carefully washed off every other,
or third day, with Goulard-Avater.
[The virtueof these healing waters
are more imaginary than real: for
most Avounds, nothing more is re-
quired, than to join the separated
parts, and bind them up in the ef-
fused blood ; the separated vessels
will soon unite. In Avarm weather,
the parts may be covered Avith a
cloth dipped in spirits or brandy....
No remedy, for a bruise, is equal
to an ounce of sal ammoniac dis-
solved in a pint or a pint and a half
of vinegar, with which the parts
must be bathed every hour, or
oftener.]
ARRACK, Arac, or Rack, is a
spirituous liquet- imported from the
East Indies, and used either as a
cordial, or an ingredient in punch.
It is obtained by distillation
from rice, or sugar, fermented
with the juice of cocoa-nuts. Goa
and Batavia are the chief places
from which arrack is exported. At
the former, there are three sorts,
viz. the single, double, and treble
distilled. The double is but a weak
spirit, in comparison with that ob-
tained at the latter place ; but, on
account of its peculiar flavour, it is
preferreel to all the others.
The arrack now in general use
contains but a sixth, and some-
times only an eighth part of alco-
hol, or pure spirit. A spirituous
liquor of this name is also extracted
by the Tartars of Tungusia, from
mare's milk, which is first suffer-
ed to turn sour, and then distilled
two or three times, between two
close earthen pots, from Avhich it
runs through a small wooden pipe.
It is possessed of the most intoxi-
cating qualities; so that, according
to Professor Pallas, men, wo-
men, and children, frequently
drink themselves into a semi-deli-
rious trance, Avhich continues for
forty-eight hours.
Various penalties are attached to
the sale of arrack, without con-
forming to the usual duties and
regulations established by several
acts of parliament, Avith Avhich we
shall not trouble our readers, but
refer them to the statutes made
concerning this article.
Genuine arrack is said to possess
balsamic, softening, and restora-
tive properties, and to be less lia-
ble to produce the usual inconve-
niencies of other spirits. It is
farther supposed to contain a fine
subtile oil, so minute as to incor-
porate readily with water: hence
it is generally preferred in those
cases, where repeated debauches
bave abraded the internal sides of
the vessels. Persons who are ua-
ARR
Fortunately addicted to the use of
ardent spirits, as well as those
troubled with the gout or rheuma-
tism, and who cannot comply Avith
the rules of sobriety and temper-
ance, may use arrack in preference
to Hollands, or brandy. On ac-
count of its strong empyreumatic
oil, however, it is difficult of di-
gestion., soon turns rancid, causes
numerous obstructions, and is con-
sequently injurious to individuals of
lax solids, and thick or sizy fluids.
Happy, therefore, are those Avho
can entirely banish spirituous li-
quors from their tables ; as, from
their stimulating and pernicious
qualities, they have destroyed in-
calculable numbers of human be-
ings....perhaps exceeding, in the
aggregate, all the victims that ever
fell under the combined scourges of
war, hunger, and nestilence.
ARRANGEMENT, a term
which denotes a distribution of the
various component parts of any
whole, in a certain order, or pro-
portion ; and refers either to sub-
stance, time, or place. In the first
instance, we may say, that the
diversity observable in various co-
lours is owing to a peculiar arrange-
ment of those parts which reflect
th« light; in the second, that re-
gularity and order in human trans-
actions are the result of a methodi-
cal distribution, or arrangement of
time ; and to explain the last, it
may be said, that the different
genera and species of plants and
flowers are, by botanists, arranged
■under their respective classes, and
in their proper places.
A happy arrangement of ideas,
Avords, and sentences, forms one
of the principal beauties of a speech,
or dissertation. The reverse im-
plies confusion, which is frequently
gjosscd over by a torrent of ajubi-
ARR 115
guous and floAvery expressions, so
that it requires no small degree of
critical acumen, to distinguish the
philosophical speaker from the ver-
bose orator.....See Argument.
ARROW, is a missive weapon
of defence, used by archers. Its
form is slender, pointed, and barb-
ed.....Arrow-makers were denomi-
natedfietchers ; men of considera-
ble importance in the state.
Arrow-heads and quarrels Avere
required to be well boched or bras-
ed, and hardened at the points with
steel; the finishing of Avhich ap-
pears to have been the business of
the arrow-smith. A more particu-
lar account of doavs and arrows
will be found under the title of
Archery.
ARROW-GRASS, is a plant of
which there are three species ; but
two only are natives of Britain,
namely, the Triglochin palustre, or
Marsh, and the maritimum, or Sea
Arrow-grass. The former is fre.
quently met Avith in marshy
grounds, and the latter near the
sea coast, and in saline tracts. As
they are eaten Avith avidity by
sheep, for which they serve as an
excellent and Avholesome food, Ave
presume strongly to recommend
their culture. An additional nu>
tive for the propagation of the ar-
roAV-grass, may be suggested to the
farmer and breeder of sheep ; be-
cause it thrives extremely well in
moist and SAvampy places, where
few other vegetables Avould grow.
ARROW-HEAD, Common,the
Sagittaria sagittifolic, L. is one of
those neglected plants, winch,
though fjroAving Avild in many
parts of England especially on the
bank's of rivers are not converted
to any useful purpose: it is repre*
sentedinP1.7.Engllih Bpavjypo. 8*.
The root of tlu; arrow-head h
116 ARR
ARR
composed of numerous strong fi-
bres, which strike into the mud;
the foot stalks of the* leaves are
of a length proportionate to the
depth of the Avater in which they
groAv; they are thick, fungous, and
sometimes three feet high. Its
sharp pointed leaves resemble the
point of an arrow, and float upon
the Avater. At the lower extremity
of the root, there is always, even
in its Avild state, a bulb which groAVS
in the solid clay, beneath the mud-
dy stratum.
This esculent root is industrious-
ly cultivated in China and America,
where it attains to the size of
several inches in diameter; Avhile
in this country, of which it is a
native, we suffer it to undergo
spontaneous dissolution. As it
constitutes a considerable part of
the Chinese diet, no reason can be
alledged Avhy it should not be re-
sorted to in times of scarcity when
a poor cottager, in some parts of
the country, might in one day, with
his family, collect a sufficient quan-
tity of these nourishing and palat-
able roots, to serve them for a fort-
night, as excellent substitutes for
bread. With respect to the man-
ner of dressing and preparing such
vegetables, Ave shall give the neces-
sary directions under the article
Bread.
The arrow-head requires a low,
cold, marshy situation, and a clayey
soil, Avhere scarcely any other plant
would thrive. Here it gr&ws lux-
uriantly, and produces an oblong,
thick, bulbous root, which, from its
mealy nature, may be easily con-
verted into starch, or flour. Even
in its raw and unprepared state, it
affords a proper and Avholesomc
food for horses, goats and hogs;
though cows do not relish it.....
There are two methods of propa-
gating this beneficial plant; either
by the wild-groAving fibres of the
root, or by the seed; and we ear-
nestly recommend its culture,
from a conviction of its great utili-
ty. In the present alarming crisis,
we also venture to suggest the pro-
priety and expediency of inducing
the industrious poor to collect this
and similar plentiful roots, and after
washing, macerating them, and ex-
pressing their starch, to mix it Avith
other ingredients, in the making of
bread. If persuasion and reason-
ing do not avail, small premiums or
rewards might be offered, to accom-
plish so desirable a purpose.
ARROW-ROOT, Indian, or the
Maranta, a plant of Avhich there
are three species, the' arundinacea,
galanga, and comosa; all of them
are herbaceous, perennial exotics of
the Indies, and kept in our hot-
houses merely for curiosity. The
first of these species is the true
starch-plant, and is likewise used by
the Indians to extract the poison
communicated by their arrows.
Dr. Wright, of Jamaica, ap-
pears to be the first who informed
us that a decoction of the. fresh
roots makes an excellent ptisan in
acute diseases. From an ingeni-
ous pamphlet published in 1796,
by Mr. T.Ryder, of Oxford-stree*,
Ave farther leam, that one of his
West-Indian patients, employed
it as an article of diet, anel since
that period it has been very gene-
rally used in families.
The arroAV-root poAvder unques-
tionably yields a larger proportion
of nutritive mucilage than any Eu-
ropean vegetable, if we except the
Salep-root; hence a single table-
spoonful of either, makes a pint of
strong and nourishing jelly, which
affords a very proper food in acute
diseases as well as in all those
ARR
ARS 117
complaints where animal food must
be abstained from. It is there-
fore to be regretted, that we cannot
easily obtain this powder in a pure
state, Avithout paying the extrava-
gant price of from five to ten shil-
lings per pound; for in those
shops where it is offered to sale at
an inferior price of two or three
shillings the pound, Ave have found
by experience, that it is considera-
bly adulterated.
Mr. Ryder, before mentioned,
has justly recommended the cul-
ture of this root to the West-Indian
Planters, and the new African Co-
lonists, as an object of commerce,
and the most eligible substitute for
starch, made of Avheat: 1. Be-
cause it would save annually 66,000
quarters of that valuable grain, in
Great Britain alone, where the
average quantum of starch made in
the years 1793, 1794, and 1795,
amounted to 8 millions of pounds
Aveight, allowing one hundred and
twenty pounds per quarter :...2. As
the Avholesale price of the arrow-
root was, in 1796, fifteen pence a
pound, and as one pound of its
starch is equal to two pounds and a
half prepared from wheat, its in-
trinsic value would, by this com-
putation, not exceed *fx-pence per
pound : whereas the average price
of starch in England for seven years
(from 1789 to lT95)maybe stated
at nine-pence the pound. 3. As the
arrow-root contains more soluble,
gelatinous matter, occupying less
space, being less enveloped in
earthy particles and affording a
purer farina than any other plant,
it may be reasonably inferred, that
the starch obtained from it must
be of the finest quality; an opinion
amply confirmed by three clear-
starchers, Avho were, on this occa-
sion, consulted by the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, Manu-
factures and Commerce.
[The arrow-root furnishes an ex-
cellent remedy for the bowel com-
plaints, which so commonly pre-
vail in the United States, during
warm weather, especially among
children. The plants would thrive
in the southern states, and ought
to be introduced into them, by some
of the numerous Americans who
visit the West-Indies.]
ARSENIC, an heavy, opaque,
crystalline substance, which, on
fracture, resembles sal ammoniac
in a concrete state. Most of the
metallic ores contain it in greater
or less proportion, especially those
of copper, tin, bismuth, and the
fossil called cobalt, from which
last it is extracted in Saxony, by
a kind of sublimation. Its true
nature is so little known, that che-
mists have hesitated Avhether it
ought to be ranked among the
salts, or semi-metals; because it
may, by various processes, be made
to assume either a saline or metal-
lic state. Hence, it has by many
been considered as a mineralizing
substance, which only tends to
combine metals, and to give them
a more perfect form. Nay, there
are others, who have doubted Avhe-
ther it be a simple body; and Ave
Avell remember the assertion of an
ingenious lecturer on chemistry
and pharmacy in Edinburgh, who
still flatters himself Avith the hope
of being able, at some future period,
to demonstrate by experiment,
" that arsenic is the true basis of
silver."
This semi-metallic concrete is
A-ery usefully employed in various
branches of the arts and manufac-
tures ; it is frequently added as an
ingredient, to facilitate the fusion
of glass, and to produce a certain
^
118
ARS
ARS
degree of opacity. Painters use
two arsenical preparations,namely,
the orpiment and realgar. A very
beautiful green pigment may be
precipitated from blue vitriol, by a
watery solution of white arsenic
and vegetable alkali : this, when
prepared either with water or oil,
affords a permanent colour. It is
highly probable that, if arsenic
were added to the paint used for
wood, it might form an ingredient
which AA'ould not be liable to be
preyed upon by worms. But the
practice of painting the toys of
children Avith arsenical pigments,
deserves severe censure; as they
are accustomed to put every thing
into their mouth.
In dyeing, it is likewise of great
service. Combined Avith sulphur,
it has the property of readily dis-
solving indigo ; for which purpose
it is u^ed in the printing of calico,
and other cloth. On exposure to
the air, however, the arsenic is
precipitated from this solution, and
may be farther employed in pencil
colours. Some dyers are said to
understand the art of imparting
beautiful shades of colours to furs,
by arsenical solutions.
In rural and domestic economy,
this concrete is also freemently re-
sorted to Avith great .advantage,
though not always Avith due pre-
caution. Farmers dissolve it in
lime-water, for steeping wheat, in
(order to prevent the smut; and it is
likcAvise asserted, that the husband-
men of Flanders and Germany use
it for fertilizing the earth,by sprink-
ling the sc il Avith a solution of ar-
senic in dung-water.
In medicine, it has long been
known as the basis of the most
celebrated cancer-powders, especi-
ally those of Plunket, Dr. Hugh
Martin, and probably also, of
Guy's. A Aveak solution of it in
water, is directed by Dr. Way, of
Wilmington, for effectually cleans-
ing foul ulcers, and removing im-
purities of the skin: it is prepared
by boiling one ounce of white arse-
nic in two quarts of Avater to three
pints, and applying it once or twice
a day. When it is used for extract-
ing, or disctissing, cancerous or
schirrous tumors, that are not ul-
cerated, the above-mentioned Dr.
Martin, a late physician in Ame-
rica, previously ordered a blister of
Spanish flies to be applied to the
part, with a view to open the pores
of the skin. But, as he prescribed
it empirically, and indiscriminately
in all cancerous cases, we were
not surprised to learn from his old
professor,Dr. Benj. Rush, that his
pupil has often been unsuccessful
in the application of his arsenicated
poAvder*.
In the cure of agues, a solution
of this mineral has been strongly
recommended, and administered
with success, upon the authority
of Drs. Fowler, Arnold, Wi-
th ering,Will an, Marsh,Pear-
son, and many other respectable
English and foreign practitioners,
who do not hesitate to prescribe it
in doses, from two to twelve drops,
once, twice, or oftener in the course
of the day, according to the age,
strength, and other circumstances
of the patient.
A preparation similar to that di-
rected by Dr. Fowler, and called
the Avhite tasteless ague-drop, has
lately been given with singular effi-
cacy in the hooping-cough. We re-
* It is presumed, that the liquid medicines, now secretly exhibited by a physician in
London, who positively maintains that be cures cancers " by absorption," likewise con-
sist of solutions made of this virulent semi-metal. See Cancers.
ARS
ARS 119
late this fact upon the evidence of
Mr. Crop, an eminent surgeon,
of Bamet.
Notwithstanding these remark-
able and powerful effects of arsenic
over the virulence of diseases, which
appear to depend either on a speci-
cific contagious miasma, such as is
supposed to produce the ague and
hooping-cough, or on a peculiar
disposition of the fluids and solids,
to undergo a certain degree of de-
composition in the living body, as
is evident in cancers, and other
malignant ulcers....we are, on the
combined testimony of many me-
dical practitioners, equally cele-
brated for their extensive practice
and 'erudition, as they are conspi-
cuous for their professional zeal
and integrity, irresistibly induced
to declare our opinion, at least,
against the internal use of this ac-
tive and dangerous medicine. Of
the numerous authorities which
might be aelduceel in support of
this declaration, we shall here avail
ourselves only of the conclusive
testimony of Dr. Black, the late
professor of chemistry in the uni-
versity of Edinburgh, who main-
tains, that he has seen the Internal
exhibition of arsenic attended Avith
fatal effects, such as hectics, he.
nay, he declares, that though the
external application of this sub-
stance has, in some cases, proved
successful, it has often, even in
this way, produced dreadful conse-
quences ; so that, far from recom-
mending it internally,he reprobates
even the external use of this preca-
rious drug. Hence we hope to be
forgiven by those worthy medical
practitioners, from whom no slight
motives would induce us to differ :
and unless it could be proved by a
plurality of cases, that patients, af-
ter the taking of arsenic to some
extent, have not only recovered
from agues, cancers, hooping-
cough, Sec. but that they have
likewise attained to a considerable
age, without ever having been sub-
ject to paralytic, spasmodic, or
phthisical disorders, we shall not
be disposed to retract our opinion
of its virulent and destructive ten-
dency.
Although we have deprecated
the internal use of arsenic, both
from the concurrent evidence of
many other practitioners, and our
own experience, yet we shall at-
tempt to prove, that there is actu-
ally less danger to be apprehended
from those accidents, when this
corrosive poison has by mistake,
been swallowed, either in the form
of a powder, or solution. And as
it is frequently used for destroying
rats, mice, and other troublesome
animals ; for preparing sympathe-
tic inks*, as well as for chemical
tests ; to discover the adulterations
of wines*, which have been SAveet-
ened by sugar of lead ; we cannot
be too minute in laying down pro-
per rules and directions for obvi-
ating the dangerous effects of such
casualties, as but too often occur
among those who employ arsenical
preparations, in a dry or liquid
state, either for gratifying tlieir
curiosity by different experiments,
or for other more useful purposes.
Arsenic is one of the most sud-
den and violent poisons Ave are
acquainted with. Its fumes are so
deleterious to the lungs, that the
artist ought to be on his guard, to
prevent their inhalation by the
.• See the article Sympathetic Inc.
*■ See \\ ujk.
120 ARS
ARS
mouth; for if they be mixed ana1
swallowed with the saliva, effects
Avill take place similar to those,
which follow its introduction into
the stomach in a saline or dissolv-
ed state; namely, a sensation of
a piercing, gnawing, and burning
kind, accompanied with an acute
pain in the stomach and intestines,
which last are violently contort-
ed ; convulsive vomiting ; insatiable
thirst, from the parched and rough
state of the tongue and throat;
hiccough, palpitation of the heart,
and a deadly oppression of the
whole breast succeed next; the
matters ejected by the mouth, as
well as the stools, exhibit a black,
fetid and putrid appearance ; at
length, Avith the mortification of
the boAvels, the pain subsides, and
the fatal catastrophe terminates the
sufferings of the patient. There
are, however, cases on medical re-
cord, in Avhich, on dissection, nei-
ther the stomach nor bowels, ac-
cording to the testimonies of Drs.
Metzger and Hahnemann, have
been corroded, nor even injured; so
that this poison may, in some
instances, exert its action immedi-
ately on the living principle....
Thus we find, in a case related
by our late friend, Dr. Unzer, of
Hamburgh, that a lady, Avho had
only tasted a little arsenic, without
swalloAving a particle, was twelve
hours after the accielent thrown
into the most convulsive spasms,
and attacked Avith inflammatory
pustules, not unlike the measles,
covering her face, neck, and Avhole
body, so that she recovered with
great difficulty, and remained for
several years in a miserable state
of langour, and general debility.
For these obvious reasons, artists
exposeel to the fumes or vapour of
this volatile mineral, ought to be
extremely, cautious to preserve
themselves from its influence on
their mouth and nostrils, as well
as from touching it Avith their hands;
for every external contact may be
attended with serious consequences.
Hence they should dress in thick
and firm clothes, keep at a proper
distance from the exhaling fumes,
and cover the orifices of the face
with a mask, made for the purpose.
In their system of diet, Ave advise
them to make use of a great pro-
portion of blanel and mucilaginous
nourishment; such as fresh butter,
pork, SAveet-oil, milk, artichokes,
and similar vegetables.
With respect to the treatment of
persons, after the inhalation, or
swallowing of arsenic, we shall
arrange the subject under three
distinct propositions.
I. When a large portion of arse-
nic has been introduced into the
stomach, or inhaled by the lungs :
1. Immediately after the acci-
dent, brisk emetics ; for instance,
half a elrachm of white vitriol, anel,
after it, plenty of sweet lintseed, or
almond-oil, either of which is pre-
ferable to olive-oil; or, if these be
not at hand, large draughts of
milk, barley gruel, or warmed
beer, with a third part of oil, or
butter, ought to be substituted, as
soon as possible. To facilitate the
operation, a strong feather should
be dipt in oil, for stimulating the
tonsils. If the throat be SAVollen
and contracted, a surgeon ought
to be instantly procured, for open-
ing the gullet by means of a probe,
or other proper instruments.
2. To neutralize and deprive
this corrosive poison of its activity.
according to Dr. Hahnemann,
nothing is more efficacious than a
solution of white soap in hot wa-
ter, in the proportion of half a
ARS ARS 121
pound of the former to a quart of
the latter, which must be boiled,
and the soap agitated until the
whole is dissolved: when it may
be sweetened with sugar. This
preparation ought to be taken with-
out delay, and so frequently as to
repeat half a tea-cup full of it every
five minutes, that the patient may
swallow several pounds in the
course of two hours. If hepatised
water (prepared by pouring acids
on the liver of sulphur, and satu-
rating, with the ascending vapours,
water contained in another vessel,)
could be readily procured, it would,
with the addition of one half of
thick cream, be an excellent sub-
stitute for the solution of soap.
3. To promote the evacuation
of the poison by stool, clysters
composed of the preceding liquids,
and a third part of castor-oil, ought
to be speedily administered, and
the whole abdomen fomented with
soap-water.
4. With a vieAv to prevent local
or general inflammation, besiele
the fomentations, cataplasms, luke-
Avarm baths and clysters, it will,
perhaps, be necessary to bleed the
patient largely, but not without con-
sulting medical men.
II. When a person has been slow-
ly poisoned, or has swallowed only a
small portion of arsenic ; or, if the
proper remedies should have been
neglected for several hours.
In these cases, the judicious
practitioner only can decide upon
the relative propriety and expe-
diency of the preceding remedies ;
but if a considerable time has
elapsed since the accident happen-
ed, it will be necessary to com-
mence the treatment Avith purga-
tive remedies, such as will at the
same time lubricate the coats of the
Stomach, and the whole intestinal
VOL. I.
canal, Avhile they tend to assuage
the acrimony, and counteract the
corrosive effect produced on the
first passages. Of this nature is,
in a pre-eminent degree, the castor-
oil, combined with large draughts,
either of the hepatised or soap-
waters. A strictly antiphlogistic
regimen ought now to be pursued,
together with the remedies proper
to obviate inflammation, and after-
wards a milk-diet, lintseed tea,
barley-water, gruel, and infusions
of different mucilaginous vegeta-
bles, milk chocolate without spice,
aided by the enjoyment of fresh
and pure air.
III. Indications of cure, when
the patient labours under a gradual
and long-continued action of the
poison ; or in the secondary stages
of the two former casualties.
The principal object now to be
attained, is the destruction of poi-
sonous matter in the second pas-
sages, or to prevent its influence
on the kidneys, biliary ducts, the
organs of perspiration, Sec. To
ascertain Avhether the virus has dif-
fused itself through the system, the
person's state of mind and body
should be comparatively examined;
whether the former be dejected, or
the latter reduced to preternatural
debility ; or whether any of the
animal and natural functions be
impaired. When there appears a
blue ring round the eyes, and the
lips exhibit a similar colour, Ave
may conclude, that the devastation
occasioned in the whole frame is
considerable; and in such in-
stances, Dr. Boerhaave advises
to let the patient drink no less than
twelve pints of luke-Avarm honey-
water, in24hours,for 3 days succes-
sively ; and to administer frequent
clysters of the same liquid. By this
simple treatment, he observes, all
R
122 ARS
ARS
those painful and dangerous symp-
toms, Avhich sometimes afflict the
victims of this poison through the
remainder of their lives, have been
effectually obviated. On the con-
trary, M.Navier, a reputed French
Avriter, on the effects of arsenic
and its antidotes, recommends the
method Ave have already pointed
out, in propositions I. and II. af-
ter which, he insinuates the pro-
priety of re-commencing a milk-
diet, and enjoins the patient to ab-
stain from the use of all acid sub-
stances, or liquors. In this opi-
nion he is likeAvise supported by
Dr. Hahnemann, who cautions
the convalescent to be very atten-
tive to his evacuations by stool;
which, so long as he is subject to
griping pain, and strictures in the
abdomen, constantly require to be
aided by the mildest purgatives.
Besides these, he may drink decoc-
tions of the Lichen islandicus, of the
root called Polygala senega, or of
ejuassia-Avooel, which last is, of all
other corroborant and astringent
remedies, the least heating, and
consequently the most proper to be
taken.
In order to prevent all the bad
consequences resulting from this
malignant poison, the patient may
Avith advantage resort to the warm
mineral, sulphureous waters, which
he should not only drink plentifully
but likewise bathe in them, espe-
cially in the form of vapour. If
such natural Avaters cannot be ea-
sily procured, they may be artifi-
cially substituteel by medical men,
Avho are, in general, perfectly Avell
acquainted with their component
parts, as well as the manner of
preparing them. By their proper
use, the unfortunate invalid may
at length recover from that tremu-
lating affection of the limbs, re-
laxation, paralysis, convulsions, and
other distressing complaints, Avhich
the improvident swallowing of arse-
nic usually produces.
From a multiplicity of instances
related by Wepfer, Heer, Zitt-
man, Ebell, and other Avriters,
we have reason to conclude, that
in our daily victuals, as Avell as by
the use of glazed vessels, consider-
able portions of lead and arsenic
are taken into the stomach, and
mixeel with solid food ; though un-
attended with danger or inconve-
nience, except that of vomiting.
Sometimes, hoAvever, when the
digesting organs are in a languid
state, the poison may lodge in the
cellular membranes of the sto-
mach anel bowels, for several days
or weeks, before it be evacuated.
In such cases, the necessary con-
seepiences will be a sIoav hectic fe-
ver, for which the physician, who
is generally consulted in the secon-
dary stage of the disease, can as-
sign no cause.
Lastly, we shall briefly mention,
by Avhat means and process it
may, after death be discovered,
Avhether a person have died from
the poison of arsenic, though this
knoAvledge properly belongs to the
department of medical police or
jurisprudence.
1. The contents of the stomach
and intestines should be taken out,
and washed in Avater. If any
poAvder be contained therein, it
should be allowed to separate ; and
if this be arsenic, it will fall to the
bottom.
2. Place the separated poAvder
on a red hot iron ; anel, if it eva-
porate in a thick Avhite vapour,
without melting, there is reason to
conclude that it is arsenic....this
effect will take place Avith the for-
tieth part of a grain.
ART
ART 123
S. If this poAvder be mixed with
charcoal, and emit an odour re-
sembling that of garlic, we may also
infer that it is arsenic.
4. The most convincing test of
its nature is the following : iu.-
close the mixed powder with the
charcoal, between two small po-
lished plates of copper (or between
two perfectly smooth halfpenny-
pieces,) the edges of Avhich must
be cemented with a lute made of
two parts of fine sand, and one of
pipe-clay. Fasten the plates Avith
a thin Avire, and expose the Avhole
to a red heat: thus the arsenical
powder will be metallized; and,
penetrating the copper, a blackish
skin will first appear upon it, which
being rubbed off, the parts touched
by the arsenical vapour Avill acquire
a whitish or leaden colour.
As this deleterious concrete fre-
quently enters metallic composi-
tions, especially those of copper
and tin, it were much to be Avished,
that such compound metals could
for ever be banished, at least from
our kitchens.....See Copper, Lead
Pewter, and Tin-
ART, as defined by Lord Bacon
is a proper disposal of natural ob-
jects, by human thought and expe-
rience ; so as to answer the several
purposes of mankind ; in Avhich
sense the Avord Art stands opposed
to Nature : it is also used for a
system of rules, serving to facilitate
the performance of certain actions,
r.nd is then opposed to Science, or
a system of theoretical principles.
Arts are generally elivided into
useful or mechanic, liberal or polite.
The former consist of those in
which manual labour has a greater
share than intellectual exertion;
snd by which we are provided Avith
the necessaries of life ; whence
lluy are denominated trades, as
baking, breAving, carpentry, he.
The latter are such as depenel on
the application of mental abilities,
and the active powers of a fertile
imagination. Of this nature are,
poetry, painting, music, and the
like.
The progress of the arts and
sciences towards perfection, is also
greatly promoted by emulation.
Mathematics, for instance, appear
to be on the decline in Europe ;
for, since the immortal Newton
has far surpassed all the ancients,
there appears to be little hope for
the moderns, either of excelling,
or equalling, his creative genius.
In countries thinly inhabited, it
is not uncommon to find one per-
son exercising several professions,
and this is proc'uctive, in cnr.e de-
gree, of gooel effects. Various
operations being carried on by the
same individual, his mind becomes
invigorated, because a combination
of talents is reemired to perform
the task; but, Avhen the mental
powers are restricted to a single
object, all thought and invention
are excluded, and the operator is,
in a manner, converted into a dull
and inanimate machine.
From the useful, naturally re-
sulted the cultivation of the liberal
arts. Persons who enjoyed every
convenience from the former, turn-
ed their attention towards the lat-
ter : hence arose Sculpture, Sta-
tuary, Painting, Literary Compo-
sition, Sec.
The decline of the fine arts in
Rome, is ascribed, by Petronius
Arbiter to a cause Avhich ulti-
mately proves the destruction of
mankind, wherever it preA'ails.....
such is opulence, Avith its never-
failing concomitants, avarice and
hixury. It has therefore been justly
remarked, by acute observers, that
124 ART
ART
during the rise and progress of em-
pires, the military arts chiefly flou-
rish ; when arrived at their height,
the liberal arts ; and when in a de-
clining state, the arts of luxury.
The fine arts are only relished
by persons of taste, who can spare
large sums for supporting them :
thus it will be found, that they sel-
dom, or never, flourish in coun-
tries where they do not obtain the
liberal patronage of the sovereign,
or men in power. On the other
hand, the useful arts are aiAvays
encouraged in every Avell regulated
State. In short, the unexampled
success of both, in Great Britain,
may be justly attributed to the
sanction and munificence which
men of talents and genius (whe-
ther natives or foreigners), uni-
formly experience from the Sove-
reign, as Avell as from the nobility,
almost without exception. No na-
tion can boast of a greater number
of connoisseurs and patrons, in the
wealthy classes of society, than the
British.
When the people are once rous-
ed from their indolence and le-
thargy, by AvhateA-er fortunate
event or change of circumstances,
the progress of the arts is gene-
lally rapid. Prosperity, contrast-
ed with former penury, creates in
the mind a spring which is vigor-
ously exerted in new pursuits. The
Athenians, while under the tyranny
of Pisistratus, made but a mean
appearance ; but, on regaining
their independence, Avere convert-
ed into heroes. This prosperity
produced its usual effects, and
Athens became the chief theatre of
the arts and sciences.....The Corsi-
cans, when engaged in a perilous
war for the defence of their liber-
ties, displayed a vigorous national
spirit: they founded an universi-
ty, a public library, and a public
bank.....The Royal Society of Lon-
don, and the Academy of Sciences
in Paris, were both instituted after
civil wars, which had animated the
people, and excited their activity
and emulation.
Democritus maintained, that
men Avere indebted for the acquisi-
tion of their arts to brutes; that
the spider taught them weaving;
the sAvallow, building ; the night-
ingale, music, and so forth.
[ARTEMISIA DRACUNCU-
LUS, Estragon or Tarragon, Fr.
Is frequently used in salads, espe-
cially by the French, to correct the
coldness of other herbs. The
leaves make an excellent pickle :
they have a fragrant smell, and
aromatic taste. The use of them
in Fersia has ever been general, at
meals, to create an appetite. The
famous vinegar of Mai lie, in
France, OAves its superior flavour to
this plant, which has not yet been
found in this country. It is to be
wished that some, of many Ameri-
cans Avho visit France, Avould bring
home this excellent plant, or, at
least, the seeds of it with them.
There are several other species of
Artemisia.]
Artemisia absinthium, L. See
Mugwort.
ARTERY, or a pulsating blood-
vessel, is a cylindrical canal, con-
veying the blood immediately from
the heart to all the parts of the
body. On examining the struc-
ture of the largest of these ves-
sels, such as the aorta, and the
pulmonary artery, it .may be dis-
tinctly seen, that each is compos-
ed of three coats; namely, 1. The
external coat, which is of a cellular
texture, loose on the outside, but
growing progressively firmer to-
wards the inner part; 2. A fibrous
ART
spiral, or rather circular mem-
brane, of a yelloAvi.h colour, and
of which there are several strata,
according to the size of the artery;
3. The innermost coat, or a thin,
extremely smooth anu transparent
membrane, keeping the blcod in
its canal, which otherwise, upon
the dilatation of an artery, would
easily separate the spiral fibres from
each other.
From the trunk of every artery
there arise branches; from these
again extend ramifications of blood-
vessels, which become progressive-
ly smaller, so that their distribu-
tion may be traced by the micro-
scope, in more than twenty different
divisions, nay, to an almost infinite
number. The arteries, however,
do not, as has been erroneously as-
serted by several anatomical
writers, become narrower, and as-
sume a conic form in their continu-
ed progress ; on the contrary, they
seem uniformly to remain cylindri-
cal, insomuch that, in their rami-
fications, a smaller cylinder always
arises from a larger one, and
where theformerproceeds from the
latter, it generally presents a slight
swelling at this vascular joint, if
this expression he admissible. The
aggregate diameter of all the
branches of one trunk is someAvhat
larger than that of the trunk itself;
an observation which also applies
to the veins.
On account of their thicker
membranes, the arteries possess a
greater degree of elasticity than
the veins ; though the latter are
more capable of resisting the me-
chanical force of the blood, anel
are less liable to rupture. It far-
ther deserves to be remarked, that,
with the increase of years, the
coats of the arteries acquire firm-
ness, while those of the veins be-
ART 125
come Aveaker. This, in some mea-
sure, accounts for the circumstance
that persons, between the age of
eighteen and thirty-five, are more
liable to phthisical and other Com-
plaints, which depend chiefly on
an increased action Of the arterial
system ; because, after that period,
the arteries already possess suffi-
cient vigour and firmness, to over-
come the additional impetus of the
circulation. Hence, too, we may
comprehend Avhy sthenic or in-
flammatory eliseases seldom occur
at certain stages of life, when the
whole system possesses that degree
of re-action, which is necessary to
maintain a due equilibrium between
the animal and vital functions, as
well as to resist the occasional im-
pressions made on the body, by
sudden vicissitudes of heat and cold,
moist ?nd dry air, &c.
All the arteries derive their ori-
gin from the ventricles of- the
heart ; namely, the pulmonary ar-
tery from the right, and the aorta
from the left; of which two the
rest are branches. They terminate
in veins, exhaling vessels, or anas-
tomose with one another, that is,
unite by inosculation. It is assert-
ed by physiologists, that the circu-
lation of the blood, its heat, red
colour, fluidity, assimilation of
food, Sec. the conversion of fixed
into volatile salts, and the per-
formance of the different secre-
tions, such as bile, urine, saliva,
Sec. all must be attributed to the
contractile power of the arteries
and the heart.....See Assimila-
tion, Bile, Blood, Chyle, Sa-
liva, Urine, he.
It is farther worthy of notice,
that an injury received by a very
considerable vein, is not nearly so
dangerous as that of a small artery,
especially in the vicinity of the
126 ART
heart.....(See Bleeding, or He-
morrhage ;) and that single arteries
sometimes become osified, or ac-
quire a cartilaginous and bony con-
sistence. In the larger ones, this
phenomenon rarely occurs : yet a
\'ery remarkable instance of an os-
sification of the aorta is recorded
bv the celebrated Dr.ZiMMERMAN,
tire author of the classical treatises
" On Solitude," and " On National
Pride," in his excellent Avork " On
Exj'ierienct'in Physic;" Avhich de-
serves to be read and studied by
every medical and philosophical in-
quirer. Such preternatural produc-
tion of bone is attributed to an
abundance of earthy particles,
which are, perhaps, generated by
a too liberal use of tart Avines, veal,
potatoes, cheese, and all food that
is hard and difficult of digestion.
Fortunately, howeArer, this fatal
conA'ersion of membraneous sub-
stance takes place only at an ad-
A'anced age; but then it affords
little or no hope of prolonging the
patient's life.....See Heart, Pulse,
Veins.
Arthritis. See Gout.
ARTICHOKE, or the Cynara,
L. though an exotic, is a plant well
known. There are four species,
but only two are reared for use,
viz. the scolymus, or garden arti-
choke, and the cardunculus, or
cardoon, both of Avhich are propa-
gated by slips, or suckers, arising
in spring, from the roots of the old
plants. The slips should be taken
from good plants in March, or the
beginning of April, and set in an
open quarter of the kitchen-garden,
in roAvs at the distance of five feet
from each other. By this process,
artichokes may be produced in the
autumn of the same year. The
size of their fruit will gradually di-
minish, after the third or fourth
ART
year, though the roots continue
sound for several seasons. The
cardoon, Avhich is a hardy plant,
may be propagated by seeds sown
in March. As these plants are
very large, they ought to be placed
at the distance of several feet from
each other; and thus crops of
spinach, endive, cabbage, or bro-
coli, may be raised between the
roAvs. About the 28th September,
the cardoons generally attain to a
considerable size; the leaves of
each plant should then be tied, that
they may be hoed, forthe purpose
of blanching; which will require
six or eight Aveeks. Thus the
plants will be fit for use in Novem-
ber or December, and continue the
whole winter.
Artichokes flourish best in a rich
and moist soil; but if it be too
wet, the roots are apt to decay in
severe frosts. They have been
used with advantage in the making
of soda; and the leaves of the
scolymus, prepared Avith bismuth,
impart to wool a fine and perma-
nent gold colour.
ARTICHOKE, the Jerusalem,
is a plant of the same genus as the
sun-floAver. It produces bulbs at
its roots, has been long cultivated
in gardens, as an esculent vegetable,
and, except that it is watery and
of a softer consistence, in many
respects resembles the potatoe, but
is not in such general esteem.
This root, hoAvever, is much valued
for feeding hogs and store-pigs.
Mr. Peters, the author of " Win-
ter Riches," published in the year
1772, asserts, that from one acre
of ground, he obtained betAveen
seventy and eighty tons of this
root. He is of opinion, that seven
acres will yield three hundred and
ninety-six tons, Avhich will keep
one hundred swine for six months,
ART
allowing each head fifty-six ptmnds
per day, at an advance of value
from ten to fifteen shillings, espe-
cially if they be boiled with sweet
hog-wash.
When these roots are given to
horses, they should be Avashed, cut,
and ground in an apple-mill : the
proportion given at each time is
eight pounds, with two ounces of
salt, and a bite of hay, thrice
daily.
Another celebrated cultivator
found the produce of this root to
be about four hundred and eighty
bushels Winchester measure, per
acre, without any dung. Its chief
recommendations are, the certain-
ty of a crop ; its flourishing almost
upon any soil; not requiring ma-
nure, and being proof against the
severest frosts.,...The culture is the
same as that of potatoes.
[Artichokes succeed very.well in
this state, if left exposed to the
Avinter months. When covered
with straw in the autumn, they
rot. The only precaution necessa-
ry to take, is to dig a ditch round
the plant, to * prevent the water
from injuring them. Fortius very
useful information, the editor is
indebted to Mr. Legaux,of Spring-
mill. His artichokes were eight
and nine inches diameter.....The
seed Avas imported from Holland.]
ARTICULATION, in lan-
guage, is the division of sounds
into distinct syllables ;• and consists
in giving every letter its due pro-
portion of sound, so that the hearer
may perceive and determine their
number without difficulty; while
he is enabled to ascertain the res-
pective letters in every syllable.
The late Mr. Thomas Sheri-
dan, however, has endeavoured to
prove, in his " Course when alone, to speak his
thoughts aloud, in the same slow
manner, and Avith the same view.
Otherwise, though he may get a
habit of reading more slowly, he
will fall into his usual manner in
discourse : and this habit of speak-
ing aloud, Avhen alone, Avill not
only bring him to a more distinct
utterance, but produce a facility of
expression, in Avhich silent thinkers
are generally defective.—See the
articles Language, Reading,
Speech.
ARTIFICER is a person em-
ployed in manufacturing any kind
ARV
of goo'ds or wares, such as those of
iron, brass, wool, &c.
By the English laAVS, artificers
in avooI, iron, steel, brass, or other
metal, leaving the kingdom, and
departing to a foreign country, Avith-
out license, are liable to be impri-
soned for three months, and fined
in a sum not exceeding one hun-
dred pounds. Those who go abroad,
and do not return on receiving no-
tice from our Ambassadors, are
disabled from holding land by de-
scent or devise; from receiving
any legacy, &c. and are deemed
aliens. A penalty is also inflicted
on those who seduce artificers to
quit their native soil.
ARTIST is an appellation given
to a person skilled in some particu-
lar art, such as that of watch-mak-
ing, engraving, he.
Evelyn informs us, that a pri-
vilege is granted to artists at Vi-
cenza, similar to the benefit of cler-
gy in England ; by virtue of which,
criminals adjudged to death are
pardoned, if they can prove them-
selves the most excellent and con-
summate workmen in any art.
Artocarpus. See Bread-Tree.
Arum. See Wtake Robin.
Arundo. See Reed.
ARVENUSLY, or Pinus Cem-
bra, L. is a species of pine, which
is principally found in Siberia,
and on the Alpine mountains. Its
branches resemble those of the
pitch-tree, Avhich is commonly call-
ed spruce-fir. The leaves are of a
striated form, about three inches
in length, and the fruit about the
size of a large hen's e^fr, contain-
ing kernels covered with a broAvn
skin, Avhich, Avhen peeled, are as
large as a common pea, white and
soft as a blanched almond, and of
an agreeable taste.
ASA ASA 129
The arvenusly is applied to va- lute for mushrooms, in ragouts, and
rious purposes of useful and do- sometimes form a part of their des-
mestic economy. Its planks afford serts.
excellent wainscoting, flooring, and The arvenusly is of a healthy
other materials for joiners; are of and vigorous nature, and will bear
a finer grain, more beautifully va- removing, when young, even in dry
riegated, and of a more agreeable and warm weather. It likewise
smell, than deal. The white wood grows in great abundance on the
has a very pleasant fragrance ; and most mountainous and coldest
Avhen made into shelves, is said to parts of the Brianconnois, where
possess the remarkable property of the natives call it alviez. It bears
keeping away moths and other in- some resemblance to the Canada,
sects. It also furnishes excellent or Weymouth pine.
fuel for stoves, ovens and kilns; but This tree is the more valuable,
is dangerous Avhen used in grates, as its timber is fit forthe choicest
being liable to splinter, and throw furniture ; and from its enormous
out sparks to a considerable dis- height and size, when full groAvn,
tance. From the resinous parts of it Avould make excellent masts......
this tree, is distilled a fragrant oil, As the culture of this remarkable
resembling in taste and flavour that tree in no respect differs from the
of juniper, and possessing the same other species of the Pine, we refer
properties. An expressed oil is to that article.
also obtained from the fmit, which, We have here subjoined a branch
on account of its balsamic nature, of the arvenusly, of a reduced size,
has been recommended in consump- to distinguish it from other species
tive cases ; and the kernels are em- of the same genus.
ployed, by the Swiss, as a substi-
ASAFOETIDA, a gum-resin, tion, it acquires the consistence of
so called on account of its offensive wax, and a yellowish red colour.....
sme 1. It is obtained from the We have seen fine specimens ot
Ferula asafoetida, L. an umbelli- this plant in the Botanical i arden
f rous plant, growingwild in Persia; at Edinburgh; and there is no doubt
the root of which, on cutting it, that it will bear the vicissitudes of
exudes a milky juice : by evapora- our climate, in the open air; and
VOL. I.
130 ASA
that it is strongly impregnated with
its peculiar juice.
Although this nauseous drug pos-
sesses a bitter and acrid taste,
whichis much stronger, when fresh,
the Persians nevertheless use it as
a spice with their food ; so that our
epicurean imitators do not deserve
the credit of 01 iginal choice.
Beside its aperient and resolvent
properties, asafoetida is one of the
most valuable medicines in spasmo-
dic, flatulent, hysteric and hypo-
chondriacal complaints, especially
when they arise from obstructions
of the bowels. But, as it is of a
heating nature, it increases the cir-
culation of the fluids, and outfit
not, therefore, to be employed ei-
ther in violent fevers, or in consti-
tutions liable to hemorrhages. On
the contrary, where spasms and
constipations have contributed to
weaken the powers of nature, and
the functions are in a languid state,
it generally affords effectual relief;
as it promotes digestion ; enlivens
the animal spirits; and, by increas-
ing the peristaltic motion of the in-
testines, tends to open them in per-
sons of an advanced age. In the
spasmodic, as well as in humoral
asthma, unattended Avith fever, it
is an excellent remedy ; for, in the
former, it counteracts the strictures
of the respiratory organs ; and, in
the latter, greatly facilitates expec-
toration. The hooping-cough has
been cured, and worms have fre-
quently been expelled, by the con-
joined administration of asafoetida,
both by the mouth, and in the form
of clysters. When given Avith the
last mentioned intention, it is very
usefully combined Avith jalap ; by
the assistance of Avhich, it possesses
uncommon poAvers over the tape-
worm, especially in adults. Thus,
according to C. J. Mellin, an el-
ASA
derlyTady was relieved of a formi-
dable tape-Avorm, together with a
considerable portion of coagulated
and viscid matter, resembling a
fishing-net, after making use of
the folloAving pills : Take asafoeti-
da, half an ounce, powder of jalap
two drachms ; let them be mixed
with any syrup, to a proper consist-
ence for making sixty pills : two of
these are to be taken every morn-
ing and evening, at first; but gra-
dually increasee; to four or five, ac-
cording to circumstances.
ASARABACCA, in botany, the
Asarum Europoeum, L- A good
representation of it is given in Dr.
Woodville's Med.Bot. PI. 86....
It produces large bell-shaped flow-
ers of a dusky purple colour, and
blossoms in the beginning of May.
As a medicine, the different pro-
perties of this plant render it an
object of attention : hence Lin-
naeus proposed it as a substitute
for ipecacuanha ; and, according to
Dr. Cullen, "• the root, dried only
so much as to be powdered, proves
in a moderate dose a gentle eme-
tic." But as the internal use of the
asarabacca is precarious, the Lon-
don College have justly rejected
the root, and directed the leaves
only to be employed as an errhine,
or sneezing powder, with the addi-
tion of one half of dried lavender-
floAvers. Thus carefully prepared
and snuffed in small doses of a few
grains, several successive evenings,
Dr. Woodville say3, 'tit produces
a pretty large Avatery discharge,
which sometimes continues severa
days together ; and by Avhich, head-
ach, tooth-ach, opthalmia or in-
flammation of the eyes, as well as
some paralytic and soporific com-
plaints, have been effectually re-
lieved." That such is the effect of
this powder, we have - frequently
> Ase
i
observed from experience, though
there is reason to doubt whether
its action extends to palsy, as it
more particularly affects the salival
glands, A'.hioh is obvious from the
copious spitting it generally occa-
sions, after being used for a feAV
evenings.
In farriery, the powdered root
of this plant is given mixed with
bran, to horses troubled with the
farcy, or leprosy, in doses from
one to two ounces....as likeAvise for
worms in either horses or sheep.
Dyers may aho usefully employ
the fresh leaves or roots of the asa-
rabacca, for producing first an ap-
ple-green, ane' by boiling them still
longer, a light-brown colour, on
wool prepared with bismuth. These
experiments are related by Dam-
bourney, whose work we first
quoted, p. 19.
[Several species grow in theU. S.
1. A. Canadense....o\, Canadian,
A. called, also, wild ginger.
2. A. Virginia-m....ov, sAveet
scented, A. or, catsfoot.
These plants delight in a moist
shady situation, anel may be in-
creased by parting the roots in au-
tumn. Too much Avet av ill rot the
Canadian sort in winter. If the
second species be too much expos-
ed to the sun in summer, it seldom
thrives well; it should therefore be
planted in a border Avhere it may
have only the morning sun....The
juice of the fresh leaves, is eme-
tic...The powder of this plant I
have knoAvn to ansAver very good
effects in cases of giddiness, unat-
tended by too much fullness. It
was used as a snuff. It certainly is
an active plant, and deserves fur-
ther trials.]
A-sarum. See Asarabacca.
ASCARIDES, in zoology, be-
long to the order of vermes, and are
ASC 131
divided into two species : 1. the
vermicularis, distinguished by a
transA'erse mouth, and faint annular
rugae, or folds. It is about a quar-
ter of an inch in length, and is
found in boggy places: in the roots
of decayed plants ; and very fre-
quently in the rectum, or straight
gut of children and horses. 2. The
lumbricoieles, which is eqtial in
length with the lumbricus terrestris,
or common earth-Avorm, Jbut Avants
the protuberant ring towards the
middle of the body, which is its
only distinguishing mark. Its body
is cylindrical, subulated at each
extremity ; but its tail is someAvhat
triangular. This is the worm which
is most commonly found in human
intestines, and its usual seat is the
rectum. The symptoms are,' an
uneasiness and intolerable itching
in the anus, which generally take
place in the evening, and some-
times prevent sleep. They are of-
ten attended with so considerable
a degree of heat, as to produce
both an external and internal swell-
ing in that intestine; which, if
not epiickly relieved, bring on a
tenesmus, or a frequent inclination
to go to stool, accompanied with a
mucous dejection. There are also
frequent griping pains, in the Ioav-
er part of the abdomen, a little
above the os pubis; if these be
acute, they are succeeded by a
bloody mucous discharge, in which
these worms are often found alive.
Mucus, or slime, appears to be
the proper nest of the ascarides:
in this they live, are nourished,
anel preserved unhurt, though sur-
rounded with many other fluids,
the immediate contact of which,
would to them prove fatal. Purges,
by lessening this, viscous matter,
never fail to relieve the patient;
for those worms, which are not
132 A S C
expelled by the increased vermicu-
lar motion of the intestines, for
want of a proper quantity, languish,
and at last die; as may be seen in
those which are taken out of their
mucus and exposed to the open
air. Such purges, therefore, as
act briskly, and can be conveni-
ently repeated, for instance, purg-
ing waters, and jalap, especially
for children, two grains of which
maybe mixed with sugar,and taken
daily, are the most effectual. When
the tenesmus, or mucous stools,
are urgent and distressing, a clys-
ter of warm milk and oil will af-
ford immediate relief. The most
useful purge, is cinnabar and rhu-
barb, of each half a drachm, which,
w hen taken, seldom fail to bring
aAvay a transparent mucus, con-
taining many of those worms alive.
Various other remedies have been
employed in the removal of this
troublesome complaint, of which
quicksilver, calomel, and powder
of tin, are the principal. The in-
habitants of Jamaica are said to use
the Geoffraea-inermis, or cabbage
bark, with singular success. Dr.
Duguid, a surgeon of that island,
declares, that it is the most safe,
and yet most powerful, vermifuge
ever known, and that it frequently
brings away as many Avorms by
stools, as Avould fill a hat. He
owns, however, that it sometimes
produces violent effects, but these
take place only, Avhen it is used in
the form of a strong decoction, in-
stead of small doses of the poAv-
der. Yet we cannot, on this oc-
casion, omit to warn every affec-
tionate parent, against tampering
with such powerful remedies as may
prove destruct'iAre to their children ;
nor to trust to the impudent asser-
tions of daring advertisers of ver-
mifuge&....Se& Worms.
ASH
[I have often used the Cabbage-^
tree bark as a vermifuge, and with
success. When made into a syrup,
its effects are less violent, and
children take it more readily. To
make this, boil one ounce and a half
of the coarsely poAvdered bark, in a
quart of Avater, for haif an hour;
then add the sugar, or give two
table spoonsful every morning,
sweetened. In powder, fifteen
grains, with as much jalap, is a
good purge. But, after all, re-
peated experience has convinced
me, that no remedy is so safe, so
mild, or so certain, as calomel.
Procure the medicine from an apo-
thecary of character, give it in the
dose suited to the age and consti-
tution of the child, and keep him
warm during the operation, avoid-
ing cold and sour drinks, for two
or three days, and no danger can
ever attend the use of the remedy.
Rhubarb, or jalap, may be mixed
with the calomel, to quicken its
operation.....A nausea, which some-
times comes on during the opera-
tion, maybe relieved by mint-Avater
....and an unnecessary purging may
be restrained by two or three
drops of laudanum. A child, be-
tween the ages of two and four
years, in general, may take from
one to three grains at a dose, in
syrup.]
Ascites. See Dropsy.
Asclepias. See Savallow-avort.
ASH, or the Fraxinus, L. is a
genus of which there are six spe-
cies. Of these, the most useful is
the common indigenous ash, or
Fraxinusexcelsior,!„ which is well
known to every rural economist.
A plantation of these trees, when
properly managed, seldom fails to
prove of great advantage to the
OAvner; for the underwood, which
is fit to be cut every eight or ten
ASH
years, will produce a regular in-
come, more than adequate to de-
fray the rent of the ground, and
other charges ; besides which, the
trunk or stock preserved for tim-
ber, will be worth forty or fifty
shillings and upwards, per tree. It
flourishes best in groves, but grows
well in the rich soil of open fields:
it also bears transplanting and
lopping. In the north of Lanca-
shire, in England, they lop the
tops of these trees in autumn to
feed cattle, when the grass is on
the eiecline.
The ash-tree delights in a rich,
light soil ; it attains its greatest
height and perfection Avhen at an
age of from forty to fifty years.
Although it also groAvs in Avet and
loose grounds, yet, when reared in
these, its wood becomes less firm
and durable. It prospers remarka-
bly Avell on a Avhite calcareous soil,
and is also frequently found in a
thriving state near brooks and
rivulets.
Planting.....The Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, See. at
London, considered the cultivation
of the ash of so much importance,
that, in the year 1779, they gave
a premium of twenty pounds, and
in 1780, their gold medal, to Mr.
Day, of Friendsbury, near Ro-
chester, for an account of his suc-
cessful method of rearing it. The
Avhole is eletailed in the first vo-
lume of their Transactions ; and
Ave shall only observe,that Mr. Day
is enabled to plant one thousand
trees for two shillings : by his me-
thod, fourteen acres, three quarters,
anel thirteen rod, out of sixteen
acres, three quarters, and twenty-
seven rod, are planted at the dis-
tance of four feet, by two. To fill
this extent of ground, there are
ASH 133*
required 80,682 plants: tAvo acres
and fourteen rod are planted at a
distance of two feet, by eight
inches, which takes up 66,400
plants. The reason for planting
twice as thick one Avay as the
other, is, that in such manner
they are much easier to till. He
has ascertained by experience, that
there is an essential difference be-
tween wild ash and those Avhich
are trained : hence he advises all
the crooked ones to be rejected, and
particular attention to be paid in
getting the ash-keys. There is
another advantage attending his
plan, that potatoes may be planted
between the rows.
The emulation excited by the
aboA-e and similar premiums, pro-
duced such effects as might be ex-
pected to result from so cxtensiA'e
and honourable a patronage. In
the year 1790, the gold medal of
the Society Avas adjudged to Lewis
Majendie of Hedingham Castle,
Esq. and the silver medal to H.
G. Fausset, of Heppington,
near Canterbury, Esq. The first
mentioned gentleman planted on
seven acres and twenty-one poles,
of a principally loamy sr.il, the sur-
prizing number of nhv.teen thou-
sand trees, of four and five vears
old, at intervals of four feet. In a
subseciuent paper, Mr. M. recom-
mends the soil to be completely
trenched, previous to planting.....
Mr. Fausset intermixed willow
Avith his ash, and planted them at
the distance of three feet and a half,
in the proportion of three willows
to one ash ; so that, on the decay
of the willows, the ash plants remain
seven feet asunder. The follow-
ing is a sketch of his method : the
stars denote the ash, anel the dots
the willow-plants.
134 ASH
ASH
*• • • # • • •, * • • •#
The ash Avhen young, requires
constant cultivation, for want of
Avhich it will be stinted in its
growth, and often remain fortwen-
ty years together Avithout making
any progress; it is brought forward
much sooner, when sheltered by
other plants.
An improved method of plant-
ing this tree, for hurdles, hoops,
laths, fencing, and what is termed
post anel billet for collieries, is de-
scribed by a correspondent in the
fifth volume of the Papers publish-
ed by the Bath Society.
The leaves of the ash appear late
and fall early: it is therefore unfit
to be planted for protection or or-
nament. Its timber ranks next in
value to the oak ; and it ought,
when sold, to be measured to a
much smaller girth than either oak
or elm.
The wood of ash possesses the
uncommon property of being al-
most uniibvrnly good, whether of
young or old trees. It is hard,
tough, and much used in making
the different implements of hus-
bandry, but particularly for hop-
poles. Its ashes afford very good
pot-ash ; and the bark is employed
in tanning calf-skins. The seeds
are acrid and bitter, and the leaves
have been used for the adultera-
tion of tea. Poor people formerly
derived considerable advantage by
collecting them ; but we under-
stand this practice has been prohi-
bited, as it tends to diminish the
revenue. We may, hoAvever ven-
ture to say, that the leaves of the
ash are as wholesome as those of
the tea-tree: the latter, like most:
other evergreens, is of a doubtful,
if not pernicious, quality, indepen-
dently of the circumstance, that
our teas may also partake of the
fraudulent practice of the Chinese,
to Avhich most of their goods are
liable.
In rural economy, it has been as-
serted, that the leaves of the ash
impart a bad taste to milk ; and it
is therefore seldom sufferedto grew
in dairy farms. Those ieaves,
however, are eaten with avidity
by horses, sheep, and goats, for
Avhich animals they are considered
as good fodder.
The bark of the common ash is
used in dyeing. It is placed for
some time in water, with a solu-
tion of vitriol, by Avhich the Avater
acquires a black colour. The Mor-
lachians boil the hark for the space
of eight days, Avith the dross of
iron, and, when the solution has
groAvn cold, they use it for dyeing
black. With cold Avater, the bark
makes a l'utivium of a variegated
colour, which displays azure and
greenish shacks ; but boiled Avater
is not proper, as it renders the dye
thick and brown. Warm water
is preferable, as this produces a
blueish lixivium, which imparts a
fine blue colour to yarn, particu-
larly if it has been previously dyed
yellow. According to Dambour-
ney, the fresh shavings of ash,
giA-e to avooI, prepared with bis-
muth, the true and permanent
vigogne colour.
[Several species of this highly
useful tree, grow in the United
States.
1. Fraxinus Americana Carolina,
or red ash ; grows to the height of
30 feet, dividing intoseA'eral branch-
es, the small ones generally oppo-
site, leaves composed of three or
ASH
ASH 135
four pair of lobes, terminated by an
odd one, of a light green colour,
and egg shaped and pointed. Their
under surface covered with white
downy hairs.
2. Fraxinus alba, or white ash ;
3. I'raxinus nigra, or black ash ;
grows in moist places, covered
with rough, light coloured bark,
and sending out but few branches.
4. Fraxinus Pennsylvania, or
Pennsylvania sharp-keyed ask.
The ash is a large tree, the 2d and
last species are much used by
wheelwrights, carriage makers, for
shafts, rimmers, wheels, axles, not
being apt to split and scale, it is
excellent for tenors and mortises.
In England, the ash is felled from
November to February : if it be
done either too early in Autumn or
too late in Spring, the timber will
be subject to be infested Avith worms
and other insects. Is there any
differenceobserved as to the durabi-
lity of the ash, when felled in dif-
ferent seasons, in the U. States ?
An answer is required. The ash
is greatly cultivated in England,
being easily propagated. Many
hundred acres have been planted
by individuals, within a feAv years
past. The prickly ash is a tree
of a different genus. See Aralia
Spinosa.]
ASHES, generally speaking, are
the remains of bodies reduced by
fire. These are vegetable, animal,
and mineral ashes ; but the first
only are strictly entitled to that
appellation. We understand, that
the French have recently contrived
a process of converting the ashes,
or residuum of animal substances,
decomposed by bun .ing them, into
glass, similar to that ay hick is pro-
duced in the manufacture of this
article, when siliceous earth and
wood-ashes are the principal ingre-
dients. This curious conversion of
human bodies into a transparent
and most beautiful metal, is an in-
genious imitation of the practice
frequently adopted among the an-
'ciehts, with a view to preserve the
sacred remains of their revered an-
cestors, or of persons of great worth
and merit. But, whether such
expedients, if they ever should be-
come general, be compatible with
the refined feelings of relations and
friends in other countries, Ave sub-
mit to the determination of our
sentimental readers. If we may
be alloAved to express our opinion
on so delicate a subject, the
scheme may be a very economi-
cal one, for saA'ing the expences of
an ostentatious funeral; and, as
such avc have mentioned it in this
work: but we doubt whether there
may be found many individuals in
this country, except those few
among the emigrees, who incline,
or deserve, to receive the honours
of combustion.
Mineral bodies, when reduced
by fire, are properly called Calxes,
of which we shall treat under that
distinct head.
There is a great variety of wood-
ashes prepared from different vege-
tables. We have already described
the propertiesof Alkalies (p. 29,)
and shall at present observe, that
vegetable ashes contain a great
quantity of fixed salt, blended with
earthy particles; anel that from
these ashes are extracted the fixed
alkaline salts, called Pot-ash
Pearl-ash, Barilla, he. of the
preparation, and properties of
which, we propose to treat under
their respective heads. Confining,
therefore, our account to ashes, in
tlieir unchanged and crude state.
136 ASH
ASH
we shall give the following descrip-
tion of the different useful purposes
to Avhich they are subservient, in
domestic and rural economy.
About half a century ago, Dr.
Francis Home, of Edinburgh,
who may be considered as the ear-
liest benefactor of the Scottish cot-
ton manufactories, justly observed
in an ingenious treatise, entitled
Experiments in Bleaching, that the
proper application of alkaline leys,
is one of the most important and
critical articles in the whole pro-
cess of that art. This circumstance
induced him to inquire, after the
mathematical method of investi-
gating truth, into the nature and
composition of the several sorts of
ashes used for this purpose. With
due deference to the talents of his
genius, that has apparently been
misled on this early occasion, we
cannot but regret .that Dr. Home
appears then to have been unac-
cjuainted with a strict analytical
and synthetical investigation of na-
tural bodies ; a method which, Ave
venture to say, might have enabled
him to anticipate many of the sub-
secruent discoveries, made in che-
mistry by the French, Swedish and
British philosophers of the anti-
phlogistic school. He is, however,
justly entitled to the praise and gra-
titude of his countrymen ; among
whom he greatly contributed to
excite a spirit of research into the
useful phenomena of natural bo-
dies ; a spirit Avhich has already
proved highly beneficial to the
community at large, and eminently
conducive to the honour of that
celebrated University, in which he
is now the oldest professor.*
In the treatise before alluded to,
the author originally proposed the
use of oil of vitriol, instead of the
acids formerly used for bleaching
linen, such as butter-milk, sour
milk, infusions of bran, or rye-
meal, Sec. kept for some days, till
they acquire a proper degree of
acidity. He proved by experi-
ments, that the vitriolic acid is by
no means injurious to the cloth;
is less expensive, more expeditious,
and on all accounts equally, if not
more, efficacious.
Many and curious were the ex-
periments which Dr. Home then
instituted, on the different ashes;
and from the result of which he
concluded, that pearl-ashes contain
a pure alkaline salt, with a small
proportion of vitriolated tartar and
absorbent earth. In the composi-
tion of Russian and SAvedish ashes,
he discovered a considerable quan-
tity of lime ; a discovery Avhich
amply evinced the folly of an
Act of the British Legislature,
which prohibited the use of lime
in bleaching. For though lime-
water alone, greatly contributes to
whiten cloth, yet it is apt to render
it much weaker if not well Avashed
out before drying ; but alkaline
salts added to lime, diminish its
power of weakening and corroding,
in proportion to the quantity of
these salts added to the lime. This
observation suggested to him a
hint of supplying the Muscovy
ashes, at home, by a preparation
which experience proved to answer
all the intended purposes of those
ashes. After repeated trials of dif-
ferent proportions, the method of
making this profitable substitute,
consists in adding one-fourth of pot-
ash dissolved in a little Avater, to
three quarts of quenched lime.
Whether this process has been
* We believe he is near xixety years of age.
ASH
ASH 137
found generally successful, we have
not been able to ascertain.
In rural economy, ashes have, since
the days of Virgil, been consider-
ed as one of the best, and easiest,
means of fertilizing land ; yet many
objections have been started, by
modem Avriters, against their use ;
probably because they were indis-
criminately employed for all kinds
of soil, whether moist or dry, cold
or warm, loose or clayey. Hence
we need not be surprized that agri-
culturists have differed in opinion
on this subject. Without detaining
the reader with speculations con-
cerning the manner in which ashes
act on the soil, in promoting its
fertility, we shall briefly observe,
on the authority of the best writers,
supported by experience:
1. That vegetable ashes, in ge-
neral, are most effectual for ma-
nuring moist, cold, boggy, marshy,
or uncultivated soils.
2. That ashes are no less fit for
manure, after the salt is extracted
from them, than before; and, if
there be any difference, it is in fa-
vour of the Avashed ashes.
An anonymous correspondent in
the Gentl. Mag. for June, 1766,
appears to have derived the first
hint respecting the advantages of
peat-ashes in dressing land, and a
method of preparing coal-ashes for
the same purpose, from the Dic-
tionaire Economique, or the Family
Dictionary, translated from the
1 renchby the late Prof. Bradley,
of Cambridge, and published in
172;>. In this curious Avork, Avhich
equally abounds Avith excellent and
frivolous remarks, Ave find the fol-
lowing passage : k- Turf anel peat
ashes must needs be Aery rich.,
much after the same manner as
burning of land." Perhaps it is in
consequence of this suggestion, that
VOL. I.
we find in the Magazine before al-
luded to, an account of too interest-
ing a nature to Avithhold it from
our readers.
Peat-ashes, properly burnt, af-
ford an excellent manure for both
com and grass-land ; hut the most
valuable are those obtained from
the lowest stratum of the peat,
where the fibres and roots of the
earth are most decayed. This will
yield a large quantity of very strong
ashes, of a colour, Avhen recently
burnt, resembling vermillion, and
of a very saline and pungent taste.
Great care and caution should be
used in burning these 'ashes, and
likevrise in preserving them for fu-
ture use. The method of burning
them is similar to that of making
charcoal. After the peat is col-
lected into a large heap, and co-
vered, so as not to flame out, it
must be suffered to consume slowly,
till the whole substance is reduced
to ashes. Thus burnt, they are
found excellent in sAveetening sour
meadow-land, destroying rushes,
and other bad kinds of Aveeds, and
producing in their place great quan-
tities of excellent grass. In some
parts of Berkshire and Lancashire,
they are considered one of the best
dressings for spring crops.
A very great improvement may
likewise be made, and at a moderate
expense, Avith coal-ashes, which,
Avhen properly preserved, are a
most useful article for manure. By
putting one bushel of lime, in its
hottest state, into every cart-load
of these ashes, covering it up in
the middle of the heap for about
twelve hours, till the lime be en-
tirely fallen; then incorporating
them well together, and by turn-
ing the Avhole over, tAVo or three
times, the cinders or half-burnt
parts of the coals, which instead
T
138 ASH
ASP
of being useful, are noxious to the
ground, will be reduced to as fine
a powder as the lime itself. For
this purpose, hoAvever, the coal-
ashes should be carefully kept dry :
and, thus prepared, they are the
quickest breakers and improvers of
moorish and benty land.
Professor Bradley, in his dic-
tionary before mentioned, farther
observes, that soafi-ashcs are highly
commended by Mr. Pratt, as be-
ing, after the soap-boiler has ex-
tracted them, eminently fructify-
ing; and that the ashes of any
kind of vegetables are profitable for
enriching barren grounds, as they
promote the decomposition of moss
and rushes, in a very great degree.
The best season for laying them,
either for corn, pasture, or mea-
dow, is said to be in the beginning
of Avinter, in order that they may
the more easily be dissolved by
shoAvers of rain.
HaA'ing given this x\zw of the
subject, from the collective expe-
rience of British writers, Ave shall
also communicate a ft-AV practical
facts, derived from authentic Ger-
man authors.
According to their experience,
pot-ash is most usefully employed
for correcting a sandy and loamy
soil; the ashes obtained from the
hardest woods, being the most be-
neficial, and among these, the
beech anel oak are generally pre-
ferred. A small addition of quick-
lime to the pot-ash, tends consider-
ably-to increase its fertilizing pro-
perty.
The refuse of soap-boiler's ashes,
is likewise used in Germany, with
the best effect, Avhen sprinkled,
soon after sowing, either in spring
or in autumn, as closely as possi-
ble, OA'er fields of Avheat, rye,
spelt, lentils, pease, beans, barley,
lint-seed, hemp, millet, and simi-
lar grain. An acre of wheat, or
barley, requires hoAvever a much
greater proportion of these ashes,
than one sown with rye, or corn
of an inferior quality. They are
farther employed with great ad-
vantage, by scattering them on
meadows in the early part of spring.
[Leached ashes are much used
in some parts of the United States
as a manure. Great quantities are
annually taken from the city of Phi-
ladelphia to Long Island, for the
purpose. They cost here 40 cents
per one horse cart-load, and com-
monly bring one elollar 50 cents,
when delivered. From a paper in
the first volume of the New York
Agric. Soc. Trans, by M. E.
L'Hommedieu, it appears, that
ashes are found to succeed best on
dry loamy lands, or loam mixed
Avith sand* It is considered as the
cheapest manure that can be pro-
cured. Ten loads of this manure,
on poor land, \\ ill produce ordina-
rily twenty-five bushels of Avheat,
which exceeds, by fife dollars, the
expence of the manure, and the
five dollars pays for the expence of
labour in raising the crop. The
land is then left in a state for yield-
ing a crop of hay of betAveen two
and one-half tons per acre, which
it will continue to do for a great
number of years. No manure
continues so long in the ground as
ashes.]....See also Coals.
ASPARAGUS, also called Spa-
ragus, Sperage, or Sparrow-grass,
is an esculent plant, which is rear-
ed Avith great attention, and much
esteemed on account of its delicate
flavour. There are ten species,
but one only is cultivated for the
table, viz. the common asparagus,
Avhich has an erect herbaceous
stalk, and bristly leaves : the other
ASP
ASP 139
■species are sometimes kept in the
gardens of the curious, but more
for the sake of variety, than on ac-
count of their utility.
This useful plant is best propa-
gated from the seeds, and its suc-
cessful culture almost entirely de-
pends on the proper quality of such
seed. Hence, some of the most
promising buds should be marked
with a stick, and Avhen the seed
begins to ripen, and the stalks to
wither, they ought to be cut, and
the berries being rubbed off into a
tub or other vessel, water should
be poured upon them. After they
have been stirred, the seeds will
subside, and the floating husks
may be poured off with the Avater.
The seeds must then be spread te
dry, and thinly soAvn, in the be-
ginning of February, on a bed of
rich earth. They should be trod
into the ground, and the earth raked
over them.....During summer, the
bed should be kept clean of Aveeds,
and about October, when the stalks
appear withered, a small quantity
of rotten dung should be spread
over the bed, about half an
inch in thickness. In the folloAV-
ing spring, the plants will be in a
proper state for transplanting;
when the ground should be pre-
pared for them, by trenching it,
and disposing a large quantity of
rotten dung in the trenches, so that
it may lie at least six inches below
the surface ; after Avhich, the whole
plot must be levelled, and all the
loose stones carefully picked out.
The most eligible situation for such
hot-beds, is a south-Avestern aspect,
sheltered from the north ; and the
soil should be neither too moist,
nor too firm, or hard. If the
season be forward, and the soil
dry, the asparagus should be trans-
planted in the beginning of March ;
but, in a wet soil, it is preferable
to AA'ait till the beginning of April,
at which time the plants begin to
shoot. The roots should, at this
season, be carefully raised with a
narrow-pronged dung-fork, shak-
ing from them the adhering earth,
separating them from each other,
and laying their heads even, for
the greater convenience in planting
them ; Avhich should be performed
in the following manner: Lines
are drawn across the bed, at a
distance of one foot from each
other, after which they must be
dug in the form of small trenches
of six inches in depth, into which
the roots must be laid with their
buds upAvards, so that, when the
earth is raked over them, they may
be two inches under the surface.
A space of two feet and a half
should be left between every four
rows, for the purpose of affording
room to cut the stalks. In Oct. the
shoots of the asparagus should be
cut within two inches of the ground;
but, with respect to this process,
the folloAving circumstance de-
serves attention : as often as a stalk
is cut, a new one springs up, and
every plant running to seed depo-
sits a neAv bud or eye, as it is call-
ed by gardeners, beside the new
shoots, which sprout the following
spring. Hence, the cutting ought
not to be too long continued, as
this practice would prevent the new
shoots from sprouting, and deprive
those Avhich are hi bud, from ac-
quiring sufficient strength.'
[In Pennsylvania and NeAv Jersey,
the cutting must not be continued
longer than the first of June.]
Young asparagus, fit for table,
may be cut the second spring after
planting ; "but, as this early fruit
is Avith many a desideratum, the
following directions, properly at-
140 ASP
ASP
tended to, will enable them to pro-
duce it at any time during the Avin-
ter : Take some good roots of one
year's groAVth, and plant them in a
rich, moist soil, about eight inches
asunder ; the second and third
years after planting, they will be
fit for removal to a hot-bed, Avhich
should be made rather of heating
materials, especially tanner's Avaste
and horse-dung, about three feet
thick, and covered with a stratum
of earth, six inches high. The
plants should then be laid against a
ridge maele at one end, Avithout
trimming or cutting the fibres;
between every row, make a small
ridge of fine earth, and thus pro-
ceed until the Avhole is planted ;
next, let the bed be covered to the
thickness of about tAvo inches with
earth, and encompassed with a
straw-band. About a week after,
the Avhole should be sheltered
under frames and glasses, and three
inches of additional earth laid on
the beds ; the proper season for
constructing Avhich is from No-
Arember to March.
Dr. Daravin advises the loosen-
ing, or turning over the earth,
around and above the roots of. this
plant annually, for the purpose of
admitting air into its cells or cavi-
ties, to convert a part of the ma-
nure, or carbonaceous soil, Avith
Avhich they have been supplied, in-
to ammonia, or into carbonic acid,
and thus to afford them both
warrutii a: :I nutriment.
The roots of this plant have a
slightly bitter, mucilaginous taste,
rather inclining to sweetness ; the
fruit is of a nearly similar flavour ;
but the young shoots are the most
agreeable to the palate.
In the 13th vol. of the " Reper-
tory of Arts," he. a new method of
rendering asparagus more produc-
tive, is communicated by Mr.
Richard Weston; Avho observes,
that the male plants yield a great-
er number of shoots than the fe-
male ones ; though the former are
of an inferior size. He conse-
quently advises males only to be se-
lected for the formation of beds;
and, to prevent mistakes, they
should not be planted from the seed-
bed, till they have floAvered. After
having grown 12 months, Mr. W.
directs them to be removed into
beds, at the distance of six inches
from each other, Avhere they ought
to remain another year, in which
they generally flower; a small stick
must then be driven into the ground,
contiguous to each of the male
plants, in order to seperate them
from the females, the latter of
which are then to be pulled.
Towards the end of July, especi-
ally if the weather be wet, the stalks
of the asparagus should be cut
doAvn, the beds be forked up, and
raked smooth. In case the season
be dry, Mr. Weston irrigates the
beds with the draining of a dung-
hill ; leaving them somewhat hollow
in the center for the better retention
of the water or rain. In the course
of 12 or 14 days, the asparagus
begins to appear; and if the weath-
er be very dry, the Avatering ought
to be repeated once or twice, every
week. By such method, he ob-
serves, a constant supply of this
vegetable may be obtained, till the
month of September, when hot-
beds Avill become necessary; so
that by making five or six of the
latter, during .the winter, a regu-
lar succession may be procured,
throughout the year.
[Mr. J. Cooper of NeAv-Jersey,
who raises the finest asparagus
brought to Philadelphia market,
soavs his seeds in drills ; the beds
ASP
are so far distant from each other,
that the center may be reached by
a workman standing in the alley
between them. He permits the
plants to stand in the beds two years,
and then places them in trenches
ten inches deep, and three feet
apart : the plants are one foot from
eachother. The fir.-A year the trench
is only half filled Avith loose rich
earth, the second year, it is filled
up and covered Avith manure. Mr.
Cooper's soil is sandy. According
to the same gentleman, this vege-
table will continue for ten years ;
it Avill then gradually decline in
flaA-our, but the plants will remain
for twenty yeai-s, and overgrow all
the ground.]
A.sparagus is allowed to promote
the appetite ; and affords a deli-
cious article of nourishment to the
invalid and valetudinarian, who is
not troubled with flatulency.
As a substitute for asparagus, the
young buds of hops have been re-
commended, as they may be more
easily procured, anel are both grate-
ful and Avholesomc
Aspen-Tree. See Poplar.
Asperugo. See Bugloss,Catch-
weed, and Madwort.
Asperula. See Woodroof.
ASPHODEL,or King's Spear,
the Asphodelus, L. is an exotic
plant, of Avhieh there are five spe-
cies ; namely, four growing Avild in
the southern parts of Europe, and
one only, the Narthecium ossifra-
gum, or Lancashire Asphodel, a na-
tive of Britain. It thrives in turfy
marshes, anel flowers in July and
August. See Withering's Ar-
rangement, 339, a.ndEngl.Bot.t.535.
The best method of propagating
this ornament to a garden, is, by
dividing the roots in August, be-
fore they shoot their fresh green
leaves ; they may likeAvise be rais-
ASP 141
ed from seeds soAvn in August; and
at the same time in the succeeding
year, the plants produced from
these may be transplanted into
beds, Avhere they Avill blossom in
the second year. They should not
be planted in small borders, among
tender flowers, as they require
considerable nourishment.
The Lancashire Asphodel is sup-
posed to be very noxious to sheep ;
for, when necessitated to feed on
it, from a poverty of pasture, they
will indeed improve in flesh at first,
yet they afterwards die with symp-
toms of a diseased liver. Homed
cattle, however, eat it without any
bad effect.
There are wonderful tales re-
lated of this plant by Pauli, Bar-
tholini, and others: who call it
Gramen ossifragum, from its sup-
posed property of changing the
bones of such animals as SAvallow
it, into cartilage ; and thus produ-
cing that singular disease in cattle,
Avhich in the human frame is, by
nosologists, termed mollities ossium,
ox softeness of the bones.
For the various purposes of eco-
nomy, hoAvever, Ave recommend
the culture of two species of this
plant; namely,
1. The Asphodelus luteus, L. or
the common YcIIoav Asphodel,
which according to Lemery and
Vicat, produces an esculent root,
abounding in farinaceous particles,
easily extracted in boiling water:
this mealy elecoction.passedthrough
a sieve, mixed with barley or rve-
flour, and then baked, affords a
palatable and most nourishing
bread. Its stalks also, though na-
turally acrid, may be deprived of
that property by boiling, and con-
verted to a similar use.....Another
writer on economy, Prof. Beck-
man n, of Gottingen, informs us
142 ASS
ASS
that though this plant is a native
of Sicily, it prospers, and abund-
antly propagates, in the open air of
Germany. Its roots, by which it
is produced, consist of long yelloAV
knobs, so disposed that they all
adhere to a larger one, serving as
the basis of the whole. They are
pulpy, mucilaginous, and balsamic;
and a species of bread may like-
wise be prepared from their se.eds.
.....Sestini also remarks, in con-
firmation of the preceding facts,
that the shoe-makers of Italy make
of this root an excellent paste, for
cementing the inner soles; and that
it is preferable to the usual paste
of those artisans, who consume
considerable quantities of wheatcn
and other flour.
2. The Asphodelus ramosus, L.
or Branching Asphodel, Avith naked
stalks three feet high, and ensi-
form, cuneated, smooth leaves. It
is a native of Germany, in many
parts of which it groAvs in common
meadows: its flowers are Avhite,
and of a stellated form. The pulpy
root of this species was eaten by
the ancients, Avith the addition of
oil and salt; while its stalks, roast-
ed under hot Avood-ashes, afforded
them, according to Bechstein, a
most delicious repast.
Asplenium trichomanoides. See
Maiden-Hair.
Asplenium scolopendrium. See
Hart's-Tongue.
ASS, by naturalists, is classed
as a species of horse, or Equus.
The tame or domestic Ass, is
an animal remarkable for his meek-
ness, patience, and tranquility. He
submits Avith firmness to chas-
tisement, is temperate in his food,
and contents himself Avith the dis-
agreable herbage which other ani-
mals disdain to eat; but is more
delicate Avith regard to his drink,
never using water, unless it be
perfectly pure. This animal is
esteemed for his attachment, and,
though generally used Avith seve-
rity and harshness, nay, often with
cruelty, he F fond of his master,
has a scent of him at a distance,
and easily distinguishes him from
other persons. Of al! a:tir.\als, the
ass, perhaps, is capable of support-
ing the heaviest burthen, in propor-
tion to his size : and, on account of
his sIoav and regular pace; is y a. d-
culariy useful in journeying over
uneven grounds, and ^mountainous
countries.
The finest breed of asses was
formerly met Avith in Egypt, but,
at present, those reared in Span
are preferable. In the latter Cv.*.n-
try, as Avell as in Italy, the inha-
bitants eat the flesh of asses Avith
avidity. Their milk is of so thin
a consistance, that it neither affords
butter nor cheese, but is extremely
agreeable to the tender stomachs
of consumptive persons, anel very
wholesome for young children,
when drank Avhile warm from the
animal; but it should be taken at
least three or four times a day,
half a pint at each time, and con-
tinued for several weeks or months,
if any real benefit be expected from
this simple diet.
The manner of preparing artifi-
cial assess milk, not inferior in its
properties to the natural, is as
follows: Take of eryngo-root, or
sea-holly, and pearl barley, each
half an ounce, liquorice-root three
ounces, water two pounds, or one
quart; boil it doAvn over a gentle
fire to one pint, then strain it, and
add an equal quantity of neAv cow's
milk.
ASSEMBLY, in general, signi-
fies a meeting of several persons in
the same place, and for a common
AST
AST 143
purpose. Without entering into a
history of the assemblies that were
customary among the ancients, or
these held by the moderns, for de-
liberating upon political, ecclesias-
tical, or civil afiairs, we shall, in
this place, o-tiy observe, that all
public meetings, when conducted
with a spirit of order and decorum,
art highly conducive to polish the
manners of a people. This good
eii'ect is obvious from assemblies
instituted in provincial towns, for
the purj ( se of either amusement
or instruction, by which the man-
ners of young persons, in particu-
lar, acquire a certain grace and
dignity,- seldom to be met with
among those who spend their lives
in small country towns, or solitary
mansions.
But, on the other hand, it can-
not be denied, that the frequent vi-
siting of assemblies, theatres, &c.
w here a great number of persons,
perhaps, afflicted Avith various chro-
nic diseases, breathe and vitiate a
common atmosphere, must be at-
tended Avith pernicious effects, even
to the most healthy.....See Balls
and Masquerades.
ASSIMILATION, in animal
economy, is that hidden natural
process by which living beings are
enabled to convert such bodies as
have a certain affinity to them, or
atleastafter having undergone some
preparation anel change of their
properties, into their own sub-
stance and nature. Hence every
culinary process is conducted on
chemical principles analogous to
those on which the digestion of food
appears to depend in the human
stomach.....See Chyle, Digesti-
on, Nutrition, Saliva.
Assurance. See Insurance.
ASTHMA, is a spasmodic dis-
ease of the organs of respiration,
attended with cough, difficulty of
breathing, wheezing, Sec.
There are two distinct species of
this disorder, each of which re-
quires a different treatment: 1.
When it is attended with an ac-
cumulation and discharge of hu-
mours from the lungs, in which
case it is called humid asthma ; and
2. When the patient is not troubled
with coughing, or at least has no
expectoration, which is termed dry
asthma. Yet these complaints sel-
dom affect persons in early life,
and then chiefly the male sex. >f
Asthma, in general, is distin-
guished by paroxysms, preceded
by a sense of tightness in the chest,
and in general, occurs during the
night. The patient cannot lie in an
horizontal posture, Avithout danger
of suffocation ; and, when seized,
is immediately obliged to sit up-
right. After continuing for seve-
ral hours in this state, he becomes
easier ; his breathing is less diffi-
cult and oppressed, the cough not
so frequent, and an expectoration
of mucus taking place, the pa-
roxysm abates until the next night;
but the symptoms continue in a
greater or less degree during the
day, according to the particular
state of the atmosphere, and other
circumstances. The attack is
sometimes induced by external
heat, at others by cold; but in
either case, their sudden accession
will sufficiently distinguish the
asthma from symptomatic short-
ness of breath. There is a greater
probability of curing it in youth,
than at an advanced age. But, in
the former cas?, it is often succeed-
ed by a confirmed pulmonary
consumption; and, after a long
continuation, generally terminates^
either in dropsy of the breast, or
an aneurism of the heart or ar-
144 A S T
AST
terial system. A tremulous respi-
ration, paralysms of the arms,
and a diminution of the urinary
secretion, are unfavourable symp-
toms.
This is one of the chronic dis-
eases, which may continue for a
considerable number of years. Sir
John Floyer, when he published
his celebrated treatise on this sub-
ject, had suffered under repeated
paroxysms for almost thirty years.
The usual treatment is, to bleed,
during a fit, unless extreme weak-
ness or old age should forbid the
use of the lancet; to inject a purg-
ing clyster, containing a solution of
asafoedita; and, if the violence of
the symptoms do not speedily
abate, to apply a blistering plaster
to the neck or breast. Previously
to a fit, emetics have beep found
useful, especially when the stomach
was loaded with crudities. In the
intervals, lac ammoniacum, vinegar
of squills, asafoedita pills, and other
stimulating and deobstruent medi-
cines, are usefully employed. Sir
John declares, that a strong infu-
sion of roasted coffee is the best
remedy he ever experienced, to
abate the paioxysms. The coffee
must be of the best Moco, newly
burnt, and made very strong, im-
mediately after grinding. He or-
elers an ounce to one dish, Avhich is
to be repeated after the short in-
terval of a quarter or half an hour,
and taken without milk or sugar.
By the use of this remedy, he
lived many years tolerably easy,
under his asthmatic complaint. Dr.
Percival also asserts, that he has
employed it with great success.
In a A-iolent paroxysm of asthma,
from the effects of which there is
imminent clanger of suffocation, the
administration of an emetic is some-
times advisable, as vomiting tends
to produce immediate relief. This
remedy, how ever, can only be re-
sorted to with safety, under the
following circumstances: 1. That
there be no symptoms of inflam-
mation discoverable ; 2. That the
humid matter in the pectoral or-
gans be loose, and ready for expec-
toration ; which may be ascertain-
ed by a free rattling of the throat:
3. When respiration itself is not
extremely impeded : and 4. When
the patient's strength is not too
much exhausted.
On these conditions, an emetic
may prove the only means of saving
his life ; though it may also acce-
lerate the fatal catastrophe, espe-
cially if the breast be clogged Avith
matter, and the patient possess not
vigour and breath sufficient to sup-
port the operation of an emetic.
Hence a judicious practitioner will,
in such cases, not hesitate to di-
rect a brisk dose, in order most
speedily to produce the desired ef-
fect, and to save the constitution
from being unnecessarily exhaust-
ed. But this illustration also
eArinces the importance of every
step in the practice of physic ; and
that neither officious friends, nor
mercenary pretenders, are the
most proper persons, Avhose ser-
vices can be useful on such or si-
milar occasions. We, therefore,
think it our duty to corroborate
this proposition still farther, by ex-
hibiting a concise view- of those
causes, from which that formidable
disease may arise in different indi-
viduals. The principal of these
are as follow :
1. Collections or congestions of
blood in the lungs; from which
there may not only arise the dry
asthma, but likewise the Suffoca-
tive Catarrh, Avhich is, strictly,
an acute disease, occasioned by an
A ST
AST 145
extravasation or effusion of blood
into the cellular substance of the
lungs, and of which we propose to
treat in its proper place.
2. Spasms in hypochondriacal
and hysteric persons ; which often
lay the foundation of a dry, con-
vulsive asthma.
3. Worms in the first passages.
4. Stones in the gall bladder ;
aneurisms; polypi, or concretions
of grumous blood in the large ves-
sels.
5. Asthma may likewise be a
symptom of dropsy of the chest.
6. Scrophulous, rheumatic, gou-
ty, psoric, and scorbutic acrimony
....all may occasion the asthma, ei-
ther in the lungs themselves, or
by consent of parts.
7. Noxious vapours arising from
the decomposition of lead, or arse-
nic ; Avhich generally cause a con-
vulsive asthma.
8. The introduction of dust into
the lungs, to Avhich millers, ma-
sons, hatters, he. are subject.
9. Tubercles in the lungs, from
which arises the dry asthma.
10. The abuse of ardent spirits.
11. A weak digestion, attended
with great flatulency.
12. Every thing that oppresses
the vessels, such as an expansion
of the uterus, obesity or preterna-
tural fatness, aneurisms, fleshy
and other tumors in the chest, a
distended abdomen by dropsy, ob-
stipations, kc.
13. General debility, by which
respiration is fie juently rend red
difficult, without any other particu-
lar cause. This affection may be
ascertained from the circumstance,
when the patient ascends a num-
ber of steps with greater facility
than he is able to descend, because
the latter requires a greater degree
of muscular effort than the former.
VOL. b.
w What a variety of causes do we
here behold....many others being
reserved, as too abstruse for non-
professional readers ; and who will
be bold enough to pretend, that he
has discovered a specific for the
cure of asthma?
Beside the remedies already
pointed out, as proper for the ge-
neral treatment, we shall here
briefly observe, that in the perio-
dical astmna, infusions of bitter
herbs, such as AVormAvood, lesser
centaury, the blessed thistle, as
well as gum ammoniac, vinegar
and honey, acids in any form, nay,
mixed with proportionate quanti-
ties of laudanum, have been used
with the best success. The exer-
cise of riding on horseback is in-
dispensibly necessary. Changes
of weather are very sensibly felt
by asthmatic persons, who, in ge-
neral, cannot live Avith any comfort
in the atmosphere of large cities,
though some are to be found, Avho
feel themselves better in an air
replete Avith gross effluvia; and
breathe with greater'ease, in a
crowded room, Avhere there is a
fire and candles. A principal ad-
vantage, however, will be deriveel
in this obstinate disorder, from a
light and frugal diet, consisting of
such animal food only as may be
easily digested, and at the same
time, aAToiding all flatulent and heat-
ing substances, as well as liquors ;
for instauce, wine, milk, turnips,
cabbages, he. not exposing the body
to the influence of hot air, strong
smells, offensive vapours, and the
like. As a most excellent diet-
drink, Ave can, from experience,
recommend the use of toast and
Avater, in Avhich a feAV grains of
nitre, or sal ammoniac, might be
elissolved ; or with the addition of
a little pure vinegar. And, i/anv
146 AS T
alterative medicine should become
necessary, after the proper evacua-
tions, by either bleeding and blis-
tering between tile shoulders, or,
according to circumstances,by gen-
tle laxatives, and nauseating closes
of ipecacuanha(See Appetite), Ave
have found the following mixture
frequently of great advantage.....
Take oxymel of squills, and cinna-
mon water, two ounces of each,
and pure spring water four ounces ;
two table-spoonsful, each dose,
every three or four hours.
Astragalus. See Milk Vetch.
ASTRINGENTS are those me-
dicinal substances Avhich act up^n
the simple elementary fibres, by
contracting them, and increasing
the force of cohesion, so as to re-
lieve that degree of bodily debility,
Avhich depends on their deficient
powers of contraction. This want
of cohesion, being supposed, to arise
either from an aqueous consistence,
or a deficiency of animal jelly, in
the interstices of the fibres, it ap-
pears to follow, that substances af-
fording much nourishment, and
containing matter for the supply
anel condensation of that medium
between the soPds and fluids, in the
greatest proportion, are HkeAvise
the mcst effectual astringents. In-
deed, - faily experience speaks in
favour of tnis apparently well-
founded conjecture. But as man-
kind seem, from the earliest ages,
to haA-e been dissatisfied with those
simple and congenial substances,
which beneficent Nature granted
them, even in the most inhospita-
ble regions ; they have, by gradual
steps, forsaken her path, and re-
sorted to artificial means, Avhich
chance or credulity induced them
to procure from distant climates.
Thus strangely has man, in all
civilized countries, suffered himself
AST
to be misled by prejudice; and,
instead of investigating the true
nature and uses of things at home,
he went in quest of foreign auxi-
liaries, and frequently sacrificed
the very life he was anxious to pre-
server
In order to ascertain, Avith pre-
cision, when astringent remedies
may be employed vrith safety and
advantage, we shall reduce the sub-
ject to distinct propositions.
1. The cases in which it will
become necessary, to have recourse
to astringents are :
1. A general, and lor.ah debility,
or relaxation of the fibres : the for-
mer is relieved by the internal and
external use of tonics; but the lat-
ter chiefly by local applications,
such as cold fomentations.
2. In a preternatural, and parti-
cularly a putrid disposition of the
fluids.
3. In injuries of the vessels.
On the contrary,
II. The following circumstances
and conditions prohibit the use of
astringents':
1. A general rigidity of the
frame, and tension of the solid
parts.
2. Unusual heat of the body,
unless it proceed from a general or
partial debility, or a dissolution of
the fluids.
3. Salutary and critical dis-
charges, Avhich take place by a
spontaneous effort of nature.
4. The existence of some mor-
bid matter in the body, the eva-
cuation of Avhich might thus be
checked and prevented.—Hence it
is attended Avith peculiar disad-
vantage and danger, to apply such
remedies externally, as for in-
stance, cold baths in rheumatic,
gouty, erysipelatous and other
affections, in which there is a na-
AST
AST 147
tural disposition for expelling the knaves, on the credulity of th? ig-
morbific matter (or at least its re- norant, is now universally exploded
siduum) by the pores of the skin, by the intelligent part of society.....
Thus the eating of astringent food See Divinai iu\'; Nf.ckoman-
would be pernicious, if the first cy.
passages be obstructed, or the per- ASTRONOMY is considered as
son liable to habitual ccstiveness ; the most sublime of all the sciences,
though this rule is not Avithout its and implies a knowledge of the
exception, especially in putrid, bi- heavenly bodies, with regard to
lious levers, where astringents must their respective magnitude, moti-
frequentiy be combined with pur- ons, distances, Sec.; and of the na-
gatives, to answer both intentions, tural causes by which these phe-
and to support the sinking powers, nomena are proeluced. It is not
Avithout the loss of that time, which improbable, that Adam and his
complete evacuation would ineces- immediate progeny, the antedilu-
sarily require. vians,possessed a slight knoAvledge
In order to enumerate those of astronomy. On the building of
astringent remedies which, partly the tower of Babel, Noah is sup-
by our own experience, and paitly posed to have retired Avith his chil-
by that of oi hers, have been found dren born after the flood, to the
the most efficacious, either exter- north-eastern part of Asia, Avhere
nally or internally, we shall here his descendants peopled the vast
alphabetically arrange them, and empire of China; and this, in the
treat of their individual properties opinion of Dr. Long, accounts for
and effects, under their respective the early cultivation of astronomy
heads, viz. Alum; Bark ; the An- by the Chinese. Mr. Bailly,
gustura,Horse Chesnut, Peru- Avho has taken great pains to inves-
viANand White Willow ; Bile tigate the progress of the Indians,
of Animals ; Buck-bean, or is of opinion, that the first epoch
Marsh Trefoil ; Centaury of their astronomy commences
the Lesser; Avens-root; Gen- with the conjunction of the sun and
tian ; Water-Hemlock ; Iron ; moon, which took place 3102 years
Milfoil ; Mineral Acids and before the Christian sera. Even
Waters;Oak;Pichurim-eeans; the Americans, and especially the
and simple Water. Mexicans, Avere not altogether
ASTROLOGY, a conjectural destitute of astronomical knoAV-
science, the professors of which ledge. But the Chaldeans and
pretend to judge of the effects and Fgyptians Avere the first nations
influence of the planets ; and to that became, in this respect, con-
foretel future events, by the situa- spicuous in ancient history ; and
tion and different aspects of the it is doubtful, win ther the Phceni-
heavenly bodies. cians acquired the .aliments of
This superstition has prevailed this science from the former, or
even in modern ages ; and, about the latter : though we are indebted
a century ago, Avas in great re- to their enterprising merchants,
pute. Since that period, however, avIio first applied it to the useful
the minds of men having become anel important purposes of naviga-
more enlightened, that ait, Avhich tion.
owed its origin to the practices of
148 AST
ATA
Among the Arabs, Avho adopted
the present arithmetical characters
from the Indians, Gebeu laid the
foundation for our modern trigono-
metry; Avhich Menelaus, the
Greek, about the year 90 after
Christ, had ineffectually attempted
to establish, in his three excellent
books on spherics, even after that
doctrine had been rendered more
smple by the labours and improve-
ments of Ptolemy.
The Emperor Frederic II. of
Germany, who was a great patron
of the sciences, in 1230, alsoreA'iv-
ed the study of astronomy in Eu-
rope. Thence arose John Hali-
fax, Clavius, Roger Bacon,
anel at length the justly celebrat-
ed Nicolaus Copernicus, the
greatest luminary that ever appear-
ed on the shores of the Baltic, and
who is undoubtedly the principal
reformer of astronomical science.
After having studied physic at
Rome, and returned to his native
country, at present called West
Prussia, he began, in the year 1507,
to doubt the accuracy of ail other
systems, except that of Pythago-
ras. EndoAved Avith a compre-
hensive and penetrating mind, a
correct judgment, and inexhausti-
ble powers of application, he could
not fail to discover the truth of
the hypothesis advanced by that
sagacious Greek, " Avho placed
the sun in the centre-, and sup-
posed all the planetary bodies, and
the earth itself, to revolve around
him."
Since that period, astronomy has
been progressively cultivated by
different nations. The principal
characters, whose names will be
transmitted to posterity, for their
useful labours in the immense field
ofpiactical and theoretical astro-
nomy, are nearly the following :
Tycho-Brahe, the Portuguese,
who spent a great part of his time
in useless efforts of opposing the
immutable system of Copernicus ;
Clairult, D'Alembert, La
Caille, and De Lalande, in
France ; Galileo, Cassini, Fon-
TANA, BOSCOVICH, BlANCHINI,
and others, in Ita.y;....Kepler,the
two Eulers, Meyer, Kaestner,
Bode, and more especially V.
Zach, the leader of German astro-
nomers, Avho noAV resides at the
neAv observatory, near Gotha ; and
Napier, Newton, Flamstead,
Halley, Huygens, Hook, Brad-
ley, Ferguson, Gregory, Mas-
kelyne, anel in a more eminent
degree than any of his compatriots
on the continent, the transcendant
Herschel.
Of the latest and most popular
publications on this subject, we shall
state only the following : A Com-
pendious System of Astronomy, by
Margaret Bryan, 4to. 11. 7s. 6d.
boards; Leigh and Sotheby, 1797.
....The Study of Astronomy, adapted
to the Capacities of Youth, by J.
Stedman, 12mo. pp. 154 ; 2s. 6d.
Dilly, 1796.....Practical Astronomy,
by A. Ewing, 8vo. pp. 400 ; 5s.
boards; Longman, 1798.....Lastly,
a work of a more scientific charac-
ter, is the ReA'. S. Vince's Com-
plete System of Astronomy, vol. 1.
4to 11. 4s. boards ; Wingrave,1797.
The author excludes familiar ex-
planations, moral reflections, and
and historical details ; but has care-
fully examined whatever relates to
the subject,and bestowed the great-
est attention on the correctness of
the tables ; a circumstance of the
first importance .to a book of this
nature.
[ATAMASCO LILY amaryllis
(atamasco L.) The only species in-
digenous in the United States. It
ATM
is a large, beautiful, and very fra-
grant white flower, which, on its
first appearance, is streaked with
a fine carnation colour on the out-
side, but fades till it is almost
white. This flower is not found
wild north of the Chesapeak, yet
is hardy enough to bear the cold
of our winters.]
Athamanta Libanon, L. See
Mountain Spignel.
Athletic Art. See Gymnastic
Exercise.
ATHLETIC, Habit, a term
which implies a strong constitution
of body. Among the ancients, it
signified a robust and corpulent
state, such as the athleta endea-
voured to acquire.
The athletic habit is considered
as the highest point of health ; yet
such a state is ecpially precarious,
and exposed to danger ; for Avhen
the body is no longer capable of
improvement, the next change
must be for the reverse : hence
"its most healthy condition close-
ly borders on disease ; and the
seeds of distemper are planted in
the very fulness or luxuriance of
our fluids."
ATMOSPHERE, aterm derived
from the Greek Avords vapour and
sphere, whence it has been general-
ly applied, to signify that surround-
ing mass of air which consists of
aqueous and other vapours, the
electric and magnetic fluids, he.
but the altitude or extent of which
has never been accurately ascer-
tained.
Under the article Air, p. 21
Ave have already mentioned the
general properties of this surround-
ing medium ; hence Ave shall here
observe, by way of supplement,
that according to the discoveries of
modern chemists, though still op-
posed by Dr. Priestley, the at-
ATM 149
mosphere is not a simple, but a
compound body. Pure air, or
oxygen, is but a small part of its
composition, while that of azote,
or mephitic air, constitutes about
three-fourths. The former is, on
account of its more salutary pro-
perties, better adapted to the re-
spiration of men and animals, than
common atmospheric air; and
though, by its powerful influence,
it is eminently calculated to restore
the life of creatures, Avhen anima-
tion is accidentally suspended, so
that the late Dr. Ingenhguz has
justly termed it vital air ; yet it is
not proper for long-continued re-
spiration. Azote, or suffocative air,
on the contrary, is unfit for sup-
porting animal life, as it is abso-
lutely irrespirable. Hence it must
be obvious, that a greater or less
proportion of this noxious ingre-
dient in our atmosphere, arises
from the innumerable processes of
combustion, putrefaction, and re-
spiration, whether by nature or
art, in all large and populous ci-
ties. For this reason, country-air
is so much preferable, that certain
invalids, especially pthisical and
asthmatic persons, are obliged to
retire from toAvns to a purer, or,
at least, less vitiated region. Hence
also, it will be understood, that
sea-air must be infinitely more
conducive to support the most im-
portant process of life ; as, by the
constant agitation or commotion of
the watery element, mephitic va-
pours are in a manner neutralized ;
though the azote enters into no
combination Avith that fluid : upon
a similar principle, it has been sug-
gested (p. 23) to purify the foul
air of pits and Avells, before any
person attempts to descend into
them, by simply pouring in a feAv
pailfuls of water, whether boiling
150 ATM
AUT
or cold. By the same method also,
the noxious vapours of old wine-
casks, and other vessels or recep-
tacles of corrupted air, may be
effectually deprived of their per-
nicious, and often fatal influence.
The third constituent part of the
common atmosphere, viz. fixed air,
or carbonic acid gas, naturally exists
in so small a proportion, as to form
only a hundred part of the whole,
and therefore deserves no particular
account in this place, as Ave propose
to treat of it under the article of
Brewing.
[It is nowr found .that the atmos-
phere, in all places exposed to the
influence of the Avinds, contains
very nearly the same proportions
of oxygen and nitrogen; a circum-
stance of great importance ; for by
teaching us that the different de-
grees of salubrity of air, do not de-
pend upon differences in the quan-
tities of its principal constituent
parts, it ought to induce us to insti-
tute researches concerning the dif-
ferent substances, capable of being
dissolved or suspended in air, which
are noxious to the human constitu-
tion ; particularly as an accurate
knoAvledge of their nature and pro-
perties Avould probably enable us,
in a greatmeasure, to guard against
or destroy their baneful effects.
From a number of years' obser-
vations made at Springmill, thir-
teen miles N. N. W. of Philad.
Mr. Legaux, an able meteorolo-
gist, is enabled to state that the
greatest dryness of the air at that
place, was ahvays observed at those
perioels Avhen the thermometer Avas
highest....That the greatest degree
of moisture prevailed, 1. When
the east Avind blcAV ; 2. in calm
weather; 3. before a storm; 4.
when the wind bleAv from the Avest.
The hygrometer used was that of
De Luc. The greatest degree of
heat in our climate, takes place be-
tAveen the hours of two and three
in the afternoon, and the least de-
gree of heat at sunrise.]
Atriplex. See Orach and Purs-
lane.
Atropa Bclladona. L. See Deadly
NlGhTSHADE.
AUCTION, a public sale for
the disposal of household goods,
books, plate, landed estates, he.
By this method of sale, the highest
bidder is always the purchaser.
The origin of sales by auction is
very ancient; for among the Ro-
mans it was performed by the
public crier sub hasta, \. e. under a
spear erected on that occasion ; and
the goods purchase .1, Avere deli-
vered by a magistrate.
AUTUMN, is computed the
third season of the year ; and with
respect to the animal body, is
doubtless the most unhealthy....
Hence Tertullian calls it "the
test of valetudinarians ;" but the
ancient Germans, though acquaint-
ed with the three other seasons,
appear to have been uninfluenced
by the severity of autumn ; as they
had no particular term to express
it, unless we admit the word
" harvest," in modern German,
" Herbst," as equivalent to what
they at present call " ErrAte," or
the gathering in the fruits of the
earth.
The circumstances which render
this season the least conducive to
a healthy state of the body, are the
following: 1. Because the vege-
table kingdom, with very few ex-
ceptions, returns the salubrious
leaves of trees and plants to their
primitive, maternal earth, where
they undergo spontaneous decom-
position. This decay, or process
of putrefaction, produces a remark-
AUT
A V A 151
able change in that surrounding
medium which supports animal
life, and the relat'iAre purity of
which, determines the most im-
portant function of the system,
namely, that oi respiration. 2. As,
by the greater pressure and humi-
dity of the atmosphere, the pores
of the skin, are so affected that they
become unable to perform their
office of exhalation, with the same
facility as in winter and summer,
it follows that perspirable matter,
or F. least, its grosser particles, will
in autumn be liable to remain on
the surface, in a state inclining to
putrefaction, and to be re-absorb-
ed, to the great detriment of the
human or animal body. Hence
arise bilious and putrid fevers,
with a long train of other com-
plaints, according to the constitu-
tion and particular circumstances
of the individual.
Parental Nature, however, has
amply provided the means of obvi-
ating such disastrous effects. With
this intention, she has given us a
great variety of sub-acid fruit, and
acescent vegetables, which, at that
season, attain to their perfection,
and arc eminently qualified to coun-
teract the putrid disposition of the
fluids. To assist her in this be-
nevolent intention, Ave ought to
choose an appropriate diet; and,
at the same time,defend the surface
of the body with a proper dress,
which is Avarm, light, and sufficient-
ly porous, in o^eler to admit the
evaporation of perspirable volatile
humours.
Notwithstanding all the objec-
tions made by theorists, against the
use of Flannel, worn next the
skin, Ave venture to pronounce it
the most beneficial covering ; pro-
vided the conditions and excep-
tions we shall state under that arti-
cle, be duly attended to. But to
see the fashionable females of the
metropolis, as well as in the coun-
try, at all seasons of the year, dres-
sed in muslin, cotton, and other
light stuffs, scarcely sufficient to
protect them against a sudden blast
of wind....such deviations from the
rules of prudence, and real econo-
my, may, indeed, deserve the lash
of the Roman satyrist, who speaks
of the bitter complaints of Proser-
pine, in chilly autumn, but they
cannot be corrected by Reason, till
the shrine of that whimsical idol,
" Fashion," be shaken, and its
ground-work demolished, by a
more dignified system of Educa-
tion....See that article.
AVARICE, is that restless and .
insatiable desire of accumulating
riches, which is the surest indica-
tion of a contracted, and, generally,
depraved mind.
As the governing passions of the
brute creation are lust and hunger,
the predominant desires of the hu<-
man species appear to be poAver
and money: it has accordingly
been asserted, that the origin from
which all the misfortunes and ca-
lamities of mankind have arisen,
are ambition and avarice.
When a person doats upon mo-
ney, merely for the sake of pos-
sessing it, without any regard to
the good purposes of life, which
it might serve ; or to the new en-
joyments that may be procured by
it; Avithout any regard to the be^
nefit of his neighbour, or to any
advantage accruing from it to him-
self....such a being may justly be
called a miser of the first class.....
His greatest happiness, apparently,
consists in the contemplation of
money; an idol whom he even con-
152 A V A
AVE
descends to worship, Avhile he re-
moves him in triumph from one
part of his dwelling to another.
The next, and second class of
misers, comprehends those singu-
lar persons Avho are eager to amass
large sums of money, enjoy but a
temporary pleasure in its posses-
sion, and at the same time have
some particular object in view, the
execution of Avhich constitutes the
acme of their wishes. If this ob-
ject happen to be centered in a
trifling and despicable pursuit, it
must be ascribed to a narroAv and
sordid education; by which the
foundation was laid for an incon-
sistent and irrational turn of tem-
per, for a servile attention to the
lowest mercenary employments....
Sometimes, however, to the honour
of mankind, such persons, while
practising an almost criminal fru-
gality, speculate on the means of
benefiting their fellow-creatures....
Of this description was Godinot,
a French clergyman at Rheims,
who refused to relieve apparent
wretchedness; and by the skilful
management of his vineyard, had
the good fortune to acquire large
sums of money. His felloAv-cki-
zens detested him, and the popu-
lace every Avhere received him Avith
contempt. Nevertheless, he con-
tinued his usual simplicity of life,
and steadily adhered to the most
rigid system of economy. Mean-
while, this good man had long felt
the Avants of the industrious poor
in that city, particularly in having
no Avater but Avhat they were obli-
ged to purchase at a considerable
price. At length, he laid out his
princely fortune in the building of
an aqueduct, by which he rendered
the poor more useful anel lasting
service than if he had distributed
his Avhok income in charity, every
day at his door: and thus he proved
himself the true benefactor of soci-
ety, whose name deserves to be
transmitted to posterity.
The third, and perhaps most
culpable class of avaricious persons,
are those literary misers, who in-
cessantly apply themselves to study,
and eagerly seize upon every useful
fact or discovery, Avithout ever in-
tending to impart it to others. If
the acquisition and propagation of
knoAvledge were dependent on these
persons, who in many other re-
spects resemble the monks of the
dark ages, a speedy return of bar-
barism Avould be the necessary con-
sequence. A similar idea, perhaps,
struck the didactic Pope, when he
thus concisely expressed himself in
the folloAving lines:
" Be niggards of advice on no pretence;
" For the vorst avarice is that of sense."
Lastly, it deserves to be remark-
ed that aArarice, in general, has a
tendency to stifle every spark of
sympathy and generosity in the
human breast; to affect also the
different functions of the body, in
a manner not unlike that Ave have
described under the head Anxik-
ty ; and that even savage nations,
for instance, the Canadians, bestow
the greatest care on the susceptible
minds of their children, to prevent
the growth of that vile and corro-
sive passion.
Avena. See Oats.
AVENS, or Geum, L. a genus
of plants comprehending eleven
species, of Avhich, however, only
two are natives of Britain, viz.
1. Common Avens ; the Geum
urbanum, L. (also called great-
floAvered Avens, or Herb Bennet);
grows in woods, and about shady
hedges ; produces yellow flowers
from May to August, and is re pre-
AVE
sentedby Withering, 477. The
stalks of this useful plant attain
a height of two feet. In spring, its
woody root possesses the aromatic
flavour of cloves.
In medicine, the root of the
common avens has lately been em-
ployed with singular efficacy in the
cure of obstinate agues. A tinc-
ture made of it, in the proportion
of four ounces of the root, digested
with a quart of brandy, in a sand
heat, and given to the quantity of
half an ounce, or more, two, three
or four times, has seldom failed
to cure intermittents, where the
Peruvian bark had proved ineffec-
tual. Others give it with equal
success in decoction, powder, or
electuary, in eloses from one scmple
to a drachm or more, several times
a day....provided that the first pas-
sages be previously evacuated by
proper laxatives. This root has
also afforded an excellent remedy
in several chronic disorders, as a ge-
neral strengthener and astringent:
indeed, the experiments made by
Buchhavf shew, that its antisep-
tic power is superior to that of
the best foreign bark.
As an object of rural and domes-
tic economy, this plant deserves
tome attention. Sheep are ex-
tremely fond of its herbage; Avhich
may likeAvise, Avhen young, be
used for culinary purposes, and
especially in the form of salad.
If the common avens-root be col-
lected, split, and dried, a portion of
it secured in a bag, and hung in a
cask of beer, it is affirmed (in the
Transactions of the Swedish Aca-
demy), that this simple expedient
will prevent it from turning sour.
....On this subject, Ave refer to the
article Brewing.
In the useful arts, this root has
likewise been employed in the
vo:.. r.
A Y A 153
process of tanning leather. Dam-
uou.iney informs us, that the
stalks and leaves of the plant have
been used Avith advantage for dye-
ing avooI of a permanent olive-
brown colour, Avhen previously
steeped in a solution of bismuth.
2. Water Avens, Geum rivale,
L. grows in meadoAvs and groves
of a hu raid soil; its fio-'ers appear
in July. We find it delineated in
Engl. Bot. t. 106, and by Wither-
ing, 478....The herb and root of
this species, though of inferior effi-
cacy, have also been employed in
medicine, as well as by tanners.
AVOIRDUPOIS is the name
of the weight adopted for the larger
or coarser commodities, such as
groceries, hops, cheese, wool,
lead, he. It is distinguished from
Troy-weight, Avhich was formerly
used in England for every purpose,
and is still retained for weighing
gold, silver, and jewels, for com-
pounding medicines, for experi-
ments in natural philosophy, and
for comparing different weights
with each other. The former con-
tains sixteen, and the latter only
twelve ounces to the pound—«Apo-
thecaries purchase their drugs,
if wholesale, by the former, but
retail them out by the latter....See
Weights and Measures.
Aversion.- See Antipathy-
Azalea procumbens, L. See
Trailing Rose-bay.
[ AY A P ANA, a plant original-
ly from the right bank of the river
Amazon, in Brazil. It is a remedy
for bruises, and also considered as
an antidote against the poison of
serpents, and of arroAvs. Citizen
Bau din relates wonderful effects of
this plant upon himself and others,
in relieving bruises. Dr. Carmaro,
of Brazil, confirmed the accounts
of the efficacy of the plant in cty>
154 A Y A A Z O
ing the effects of poisonous bites.
Citizen Ventenat, who lately
reael an account of the plant to the
National Institute, thinks it belongs
to the corymbifens family, and the
genus eupatorium of L. It may
be distinguished from other species
of this genus by the following cha-
racters....Eupatorium, lance-shap-
ed leaves, very entire ; the loAver
leaves opposite ; the upper ones
alternate ; calyces very simple;
many flowered.....There are seve-
ral species of eupatorium in the
United States, and it is possible
that the aya pana may also be
found. Count Rumford describes
a plant of similar Arirtues, called in
Santa Fe, Vijuco de Guaco, which
see. See Til loch Phil. Mag. vol.
12, 13.]
Azote. See Atmosphere.
B.
B AC
B AC
[BACCHARIS HALIMIFO-
LIA, Cotton Groundsel-tree, Sea
Purslane. This is a sea-side shrub
of great beauty in the autumn,
when mantled in silky doAvn, white
as snow. The bark of the last
year's groAvth of twigs, early in
the spring, when the sap begins
to flow, expands suddenly, and
opens longitudinally, from Avhich
springs a limpid juice of the con-
sistence of pure honey, and as
sweet and pleasant to the taste.
At this season the bees visit these
shrubs, and sip the honey en-
tirely, before the sun rises.]
BACHELOR, a word of doubt-
ful origin ; though, in the political
economy of nations, Avhen a plu-
rality of persons apparently glory
in that appellation, its practice
cannot fail to be attended Avith ef-
fects detrimental to the State, and
frequently disgraceful to the indi-
vidual. We allude to those un-
married men, who pretend to live
in a state of stoic celibacy, and
are, for the most part, generally,
either avaricious misers, or unprin-
cipled spendthrifts. That there are
many exceptions to this odious
character, cannot be denied; yet,
in a maritime country, Avhere a
great proportion of active men de-
vote themselves to a sea-faring life,
there ought to be public disgrace
attached to those, Avho cannot as-
sign the most substantial reasons
for their choice of celibacy.
Even the ancient Greeks Avere
so fully persuaded of the perni-
cious influence of professed bache-
lors, on the population and morals
of their countrymen, that, by the
laws of Lycurgus, they Avere
branded Avith infamy, excluded
from all offices civil and military,
as well as from national games and
public spectacles. Farther, such
persons were compelled to appear
at certain festivals, Avhere they
were exposed to public derision,
and led round the market-place:
in this* degraded situation, the fair
sex conducted them to the altars,
and obliged them to make amende
BAC
B A C 155
honorable, by submitting to blows
and lashes, at discretion. The
women, not satisfied with this spe-
cimen of passive obedience, forced
them to sing certain songs teeming
with satire, and deprecating a state
of life which Nature had never de-
signed.
The Roman laAvs, also, were
not more favourable to their tole-
ration ; and the vigilant censors
frequently imposed arbitrary fines
on old bachelors. According to
DionysIus, the historian, there
existed in Rome an ancient edict,
by which all persons of full age
were obliged to marry. But the
most remarkable law enacted
against them, was that made in
the reign of the Emperor Au-
gust isj by which they were ren-
dered incapable of enjoying the
benefit either of legacies or inhe-
ritance by will, unless from their
near relations. This limitation,
I'.uTarch justly observes, induced
many ba'tchelors to marry ; not so
much With the v'icav of having heirs
to their own estates, as to quali-
fy themselves to inherit those of
others.
Thus it clearly appears that,
from the most early ages, the
most civilized nations expressed a
just abhorrence of a life which is
more calculated to promote the
narrow grovelling views of the in-
dividual, Avho prefers it to the most
sacred and honourable station in
society, than to benefit that circle
of the community, of Avhich he is
frequently a consuming and worth-
less member.
BACON, the flesh of swine,
salted, dried, and, generally, smok-
ed in a chimney. As the history and
customs relative to this savoury
dish, Avould furnish but little- in-
struction, Ave shall proceed to state
the most approved methods of pre-
paring it, both in England and on
the continent.
Somcrsctdiire-Eacon, the most
esteemed in England, may be made
any time during the last three
months of the year. When a hog-
is killed for bacon, the sides are
laid in large wooden troughs, and
sprinkled all over with bay salt:
thus they are left for twenty-four
hours, to drain aAvaythe blood and
the superfluous juices. After this
first preparation, they should be
taken out, wiped very dry, and
the drainings throAvn aAvay. Next,
some fresh bay salt, Avell heated
in a large iron frying-pan, is to be
rubbed over the meat, until if has
absorbed a sufficient quantity, and
this friction repeated four succes-
sive days., while the meat is turned
only every other day. If large
hogs are killed, the Hitches should
be kept in brine for three weeks,
and, during th-.t period, turned
ten times, then taken out, and
thoroughly dried in the usual man-
ner; for, unless they be thus ma-
naged, it is impossible to preserve
them in a sweet state, nor will
their flavour be equal to those pro-
perly cured.
As the preservation of the salt
used in this process, when carried
on to a great extent, may be an
object of economy, Ave shall state
the following method of recovering
the saline matter contained in these
drainings, or in any other brine,
Avhether from herrings, beef, or
pork: it Avas communicated to us
by a friend, who haei seen it practis-
ed on the continent, Avhere culina-
ry salt is sold at a considerable
price. He first added such a quan-
tity of boiling Avater t» the brine,
or drainings, as Avas sufficient to
dissolve all the particles of the salt.
156 B A C
This solution he then placed in
either an iron or earthen vessel,
over a fire, which,by boiling, forced
all the feculent and animal particles
to the top, so that they Avere care-
fully removed by a perforated ladle.
After the liquid had become clear,
it Avas set aside for twenty-four
hours, in a cool place, that the co-
louring matter might subside. But,
as the combination it had formeel
with the boiled liquor was very te-
nacious, he contrived two different
ways of separating it: 1. A solu-
tion of alum in Avater, one pint
to an ounce of that substance, Avas
gradually diopt into the cold liquor,
in the proportion of a table-spoon-
ful of the former to every gallon
of the latter; and the whole allow-
ed to stand for several hours; or, 2.
If time and circumstances would
pennit, he filtered the liquor by
means of long flannel slips, cut
longitudinally by the web, but pre-
viously soaked in another strong
and perfectly clear solution of salt:
these slips were so immersed into
the coloured fluid, that the pro-
jecting external end reached ano-
ther vessel, which had been placed
much loAver than that containing
the brine, or drainings. When
these particulars were properiy at-
tended to, the absorbeel liquor be-
came almost colourless, and pel-
lucid. Having thus procured a
clear liquid solution, nothing more
Avas reiiuired than to evaporate it
to dryness, in order to re-produce
the salt in its original granulated
form. We have faithfully report-
ed the process, which may be imi-
tated Avithout difficulty, and at little
or no expence. In our opinion, the
second method of discharging the
colour is preferrable, as, by this, no
alum wiil be required, which only
contaminates the salt.
BAD
Smoked Bacon, one of the most
relished, but almost indigestible,
dishes of the Germans, is prepared
in a manner similar to that adopt-
ed in the curing of the celebrated
Westphalia hams. For the latter,
however, animals that have been
well fed, and allowed to roam at
pleasure in the extensive moor-
lands of that province, are gene-
rally selected. And if credit be
elue to the report lately spread in
London, by a Native of Westpha-
lia, that those delicious hams, so
much esteemed in this country, are
the produce of hogs which fre-
quently die of obesity, and were
sold for half price to the ill-reputed
German skinners (schinder,) who
export them to Hamburgh or Hol-
land, Ave cannot, in justice to our
friends, recommend them for their
salubrity. The manner of obtain-
ing them is nearly as follows : af-
ter the hams have been properly
salted, rubbed, and wiped with dry
cloths, in order to absorb all the im-
pure juices, the cavities of the joints,
as well as the bones themselves, are
carefully covered with a mixture
consisting of two parts of the best
salt, perfectly dried, and one part
of black pepper, coarsely powder>
ed. As soon as this operation is
performed, the hams are, on the
same day, suspended in a chimney,
where no ether but wood fire
is burnt, and which is usually in-
creased during the first three days.
The time of fumigation is regulat-
ed by the size of the meat, and ge-
nerally extends from three to six
mouths.
BADGER, an animal resem-
bling in its external characters,
both a dog and a hog. The un-
ecmal length of its legs has intro-
duced the expression badge r-l g-
ged. Its flesh has a taste similar
BAD
to that of wild hogs, and is much
esteemed in Italy, France, and Ger-
many. Indeed these carnivorous
quadrupeds are themselves so very
fond of pork, that a piece of such
meat, placed over their burroAV, is
the surest inducement to their ap-
petite, and Avill in a few minutes
entice them above ground.
Besides affording a nutritive, but
not easily digestible food, the skin
of the badger makes excellent
knapsacks, and covers for travel-
ling-trunks, saddles, he. because
it is impervious to rain, and stanela
in need of no additional prepara-
tion for rendering it water-proof;
a process we shall describe under
the article Leather. The hairs
or bristles of this animal are used
for painters' brushes; and its pene-
trating fat answers a variety of
useful purposes: for it is not only
employed as an ingredient in injec-
tions for relieving nephritic com-
plaints, or such as arise from ob-
structions in the urinary passages,
but likewise externally, in rheuma-
tic affections, especially those called
Siatica, and for the cure of sore
and chapped nipples in young mo-
thers. For paralytic diseases of the
aged, it is asserted, that the hairy
skin of this creature, when Avom
next the surface of the body, has
been of eminent service, by stimu-
lating the inert, cutaneous and mus-
cular vessels into action : and there
can be no reasonable objection
against giving this simple remedy a
fair trial for a few weeks, Avhere
medicines generally are ineffec-
tual.
The crafty horse-dealers also
employ the badger's fat in a singu-
lar manner, Avhich involves a de-
gree of fraud and cruelty. They
pull ont the hair in several places,
and anoint the bare spots with this
BAG 157
fat; when the hair groAVs again, it
is of a Avhite or grey colour, so as
to give the horse a pyebald appear-
ance, which probably inhances its
value.
BAG, in commerce, is a term
for a sack, or pouch, containing a
certain quantity or weight of some
particular commodity. Thus a
bag of almonds is about three hun-
dred pound ; of aniseed, from
three to four hundred pounds
weight, Sec. The best material for
making compact and durable bags
is hempen cloth [or cotton] pre-
viously steeped in a strong decoc-
tion of oak-bark, or tanner's waste.
Bag, in farriery, signifies a me-
dicated external application, made
with a view to recover a horse's
appetite. For this purpose, one
ounce of asafoetida, with an equal
quantity of powdered savin, are
mixed together, put into a bag, and
tied to the bit. Meanwhile the
horse should be kept bridled for
two hours, several times a-day,
and as soon as the bag is remov-
ed, the animal will begin to eat.
We have stated this piece of ad-
vice on the authority of the Ency-
lopaadia Britannica ; though we
are enclined to think that such su-
perficial applications will seldom
avail.....See Farriery.
BAGNIO, a term adopted from
the Italian, and signifying a bath :
in English, it denotes a house for
bathing, sweating, and cleansing
the body ; but sometimes also for
worse purposes.
The substance used for heating
bagnios are various ; such as bricks,
stones, Sec. managed in different
ways, and in several vessels and
utensils, according to the choice or
fancy of the proprietor. The ef-
fect generally expected from re-
sorting to such places, *i6 an immo-
158 B A K
B AK
derate degree of perspiration, oc-
casioned by artificial heat: this
cannot fail to open the pores ; to
attennuate and dissolve the hu-
mours ; to dissipate all the super-
fluous particles ; and eventually to
heat and dry the Avhole body.....
Hence this practice cannot be pro-
per for persons of a choleric, thin
anel spare habit, nor for those sub-
ject to periodical discharges.
In rheumatic and paralytic dis-
eases, great benefit has sometimes
been derived from a cautious use of
the bagnio. For whatever com-
plaint it be resorted to, care must
be taken that neither the boAvels
nor stomach be distended, which
might be the case in the former,
by obstructions or costiveness ; in
the latter, after a plentiful repast.
Besides, the heat of a bagnio should
always be accommodated to the
strength and peculiar condition of
the patient ; for if immoderate, it
will be attended with effects very
detrimental to the whole frame,
the least of Avhich are pustules,
tumors, and obstructions of the
surface of the body.
BAITING, a practice derived
from the barbarous ages, and one
of those amusements which degrade
the human character. Thus Ave
hear of the baiting of bulls, or
beafs, by mastiffs, or bull-dogs
with short noses, that they may
take a firmer hold of their oppo-
nents.
The inhuman practice of bull-
baiting ought not to be connived at
by magistrates, especially about
the metropolis.
BAKER, a person whose busi-
ness is that of baking and selling
bread. The origin of this useful
profession is notascertained,though
it is certain that the first public
bakers appeared in the East, and
passed from Greece to Italy, about
the year of Rome 583. Prior to that
period, every house-wife baked her
oavii bread.
We regret that so Avealthy a
body of men as our modern bakers,
give us frequent cause of com-
plaint, either by the unwholesome
quality, or the deficient Aveight of
bread; an article which loudly
calls for the wisdom and unremitt-
ing vigilance of the legislature.
No new office in any department of
police appears to be so necessary,
and likely to be productive of such
essential advantages' to a city, as
that of " Inspector of Bread."
BAKING is the art of con-
verting flour, or other farinaceous
substances, into bread.....As we
propose to treat more fully on this
subject, under the article Bread,
we shall here only explain Avhat
relates to a proper method of pre-
paring it.
In domestic life, the baking of
bread is frequently mismanaged ;
which may be ascribed to the fol-
loAving circumstances. Some wo-
men do not use a just proportion
and temperature of Avater, so that
the bread turns out either pasty, or
too firm and heavy; others do not
use a proper quantity or quality of
leaven, or yeast, Avhence the bread
acquires either an unpleasant bit-
terish taste, or the dough cannot
rise, and consequently becomes
tough and viscid ; again, others do
not understand the due degree of
heat required in the oven, so that
it will be either under, or over-
baked. All these particulars de-
serve to be attended to, otherwise
a bad and unwholesome bread will
be produced. To survey, there-
fore, the Avhole process, which is
B A K
B A K 159
one of the most complicated in
chemistry,. we shall here commu-
nicate a few general directions.
1. The flour, whether made of
wheat, or rye (which two are
doubtless the be stand most whole-
some species of grain), ought not
to be used immediately on coming
from the mill, as in a fresh state it
is too moist for making good and
palatable bread ; but it should be
kept in a dry place, for several
weeks, stirred every day in sum-
mer, and at least every other
day in colder seasons, till it has
acemired such a consistence, as
renders it loose and yielding be-
tween the fingers.
2. As the dough will not rise,
without.giving it a proper leaven
or yeast, this ought to be a prin-
cipal object in families, as well as
to bakers. If leaven be employed,
it shoulel, on the preceding even-
ing, be deprived of its hard crust,
and dissolved with a little, scarcely
milk-warm, Avater; then carefully
mixed with about a third part of
the flour to be used for baking, and
kneaded into a soft dough, by add-
ing more tepid Avater. A small
quantity of flour is put on the top ;
and, thus prepared, it Avill be ne-
cessary to cover the trough with
blankets, and suffer it to stand in
a moderately warm place till the
following morning, that it may rise
and duly ferment. The remain-
ing two-thirds of the flour must
then be added, Avith a proportion-
ate quantity of luke-warm water,
and the whole kneaded into such an
elastic dough as Avill draAV into
strings without breaking, and not
adhere to the fingers. In this state
it is again covered, and allowed to
stand (while preparations are mak-
ing in the oven), and not disturbed
till it begins gently to rise, when it
should be formed into loaves.
3. A proper degree of heat is
an essential requisite to the baking
process. When the inner arch of
the oven appears entirely white, it
is generally considered as suffi-
ciently heated. But this being a
fallacious criterion, Ave Avould re-
commend the folloAving: Place a
handful of flour before the aperture
of the oven, and if it turn of a
broAvn colour, the heat is then
nearly of the degree required ; but
if it become black, or remain
white, in the former case the fire
must be considerably reduced ; and
in the latter, more fuel must be
added. Lastly, all parts of the
oven should be uniformly heated ;
and though we cannot enter into
farther particulars, yet the atten-
tive house-Avife will easily, from.
her own observations, regulate the
degree of heat, Avith the same ef-
fect as it might be done by Mr.
Wedge wood's Pyrometer for the
baking of earthen-ware.
Remark.....Musty flour, when
baked into bread, is not only ex-
tremely detrimental to health, but
it also imparts a bitter and nauseous
taste. When such flour is not too
strongly tainted, it may be correct-
ed by first kneading it with leaven
or sweet yea9t, then making large
holes with a wooden cylinder in the
dough, filling up the cavities with
flour that is perfectly sweet, suffer-
ing it to remain in this preparatory
state till the next morning, then
removing the dry flour carefully
with long spoons or similar imple-
ments, and afterwards com'erting
the dough into bread, with the
addition of such flour as is not
musty. By this simple process,
the flour first mixed up will be
160 BAK
B AL
SAveetened, but that which has
been left over night in the dough,
is said to become so corrupted,
that it can be given only to ani-
mals.
It has frequently been attempt-
ed, and not Avithout success, to
bake good, wholesome bread, with
little or no barm. In consequence
of a dispute between the brewers
and bakers of Dublin, concerning
the price of yeast, in the year 1770,
the latter carried the point, by
making their bread without it. As
this process, however, could not
be readily imitated in domestic life,
we shall here state a method of rais-
ing a bushel of flour with a tea-
spoonful of yeast; first practised
by James Stone. It is as follows:
Put a bushel of flour into the knead-
ing-trough or trendle ; take about
three quarters of a pint of warm
water, and thoroughly mix with
it a spoonful of thick, sweet barm ;
then make a hole in the middle of
the flour, large enough to contain
two gallons of water ; pour in your
small quantity, and stir it with a
stick, so that it may, with some of
the flour combining with it, acquire
the consistence of batter for pud-
ding ; then strew a little dry flour
over it, and let it stand for about
one hour, when you will find the
small portion so raised, that it will
-break through the dry flour scat-
tered over it. After this, pour in
another quart of warm Avater, while
you are stirring in more flour, till
it becomes as thick as before ; then
again shake dry flour over it, and
leave it for two hours longer....re-
peat the same method about twice
more, ahvays suffering it some-
what longer to be a rest, and the
bread Avill become zee, light as if a
pint of barm had been used. Nor
does this method require above a
quarter of an hour more time than
the usual Avay of baking ; and the
author of it asserts, that his bread
has never been heavy nor bitter.
With respect to the difference
of seasons, J. Stone directs that,
in summer, the Avater should be
used blood-warm; in Avinter, or
cold frosty weather, as hot as the
hand can bear it Avithout pain;
while in the former season the
dough should be covered up very
warm, and strewed over Avith dry
flour every time tepid Avater is
added, to keep in the heat: after
using six or eight quarts of such
Avater to every bushel of flour, in
the gradual manner before describ-
ed, it will be found that the whole
body of flour which is mixed with
the Avarm water, by means of a
single tea-spoonful of barm, is
brought into considerable agitation,
so that it waxes or ferments with-
out difficulty.....See also Yeast.
Baking-Stove (portable). See
Stove.
BALANCE, one of the six
simple poAvers in mechanics, prin-
cipally used for deteraiining the
equality or difference of weights in
such bodies as are liable to this
computation.
There are two kinds of weights
principally used at present; the an-
cient, or the Roman steel-yard,
and the modern, which consists of
a lever or beam suspended exactly
in the middle, having scales or ba-
sons attached to each extremity. If
the arms of the balance be of equal
length, and similar weights placed
in the scale, the balance will con-
sequently be in cjuilibrio. But
if one of the arms be in length
to the other as ten to nine,
the balance may still be so con-
structed, that both the arms with
their scales shall equiponderate.
•
0
*
iFi / VW 7/J / ///// ? / V '/V,
/'/ff/sf ///•{■/.
BAL
This vile contrivance, however,
justly deserves to be branded with
infamy ; because a weight of nine
pounds suspended on the longer arm,
will counterpoise another of ten
pounds placed on .the shorter one ;
but the fraud may be instantly dis-
covered, by shifting the Aveight
from the one scale to the other, in
which case the balance will lose its
equipoise.
> [Fig. 1. Is a representation of that
part of the common steelyard, in
which the pivots are placed.....a
is the centre of motion, upon which
the beam turns'; b is the point
where the article to be weighed is
i suspended; and c is the point where
'•the poise is suspended^ both being
above the centre of motion, but c
somewhat higher than b.....While
the beam remains level, the hori-
zontal distances of these points of
suspension, are a d and a e. De-
press the larger end of the beam,
until the point b falls to /, and the
point cwill rise'tog". It is evident.
that the horizontal distance a d is
increased to af, on the falling side
of the centre ; and that on the ri-
sing side, the horizontal distance a
e is in the same time reduced to a
h. Thus the descending poAver
overcomes the ascending, and*de-
stroys the equilibrium at the mo-
ment the beam is moved from a
level position. The centre of gra-
vity is also placed a"bove the centre
'. of motion, which must prevent the
light beam from vibrating on its
centre, if the larger end were made
to balance the smaller, unless the
former centre a\ ere placed below the
latter. Hence, the reasons why the
common steelyard) and all beams
constructed on those principles,
must ever be liable to error, and
applicable to fraudulent ptirposes.
VOL. I.
BAL 161
Fig. 2. Is a representation of that
part of Dearborn's balance in
which the pivots are placed....a is
the centre of motion, on which the
beam turns ; b is the point Avhere
the article to be Aveighed is sus-
pended, andc is the point where the
poise is suspended, both being on a
line Avith the centre of motion.....
While the beam remains leArel, the
horizontal distances of these points
of suspension are a b and a c ; de-
press the larger end of the beam,
until the point b falls to d, and the
point c will rise to e ; it is evident,
that the horizontal distances are
both reduced, and that this reduc-
tion of distances on both sides the
centre of motion, is always equal
or proportional....Thus, by placing
the joints of suspension on a line
with the centre of motion, by fixing
the centre of motion above the
centre of gravity,- and by making
the arms of the beam in counter-
poise, it preserves its 'vibrations
when light or loaded, and henc-j
the reasons Avby no art in manage-
ment can render it a fraudulent
instrument.
Fig. 3. Represents the balance
Avith its apparatus. ABCD is a
wooden frame, with an iron screAV
at E, on which the beam FG is
suspended. The scale HI is at-
tached to the beam by the clasp
K, Avhich slides on the bar KI, to
be moved over the centre of the
Aveight in the scale ; the skid L is
formed tq receive the scale on one
end, while the other end answers
as an inclined plane, over Avhich
the cask M is rolled into the scale.
When the scale is to be charged,
it is fixed "at a proper height, by
turning the screw E until the scale
will rest fairly on the skid, when
the beam is elevated to an anele of
Y
162 BAL
BAL
SO or 40 degrees above a horizontal may be graduated for any two of
line. The little weight P (called those weights, and may be suffi-
the balance Aveight) is a brass case, ciently strong, for bearing any
into Avhich a sufficient quantity of number required, for the largest
shot is put, to produce an exact draughts. Under or near the be-
equipoise Avith the scale ; if the ginning of the graduated edge of
Aveight of the scale varies by any every beam, on each side, is stamp-
cause, the shot is augmented or di- ed the Aveight of the poise, for
minished accordingly, for Avhich which the respective side is mark-
purpose the top of the brass case ed, and in all possible variations
has a small screAv to be taken out of the weights, any article will be
for making the change. The scale, found to weigh alike, Avhen weigh-
when charged, rests on the skid, ed with the heavier weight alone,
by which it is kept out of the mud, or the lighter weight alone, or with
and at a suitable distance from the both together, or with any greater
ground ; the small end of the beam number which will produce an equi-
is then brought down by hand, poise; hence arises an incontroYert-
which raises the scale and relieves ible testimony of the accuracy of
the skid, if the weight in the scale the system,H*ind of the construc-
be nearly under the clasp ; if not, tion of the balance.
the beam is raised until the scale Balancesofa small size are made
rests again on the skid, and the for domestic purposes, and for
clasp is loose, which is moved by shop-counters, which are found
hand over the weight. The beam exceedingly convenient, when a tin
being again brought down, the scale is attached to the lower hook,
poises NO are put on, and the and may be rendered more pecu-
skid is draAvn out; Avhen the poises liarly so, by the addition of another
are so placed as to produce a level scale, at sixteen times the distance
beam, the two numbers being add- from the centre, for weighing
ed, at Avhich the poises hang, will ounces.
give the weight of the article. The Fig. 4. Is a representation of a
handles QR and S, are for lifting grapnel for weighing casks and
the apparatus by hand, and trans- boxes Avith the balance, without re-
porting it small distances, without moving tjiem from the spot: a b
the trouble of taking it apart. T is a bar of avoocI with holes, de-
is a guard, which is useful when scribed by the black spots : c is an
the scale is to be many times iron by Avhich the grapnel hangs
charged Avith a given weight of to the balance ; it is secured to the
small articles, in which case the bar by the bolts d e: fg are two
beam may rest in the guard, with- irons, /kept at proper distances by
out taking off the poises, until all the bolts // i ; kkkk are four points
the draughts are weighed. The about three inches in length,which
principles on which this balance is are entered under the ends of the
predicated, require that the larger cask or box, and lift it by the
poizes or weights attending it, shall draught of, the beam. The tAvo
be multiples of the smaller, there- points of each iron are kept about
fore the folloAving are the sizes, one foot apart, by the little bolts
viz. lib. 21b. 41b. 81b. 16lb. and,'//: mm are two hooks, fastened
321b. and the two sides of abeam by a few links to the irons; these
BAL
B^L 163
hooks, being thrown over the bars
Q R and S, in Fig. 3, keep the tAvo
irons separate, a sufficient distance
for setting the apparatus over the
next cask, Avithout interference.
The height of the Avhole should
be nearly the height of a scale for
weighing hogsheads, like that re-
presented in Fig. 3, that either the
grapnel or the scale may be used
with the same frame. With this
apparatus, but two assistants are
necessary for weighing any number
of casks, as the frame, with its ap-
pendages, is moved from one to
another, and set over them in ro-
tation, by two persons, with much
less labour than would be necessary
for removing a heavy cask.
In the 17th volume of the
American edition of the Encyclo-
paedia Britannica, (Avhich was pub-
lished by Mr. Thomas Dobson, in
May, 1797), an instrument is re-
presented in Fig. 1, of Plate 481,
which by the cursory reader may
be supposed to contain the princi-
ples of Mr. Dearborn's balance.
If the tAvo instruments had been
exactly alike, Mr. Dearborn has
indisputable testimony, that his
balance Avasin existence in the year
1783, Avhich Avas foiuteen years
prior to the publication of that
volume ; but, it will be sheAvn, that
in correcting the errors of the
common steel-yard, these instru-
ments are alike in one particular
only ; Avhich is, placing the two
points of suspension andthecentreof
motion in a right line; that in every
other respect they differ; and that, in
conseemence of this difference, Mr.
Dearborn's balance is rendered
one of the most extensively useful
instruments for weighing which
has been known ; Avhile that which
is described in the Encyclopedia^
Is so contracted in its power, as to
fall far short of the common steel-
yard. On examining Fig. 1, be-
fore mentioned, and reading the
description of it, Ave find sufficient
evidence, that an idea was never
conceived, of using more than
one counterpoise on the beam : if
that were light, it could not weigh
heavy articles ; if it were heavy, it
could not Aveigh light articles, con-
sequently the range of the instru-
ment must be so contracted as to
render it of little use ; and no mode
of extending the range is intimat-
ed, except by adding another point
of suspension on the short arm.
Hence the author's remark, in page
779, column first, near the bottom:
" it is usual to make as many di-
" vided scales on the long arm, as
" there are points of suspension on
" the short arm." Then two lines
further on : " but the range of this
" instrument is not altogether at
" the pleasure of the maker."
In the construction of Mr.
Dearborn's balance, the range is
at the pleasure of the maker ; for,
with but one point of suspension
on the short arm, the range may
be from one pound to any quantity
which a beam of any kind can sus-
tain ; the range of one already
made, is from one pound to seven
thouvand and five hundred pounds.
This advantage arises from the ap-
plication of Aveights Avhich are
multiples; using a lighter counter-
poise for Aveighing lighter articles,
and a heavier counterpoise, or both
together, or any number,for Aveigh-
ing heavier articles, Avithout any
one of them exceeding 321b. Avhich
is the heaviest counterpoise requir-
ed with the Patent Balance.
The place of the centre of gra-
vity exhibits another essential elif-
■ ference. In Figure 1, it is placed
somewhere in the long arm, de-
164 BAL
pending on the scale to bring the
beam to a horizontal position ; con-
sequently nothing can be weighed
but in the scale, unless its weight
be added to the weight of the arti-
cle, or accounted for in some other
way. In Mr. Dearborn's balance,
the centre of gravity is placed ex-
actly under the centre of motion,
whereby small or loose articles may
be wreighed in a scale, Avhich is ba-
lanced by a small weight hooked in
at the end of the long arm ; and
on putting these off, the hook is
ready for receiving articles which
may be too large for the scale ; the
figures on the beam giving the ex-
act Aveight in either case, rendering
this balance an instrument of great
convenience in markets and in fa-
milies ; for the same beam Avith
Avhich small articles are weighed in
a tin scale, will Aveigh a quarter of
beef on the hook. It will be ob-
served, that the particulars here
described,Avhich give to Mr. Dear-
born's balance such essential supe-
riority, are entirely independent of
the portable and convenient ma-
chinery Avhich he has constructed
to accompany the instrument for
weighing heavy bodies, and Avhich
gives additional value to his system
for Aveighing.
Some of the characteristics of a
Patent Balance, Avhich is now in
use in the city of Philadelphia for
weighing 3000lbs. compared with
those which it must have possessed,
if it had been made according to
the description given in the Ency-
clopxdia, Vol. 17, Plate 481,
Fig. 1.
1st. The heaviest counterpoise
belonging to the balance is 32lbs.
If it had been made on the princi-
ples of Fig. 1, the counterpoise
must have Aveighed 112lbs.
BAL
2d. The counterpoise to be lift-.
ed from notch to notch on the ba-
lance, for finding the exact weight
of the goods, is only 16lbs. If
the constmction had been on the
principles of Fig. 1, the counter-
poise to be lifted from notch to
notch, must have weighed 112lbs.
3d. The smallest quantity which
can be Aveighed with the above
mentioned balance, is one pound.
If it had been made on the princi-
ples of Figure 1, the smallest
quantity it could have weighed
would be seventy pounds.
4th. The number of notches on
the Balance, corresponding to one
pound each, are something short
of seven and a half to an inch.
If it had been made on the princi-
ples of Fig. 1, the number of
notches correspondingtoone pound
each, must have becnfifty-one to an
inch.]
BALDNESS, a defect of hair
chiefly on the fore part of the head.
Among the pre-disposing causes
of baldness, excessive indulgence
in sensual gratifications, and parti-
cularly in Avine anel spirits, is per-
haps the principal ; hough old age
usually causes the loss of hair even
in the most regular livers. In an-
cient Rome, the term calvus, or
bald-pate, Avas frequently used by
Avay of reproach for this defici-
ency, Avhich then was in great dis-
repute.
In modern times, diA'ers arts are
practised to conceal a bald head,
and a variety of preparations are
offered to the credulous, in the
daily prints, Avith the solemn pro-
mise that they are infallibly calcu-
lated to make the hair groAV again.
As these advertisers are, compa-
ratively speaking, harmless chemi-
cal compounders, Ave do not Avish
BAL
BAL 165
to treat them Avith severity, so long
as they confine their medicines to
external applications.
In our opinion, baldness is in-
curable, Avhen it arises from gene-
ral debility, or an asthenic state of
the system; but where it takes
place in consequence of acute dis-
eases, or during a tedious recovery
from malignant fevers, the growth
of the hair has frequently been
accelerated by the following lini-
ment : take of the expressed juice
of burdock-root, virgin-honey, and
proof-spirits, of each one ounce,
mix them together, and anoint
the barren part of the head seve-
ral times a day....at the same time
taking care to cover it with soft
flannel, in order to promote per-
spiration.
BALL, in a general sense, is a
round or spherical body, Avhether
formed by nature or art. Thus the
terraqueous globe which we inha-
bit, appears to have assumed that
form, in consequence of the revolu-
tions round its own axis, not unlike
a mass of clay, when turned in a
circular direction.
But as the term " Ball" is used
in a great variety of significations,
Ave can here introduce only those
feAv, Avhere it is applied to econo-
mical purposes: hence we shall
take no notice of fire-balls, light-
balls, smoke-balls, stink-balls, sky-
balls, water-balls, land-balls, 8cc.
BALLS, in the polished circles
of society, are those nocturnal as-
semblies demoted chiefly to the en-
tertainment of dancing. Whether
public or private, the institution of
balls appears to have been origin-
ally intended for the conjoint pur-
poses of promoting health, by the
exercise there mingled Avith mirth
and social conversation, as well as
for the refinement of manners, or
Avhat is more properly termed
good-breeding.....(See that article.)
In large and populous cities,
however, these excellent purposes
are often in a great measure de-
feated ; partly by a deviation from
the genuine principle on Avhich
balls Avere first introduced, under
the sanction of Avise governments,
and partly by connecting this
amusement Avith collateral objects,
such as suppers, masquerades,
card-parties, &c.
Consistently Avith our plan, Ave
beg leave to observe only, that
morality and health Avould be better
consulted, if all public balls and
masquerades were limited to a
certain number of visitors....exclud-
ing every female who ventures to
appear without a proper friend or
relation ; and, upon the whole, by
adopting those excellent regula-
tions which already subsist in the
city of Bath, where decorum or
good breeding is the " order of the
night."
Horse-balls, among farriers, are
given only for the purpose of con-
veying into the stomach of that
nice and noble animal, the more
disagreeable drugs which it would
not swallow in drenches. Hence
these balls should not exceed the
size of a pullet's egg, and be clipp-
ed in sweet oil previous to their ad-
ministration, that they may pass
down the throat with greater faci-
lity. But as some horses have a
straight gullet, and are remarkably
averse to this method of taking
medicine, it would be preferable
to give them drenches,or mixtures
with bran, or other mashes....See
Farriery.
Portable-balls for removing spots
from clothes in general, may be
thus prepared : take fuller's-earth
perfectly dried, so that it crumbles
166 BAL
BAL
into a powder ; moisten it with the
clear juice of lemons, and add a
small quantity of pure pearl-ashes;
then work and knead the Avhole
carefully together, till it acquires
the consistence of a thick elastic
paste; form it into convenient
small balls, and expose them to the
heat of the sun, in Avhich they
ought to be completely dried. In
this state, they are fit for use in the
manner as follows : First, moisten
the spot on your clothes with wa-
ter, then rub it Avith the ball just
described, and suffer it again to
dry in the sun; after having washed
the spot with pure water, it will
entirely disappear.
Ballota. See Horehound.
Balls (fuel). See Coal-Balls.
BALM (Common), or Melissa
officinalis, L. is much cultivated by
our gardeners, on account of its
pleasant aromaticsmell,resembling
that of the lemon, and its fragrant,
though roughish taste. See Wood-
ville's Med. Bot. pi. 147.
Formerly, the balm Avas held in
very high estimation : Paracel-
sus supposed it to possess virtues,
by which human life could be pro-
longed beyond the usual period.
In modern times, hoAvever, the
properties of this agreeable plant
are better understood : it yields, by
distillation, a small proportion of
an essential oil, of a yellowish co-
lour, and a very grateful smell. A
few drops of this oil, diluted in a
glass of simple water; or strong
infusions of the young shoots, drank
as tea, and continued for several
Aveeks, or months, have proved of
service to nervous and hypochon-
driacal patients, of a lax and debi-
litated habit.....Either of these
liquid preparations, Avhen slightly
acidulated with lemon juice, ac-
quiror a "fine reddish colour, and
may be taken with advantage in
dry, parching fevers, as well as in
cases of distressing flatulency, at-
tended with eructations, where the
first passages have previously been
opened.
BALM (Purple and White), or
Melittis grandifiora, L. another
species of the balm; it is elelineat-
ed in English Botany, t. 636, and
in Curt. Lond./asc. 6. t. 39.
We have mentioned both these
native plants, not on account of
their diuretic properties, for which
they were once celebrated, but the
former, as affording fine aromatic
floAvers, which are eagerly visited
by bees ; and the latter, as being
a fine ornament to a floAver-garden.
BALSAM, or Native Balsam,
an oily-resinous fluid, oozing out
of certain plants, either spontane-
ously, or by incision.
There are a variety of balsams,
denominated according to the sub-
stances from Avhich they are ob-
tained, such as the Canada, Co-
paiva, Gilead, Peru,Tolu, &c
of which we shall give an account
under their respective heads.
BALSAMICS, a term used in
an indefinite manner, but literally
signifying mitigating substances,
and very often applied to medicines
of very different qualities, such as
emollients, detergents, restoratiAres,
Sec. It appears to be a general
character of balsamics, that they
are hot and pungent, like the na-
tural balsams and gums; Avhile
their internal use tends to increase
the vital heat of the system....
Hence they are commonly admi-
nistered in those complaints Avhich
originate from a diseased action, or
a defective state of the interior or-
gans ; and as they can only be in-
troduced to those parts by the sto-
mach and the circulation of the
BAM
BAN 167
fluids, it will be easily understood
that these slowly operating medi-
cines cannot be productive of great
effects, unless continued for a con-
siderable time.
HALS AMINE, or Touch-me-
not, the Impatiens nobi-tangere, L.
is one of the poisonous native
plants, growing in moist and shady
places. Its stalks are about eighteen
inches high, and its yellow flowers
appear in August....See Wither-
ing, 263.
The capsules of this plant, Avhen
touched by the hand, burst and
throws out their seeds with velo-
city ; whence it has received its
name.
Balsamine Seeds possess the de-
leterious property of producing
violent purging, when swallowed
inadvertently, especially by chil-
dren ; and inevitable death, when
taken to any extent. Dr. Unzer
asserts, that the bread baked in an
oven which had been heated with
the dry stalks of this plant, poison-
ed and nearly destroyed a whole
family.
In dyeing, the leaves and flowers
of the balsamine, according to M.
Bechstein, impart to wool a
beautiful yellow colour.
[This plant is also found in the
United States.]
BAMBOE HABIT, an inven-
tion of the Chinese, by the use of
which a person unskilled in the
art of SAvimming, may easily keep
himself above water. The Chinese
merchants, when going on a voy-
age, ahvays provide themselves
with this simple apparatus, to save
their lives, in cases of danger from
shipwreck. It is constructed by
placing four bamboos horizontally,
tAvo before and two behind the
body of each person, so that they
project about twenty-eight inches :
these are crossed on each side by
two others, and the Avhole proper-
ly secured, leaving an intermediate
space for the body. When thus
formed, the person in danger slips
it over his head, and ties it securely
to the Avaist: by which simple
means he cannot possibly sink.
Its figure is here subjoined.
BANDAGE, in surgery, a fillet,
or roller, used in dressing and bind-
ing up wounds, restraining danger-
ous bleedings, and in joining frac-
tured or dislocated bones.
The modern and more enlight-
ened surgeons have, in some of the
most important operations, relin-
quished the use of tight bandages,
from a conviction of their tendency
to do more harm than good. Thus
it is certain, that the most expedi-
tious cures of broken limbs, haw
generally been affected without
any bandages; yet, as there is a
necessity of keeping the injured
limb in a steady posture, we shall
expatiate on this subject under the
head of Fractures.....See also
Ligatures, and Tourniquet.
BANDY-LEGS, a vernacular
expression applied to distorted or
crooked legs. In some cases this
is a natural defect in the birth,
though it may more frequently be
ascribed to an improper treatment
of infants, by indolent or officiou*
168 BAN
BAN
nurses. The former Avill some-
times suffer an infant, scarcely
twelve months old, to stand for
hours on its legs, while confined in
a chair, or an absurd machinery
contrived for walking: the latter
are too impatient to give early spe-
cimens of a child's A-igour, and dai-
ly try experiments with its tender
legs, before they are able to sus-
tain the Aveight of the body.
When an infant is born Avith
bandy-legs, the timely and judicious
use of the bandage may, by im-
perceptible degrees, correct this de-
tect ; but it requires more patience
and perseverance than people in
general are able or disposed to be-
stOAV. Hence we cannot suppress
a remark made by the ingenious
Levret, that this species of ne-
glect is attended Avith more im-
portant consecmences to the female
than the male sex: for, as de-
formities of the lower extremities
are very frequently connected Avith
similar mal-conformations of those
bones Avhich form the Avaist, we
may hence account for the repeated
abortions in many mothers Avho
pay the strictest attention to diet,
and every other circumstance, dur-
ing the period of gestation.
This unfortunate deformity, Iioav-
ever, cannot be easily remedied
after the child has arrived at a cer-
tain age ; and we believe all at-
tempts Avould be fruitless, and even
hurtful, after the sixth or seventh
year : yet there are instances on
record, where Nature, unassisted
by art, has occasionally performed
a cure. Dr. Unzer relates the
case of a young man, Avho Avas
born and reared with legs so dis-
torted, that he was obliged to walk
on the sides of his feet and heels ;
but during his apprenticeship with
a taylor, sitting continually with
crossed legs, he remarked that his
lower extremities began gradually
to recover their natural direction,
and that his ancles in particular
spontaneously returned to their
proper position. He at length es-
caped from his master, entered on
the list of warriors, and thus gave
the most convincing proof of the
soundness of his limbs.
BANE-BERRIES, the produc-
tion of the Herb-Christopher,
or Actoea spicata, L. [a native plant
of the United States,] Avhich is in
a high degree poisonous.......See
Withering, 483.
Although some foreign writers
assert that this plant does not pos-
sess the deleterious propertiesvvhich
are attributed to it by Linnaeus,
yet Ave have reason to believe that
its great astringency must be high-
ly detrimental to cattle.
BANK, in commerce, signifies
a common repository, Avhere per-
sons consent to keep their money :
it is also applied to certain societies
or communities, who take charge
of the money of others, either for
the purpose of accumulating it by
interest, or preserving it in safety.
There are two principal kinds of
banks ; either public, consisting of
a society of monied men, who, be-
ing duly incorporated according to
laAv, agree to deposit a considerable
fund, or joint stock, to be employ-
ed for their use ; by lending money
upon good security, buying and sel-
ling bullion, discounting bills of
exchange, 8cc. or private, Avhich
are established by individuals, or
co-partners, who deal in the same
way as the former, upon their own
stock and credit.
The greatest bank of circulation
in Europe, or perhaps in the world,
is that of England. The Company
was incorporated by an act of par-
BAN
liament, in the fifth and sixth years
of William and Mary.
Private banking companies have
also, Avithin these thirty years, been
formed in almost every consider-
able town in Great Britain ; their
purchases and payments of all kinds
are made by notes, and thus the
country business is in a great de-
gree carried on by paper currency.
It is almost generally believed, that
the community at large has deri-
ved considerable benefit from this
artificial method of increasing the
circulating medium : a proposition,
the truth or fallacy of which it
would not be easy to demonstrate.
BANK-FENCE, in rural econo-
my, signifies the inclosure of
ground Avith an artificial bank. In
places where flat stones cannot be
procured, the most durable and ad-
vantageous method of fencing in
arable or pasture lands, is Avith
turf or green sods, about five or
six inches thick ; the foundation
five feet wide ; the middle filled up
with earth ; the top about three
feet broad, and planted with pro-
per shrubs or dwarf-wood. As
every agriculturist is acquainted
Avith the manner of constructing
such fences, Ave shall only remark,
that they are in many respects pre-
ferable to the common hedges ;
because the latter, Avith their
ditches, cover an almost incredible
quantity of soil, while they neither
afford sufficient shelter for cattle,
nor can the herbage growing con-
tiguous to them, be compared to
that generally produced on the
sloping sides of banks, Avhere net-
tles and other aquatic weeds Avould
not obstruct the vegetation of the
more useful plants. It is, how-
ever, to be regretted, that manual
labour in this country is at present
so very expensive, that few farm-
VOh. I.
BAN 169
ers, excepting those who hoard up
their grain, and Avait for the maxi-
mum, or highest price, are either
inclined or able, to defray the first
and unavoidable expence connect-
ed Avith the system of bank-fencing.
A subject of such extensive im-
portance, Ave humbly conceive, is
entitled to every attention from a
Avise and economical legislature,
or at least deserves to be conducted
on similar principles, and wTith the
same patriotic spirit, as has lately
been displayed in the different
schemes of inland navigation.
BANKS of Rivers, are those
natural boundaries Avithin which
every stream is confined, accord-
ing to the magnitude and velocity
of its current. But as the course
of rivers is frequently rapid and ir-
regular, taking eliflerent directions,
and often turning at acute angles,
extensive inundations, especially
in high spring tides, necessarily
happen from the overfloAving of
their banks. Hence it is of the
utmost importance to every inha-
bitant in the v icinity of rivers, to
possess some knowledge of the
proper method of forming em-
bankments, for the prevention of
floods.
Although we cannot, consistent-
ly Avith our limits, attempt a full
mathematical analysis, yet Ave
shall lay doAvn a few general hints,
and maxims, by which the reader
may be guided in the practical
view of this subject.
1. The principal point to be
ascertained, is the elevation, or the
heights necessary to be given to
such banks. This must be regu-
lated by the additional quantity of
water, which, according to formeT
experience, the river brings doAvn
during its freshes ; and likewise by
the distance, at which the artificial
Z
170 BAN
bank is to be constructed, from the
natural boundary of the stream.
On this important point, mistaken
economy frequently defeats its own
purpose. If, therefore, the em-
bankment is to be raised at some
distance from the natural banks of
the river, both a comparatively
smaller height and base will be re-
quired ; the saving will be in the
duplicate proportion of the former,
and the Avorks will be likewise the
more durable, nearly in the same
ratio; because, by enlarging the
additional bed given to the swollen
river, its velocity and poAver of
ruining the Avorks are, likewise,
accordingly diminished. Unless,
therefore, the freshes of the stream
be loaded with fine sand, Avhich
might decompose the turf, the em-
bankment should always be under-
taken at a considerable distance
from the edge of a river. By
placing the artificial bank at half
the breadth of the stream, from its
natural banks, its channel will thus
be nearly doubled, and the detach-
ed space, in general, afford excel-
lent pasturage.
2. The next circumstance to be
attended to, is, that the river will
rise higher, Avhen embanked, than
it did at the time vyhen it was suf-
fered to overflow ; and hence the
difficulty of ascertaining to Avhat
height it may rise, from the great-
est swell which has been observed
in its former floods. For this rea-
son, the utmost rise in some gorge,
where the river could not extend
farther, should be accurately mark-
ed, as far as can be remembered by
the oldest inhabitants. Now the
increased section in this place
should be measured ; and, as the
water rises in a much greater
proportion than the section, the
iatter must be increased nearly in
BAN
the "fcame proportion as the gorge
already mentioned. Those who
neglect this method of regulating
the proper height of the embank-
ment, by the greatest SAvell that
has in former floods been observed
in the plain, are in danger of con-
structing their banks too low, and
consequently rendering them to-
tally useless.
3. The whole embankment
should, as much as possible, be
conducted, in an uniform line, and
by the concurrence of the proprie-
tors of both banks ; because the
general effect to be aimed at, con-
sists in rendering the course of
the stream straight* r than it Avas
before. All bends should be made
less abrupt, by keeping the em-
bankment farther from the river
in all convex lines of the natural
bank, and approaching to it nearer,
where the latter is concave......
Thus the action of the Avaters on
the embankment will be consi-
derably diminished, and the dura-
tion of the work insured. On the
same principles, Ave ought to pro-
ceed in fencing rivulets, or brooks,
which empty themselves into a
larger river ; and whatever bends
are given at its mouth to the two
lines of embankment, they should
always be made less acute than
those of the natural brook ; at the
same time an opportunity should
be taken, of reducing the angle of
this transverse brook, or, in other
words, of conducting it with a
more gentle flexion into the main
river.
4. Particular care should be
taken, to cover the outside of the
dyke with compact pieces of turf,
or green sods, closely united. For,
if it admits the water, there is great
danger of drenching the interior
and more porous part of the wall,
BAN
BAR 171
while the statical pressure of this
fluid body tends to burst the bank
on the land side ; and thus the
labour of months or years may be
suddenly destroyed. Hence, too
great attention cannot be bestoAved
on making and keeping it perfectly
tight; so that the Avhole be one
continued fine turf, and every bare
spot must without delay be care-
fully covered with firm and fresh
sods : nor should the rat and mice-
holes be neglected.
Lastly, it deserves to be remark-
ed, that a elry earthen bank, not
firmly conjoined by grass-roots,
will scarcely maintain itself against
the pressure of the water Avith a
slope of forty-five degrees, while a
canal conveying a moderate stream
cannot be supported, even Avith
such a declivity. Those banks,
however, the base of which is as
four to three of their height, Avill
stand without danger in a moist
soil: and this is not only the slope
usually given them, but also ob-
served in the spontaneous opera-
tions of Nature, in the channels
which she forms in conducting rills
and rivulets through the higher
and steeper grounds. This natural
form possesses both mechanical
and mathematical properties, which
justly claim the admiration of those
who adopt her beneficent hints and
maxims.
[The only method of keeping
these impervious to water, is to
puddle them. That is, Avhen about
two feet of the bank i-> built up on
each side, let the intermediate
space, amounting to three fourths
of the whole Avidth be made thus:
Put in the common dirt or earth in
the vicinity of it, to Avhich add
water enough to make it a fluid
paste. Let this be well raked
backward and forward by iron rui.cs
with the teeth not much apart, con-
stantly add to, and rake the whole
of the middle part of the bank, til!
it is completed. On well and labo-
rious raking of common earth, in
a fluid state, depends the goodness
of a bank. The sides may be sod-
ded. When well raked, moles find
it difficult to get throughout Avhere
moles are in a bank, they must be
exterminated ; for the method of
doing , his....See the article Mole.]
BANKS of the Sea, are those
inequalities or elevations of the
ground or bottom of the ocean,
that may be compared to ridges or
hills, Avith Avhich the land is more
or less intersected. Sea-banks
sometimes project above the sur-
face of the water,or at least leave
this element so shallow, as to
prevent a vessel from remaining
afloat.
Sand-banks are very common in
the North and Baltic Seas, so that
navigators are obliged constantly
to Use the plummet and compass,
to discover their distance and exact
situation. As, however, these ele-
vations frequently endanger the
lives of our brave mariners, we
have inserted this article, not with
a view of intimidating those naval
heroes, but for the information of
persons whose business obliges
them to cross the seas before men-
tioned, that they may provide them-
selves with an apparatus by no
means expensive, and described
under the head of Bamboe-Haeit.
BARBEL, in ichthyology, a
genus of fresh-water fishes, com-
prising thirty-one species, which
are principally distinguished by the
number of rays in the vent-fin :
their general characters are,atooth-
less mouth; three rays in the gills ;
a smooth and w hite body ; and the
belly-fins bave frequently nine
172 BAR
BAR
rays. The following ten are the
nvost remarkable species : 1. The
Carp ; 2. The Barbel (of which
we have here subjoined a more par-
ticular account) ; 3. The Tench ;
4. The Gudgeon ; 5. The Bream ;
6. The Roach ; 7. The Dace ; 8.
The Chub ; 9. The Bleak ; and
10. The Golden Fish....for a de-
scription of Avhich Ave refer to the
order of the alphabet.
The Barbel, or• Barbus, is one of
the coarsest fresh-Avater fish. Its
roe is not Avholesome, and ought
therefore to be throAvn away, as the
eating of it is frecmently attended
with nausea, vomiting, purging,
£cc.....The natural history of this
fish has escaped the attention of
the ancients, though it is suffici-
ently curious.
Barbels resemble pike in their
general shape, the head excepted ;
for the upper jaAV of the former is
more projecting, and they are also
provieled Avith four dependent fibres
or rays in the gills, Avith which,
Avhile dexterously playing, they
allure their prey, consisting of in-
sects and small fishes. Their dor-
sal fin is armed with a remarkably
strong and sharp spine serving
them as means of defence or at-
tack, and with which they fre-
quently cut the nets, or when in-
cautiously handled, inflict severe
wounds on their captors.
In size, the barbel rarely exceeds
the length of three feet, and weighs
from twelve to eighteen, or twenty-
five pound*. Its most frequent
places of abode are the sides of
hollow banks in calm and deep
waters. In the months of May
and June, it deposits its spawn on
the stones lining the beds of deep
rivers, and between which, as well
as poles, roots of trees, Sec. barbels
harbour during Avint^-, in a com-
pact and social state. Not unlike
swine, they dig and incavate the
soft banks with their noses, are fond
of animal carcasses (particularly of
human flesh, according to C. P.
Funke, a reputed German natu-
ralist), and become exceedingly
fat by living on the refuse of flax
steeped in stagnant Avaters. Hence
we may also account for their un-
palatable, and, perhaps, unwhole-
some flesh. They are so tame,that
they may be easily caught by the
hand; though Ave do not suggest
so dangerous a method of taking
them.....For the particulars relative
to the method of angling for barbel,
we refer to the article Carp.
BARBLES, or BARBS .in far-
riery, are those small excrescences
frequently appearing under the
tongue of horses, as well as black
cattle: they are known by two
paps, which may be discovered by
drawing the tongue aside. Few
animals arrive at a considerable
age, without being sometimes
troubled Avith this complaint, Avhich
seldom proves hurtful, unless the
part affected become inflamed by
neglect, anel the acrimonious hu-
mours there collected should cor-
rode the tongue, and produce such
a degree of pain, as to prevent the
animal from taking its proper food.
The method of curing this dis-
temper, simply consists in cutting
the excrescence close off Avith a
sharp pair of scissars, or a knife,
Avashing the wound several times
a day with brandy, or port-Avine
and vinegar, taking care, however,
that no hard fooel but fresh grass,
green herbs, and mashes, be given
for seA'eral days, till the raAV part
be healed.
In those cases where black cat-
tle are subject to a species of barbs,
which grow quickly, and hang in
BAR
the form of fleshy pimples under
the tongue, they ought first to be
dipt off, as before stated, then pro-
perly chafed with garlic and com-
mon salt beaten together, and the
mouth afterwards gently washed
and rubbed with soft linen, dipt in
lukewarm Avine,or brandy and water.
But if coavs or bullocks happen
to lose their appetite, Avithout any
external marks of barbies, M.
Chomel, in his Family Dictionary
recommends the juice of garlic, or
onions, mixed up with sallad-oil,
to be introduced into the nostrils,
every morning: this simple me-
thod, it is asserted, will restore the
natural craving for food.
BARILLA, or BARILHA, is
properly, the Spanish name of a
plant cultivated for its ashes, from
Avhich the purest mineral alkali is
obtained ; but likewise signifies that
particular sort of vegetable alkali
Avhich is principally imported from
Spain.
There are four plants cultivated
by the Spaniards for this useful
purpose, namely, the Barilla, Ga-
zul, Goza, and Salicor. But, as this
account appears to be defective,
Ave shall first present the reader
with a list of those vegetables
from Avhich good barilla has been
extracted in Britain; and next give
a description of the most expedi-
tious and profitable method of pre-
paring this valuable material, for
the various processes of washing,
bleaching, Sec.
Among the British plants, from
which barilla or mineral alkali may
be obtained, Ave shall at present
enumerate the folloAving, and then
describe them in their alphabetical
places :
1. Two species of the Salsola,
L» or Salt-wort.
BAR 173
2. Two species of the Salicor-
nia, L. or Glass-avort, and Sam-
phire.
3. The Zostera marina, L. or
Glass-avreck.
4. Tavo species of the Triglochin,
L. or Arroav-Grass.
5. The Chenopodium album, and
maritimum, L. or White and Sea
Goose-Foot.
6. The Atrijdex portulacoides,
and littoralis,\^. or Sea-Purslane,
and Grass-Orach.
7. The Plantago marilima, L. or
Sea Plantain.
8. The Tamarix gallica, L. or
French Tamarisk.
9. The Eryngium maritimum,
L. or Sea Holly.
10. The Sedum Telephium, L,
or Orpine Stonecrop, or Live-
long.
11. The Dipsacus fullonum, L.
or Manured Teasel ; and,
12. All the species of the Cyna-
ra and Carduus, L. or the Arti-
choke and Thistle, when cul-
tivated either on the sea-shore,
or in any soil irrigated Avith sea-
water.
Barilla, as an article of trade,
ought to possess the following pro-
perties : it should be firm, hard,
and heaA-y, though porous ; dry,
and sounding on percussion ; of a
blueitii colour, and impart, on
breaking it, a flavour slightly re-
sembling that of the violet. By
these criteria, it may be easily dis-
tinguished from pot-ash, though it
Avould be difficult to procure a ba-
rilla consisting purely of mineral
alkali ; as the very best sort of the
former generally contains a small
proportion of common salt. Ac-
cording to the experiments made
by Mr. Kikwax, and published in
the first volume of the Tra?isaction»
174 BAR
BAR
of the Royal Irish Academy, in 1789,
the barilla exported from Spain,
contains carbonic acid, carbon,
lime, clay, and silicious earth ; but
such as is very pure, also contains
both common and Glauber's salt,
and water. From the small quan-
tity of carbonic acid discoverable
in Spanish barilla, he concludes
that its mineral alkali is for the
most part combined with it in a
pure or caustic state ; and that its
blueish colour must be ascribed to
the matter of carbon : in a similar
way, he attributes the green or blue
colour of pot-ash to its combination
with magnesia.
This important article of com-
merce, is, in proportion to its de-
gree of purity and strength, class-
ed according to the following
places, from which it is imported:
1. The barilla made at Alexan-
dria ; 2. That from Alicant; 3.
Carthagena; and 4. Bourde, or
Smyrna.
Various methods and schemes
have, in this country, excited the
ingenuity of speculative men, in
the production of this valuable sub-
stance, for which large sums are
annually paid at foreign markets.
Those of our readers, Avho apply
tlieir attention to experiments of
this useful nature, will, perhaps,
be gratified by the following spe-
cification of Mr. James King's
patent for his new-invented British
barilla, granted in 1780. As his
exclusive privilege is now expired,
we shall communicate the process
nearly in the patentee's own words.
He first takes a quantity of ashes
obtained from burning the loppings
or branches of ash-wood, oak,
beech, elm, alder, and any other
kind of green wood and bramble,
in the proportion of one-fourth ;
and a similar quantity of ashes ob-
tained by burning the green vege-
tables, knoAvn by the name of fern,
brecon, bean and pea-straw, and
whin-ashes; also common field and
higlrway thistles; the stalks of rape
and mustard seed ; and the bent,
or rushes, that grow by the sea-
shore. One half of the ingredients
being thus procured, they are then
passed through a fine sieve, placed
on a boarded floor, and carefully
mixed Avith a similar quantity (mak-
ing the other half) of soap-boilers'
waste ashes, Avhich must be inti-
mately blended together with a
shovel. Next, he adds one hundred
weight of quick-lime to twelve
times that quantity of the other
materials, and likewise intermixes
them thoroughly. After this pre-
paration, the whole is put into
large square iron pans, and a suf-
ficient quantity of sea-water is
poured on it to dissolve the lime,
ashes, he. while the mass is stirred
with an iron rake, to effect a more
minute intermixture. A coal fire
is now lighted under the pans, and
kept briskly burning forty-eight
hours, Avithout intermission ; at the
same time, the pans are continually
supplied Avith sea-water, in order to
impregnate these materials with
a greater degree of the saline qua-
lity, till they acquire a proper con-
sistence for calcination in a melt-
ing furnace, known by the name of
calcar. This apparatus is con-
structed in the usual manner, ex-
cept that there is a wall above the
grate-room, to separate the fire
from the materials laid upon the
bottom. An intense degree of
heat is used in this calcar, by means
of which the saline mass boiled in
the pan is completely dissolved, and
afterwards kept in a state of fusion
for one hour, during which time,
the volatile part is expelled, and
BAR
BAR 175
a fixed alkaline salt remains : this,
being cooled in iron pans, produces
our British barilla, resembling that
imported from Spain. Mr. King
also declares, in the preamble to
his patent, that this new chemical
compound is calculated to serve as
a substitute for manufacturing
crown and broad windoAV-glass,
and also bottles, as well as for
making soap and alum to much
greater advantage, than any other
material hitherto used in the pro-
duction of those commodities.
BARING of Trees, in horticul-
ture, is the removing of the earth
from the roots of those which are
planted in a dry soil. This opera-
tion should be carefully performed
in autumn, without injuring the
roots, around the trunk, so that
the winter-rains and snow-waters
may penetrate deeper in the
ground, which, towards* spring,
should be covered up again with
manure ; because, at that season,
the frequent night-frosts might
otherw ise prove destructive to the
tree.
BARK, in the dissection of
plants, is the exterior coat of trees,
corresponding to the skin of ani-
mals. As these are furnished with
a cellular membrane covering all
the fleshy parts, and usually replete
with Avhite granulated fat, which
can be liquified only by heat; so
are plants surrounded Avith a bark
abounding with oily juices, by
means of Avhich, Nature has ren-
dered them inaccessible to cold ;
because the spiculsc of the ice are
prevented from fixing and freezing
the fluids, which circulate through
the vessels. Hence it is that ever-
greens continue their verdure ut all
seasons of the year, because their
bark contains an unusual proportion
of oil, more than is dissipated by
the heat of the sun.
Dr. Darwin considers the bark
of trees to be similar to that of
their roots, of which he conceives
it to constitute a part ; in as much
as it consists of an intertexture of
the vessels that descend from the
plume of each individual bud to
its radicle, anel form its Caudex.
The root-bark, however, is provid-
ed with lymphatics, for the ab-
sorption of Avater and nutritious
juices from the earth, and is cover-
ed Avith a moister cuticle; while
that of the stem has similar vessels
for absorbing humidity from the
air, and is furnished with a drier
cuticle.
Beside the purposes to which
the bark of trees may be applied,
and Avhich have already been enu-
merated, there is a considerable
quantity of mucilaginous or nutri-
tious matter contained in the inner
rind, or bark of the holly, elm,
and also in that of the hawthorn,
gooseberry, furze, or other trees
armed with prickles, for preventing
the depredations of animals. This
mucilage, he conceives, may be
used in times of scarcity, as food,
either for man or for cattle, or at
least for the purpose of fermenta-
tion. He remarks, that the inner
bark of elm-trees, when stripped
off in the spring, and boiled in
water, may doubtless be converted
into a.palatable small-beer, with the
addition of yeast.
The quantity of bark on a tree
may be increased by pinching off
the flower-buds, as soon as they
appear; but, if the former be
wounded, by any accident, the
edges of the dead rind ought to be
carefully cut off', without injuring
the living bark ; and a mixture uf
176 BAR
white lead and boiled oil (i\ee
Canker.) be applied, to preserve
the wounded parts from air, moist-
ure, and insects....The following
method of cure, which is stated to
have been successfully practised
where the bark of a tree had recent-
ly been torn off", Ave give on the
authority ofDr.DARwiN. It con-
sists simply in again fastening the
same piece of bark, or in tying
doAvn another piece from a tree,
belonging to the same species ; the
edges of the wound and bark being
carefully adjusted ; in conseejuence
of Avhich, the Avhole will combine
in the same manner as the vessels
of a scyon unite Avith those of the
bark belonging to the engrafted
stock.
The bark of plants is liable to
peculiar diseases, as Avell as to be
preyed upon by insects, which
frequently prove destructive to
the tree. One of its most com-
mon enemies is the bark worm,
which infests and perforates its
substance; and unless the parts af-
fected be cautiously removed by
theknife,and the superficial wounds
plastered over Avith a mixture of
Avax and turpentine, (or Forsyth's
Composition) the stein w ill in pro-
cess of time become cankered,
stunted in its growth, and ulti-
mately fall a sacrifice to the dis-
ease.
M. Buff on has ascertained, by
repeated experiments, that trees
stripped of their bark the Avhole
length of the. stems, do not live
Jonger than three or four years.
It deserves, however, to be re-
marked, that, when thus deprived
of the whole bark, and suffered to
die gradually, they afford a more
compact, heavy, and more dura-
ble timber, than if they had been
felled in their healthy state. The
BAR
reason of this improvement is ob-
vious, as those oily and astringent
fluids, which are secreted for the
uniform nourishment of the bark,
are absorbed, and deposited on the
fibres of the Avood, which, during
the progressive dissolution of vege-
table life, acquire Avhat Nature had
provided for the supply of the ex-
ternal integuments. Yet there is
one disadvantage arising from the
privation of the bark, perhaps tan-
tamount to the additional value of
the timber, namely, that the far-
ther increase, or growth of the
tree, is for three or four years
effectually checked.
The barking of trees ought, in
our climate, to be performed in
spring from about the middle of
April to that of May ; because at
that time the circulating sap facili-
tates this operation, which, in dry
seasons, is not only attended with
additional labour, but the bark al-
so will be of inferior value.
With respect to the extent of
stripping the oak-bark from trees,
a wide difference of opinion ap-
pears to prevail. Some owners of
large tracts of wood, and great ad-
mirers of timber, cautiously pro-
hibit the removal of the bark near-
er than six inches to the ground ;
about which spot they suppose the
tree to be felled : while others en-
join it to be done as near the ground
as possible, provided that in this
operation there be no part of the
root laid bare. Mr. S. Hayes,
the author of an excellent "• Prac-
tical Treatise on Planting," price
7s. published in 1796, inclines to
the latter opinion ; and adds, that
the advocates for the former me-
thod would, on more accurate in-
vestigation, save themselves much
unnecessary trouble, to little pur-
pose, if notto their material injury.
BAR
The inner and more delicate
part of the bark, especially that of
the ash and lime trees, was used
by the ancients, for writing and
communicating their sublime ideas
to posterity, prior to the invention
of paper.
In economy, as Avell as in many
of the practical arts, the utility of
different barks is very great and
extensive ; for instance, that of
the oak for tanning leather, and
manuring the soil; the Peruvian,
cinnamon, quassia, willow-bark, Sec.
in medicine and for culinary uses;
that of the alder and walnut trees
in dyeing; and others again for
a variety of purposes, such as the
bark of the cork tree, 8tc. &c....
Without detaining the particular
and curious processes adopted by
foreign nations, for rendering the
barks of various trees essentially
useful, Ave shall briefly state, that
the Japanese make their beautiful
paper of the bark obtained from a
species of the mulberry tree, called
mortis; the natives of Otaheite
manufacture their cloth of the same
tree, as well as the bread-fruit
and the cocoa trees ; the Russians
and Poles produce their shoes
Avom by the peasantry, twist
ropes, and form a variety of other
useful articles, of the inner bark of
the lime tree ; the Germans have,
for the last twenty years, convert-
ed the bark of the common black
and Avhite mulberry trees into ex-
cellent paper....An analytical ac-
count of the last mentioned article,
interspersed with many new and
curious facts, Ave propose to give
in the sequel.
A patent Avas lately granted to
Mr. Whitby, for his improved
mill, calculated to grind bark for
the use of tanners. It is performed
by a number of cutting wheels,
VOL. I.
BAR 177
that are fixed upon axles, and chop
the bark to pieces; which then
fall through an eye, and pass be-
tween two large cast-iron plates,
with grooves or furroAvs that are
cut either hollow, or are bevelled
square. The lower plate is made
to move in a circular direction,
with a vieAv to facilitate the en-
trance of the bark into the eye.....
These plates are set in motion by
the mechanism commonly employ-
ed in mills.
This machinery, when moved
by a horse, grinds 3 CAvt. of bark,
in one hour; but as the plates
which constitute the chief inven-
tion in this mill, may be made of
any circumference, according to the
power by which they are impelled
the quantity ground in a certain
time, will vary, in proportion to
their size....The advantages stated
to be derived from Mr. Whitby's
contrivance are, a saving of the
bark, and greater expedition in the
process of tanning: for the rind
thus reduced, Avithout being pul-
verized, spends more rapidly and
completely in the pits, than that
prepared in mills of the common
construction.
BARLEY, or Hordeum, L. one
of the most useful culmiferous
plants, producing mealy and sac-
charine grains, Avhich are princi-
pally used for malting and brewing
beer. As the different species and
varieties of barley are but imper-
fectly described in English botani-
cal books, we shall here attempt
to give a more satisfactory account,
and also state, in a summary man-
ner, the native places and qualities
of the various sorts.
1. The Hordeum distichum (s.
oestivum), L. or Summer Barley.
It bears flat ears, divided into two
rows, containing large grains, and
Aa
178 BAR
BAR
grows wild in Tartary, on the banks
of the Saamara ; in the vicinity of
Babylon; and in Sicily. This
species requires a loose rich soil,
anel must be sown in dry Aveather,
in [March] ; there are two varie-
ties :
a. The Hordeum distichum nu-
dum, or the Large Naked Barley,
bearing smooth, heavy grains, that
afford excellent flour, Avhich, when
mixed with that of rye, makes a
Aery palatable nourishing bread,
and may therefore be used for pud-
dings and pastry. The beer brew-
ed of it is of superior richness and
flavour ; it likewise yields, on dis-
tillation, a greater proportion of
spirituous liquor than rye: hence
it deserves to be preferably culti-
vated.
b. The Hordeum frutesccns, or
Bushy Barley, one grain of which
often produces ten stalks, with
broad dark green leaA'es: it is sown
late, and generally about Midsum-
mer ; soon ripens; is more proli-
fic, but produces smaller grains
than the former variety, and easily
degenerates. The Germans soav it
very thinly, and in a moist, heavy
soil.
2. The Hordeum vulgare (s. pc-
lystichon,) L. or the Common Bar-
ley of four i-oavs. It is productive
of longer, though thinner ears and
grains, than the first species; and
as it thrives well on inferior soils,
it is frequently cultivated in pre-
ference to the former. In various
parts of Gerr..u>ny, and especially
in Thuringia, the common barley
is very generally sown in autumn,
and is not afiecicd by the severest
winters.
A variety of this species is the
Hordeum coeleste, or the Walla-
Chian Barley, also called Egyp-
tian Corn. It produces cars and
fruit in every respect similar to the
former, except that it easily sheds
its grains: from which excellent
bread is made in Germany, as like-
wise cakes, groats, Sec. Its sowing
time is the month of March when
it is deposited in a well-manured
middle kind of soil.
3. The Hordeum hexastichon, L.
or Six-rowed Barley. This sort
is uncommonly fruitful, so that it
is said to produce one-third more in
quantity than any other species (ex-
cept the next folio wing;) though,
in ordinary seasons, the grains of
two of the rows, do not attain to
maturity. It is sown in a well-
prepared and tolerably rich soil,
either in April or about [28 Sep-
tember ;] in the former case, it
may be mowed so early as Mid-
summer-day. This species, how-
ever, is not so proper for malting
and brewing beer, as for being re-
duced either to groats and flower, or
converted into ardent spirits.
4. The Hordeum Zeocriton, L.
or Bearded Barley, or Rice
Barley, with short and coarse
stalks, as likeAvise short though
broad ears, divided into tAvo rows.
When cultivated on a good soil,
and thinly sown, it is the most pro-
ductive of all the species of barley,
and possesses the additional advan-
tage, that it does not droop its ears
nor lodge, even in rainy seasons....
Each row contains from twelve to
fifteen small grains : these yield an
excellent Avhite flour, Avhich, for
most culinary purposes, may be
substituted for that of wheat. In
England, the best home-brewed ale
is produced from this grain; for
the culture of which, we shall give
a feAV directions in the sequel.
[Only two kinds of barley are
known in Pennsylvania, viz. sum-
mer and Avinter barley. The first
BAR
BAR 179
generally weighs about 61b. in the
bushel lighter than the other, and
is a precarious grain, being very
subject to be injured by the vicissi-
tudes of the weather. To prepare
the ground for a crop, plough it
in the autumn, and let it lie in
ridges all winter, in the spring
cross plough, and sow the grain,
then harrow twice, the second time
crossing the first. The grain ought
to be put in as early as possible ;
and as we can harrow at least two
weeks before we can plough, an
experienced farmer recommends
to sow the seed without any plough-
ing in the spring, after the ground
has been twice well harrowed. An
accidental comparative experiment
taught him, the greater increase
of produce in a field which had been
only well harrowed in the spring,
beyond that which had been both
ploughed and harrowed. It is to
be understood, however, that both
fields had been ploughed in the
preceding autumn.
The first variety of the first spe-
cies, noticed by Dr. W. is also cul-
tivated in Penns. and much esteem-
ed. It may be sown either as a
summer or winter grain. When
toasted and ground, it is used by
many persons as a substitute for
coffee.
Cattle thrive very well on barley
straw, especially if timothy has
been sown in the autumn on the
same ground.
Calcareous soils, which have
been long in cultivation, and fre-
quently manured, will yield abund-
ant crops of barley. Oats reared
under the same circumstances, are
weak and puny.
Barley from La Plata and Al-
giers has lately been introduced
into the United States : the first is
the larger of the two. The grain
is double the size of the common
barley.
An acre and a half of ground,
near Philadelphia, proeluced last
year nearly one hundred bushels of
barley.
In the autumn of 1802, a friend
soAved an acre with two bushels of
barley which came from England ;
the lot had been in grass, and pre-
viously to being sown, a crop of
potatoes was taken off. The pro-
duce Avas 74 bushels.
Buck-wheat in blossom, plough-
ed in, proves an excellent prepara-
tive for winter barley.]
Cultivation.....Barley, in general,
requires a dry, light, mellow, and
rich soil : hence extraordinary care
is reeutisite where it is to be sown
in clay. Immediately after the
foregoing crop is removed, the land
ought to be ploughed, which lays
it open to be mellowed by the frost
and air. In order to promote this
effect, ribbing, or a peculiar me-
thod of ploughing, has been intro-
duced, to expose the greatest ex-
tent of surface. For the improve-
ment of dry clayey land, Professor
Bradley recommends a manure
of rich dung, ashes, chalk, or
lime ; and for some particular soils,
malt-dust or soot are v try useful;
but, according to Sir iIugh Plat,
soap-boilers' ashes are the most
fertilizing substance for the growth
of barley, even upon barren
grounds.
The comparative advantages of
drilling and broad-easting, are stat-
ed by Mr. Peter Smith, of Horn-
church, Essex, in England, as fol-
lows : in the last week of Februa-
rv, 1793, he drilled three acres of
turnip-land with bailey, at twelve
inches intervals, with two bushels
of seed per acre ; it w as scarified
and harrowed across the latter end
180 BAR
BAR
of March, and horse-hoed the se-
cond week in April; at the same
time he sowed the grass-seeds,
which produced fine plants, far su-
perior to the broad-cast. The
produce of the drilled barley Avas
eighteen quarters three bushels,
from three acres, [a quarter con-
tains eight bushels.]
On the same day, he sowed three
acres of broad-cast in the same
field and state of cultivation, Avith
three bushels of seed per acre, and
also sowed the grass-seeds at the
same time. The produce of these
three acres amounted only to fifteen
quarters and three bushels.
[In the 3d volume of the Bath
Society Transactions, Sir J. An-
struther relates, that the differ-
ence of produce between the crop
of barley drilled, and that sown
broad cast, was about 20 bushels
per acre, besides near two bushels
of seed saved. The drills were 18
inches wide; the grain dropt by
hand.]
As it is of great consequence in
the production of this grain, that
it mayripen eepially and uniformly,
to prevent that inequality which
would render it less valuable, we
shall communicate the following
method of remedying this defect.
It is certain, that barley which
comes up speedily in a dusky soil,
Avill gain great advantages over
seed-Aveeds : to forward, therefore,
its vegetation, some farmers take
out about one-third from every
sack of seed-barley or bear, to al-
low for the swelling of the grain,
which they steep thoroughly in
clean water, for at least twenty-
four or thirty-six hours, according
to the more or less dry constitution
of the season. For our part, we
would prefer steeping the grain ;
because in this manner all the light
and unripe grains swimming on
the top, may be easily skimmed off,
and thus perhaps the smut at the
same time prevented. Although
quick-lime has often been recom-
mended to be mixed with the wet
barley, before it is sown, yet we
agree with those who are of opi-
nion, that it poisons the seeds, ab-
sorbs part of its useful moisture,
and injures the hands of the sower.
As clean water imparts no tenacity,
the seed will scatter properly ; but
being swelled in the proportion of
three to four, or two to three, it
is necessary to use a fourth or third
part more in bulk ; to harrow it
in, as quickly as possible, after it
is sown ; and, if convenient, to give
it the benefit of a fresh furrow......
By this method, it appears above
ground, at the farthest, in a fort-
night, if these particulars be duly
attended to.
A correspondent of the Bath So-
ciety, [Mr. J. Chapelle, vol. 3.]
states, that in the remarkably dry
spring of 1783, he soaked his seed-
barley in the black Avater taken
from a reservoir which constantly
received the draining of stables.
As the light com floated on the
surface, he skimmed it off, and
suffered it to rest twenty-four
hours. On taking it from the
water, he mixed the seed-grain
with a sufficient quantity of Avood-
ashes, to make it spread more re-
gularly, and soAved Avith it three
fields. The produce Avas sixty
busliels per acre, of good clean bar-
ley, Avithout any small or green
com, or weeds at harvest. He
also sowed several other fields with
the same seed, dry, and Avithout
any preparation, but the crops were
poor, producing only twenty bush-
els per acre, and much mixed with
green com and weeds.
BAR
There is a species of this grain
which was introduced into Britain
about thirty years since, by Mr.
Halliday, and is hence called by
his name, or sometimes Siberian
Barley ; it is possessed of qualities
that entitle it to particular conside-
ration as an object of importance
in agriculture. From a quart of
itsoAvn in May, 1768, he procured
nearly a bushel, which he sowed
in April 1769, in drills drawn by
a plough ; and from this he reap-
ed thirty-six bushels of clean corn.
Since that period, Mr. Halliday
has made many experiments to as-
certain the merits of this prolific
grain as bread-com, and as proper
for malting....He accordingly in-
forms us, in the second volume of
the Georgical Essays, price 2 s. 6d.
published in 1771, that its flour
makes excellent bread, peculiarly
retentive of moisture ; and the ale
brewed from its malt has a fine co-
lour, flavour, and body. (See the
variety of our second species, from
Avhich it will appear that this grain
is the same which Dr. Lochster,
in his Latin Dissertation, On the
Medicinal Plants of Norway, feel-
ingly characterizes, by calling it the
Heavenly Barley, because it is
equally grateful and efficacious.)
As a proof of the extraordinary
fecundity of barley, and hoAv muoh
the fertility of the soil contributes
to the increase of vegetable pro-
ductions, we shall mention an
instance which occurred in the
summer of 1797, at Reichenbach,
in Upper Saxony. Two grains of
our third species being planted close
to each other, in a common garden
soil, greAV briskly, and spread with
no less than one hundred and thir-
teen stalks, which almost uniform-
ly produced long ears : these con-
tained the surprising number of
BAR 181
two thousand five hundred and
thirty-four grains, of which two
thousand two hundred and five were
perfectly ripe and sound, but the
remaining three hundred and twen-
ty-nine were of inferior size and
Aveight. According to this com-
putation, one bushel of barley, in a
rich and mellow soil, might occupy
in planting, at least twenty acres.
We presume, that the following
additional observations on the cul-
ture of this valuable grain, made by
a Norfolk farmer, will not be un-
acceptable to the practical reader.
The best soil in general, is that
Avhich is dry and healthy, rather
light than stiff", and yet of suflicient
tenacity to retain the moisture.....
On such land, the grain acquires
the best colour and body, is the
most nimble in the hand, and has
the thinest rind; qualities which
eminently recommend it to the
maltster. But, if the land be poor,
it should be kept dry and Avarm ;
in which case it will often bear
better corn than richer land in a
cold and wet situation.
The best seed is of a pale colour
and brightish cast, without any deep
redness or black tinge at the tail....
A slight shrivelling of the rind
provesittohaAreathin skin, and that
it has sweated in the mow; both
being favourable circumstances.....
As this grain will grow coarser
every succeeding year, it should
never be sown for two successive
seasons on the same soil.
Sprinkling a little soot over the
water in which seed-barley is to be
steeped, has been of great service,
by securing it from the depreda-
tions of insects. In viery dry sea-
sons, barley that has been wetted
for malting, and begins to sprout,
Avill come up sooner, and produce
as good a crop as any other. If
182 BAR
sown after a falloAV, three times
ploughing is necessary. On lands
well manured, clover may be sown
with barley ; the former of which
after harvest, affords good fodder
during the following winter, as Avell
as from the next spring to July ;
when the land should be falloAved
till the succeeding spring, and again
sown Avith barley and clover : this
method does not exhaust, but pro-
motes, the fertility of the ground,
Avhile it produces large crops. The
lightest lands are fit for receiving
the seed in March; those of a moist
nature, in April; because all soils
liable to be infested by weeds, bear
the best crops when sown late, Avith
a view to stifle their growth by the
ascendancy of the barley.
Although the broad-cast, at two
sowings, is the common method,
and the usual allowance from three
to four bushels per acre, yet much
grain is thus unnecessarily wrasted.
Half the cjuantity, and even less,
if sown equally, wrould not only af-
ford a better crop, but the corn also
would be less liable to lodge ; for
weak stalks, standing close togeth-
er, are less capable of resisting the
force of winds, or supporting them-
selves under heavy showers.
Unless the land be very light and
rich, the method of setting anel drill-
ing Avill not answer. Although one
root Avill produce eighty stalks, all
having good and long ears filled
with superior grain, yet it is to be
apprehended, that this process of
planting is too expensive in a coun-
try Avhere manual labour is per-
formed by free-born [citizens].....
Hence it would be preferable to
sow thin on poor lands, in order to
allow sufficient room for the nou-
rishment of each plant; as it is
proved by experience, that this
BAR
simple method is the most bene-
ficial.
It has father been suggested,
when the barley is sown and har-
rowed in, that, after the first show-
er of rain, the land should be rolled,
to break the clods; which, by
closing the earth about \he roots,
will be of great advantage to it in
dry weather. After the barley has
been above ground three weeks or
a month, it should again be rolled
with a heavy roller, to prevent the
sun and air from penetrating the
ground, to the injury of the roots.
This rolling, before the barley
branches out, is said to be attended
Avith another advantage, namely,
that it will cause the plant to spread
into a greater number of stalks, so
that if they be thin, the ground
Avill thus be filled, and the stalks,
strengthened. Whether this expe-
dient be proper for all soils, indis-
criminately, we are inclined to
doubt, though we do not hesitate
to approve of it for very light lands,
which are neither loamy nor other-
wise too stiff.
Lastly, if the blade grow too
luxuriantly, as is the case in warm
and wet springs, mowing is said to
be preferable to feeding it down by
sheep ; because the scythe removes
only the .rank tops* but those ani-
mals, being fond of the sweet end
of the stalk next the root, will often
bite so close as to injure its future
vegetation.
With respect to the time when
barley is fit to be mowed, farmers
frequently fall into the error of cut-
ting it before it is perfectly ripe ;
thinking it will attain its perfect
maturity, if they allow it to lie in
the swarth. This, however, is a
very common error, as it will
shrivel in the field, anel afterwards
BAR
BAR 185
make but an indifferent malt; it
also threshes with more difficulty,
and is apt to be bruised under the
flail. The only certain test of judg-
ing Avhen it is fit to iuoav, must be
from the drooping and falling of the
ears, so as to double against the
straw. In that state, and not before,
it may be cut with all expedition,
and carried in Avithout danger of
heating in the mow. To obviate
such accidents, and secure it from
being mow-burnt, it is advisable to
prepare a large sheaf, or two
sheaves, of straw, closely tied to-
gether, which should be placed in
the centre, when the stack is com-
menced ; and as the layers of corn
rise, other sheaves must be put on
the first; so that Avhen the whole
stack is completed, and the sheaves
are removed, a funnel, or vent-hole,
may be continued from the bottom
to the top. After withdrawing the
sheaves, the stack should be cover-
ed Avith a bottle of straw, before it
is thatched.
Barley lying in the mow un-
threshed, will keep for one or two
years, if the above stated method
be adopted. But when this grain
is converted into malt, it can with
difficulty be preserved longer than
one year, Avithout being infested by
weevils. One of the best remedies
to destroy these vermin, is dry
worm-AVood laid in the malt.....For
farther information on this head,
see Malt.
Numerous have been the at-
tempts to cure the smut in barley
and other kinds of grain ; a disease
Avhich by some is attributed to the
generation of certain minute in-
sects that breed in light and cor-
rupted corn, sown in a moist and
unfavourable season ; but by oth-
ers, and Avith more probability, to
the influence of the atmosphere,
wafting perhaps insects from such
regions as are infested with them.
See article Smut.
The best sort of barley is that
which is thick in the grain, smooth^
weighty, inclining to a whiteish co-
lour, and neither too old nor neAv.
Mr. John Kerrich, an eminent
maltster at Harleston, England,
asserts, that out of a coomb of dis-
coloured barley, more than two
bushels Avill not, in most instances,
work on a malting floor; nor can
such grain, in his opinion, be reli-
ed upon for seed, as it does not
vegetate better in the ground than
on the floor. He therefore advises
farmers to sow bright barley, or at
least such as is kiln dried, which
he knows from experience Avill ve-
getate ; or to dry it in the spring
by exposure to the sun ; an expe-
dient that may probably produce
an effect similar to that of kiln-
drying. We are much inclined to
doubt the latter part of this* infor-
mation, though we allow Mr. Ker-
rich the credit of having stated an
useful fact, as far as it relates to
the process of malting ; but so long
as the corculum,or heart of the seed,
is not injured, Ave are of opinion
that it Avill always germinate, in-
dependently of any external disco-
loration.
i7*c*....Besides the almost mere*
dible quantities of barley used in
brewing ale and beer of different
kinds, the consumption of this
grain in broths is very considerable,
especially in Scotland and Germa-
ny ; in both countries barley-broth
is as common a dish as soup in
France. Hence pearl-barley is
prepared in peculiar-mills, where
it is freed of the husk, and reduced
to the size of small shot, by grind-
ing aAvay all the exterior parts to
the very heart of the grain. The
184 BAR
Scots and Germans, hoAvever, are
more saving in their domestic eco-
nomy, especially the lower classes
Of people, who frequently per-
form that process by hand-mills,
or more commonly, in stamping-
mortars, where the barley is freed
from its husks, and rendered fit for
culinary purposes. The latter are
of a very simple construction, and
may be very easily made, by exca-
A'ating a heavy and firm block of
wood sufficiently deep, from eigh-
teen to twenty-four inches, and then
adapting to it a wooden pestle, at
the loAver end of which a few large
iron nails with smooth heads are
generally fixed, for more effectu-
ally striking the barley and sepa-
rating its husks. Such an imple-
ment is also useful for blanching
wheat, oats, and many other arti-
cles for culinary purposes: Ave,
therefore, seriously recommend its
introduction into every family,
which is desirous of reducing the
consumption of bread-corn, and
lessening the dangers of adultera-
tion, which (whether well or ill-
founded), resound from every
quarter of the metropolis.
Properties.....Barley has, from
the earliest ages, been considered
as wholesome and nutritive food
for man and cattle. In diseases
of the kidneys, and the breast, as
well as in that state of the body
where it is said to abound in acri-
monious humours, decoctions made
of this grain, sufficiently strong,
and acidulated Avith vinegar and
sugar, are eminently useful....(See
also, Wort.)
As a cooling and diluent bever-
age, barley-Avater is of essential
service to febrile patients, and in
all inflammatory cases, where pre-
ternatural heat and thirst prevail;
but to promote its salutary effect,
BAR
the grosser parts, Avhich remain
after decoction, ought not to be
swalloAved.
Barm. See Yeast.
BARN, in husbandry, a covered
building or place, with vent-holes
in the sides, for laying up any kind
of grain, hay, or straw.
This kind of store-house being
so well known to all rural econo-
mists, no farther description will
be necessary : but as several plans
have been proposed for its im-
provement, we shall give an ac-
count of those which appear the
most worthy of notice.
In the sixteenth volume of Mr.
Arthur Young's " Annals of Ag-
riculture," Ave find the folloAving
description of a barn, &c com-
municated to the editor by the Rev.
Roger Kedington, of Rougham,
near Bury St. Edmund's, England:
" Let the underpinning be of brick
or stone, two feet high above
ground, and let the sides be board-
ed : the roof of the barn will be
best covered Avith reed or straAV,
and those of the stables with slate,
or glazed tile ; because they must
be more flat, and the water Avhich
runs from the roof of the bam
Avould injure most other coverings.
At each end of the barn, and over
the back-door, small doors, four
feet square, should be fixed, at the
height of twelve feet from the
ground ; the two former for putting
corn in at the ends, and the latter
for filling the middle of the bam,
after the bays are full. All the bays
should have a floor of clay or marl,
and the threshing-floor be made
with hard bricks, which will be suf-
ficient for all 'sorts of grain, except
wheat and rye ; and for threshing
them, it will be good economy to
have planks of oak or red cleal,
well fitted together and numbered^
BAR
to be laid down occasionally, and
confined by a frame at their ends.
A bam built on such a plan would
hold a great deal of com, and be
filled most conveniently: and if
stacks of corn were built at each
end, they might be taken in Avith-
out any carting. If more buildings
are requisite, two may be added on
the back-side, like the stables in
front: otherwise, if doors are made
under the eaves on the backside, as
directed at the ends, and stacks be
placed opposite to them (just far
enough to avoid the eaves drop-
ping), by placing a waggon be-
tween them and the barn by way
of a stage, those stacks may be ta-
ken in without carting; which
method prevents a great waste of
corn, and much trouble. The
spars of the roofs of the stables rest
upon the upper sills of the sides of
the barn, and the outside Avail of
the stable is eight feet high ; the
bam supplying the highest side,
and one end of each stable ; and
the stables in return are buttresses
to the barn, and strengthen it
greatly."
This building is of the follow-
ing dimensions : The length of the
barn inside is 68 feet; its width
22; the height of the sides 17
feet; of the front doors 15 feet;
of the back doors 8 feet and 6
inches ; the stable at each side, in
length 26 feet 6 inches, in Avidth
14 feet; the door 4 feet; the
threshing-floor has in front an
entrance of 11 feet; behind, of 9
feet 6 inches; and the Avidth of
the porch is 14 feet. The whole
expence of erecting this fabric, in
the year 1791, was stated to be
nearly three hundred pounds.
Mr. Arthur Young has, in the
tame volume, inserted a plan for a
bam,, and other buildings neces-
>ol. I.
BAR 185
sary for cattle. The dimensions of
this structure Avere given in conse-
quence of a request made by the
late General Washington to the
author, that he Avould send him a
sketch of a good bam, and the ne-
cessary out-buildings, proportioned
to a farm of five hundred acres.
The threshing-floor is large enough
for three men to work on, Avho,
in the course of a winter, can
thresh the corn produced on such
a farm.
This plan appears to us, by far the
most advantageous of any that has
fallen under our observation; we
have therefore been induced to
describe it, for the information of
our readers.
The inner Avidth of the barn is
27 feet square, on each side of the
threshing-floor. The porch 11
feet 4 inches, by 12 feet 3 inches.
Threshing-floor 39 feet by 20, on
its upper end, and 12% feet at the
small door of the porch, which is
6^. feet in Avidth. The great door
at which the carts enter with corn,
14 feet 9 inches. The sheds for
cattle, on the four longitudinal
sides of the bays, are 27 feet by
12. Mangers, 2 feet broad, out
of which the cattle eat their food.
The passages for carrying the straw
from the threshing-floor to feed the
cattle, are between two and three
feet Avide. Each passage has a
door ; there are four principal posts
to each shed, besides the smaller
ones, and gutters for conveying
the urine to four cisterns, from
Avhich it is every day throAvn upon
dunghills, placed at a convenient
distance. From the mangers to
the gutters there is a pavement of
bricks upon a slope, laid in such a
manner as to terminate 6 inches
perpendicular above the gutters ;
which pavement is 6 feet broad
B B
186 BAR
BAR
from that edge to the manger.
The gutters are from 18 to 20
inches broad. There are four sheds
for various uses, one at each corner
of the threshing-floor. At each
end of the barn there are two
yards Avith a shed, to be applied
to any purpose Avanted ; one for
sheep, surrounded with low racks,
and the other divided for a horse,
or two, loose, if necessary : the
other half is for yearling calves,
Avhich thrive better in a farm-yard,
than when stalled. These yards
are inclosed by walling, or pales.
The main body of the bam rises
14, 16, or 20 feet to the eaves.
There are various sheds placed
against the Availing, as this is the
cheapest Avay of sheltering cattle
that has yet been discovered.....
Should the number of cattle in-
tended to be kept, be greater than
here admitted, a circular shed may
be erected fronting the small door
of the porch, and the hay-stacks
be conveniently disposed near those
sheds appropriated for cows, horses,
or fat cattle. Com-stacks must
be built on the opposite side of the
bam.
In the year 1797, a model of a
barn, upon a new construction,
was presented to the Bath Society
by Mr. Dobson, carpenter, of Nor-
wich, Avho received a premium
for his contrivance. The differ-
ence between the common barn,
and that just mentioned, is as fol-
lows....The area of the former,
1475 square feet; 24,429 cubic
feet for corn only ; 702 cubic feet
of timber ; the latter, according to
the model, 1472 square feet, the
area; 30,900 cubic feet, for com
only ; and 445 cubic feet of tim-
ber. By this calculation it ap-
pears, that a bam built according
to Mr. Dobson's plan, gains on
one in common use, of the same
area, 6474 cubic feet of space, and
requires 257 cubic feet less of tim-
ber : and as there is nothing in its
construction Avhich would increase
the price of workmanship, the cost
of one on this plan, and another
of the common kind, would be
as 445 to 702 and the mathe-
matical strength of the former is
obvious.
A representation of the model
above alluded to, is given in the
sixth volume of the Repertory of
Arts and Manufactures.
BARN-FLOORS.....The best
kind are to be found, according to
Mr. Marshall, in the district of
Cotswold, Gloucestershire: they
are from 12 to 14, by 18 to 20 feet;
some of oak, others of stone ; but a
species of earthen floor, which is
made here of the calcareous earth
of the sub-soil, a kind of ordinary
gravel, and the chippings of free-
stone, is considered to be superior
to floors of stone, or any other
material, except sound oak-plank.
The great excellence of these floors
is owing partly to the materials of
which they are made, and partly
to the method of forming them,
which is, perhaps, peculiar to that
district; it is described as follows :
" Earthen barn-floors are made,
in other places, of wet materials;
a kind of mortar, which, as it
dries, is liable to crack, and re-
quires some months after it is
made, to dry it hard enough for
use: on the contrary, the mate-
rials in the practice under consi-
deration, are worked dry ; they of
course do not crack, and are ready
for use as soon as finished. The
materials, mixed together, are sift-
ed twice over: the first time,
through a wide sieve to catch the
stones and large gravel, which are
BAR
BAR 187
thrown to the bottom of the floor;
the next, through a finer sieve, to
separate the more earthy parts
from the finer gravel, which is
spread upon the stones, and upon
this, the more earthy parts, mak-
ing the whole about a foot thick,
and trimming doAvn the different
layers closely and firmly upon
each other. The surface being
levelled, it is beaten Avith a flat
wooden beetle, made like the gar-
deners' turf-beater, until the sur-
face become as hard as a stone,
and rings at every stroke, like me-
tal. If properly made, they are
said to last a great number of
years, being eemally proof against
the flail and the broom.
" These materials, it is true,
cannot be had in many districts;
but the principle of making barn-
floors with dry materials being
knoAvn, other substances than these
which are here in use, may be
found to answerthe same purpose."
The barn-floors generally used
in most parts of the kingdom, con-
sume a quantity of large anel va-
luable oak-timber, often such as
might be converted into two and a
half inch ship-timber ; they last
only from fifteen to twenty years,
and require frequent repairs. Hol-
low beech-floors, which Avere in-
troduced a feAV years since, on ac-
count of the very high price of
oak-timber, are found not to Avear
more than seven or eight years.
We think it necessary therefore,
to give a description of a moveable
barn-floor invented by Mr. John
Upton, of Petworth, Sussex, for
which he received a reward of
thirty guineas, from the Society for
the Encouragement of Arts, Sec. in
the year 1796.
" This floor effectually prevents
a waste of corn, in threshing: it
gives an addition of at least one
foot in height at the doors, by
which means a higher load of corn
can be admitted ; and also, as the
horses do not draw the Avaggon up
an ascent, and upon a slippery
floor; but upon a hard bottom,
and level Avith the farm-yard, tAvo
horses can perform the work,
Avhere four are now generally
used. It affords a warm and con-
venient shelter for hogs, Avhen it
is doAvn ; and, when turned up, it
may be used as a stable, ox-stall,
hovel, or cart-house ; two men can
place or displace it in five minutes;
and, from its allowing, at all times,
an easy access to dogs and cats,
under it, it affords no harbour for
vermin.
u The folloAving are statements
of the materials used, and the ex-
penceofthebarn-floors,respectiA-ely.
" Bm~n-floors now in common
use.....The original floor laid on the
ground, with three sills, and two-
inch oak-plank, Avhich in general
lasts from fifteen to twenty years,
cost 191. 10s.....The hollow-floors
on brick quoins, with two and a
half inch oak-plank, cost 31/. 10s.
" John Upton's Barn-floor....
The new-constructed hollow-floor
is composed of oak-plank, five feet
eight inches in length, and one
inch and a half thick ; whereas
three-fourths of the plank used in
the original floors, are fourteen
feet in length.....the whole expence
231. 10s.
" The plank for the last-men-
tioned floor may consist of deal,
beech, or elm ; as they will be
perfectly free from decay by damps,
which Avill considerably lessen the
expence of the new-constructed
floor: these are the estimates
when the materials are supplied by
a carpenter. When they are fur-
nished from the estate, a very
considerable advantage arises U>
188 BAR
BAR
the landlord, as the new-construct-
ed floor is composed of small
scantlings, which may be obtained
from short timber, much inferior
in value to those used for the other
floors.
" Where there are more than
one bam in a farm-yard, this floor
may be farther useful, as it may be
removed from one barn to another,
and save the expence of at least one
out of three.
" It is supposed, that a floor
constructed in this manner will
last for one hundred years, or in-
deed as long as the barn ; because
it is perfectly free from damps, on
account of the distance at Avhich it
lies above the ground, Avith a free
current of air passing under it
when down ; and Avhen it is turn-
ed up (Avhich it probably will be
at least half the year), it will be
as free from decay as the posts or
beams of the barn." [See Farm-
yard].
BAROMETER, an instrument
of modern invention, for measur-
ing and ascertaining the weight of
the atmosphere, as well as the
height of mountains, and likeAvise
foretelling, Avith tolerable accuracy,
the probable change of the wea-
ther. That such an instrument
must be of extensive utility to
every person engaged in the active
pursuits of life, whether those of
gardening and agriculture, or in
the various departments of the do-
mestic and useful arts, Avill be uni-
versally admitted. Hence we pro-
pose to bestow a considerable share
of attention on this interesting
subject.
History and analysis.....When
Galileo, in the beginning of the
seventeenth century, discovered
that Avater could not ascend in a
pump, unless the sucker reached
within 33 feet of its surface in the
well, he justly concluded that the
ascent of water in pumps, was
effected by the presswe of the
atmosphere, and not by the power
of suction ; that a column of Avater
33 feet high was a counterpoise to
one of air of an equal diameter and
base, the height of which extended
to the top of the atmosphere ; and
that consequently the water could
not be attracted any farther by the
sucker. This important discovery
induced his great pupil Torri-
celli, to substitute a column of
mercury for that of water ; because
the former fluid being about 14
times heavier than the latter, he
wanted, according to that propor-
tion, only about 291 inches of
quicksilver to determine the accu-
racy of his experiment. He ac-
cordingly found that, after having
filled a glass tube with mercury,
and inverted it in a bason of the
same semi-metal, it descended in
the tube till it became stationary
at about 2 9 J- inches above the sur-
face of that contained in the loAver
vessel.
Many years, hoAveA'er, elapsed
after this experiment, before any
notice Avas taken of the circum-
stance, that this pressure of the
air considerably varied at different
times, though the tube was uni-
formly kept in the same situation.
Indeed, these variations in the mer-
curial column, were too obvious to
remain long unnoticed ; and philo-
sophers began, minutely, to mark
their degrees. As soon,'therefore,
as this point was properly attended
to, they observed that the changes
in the rise and fall of the mercury
were in general very speedily suc-
ceeded by variations in the wea-
ther. Hence the instrument ob-
tained the name of weather-glass,
for which purpose it has, since that
period, been generally employed.
BAR
BAR 189
It is surprising that the ancients
were unaccmainted with the laws
by which the ambient air presses
on our bodies as well as on all in-
animate matter ; and that Otto
Guericke, a German, to whom
the world is indebted for the disco-
very of the air-pump, was the first
who excited the attention of philo-
sophers to this important subject.
Although Torricelli had previ-
ously ascertained, by his experi-
ment made in the year 1646, that the
mercury in a tube of four feet in
length did not remain stationary at
291 inches, but varied according to
the greater or less degree of density
of the atmosphere ; yet it does not
appear that he applied this great dis-
coA-ery to the purpose of predicting
the future,or impending changes of
th e weather. Even prior to that elate,
namely, in 1643, experiments were
instituted, both at Florence and
Rome, with the Torricellian tube ;
and, in 1648, Perier, a French-
man, made use of two similar in-
struments; one of which he left
in a valley, Avhile with the other
he ascended one of the highest
mountains of Auvergne ; and thus
he observed, that the atmosphere
on the top of the hill did not press
upon the mercury with a force
equal to that observed in a loAver
situation, where he found the cmick-
silver much lower than in the
former region ; and hence he ju-
diciously concluded, that the air
must be lighter, or more rarefied,
in proportion to the altitude of
places. But that these remarkable
changes were in any degree con-
nected Avith the present, or future,
constitution of the Aveather, Avas
doubtless discovered by Gl erick.e,
though Mr. Boyle, whose talents
anel genius deserve the highest ad-
miration, improved and applied it
to philosophical purposes. This
assertion is amply supported by a
passage in a printed work still ex-
tant, and entitled " Cusp. Schotti
Tcchnica curiosa" (ii. 22. p. 52) ;
by Avhich it appears, from a letter
addressed to the author by Gue-
ricke, that the latter had con-
structed a tube filled Avith mercury,
on the top of which fluid he placed
a small wooden figure, that rose
and fell Avith the quicksilver, point-
ing out Avith its finger, or index,
the variations in the gravity of the
air, and at the same time the con-
comitant changes of the Aveather.
The compound barometer, the
tube of Avhich is filled not only
with mercury, but likewise with
another coloured fluid, Avas in-
vented by Cartesius and Hua*-
gens, much about the same time;
but the latter considerably im-
proved it, by using a elouble tube,
and mixing the Avater A-.ith one-
sixth part of aema-fortis, to pre-
vent its congelation in whiter.
The conical or pendent baro-
meter was contrived by M. Amon-
tons ; the well-known diagonal
barometer, by Sir Samuel More-
land; the wheel barometer, by
Dr. Robert Hooke, Avho likewise
improved Huygens' elouble baro-
meter above mentioned ;.....the
rectangular horizontal barometer
Avas invented by Bernouilli, or
rather Cassini; and the credit of
another invention, by which four
tubes (containing mercury, and a
lighter fluid alternately) are con-
nected together, is likewise due to
Amontons.
The marine barometer Avas also
invented in the beginning of the
18th century, by Dr. R. Hooke,
and afterwards rendered more per-
fect by M. Pas s em en t, who, by
the simple, but effectual expedient,
190 BAR
of twisting the middle part of the
common, or Torricellian tube, into
a spiral of tAvo revolutions, pre-
vented the oscillations of the mer-
cury on ship-board. By this inge-
nious contrivance, the shocks which
the mercury sustains from the mo-
tions of a ship, are effectually
broken ; as, from the turns of the
instrument, the impulses are trans-
mitted in contrary directions.
But of all the instruments con-
trived for the purpose of ascertain-
ing the specific gravity of the at-
mosphere, that of Magellan, in
the year of 1765, deserves a distin-
guished place ; as it points out not
only the changes occurring in the
atmosphere, but likeAvise, and in
a very sensible manner, the dif-
ferent degrees of temperature of
the air.
Among the travelling barome-
ters, that of M. de Luc, improv-
ed by J. F. Luz, is the most useful
and compendious....A wind-baro-
meter has also been contrived by
Mr. Wilkes, of which Ave pro-
pose to give an account under the
article, Wind.
A great variety of other useful
instruments have been invented
since the days of Torricelli,upon
similar principles, and with mecha-
nical additions more or less com-
plicated ; but it must be acknow-
ledged, that the simple barometer
of his invention is the most exact,
though not the most sensible ba-
lance for weighing the atmosphere,
and has therefore been most gene-
rally adopted.
Rationale....M. de Luc, not sa-
tisfied Avith the different hypotheses
brought forward by Wallis, Hal-
ley, Leibnitz, Mairan, he. to
explain the variations of the baro-
meter, has satisfactorily refuted the
conjectures of all his predecessors,
BAR
and endeavoured to establish his
own, which is founded on a suppo-
sition, that a column of air, loaded
with vapours, is lighter than a co-
lumn of pure air of equal bulk. He
consequently asserts, 1. That the
density of air is the immediate and
only cause that supports the mer-
cury ; and 2. That the more elastic
the air is, the less does it press
and weigh upon its base: but
though there is considerable inge-
nuity in this explanation, it is by
no means conclusive.
Soon after the publication of this
theory, M. Beguelin, in 1773,
endeavoured to prove, that the va-
riation of the whole mass of the
atmosphere, as well as that of the
spring or elasticity in a part of this
mass, are the two general causes of
the variations of the barometer;
and that the primitive causes of
this remarkable effect are, heat,
cold, dryness, and moisture, with
their different combinations.
We cannot enter into the parti-
culars relative to the operation of
these various causes, but shall
briefly observe, that heat dilates
the air; cold contracts it, and
draws together those parts which
it is the property of heat to sepa-
rate : hence, the natural effect of
the former is expansion ; the con-
sequences of the latter, condensa-
tion, compression of its spring,
and an increase of pressure, on ac-
count of which, the mercury rises
in the barometer.
Respecting the effects of dryness
and moisture, it deserves to be re-
marked, that, if the latter dimi-
nishes the pressure of the air, by
relaxing its spring, it on the other
hand loads it with watery particles,
which very considerably augment
its mass, so that it may be difficult
to determine how far the moisture
BAR
of the air exerts its influence on the
rise and fall of the barometer. The
same observation may be applied
to dryness, which dispels the wa-
tery particles that increased the
weight of the air ; so that there ap-
pears to be a perpetual conflict be-
tween the effect of spring and mass,
between elasticity and weight; and
experience alone can inform us
whether, in this contest of the ele-
ments, the effect of elasticity is
much superior to that of Aveight.
Such is the plausible explanation of
Beguelin, and we have only to re-
gret, that the result of his inquiries,
still leaves the subject involved in
much doubt and difficulty, because
even this theory does not account
for the sudden changes of the at-
mosphere.
Nevertheless,experience has fur-
nished us Avith a sufficient number
of facts, from which we may, with
tolerable precision, ascertain the
present, anel predict the future state
of the surrounding element, by the
practical use of the barometer....
Thus, 1. The rising of the quick-
silver generally presages fair Avea-
ther, as its falling does the contrary,
or rain, snow, high winds, and
storms ; 2. In very hot weather,
the sudden falling of the mercury
portends thunder; 3. In winter,
the rising indicates frost; and in
frosty weather, if the mercury falls
three or four divisions, there Avill
certainly follow a thaw; but if it
rise in a continued frost, it will al-
ways be accompanied Avith snow;
4. When foul weather quickly suc-
ceeds after the falling of the mer-
cury, it will not be of long dura-
tion ; nor are we to expect a con-
tinuance of fair weather, when it
soon succeeds the rise of the quick-
silver ; 5. If, in foul Aveather, the
mercury happens to ascend consi-
BAR 191
derably, and continues in an ad-
vancing state for two or three days
successively, then Ave may expect
also a continuance of fair Aveather;
6. If, in clear weather, the mer-
cury falls remarkably for two or
three days together, before the
rain sets in, it is then highly pro-
bable that it will be succeedeu by
much rain, and perhaps high
winds ; 7. The .unsettled motion of
the mercury indicates changeable
weather ; [To these remarks, Mr.
Capper adds, that when the baro-
meter suddenly falls two or three
tenths, without any material alter-
ation in the thermometer, and the
hygrometer is not much turned
towards moist, a violent gale of
wind may be expected....When the
hygrometer inclines far towards
moist, with only a trifling descent
in the barometer, it denotes a pass-
ing shower and little wind ; and
when the barometer falls consider-
ably, and the hygrometer turns
much tOAvards moist, the thermo-
meter remaining stationary, and
rather inclined to rise than fall,
both violent wind and rain are likely
to folloAv, in the course of a few
hours.] 8. Respecting the words
engraved on the register-plate, they
cannot be strictly relied upon to
correspond exactly ith the state of
the weather; though it will in ge-
neral agree with them as to the
mercury rising and falling. These
words deserve to be particularly
noticed when the mercury removes
from " Changeable" upwards ; as
those on the lower part should be
adverted to, v hen the quicksilver
falls from " Changeable" down-
wards, in other cases, they are of
no use ; for as its rising in any part
forebodes a tendency to fair, and its
falling to foul weather, it follows,
that though it descend in the tube
192 BAR
BAR
from Settled to Fair, it may never-
theless be attended with a little
rain ; and when it rises from the
Avords " Much Rain" to " Rain," it
shews only an inclination to become
fair, though the wet Aveather may-
still continue in a less considerable
degree than it Avas Avhen the mer-
cury began to rise. But if the mer-
cury, after having fallen to " Much
Rain," should ascend to " Change-
able," it predicts fair weather tho'
of a shorter continuance than if the
quicksilver had risen still higher;
and so, on the contrary, if the mer-
cury stood at " Fair," and descends
to " Changeable," it presages foul
weather, though not of such dura-
tion, as if it had fallen lower.
These observations are founded
on experience, and we are indebted
for them chiefly to Mr. Patrick,
who has investigated this subject
with considerable precision. It ap-
pears from the result of these facts,
that the height of the mercury is
not the principal criterion for ascer-
taining the probable changes of the
weather, but rather the relative
motion of that fluid in the tube.
Hence, to enable us to judge right-
ly of the impending variations, we
ought to possess a correct know-
ledge, Avhether the mercury is ac-
tually rising or falling. For this
purpose, the following rules, stated
by Mr. Rowing, may be of advan-
tage : 1. If the surface of the mer-
cury be convex, standing higher in
the middle of the tube than at the
sides, it generally indicates the
rising of this fluid metal; 2. If its
surface be concave, it is then sink-
ing ; 3. If it appear level, it is sta-
tionary ; 4. If, after shaking the
tube of a s?nall glass, the mercury
rises about half a tenth of an inch
higher than it stood before, it is a
proof that the air has become
heavier; but if it sink as much,
it follows that the atmosphere is
lighter. Hence, in making obser-
vations on the weather, such a glass
should ahvays be previously shak-
en ; because the metal which ad-
heres to the sides of the tube, pre-
vents its free motion, till disengag-
ed by a slight agitation of the instru-
ment. These phenomena are pe-
culiar to places situated at a distance
from the equator, and, therefore,
deserve to be attended to in our
climate: on the contrary, at St.
Helena, they Avould be of little or
no service ; for, according to the ac-
curate observations of Dr. Halle y,
made in that island, the mercury
remained stationary in all weathers.
This judicious naturalist lias fur-
nished us with the following curious
account of these phenomena, and
their causes ; of which we shall
give a concise abstract: 1. In calm
Aveather, Avhen there is a prospect
of rain, the mercury is commonly
low ; 2. In serene and settled wea-
ther it is generally high ; 3. On the
approach of tempestuous winds,
though unaccompanied with rain,
the mercury sinks loAver than on
any other occasion ; 4. The great-
est height of the mercury is observ-
able during the prevalence of east-
erly or north-easterly winds; 5. In
calm, frosty Aveather, the quicksil-
ver generally stands high ; 6. After
very great tempests, when the mer-
cuky has been very low, it general-
ly again quickly ascends; 7. The
barometer in the northern regions
exhibits greater variations than in
those lying more towards the South;
8. Within and near the tropics,
there is little or no alteration in the
mercury, as before observed. Hence
Dr. Halley is of opinion, that the
principal cause of the rise and the
fall of the cjuicksilver must be at-
BAR
BAR 193
tributed partly to the variable Avinds
in the temperate zone, the great
inconstancy of which, in Britain, is
well-known ; and partly to the un-
certain exhalation and precipitation
of the vapours floating in the at-
mosphere, which is at one time
more saturated than at another, and
consequently heavier ; though the
precipitation of aqueous vapours
chiefly depends on the previous de-
gree of evaporation.
Our plan does not permit us to
accompany these propositions with
the explanations given by Dr. Hal-
ley ; and as the theoretical part
has been strongly contested by
other philosophers, though not re-
futed, till the late Dr. Black, of
Edinburgh, endeavoured to prove
the fallacy of all preceding theo-
ries, we shall conclude this sub-
ject with a summary outline of his
doctrine.
According to Dr. Black, 1. Va-
pour is formed by an intimate
union between fire and water, by
which the fire, or heat, is so to-
tally enveloped, and its action so
entirely suspended by watery par-
ticles, that it loses its properties of
giving light and heat, anel conse-
quently is in a latent state ; 2. If
the atmosphere is affected by any
unusual degree of heat, it becomes
incapable of supporting a column
of mercury so long as before ; for
which reason that in the barome-
ter sinks....From these preliminary
axioms it follows, that as vapour
is formed by the union of fire and
Avater, or the solution of the latter
in the former, it is impossible that
the vapour can be condensed, un-
til this union or solution be effected.
The beginning of the condensation
of the vapour, then, or the first
symptoms of approaching rain,
must be the separation of the fire
VOL. I.
which lies hidden or involved in
the vapour. This may at first be
slow and partial, or it may be sud-
den and violent: in the former
case, the rain may come on slowly,
and after considerable intervals ; in
the latter, it will be quick, and
in a large quantity. With regard
to the effect of this separation be-
tween the fire and water, we shall
only observe, that as it is gradual
and slow, the barometer may in-
dicate rain for a considerable time
before it appears: or if the sensi-
ble heat communicated from the
vapour to the atmosphere, should be
absorbed by the colder parts, or be
carried off by any unknown means,
or prevented from affecting the
specific gravity of the air, the ba-
rometer will undergo no change ;
and yet the vapour, being deprived
of the heat necessary to sustain it,
must descend in rain ; and thus it
happens, that the indications of the
barometer do not always hold true,
respecting the changes of the wea-
ther. Hence also it appears, that,
though the specific gravity of the
air is diminished, unless that dimi-
nution proceed from a discharge of
the latent heat contained in the va-
pours, no rain will follow; and
thus the sinking of the barometer
may prognosticate Avind as well as
rain, or sometimes no change what-
ever.
Such is the ingenious theory of
Dr. Black, who certainly has
produced the most philosophic ex-
planation yet offered on this appa-
rently intricate subject; and though
his reasoning- may not enable us to
solve all the difficulties occurring
in meteorological investigations, we
do not hesitate to say, that it has
placed the nature and causes of
these phenomena in the clearest
point of view, as far as it is possi-
C c
194 B A R
BAR
ble to account for them, in the pre-
sent state of physical science. We
shall, therefore, conclude Avith ob-
serving, that though the wind is
certainly not the sole cause of
raising and depressing the mer-
cury, yet, in our climate, it has a
remarkable influence on the state
of the barometer. For, if the
mercury falls, v/hcn the wind
bloAvs from those quarters which
generally are productive of much
rain, such as the south and south-
west winels are in the environs of
London, there is no doubt but wet
weather will speedily follow; on
the contrary, if the quicksilver
rises, Avhile the Avind blows from
dry quarters, such as the northerly
and easterly regions are to Bri-
tain, then it is highly probable that
the Aveather Avill become fair. But
if the mercury rises during a south-
erly wind, or falls while it blows
from the north ; in both cases the
prognostics are extremely doubt-
ful ; as it frequently happens, that
the weather does not correspond to
the temporary rising or falling of
the quicksilver.
[The mercury in the Barometer
is not only influenced in its height
by the increased or diminished den-
sity of the air, but also by the heat
of the atmosphere. The amount
of dilatation that takes place in the
column from the freezing point to
boiling water, is only five lines.....
This Avas proved by Mr. Peter Le-
gaux, in July, 1731, by experiments
made before the Commissioners of
the Academy of Sciences at Paris.
At the same time thatthe increase
of the height of the mercury is ta-
king place, the specific gravity of
the metal is also diminished. It
has been found by experiments,
that the vol. of mercury condensed
by the cold of ice, is to a vol. of mer-
cury rarifiedby the heat of boiling
water as 66 to 67, that is to say,
that the augmentation of the volume
of the mercury, or what is the same
thing, the diminution of its speci-
fic gravity is a 66th, counting from
the freezing point to that of boil-
ing water. So that a barometer in
passing from the cold of ice to the
heat of boiling Avater, would rise to
a quantity ecpial to the 66th part of
its height without any change hav-
ing taken place in the pressure of
the atmosphere. Five lines are then
the amount of the utmost possible
dilatation of the column of mercu-
ry by heat. Five multiplied by 16
gives 80 ; and as the scale of Reau-
mur's thermometer from the point
at which water freezes, to that of
boiling water is divided into 80 de-
gress, it is obvious that there is a
perfect connection between these
two instruments, so that one may
be used to correct the other. It
will then be necessary to deduct
one sixteenth of a line from the
height of the barometer, for every
degree that the thermometer rises
above the freezing point; and to
add Ag to its height Avhen the ther-
mometer marks degrees below the
Cypher.
Before taking an observation of
the barometer, it is necessary to
make the mercury move up and
down once or twice, to put it in
equilibrium with the air, and to de-
stroy all adhesion it may have with
the sides of the glass. The surface
of the reservoirmust then be brought
to the line of the level, by means of
the screw adapted for the purpose
to the bottom of the instrument;
because the column of mercury can-
not rise or fall without impressing a
contrary effect upon the surface of
the mercury contained in the reser-
voir.
BAR
BAR 195
These remarks are of infinite con-
sequence to all who wish to make
accurate barometrical observations 5
and for want of knoAving their con-
sequence, the greater part of those
which have been published in A-
merica are nearly useless.
For a very interesting paper on
the barometer, the reader is refer-
red to a volume of essays by Mr.
John D alton of Manchester. 1793.]
A very curious new phenome-
non deserves to be mentioned, con-
cerning the state of this instru-
ment, on particular occasions. M.
Sc h m 1 dt, Professor of Mathematics
at Pforte, in Germany, lately ob-
served, that his barometer became
luminous in the day-time, while
the horizon was covered with thun-
der-clouds ; and that on the ap-
proach of a tempest, there appeared
on the surface of the mercury, a
small and distinct luminous globe,
which could be perceived in day-
light,atthedistance of several yards.
We relate this singular fact; and,
not being in possession of farther
particulars, we can only conjecture,
that such a phenomenon may per-
haps be ascribed to the greater ra-
refaction and electricity of the air,
in the serene climate of Germany,
previous to the explosion of thun-
der ; and likewise to a more phos-
phorescent nature of the mercury ;
a property which it doubtless ac-
quires when submitted to the re-
peated process of distillation, and
other means of purifying that pecu-
liar metallic fluid....See also Spi-
der.
BARREL, in commerce, is a
vessel of an oblong size, made of
wood the form of which is general-
ly known, as well as its use for
holding various sorts of merchan-
dize : it is also used as a measure
lor liquids.
The English barrel, wine mea-
sure, contains the eighth part of a
tun, the fourth part of a pipe, and
one half of a hogshead, or 311
gallons. A barrel of beer should
contain 36, and one of ale 32 gal-
lons. The barrel of beer, vinegar,
or licmor preparing for vinegar,
ought to contain 31 gallons, ac-
cording to the standard of the ale
(mart.
Barrel is also used to denote a
certain wenrht of merchandizes,
and which differs according to
various commodities. A barrel
of Essex butter Aveighs 106 pounds
and of Suffolk butter 256 pounds.
The barrel of herrings ought to
contain 32 gallons, wine measure ;
which amount to about 28 gallons,
old standard, and consists of about
1000 herrings. The barrel of sal-
mon ought to contain 42 gallons,
and a barrel of eels the same eruan-
tity : the barrel of soap must weigh
256 pounds....[The Pennsylvania
barrel of flour.contains 196lbs.]
BARRENNESS, a term syno-
nimous to sterility, in opposition to
fecundity. That the creation might
not degenerate, Nature has wisely
ordained barrenness to all mon-
strous productions ; and hence the
sterility of mules, he.
Women frequently become bar-
ren after a miscarriage, or difficult
labour.
Dr. Haselcuust, in his Travels
to the Levant, advises married per-
sons to drink, every night, a tea-
cupful of clove-water for the cure
of this complaint....We have in-
serted this whimsical recipe, not
because any reliance can be placed
on so trifling a remedy, but in or-
der to attest the inefficacy of medi-
cines on such occasions, and to as-
sure those who forsake the path
of Nature, and expect relief from
196 B A S
Art, that they will certainly be dis-
appointed, unless they adopt a more
temperate and regular mode of life.
BASALTES, in natural history,
a hard stone of a black, grey, or
sometimes greenish colour; and
on account of its constituent parts,
and resemblance to lava, generally
classed among the volcanic pro-
ductions. Its specific gravity is to
that of water, as three to one.
The component parts of basaltes
are in the following proportion:
siliceous earth, 50, argillaceous 15,
calcareous 8, magnesia 2, and iron
25. It is remarkable, that this
fossil is disposed either in solid or
jointed columns; the former con-
sisting of five or six pillars, ei-
ther of an uniform size, or coni-
cal, and generally standing close
to each other perpendicularly, of
different, and sometimes equal
length, as if they had been arrang-
ed by a skilful artist. The Heb-
ridic island of Staffa is entirely
composed of lofty and capacious ba-
saltic columns, the most curious ar-
rangement of which, perhaps, on
the whole globe, is the celebrated
Fingal's cave. In Germany, also,
there are several basaltic moun-
tains ; for instance, those on the
Rhine, and near Freyberg, in Sax-
ony, where basaltes is frequently
found of an oval or spherical figure.
Spain, Russia, Poland, and Si-
lesia, also produce various basaltic
rocks. Great emantities of this
fossil are deposited in the neigh-
bourhood of Mount Etna, in Si-
cily ; of Hecla, in Iceland, &c.
But the largest mass yet discover-
ed, are, what is called the Giant's
Causeway, in Ireland.
As naturalists differ in their
opinion concerning the origin of
this curious substance, whether it
be the production of volcanos aris-
B A S
ing from subterraneous fires, or
derive its origin from crystalliza-
tion by water, we shall state only
the result of M. Bergmann's in-
quiry into this subject, as his ex-
planation appears to be conclusive.
He asserts, that both fire and wa-
ter contribute to form basaltes, and
it cannot be doubted that there has
been some connection between the
basaltic pillars and subterraneous
fire, as they are found mixed with
lava, and other substances, pro-
duced by that element.
[7*e*....Basaltes is an excellent
material for building houses, and
paving streets : it is also employed
by lapidaries and statuaries for va-
rious productions of art; as well
as by artists working in gold and
silver, for touch or test-stones.....
Gold-beaters and book-binders, on
the continent, make their anvils of
this firm and massy stone ; which
is also used as an ingredient in the
manufacture of glass, especially for
producing the common AvindoAV-
glass, and green bottles.
BASILICON OINTMENT, in
pharmacy, a preparation consist-
ing of eight parts of hog's lard;
five of Avhite resin; and two of
yellow wax: or, according to the
London College, of nearly equal
parts of yellow resin, bees wax,
and olive oil. The former ingre-
dients, prescribed by the Edin-
burgh College, are cheaper and
equally efficacious.
This ointment is generally em-
ployed in the dressing of wounds
and ulcers, for digesting and cleans-
ing them, as well as for promoting
their cicatrization. Modern sur-
geons, hoAvever, are not Avilling to
attribute any considerable effect to
external applications ; for they are
well convinced, that the healing of
wounds depends more on the spon-
B AS
taneous efforts of Nature, espe-
cially in a sound and healthy con-
stitution, than upon any artificial
aid by liniments, unguents or plas-
ters ; and that little benefit can be
derived from them, unless the dis-
eased part be properly dressed and
cleansed; Avhile the internal state
of the body should also be duly at-
tended to. Yet, there are instan-
ces on record in Avhich the basili-
con, combined either with a small
proportion of the red precipitate of
mercury, or, which is still better,
the juice of the burdock-root, has
proved efficacious in healing scro-
phulous ulcers, especially those
situated near the articulations of
bones.
BASKET, a well known utensil,
made of twigs interwoven toge-
ther. Considered as a measure in
commerce, it denotes an uncer-
tain quantity, as a basket of meel-
lars is two bushels; of asafoetida
from 20 to 50 pounds weight, he.
The Ancient Britons Avere cele-
brated for their ingenuity in manu-
facturing baskets of very elegant
workmanship, which they export-
ed in large quantities.
Basket-salt is made from the
water of the salt springs in Che-
shire, and other places. It differs
from the common brine-salt, in the
fineness of the grain, as well as on
account of its whiteness and purity.
In preparing the former kind, some
persons use resin and other ingre-
dients, for separating the crystals,
and reducing them to a smaller
grain ; others effect this by keep-
ing up a brisk fire under the pans,
and constantly stirring the salt;
but the most approved method of
manufacturingbasket-salt is, to take
out for this purpose, the third
draught of every pan Avhich is
working forthe common brine-salt;
BAT 19?
and to do this before the granules
or crystals are perfectly formed....
Thus the salt will become very
fine ; and it is then hard pressed
into small wicker-baskets, dried at
the stove anel kept for sale.
As there prevails, in many fa-
milies, a prejudice against this
species of salt, from an idea that
some pernicious articles are used
in the chymical process of prepar-
ing it, we--advise those Avho are
under the influence of such appre-
hension, to reduce common salt to
powder, in a marble or iron mor-
tar: but it requires to be previ-
ously cleaned or purified, by dis-
solving, and again evaporating it to
dryness; in which state it may
easily be pounded.
BASE - ROCKET, Rocket
Yellow-weed, or Wild Mig-
nonette, Reseda lutea, L. is an
indigenous plant, groAving in mea-
dows, pastures, and corn-fields,
chiefly in a calcareous soil; though
it is sometimes found on walls;
where its pale-yellow floAvers ap-
pear from July to August.....This
neglected' vegetable may be eaten
in the same manner as Kale ; and
it was formerly reputed to possess
anodyne properties.
BAT, or Vespcrtilio, an animal
which seems to fill up the chasm
between quadrupeds and birds;
with the latter, however, it has in
common only the power of flying,
as Nature has provided it with a
smooth gauze-like Aveb, serving
the purpose of wings.
There are twenty-eight species
of this animal. The common bat
is nearly the size of a mouse, and
flies about, in ejuest of moths and
other insects, in fine summer even-
ings, with a rapid and irregular
motion, resembling that of a but-
terily. When it alights on the
198 BAT
BAT
ground, it is unable to fly again,
till it has crawled to some height.
It remains torpid during the av in-
ter in some subterraneous retreat,
revives in the beginning of spring,
and the female brings forth from
two to five young at a time, which
it suckles like other mammillary
animals.
As the bats of our climate are
freemently troublesome, by infest-
ing chimnies, and annoying the
neighbourhood of dwellings, we
shall communicate a method of
elestroying them, nearly in the
Avords of the Encyclopadia Bri-
tannia:. Take the flower-cups of
burdock, whiten them Avith chalk,
and throw them up into the way
of their flight: thus attracted by
the Avhiteness of the substance,
the bats injure their membraneous
wings by the hooks of the bur, and
fall to the grounel.
In our opinion, these animals
are more useful than injurious ; as
they devour a multitude of insects ;
though they likewise prey upon
bacon, and other animal food sus-
pended in chimnies. But having
very formidable natural enemies in
the owls, which chase them into
hollow trees and obscure holes of
walls, there will be little occasion
for persecuting them with the bur-
dock.
BATH, in the general accepta-
tion of the term, signifies a conve-'
nient receptacle of water adapted
to the various purposes of washing
or cleansing, and bracing the body,
either by plunging, or continuing
in it for a certain time.
Baths may be divided into cold
cool, warm, and hot: and these again
into natural and artificial.
In order to treat this interesting
subject systematically, we shall
consider it according to the division
above-mentioned.
Cold Baths are those of a tempe-
rature varying from the 33d to the
56th degree of Fahrenheit's ther-
mometer. The general properties
of the cold bath consist in its power
of contracting the animal fibres^
while it dissipates the caloric (op
matter of heat) that exists between
their interstices, and thus effects a
greater approximation of the par-
ticles, Avhich Avere before dilated
and relaxed by heat. That such is
the natural influence of cold, can-
not be doubted ; and hence this
species of bath, by its powerful
action on the whole system, is one
of the most important medicinal
remedies presented by the hand,
and, as it were, supplied by the
very bosom of Nature.
EA-en in the most remote times,
cold bathing Avas resorted to, with
obvious advantage, by nervous and
debilitated persons ; but in the dark
or middle ages, this genuine source
of health Avas totally neglected, till
the good sense of Europeans again
adopted it as a general restorative,
when the prevailing diseases of re-
laxation and atony rendered the
use of such a remedy inestimable.
The superior advantages of cold
bathing over all internal corrobo-
rants, consists chiefly in its imme-
diate salutary action on the solids,
without the intervention of the
organs of digestion and nutrition ;
without having to perform a pas-
sage through numerous channels,
before it can exert its efficacy.
For this obvious reason, it is pecu-
liarly adapted to those constitutions
Avhich, though robust, and appa-
rently healthy, are liable to ner-
vous, hysteric, hypochondriacal,
and paralytic affections, as well
BAT
BAT 199
as to frequent attacks of flatu-
lency, and conseement indigestion.
Without expatiating, either on
the history, or the sensible effects
of the Cold Bath, we shall proceed:
I. To a general enumeration of
those cases, in which it cannot be
resorted to Avith advantage and
9afety ;
II. To lay down the necessary
rules anel directions for the use of
this heroic remedy.
With respect to the former, we
must be concise, and shall chiefly
point out by negative propositions,
those particular states of the body,
in Avhich cold bathing must not be
attempted : namely, 1. In a full
habit of body, or Avhat is called
general plethora, on account of the
freepient febrile disposition attend-
ing such individuals ; 2. In hemor-
rhages or fluxes of blood, open
wounds or ulcers,and every kind of
inflammation, whether external or
internal ; 3. In obstructions of the
intestines, or habitual costiveness;
4. In affections of the breast and
lungs, such as difficult respiration,
short and dry coughs,he. 5. When
the whole mass of the fluids ap-
pears to be vitiated, or tainted with
a peculiar acrimony, which cannot
be easily defined, but is obvious
from a sallow colour of the face,
slow healing of the flesh when cut
or bruised, and from a scorbutic
tendency of the Avhole body ; 6. In
gouty and rheumatic paroxysms ;
though Sir John Floyer asserts,
that " Podagries sometimes have
kept their fits off with it;" 7. In
cutaneous eruptions, which tend to
promote a critical discharge of hu-
mours by the pores (yet the cele-
brated physician just mentioned,
informs us, that great cures have
been effected in the leprosy, by-
bathing in what he calls k- Cold
Sulphur Water.") 8. During preg-
nancy ; and 9. In a distorted or de-
formed state of the body, except in
particular cases to be ascertained
by professional men.....Sir John
farther recommends, but too indis-<
criminately, the dipping of ricketty
children one year old, every morn-
ing in cold Avater ; and he is of opi-
nion that, in adults, it prevents the
infection of fevers, by making the
body less sensible of the changes of
air; that, in old women, it stops
violent hemorrhages from the ute-
rus ; that it has contributed to cure
canine madness, poisonous bites of
animals, and obstinate agues, by
going in previously to the return
of the fit, and after all the evacua-
tions of the body have been proper-
ly attended to ; and, lastly, that the
Sea-water Bath has been of emi-
nent service in dropsies, and de-
fective hearing ; in which last case,
he knew a deaf person who could
hear perfectly well, on the day he
bathed in the sea.
Experience, hoAvever, has but
too often evinced, that this excel-
lent remedy, whether by fresh or
salt-water, cannot be implicitly re-
lied upon in those complaints ; nor
will it be productive of any good
effects, unless our conduct, in ge-
neral, be accommodated to the
follow ing rules ;
1. It is a vulgar error, that it is
safer to enter the water when the
body is cool, and that persons heated
by exercise, and beginning to per-
spire, should wait till they are per-
fectly cooled. Thus, by plunging
into it, in this state, an alarming
and dangerous chilness frequently
seizes them, and the injury sus-
tained is generally ascribed to their
going into it too Avarm ; Avhile it
doubtless arises from the contrary
practice....Dr. J. CurriEj of Liver-
200 BAT
BAT
pool, in his valuable " Treatise on
the Effects of Water in Fevers."
(edit. 2d, 8vo. 1799, price 7s.),
says, with equal truth and preci-
sion, that " in the earliest stages of
exercise, before profuse perspira-
tion has dissipated the heat, and
fatigue debilitated the living power,
nothing is more safe, according to
my experience, than the cold bath.
This is so true, that I have, for
some years, constantly directed in-
firm persons to \ise such a degree
of exercise, before immersion, as
may produce some increased action
of the vascular system, with some
increase of heat, and thus secure a
force of re-action under the shock,
Avhich othenvise might not always
take place. But, though it be per-
fectly safe to go into the cold bath
in the earlier stages of exercise,
nothing is more dangerous than
this practice, after exercise has pro-
duced profuse perspiration, and
terminated in languor and fatigue ;
because in such circumstances the
heat is not only sinking rapidly, but
the system parts more easily with
the portion that remains."....In
short, it is a rule liable to no excep-
tion, that moderate exercise ought
always to precede cold bathing, to
promote the re-action of all the
vessels and muscles, on entering
the water; for neither previous
rest, nor exercise to a violent de-
gree, are proper on this occasion.
2. The duration of every cold
bathing applied to the Avhole body,
ought to be short, and must be de-
termined by the bodily constitution,
and the sensations of the individual;
for healthy persons may continue
in it much longer than valetudina-
rians ; and both will be influenced
by the temperature of the air, so
that in summer they can enjoy it
for an hour, when, in spring or
autumn, one or two minutes may
be sufficient.....Under similar cir-
cumstances, cold Avater acts on
aged and lean persons with more
violence than on the young and
corpulent: hence the former, even
in the hottest days of summer, can
seldom with safety remain in the
bath longer than a quarter of an
hour ; Avhile the latter are general-
ly able to sustain its impression for
double that time.
3, The head should first come
in contact with the Avater, either by
immersion, pouring water upon it,
or covering it for a minute with a
wet cloth, and then diving head
foremost into the Avater.
4. As the immersion Avill be les?
felt when it is effected suddenly;
and as it is of conseemence that
the first impression should be uni-
form over the body, Ave must not
enter the bath slowly or timorous-
ly, but with a degree of boldness.
A contrary method would be dan-
gerous ; as it might propel the
blood from the lower to the upper
parts of the body, and thus occa-
sion a fit of apoplexy. For these
reasons, the shower bath is attend-
ed with considerable advantages,
because it transmits the Avater
cmickly over the whole body ; and,
consequently, is more consistent
with the rules before-mentioned.
5. The morning is the most
proper time for using the cold
bath, unless it be in a river; in
which case the afternoon, or from
one to two hours before sun-set, will
be more eligible ; as the water has
then acquired additional warmth
from the rays of the sun, and the
immersion will not interfere with
digestion : on the whole, one hour
after a light breakfast....or twt
BAT
hours before, or four hours after
dinner, are the best periods of the
day, for this purpose.
6. While the bather is in the
water, he should not remain inac-
tive, but apply brisk general fric-
tion, and move his arms and legs,
to promote the circulation of the
fluids from the heart to the extre-
mities. It would, therefore, be
extremely imprudent to continue
in the water till a second chilness
attacks the body ; a circumstance
which would not only defeat the
whole purpose intended, but might
at the same time be productive of
the most injurious effects.
Immediately after the person
leaves the bath, it will be neces-
sary for him, with the assistance of
another person for dispatch, to
wipe and dry his body with a coarse
and clean cloth. He should not
afterwards sit inactive, or enter a
carriage, unless warmly clothed
and wearing flannel next the
skin : if season and circumstances
permit, it will be more proper, and
highly beneficial, to take gentle
exercise till the equilibrium of the
circulation be restored, and the
vessels, as well as the muscles,
have acquired a due degree of re-
action.
The best place for cold bathing
is in the invigorating water of the
sea, or a clear river ; and where
neither of these can be convenient-
ly resorted to, we recommend the
Shower Bath ; an apparatus
which may be procured from the
tin-man. Its effects are doubtless
more powerful than those of the
common bath : and though the
latter covers the surface of the body
more uniformly, yet this circum-
stance by no means detracts from
the excellence of the former ; be-
cause those intermediate parts,
vol. I.
BAT 201
which the water has not touched,
receive an electric and sympathetic
impression, in a degree similar to
those brought into actual contact.
As every drop of water from the
shower bath operates as a partial
cold bath, its vivifying shock to
robust individuals, is more exten-
sive, and beneficial, than from any
other method of bathing.
Hence this bath is possessed of
the following important advan-
tages ; 1. The sudden contact of
the water may be repeated, pro-
longed, and modified, at pleasure ;
2. The head and breast are toler-
ably secure, as it descends tOAvards
the lower extremities : thus, the
circulation is not impeded, breath-
ing is less affected, and a determi-
nation of blood to the head and
breast is effectually obviated ; 3.
As the water descends in single
drops, it is more stimulating and
pleasant, than the usual immersion;
and can be more readily procured
and adapted to circumstances;
lastly, 4. The degree of pressure
from the Aveight of water, is here
likeAvise in a great measure pre-
vented ; nor is the circulation of
the fluids interrupted so as to ren-
der the use of this bath in any de-
gree dangerous ; a circumstance of
the highest importance ; because
by the ordinary immersion, persons
are often exposed to injuries which
they least apprehend.
[Cold bathing produces the best
effects when used early in the
morning ; and, when after wiping
the body dry, moderate exercise is
afterwards taken. The evening is
certainly not the best time to use
the cold bath in the city ; several
cases having occurred within the
Editor's observation, of violent
fevers in persons who tried this ex-
periment in the month of August
202 BAT
BAT
and September. Bathing in salt
.water every morning is said to pre-
serve strangers from the dangerous
seasoning feversof the West Indies;
but in this case temperance must
also be joined, anel is probably more
certain in its effects than any other
remedy. The cold bath is highly
useful to preserve chilelren from
the bowel complaints which prevail
in the summer throughout the
United States.]
* *
*
As the erection of public baths
has, from the remotest ages, been
considered an object worthy of na-
tional attention, and private solici-
tude, we have selected a modern
specimen of such a structure as,
in our opinion, will be admired, and
perhaps adopted in this country,
where public spirit, and a cordial
support of every useful invention,
are equally conspicuous. We al-
lude to the Floating Baths at
Hamburgh, an establishment
which owes its origin to the en-
lightened members of the " Socie-
ty for the Encouragement of Arts
and Useful Trades," founded in
that city, in the year 1765.
These baths Avere projected by
Dr. Moldenhawer, physician at
Hamburgh, and erected by public
subscription, on a small lake of
fresh water, called the Alster. M.
Arens, an eminent architect of
the same city, delineated the plan
of the building, which Ave are
informed, is an improvement on
similar baths established in the
principal towns of the French re-
public.
Although we have not had an
opportunity of comparing the in-
ternal construction of the Ham-
burgh baths, with those floating on
the river Thames, near West-
minster-bridge ; yet we have rea-
son to believe that they are essen-
tially different from any other ex-
isting in this country. Induced by
this consideration, and convinced
of the intrinsic aelvantages which
the former possess, independent of
their beautiful external appearante,
we have caused accurate represen-
tations to be copied from the ori-
ginal plates transmitted to us from
Hamburgh, with this difference
only, that ours are upon a reduced
scale.
EXPLANATION
Of the Plates representing the
Floating Baths erected in ihe City
of Hamburgh.
plate i.
A.....Elevation of the longitudi-
nal Front of the Floating Bath,
with its ornamental entrance; of
the surrounding gallery, and the
tents expanded over the bathing
machines, and covered with sail-
cloth, which have been four times
varnished. The wooden roof is
also covered with strong sail-cloth,
which had been repeatedly coated
with tar. The Avhole vessel is 80
feet in length, and 40 in breadth.
B.....Elevation of the transverse
side of the floating Bath, with its
glass doors and windows, through
the former of which, the corridor,
and through the latter, the cabins
on each side receive their light.
C......Section of the building :
namely, a, b, of the Bathing Ma-
chines ; and c, c, of the chambers
for undressing and dressing. On
each longitudinal side of the ves-
sel, there are (as appears on in-
specting Plate II.) six of these
P/ ■ > ? ' ■ /• / F /
F/<■/'//f//>/I /'/ f/tt' f/'//t///'/tf/ H/tf > F/'P/ti
' Jhizlius/t,
f /p/r//ff-/? f'f /Pp .Prr+ltnY'-iP Pf
pecies has been established by ex-
perience. Working-bees compose
the most numerous body of the
state. They have the care of the
hive ; collect the wax and honey ;
fabricate the Avax into combs ; feed
the young ; keep the hive clean ;
exp.d all strangers ; and employ
themselves in promoting general
prosperity. The Avorking-bee has
two stomachs; one to contain the
honey, and another for the crude
Avax.
II. Of the management of bees,
and the most approved methods of
preserving them, on removing their
honey and wax.
BEE
According to Columella, an
Apiary should face the south, in a
situation neither too hot nor too
cold. It should stand in a valley,
that the bees may Avith greater
ease descend, on their return to the
hive ; and near the mansion-house,
and situated at a distance from
noise and offensive smells ; and in
the vicinity of a brook or river.
Where the bees cannot have the
benefit of running Avater, they
ought to be supplied Avith it in a
trough provided Avith small stones,
on Avhich they may stand Avhile
they drink. They cannot produce
either combs, honey, or food for
their maggots, without Avater ; but
the neighbourhood of rivers or ca-
nals Avith high banks, ought to be
avoided, lestthebees should be pre-
cipitateel into the Avater by high
Avinds, and consequently perish.
The garden in Avhich the apiary
stands, should be supplied Avith
melliferous plants and branchy
shrubs, that the SAvarms Avhich set-
tle on them may be the more easily
hived.
Particular attention should be
paid to the circumstance, that the
bees be hived in a neighbourhood
productive of such plants as supply
them with food ; such as thyme,
the oak, the pine, fruit-trees, furze,
broom, mustard, clover, heath, &c.
Pliny recommends broom, as a
plant particularly grateful and pro-
fitable to bees.
BEE-HIVES made of straw,have
been generally preferred, as they
are not liable to be over-heated by
the rays of the sun, keep out the
cold better than Avood, and are
cheaper than those of any other
material.
M. Chabouille, in France,
has lately suggested improvements
upon bee-hives, which appear to
BEE
BEE 227
us deserving of notice. His princi-
pal object is to procure the greatest
degree of cleanliness for these de-
licate and industrious insects, by
covering the bottom of the hive
with plaster of Paris, and con-
structing the cylindrical inclosure
of rye-straw, and cross ligaments,
or bands, made of the inner rind
of the lime-tree. When the basket-
work is completed, he coats it
over with a cement made of two-
thirds of cow-dung, and one-third
of ashes. In the interior part of
the hive, he places tyvo thin pieces
of oak, crossing each other at
right angles, which greatly facili-
tate the deposition of the honey-
combs. The cover of the hive
consists of a firm board, seventeen
inches in diameter, and the en-
trance is so constructed, that it
may be closed by a small door, to
exclude injurious animals during
winter. The lower part of this
door has small semi-lunar inci-
sions each of which admits two
bees abreast: above these, are
made two rows of holes, just large
enough for one bee to pass. The
floor should be so constructed,
that it may encompass and secure
the foundation of the hive, to pre-
vent any disturbance from that
quarter. Such a smooth and white
floor of gypsum, greatly contri-
butes to cleanliness, and the bees
become so much attached to it,
that they will not easily relinquish
their habitation. The straAv-wall
ought to be one-inch, and the ce-
ment before described, half an
inch in thickness ; the latter is the
best coating yet contrived, for ex-
cluding noxious insects which
would perforate the straw, and for
sheltering the bees from Tain and
wind, while it exhales an odour
very grateful to them. M. Cha-
bouille has also observed, that
bees kept in a hive of this descrip-
tion, are sufficiently protected
against the effect of cold during
winter; and that they sAvarm
much earlier than those reared in
any other.
HoAvever ingenious this contri-
vance may appear, Ave regret that
the inventor has not stated the
particular dimensions of the bee-
hive, nor attended to many other
circumstances relative to the cul-
ture of the insect itself. Hence
we are induced to communicate a
later, more accurate and circum-
stantial description of a bee-hive,
invented in Italy by Professor
Gaetano Ha>asti, Avhich has
froved of practical utility. This
a«xo":'t is transited from the
Trav■■cctions of the Patriotic So-
ciety of Milan, and as it contains
much useful information on the
subject, Ave have endeavoured to
render it of practical service, by
accompanying it with the appro-
priate cuts of the different figures
described.
It is Avell known that bees, Avhen
properly cultivated, produce con-
siderable profit, and in order to ob-
tain the greatest possible advan-
tage, it is necessary to supply them
with every convenience for the
support of themselves and their
young. We should also contrive
means to take the Avax and honey
with the smallest possible loss. In
short, Avhen the apiary is placed in
a good situation, (either south or
south-west), that is, in a country
abounding with flowers, at a dist-
ance from brew-houses, smelting
works, he. the next and most im-
portant point, is the choice of well
constructed hives.
In Lombardy, the common hive,
composed of straw, or twigs, is ge-
228 BEE
BEE
nerally used, though ill-contrived ;
as it is difficult to take away the
wax and honey without destroying
the bees.
Reflecting on these circum-
stances, M. Harasti, during his
cultivation of bees, conceived that
it would be possible to form a hive
which should have all the advan-
tages of the best kind, while the
simplicity and cheapness of its con-
struction, might bring it into use
among husbandmen.
A good bee-hive ought to possess
the following properties : First, it
should be capable of enlargement
or contraction, according to the
number of the swarm. Secondly,
it should admit of being opened
without disturbing the bees, either
for the purpose of cleaning it;. of
freeing it from insects ; of increas-
ing or dividing the swarm ; or for
the admission of a stock of provi-
sions for the Avinter. Thirdly, it
should be so constructed, that the
produce may be removed without
injury to the bees. Fourthly, it
should be internally clean, smooth,
and free from flaws. All these
properties unite in the hive here
described.
It is formed of four open square
boxes, A, B, C, D, as represented
by the following cut:
These boxes are fastened to each
other by several wooden buttons,
b, b, 8cc. Avhich turn upon a nail or
screw. The Avhole is covered Avith
a moveable roof, which projects
over the boxes slanting from the
centre a, that the rain-water may
run off. It is necessary to place a
stone on the top of the roof, to
keep it on firm.
Instead of buttons, the boxes
may be combined by a rabbet fast-
ened with wooden pegs ; but in
either case, the conjoined parts
should be closed with cement. If
the swarm is not very numerous,
three, or even two, boxes will be
sufficient. Each of them should
be about three inches, or three
inches and a half in height, and
about six inches in the clear with-
in. They should be made of wood,
at least three quarters of an inch
thick, that the bees, wax, &c. may
be less affected by changes in the
temperature of the atmosphere.
Within the boxes, at the upper
part, there should be fixed two
BEE
BEE 229
bars, in the form of a cross, with
the extremities extending to the
angles of the box, as is represented
in the following figure :
To these bars the bees attach
their combs. At the lower part of
each box, in front, there must be
an aperture or door, as at c, c, c, d,
as high as is necessfry for the bees
to pass conveniently, and abbut an
inch and a half wide ; of these
apertures, only the lowest (marked
d), is to be left open for the passage
of the bees ; the others are to be
closed by means of a piece of wood,
properly fitted to them.
It must be evident, that this bee-
hive has all the advantages before
mentioned. To lessen or enlarge
it, only requires a diminution or
increase of a number of the boxes;
and a communication Avith the in-
ternal part can easily be effected by
the removal of the cover.
The cheapness and facility of the
construction of this hive is evident,
as nothing is requisite but to join
four boards Avith nails, or in any
other manner, so simple that it
may be done by a day-labourer.
When the hives are made, they
should be placed in a good situa-
tion : the best is [south-Avest;] but
they must not be too much expos-
ed to the heat of noon, Avhich may
be mitigated, by placing the
branchesof trees to shade the hives,
as violent heat is injurious,not only
to the bees, but to the wax and
honey. The country around the
apiary should be of a sandy soil,
abounding Avith plants and shrubs.
As bees love cleanliness and quiet,
the circumjacent space should be
kept clean, and free from offensive
smells and noise : smoke is parti-
cularly disagreeable to them. The
boards or table on which the hives
are placed, should be dry, clean,
and sound ; and the hives ought
to be sufficiently raised to prevent
their exposure to dampness and
insects; they should also be kept
at a distance from a wall, to avoid
the reflected heat of the sun. In
the table on Avhich the hives are to
stand, there should be an aperture,
under each, about two inches
square, as it is represented at e, in
the following cut:
This aperture should be covered
Avith a piece of tin, drilled full of
small holes, so as to afford a free
passage to the air, and at the same
time prevent the ingress of insects.
That this may not occasion any in-
convenience to the bees in cold and
damp Aveather, there must be a
sliding piece of wood,,/", under the
tin, by which the hole may be com-
pletely covered.
When it is intended to introduce
a swarm of bees into a neAv hive, it
must be thoroughly cleaned, and
the inside rubbed with virgin Avax.
It is advantageous to place a piece
of clean honey-comb, about nine
inches long, in the hive, and care
230 BEE
BEE
should also be taken to choose that
which is made of very white Avax.
This piece being supported by
a stick passed through it, offers
to the bees a kind of nest, and
excites them to continue their
Avork.
The new hive being thus pre-
pared, the manner of introducing
the bees into it, from an old hive,
is as follows: the latter must be
placed upon one of the boxes of
the neAv one ; but as it will seldom
happen that they are of the same
size, anel exactly fit each other, a
board, at least as wide as the
largest of the two hives, and Avhich
has a hole equal in size to the
smallest, must be placed between
them, and completely joined with
cement, or by any other means
in such a manner as to be quite
close, and to leave the bees no pas-
sage except into the new hive. As
these insects generally work doAvn-
ivards, they Avill soon get into the
new hive'; and, when it is occupi-
ed by about one-half of the swarm,
some holes must be made in the
top of the old hive, and kept cover-
ed, till the proper time for making
use of them.
Every thing being disposed as
aboAre directed, we must take the
opportunity of a fine morning (but
not a Arery hot one), about eight or
nine o'clock, at Avhich time most
of the bees are generally out of the
hive, gathering their harvest. The
comb is to be cut through, by
means of a piece of iron wire, and
the old hive, with the board on
Avhich it stands, is to be separated
from the neAv one. An assistant
must immediately place the cover
(already avcII fitted) upon the top
of the neAv hive. The old hive is
then to be taken away, to the dis-
tance of thirty or forty paces, and
to be there placed upon two chairs,
or other supports, in such a man-
ner as to be quite firm; but leav-
ing a free space, both above and
beloAv, forthe folloAving purpose.
Upon this old hive (the holes at
the top of it being first opened) is
to be placed one of the boxes of the
new hive, having, the cover loose-
ly fastened on it, so that it can
easily be removed ; this box must
be fixed upon the old hive, in such
a manner (by closing the intervals
between them with linen cloths,
&c.) that the bees, upon going out
by the holes in the top of the old
hive, can only go into the new
one. In order to drive them into
it, some live*coals must be placed
under the old hive, upon which a
few linen rags may be thrown, to
produce a great volume of smoke.
As the smoke rises, the bees, be-
ing incommoded by it, will ascend
to the the top of the old hive, and
at length will go through the holes
into the new one. When all the
bees, or nearly all, are gone into it
(which may be known by looking
in at the little door, or by their
noise), it is to be removed gently
from the old hive, and placed under
the box already alluded to, the top
or cover being previously taken
off. The next morning, if it should
appear that the two boxes, of
which the new hive is now com-
posed, do not afford sufficient space
for the bees, a third box may be
added, under the others ; and after
that a fourth, if necessary, as their
work goes on, changing them from
time to time, so long as the.season
permits the bees to gather wax and
honey.
In performing the operations
here described, it -will be neces-
sary to defend the hands and face
from the stings of the bees. The
BEE
BEE 231
best way of doing this, is to cover
the whole of the head, neck, Sec.
(over a hat) with coarse cloth, or
canvass, Avhich may be brought as
low as the Avaistcoat, and fastened
to it: through this cloth we may
see the operations of the bees,
without fearing their stings. The
hands may be protected by means
of gloves, of which the best are
those made of wool.
When we mean to bring a new
swarm into a hive, that prepar-
ed as above, anel formed of two,
three, or four boxes, according to
the size of the swarm, must be
brought near the place where the
swarm is. The upper box, with
the cover fastened on (but so that
it may easily be removed), must be
taken from the others. The cross
bars, before described, should be
smeared with honey, diluted with
a little water ; the small door must
be shut, and the box must be
turned upside down, and brought
under the swarm, which is then to
be introduced, in the same way,
and Avith similar precaution as into
a common hive. When the whole
swarm is in the box, it is to be
•carried to the other boxes (previ-
ously placed in their destineel situ-
ation), and, turning it very care-
fully, is to be put upon them. The
buttons are then to be turned, the
interstices closed with the cemuit
already described, and all the little
doors closed, except the loAvest,
through which the bees are to
pass. Nothing is more disagree-
able to a fresh swarm than a hot
sun, for which reason, that the
bees may not wish to leave their
new habitation, it will be right to
shade the hive for some days.
But it is more advantageous to
form artificial SAvarms, than to
collect those which abandon their
native hives, and the hiA'e here de-
scribed is very convenient for that
purpose. The following method,
M. Harasti conceives to be more
simple, and more secure than any
other hitherto proposed.
Take a well-stocked hive, of
four boxes, in some of these, par-
ticularly in the two lowermost, if
they are well filled, there is cer-
tainly a young brood ; for in these
lower boxes the young bees are
accustomed to change from the
chrysalis to the perfect state, about
the end of April, or beginning of
May, if the hive be vtry full; but
if otherwise, this change does not
take place till towards the end of
May, or even the middle of June.
At that time, a fine serene day,
but not excessively hot, must be
chosen, and about eight or nine
o'clock, the hive must be divided
into two, in the folloAving manner:
Between the two upper boxes and
the two lower ones, force in a few
slips of wood, so as to separate the
boxes sufficiently for .the comb to
be cut through with a piece of iron
or brass wire. To prevent the
bees from coming out through this
opening, and thereby annoying the
person employed in the operation,
the smoke of tobacco may be
blown (by introducing the small
end of a pipe) into the opening;
this will cause the bees to resort
to the inner part of the hive, and
Avill keep them quiet. Or, instead
of the pipe, a small pair of bel-
lows
may be used, to the notel of which
232 BEE
BEE
is fitted a hollow cylinder of tin,
or other metal, furnished
with a little door i, and terminat-
ing at one end in a tube h, (into
Avhich the nozle of the bellows is
fitted) and at the other end, in a
smaller tube, k, through which the
smoke is to pass. Into the body of
the box, through the door i, is to
be put a lighted rag, the smoke of
which may be blown, by means of
the bellows, into the hive. But,
if the hands and face are well co-
vered, these precautions are unne-
cessary. An empty box must be
in readiness, in the place Avhere
the hive is to stand : a cover must
also be procured ; and, as soon as
the hive is divided in two parts,
the two upper boxes must be
taken from the lower ones, and
the cover must be immediately put
upon the latter, closing all the in-
terstices Avith the usual cement.
The upper boxes are to be placed
upon the empty one just mention-
ed, so that a hive Avill there be
formed of three boxes. The loAver
boxes, on which the fresh cover
was put, must be left at rest till
the evening, at which time a
third may be placed under them ;
and Avhen it appears that a proper
quantity of Avork has been done in
the lower box (of either hive,) a
fourth box may be added, under
the others.
In the above manner, artificial
swarms may be formed; and, by
this method, we not only avoid the
inconveniences which- attend the
procuring of swarms in the com-
mon Avay, but we obtain the ad-
vantage of having the hives always
well stocked. This ought to be
the first object of every one who
cultivates bees ; for it is allowed to
be of more advantage to keep the
hives well stocked, than to increase
their number; and, in fact, it has
been observed, that if a hive of
4000 bees gives six pounds of ho-
ney, one of 8000 will give twenty-
four pounds.
Upon this principle, it is proper
to unite two or more hives* when
they happen to be thinly stocked.
This may easily be done, by taking
a few handsful of balm, and scat-
tering it in those hives which are
intended to be united. By this
means, the bees will all acquire
the same smell; and, it has been
observed, that by the sense of
smelling, bees distinguish those
which belong to the same hive.
After the above preparations, the
hives are to be joined, by placing
them one upon the other, in the
evening, when they are at rest,
taking away those boxes Avhich
contain few or no bees. Care
must be taken to shut all the
little doors, except the lowest.
It may even be proper some-
times to shut the lower door abo,
Avhen, for instance, any tumult
within the hive, causes the bees to
endeavour to quit it. In such case,
that the bees may not be deprived
of air, a piece of tin, perforated
with numerous holes, may be used
to close the opening, instead of
the usual door, and may be taken
away when the bees become quiet.
The following is the method of
taking the Avax and honey, with
little or no injury to the bees ; but
it should be previously remarked,
that the honey is chiefly at the top
BEE
BEE 2-33
of the hive, the young brood in the
middles and the greatest stock of
Avax is at the bottom. For this
reason, when three of the four
boxes are filled Avith comb, Sec.
the upper one A is to be first taken
off, in the manner here described.
The buttons b, b, he. which serve
to unite the boxes, are to be turned,
or the wooden pegs (if such are
used) taken out; the cement em-
ployed for closing the intervals is
to be scraped off; and then a piece
of iron wire is to be drawn through
the comb so as to divide it. When
the box A, is separated, its cover is
to be taken off and put upon the
box B, now become the highest.
After taking out the contents of
the box A, it is to be cleaned, and
again placed upon the stanel or
table, under the box D, taking care
to open its little door, and to shut
that of the box D. To prevent any
bees remaining in the upper box,
when taken away, a little smoke
may be introduced by means of
the bellows already described.
The more empty space the bees
find in the hive, the more eagerly
I hey go to work. The brood of
the box B, which remained at top,
do not long delay to swarm, or at
least they pass from the state of
chrysalis into that of the perfect
and laborious animal; therefore,
when it is perceived that the loAver
pan of the hive is occupied, the
box B, may be taken off, in the
manner already described, and
after being emptied, may be placed
under A.
In the same way the third box
C, in Avhijch there is generally a
good stock of wax, may afterwards
be taken off ; but this is a matter of
greater consequence, because in
general the eggs are deposited in it.
VOL. I.
We must also take care not to de-
prive the bees entirely of the stock
of Avax anel honey which they have
collected for the Avinter.
A hive made in the manner here
pointed out, appears to me to be such
as would be most useful to hus-
bandmen in general, who wish to
cultivate bees; but a hive may
be made upon the same princi-
ples, which will shew the work of
the bees, through its whole pro-
gress, and thereby enable any one
to study the natural history of these
wonderful insects.
A hive of this kind is composed
of three or four boxes, Avith a
cover, like the hive already de-
scribed ; it may also be of the same
form and size. But in every box,
on that side which is opposite the
little door, there must be fixed a
pane of glass, with a sliding shut-
ter over it, so that by drawing back
these sliders, the inside of the hive
will be exposed to view. To see
the bees at Avork, however it is ne-
cessary that the comb should be
disposed in a regular manner,
and perpendicular to the pane of
glass. This may be obtained, by
placing in the boxes, instead of the
two cross-sticks already described,
in p. 229, five parrallel sticks or
bars, as represented in the follow-
ing figure :
The bees will attach their combs
these bars, and the intermediate
H H
234 BEE BEE
space will afford sufficient light
for seeing them Avork. If more
light is desired, it may be obtained
by opening the little doors opposite
the glass; which doors may be
made considerably higher than is
above directed, and may have a
slider over them, by which their
aperture may be diminished at
pleasure.
The sliders which cover the
panes of glass, ought never to be
opened, except for the purpose of
observing the bees; because a
strong light lessens their dispose
tion to Avork. If it should be per-
ceived that the coldness of the
glass is prejudicial to the bees in
winter, it may then be covered
with a cotton cloth ; or it may be
entirely taken away, and a piecs
of paste-board put in its. place;
for at that time, the operations of
the bees are suspended.
Instead of making a little door
to each box, to be left open Avhen
the box is lowermost, for the pas-
sage of the bees, perhaps it might
be better (because more simple) to
cut a groove in the board or table
on which the hive is placed. This
groove should be about two inches
wide, and about three fourths of
an inch high at the outer edge,
and should be gradually diminished,
both in width and height, towards
the part where it meets the hive,
as is represented at b, in the fol-
lowing figure:
Two advantages are derived
from this construction. First, the
little door in the box, and the con-
trivance for opening and shutting
it, will be unnecessary. Secondly,
it is sometimes proper to diminish
or enlarge the opening for the pas-
sage of the bees, according to cir-
cumstances, without shutting it
entirely, and this may be done
with the greatest ease, by moving
the hive nearer to, or farther from,
the edge of the table; or this pas-
sage may be entirely closed, by
moving the front of the hive be-
yond the groove ; but in that case
some small holes must be made in
the hive to let in air, which may
be stopped up when that formed
by the groove is open.
A farther advantage attending
this construction is, that as the
BEE
BEE 235
groove will have a slanting direc-
tion, the bees will thereby be en-
abled, with very little trouble, to
remove from the hive any dead
bees, excrement, &c. which may
be obnoxious to their nature.
Another very curious and use-
ful bee-hive, is that originally con-
trived by Mr. Thorley, of Lon-
don ; Avhich, from near sixty years
experience, has proved of superior
utility to any other....it is con-
structed as follows : the loAver part
is an octangular box, made of deal
boards, about an inch in thickness,
the cover of which is externally
seventeen inches in diameter, but
internally only 15^, and its height
ten inches. In the middle of this
cover is a hole, which may be
opened or shut at pleasure, by
means of a slider. In one of the
pannels is a pane of glass covered
with a wooden door. The bee-
hole at the bottom of the box is
about 3-J inches broad, and half
an inch high. Two slips of deal,
about half an inch square, cross
each other in the centre of the box,
and are fastened to the pannels by
means of small screAvs. To these
slips the bees fasten their combs...
In this octangular box the bees,
after swarming in the usual man-
ner, are hived, and suffered to
continue there, till they have built
their combs, and filled them with
honey; which may be known by
opening the door, and viewing their
Avorks through the glass pane, or
by the weight of the hive. When
they have filled their habitation, a
common bee-hive of straw, made
either flat at the top, or in the
common form, must be placed on
the octangular box, and the slider
drawn out; thus a communication
will be opened between the box
and the straw-hive, so that these
industrious insects will fill this
hive also wit>. the product of their
labours. When the straw-hive is
sufficiently filled, the slider may
be pushed in, and after placing
another in its room, again speedily
remoAred.
Mr. Thorley has added another
part to his bee-hive, which consists
of a glass receiver, 18 inches in
height, 8 inches in diameter at the
bottom, and in the greatest part 13.
This receiver has a hole at the top,
about an inch in diameter, through
which a square piece of deal is ex-
tended to nearly the bottom of the
vessel, having two cross bars to
which the bees fasten their combs.
Into the other end of this square
piece is screwed a piece of brass,
which serves for a handle to the re-
ceiver, or glass-hive. When the
bees have filled their straw-hive
(Avhich must have a hole in the
centre, covered Avith a piece of tin)
Mr. T. places the glass receiver
upon the top of the straw-hive,
and draws out the piece of tin......
The bees now, finding their habita-
tion enlarged, pursue their labours
with such alacrity, that they like-
wise fill this glass hive with their
stores.
TheEgyptian bee-hives are made
of coal-dust and clay, which being
well blended together, the mixture
is formed into a holIoAv cylinder,
about a span in diameter, and from
six to twelve feet high : this is dried
in the sun, and becomes so hard that
it may be handled at pleasure.
Another, of a very simple and
ingenious construction, has been in-
vented by M. De Gelieu. It may
be made either of straw or wood :
but, as its internal dimcntions must
236 BEE
BEE
be the same throughout its Avhole
length, it is necessary that its form
should be either cylindrical or pris-
matic. Its principal advantage is,
that its bases are movtable, and may-
be fixed by pins at any distance from
each other; by which means its size
may be increased or diminished
according to circumstances. It must
lie on its side, and, in the foremost
base, there must be a passage left
for the bees. Hence, by drawing
out the posterior base, the honey
may be taken from the back part of
the hive, without hurting the bees;
and when this is clone, the base
should be pushed in close to the re-
maining comb, that an intermediate
space may remain. By turning
the hive, and making the entrance
in that part, which had before been
the posterior base, the bees Avill
build new cells, in the room of
those taken away ; consequently
the honey will be whiter, and more
pure.
Whoever intends to erect an api-
ary, should purchase hives towarels
the close of the year, when they are
cheapest; and such only as are full
of ccfcibs, and stocked with a suf-
ficient number of bees. In order
to ascertain the age of the hives, it
'should be remarked, that the combs
of the last year are white, while
those of the former year acquire a
darkish yellow. Where the combs
are black, the hive should be re-
jected as too old, and liable to the
inroads of vermin.
Bees never swarm till the hive is
too much crowded by the young
brood. They sometimes begin to
swarm in May, or earlier, accord-
ing to the warmth of the season.
As soon as a swarm is settled, the
bees should be immediately hived,
to prevent their taking wing again;
If they settle on a low branch of a
tree, it may be cut off andlaid on
a cloth, the hive being ready for
their reception ; but if it be eliffi-
cult to reach them, it will be ad-
visable to let them remain where
they have settled till the evening,
when there will be less danger of
their escaping.
When the swarm is hived, they
should be immediately removed to
the apiary, but the hive should be
kept near the place at which the
bees settled, till the evening, lest
some stragglers might be lost.
The usual method of uniting
swarms, is by spreading a cloth at
night upon the ground close to the
hive in Avhich the two swarms are
to be placed. Lay a stick across
the cloth, on Avhich place the hive
with the new swarm: on giving a
smart stroke on the top of the hive,
all the bees will drop in a cluster
upon the cloth. Then take another
hive from the stool, and place it
over the bees, when they will as-
cend into it, and mix Avith those al-
ready there. Another method is,
to invert the hive in which the unit-
ed swarms are to live, and strike the
bees of the other hives into it, in the
manner before described.
A large swarm weighs eight
pounds, and others gradually less,
to one pound. Hence a good swarm
should weigh five or six pounds.
Such as are less than four pounds
weight, should be strengthened by
a small aelditional SAvarm. The size
of the hive ought to be proportion-
ate to the number of the bees, and
it should be rather too small than
too large, as these insects require
to be kept Avarmer than a large hive
will admit.
Great improvements may be made
in providing plenty of pasture for
BEE
bees ; and as a rich com country
is unfavourable to their industry,
the practice of other nations, in
shifting the abode of their bees, is
deserving of imitation.
M. Maillet, in his description
of Egypt, informs us, that the na-
tives of that fertile countiy annu-
ally send their bees into distant re-
gions to procure sustenance for
them, when they cannot find any
at home. About the end of Octo-
ber, the inhabitants of Lower Egypt
embark their bees on the Nile, and
convey them to Upper Egypt, when
the inundation is withdrawn, the
lands are sown, and the flowers are
beginning to bud. These insects are
thus cone'ucted through the Avhole
extent of Egypt, and, after having
ga' hered all the rich produce of the
banks of the Nile, are re-conducted
home about the beginning of Fe-
bruary.
In France, floating bee-hives are
very common. One barge con-
tains from sixty to a hundred hives,
which are well defeneled from the
inclemency of the Aveather. Thus
the owners float them gently down
the stream, while they gather their
honey from the flowers along its
banks; a single bee-house yields
the proprietor a considerable in-
come.
Their method of transporting
bees by land, is also worthy of our
attention. The hives are fastened
to each other by laths, placed on
thin pack-cloth, which is drawn up
on each side, anel then tied by a
piece of rack-thread several times
round their tops. In this state they
are laid in a cart, which generally
contains from thirty to fifty hives,
and conveyed to places where the
bees can collect honey and wax.
During the winter, bees are in
so lethargic a state, that a little
BEE 23T
food is sufficient for their susten-
ance : but as every sunny day re-
vives, and prompts them to exer-
cise, food is necessary on these oc-
casions. Some hives of bees which
are supposed to have died of cold,
have in reality perished by famine,
especially when a rainy summAr
prevented them from collecting a
sufficient store of provision. Hence
the hives should be carefully ex-
amined in autumn, and ought then
to weigh at least eighteen pounds
each.
With respect to the feeding of
bees, the common practice is, to
leave them as much honeyin autumn
as Avill make the hive weigh twen-
ty pounds. The honey should be
diluted with water, and put into an
empty comb, split reeds, or upon
clean wool, which the bees will suck
perfectly dry. By the dilution with
water, however, the honey is apt
to become candied, in which state
it is prejudicial to the bees. A
better method is, to replenish the
weak hives in September, with such
a portion of combs filled with honey-
taken from other hives, as may be
deemed a sufficient supply. This
is done by turning up the Aveak
hive, cutting out the empty combs,
and placing full ones in their stead,
secured by pieces of wood, that
they may not fall down when the
hive is replaced. If this method
be considered too troublesome, a
plate of honey, unmixed Avith wa-
ter, may be placed under the hive,
and straws laid across the plate,
covered with paper perforated with
several small holes, through Avhich
the bees will suck the honey with-
out difficulty.
The degree of cold which bees
can endure, has not been ascertain-
ed. In the cold parts of Russia,
they are often found in hollow trees.
238
BEE
BEE
Their hives are frequently made
of bark, which does not afford them
much protection. Hence, Mr.
White observes, that bees Avhich
stand on the north side of a build-
ing, will not consume more than
ope-half of the honey necessary to
supply others which stand in the
sun. In Avinter, however, they
should be examined ; and if, in-
stead of being clustered between
the combs, they are found in num-
bers at the bottom of the hive, they
should be carried toawarmer place,
a\ here they will soon recover. In
winters extremely severe, lay on
the bottom of an old cask the
depth of half a foot of very dry
earth, powdered, and pressed down
hard. On this, place the stool with
the hive ; and, to preserve a com-
munication with the air, cut a hole
in the cask, opposite to the en-
trance of the hive, in which fix a
piece of reed, or hollow alder, and
thencover the Avhole with dry earth.
In Britain, it is usual, in taking
the honey, to deprive the bees of
their lives. The common method
is,to suffocate themAvith the smoke
of brimstone ; but Mr. Man ley
has adopted a more humane and
judicious plan : he says, " I never
destroy the old stock of bees ; but
after lifting them, to examine what
honey there is, if I think the hiATe
is full, I put another under it with
a flat top, having a square hole in
the centre. When the bees are in
the under hive, I place a shutter,
which is of wood, in the hole at
the top; and that prevents them
from going into the upper hive. I
then invert it in a bucket, and
strike it with a roel till I think they
are all out, after Avhich they go
into the under hive."
Mr. YvriLDMAN gives the folloAv-
ing instructions for taking the ho-
ney and wax, remove the hive
into a darkened room, that it may
appear to the bees as if it Avas late
in the evening ; then gently im'ert
the hive, and place it between the
frames of a chair, or any other
steady support, and cover it with
an empty hive raised a little towards
the window-, to give the bees suf-
ficient light to guide their ascent.
Hold the empty hive, steadily sup-
ported, on the edge of the full
hive, between the left side and arm,
and continue striking with the right
hand round the full hive, from the
bottom upwards, and the bees being
frightened by the noise, will ascend
into the other. Repeat the strokes,
rather ejuick than strong, round
the hive, till all the bees are gone
out of it, which will be in about five
minutes. As soon as a number of
the bees have got into the empty
hive, it should be raised a little
from the full one, that they may
not return, but continue to ascend.
When they are all out of the full
hive, that in which they are must
be placed on the stand, to receive
the absent bees as they return from
the fields.
The combs should be cut from
the sides and top as clean as possi-
ble, to save the future labour of the
bees. During this operation, the
hive should be placed, reclining to
the side from which the combs are
taken, and afterwards put for some
time upright, that the remaining
honey may run out.
HaAing finished the taking of
the wax and honey, the next bu-
siness is to return the bees to their
old hive, for which purpose Ave
must refer the reader to the di-
rections already given, when we
stated the usual method of uniting
swarms.
By inverting the hive which con-
tains the bees, .and placing their
oavti over it, they will immediately
BEE
BEE 239
ascend, especially if the lower hive
be struck on the sides to alarm
them.
With regard to the increase of
bees, Mr. Hubbard, of Bury St.
Edmunds, England, advises the
owner to wait with patience, until
he has acquired twenty stocks, and
in the month of April to separate
ten of the strongest hives for
swarming ; the other ten must be
raised on large empty hives, the
tops of which should be previously
taken off, and the joinings of the
two hives secured with a little clay,
which plan prevents the bees from
swarming. He also recommends
the prime svyarms from the other
stocks, to be put into three-peck
hives at least: for, when they ap-
.pear very early, they will probably
sAvarm again in a few weeks, Avhich
should always be prevented, and
all the after-swarms be united, two
or three into one ; for the great ad-
vantages arises from a large quan-
tity of bees being kept together ;
and, by that mode, ten stocks will
generally yield fifteen good ones.
[The following observations were
published by George Morgan,
Esq. formerly of Princeton, New
Jersey.
" Several writers on the manage-
ment of bees, have given very in-
genious directions for taking their
new made honey, without destroy-
ing those useful creatures. My
humanity, hurt at the idea of sett-
ing fire to the fatal match, induced
me to imitate their methods ; par-
ticularly those of Mr. Wildman,
and the Rev. Mr. White, whose
directions I observed very attentive-
ly, with some success ; but my ex-
pectations were not gratified, as I
found young broods in every hive I
took, and consequently the honey
•btained was impure.....However,
after a variety of experiments, I
discovered an agreeable, safe, and
easy way to take the honey, Avith-
out the least injury or disturbance
of the bees.
As I have experienced great
pleasure, and some benefit from
my discovery, I take this opportu-
nity to lay it before the Ag. Society.
My boxes are made, after the
manner of Mr. White's, of any
well-seasoned wood, ten inches
square in the clear ; in pairs, with
communications at the sides, for
the bees to pass freely from one
box to another : a pane of glass (7
by 9) with a sliding shutter, may
be put into the back part of each
box, through which you may see
the bees at work. Any person who
can handle a saw and hammer, may
make the boxes at a small ex-
pence.
The communications between
the boxes are at top and bottom ;
those at top should be three inches
long, and half an inch wide, to
serve as streets or alleys betwixt
the hives.
The communications at bottom
should be five or six inches long
and three fourths of ah inch deep,
so as to afford a free passage from
one hive to the other.
The mouth of the hive may be
from three to ten inches long, and
half an inch deep. In the busy
season, this wide entrance facili-
tates the bees going out and com-
ing in, and may be contracted at
pleasure in autumn.
Early the next morning after
hiving a swarm of bees in one of
these boxes, I add another to it,
the door of which I close until the
bees begin to work in it; when I
open it to facilitate their industry.
Each box, of the above dimen-
sions, w ill contain thirty pounds of
240 BEE
BEE
honey.....An early SAvarm, in a fa-
vourable situation and season, Avill
fill two boxes, and cast out several
swarms ; each of which will fill two
boxes with honey.
As Avinter approaches, all the
bees collect themselves into one
box, and will leave the other, with
its contents, to the use of the OAvner,
Avhose profit, in good seasons, will
be 901b. of honey, and several addi-
tional sAvarms, for every stock kept
over the preceding Avinter.... 15 or
20lb. of honey are sufficient to keep
a stock over our longest winters,
but I leave them 30lb.
Thus I accpiire the purest honey,
Avithout the use of the match, or
any trouble in dividing or disturb-
ing the bees; for on turning up the
hives (which have no glasses) I dis-
cover, immediately, that in Avhich
the bees are collected, and I carry
off the other, without a single bee
in it.
The losses and disappointments
I have met with in a great variety
of experiments, induce me to re-
commendthis management to eArery
lover of bees, as I have found it
easy, pleasant, and profitable."
It ought to be obseiwed, that all
honey is not wholesome. Bees in-
discriminately sip the floAvers of all
plants abounding with SAveets ; and
as some of these plants are of a poi-
sonous nature, it folloAvs that the
honey must partake e.f their inju-
rious cmalities. Dr. Barton has
Avritten a very excellent paper on
this subject. Amer. Phil. Trans.
vol. 5th. The plants affording this
poisonous honey are, kalmia angust-
ifoda, or dwarf laurel ; kalmia lati-
folia, or great laurel; kal. hirsuta,
a pretty little shrub of the southern
states ; andromeda mariana, or
broad-leaved moorwort.....As these
are very plentiful in many of the
American forests, their blossoms
afford much honey for the wild
bees.
Dr. B. thinks that it will be
found that other plants yield un-
wholesome honey; such are, 1.
Rhododendron maximum, or Penn-
sylvania mountain laurel; azalia
nudiflora, or wild honey suckle;
and datura stramonium, or James-
toAvn Aveed. The four first men-
tioned plants ought to be extirpat-
ed in the neighbourhood of bee-
hives ; and the honey procured
from the three enumerated in the
second place as suspicious, should
be carefully examined to determine
the fact with regard to them.]
The manner of treating bees in
Portugal, is as folloAvs : A spot of
ground is chosen for the hives, ex-
posed tOAvards the south or south-
east, Avell sheltered from the north-
ern blasts, and surrounded Avith
shrubs and flowers; of the latter,
rosemary is preferred. The richer
the neighbouring grounds are, the
better ; for bees are said to range
for food to the distance of a league
from their home. Lanes are cut
through the shrubby thickets, of
five or six feet Avide. The fences
between the lanes are about the
same dimensions, and formed at
intervals into small recesses, like
bowers or niches, to receive the
hives.
The Portuguese hives, in gene-
ral, are of a cylindrical form, and
about twenty-seven inches high by
fourteen in diameter. They are
constructed of the rind of the cork-
tree, and covered Avith an inverted
pan of earthen ware, the edge of
which projects over the hive like
a cornice. The whole is fastened
with pegs made of hard and dura-
ble wood, and the joints cemented
Avith peat. In the front of the cy-
BEE
linder, at the height of about eight
inches, there is a small aperture,
where the bees enter. The inside
is divided into three equal com-
partments, which are separated by
cross sticks, on which the bees
form their combs, or cells.
When they sAvarm, which is
usually in May or June, the hives
are placed to receive them, where
they settle. If, on attempting to
collect them, they fly aAvay, a
sheet is placed at night on the
ground, contiguous to the swarm ;
and when they alight, the hive is
put over them, with the entrance
closed ; then the Avhole is covered
with the sheet, in which they are
carried home. The honey-combs
are taken out in June, during the
heat of the day, but not if a high
wind prevail, or at the commence-
ment of a new or full moon. A
person holds a chaffing dish, Avith
a coal fire, covered with moist
peat, to increase the smoke; which
being introduced among the bees,
from the top of the cylinder, they
either escape, or remain intoxicat-
ed at the bottom : then the hive is
taken to pieces, by drawing out the
pins. The combs, except tAvo cells
around the hive, are cut out, with-
out destroying the bees, and the
incision is covered with pulverised
clay. It is not advisable to remove
them, until they be full of honey.
In this country, at former pe-
riods, many artificial methods have
been invented and practised, Avith
a view of stimulating the indus-
trious bee to still greaterexertions;
and thus to increase the production
of honey. Although wre are no
advocates for such schemes, nor do
Ave give credit to the marvellous
reports circulated to confirm their
success, yet Ave consider the recipe
given by the late Prof. Br alley,
vol. I.
BEE 241
in his Family Dictionary, sufficient-
ly curious, if not practically use-
ful, to communicate it to our read-
ers : Take a handful of SAveet yeast,
one drachm of camphor, half a
drachm of musk dissolved in rose-
water, a sufficient quantity of yel-
low bees-Avax, and oil of roses
(which last, however, being an
expensive article, may be safely
omitted); pound the first tAvo in-
gredients Avell together, and put
them into the melting wax; then
add the oil of roses, and make it
up into a mass, Avhich should be
cool, before the musk is incorpo-
rated Avith it. Of this composition,
place a piece of the size of a hazel-
nut at the side of a hive, and it
will be found, that it not only in-
creases the number of the bees,
but also enables them to improve
the honey, in the proportion of
three to one. Yet the learned editor
does not inform us, Avhether this
improvement is productive of a su-
perior quality, or larger quantity
of honey, or perhaps of both.
With respect to the Diseases of
Bees, we shall mention a few hints,
extracted from the above-mention-
ed work.
Bees are sometimes afflicted with
a diarrhoea, in consequence of feed-
ing greedily on the blossoms of the
milk-thistle, and elm. The best
cure is, pounded pomegranate seed
and honey, moistened with rich,
SAveet wine ; or raisins mixed Avith
similar Avine or mead, in which
rosemary has been boiled.....When
they are infested with vermin, the
hive must be cleansed, and per-
fumed with a branch of pomegra-
nate, or the wild fig-tree, Avhich
A>ill inevitably destroy them.
Butterflies are said to conceal
themselves in (he hives, and annoy
the bees: these intruders may easi-
I x
242 BEE
BEE
ly be exterminated, by placing
lighted candles in deep tin pots be-
tween the hiA-es ; as the flame will
attract them, and conduce to their
destruction.
In order to extirpate hornets
preying upon the honey, it is only
necessary to expose shallow vessels
near the hive, Avith a little Avater ;
to Avhich these predatory insects
will eagerly repair, to quench their
thirst, and thus easily drown them-
selves.
To prevent bees of one society
from attacking or destroying those
of another, Dr. Darwin recom-
mends a board, about an inch thick,
to be laid on the bee-bench, and
the hive to be set on this board,
with its mouth exactly on the edge;
the mouth of the hive should also
be contracted to about an inch in
length, and a semi-circular hollow
made in the board, immediately
under the mouth of the hive. By
this simple method, the assailing
bees will be constrained to act with
great disadvantage.
If, however, this should not suc-
ceed, Dr. Darwin advises a re-
. moval of the bee-hive to a distant
part of the garden, and to a more
easterly aspect ; as he has from
experience observed the good ef-
fects of such a change. This acute
philosopher farther observes, in his
admirable " Phytologia," when
treating of the glands and secre-
tions of vegetables, that the de-
predations of insects committed on
that nutritious fluid, honey, is pro-
bably injurious to the proelucts of
vegetation; and that some plants
are more exposed and accessible to
bees than others, which are either
better defended, or secrete a great-
er portion of honey than is neces-
sary for their own economy. Of
the latter description are, the catch-
fly, sun-dew, hellebore and aco-
nite : of the former, the Doctor
mentions the Polygonum melampy-
rum, or Buck-wheat, and the Ca-
calia suaveolcns, or Alpine Colts-
foot ; in both of which there also
appears to be a superabundant
quantity of honey secreted. The
floAvers of the two last-mentioned
plants are perpetually loaded with
bees and butterflies ; insomuch,
that at Kempton-land, in Germany,
Mr. Worlidgf. says, in his
" Mysteries of Husbandry," chap.
ix. 3, he saAV forty great bee-hives
filled with honey, to the amount of
seventy pounds each,in one fortnight,
by their being placed near a large
field of buck-wheat in flower : and
Dr. Darwin adds, that he well re-
members having seen an astonish-
ing number of bees on a field of
buck-wheat in Shropshire, as well
as on a plant of the Alpine Colts-
foot in his garden ; from which the
scent of honey could be perceived
at several feet distance from the
flower.
To conclude this interesting sub-
ject, we cannot omit the judicious
remarks of a veteran writer, Dr.
J. Anderson, whose numerous and
useful works, in every branch of
rural and domestic economy, are
of inestimable value to the British
farmer. In one of his practical
papers " On the Management of the
Dairy," communicated to the Bath
and West of England Society,he ob-
serves in a note, that bees, in this
variable climate, are a very preca-
rious stock, though extremely pro-
fitable where they thrive. During
the frecment mild days of winter,
and the warm mornings of spring,
which are suddenly succeeded by
a nipping frost, or sleety rain, these
creatures are roused from their
torpid state ; and, being unable to
BEE
BEE 243
obtain food abroad,they are obliged
to consume and exhausttheir stores,
and to perish from want. And asthe
warmth of the Aveather in spring
invites them to search in vain for
flowers affording them nourish-
ment, they are often chilled by
cold, before they are able to re-
turn to the hive. To prevent such
fatal accidents, Dr. Anderson is
of opinion, that no method Avould
be so effectual as that of placing
the hives in an ice-house, at the
approach of winter. Here they
may be kept till the spring has so
far advanced, that no danger is to
be apprehended from bad weather.
During the Avhole Avinter, they will
remain in a state of torpor, and
require no food. As soon as the
mild weather incites them to ap-
pear, they will commence their
labours with vigour. The intense
degree of cold which the bees sus-
tain, Avithout the least injury, in
Poland and Russia, Avhere even
quick-silver is sometimes frozen,
removes every doubt, or anxiety,
concerning the safety of bees in a
British ice-house.
BEFS-WAX, a solid concrete,
obtained from the honey-combs, af-
ter the sweet and liquid parts are
extracted, by heating anel pressing
them between iron plates. The
best sort should be hard, compact,
of a clear yellow colour, and an
agreeable odour, similar to that of
honey. Pure bees-wax, when new,
is tough, yet easily broken : by
long keeping, it becomes Harder
and more brittle, loses its fine
colour, and partly also iis frag-
rance.
The purposes to which bees-wax
is applied, are various: great
quantities of it are annually bleach-
ed, and converted into candles. On
account of its softening and healing
nature, it is much used in cerates,
plasters and ointments.
Artificial wax may be extracted
from many vegetable substances ;
especially from the flowers of the
lime-tree, by a chemical procees ;
but we doubt whether the ex-
pence attending this experiment
would, in this country, be equi-
valent to the advantages. It is,
however, certain, that wax is con-
tained in a much greater number
of vegetables than has hitherto
been supposed ; and it may easily
be extracted from the leaves of
most plants and trees, as is mani-
fest from their shining cover or
varnish, which generally consists
of waxy matter. This concrete
also forms an ingredient of seve-
ral resins ; and may be separated
from gummy, mucilaginous, and
saccharine matters, by simple wa-
ter : from saponaceous substances,
by water or spirit of Avine ; and
from resinous bodies, by means of
vitriolic scther.
Bee-Bread is a species of crude
wax, collected by the Avorking-bee
from the farina of flower-cups, con-
veyed to the hive in the hollows of
its hind-legs, and deposited in the
cells with the egg, to serve as food
for the young maggot.....This sub-
stance often varies in colour, ac-
cording to the different flowers
from which it is separated ; ard
though generally Avhite at firrt, it
is afterwards changed, by the im-
purities arising from the steam, Sec.
of the bees. In some hives, this
crude wax is said to amount to one
hundred Aveight in a season, if the
total consumption of the voracious
young maggots be calculated in
proportion to the incessant labour
of their supporters; though the
real wax in the whole hive may per-
haps not exceed two pounds weight.
244 BEE
Bee-Glue, formerly called Vir-
gin-Avax (Propolis), is another bal-
samic production of the bee, Avhich
deserves to be noticed : it is a kind
of natural mastich, of a reddish
colour, and very agreeable smell.
Small pieces of it are frequently
found in the holes and crevices of
the hives, where it is employed
by those little artists, as a cement
for excluding cold, rain, and noxi-
ous insects.
In the immense forests of Poland
and Russia, where bees select their
own habitations in the hollow trunks
of trees, the bee-glue is deposited
in much larger pieces, and of a su-
perior flavour, to what is obtained
in countries Avhere these insects
are reared by the aid of art. The
inhabitants of the former, gene-
rally used it as a vulnerary appli-
cation, to promote the healing of
fresh A-vounds. Dr. James, in his
*' Medicinal Dictionary," praises
the bee-glue as being gently heat-
ing, abstergent, and attracting : it
softens indurated parts, alleviates
pains, and induces cicatrices on
ulcers.
Stings of Bees are more vi-
rulent than even those of Avasps,
and sometimes attended with very
violent effects. As the sting is
barbed, it is always left in the
Avound. When, therefore, a per-
son is stung by a bee, the sting
should be instantly extracted ; for,
by its peculiar form, it will pene-
trate progressively deeper into the
wound, and communicate more of
its poison, according to the time it
is suffered to remain. It should be
carefully pulled out Avith a steady
hand ; for if any part of it breaks
in, remedies will in a great measure
be ineffectual. When the sting is
completely extracted, the Avounded
part should be sucked; and little,
BEE
if any, inflammation will ensue.
If a few drops of spirit of harts-
horn be immediately rubbed on the
part affected, the cure will be more
speedily accomplished. This spi-
rit, however, acts only as a stimu-
lating anti-spasmodic, enabling the
vessels to overcome the spasm form-
ed on the extremities. An appli-
cation of Goulard-water, or a cold
saturnine poultice, would produce
a similar effect.
Another simple remedy, equally
efficacious and expeditious, is a so-
lution of indigo in Avater; speedily
applied to the injured part.
Honey and olive oil may also be
occasionally substituted with advan-
tage ; but their application should
be repeated till the pain ceases.
For treating the stings of these
insects, common salt is almost a
certain and almost instantaneous
cure, if the sting be internal the
salt must be SAvallowed: in the
contrary case the skin should be
previously moistened, in order that
it may more easily absorb the sa-
line matter.
[" The folloAving method of
bleaching bees-Avax, Avas handed to
the managers of the Pennsylvania
Society for the encouragement of
manufactures and the useful arts.
" It is impossible to change the
colour of a Avax cake into the ut-
most degeee of whiteness, without
increasing the surface of it, so as
to submit the inside, as Avell as the
outside, of the wax, to the action
of thv? air.
" This is effected by dividing
the wax into an infinite number of
thin ribbons, which is performed
Avith ease, by the following me-
thod.
" The yellow wax, melted in a
copper, is received, and kept in
fusion in a wooden tub, raised five
BEE
BEE 245
•r six feet from the ground, and
wrapped up in a number of thick
blankets of wool. The liquor, or
melted Avax,is run out of it through
a pipe, fixed so high, that the sedi-
ments or dregs may be left at the
bottom, and is received in a fine
bored cullender, or strainer, which
lets all run through but the dross
or scum. From the cullender the
wax runs into a long narroAV
trough, about five or six feet in
length, bored at the bottom with
about fifty small holes, ranged in
one line, and separated by equal
spaces. The Avax distributed in
its fall by the holes into fifty
threads, falls upon a cylinder of
some hard wood, which is about
five feet in diameter, and as long
as the trough, and is fixed paral-
lel, and directly under it. About
one half of the thickness of this
cylinder is sunk in the water of a
long tub, like a bathing tub, Avhose
width is equal to the length of the
cylinder, and on which it is to be
turned by a winch. It is plain,
that each thread of melted wax
must coagulate and grow flat, as
it comes upon the cylinder thus
dipped in cold water. As the cy-
linder is kept turning, a thin rib-
bon must necessarily be formed of
all the streams of Avax successive-
ly flattened and cooled, which will
go off the cylender by the action
of the water, as it comes into it;
thus the surface of the Avater is
presently covered Avith these fifty
yelloAv ribbons, Avhich are formed
upon, and incessantly spun off the
cylinder, as it goes round. They
are taken away with a sort of wood-
en fork Avith three prongs: and
carried to the field, to be spread
upon long Avooden frames, raised
two feet from the ground and
covered Avith oil cloth, Avhere the
whole scattered very thin, receives
freely the impression of the air
and dew.
" This first operation brings it
to the half yellow colour. From
the bleach yard it is carried back
to the second copper, Avhence it
passes into the second tub, and
from thence to a cylinder, and cor-
responding tub as before, after
which it goes to the yard to be
bleached anew; this second ope-
ration being perfectly like the fore-
going. Lastly, they melt it in the
third copper, from whence it pas-
ses into a tub, and thence into the
wax pot, from which they next
pour it with a copper ladle into
round moulds not very deep, where
it coagulates into small cakes;
these last grow hard in the water
of a tub into which they are throAvn
for that purpose, and then assume
the highest degree of whiteness by
a final bleaching.
" In a small Avork one set of ves-
sels will answer very well.
" It appears, that a more consi-
derable quantity of yellow or un-
bleached bees-wax Avas exported in
1790, than in 1801. It has been
constantly decreasing, altho' our
population has so much increased,
and our cultivation of buckwheat
and clover (on both of which the
bees feed) is greatly extended.
This decrease of the exportation
of bees-wax, considered relatively
to our numbers, prov-es the in-
crease of the domestic use of Avax.
All those uses, the rubbing of fur-
niture excepted, are of the nature
of manufactures. The raising of
bees in the broken and mountain-
ous parts of Greece has always
been found very profitable, and
merits the attention of our coun-
try. It is hoped, hoAvever, that
after the industrious bees have pro-
246 BEE
BEE
duced abundance of yelloAV Avax for
us, Ave shall not be such drones as
to neglect the easy and beautiful
manufacture of it into Avhite Avax.
Bleaching this article may be Avell
added to the list of household ma-
nufacturing operations."]
BEECH-TREE, or the Fagus,
L. a plant of which there are four
species, viz. 1. The sylvatica, or
beech-tree, which rises sixty or
seventy feet high ; 2. The castanea,
or chesnut-tree ; 3. The pumila, or
dAvarf chesnut-tree ; and 4. The
Americana, [or chinquaphi\, or
American chesnut-tree, .[fcrrugi-
ncasuton]. Atpresent, Ave shall con-
fine our account, consistently Avith
the alphabetical order, to the first-
mentioned species.
This tree is easily raised from
the mast, or seeds. If intended
for Avoods, it reejuires the same
management as the oak; in nur-
series, it should be treated like the
ash ; by sowing the mast in au-
tumn, or even as late as January,
to preserve it from vermin. Han-
bury recommends, that a suffi-
cient quantity of mast be gathered
about the middle of September,
when it begins to fall ; it should be
spread upon a mat in an airy place
to dry, after which it may either
be sown immediately, or preserved
in bags till the spring : the latter
method, however, is preferable.
It must be soAvn about an inch
deep, in beds properly prepared.
Several of the young plants will
appear early in spring, but others
will not come up till the spring
folloAving. After having remained
two years in this state they ought
to be transplanted to the nursery.
In the year, 1791, John Holli-
day, Escj. of Dillorn, Staffordshire,
planted 113,500 trees of different
kinds ; among these, the principal
Avere ninety-four thousand beech.
His method of planting was, to
make a round hole, about the dia-
meter of two spades ; to preserve
the best turf, and place it on the
south-west side, Avhich, by expe-
rience, has been found to answer
tAAro useful purposes, namely, that
of protecting the young plants from
the storms of Avinter, and shedding
the best soil in the bed of the hole,
both Avinter and summer. It is
but justice to observe, that this
gentleman received the honorary
reward of the gold medal from the
Society for the Encouragement of
the Arts.
The beech is the most beautiful
tree England produces. In state-
liness and grandeur of outline, it
vies Avith the oak. Its foliage is
peculiarly delicate and pleasing to
the eye, and therefore preferable
to the lime, for ornamental plan-
tations, particularly in parks, Avhere
the mast in fruitful years will be
serviceable to the deer : its branch-
es are numerous and spreading,
and its stem grows to a great size.
The bark is extremely smooth and
sifrery, which, together with the
elegance of its foliage,gives a pleas-
ing neatness and delicacy to its
general appearance. Beeches thrive
best on calcareous hills, and abound
on the bed of chalk which runs
from Dorsetshire, through Wilt-
shire, Hampshire, Surrey, Sussex,
and Kent; though they may also
be met with in almost every coun-
ty in England.
An annoymous writer on agri-
culture, says, that " great care
should be taken to remoAre the
beech from Avoods, that oaks may
thrive ; without this precaution
oak-forests have become of less
value by several hundred pounds,
from the intrusion of the beech."
BE E
In Hereford and Monmouth-
shire, the beech is converted into
charcoal; and in several counties,
its leaves are used for beds, instead
of feathers. They certainly have
this advantage over feathers, that
they may often be changed at a
trifling expence.
The wood of this tree is almost
as necessary to cabinet-makers and
turners, as oak is to the ship-builder;
it is, however, very liable to be at-
tacked by a Avorm which soon de-
stroys it; this worm is supposed to
feed on the sap that remains in the
Avood, consequently, the best me-
thod of preserving it, is to extract
the food on which the worm sub-
sists.—For this purpose, scantlings
of beech, when large, should be
laid to soak in a pond for several
weeks, according to the size of the
timber, and the season of the year.
In the heat of summer this effect
is more speedily produced. As the
planks or boards are in danger of
Avarping, they should be exposed
to dry, but sheltered from the sun
and rain ; laths ought to be placed
between the boards, to prevent
their contact, and the Avhole press-
ed by a considerable 'weight. If
they are large pieces for beams,
joists, &c. they need only be left
to dry gradually under sheds.
By the first of these methods,
the timber, when applied to use,
Avill be found as good and durable
as elm. It is, however, advisable
when beech is used, to prepare
that part of the timber which
touches the brick-work, with a
thick coat of pitch, to guard it
against the effects of moisture. It
should be felled in the heat of sum-
mer, when full of sap, Avhich may
then he * more • readily extracted
from the wood than in winter.
BEE 247
Beams and thick planks should
remain about twenty Aveeks in wa-
ter ; joists and rafters about twelve
weeks; anel the thinner boards,
about two months ; but afterwards
they should all be gradually dried.
When this wood is intended for
small Avork, such as chairs, or
turnery, it is recommended to erect
a large copper, sufficient to hold
two hogsheads, in which the wood
may be boileel for two or three
hours. This mode of preparing
it extracts all the sap, makes it
work more smoothly, and renders
it more beautiful anel durable.
BEECH-NUT or, as it is more
generally called, Beech-Mast, is the
seed or fruit of the beech-tree, and
is recommended for feeding and
fattening hogs. Theseanimals may
be secured from the gargut, by
moistening some pease or beans
Avith Avater, sprinkling them with
powdered antimony, and repeating
this medicine every other day, for
a fortnight. The same precaution
should be used when hogs are fed
upon acoms. In Hertfordshire,
where beech-trees grow sponta-
neously, swine are kept upon the
mast only, and turned out about
the middle of October, or some-
times sooner. On this food they
thrive very fast, and generally af.
ford fine meat. When a, hog is
intended to be killed for pickling,
it should be previously taken home
for a month, or five weeks, and fed
with pollard, barley meal, or pease.
It has, hoAvever, been remarked,
that the flesh of swine fed upon
beech-mast, is of too soft a nature,
and easily boils away.
When these nuts are eaten by
the human species, they occasion
giddiness and heael-ach ; but after
being well dried and ground, they
248 BEE
BEE
have been found to make whole-
some bread : they have also occa-
sionally been roasted, and used as a
substitute for coffee.
BEECH - MAST OIL, is ex-
pressed from the mast, after it has
been shelled and pounded. It is
used in many parts of France and
Silesia instead of butter ; according
to some accounts, it is little inferior
to oil of olives. After the oily
part has been extracted, the re-
mainder of the mast, when dried,
is said to be sweeter and more
palatable than before, and may be
easily converted into flour, of a
similar taste and colour to that of
wheat.
In order to obtain pure oil, the
following circumstances must be
attended to : 1. The fruit must be
carefully selected, and all musty,
rotten, or tainted nuts, particularly
those of the former year, should be
rejected.
2. The shell of the nut should
be taken off, Avhich is necessary
not only for increasing the quan-
tity, but also for improving the
quality of oil, because the husk
communicates a particular flavour.
3. The film Avhich surrounds
the kernel, should then be remov-
ed, an operation which is essential
to the perfection of the oil and the
flour ; for the film, though small
in quantity, has an astringent dis-
agreeable taste, which is plainly
perceptible in both the oil and the
flour, where its removal has been
neglected. It may be separated by
puttingthe kernels into hot water,as
is practised in blanching almonds.
4. After the nuts are gathered,
they should be preserved for two
or three months in a dry place, so
^hinly spread out as not to allow
them to heat, and often turned, to
keep them sweet; then bruised
like apples in a cyder mill. In this
state, the mass should be put into
bags of strong thin canvas, and
pressed cold. The oil must be ex-
tracted by three degrees of pres-
sure : the first moderate, which
gives the purest and finest oil; the
second harder, Avhich yields it of
an inferior quality; and the third as
forcibly as the materials will bear,
from Avhich an oil of an indiffer-
ent quality is obtained. After each
separate pressure, the bag should
be turned, and the mast, after being
well shaken, may be preserved for
use.
It has been asserted, that the
mast, though three times pressed,
is more nutritive than in its natural
state. It may, therefore, not only
be given as a wholesome food to
poultry, sAvine, and oxen, but also
be manufactured into hair-powder.
[See an interesting extract from a
paper in the Memorable Royal Aca-
demy of Sciences in Paris, on beech-
mast oil, in Dr. Anderson's re-
creations, vol. 2d.]
BEEF, the flesh of black cattle,
prepared for food. This process is
managed in various ways, accord-
ingly as the meat is intended for
keeping a longer or shorter time.
The usual method of salting beef,
being generally knoAvn, Ave shall
refer to the article " Bacon," and
briefly observe, that much elepends,
1. On the purity and quantity of
the salt used for this purpose ; 2.
On the size of the pieces, and the
nature of the vessels in which they
are kept; and 3. On the ingredi-
ents which may be employed with
a view to assist the operation of the
salt.
It is an established fact, that
salt proves antiseptic only when
used in a considerable quantity ;
and that a weak brine strongly tends
BEE
BEE 249
to hasten the putrefaction of ani-
mal substances : hence the neces-
sity of making a liberal use of this
article. On the other hand, as
common sea-salt contains a very
considerable proportion of mag-
nesia, one of the most absorbent
earths for promoting putrefaction,
it is attended with great inconve-
nience to those who are obliged to
make use of large quantities of such
salt; because it is difficult to sepa-
rate that ingredient from this con-
crete.
Hence rock-salt, though appa-
rently more impure, is doubtless
more advantageous, and proper for
the curing of beef; because its
crystallization has been accom-
plished by Nature, probably after
the more earthy base, or mag-
nesia, had, in a great measure,
spontaneously subsided. We offer
this as a mere conjecture ; as it
is of little importance to the eco-
nomist, how this combination of
salt apd putrefactive earth has ori-
ginally taken place, if we can sug-
gest a method of purifying the
former, so as to render it fit for the
purpose intended : See Salt. At
present, hoAvever, we shall treat
first of the manner which, by ex-
perience, has been found the most
effectual for salting, preserving,
and imparting a fine flavour to
beef, mutton, anel pork. For this
useful information we are indebted
to M. Schedel, Avho has inserted
the following recipe in the " Eco-
nomical Journal," for September,
1795, printed at Leipzig : Take
four pounds of common salt, one
pound and a half of refined -sugar,
tA-.o ounces of salt-petre, anel two
gallons of pure spring water. Boil
the whole over a gentle fire, and
carefully scum off the impurities.
After this brine has become cold,
VOL. I.
pour it over the meat, so that every
part of it may be completely co-
vered. In this preparatkm, the
meat not only keeps for many
months, but the pickle also has
the effect of softening the hardest
and toughest beef, and rendering
it as mellow as the flesh of chicken.
But, in Avarm Aveather, it will be
necessary to express the blood from
the meat, and to rub it well with
fine salt, before it is immersed in
the liquor....Young pork should
not be left longer than three or
four days in this brine, during
which time it will be sufficiently
softened ; but hams intended to be
dried, may lie in it a fortnight, be-
fore they are suspended. At that
period, they ought to be rubbed
with pollard, and covered with
paper bags, in order to prevent
them from becoming fly-blown.
It farther deserves to be remarked
that, though this liquor is more
expensive at first than the common
brine, yet as it may again be used
after boiling it, and adding more
water with a proportionate quan-
tity of the other ingredients, its
relative utility is obvious. We
understand that the late Empress
of Russia employed this composi-
tion with uniform success, in her
household economy.
A very curious experiment was
tried, in the year 1755, before the
commissioners of the Victualling-
Office, relative to the salting of
beef. Both jugular veins of a bul-
lock were opened, and the animal
bled almost to death : the carcase
was then cut open, the intestines
were taken out, and Avhile warm,
a tube Avas introduced into one of
the large arteries, Avhich was in-
jected with a strong brine: this
circulated through all the blood
vessels, so that the flesh of the bul-
K K
250 BEE
BEE
lock was (apparently) salted alike
throughout the Avhole body, for,
on cutting a piece of the leg and
lip, the brine issued from these
parts. Some of this beef was then
stoAved, and sent to sea with a
view to ascertain how long it
would keep in that state: but the
result of the experiment has not
been published. Indeed, it is not
difficult to foresee the event: as
the arteries were no longer pos-
sessed of the power of absorption
inherent in the living body, the
muscular fibre, not being saturated
with the saline liquid, would ne-
cessarily putrify.
[The superiority of the receipt
commonly knoAvn by the name of
Adml.Pocock's, is so well known
to those, who have had an oppor-
tunity of comparing it Avith others,
that it ought to be generally adopt-
ed. It is thus made....Water four
gallons, Muscovado sugar or mo-
lasses, a pound and a half of salt,
(the bay or large sort) six pounds.
Boil all together in an iron pot,
or kettle, and skim it repeatedly,
as long as any scum rises ; then
take off the pot to stand till the
liquor is cold. The meat being
placed in the vessel meant to hold
it, pour the cold pickle on the
meat, till it is covered ; and, in
that state, keep it for family use.
If the meat is to be-preserved a
considerable time, the .pickle must
be boiled once in two months ;
skimming off all that rises, and
throwing in, during the boiling,
two ounces of sugar, and about
half a pound of common salt....
Mr. Bordley, says, the above
pickle " is incomparable, also, for
curing hams, tongues, and hung-
beef. When tongues and hung-
beef are taken out of the pickle,
clean and dry the pieces ; then
put them in paper bags, and hang
them up, in a dry warm place. In
very hot weather, it is necessary,
before the meat is put to the pickle,
to rub it Avell over with salt, and
let it lie for one, tAvo, or three
hours, till the bloody juices run off.
If the meat in this case be in the
least tainted, before it is put to the
pickle, it Avill be entirely spoiled
in a day's time in hot weather.
Mr. Bordley recommends, to
keep beeves intended to be killed,
two days from food and drink;
and, in a dark and close place....
He thinks, the animal bleeds bet-
ter, handles lighter and cleaner ;
and, that the meat looks better by
observing these directions. The
barrels are to be ready, sweet and
well trimmed, and the salt pre-
viously washed or refined, and
ground small, before the beeves
are to be slaughtered. Delay in
salting is injurious. The pieces
are, therefore, to be packed into
the tight barrels, piece by piece,
as they are salted; instead of
bulking them on a frame, or dress-
er to drain, as is the practice....
Coarse salt washed but not ground,
having also been previously ready,
is to be dissolved in fair cold wa-
ter, until no more can be dissolved
on stirring. Let it settle a day, or
tAvo, skim off the top, pour off all
but the dregs. When perfectly
cool and clean, it is ready to be
poured on the repacked beef......
After the meat has remained in
the barrels six or eight days, head-
ed up tight; it is to be taken out,
resalted, and closely repacked in
the same barrels ; the drainings
are to be preserved and boiled:
the barrels are then to be headed
up. In a few days, bore a hole in
one of the heads, or the bulge of
each barrel, and fill the barrels
with the prepared and boiled juices
of the meat, saved from the first
BEE
BEE 251
salting and barrelling. Ever}- time
of filling, the barrels being rolled
leaves room for more liquor.....
When there is no more of the
prepared liquor, the barrels are
next to be repeatedly filled with
the plain strong brine made as a-
bove, from the washed coarse salt,
till they can take no more, after
standing a short time. Here, as
in preserving fish in barrels, the
operations are distinctly to salt and
to cure, (See Art. Herring.) and
the boiled juices from the salted
meat, must serve to beef what the
pickle of fish cured, is to herrings.
On boiling the blood and juices
with the pickle, the firmer parts
settle in a mass on standing, and
the liquor pours off clean.
The barrels ought not to be ex-
posed either to the sun, or to damp.
A cool dry place is best.
Attention to the kind of salt used
in salting meats, is of more con-
sequence than is generally imagin-
ed. The Hollanders who furnish
the world with the finest flavour-
ed herrings, (caught on the coast
of Scotland), and derive an immense
revenue from the trade, prevent by
law the use of all kinds of salt in
the herring business, except that
from Portugal or Spain. It Avould
be well to attend to this circum-
stance in this country.]
As to the properties of beef, in
general, we shall only say, that it
affords a good, strong, and invigo-
rating nutriment, because no ani-
mal food is equal to the flesh of
a healthy, middle-aged bullock.
Plethoric persons, however, as well
as youth, in whom there is natu-
rally a disposition to generate heat,
should eat beef in great modera-
tion. Hence, it is most service-
able to the robust and active adult,
employed in manual labour, who
digests both fat and lean with equal
facility. Yet, when salted, even
the most tender beef is deprived of
a great portion of animal jelly, so
that we may Avithout hesitation
pronounce, that one pound of fresh
beef is eemal to one pound and a
half in a salted or pickled state.
BEEF-TEA, a preparation com-
monly made for persons whose
energy of the stomach is reduced,
either after recovery from diseases,
or in consequence of complaints
arising from indigestion. It has
been a common practice, to treat
valetudinarians, or patients, Avith
viper-broth, instead of beef-tea:
the former, however, does not ap-
pear to possess any superior effica-
cy, though it certainly is more nau-
seous than the latter.
Beef-tea is usually made, by cut-
ting one pound of the lean part of
a buttock of beef into very thin
slices, or shreds, and boiling it
with nearly a quart of water : Avhen
it grows hot, the rising scum must
be taken off, Avhile it continues
boiling for about twenty minutes.
After it grows cold, this liquor is
strained and decanted ; in which
state it resembles a light infusion of •
fine green tea : has a very grateful
flavour, and is more strengthening
than other broths. This recipe is
similar to that given by the late
Dr. Barry, in his classical" Trea-
tise on the three different Digestions
and Discharges of the Human Bo-
dy," he. 8vo. 6s. 1759. But, on
considering the effect of heat on
the volatile and spirituous parts of
the animal fibre, when immersed
in a fluid medium, we venture to
suggest a more economical me-
thod of preparing beef-tea. In-
stead of boiling the meat, we would
advise to reduce it to a pulp (pro-
vided it be perfectly clean and fresh}
252 BEE
BEE
Avith a wooden pestle, in an iron or
marble mortar, and then to express
all its juice. After straining this
liquor, a little spice may be added,
and an equal, or larger proportion
of boiling water. Thus, the whole
essence of the meat will be pre-
served, part of which Avould be
volatilized by cooking. Nor does
it admit of a doutot, that such a
liquor possesses greater bracing
powers, than if prepared after the
usual manner; and that half a
pound of beef in this way, is near-
ly equal to one pound used accord-
ing to the former method.
It is, however, a common error,
that beef-tea, or any other broth,
is more easily digested than solid
food : on the contrary, all liemid
nutriment of this nature, unless
mixed v> ith bread, rice, barley, or
other vegetable aliment, requires
much stronger efforts of the sto-
mach to effect digestion. Hence,
Ave are induced to deprecate the
custom of inundating, as it Avere,
patients, after their recovery from
chronic diseases, with soups, broths,
and spoon-meat of every descrip-
tion.
BEER is a fermented, spirituous
liquor, prepared from any farinace-
ous grain, but generally from bar-
ley ; and strictly speaking, is a
vinous production, serving as a sub-
stitute for wine.
As Ave propose to give a short
analysis of the art of Brewing,
under that head, Ave shall here only
observe, that all kinds of beer are
produced by extracting a propor-
tionate quantity of malt, Avhether
made of Avheat, barley or oats, in
boiling water; then suffering it
to remain at rest, in a degree of
Avamnth requisite to induce a vinous
fermentation, and afterwards ma-
naging it in the manner as will be
described under the article just
mentioned....See also Fermenta-
tion and Malt.
Although malt alone might
doubtless produce a liquor pos-
sessing the spirituous properties of
beer, yet such a preparation would
speedily turn sour and insipid, un-
less impregnated with hops, or ano-
ther aromatic and bitter principle,
derived from vegetable substances
which not only render it less liable
to undergo the putrefactive stage
of fermentation, but also impart to
it an agreeable bitterness. Of this
nature is the hop in a very eminent
degree, the price of which, how-
ever, has of late years been so ex-
orbitant, that speculative brewers
have substituted a variety of other
vegetable ingredients, and especial-
ly the wood, bark, and root of
quassia (which see.) Independent-
ly of the inferior price of this drug,
when compared to the indigenous
hop, there can be no reasonable
objection to its use; as it is one of
the few astringent substances pos-
sessing a considerable share of the
bitter principle, without partaking
of the narcotic, heating, and in-
toxicating propertiesof other plants.
It would be difficult to lay down
an accurate criterion of the best and
most wholesome beer; as its rela-
tive strength and flavour, or the
immediate effect it produces on the
palate, are generally considered
the most essential requisites. But
a well-brewed and wholesome beer,
Avhether ale or porter, ought to be
of a bright colour, and perfectly
transparent, that is, neither too
high nor pale; it should have a
pleasant and mellow taste, sharp
and agreeably bitter, without being
acrid or tart; it should leave no
particular sensation on the tongue;
and, if drunk in any considerable
BEE
BEE 253
quantity, it must neither produce
speedy intoxication, with its con-
comitant effects of sleep, nausea,
vomiting, head-ach, languor, Avant
of appetite, &c. nor should it be
retained too long in the urinary
passages, or be too quickly dis-
charged.
Dr. James Storehouse, of
Northampton, inserted the fol-
loAving recipe for making Beer of
Treacle, in the Gentl. Mag. for
January, 1758: " To eight quarts
of boiling water, put one pound of
treacle, a quarter of an ounce of
ginger, and two bay-leaves. Let
the whole boil for a quarter of an
hour, then cool and work it with
yeast, the same as other beer:" or,
" Take one bushel of malt, with as
much water and hops as if two
bushels of malt were allowed ; put
seven pounds of the coarsest brown
sugar into the Avort, while boiling.
This makes a very pleasant liquor;
is as strong, anel will keep as long
without becoming sour or flat, as if
two bushels of malt had been em-
ployed."....Dr. Stonehouse adds,
that the latter is the preparation
used in the Shrewsbury Infirmary,
and he does not hesitate to attest
its wholesome and nutritive pro-
perties.
[Extemporaneous small beer. To
tAvo quarts of common porter, add
of molasses half a pint, of ginger
two drachms, water just warm, four
quarts; let the whole ferment in a
warm place, then rack off.
Another. Lemon Peal, one ounce,
Creme of Tartar four ounces, hops
one ounce, molasses one quart,
ginger one drachm (sixty grains),
bruised cloves four in number, lx>il-
ing water four gallons; ferment
with yeast.
Beer, (Spruce.) To a four ounce
gallypot of essence of spruce, add
three quarts of molasses, two gal-
lons of warm rain water, and half a
pint of good yeast. Stir them well
together until the liquor bears a
froth, then put it into the cask and
fill it Avith nine gallons of water
shaking it well. Set it aside for
tAvo or three days to ferment with
the bung close, and place the cask
in a cool cellar, and in twenty-four
hours it Avill be fit for use. If in-
tendedforbottlingletthe cask stand
undisturbed three days before it be
drawn off. For the second brewing,
the sediment remaining in the cask
may be used instead of yeast. If
well-water be used it should be war-
med a little.
It ought to be mentioned that ve-
ry great deceptions are practised,
Avith respect to the essence of
spruce brought here for sale from
Nova Scotia.]
In the sixth volume of the Mu-
seum Rusticum et Commerciale, a
work of considerable merit, we
meet Avith a similar account of
making a kind of Table Beer,
Avhich from its cheapness, and
agreeableness, is greatly preferable
to that obtained from malt; and
which has this farther advantage,
that it may be made ready for
drinking in three or four days :....
" Take fifteen gallons of water, and
boil one half of it, or as much as
can conveniently be managed ; put
the part of the Avater thus boiled,
Avhile it is yet of its full heat, to
the cold part,.contained in a barrel
or cask; and then add one gallon
of molasses, commonly called trea-
cle, stirring them Avell together;
add a little yeast, if the vessel be
new ; but, if it has been used for
the same purpose, the yeast is un-
necessary. Keep the bung-hole
open till the fermentation appear
to be abated, and then close it up.
254 BEE
BEE
The beer will, in a day or two af-
terwards, be fit to drink.
" It is usual to put tops of the
spruce fir into the Avater which is
boiled for making this beer ; and it
is then called spruce beer. But,
though this is done at sea, when
such tops can be obtained, on ac-
count of the scurvy ; yet it is not
necessary, and may very well be
omitted, where they are not to be
easily procured. Scurvy-grass, or
other herbs or drugs, used in mak-
ing purl, gill-ale, or any other fla-
voured malt liquor, may be added
at eiiscretion. But a little of the
outer rind of an orange-peel, in-
fused in the beer itself, and taken
out as soon as it has imparted a
sufficient degree of bitterness, will
both be found grateful, and assist
in keeping the beer from turning
sour. A very little gentian-root,
boileel in the water, either Avith a
little orange-peel, or Avithout, gives
also a very cheap, wholesome, and
pleasant bitter to this beer."
The philanthropic editor of the
u Reports of the Society for better-
ing the Condition, and increasing
the Comforts of the Poor," T. Ber-
nard, Esq. very justly observes,
(in a note, vol. i. p. 194,) « that
it would be a very desirable thing,
that the poor should be able to
supply themselves Avith beer of
their OAvn brewing, Avithout being
obliged always to recur to the ale-
house. I am aAvare of the disad-
vantage of brewing in small quan-
tities ; but that might be compen-
sated for by great advantages, and
by the superior flaA'our of beer
brewed and drank at home....The
following recipe is according to the
proportions used in the House of
Industry, at Shrewsbury : To half
a bushel of malt, add four pounds
of treacle, and three quarters of a
pound of hops; this will make
twenty-five gallons of beer; the
cost of which (supposing the value
of the grain to be only equal to
the expence of fuel,) would be
two-pence a gallon, Avhere the ma-
terials Avere purchased to the best
advantage; and, when bought at
the retail shop, 'about three-pence.
I have tried the receipt, and found
the beer very good : it was fit for
use in a fortnight; but it is not
calculated for keeping, particularly
in Avarm Aveather."
We have been induced to com-
municate these different methods
of preparing a. pure and wholesome
beverage, in order to contribute
our mite, hoAvever small, towards
alleviating the burthens of domes-
tic life, at the present critical pe-
riod. And though we should not
succeed in persuading many per-
sons, in the middle ranks of so-
ciety, to adopt our suggestions, we
still may flatter ourselves with the
chearing hope, that they will hu-
manely exert their influence on
such families as may be benefited
by brewing their OAvn liquors at
home: instead of carrying, per-
haps, one-half of their Aveekly earn-
ings to the next ale-house, and de-
barring their helpless children from
that necessary assistance, for Avant
of Avhich, they are often doomed
to become additional burthens on
the parish.
Having pointed out the peculiar
qualities of good beer, as Avell as
the most easy and advantageous
methods of using a substitute for
malt, we shall next consider the
most effectual Avay of clarifying
this grateful beverage ; and of pre-
venting it from turning sour, or
restoring it to its former briskness,
when it has, by mismanagement,
acquired a tart or insipid taste.
BEE
BEE 255
Various schemes have been pro-
posed, and many also adopted in
breweries, for fining or clarifying
different beers. But, as the supe-
rior brilliancy and transparency of
that liquor, depend in a great mea-
sure on the quality of the malt and
water....which properly belongs to
the article " Brewing"....Ave shall
here speak of that process only so
far as it relates to the management
of beer, after it is fermented.
In Britain, malt liquors are ge-
nerally fined with ground-ivy, the
Glecoma hcderacea, L ; which plant
however, will not produce the de-
sired effect, if the beer has been
breAved of bad malt, or otherwise
mismanaged during the different
processes of boiling and fermenting
the wort. In such cases, and espe-
cially if it has been too long boiled,
the liquor may indeed become
clear, by throwing into it an addi-
tional cmantity of ground-ivy ; but
it Avill retain an opacity, or turbid
appearance, because this useful
plant, being at first lighter than
the liquid, and swimming on the
top, gradually becomes heavier;
and though it combines with the
impurities of the liquor, and at
length sinks to the bottom of the
vessel, yet it is incapable of cor-
recting and decomposing those mu-
cilaginous and empyreumatic par-
ticles, which partly arise from in-
ferior malt, and are partly extri-
cated by the action of too great
and long-continued heat. Hence
we shall propose the folloAving sim-
ple remedy, which was communi-
cated to us by a continental friend :
After the beer is properly ferment-
ed, and a few days old, take one
gallon out of every barrel, and add
two ounces of hartshorn-shavings
(or filings, which are still better) to
every gallon. Place the liemor over
a moderate fire, till it boils, and
rises to the top; let the decoction
stand for an hour or two ; and,
when milk-warm, pour the clear
part of it into the barrels, accord-
ing to the proportion before speci-
fied. In this state, the casks must
be left undisturbed for twenty-four
hours, and then the beer should
either be bottled, or drawn off into
other vessels. This easy and cheap
process, not only has the effect of
completely clarifying the beer, but
likewise preventing it from turn-
ing sour, especially if it be laid up
in bottles properly corked, and se-
cured with a cement consisting of
nearly equal parts of melted bees-
wax, resin, and turpentine.
[Beer, should never be forced
more than a week before it is tap-
ped, else it becomes stale. Dis-
solve i an oz. of isinglass (fish
glue) in as much small beer as
wi}l make it of the consistence of
thin size, put 1£ pints of this in a
barrel, anel stir it about.
To give new beer the hard fla-
vour of old beer, aeld a small quan-
tity of oil of vitriol.
To ropy beer, add a little salt
and roll the cask well.]
There is considerable damage to
be appreheneled from the effects of
a thunder-storm, by which "ale or
beer is apt to become turbid and
flat, not only at the time when un-
dergoing the critical process of fer-
mentation in the tub, but likewise
after it has been barrelled.
In the former case, Ave are not
acquainted with a better method
than that of placing (on the ap-
proach of a tempest) several ves-
sels filled with lime-water, or
where this cannot be immediately
procured, only simple water con-
tiguous to the fermenting vat; and,
if it be convenient, both fluids in
256 BEE
BEE
their several vessels should be on a
level, or the beer might be some-
what lower than the water ; which
attracts and absorbs the then pre-
vailing acidity of the atmosphere.
In the latter case, the injurious
influence of thunder may be effec-
tually prevented, by laying a solid
piece of iron on each cask: this
easy expedient we find recorded in
the Gentleman's Magazine, for Ja-
nuary 1753 ; and the anonymous
writer adds, that the fact is ac-
counted for in one of the volumes
of the " Athenian Oracles."
In summer, especially in Avhat
is called the bean-season, Avhen all
malt liquors are liable to become
flat, the following remedy is often
successfully employed as a preAren-
tive : Take a neAv laid egg, perfo-
rate it with small holes, put it in a
clean linen bag, together with some
laurel-berries, and a little barley ;
then suspend it in the vessel con-
taining the beer :....instead of the
berries and barley, a few leaves of
the Avalnut-tree may be substituted.
Others put salt made of the ashes
of barley-straAV, into the vessel, and
stir it till it be incorporated ; or, if
the beer is not very sour, a small-
quantity of such ashes, or calcined
chalk, oyster-shells, egg-shells, See
maybe suspended in a similar man-
ner, in order to absorb the acidity
of the liquor, and recover its for-
mer sweetness.
Sour Beer, however, cannot be
easily restored in the manner above
stated, Avithout undergoing a new
process of fermentation, or impreg-
nating it, for that purpose, Avith
fixed air. But as the latter is an
expensive and troublesome method,
Ave shall communicate another of
more easy application. Glauber
recommended his sal mirabile
(common Glauber's salt), and salt-
petre, to be put into a linen bag,
and suspended from the top of the
cask, so as to reach the surface of,
the liquor: thus the beer will not
only be preserved and strengthen-
ed, but it may also, when flat, or
sour,be restored to its former brisk-
ness. The experiment may be
easily made ; but we cannot vouch
for its result.
Another, and a better remedy,
for recovering tart, or insipid beer,
is the folloAving : add to every pint
of such beer, from twenty to thirty
drops of what is commonly called
oil of tartar (salt of tartar, or pure
pot-ash, reduced to a liquid state,
by exposing it to the influence of
the air in a cellar, or other damp
situations) ; then mix it in the ves-
sel, and the acidity will be quickly
neutralized.....Those Avho live at a
distance from apothecaries' shops
or wish to prepare this liquid tar-
tar, for occasional use on journies
especially in summer, may easily
make it, by dissolving two ounces
of fine pearl-ashes in eight ounces,
or half a pint, of pure Avater, fre-
quently shaking the bottle, then
suffering it to stand for twenty-
four hours, and afterwards filtering
the solution through a fine cloth.
In this state it may be preserved
for one year ; but beer thus re-
stored ought to be drunk soon after
it has recovered its briskness, or at
least on the same day: and this
small addition of vegetable alkali is,
in warm seasons, rather conducive,
than detrimental to health.
When beer has aceiuired a pecu-
liar taste of the cask, either from
an unclean state of the veesel, or,
by long keeping, from the astrin-
gency of the oak, it is advisable to
suspend in it a handful of wheat
tieel up in a bag ; Avhich generally
removes the disagreeable taste.
BEE
BEE 257
With respect to the physical pro-
perties of malt-liquors, we shall
observe, that they are possessed of
various degrees of salubrity, ac-
cording to the proportion and na-
ture of their ingredients, namely,
water, malt, and hops, of which
they are composed ; and likewise,
according to the manner in which
they have been brewed. If, for
instance, a large proportion of wa-
ter has been used, the beer will be
more proper for quenching thirst,
than if it were strongly impreg-
nated Avith the mealy and spiritu-
ous particles of the malt. Hence,
strong and SAveet beer is the most
nourishing and beneficial to thin
and emaciated persons ; stale and
bitter ale, the most intoxicating ;
and weak, half fermented porter,
the most flatulent, and least ser-
viceable to nervous, debilitated,
hysteric, or asthmatic constitutions.
But, as there is no peculiar test,
by Avhich Ave can ascertain with
critical accuracy, when the vinous
fermentation is completed, and the
acetous has commenced, every kind
of beer must be barrelled, or bot-
tled, before it is perfectly fer-
mented, so that the completion of
this natural process is effected in
the stomach and boAvels. Strange
as this proposition may appear to
some persons, it is so true that
the infinite diversity of flavour and
briskness obtained from the same
mixture, Avhen draAvn off into dif-
ferent vessels, or bottles, cannot
fail to strike the most superficial
observer.
Beer always contains a portion
of fixed air, which being disen-
gaged within the human body, is
apt to occasion flatulency and
looseness. To the mariner, how-
ever, and those Avho arc subject
vol. i.
to scorbutic complaints, it is, in
general, a wholesome beverage,
though Ave cannot refrain from ani-
madverting upon the prevailing,
erroneous notion, that ale' or por-
ter promote digestion : this is re-
futed by the uniform evidence of
experience, whence it clearly ap-
pears that, of all liquids whatever,
pure water is the most beneficial
solvent of animaland vegetable sub-
stances. Such individuals, there-
fore, as make use of nourishing,
and principally animal food, re-
quire no beer for its digestion ; as
the habitual drinking of malt li-
quors will expose them to all the
inconveniencies of plethora* or a
full and gross habit. Others, how-
ever, who live chiefly on vegeta-
ble diet, and Avhose stomach is
weak or impaired, may be greatly
invigorated by a moderate use of
strong and bitter malt-liquors....a
purpose which the common table
beer cannot answer. Persons of
dry and rigid fibres, and whose
bile is duly secreted, ought to
drink such beer as is sufficiently
strong and nourishing, without be-
ing of an intoxicating nature : for
this purpose, we would give the
preference to Bell's Beer, over
Burton, and other ales.—A thin,
weak, and well-fermented beer, is
diluent and Avholesome ; whence
it agrees Avell with the plethoric,
and persons disposed to corpulency.
On the contrary, thick and nou-
rishing malt-liquors are most ser-
viceable to the debilitated, and
especially to Avet-nurses; conse-
quently sweet beers are chiefly nu-
tritive, and more proper for daily
use, on account of their being
least exposed to dangerous adulte-
rations ; Avhile the bitter kinds
possess medicinal properties, and
L L
258 BEE
BEE
should be drunk in a Aveak state of
digestion, by individuals subject to
acidity in the stomach.
Lastly, every kind of beer is
improper for the hysteric, the hy-
pochondriac, and all those who are
already of a full habit, or manifest
a thick, atra-bilious blood ; but it
is of peculiar service to the labo-
rious, the lean, emaciated, and all
such constitutions as are not liable
to flatulency, or any organic dis-
eases of the breast.
BEESTINGS, or Breastings, in
domestic economy, a term used
for the first milk drawn from a
cow after calving.
This liquor is of a thick consist-
ence, and yellowish colour; whence
some persons have imagined, that
it is impregnated with sulphur. As
Nature has peculiarly designed the
beestings for the purpose of cleans-
ing the young animal from those
viscid impurities which, in the hu-
man subject, are denominated the
meconium ; it appears rational, that
the calf should partake of this be-
nefit. Nor is this strong and viscid
liquor calculated to afford a Avhole-
some food ; though farmers, in ge-
neral, give it to the indigent cot-
tager. And, as' it is frequently
eaten by children, Avho are scarcely
able to digest it, Ave are of opi-
nion, that it might be better em-
ployed in feeding young calves, or
by converting it into cheese.
BEET, or Beta, L. a plant of
Avhich there are four species, viz.
1. The maritima, or sea-beet,
which grows spontaneously by the
sea side ; and in salt marshes in
many parts of England.
2. The hortensis, or common
white beet, is cultivated in gardens
for its leaves, Avhich are free|uently
used in soups* The root of this
species seldom attains a greater
size than that of a mans thumb;
the varieties are the white beet,
the green beet, and the Swiss, or
chard beet: these vary from one
to the other, but have never been
knoAvn to change to the first or
third sort.
3. The vulgaris, or red beet, the
roots of Avhich are large, and of a
deep red colour. It is worthy of
remark, that the larger these roots
groAv they are more tender; and
the deeper their colour, the more
they are esteemed. The varieties
of this species are the common red
beet, the tumip-rooted beet, and
the green-leaved red beet.
4. The cicla, which grows wild
on the banks of the Tagus, in Por-
tugal ; it is originally a small, white
root, but there is a variety of it,
called by the Germans Runkelrube,
or the Beta albissima of Botanists,
the culture of Avhich cannot be too
strongly recommended. The stalk
of the latter grows to the height of
seven or eight feet; and the root
Aveighs from eight to twelve pounds.
This variety of the root of scarcity
is the true Mangel-wurzel, which
some years since excited much at-
tention in Britain ; though there is
reason to suppose that other species
of the beet have been frequently
mistaken for the Beta albissima ;
the root of Avhich is white, juicy,
and streaked with red fibres : it is
sown like cabbage, and to prevent
injury to the fibres of the root, the
young pi ants must not be pulled, but
dug up with a spade ; they should
then be transplanted on the same
day (either in rainyAveather or after
sun-set), on a rich Avell-ploughed
and manured soil, in rows, from
sixteen to eighteen inches asunder.
[Sow very thin, and cover the seed
BEE
BEE 259
an inch only ; it will continue in
the ground a month. In trans-
planting, the root are not to be
shortened, but the leaves cut at the
top; then set the plant with a
dibber, so that the upper part of
the root shall appear half an inch
out of the ground. The roots,
however, will not arrive at perfecti-
on, unless the plants be twice hoed,
at least, and stripped of the super-
fluous leaves every fortnight, or
three Aveeks.]
From the first and third species
before-mentioned, some German
chemists have extracted sugar;
but the difficulty and expence at-
tending the process are so consider-
able, that this vegetable will never
be worthy of the particular atten-
tion of the gardener for this pur-
pose ; though it will ahvays deserve
to be cultivated as food for man and
cattle.
[Dr. Achard has published at
Berlin the results of a second trial,
made on a large scale, to extract
sugar from that vegetable, under
the direction of a commission ap-
pointed for that purpose by his
Prussian majesty. By these re-
sults, it appears that 1500 epiintals
of beet-root gave 5953 pounds of
raw sugar, 450 quintals of refuse,
and 100 ounces of syrup. Thirty
quintals of beet-root, cultivated ac-
cording to the process of Achard.,
gave each six pounds three ounces
of raw sugar. The refuse may be
employed as coffee, or to distil
spirit, and is more profitable for
feeding cattle than beets themselves.
The raw sugar may be refined for
every purpose whatever. Accord-
ing to a calculation made by the
commission charged to examine
this discovery, it Avill produce to
Prussia an annual saving, or rather
an advantage, of two millions and
a half of rix-dollars. Brandy and
arrack are made at Berlin of the
beet-root. Both are highly praised.
Mr. Bartley, Secretary to the
Bath Agr. Soc. England, informs
the Editor, that the Avhite beet,
or mangel-wurzel, is very easily
cultivated in a deep melloAV soil.
He made some trials of this root,
from Avhich it resulted that 16lb. of
the root will produce about 1 lb. of
concrete sugar, and that the maxi-
mum crop of an acre of ground
might produce, at least, two tons
weight of sugar, or forty tons of
the root, in drills three feet asunder,
with plants eighteen inchesdistance
in the rows. He obtained roots
weighing upwards of 16lb. each.
It would be Avorth an experiment
to ascertain, in the United States,
the value of an acre of this root
as a winter food for cattle, and to
compare it with other food as tur-
nips, brewer's grains shorts, linseed-
jelly, hay, and cut straw, &c Sec.]
The common white, as Avell as
the red beet, should be sown sepa-
rately in the [middle or end] of
March, uponanopenspotof ground.
Itreemires a rich soil (such as is fit
for wheat), and a low situation,
Avhich may be watered occasional-
ly. The ground should be tho-
roughly cleared of weeds, and ma-
nured at least a year before it is
sown. As the manuring is a mat-
ter of great importance, it should
be repeated before the soil is
ploughed, which ought to be per-
formed three times. Immediate-
ly after the third ploughing, the
ground should be carefully harrow-
ed. A rake, with teeth from nine
to twelve inches distant, should be
drawn across it, so as to mark lines,
which must be crossed bv others
260 BEE
BEE
transversely. If the seed be fresh
and sound, one is sufficient, but if
doubtful, two may be dibbled about
the depth of an inch, at each of the
points where these lines cross.
[The beds of beets must be f of
a yard wide, and the plants six or
eight inches a-part. When they
come up about a finger's length,
and if the ground be moist, divide
and transplant them into other
beds.]
An important discovery has late-
ly been announced by Professor
Scherer, of Vienna, and which
promises to be of great service in
domestic economy, especially Avhen
barley is scarce. He found from
experiments, that beet-roots afford
an excellent substitute for malt, if
they be deprived of the greater
part of their juice by pressure, then
dried, and treated in the same
manner as grain intended to be
used for that purpose. The beer
thus brewed Avas found to be per-
fectly Avholesome and palatable ;
being little inferior to that prepared
from malt. Besides, the juice ob-
tained from those excellent roots,
may be advantageously converted
into sugar.
When the plants have acquired
six or eight leaves each, the ground
should be thoroughly Aveeded ; care
being taken not to deprive them of
the surrounding soil. If more than
one plant appear on the same spot,
the superfluous ones must be re-
moved ; and wherever a seed has
been unproductive, another should
be sown. When the ground is
quite cleared from weeds, the plants
grow rapidly, and all farther care
is unnecessary.
The harvest generally com-
mences about the end of [August].
The rcpt should be dug up with
great care, and the leaves and stalks
cut off, to prevent it from grow-
ing ; but, in performing this oper
ration, though it is necessary to cut
them close, great care must be
taken that the root itself be not
injured.
In the year 1755, M. Lulin de
Chateauvieux, being of opinion
that a great part of the expence of
dung and labour might be saved,
if pot-herbs could be cultivated in
the same manner as wheat accord-
ing to the neAv husbandry ; he sow-
ed a bed forty feet long and six
Avide,with beet, and two others with
carrots. Where the plants grewtoo
thick, they Avere thinned, so as to
leave a distance of fourteen or fifteen
inches between the beets, and seven
or eight between the carrots:
neither of them Avere watered. On
digging up the beet-roots, in Oc
tober, they Avere all nearly five or
six inches in diameter. He as-
cribes their luxuriant growth to
the method of culture without ma-
nure.
According to Mr. Roc que, the
white beet is a most excellent fodder
for cows ; the best way of feeding
them, is to mow the plant, and
give it to them fresh eluring the
summer.
The red beet is possessed of mild
aperient crualities, and affords hut
a Aveak nutriment to the human
body. Hence it should be eaten
for supper, by persons of a costive
habit : but, though it be easily di-
gested, its use is sometimes attend-
ed Avith flatulency ; for which rea-
son, it Avould be more Ayholesome
and nourishing, to eat the beet
with other more mealy roots, such
as potatoes ; or Avith those of an
aromatic nature, for instance, pars-
ley, celery, Sec.
BEE
BEETLE, or Scarabaus, L. a
well-known insect, of which there
are eighty-seven species, of one
common formation, having cases
to their wings, Avhicharethe more
necessary, as they mostly live be-
neath the surface of the earth. Be-
sides their diversity of shape and
colour, the difference in the size
of the various species is also con-
siderable, some not being larger
than the head of a pin, while others,
as the elephant beetle, are as big
as a closed hand.
The May-bug, or cock-chaffer,
is the species most deserving of our
notice, on account of the formida-
ble ravages it commits on the ter-
ritory of the husbandman. In some
seasons, it has been found to swarm
in such numbers, as to devour every
vegetable production ; our princi-
pal object, therefore, will be to
point out the best means for its des-
truction. It is necessary to ob-
serve, that the insect is first gene-
rated in the earth, from the eggs
deposited by the fly, in its perfect
state. About three months after-
wards, the insects contained in
those eggs break the shell, and
crawl forth in the form of a small
grub or maggot, which feeds upon
the roots of vegetables ; anel con-
tinues in this concealed and des-
tructive state for more than three
years, gradually growing to the
size of a walnut. It is the thick
Avhite maggot with a red head, so
frequently found on turning up the
earth. At the end of the fourth
year, these extraordinary insects
emerge from their subterraneous
abode ; when, in the mild eA'en-
ings of May, an attentive observer
may perceive them rising from the
earth in numbers before him.
The willow seems to be their
favourite food: on this tree they
BEE 261
hang in clusters, and seldom quit
it till they have completely devour-
ed its foliage. Rooks are particu-
larly fond of them, when in their
state of grubs ; and hence the pre-
judice of farmers against these
birds is ill-founded. In Ireland,
the damage done by the beetle was
at one time so great, in a particular
district, that the inhabitants came
to the resolution of setting fire to
a wood of some extent, in order
to prevent their propagation.
As these insects cannot support
the heat of the mid-day sun, and
therefore conceal themselves till
evening under the leaves of trees,
the most effectual way of destroy-
ing them is to beat them off Avith
long poles, and then to collect and
burn them : or, according to Dr.
T. Molyneux, they are very be-
neficial for fattening poultry.
Smoke is extremely offensiA-e to
them, consequently, the burning
of heath, fern, or other Aveeds,
Avill prevent their incursions in gar-
dens, or expel them if they have
entered. The leaves of the young
turnip are supposed to be devour-
ed by this fly, Avhich Dr. Darwin
conceives may be destroyed by
rolling.
That very troublesome insect, the
common black beetle, may be ex-
tirpated by placing a hedge-hog
in the kitchen, during the summer
nights.
A German writer recommends
to place a bundle of pea-straw near
their holes, as they are fond of
creeping into it, and after a short
time, it should be suddenly taken
away, and burnt.
Another simple method, which
is so Avell known, that it scarcely
deserves to be mentioned, is, to
place a vessel with any lieiuid, with
pieces of board in an oblique di-
262 BEL
BEL
rection, to facilitate their ascent to
the edge of the A'essel, over Avhich
they Avill fall into the liquid.
Belladonna. See Deadly Night-
shade.
BELLES LETTRES, or polite
literature, a very comprehensive
expression, though not easily de-
fined. Our industrious predeces-
sors, the editors of the " Encyclo-
padia Britannica," justly complain
that they cannot find either a clear
definition,or a succinct explanation,
of the Avords Belles Lettres, nor any-
summary of those sciences Avhich
are comprehended under this ge-
neral anel collective denomination.
With diffidence Ave venture to as-
sert, that, to us, it does not appear
a vague term ; and though neither
the voluminous French nor English
Dictionaries contain an analysis of
this expression, our difficulties, in
this respect, are by no means in-
surmountable.
When we consider the influence
or effect of polite literature on the
moral anel intellectual character of
man, it may be defined to be that
extensive ramification of the sub-
jective sciences, Avhich are peculi-
arly calculated to improvethe heart,
and enlarge the mind, in contradis-
tinction to those objective, or physi-
cal sciences, Avhich principally tend
to increase the knowledge of the
senses, while they explain the na-
ture of external objects, anel are
therefore denominated Natural and
Experimental Philosophy, including
Natural History in all its branches.
Of the latter, we shall treat in their
proper places; and confine our
analysis, at present, to the Belles
Lettres. These useful and elegant
acquirements distinguish the ac-
complished scholar from the illite-
rate mechanic, Avho studies and
applies the effects of motion, form,
variety, and action, while the former
endeavours to account for their
causes. It would be inconsistent
with our plan, to accompany every
department of polite literature with
a separate definition, which would
extend this article beyond its proper
limits. Hence we shall content our-
selves, Avith exhibiting merely an
outline of the branches of this ex-
tensive tree of learning.
1. The Arts of Speech, compre-
hendin g Oratory and Poetry; av hich
last is again divided into epic, dra-
matic, lyric, Sec.
2. Ornamental Gardening.
3. Elegant Architecture.
4. Music, vocal and instumental.
5. The Gymnastic Arts, such as
Dancing, Fencing, Riding, &c.
6. The Art of Drawing, which
includes Painting, Engraving, Carv-
ing on Wood, Basso Relievo, and
Mosaic Work.
7. The Art of Printing, the most
simple, but the most extensively
useful.
We cannot, on this occasion,
differ in opinion from the Monthly
Reviewer, who, in the 79th volume
of that work, when analysing the
Transactions of the Royal Society
of Edinburgh, makes the folloAving
judicious remarks; The French,
beside many other similar institu-
tions, have long had their Academy
of Sciences, and also that of Bellh
Lettres.
BELL-FLOWER, or, Campa-
nula, L. a genus of plants compre-
hending eighty species. The fol-
lowing are the principal:
1. The rotundifolia, or Round-
leaved Bell-flower, produces blue
or Avhite floAvers, in August and
September. See Withering, 241;
and Curtis, Lond.fasc, 4. t. 21....
Cattle and Sheep browse upon
these flowers Avith avidity; and
BEL
they are likewise useful in dyeing.
The milky juice of the Avhite flow-
ers is said to impart a beautiful
green colour, by the addition of
alum. The juice of the blue flow-
ers alone has been used for paint-
ing and writing; and Dambour-
ney asserts, that Avith these flow-
ers he dyed avooI and cloth of a
fine vigogne colour, having previ-
ously immersed them in a proper-
ly diluted solution of bismuth.
2. The rapunculus, or Rampion
Bell-flower, with straight stalks,
two feet high, undulated leaves,
lance-shaped, and nearly oval; its
small blue or Avhite floAvers, which
appear on the upper part of the
stem, blow in July and August....
See Withering, 242 ; and Engl.
Bot. t. 283....Formerly the rampion
was cultivated in gardens, for its
roots, which were used in salads;
and though much neglected, it is
often met Avith in a Avild state, on
fallows, and beside causeways.
3. The latifolia, or Giant Bell-
flower, with oval lance-shaped
leaves, a very simple cylindrical
stem, solitary floAvers (in August),
and pendant seed: it grows in
thickets and under hedges. See
With. 243, and Engl. Bot. t. 302.
The roots of this species are like-
wise an useful addition to salads.
4. The rapunculoides, or Creep-
ing Bell-flower, with heart and
lance-shaped leaves, a branchy
stalk, pendant flowers, and re-
flected flower-cups.
The roots of this species are
likewise esculent, and cattle are
fond of its leaves.
5. The glomerata, or Clustered-
Bell-flower, Avith angular stems,
and sessile flowers terminating in a
head. It grows on high calcareous
lands, and blossoms in July and
August. See With. 244, and
BEL 262
Engl. Bot. t. 90. Although bees
eagerly frequent the flowers of this
species, yet it should be carefully
extirpated from meadoAVS and fields
as being a pernicious food for
cattle.
Bellis. See Daisy.
BELLOWS, an apparatus so
contrived, as alternately to inspire
and expel the air. This machine
is too Avell known to require a par-
ticular description. It is used in
chambers, kitchens, forges, and
founderies, as likewise for organs,
and other pneumatic instruments,
to introduce into them a proper vol-
ume of air.
Anacharsis, the Scythian, is
recorded as the inventor of bellows.
Their action bears an affinity to that
of the lungs; for what is called
blowing in the former, is an illus-
tration of respiring in the latter.
Animal life may, on some occasions
be supported by blowing into the
lungs with a pair of bellows ; espe-
cially in accidents of drowning or
suffocation.
Hessian Bellows, a contrivance
for supplying a mine with fresh air,
for the respiration of the miners.
This machine has been improved
by M. Pa pin, Avho has changed its
cylindrical into a spiral form.
BELLY-ACH, or Colic, is a dis-
ease which may arise from vai ious
causes, and is generally accompa-
nied Avith costiveness, though some-
times also Avith diarrhoea, especially
in children. Adults frequently be-
come liable to attacks of this ma-
lady, in consequence of excess in
eating, or after partaking of incon-
gruous mixtures, or dishes, Avhich
may occasion a distention of the
bowels.
The symptoms of this complaint,
in infants, are, sudden cries, con-
traction of the thighs towards the
264 BEN
BEN
belly, striking with the feet, distor-
tions of the face, not unlike those
in laughing, hastily seizing and re-
linquishing the maternal breasts,
acid eruptions, Sec.....If the child
be costive, it will be necessary to
relieve the bowels with very small
doses of manna and rheubarb, given
in chamomile tea, every half hour,
[or a small portion of castor-oil]
till they produce the desired effect:
sometimes a small quantity of the
poAvder of gum arabic is an useful
addition. When green feces are
discharged, a few drachms of mag-
nesia with one or two of rhubarb,
according to the age of the infant,
may be given with advantage ; but
the greatest benefit will, on such
occasions, be derived from a proper
application of clysters, composed
either of a decoction of chamomile,
with a spoonful or two of sweet oil,
and a few grains of salt; or milk,
oil and sugar, or merely a solution
of Avhite soap and water ; which
last is the cheapest, and most effi-
cacious. Cataplasms, or the com-
mon poultice, made of bread, milk,
and oil, may likeAvise be applied to
the loAver part of the belly, and re-
peated as often as they grow cold ;
adding every time the necessary
portion of new milk, to give them
a proper consistence.....See Colic
Belts acroamatic. See Quacke-
ry.
Benefit of Clergy....See Clergy.
BENE-SEED, the production of
an American plant.
[This plant (pronounced Binne)
is the Sesamum, L. and was pro-
bably introduced into the Southern
States, by the negroes from Africa.
It abounds in many parts of Africa.
and Sonini and Brown, both late
traA'ellers into Egypt, say, it is much
cultivated there, for the purpose
of feeding horses, and for culinary
purposes. The negroes in Geor-
gia, boil a handful of the seeds
with their alloAvance of Indian corn.
Probably, no plant yields so large a
proportion of oik]
According to a letter of Mr. J.
Morel, inserted in the first vol-
ume of the " Transactions of the
American Philosophical Society;'"
this seed yields an oil of an equal
and even preferable quality, to
Florence oil: one hundred weight
of seed will produce ninety pounds
of oil; its cultivation, therefore,
deserves to be strongly recom-
mended.
BENT GRASS, or Agrostis, a
genus of grasses comprehending
forty-one species.
1. The Spicaventi, or Silky Bent-
grass : it grows to the height of
three or four feet, on dry sandy
fields. See With. 126.....When
young, it affords a tolerable fodder
for cattle ; but should not be given
to them in its mature state, as its
sharp leaves are apt to injure their
gums. With a decoction of the
brown floAvers and stalks of this
species, linen may be dyed of a
pleasing yellow colour, merely by
repeated dippings, without any
farther addition, except a little
alum, Avhich gives it a greenish
shade. The stalks are used by
the Russians and Tartars, for ma-
nufacturing beautiful basket-work.
2. The stolonifera, Creeping
Bent-grass, or Blue Squitch-grass,
grows in moist fields and meadows;
see With. 131.
It deserves to be cultivated, as it
produces a wholesome and nourish-
ing fodder for cattle ; and, at the
same time, suppresses the growth
of mosses, and other Aveeds^ by its
quick and luxuriant vegetation.
BENZOINE, a concrete resin-
ous juice, obtained according to
BEN
Mr. Dryander, from the Styrax
benzoe, L. a tree which grows
chiefly in the island of Sumatra....
It is imported from the East Indies,
in large masses composed of white
and light brovm pieces, or yel-
loAvish drops, which easily break
between the fingers. This resin is
extremely fragrant, especially when
heated ; and, in a cold state, it has
a sweetish taste.
When exposed, in proper ves-
sels, to the action of fire, benzoine
yields a considerable proportion of
a w hite saline concrete, called :
Flowers of Be?izoine or Benzoic
acid: this chemical production is
obtained in a cheap and easy way,
invented by Mr. Scheele ; his
process is as follows : Take one
drachm of the salt of benzoine,
and dissolve it gradually in three
ounces'of boiling water; then strain
the liquor, Avhile hot, into a glass
vessel which has previously been
heated ; let it stand till the crystals
are formed, and afterwards care-
fully decant the solution, and se-
parate all the salt, by repeated
gentle evaporations and crystalli-
zations. As, on account of their
extreme lightness, flowers of ben-
zoine cannot be easily reduced to
powder, it is advisable to preserve
them in the form of a fine precipi-
tate. When properly made, they
have an agreeable taste and a fra-
grant smell. Spirit, of wine dis-
solves them completely, as well as
water by the assistance of heat....
In order to keep them suspended
in the latter medium, sugar must
be added, and, in that state, they
may be easily formed into a bal-
samic syrup. In diseases of the
breast, from twenty to thirty grains
were formerly administered, and
held in great estimation as a pec-
VOL. I.
BEN 265
toral and sudorific medicine ; but
they are at present seldom em-
ployed, except as an ingredient in
the well-known paragoric elixir,
and likeAvise in the camphorated
tincture of opium.
As a perfume and cosmetic, the
solution of flowers of benzoine still
maintain their reputation at the
toilette ; though, Ave believe, that
their efficacy is not superior to the
crystals of lemon juice, or even the
salt obtained from the ashes of
bean-straAV, and that their agree-
able odour is the only superiority
Avhich they possess.
Animal Benzoine, or a Salt of
similar properties to that obtained
from the Styrax benzoe, L. has
lately been discovered by the
French chemists, in the urine of
diflerent animals especially horses,
from which it may be precipitated
in a white powder, by adding only
a small portion of muriatic acid,
or spirit of salt. But this benzoic
acid has been found in still greater
quantities in the urine of cows and
horses, in which hay and. straAV
had been soaked. Hence, near
cow-houses and stables, Avhere
great numbers of cattle are fed, it
may be easily manufactured in the
large way, by combining this va-
luable acid with lime, and after-
wards precipitating it by the ma-
rine acid, which will effectually
remove the offensive smell.
Probably the urine of all herba-
ceous animals contains the benzoic
acid in abundance; as it appears
to be chiefly derived from the
sweet-scented spring grass, or An-
thoxanthum odoratum, L. This fra-
grant substance has likewise betn
discovered in the urine of infants,
by M. Scheele: he, however,
observes, that he could precipitate
M M
266 BER
BER
it in considerable quantities, only
during that stage of infancy, when
there existed no phosphoric acid,
or similar salt in the urine ; or, in
other words, Avhile the phosphoric
ingredients were employed by Na-
ture in the formation of bones......
This remarkable phenomenon also
proves, that the benzoic acid is
actually generated in the animal
economy ; because the first nour-
ishment of infants, the mother's
milk, does not appear to contain
it. Hence the French chemists
have endeavoured to explain the
cause of the rapid formation of
bones during early infancy ; be-
cause the phosphoric acid of the
urine of infants, and the phosphat
of lime contained in milk, both be-
ing deposited in a solid form, con-
tributed to the consolidation of the
animal frame : and these two sub-
stances have, by chemical analysis,
been found to serve as the basis of
bones.
BERBERRIES, or Barberries,
the Berberis, L. a shrub better
known by tae name of Piperidge
bush. There are three species of
this plant, but one only is indige-
nous, namely, the vulgaris, or
Common Berberry, which grows
spontaneously in hedges, and is
frequently cultivated in gardens
for its fruit, which makes a good
pickle, and is used for garnishing
dishes. It rises to the height of
eight or ten feet, with many stalks,
which have externally a Avhitebark,
but yellow on the inside : the stalks
and branches are thorny ; the
leaves are oval, and obtuse, with
slightly serated edges ; the blos-
soms grow at the wings of the
leaves, in small bunches, like those
of the currant bush : these are suc-
ceeded by oval fruit, which are at
first green, but when ripe turn to
a fine red colour. The flowers ar>
pear in May and June ; anel the
fruit ripens in September.....See
With.- 350, and Engl. Bot. 42.
There are three varieties of this
shrub, viz. the berberry, which
bears a fruit without stones; the
berberry with white fruit; and the
eastern berberry, or that which
produces a black and sweet fruit.
The first sort is generally propa-
gated by suckers, but the method
of planting by layers is preferable.
The best time for laying down the
branches, is in autumn ; and the
young shoots of the same year are
most proper forthispurpose.. When
this shrub is cultivated for its fruit,
it should be planted singly, and not
in hedges, as was formerly the
practice ; the suckers should be
cut up every autumn, and the luxu-
riant shoots pruned ; by this means
the fruit will be more abundant,
and of a better quality than that
Avhich grows wild. The third spe-
cies should be planted in pots, and
sheltered as soon as the young
shoots are taken off, till the plants
have acquired strengh, when they
may be removed to a warmer situa-
tion.
Berberries, on account of their
astringent properties, have occa-
sionally been prescribed in bilious
diarrhoeas. The Egyptians used
them in fluxes and malignant fe-
vers, for abating heat, invigorating
the body, and preventing putrefac-
tion. For this purpose the fruit,
according to Dr. Lewis, should be
macerated for twenty-four hours,
in twelve times its weight of water,
with the addition of a little fennel-
seed ; the liquor, when strained,
should be sweetened with sugar,
or syrup of lemons, and given libe-
rally as a drink. The flowers, when
near, are offensive to the smell, but
BER
BER 267
at adistance their odour is extreme-
ly fragrant. An infusion of the
bark in white wine, is purgative.
In distillation, the berries, when
previously bruised, have been mix-
ed with the grain to increase the
quantity of spirituous liemors. The
roots, boiled in ley, impart a yel-
low colour to wool; and in Po-
land, leather is tanned of a beauti-
ful yellow with the bark of the root.
The inner bark also, with the ad-
dition of alum, has been employ-
ed for dyeing linen of a similar
colour.
The effect of this shrub upon
wheat lands is truly singular ; and
though well known to botanists, is
not familiarto every farmer- When
growing in the hedges near corn-
fields, it changes the ears to a dark
brown colour, and prevents them
from filling ; nay, its influence in
this respect has often extended
across a field to the distance of three
or four hundred yards: it should,
therefore, be carefully eradicated
from lands appropriated to tillage.
It is eaten by cows, sheep, and
goats, but rejected by swine.
BERE, or Barley-big, or Square
Barley, is a very strong luxuriant
plant, both in grain and straw: it
resembles barley in growth, and
cone-wheat in size. It is generally
cultivated in Ireland, for malt, in
the best and richest soil, usually
after potatoes : the time of sowing
is between Michaelmas [28 Sept.]
and Christmas, at the rate of one
barrel, which is two hundred
weight, to an Irish acre ; and its
produce is said to be, generally,
from twenty to thirty-five barrels
an acre. Two bushels and a half
of seed to an English acre, will be
in the same proportion. For the
information of those readers who.
are not acquainted with the differ-
ence in the measurement of land,
we shall observe, that five Irish
are equal to eight English acres
anel fifteen perches, or 70,560 feet
to an Irish, and 43,560 feet to an
English, acre.
The culture of bere is recom-
meneled in this country.... 1. Be-
cause it will succeed extremely Ayeli
in any soil fit to produce a crop of
barley, and even on cold stiff lands,
where barley will not thrive ; 2. As
it ripens from one to three weeks
sooner than any other grain : 3. It
may, if generally cultivated, be in-
troduced into our malt-distilleries,
not only instead of barley, but,
what is of much greater import-
ance, as a substitute for wheat, of
which so much is used in these ma-
nufactories : and, lastly, it may,
with great advantage, be given
to swine, instead of barley-meal.
Moreover, it has been asserted, that
an acre of land will yield more of
this grain than of barley.
Bere labours under the disad-
vantage of not being easily clear-
ed of its anns, or beard. This has
been imputed to carelessness in
cleansing, or preserving it from
moisture in the stacks; but the
difficulty is more probably owing
to the grain being cut doAvn before
it is thoroughly ripe.....If sown
earlier than usual, it is still more
productive.
A correspondent, in a letter to
the editors of the " Museum Rusti-
cum," &c. mentions a curious cir-
cumstance respecting the cultiva-
tion of this grain : " Amongst some
wheat," says he, " that Avas sown
last year, a small quantity of bere
happened to be mixed; all of which
bere is now in the ear, and in the
most flourishing condition I ever
beheld: even the long-continued
easterly Avind has not in the least
268 BER
BER
affected it; and we may expect it
to be ripe very soon. I could earn-
estly desire some of your readers
to try the experiment, and shall
endeavour to have it done myself.
There are many of your readers
who Avould be glad that this grain
had a better character as to its
cleanliness ; and I am persuaded it
would come into great esteem
every Avhere."
BERGAMOT, a variety of the
citron, produced by grafting the
latter on the stock of a bergamot-
pear-tree. The fruit has an exqui-
site smell and flavour; and its es-
sence is highly esteemed as a per-
fume of the fmit, by cutting it into
small pieces, and expressing the
oil into a glass vessel. A fragrant
Avater is distilled from the peel, as
follows : Take the rind of three
bergamot-pears, one gallon of pure
spirit, and four pints of Avater; draw
off a gallon in a balneum maris, or
water-bath, anel add a sufficient
quantity of refined Avhite sugar ;
or, take of the essence of bergamot
three drachms and a half, spirit of
wine three pints, and of volatile
sal ammoniac one drachm; dis-
til off three pints in a similar man-
ner.
BERNE-MACHINE,an engine
for rooting up trees, invented by
P. Sommer, a native of Beme, in
Switzerland.
This machine consists of three
principal parts: the beam, the
ram, and the lever. The beam is
composed of two planks of oak,
three inches thick, and separated
by two transverse pieces of the
same wood, of an equal thickness.
These planks are perforated Avith
holes to receive iron pins, upon
which the lever acts between the
tAvo sides of the beam, and is shift-
ed higher as the tree is raised out
of its place. The sides are secured
at the top and bottom by strong iron
hoops. The pins should be an inch
and a quarter, and the holes through
which they pass, an inch and a half
in diameter. When the machine
is in action,the bottom of the beam
is secured by stakes driven into the
earth. The ram, which is made of
oak, elm, or some other strong
woqd, is capped Avith three strong
iron spikes, Avhich take fast hold
of the tree. This ram is six or eight
inches square ; and an incision is
made longitudinally through its
middle, from the lower end to the
first ferule, in order to allow room
for the chain to play round the
pully, Avhich should be-four inches
thick, and nine in diameter. The
ram is raised by means of the chain,
which should be about ten feet long,
vyith links four inches and three
quarters in length, and one inch
thick. One end of this chain is fast-
ened to the top of the beam, Avhile
the other, after having passed
through the lower part of the ram,
and over the pully, terminates in a
ring or link, the two ears of Avhich
serve to keep it in a true position
between the two planks of the beam.
The hook, which should be made
of very tough iron, is inserted in
this ring ; and the handle ought to
be two inches thick Avhere it joins
to the hook, and gradually lessen in
thickness up to the arch, which
should be about half an inch in di-
ameter. On each side of the upper
pin is a semi-circular notch, which
rests alternately on the pins, Avhen
the machine is worked. The hole
and arch serve to fix a long lever
of wood, by means of two iron
pins, and thus it is raised or low-
ered at pleasure, in order to render
the Avorking of the machine easy,
in whatever part of the beam it may
BER
B E Z 269
be placed ; for, Avithout this con-
trivance, the extremity of the lever
would, when the handle is near the
top of the beam, be higher than
men standing upon the ground
could reach.
This machine is worked in the
following manner: it is placed
against a tree, and the end of the
beam supported by stakes. The
iron handle is placed in the open-
ing between the two planks of the
beam, and the wooden lever fixed
to it, by means of the iron pins.
The hook takes hold of the chain,
and one of the iron pins is thrust
into the outer row of holes, by
which means the exterior notch will
rest on the pin, which will be the
centre of motion ; and the end of
the lever being pressed downwards,
the other notch will be raised, at
the same time the chain, and con-
sequently the ram. Aftenvards,
the other iron pin is to be put into
the hole in the inner row, above
that which was before the centre of
motion, and the end of the lever
elevated or pushed upwards, the
latter pin on Avhich the notch rests
then becoming the centre of mo-
tion. By this alternate motion of
the lever, and shifting the pins, the
chain is draAvn upwards over the
pulley, and consequently the whole
force of the engine exerted against
the tree. There is a small Avheel
joined to the end of the ram op-
posite the pulley, in order to lessen
the friction of that part of the ma-
chine.
From this account, the reader
will perceive that the machine is a
single pulley, compounded with a
lever of the first and second order.
As the push of the engine is given
in an oblique direction, it Avill ex-
ert a greater or less force against
the horizontal roots of the tree, in
proportion to the angle formed by
the machine with the plane of the
horizon ; and the angle of 45° is
the maximum, or that wjien the
machine will exert its greatest
force against the horizontal roots
of the tree.
Bethlehem. See Star of Beth-
lehem.
BETONY (Wood), or Betomca
officinalis, L. a low perennial plant,
growing wild in woods and thick-
ets ; its flowers, which appear in
July and August, are of a purplish
colour, and stand in spikes on the
tops of the stalks.....See With.
530 ; and Curt. Lond.fasc. 3. t. 33.
Tanners have employed this plant
as a substitute for oak-bark ; and,
according to Dambourney, the
leaves and branches of the betony,
when in blossom, may be used for
dyeing wool of a permanent dark
broAvn colour, when previously
dressed in a Aveak solution of bis-
muth.
The leaves and flowers have a
bitterish taste, accompanied with
a weak aromatic flavour. They are
mild corroborants, and, Avhen in-
fused, or gently boiled, the decoc-
tion may be drank as tea : a strong
tincture made in rectified spirit,
has proved beneficial in laxity and
debility, when taken in small, re-
peated doses.
It is remarkable, that the roots
of this plant greatly differ in qua-
lity from the other parts: the for-
mer are bitter, nauseous, and, like
the roots of hellebore, occasion
violent diarrhoea, when taken in a
small dose. It is farther affirmed,
that betony affects those who ga-
ther any quantity of its leaves and
flowers, with a disorder resembling
the effects of intoxication.
BEZO AR, in natural history and
medicine, is a calculous concretion,
270 B I E
B IG
found in the stomach of animals
of the goat kind. It is a morbid
substance, possessing neither taste
nor smell, and it cannot be consi-
dered in any other light than as a
Aveak absorbent. In a more com-
prehensive sense, bezoar includes
all concrete substances formed in
the intestines of animals : hence
pearls, and the concretions called
crab's eyes, belong to the class of
bezoars.
Fossil Bezoar, is a kind of stone
formed like the animal bezoar of
several coats round some extrane-
ous body. It is found in Sicily, in
sand and clay-pits.
Bidens. See Marygold.
BIENNIAL PLANTS are those
of only two years duration. Several
vegetables are of this tribe : being
raised from seed, they generally at-
tain perfection the first year ; and
in the following spring, or sum-
mer, they produce their floAvers
and seeds, and soon afterAvards de-
cay.
Biennials consist of esculents
and floAver-plants. The former in-
clude the cabbage, savoy, carrot,
parsnip, beet, onion, leek, Sec. and
the latter, the Canterbury bell,
French honey-suckle, Avail-flower,
stock July-flower, Sweet-William,
China-pink, common-pink, carna-
tion, scabious, holly-hock, tree-
mallow, vervain-mallow, tree-prim-
rose, honesty, or moonwort, Sec
all of which, if sown in March,
April, or May, rise the same year,
anel in the following, shoot up into
stalks, flower, and produce perfect
seeds in autumn. Though most
of the biennials dwindle in the third
year, a few of them, particularly
holly-hocks, Avail-flowers, carna-
tions, and pinks, produce flowers
which, however, are generally
small, and of faint colours. Hence
it is necessary to raise an annual
supply from seed ; though the
three last mentioned plants may be
propagated by slips and layers.
[BIGNONIA CATALPA. A
native deciduous tree of the
United States, covered with a
smooth brown bark ; the flowers
are produced in large branching
panicles, towards the ends of the
branches ; they are of dark white,
with a few purple spots, and faint
stripes of yellow on their inside.
The flowers are succeeded by long
taper pods, containing seeds. The
branches dye wool a kind of cinna-
mon colour. Thunberg mentions
that the Japanese lay the leaves on
parts of the body affected with
pains ; and that a decoction of the
pods is esteemed serviceable in the
asthma. Poultry are very fond of
the seeds, and thrive on them.
The timber of the catalpa tree,
makes very durable fence posts.
Bignonia crucigera, or cross vine,
is so called from the pith dividing
the stem longitudinally into four
ecmal portions, so that when cut
through transversely, it exhibits the
appearance of a cross. A decoc-
tion of this plant is much used in
Carolina in cases of yaws, and
other obstinate ulcers, by way of
diet drink, combined with sasafrass
root, China-brier root, and poly-
pody.
Bignonia sempervirens, or Caro-
lina yellow jesamine, is a beautiful
vine, rising with slender stalks,
which twist themselves round the
neighbouring plants, and mount to
a considerable height. The flowers
are trumpet-shaped, and have a very
sweet scent. It grows luxuriantly
and naturally in most parts of S.
Carolina, and is a native of some
parts of Virginia. When in flower,
it perfumes the air to a considera-
B I L
We distance. The flowers are yel-
low, and smell like the wall-flow-
cr.]
BILBERRY, or the Vaccinium,
L. is a plant of which, according to
Bkchstein, there are twenty-six
species, while others enumerate
only fifteen.
1. The Myrtillus, or Bilberry,
which grows in abundance, in
woods and heaths. See Wither-
ing, 370, anel Eng. Bot. 456. The
berries, when ripe, are of a dark
blue colour; and, on account of
their astringent cmality, are occa-
sionally given in diarrhoeas, with
good effect. In Scotland, they are
eaten by the Highlanders, in milk;
and likewise used in tarts and jel-
lies : they produce a violet-colour-
ed dye, which requires to be fixed
with alum. The juice, mixed
with a fourth part of lime, verdi-
grise, and sal ammoniac, affords
a purple pigment used by artists.
The young tender leaves of this
plant, properly dried, are an ex-
cellent substitute for tea.
2. The uliginosum, or Great
Bilberry, is found on marshy heaths.
See Withering, 370, and Eng.
Bot. 581.....The fruit of this spe-
cies is not so much esteemed as
that of the preceding, because, if
eaten in any quantity, it is apt to
occasion head-ach.
3. The Vitis Idaa, or Red
Whortle Berry, which grows on
heaths,and inwoods. See Wither-
ing, 371, and Eng. Bot. 593. Its
fruit is acid, anel cooling. In Swe-
den, it is eaten in the form of a
jelly. The young leaves of this spe-
cies might also be advantageously
used instead of tea; from which
they can scarcely be distinguished.
4. The Oxycoccus, or Cranberry,
is common in bogs covered with
B I L 271
mosses. See With. 372, and
Engl. Bot. 319.
Great quantities of these berries
are used in confectionary, as deli-
cipus ingredients in tarts ; to which
they impart a rich flavour. It de-
serves to be added, that this fruit
may be kept in a fresh state for
many years, merely by immersing
it in a bottle filled with spring Ava-
ter, and closely stopped. Silver,
boiled in a decoction of the ber-
ries, acquires a whiter and more
beautiful lustre.
All the species of the bilberry
are antiseptic; and their juices,
mixed with sugar, and properly
fermented, may be converted into
grateful and Avholesome domestic
wines.
BILE, is a yellow, or greenish,
saponaceous liepior, secreted in the
liver, and collected in the gall-
bladder, into which it regurgitates,
as itAvere, into a blind gut, and is
thence discharged into the lower
enel of the duodenum, or beginning
of the jejunum. (See Aedo3U.n}.
Its principal use appears to be that
of sheathing or blunting the acids
contained in our daily food, and
thus enabling the milky liquor,
called chyle, after being mixed
with bile in the duodenum, to
enter the lacteal veins, or milk
vessels, which convey a nutritious
supply to the whole body. (See
Lacteals). Hence an increased
quantity of aliment requires a
greater proportion of bile, to pro-
mote its digestion ; anel, according-
ly, as the stomach is- more or less
distended with food, it presses on
the gall-bladder to obtain a propor-
tionate cmantity of bile, Avhich is
then mixed with the chyle, as be-
fore described.....See Chyle, and
Liver.
272 B I L
BIL
Bile is a very important fluid in
the animal economy, insomuch,
that from an excessive secretion of
it, the inhabitants of Avarm climates
become liable to many tedious and
often fatal diseases. A supera-
bundance of bile in*the first pas-
sages, either flows again into the
stomach, and is productive of ge-
neral languor, nausea, a foul
tongue, loss of appetite, and indi-
gestion ; or, Avhen it is determined
to the intestines, it is generally at-
tended Avith a painful diarrhoea. In
the temperate climates, however, a
vitiated and superfluousbile is more
frequently diffused through the
whole body. In this case, the
skin assumes a yellow colour, the
urine becomes sensibly impregnat-
ed with bilious matter, the pulse
is preternaturally quick, and the pa-
tient complains of heat, thirst,
head-ach, and other symptoms of
fever. His body becomes gradu-
ally emaciated, and his visage
strongly indicates the disorder of
the constitution.....Various are the
causes of this extensive derange-
ment of the different bodily func-
tions ; but we may safely assert,
that most persons, particularly in
hot climates, contract bilious di-
arrhoeas, colics, fevers, and chronic
diseases of the liver, by intemper-
ance in eating animal food, drink-
ing spirituous liquors, and by brav-
ing the sudden transitions of tem-
perature, from the intense heat of
day to the piercing chiliness of
night, anel thus checking insensible
perspiration....one of the most ne-
cessary excretions of the human
body. Forthe cure of such maladies
as may arise from numerous and
diversified causes, no general plan
can be safely prescribed. But it
deserves to be remarked, that the
greatest benefit may be derived
from adopting a proper diet and re-
gimen, both Avith a view to prevent
and relieve bilious diseases. Hence
we Avould advise persons liable to
eructations, flatulency, and costive-
ness, which arise from a vitiated bile,
to abstain from all acrid, watery, and
oily food, especially, butter and fat
meat; to abandon hot liquors, such
as tea, coffee, punch, he. to regu-
late the depressing passion of grief,
anger, and anxiety ; to exchange
a hasty and irascible for a more
placid and composed temper ; and
on the whole to pursue a calm,
steady, and temperate course of
life.
Vitiated Bile, is a common dis-
ease in infants, who are suckled
by intemperate orpassionate nurses,
or, in consequence of their be-
ing fed with improper nutriment,
such as viscid pap made of flour,
instead of biscuit or well baked
bread ; animal food, before they are
twelve months old; gingerbread and
pastry. This complaint manifests
itself by green stools, and an acrid
quality of the bile, which even ex-
coriates the flesh : the child ex-
presses its pain by incessant cry-
ing, and drawing up of the legs.
Nature, therefore, frequently re-
moves the evil by copious evacua-
tions, which are spontaneously ex-
cited by the acrimonious state of
humours. Hence the impropriety
of administering chalk clysters,
combined with laudanum, or other
cordials, anel thus in a manner
locking up the poison within the
intestines ; while the infant be-
comes most effectually intoxicated.
Thence arise convulsions, enlarg-
ment of the mesentery, a principal,
though remote, cause of consump-
tion ; the scald head; and scro-
phula in all its forms.....Instead of
following those dangerous prac-
BIN
tices, which are calculated only to
aggravate the complaint, two cir-
cumstances ought to be attended
to, namely. 1. To remove the sti-
mulating matter, by repeated small
doses of tamarinds, combined Avith
a solution of manna ; and 2. To
counteract the preternatural weak-
ness and irritability of the intesti-
nal canal, by the addition of gum
arabic, powder of salep-root, or a
little jelly made of Iceland moss. In
cases, however, where considera-
ble acidity prevails, it will be ad-
visable to give a few grains of
magnesia, in intermediate doses:
but, if the spasmodic strictures of
the abdomen continue, a medical
practitioner should be consulted,
whether it be proper to have re-
course to a few drops of laudanum,
or paregoric elixir, remedies which
ought never to be intrusted to dab-
blers in medicine.
BINDWEED, or Convolvulus,
L. a genus of plants, comprising
forty-three species,
1. The tirvensis, or Small Bind-
weed, a common plant in fields
and hedges, but particularly trou-
blesome in gardens of a gravelly
soil ; its white anel red flowers ap-
pear in June and July. See With.
239, anel Engl. Bot. 312......As
the roots of this plant, particularly
in wet seasons, strike deep into
the ground, and injure the growth
of corn, they ought to be carefully
extirated, and transplanted on the
sandy banks of rivers and lakes,
where they greatly tend to bind
the soil. Bees are uncommonly
partial to the flowers of the con-
volvulus ; and it is eagerly eaten
by black cattle, rnd sheep.
2. The sepium, or Great Bind-
weed, likewise a pernicious plant
in gardens ; it thrives under moist
hedges; its stalk grows to the
VOL. I.
BIO 273
height of several feet, and bears
white or purplish blossoms in July
and August. See With. 240, and
Engl. Bot. 313. The root of this
species is very acrid anel purgative
to the human const) tion ; but does
not affect swine, though eaten in
large quantities. Its flowers are
frequented by bees.
3. The soldanella, or Sea Bind-
weed, grows on the sandy shores
of the sea, but Cannot be long
preserved in gardens; its purple
flowers blow in July. See With.
240, anel Engl. Bot. 314.....This
species is also possessed of cathar-
tic properties, so that half an
ounce of the juice of the root, or
one dram of the powder, is a
strong dose. The leaves of the
Sea Bindweed have often been
externally applied for the reduc-
tion of dropsical swellings of the
legs ; and, it is asserted, with good
effect.
Among the exotic species of this
plant, Ave shall only mention the
Convolvulus Jalappa, or Jalap, a
native of Spanish America, which
affords the drastic medicine of that
name ; the Batata., [or sweet po-
tatoes. See Potatoes], a delici-
ous root, but too delicate to thrive
in the open air of England ; the
scoparius, or Bushy Bindweed,
which grows wild in the island of
Barrancas, and affords, it is said,
the fragrant oil and wood of Rho-
dium ; and, lastly, the Scammor.iu,
or Syrian Bindweed, from the in-
spissiated juice of which is prepar-
ed the efficacious purgative sub-
stance known by the name Scam-
MONY.
Bindweed, Black : See Climb-
ing Buckwheat.
BIOGRAPHY, an account of
the lives anel characters of remark-
able persons. It is the most en-
N n
274 BIO
tertaining and instructive branch of
history, and admits of the descrip-
tion anel passion of romance, Avith
this essential difference, that the
characters anel incidents ought not
only to be agreeable to Nature, but
strictly true. Hence no books are
so proper for the amusement and
instruction of youth, who, by read-
ing them, are incited to the imita-
tion of great and virtuous actions ;
while they are deterred from vice,
by an animated delineation of its
baneful effects.
As the subjects of biography are
the lives of either public or private
persons, many useful observations
may be made from authentic ac-
counts of those Avho have been
eminently beneficial to society.
Nay, even the lives of immoral
characters may serve as a Avarning
to deter others, and especially
youth, from listening to the tempta-
tions of folly and vice.
Philanthropists, who have ex-
posed their lives, or employed their
faculties in the service of their fel-
low-creatures, deserve that their
memory should be perpetuated,
both as a tribute of public gratitude,
and as virtuous examples in the
annals of history. The love of
fame is natural to the human mind;
anel, when properly directed, is at
once, productive of happiness to the
individuals, and general benefit to
mankind.
In the lives of great men, their
public characters are principally to
be regarded ; but, as the world is
inquisitive, the investigation of their
private conduct may also occasion-
ally be useful, to illustrate the in-
fluence of example. On the other
hand, too minute an inquiry into
the foibles and infirmities of emi-
nent men, is an illiberal and cen-
surable curiosity. Among the an-
cient biographers, Plutarch is
BIR
generally allowed to excel. On the
relative merits of the moderns, we
shall not venture to pronounce ; as
this Avould be an invidious and un-
pleasing task.
BIRCH-TREE (Common), or
Betula alba, L. is one of the indi-
genous trees Avhich has already
been mentioned under the head
of " Alder-tree," though the
latter is only a species of the same
genus, and ought more properly
to have been denominated Betula
alnus, L.
The white or common birch-
tree, is not of a large groAvth, but
when cultivated in a favourable
soil, and a good situation, it rises
to a considerable height. There
is a degree of elegance in its ge-
neral appearance in summer, and
the bark in winter is frequently
variegated with reel and white. It
is easily cultivated by the usual
method ; but, Avhen raised from
seed, the young shoots of the
birch should remain two years in
the seminary, and then be trans-
planted in rows. They may also
be propagated by layers: for this
purpose, a sufficient number of
plants should be placed at a distance
of three yards from each other,
in a soil which has been twice turn-
ed by the spade. If, in the follow-
ing year, they should produce no
shoots, they may be lopped to with-
in half a foot of the ground, to form
the stools, in consequence of which
they will germinate Avith vigour in
the folloAving summer. In autumn,
the young shoots should be plashed
near the stools, and the tender
twigs layered near the ends. Thus
managed, they will have taken
root, and become fine plants, the
following autumn.
Leonardi remarks, in the 2d
volume of his " Natural History,"
p. 629, Germ. edit, that the flower
BIR
catkins of this tree, when boiled in
water, affords a good substitute for
Soap.
Beside the utility of the sap or
juice of the birch-tree, in afford-
ing a delicious wine, it appears from
theexperimentsof Hermestaedt,
that sugar may be obtained by in-
spissating the juice of the variety,
called Black Birch. Such sugar,
however, is not only of an inferi-
or emality, but less in quantity,
than that prepared from the Sugar-
maple.
The wood of the birch is of very
extensive use, as we have before
stated under the article Alder.
Prof. Pallas informs us, that the
Tartars cover their huts with its
bark, and the navigators of the
Volga construct of it portable boats,
cradles, &c. it is also used in fu-
migations, to purify a vitiated at-
mosphere. The Laplanders cut
the outer bark into thongs, of
which they manufacture ropes,
baskets, and other utensils ; and
it even forms some part of their
wearing apparel: it is also used in
dyeing; and, as a substitute for
oak-bark, in tanning. The Swed-
ish house-wives employ this bark,
after burning it to a certain degree
as a cement for broken china, or
earthen-ware. When boiled with
alum, it affords a dye of a dark-
red colour. Dambourney asserts,
that the bark is better for tanning,
Avhen dried, than in a fresh state.
l-'or this purpose, it is cut into small
pieces, and boiled for half an hour
in pure water ; and the prepared
hides are steeped in it, while luke-
warm. The ley is again boiled on
the two folloAving days, and the
steeping of the leather as often
repeated ; after which it is sus-
pended to dry in the air. Leather
BIR 275
thus prepared, is said to be water-
proof.
The leaves of the birch give a
yellowish colour to avooI, Avhich
has been previously prepared with
alum. Those collected in the
spring, however, are not so pro-
per for dyeing, as the autumnal
leaves because the former pro-
duce a greenish tinge ; but the lat-
ter afford a beautiful yellow colour.
They have also been used in the
dropsy, itch, he. either applied ex-
ternally, or in decoctions taken by
the mouth.
The fungus which grows on the
tmnk of the birch-tree, is a very
good styptic; and when boiled in
water, beaten, and dried in an
oven, it makes excellent touch-
wood.
Birch-twigs are used for fishing
rods and brooms; as well as by
bird-catchers, Avho smear them
Avith bird-lime.
Birch-Wine was formerly in
considerable repute, as a remedy
for nephritic disorders, but is dis-
used in modern practice. As it is
a rich cordial, and, according to
Dr. Needham, an excellent re-
medy for consumption, and the
scurvy, we shall acquaint our rea-
ders with the method of prepa-
ing it; though we have no expe-
rience of its medicinal powers.
The juice or sap of the birch-
tree, should be extracted about
the beginning of March, Avhen the
buds begin to swell, and before
they have opened their leaves. An
incision, or hole must be made in
the trunk, almost as deep as the
pith, under some branch of a
well-spreading tree, on its south-
Avestern side, and about one foot
above the ground: a hollow tube
should then be fitted to the aper-
276 BIR
ture, through Avhich the sap will
flow similar to distillation. On ap-
plying a little mould to the orifice,
the wound will heal, and the bark
afterwards closes. Some persons
are of opinion, that the sap drawn
from the trunk of the tree, is not
so pure as that obtained from its
higher branches. - To prevent this
juice from fermenting, till a suffi-
cient quantity is procured, the
bottles in which it is collected,
ought to be immediately stopped.
One of the best methoels of
making birch-wine is as follows:
to every gallon of the sap, add a
pint of honey, or a pound of sugar,
stir the whole together, and boil
it for an hour Avith a few cloves,
and a little lemon peel ; at the
same time carefully scum the rising
impurities. When cool, a few
spoonsful of new ale should be
added, to induce a proper degree of
fermentation ; and, after the yeast
has settled, the wine should be
bottled up, and kept for use. If
this liquor be prepared with pro-
per attention, it becomes so strong
that the common stone bottles,
into which it is decanted, fre-
quently burst.
Birch-Tree (Dwarf), or, Be-
tida nana, L. Avhich groAvs on moist
heaths, and rarely exceeds three
feet in height. It has roundish
leaves, tender branches, a smooth
bark, and its flower-catkins are
uncommonly small: this diminu-
tive tree, however, is more com-
mon in the marshy parts of Russia,
Sweden, and on the mountains of
La;t'and and Norway, than in
Britain. From its fibrous roots,
the Norwegians and Laplanders
manufacture very beautiful car-
pets ; and its leaves are said to
produce a more delicate yellow
BIR
colour, than those of the common
birch.
BIRD is a biped animal, pro-
vided with a bill, and covered with
feathers, having two wings, by
which it is enabled to fly, except
in a few instances. The science
which treats of birds, in general,
is called Ornithology: to which
article we refer the reader, for
farther particulars respecting the
feathered tribe. But the uses, &c.
of the various species, will be
stated under their different heads.
Bird-Call is a stick split atone
end, and containing a leaf of some
plant, by which the notes of dif-
ferent birds are imitated, and they
are thus attracted to the net, snare,
or lime-twig. Thus, a laurel-leaf
fitted to the bird-call, enables a
skilful whistler to produce accents
resembling those of lapwings, a
leek, those of nightingales, &c.
Bird-Catching is the art of
taking birds, whether for the table,
for the pleasure of their song, or
with a view to destroy them, on
account of their depredations......
This art is practised by several
persons in the vicinity of large
towns, for a livelihood ; and is now
reduced to a degree of systematic
perfection. It is, however, at-
tended with considerable expence.
We shall, therefore, as concisely
as possible, describe the ingenious
contrivances of bird-catchers, chief-
ly for the information and amuse-
ment of our country readers.
The nets are a most curious in-
vention, about twelve yards and a
half in length, and two and a half
wide : the birds are caught by the
nets flapping over each other.
Wild birds fly, as the bird-
catchers term it, chiefly during
September, October, and Novem-
BIR
ber; and also in March, though
not in such abundance. The pip-
pet, a small species of lark, ap-
pears in England, about Michael-
mas, and is succeeded by the wood-
lark, linnet, gold-finch, chaff-finch,
8cc. none of which can be caught
in great numbers at any other
time. The birds are, generally,
on the wing from day-break till
noon ; and, as they always fly a-
gainst the wind, there is great con-
tention among the bird-catchers, to
obtain the best situation ; for ex-
ample, if the wind be westerly, the
person who arranges his nets far-
thest to the east, uniformly has
the greatest success.
The bird-catcher is generally
provided with five or six linnets,
two gold-finches,two green-finches,
one wood-lark, a red-pole, yellow-
hammer, and, perhaps, a bull-finch:
these are placed at short distances
from the nets, in small cages : he
has, besides, what are called^wr-
birds, which are fastened to a mo-
veable perch, placed within the net,
where they can be raised at plea-
sure, and gently lowered when
the wild bird approaches.
As there is known to be a supe-
riority between different birds of
the same species, with respect to
their song, bird-catchers always
contrive, that their call-birds may
moult before the usual time. This
is effected by putting them into a
close box for a month, under two
or three folds of blankets, and
leaving their dung in the cage, to
increase the heat. In consequence
of premature moulting, the cap-
tive bird not only begins to sing at
a time when the wild ones are
out of song, but his notes likeAvise
are louder and more shrill than
theirs.
BIR 277
Having arranged his nets, the
bird-catcher disposes the call-birds
at proper intervals ; as their sight
and hearing is infinitely superior to
his OAvn. As soon as the wild
birds are perceived, notice is given
by one of the call-birds to the
rest; they invite the wild ones by
what is called short jerks: this
invitation is so strong, that the
latter are stopped in their course,
and, it frequently happens, that, if
half a flock only are caught, the
remainder will immediately after-
wards alight in the nets.
Nightingales are not birds of
flight: like the wren, and other
singing birds, they only move from
hedge to hedge ; and are caught
by a trap-net,somewhat larger than
a cabbage-net, and the bottom of
which is surrounded by an iron
ring : the trap is baited with a
meal-worm.
The common way of taking larks
is by nets, called trammels, which
are thirty-six yards long, and six
yards broad ; they have six ribs of
packthread, which are fastened to
poles at the ends, about sixteen
feet in length. A net thus prepared,
is in the night drawn by five or six
men over the ground, which it is
made to touch at short intervals.
When the birds fly up against the
net, it is let down, and all under
it are taken ; such as woodcocks,
snipes, partridges,quails, &c. Larks
in the day-time are caught in clap-
nets, fourteen or fifteen yards long,
and two and a half wide. They are
enticed by a decoy-lark, and like-
wise by small fragments of looking
glass fixed in apiece of wood, and
placed in the middle of the net, so
as to receive a quick and circular
motion, by means of a string! This
net, however, is employed only till
278 BIR
the second week in November, as
larks do not sport in the air, except
in fine weather. But in gloomy
days, the larker changes his engine,
and makes use of a trammel-net,
about twenty-seven feet long, and
five broad ; which is fixed on two
poles eighteen feet long; and car-
ried by men who, Avhen passing
over the fields, and perceiving a
lark hit the net, drop it, and thus
secure the bird.
We shall pass over the singular
and hazardous methods of bird-
catching practised by the inhabi-
tants of the Orkney Islands, and in
other parts of the world. But the
following manner of taking birds
alive, by means of a. fusee or musket
is so ingenious, that we shall com-
municate it to our readers. It was
invented by M. de Vaillant,
during his travels in Africa: if his
plan be practicable, it will certainly
facilitate the researches of the Or-
nithologist....Put a smaller or larg-
er quantity of gun-poAvder into the
musket, according as circumstances
may require. Immediately above
it, place the end of a candle of suf-
ficient thickness, ramming it well
down ; and then fill the barrel with
water up to the mouth. When at
a proper distance, fire the musket
thus loaded at a bird, which will
only be stunned, by watering and
moistening its feathers, and may
be easily laid hold of, before it has
time, by fluttering, to injure its
plumage.
[The only remark now to be
made upon birds, is with respect
to their very great utility in de-
stroying the numerous tribes of in-
sects, Avhich prove so injurious to
the fruit and fruit trees in the U.
States. Tor this benefit, they are
entitled to our protection, instead
of meriting the wanton destruction
BIR
to which they are continually ex-
posed by the idle and inconsiderate.
Many of those birds which seem
to court our protection, by build-
ing their little nests, about our
houses, are especially entitled to
our gratitude. The motacilla sialis,
or blue bird, he. Certhiasfamiliaris,
or house Avren, deserve particu-
larly to be noticed. These birds
live almost entirely on insects,
many hundreds of Avhich are daily
devoured by them.
All the species of Motacilla, are
also great devourers of insects ; in
that genus are included among
others, m. mitrata hooded tittmouse,
m. canadensis, black throat Avarbler,
or blue fly catcher ; m. regulus, or
golden croAvned wren. The nume-
rous families of Fringilla, in which
are included, the finch, sparrow,
and titt, or chirping birds, and the
tribe of Parus or tittmouse, are
not less useful. But probably the
most valuable of all birds is the
Caprimulgus Virginianus, night-
hawk, or whip-poor-will ; this bird
lives almost entirely on insects, and
particularly deserves our protection,
for it chiefly flies about in the even-
ing, at Avhich time only, many de-
structive insects make their appear-
ance, and which would escape the
birds of the day.
The common blue jay of our
country is also very useful, in de-
stroying the cockchaffer, scara-
boeus melolontha, of which, that bird
is very fond.]
BIRD-LIME is a viscid matter
used for catching birds.....There
are different Avays of preparing
this substance, but it is generally
made of holly bark, which is
boiled ten or twelve hours; and
when its green rind is separated, it
is covered up in a moist place, to
stand for a fortnight. It is after-
B I R
Avards reduced to a tough paste, and
washed in a running stream, till
no impurities appear. Next, it is
suffered to ferment for four or five
days during which it must be fre-
quently skimmed. Afterwards it
is mixed over the fire, with a third
part of nut-oil, or thin grease, and
thus rendered fit for use.
Dr. Darwin observes, that this
resinous material possesses un-
common adhesiveness to feathers,
and other dry, porous bodies ;
whence it has obtained the name
of bird-lime. It much resembles
the caoutchouc, or elastic resin, im-
ported from South America; and
is also similar to a fossil elastic bi-
tumen found near Matlock, in
Derbyshire ; both in its elasticity
and inflammability. He farther
suggests, that holly may be worth
cultivating, both for its wood, and
the quantity it contains of this
elastic matter. On this occasion,
the Doctor mentions a remarkable
fact, deserving the attention of
rural economists. About thirty
years ago, a person who purchased
a wood in Yorkshire, sold the bird-
lime prepared from the bark of the
numerous holly-trees, to a Dutch
merchant, for nearly the whole
sum given for the wood. If, there-
fore, this substance could be har-
dened, it mi:tilt probably be sub-
stituted for the caoutchouc, or In-
dia-rubber.
The German method of prepar-
ing bird-lime is, by putting about
two pounds of lintseed oil into a
pot, to simmer upon the fire for
some time, after which it is taken
off, and lighted with a match. In
this state of inflammation, it con-
tinues about two hours, when half
the epiantity will be consumed......
By elipping from time to time, a
stick into the oil, and trying the
BIR 279
matter between the fingers, its pro-
per glutinous consistence may be
easily ascertained; on which the
pot is covered, and the flame ex-
tinguished.
Water bird-lime may be pre-
pared as follows : Take a pound
of strong and good ordinary bird-
lime, wash it thoroughly in spring-
water, till it become perfectly soft;
next beat it well, that the water
may be entirely separated ; then
dry it, put it into an earthen pip-
kin, and add to it as much capon's
or goose-grease as will render it
fluid. In this state of the prepa-
ration, add two spoonsful of strong
vinegar, one spoonful of oil, and
a small quantity of Venice turpen-
tine. Let the whole boil for a few
minutes over a moderate fire, stir-
ring it during that process. Then
take it off; but previous to its use,
warm it, and cover the twigs with
it in every direction. This is the
best bird-lime for snipes, or such
birds as frequent marshy places.
The proper method of using bird-
lime is, to cut down the principal
branch of a tree, the twigs of
which are straight, long and
smooth. The AvilloAV and birch
are the best for this purpose. After
the superfluous shoots have been
lopped, and the twigs cleaned, they
must be uniformly covered with
the bird-lime, to within four inches
of the bottom ; but the main stem
should not be touched by this
matter. Great care is required in
laying it on properly ; for, if two
thick, it will alarm the birds, and
prevent their approach ; and, if too
small a quantity be applied, it will
not hold them when they settle
upon it. The branch thus pre-
pared, must be erected in a hedge
or among some growing bushes....
If employed in summer, it should
280 BIR
BIR
be placed in a quickset hedge, in
groves, bushes, or white-thorn
trees, near com-fields, he. but
in winter, the best spots are near
stacks of corn, sheds, or barns......
The sportsman ought to stand as
near the limed bush as possible,
and imitate the notes of birds with
a call. When a bird is attracted
to the bush, and entangled by the
lime, the sportsman should suffer
it to remain; as by the fluttering
it makes to disengage itself, others
will be attracted to the bush, and
thus several may be taken together.
The hours proper for this sport, are
from sun-rise till ten o'clock; and
from one, to sun-set. Another
method of attracting birds is, by a
stale; a bat makes a very good
stale, but it must be fixed so as
to be perceptible at a distance. An
owl is still more eligible for this
purpose, being folloAved by the
small birds, whenever it appears.
If a live owl, or bat, cannot be
obtained, the skin of one stuffed
will likewise answer; nay, even
the image of an owl carved in
wood, and painted of the natural
colour, will produce the desired
effect.
When the German composition
is used, care should be taken to
seize the bird, when entangled, to
prevent it from attempting to free
itself by its beak ; otherwise it will
be destroyed by the deleterious ef-
fects of the oil.
Singing-birds [in England] are
principally the nightingale, black-
bird, thrush, starling, linnet, lark,
red-breast, canary-bird, bull-finch-
and gold finch. Their first note
is termed chirp, which is repeated
at short intervals: the second is
denominated call, being a repetition
of the same note, and the third
sound is termed recording, which a
young bird will do for nearly a
twelve-month, and when perfect in
his lesson, he is said to sing his
song round. Their notes are not
more natural to birds, than lan-
guage is to man ; and they all sing
in the same key.
Preservation of Birds. Vari-
ous methods have been attempted by
naturalists, to preserve animal sub-
stances from putrefaction; but,
from the want of a proper antisep-
tic, many curious animals, and
particularly birds from foreign
parts, are imported in a very im-
perfect state. The following pro-
cess appears to be the most easy
and effectual:
After opening the bird, by a
longitudinal incision from the breast
to the vent, dissecting the fleshy
parts from the bones, and remov-
ing the entrails, eyes, brains, and
tongue, the cavities, and inside of
the skin are to be sprinkled with
the following powders: Take of
corrosive sublimate 41b. pulverized
nitre ^lb. burnt alum ilb. flowers
of sulphur -|lb. camphor ilb. black
pepper, and coarsely ground to-
bacco, one pound each; mix the
ingredients Avell together, and keep
them in a glass vessel closely stop-
ped. First insert the eyes, and
stuff the head with cotton or tow ;
then pass a wire down the throat,
through one of the nostrils, and
fix it into the breast-bone: wires
are likeAvise to be introduced
through the feet, up the legs and
thighs, and fastened into the same
bone ; the body is afterwards stuff-
ed with cotton to its natural size,
and the skin seAved over it. In
whatever position the bird is placed
to dry, the same will afterwards be
retained.
Small birds may be preserved in
brandy, rum, arrack, or first run-
B IR
nings j but, by these means, the
colour of the plumage is liable to
be extracted by the spirit. Large
sea-fowl have thick strong skins,
anel such may be skinned; the
tail, claws, head and feet, are to
be carefully preserved, and the
plumage stained as little as possi-
ble with blood. The inside of the
skin may be stuffed as recommend-
ed above.
Mr. Bancroft, in his Natural
History of Guiana, says, that se-
veral persons in the colony are ad-
vantageously employed in preserv-
ing a variety of beautiful birds for
the cabinets of European natu-
ralists. Their method is, to put
the bird in a proper vessel, and
cover it with strong wine, or the
first running of the distillation of
rum, in which it remains for
twenty-four or forty-eight hours,
till the liquor has penetrated every
part of its body. The body is then
taken out, and its feathers, which
are not in the least injured by this
immersion, being placed smooth,
it is put into a machine made for
the purpose, and the Avings, tail,
Bee. arranged agreeable to nature.
In this position, it is placed in an
oven moderately heated, where it
is slowly dried, and will ever after
retain its natural attitude, without
danger or putrefaction.
The following simple composi-
tion may be employed with suc-
cess, for the same purpose : Com-
mon salt one pound, powdered
alum, four ounces, ground pepper,
two ounces. The bird intended
for preservation, should be opened
from the lower part of the breast-
bone to the tail, Avith a pair of
sharp-pointed scissars, and the
Avhole of the intestines taken out.
The cavity is then to be filled Avith
the mixture, and the lacerated part
VOL. I.
BIR 281
should be properly stitched. The
thorax, from the beak to the sto-
mach, must be filled with the same
composition, reduced to a fine pow-
der. The head is to be opened
near the root of the tongue, with-
the point of the scissars, and the
structure of the brain destroyed,
by moving them in a circular di-
rection, and as scon as they are
withdrawn, the cavity is likewise
to be filled with the mixture. After
having been suspended by the legs,
for a few days, the bird may be
fixed in a frame, in its natural atti-
tude.
Bird - grass.......See Roughish
Meadow-grass.
BIRD-CHERRY, or the Prunus
Padus, L. is a species of cherry-
tree.
It attains a height of fifteen or
twenty feet, is of a shrub-like
growth, with a branchy top; its
leaves are large, oblong, rough, and
serated ; the fruit large and red....
See With. 455.
From the fruit of the bird-cher-
ry an agreeable wine may be pro-
duced : and it is affirmed in the
Transactions of the Swedish Aca-
demy, for 1774, that its kernels,
when deprived of their external
rind, alToid so good a substitute for
almond milk, that the most expe-
rienced persons cannot ascertain
the difference. Its wood is much
used on the continent, by cabinet-
makers and upholsterers....its in-
ner bark affords a green lixivium
for dyers. [See Cherry.]
Iird'r Eye. See Primrose.
BIRD s FOOT (Common), or
Ornithopus perpuillus, L. is an in-
digenous plant; the yellow flowers
of which blow in July or August;
and the le;.;uuvn, or pulse, is curv-
ed in the form of a bow. See Curt.
Lond.fasc. 6.
O o
282 B I S
BIS
This plant affords a good fodder
for sheep, Avhen grass is scarce, in
the latter end of autumn.
BIRTHWORT, (Slender), or
Aristolochia clematitis, L. has heart-
shaped leaA'es, an upright stem,
and its root is long and slender.....
See Engl. Bot. 398.
On being chewed, the BirthAvort
instantly imparts an aromatic bit-
terness, not ungrateful to the pa-
late. It possesses medicinal vir-
tues, and is prescribed as an atte-
nuant of viscid phlegm, and pro-
moter of the fluid secretions. The
dose in substance is from a scruple
to tAvo drachms. There are four
other species of this plant imported
for medicinal purposes, particularly
the Aristolochia tonga, a native of
France, Spain, and Italy. It is
applied externally in cutaneous dis-
eases, as likewise for cleansing and
healing wounds and ulcers. [See
Snake»root.]
BISCUIT, a kind of bread ma-
nufactured by confectioners, of fine
flour, eggs, sugar, and rose or
orange water; or of flour, eggs,
and sugar, with aniseeds and ci-
tron-peel.
Sea Bicuit, a sort of hard, dry
bread, formed into flat cakes: when
intended for long voyages, it is four
times baked, six months before it
is shipped ; after Avhich it will con-
tinue good during a whole year....
In order to preserve such bread
from insects, Mr. Hales recom-
mends the fumhration of the casks
with sulphur, after the y have been
filled. Biscuits may likeAvise be
preservec.by packirrrthem in casks
well cnu'.ked anel lined with tin.
As the manufacture of sea-bis-
cuits is of considerable importance
to a maratime country, Ave shall
communicate the method of baking
practiced in France.
In the preparation of biscuit, a
proportion of ten pounds of leven
(rather more stale than that com-
monly used for bread), is diluted
in Avarm water, with one hundred
pounds of flour, which is kneaded;
but the Avater should be added by
small portions, to prevent the ne-
cessity of adding more flour: Avhen
the dough can no longer be worked
by the hand, it is pressed with the
feet till it is perfectly smooth, glu-
tinous, and compact. The knead-
ing being finished, the dough is
worked up in parts: at first it is
formed into rolls, Avhich again pass
through the hands of the baker;
this is called rubbing. When the
Aveight of each piece is determin-
ed, it is made round, flattened with
a rolling pin, and then placed on a
table or board exposed to the fresh
air, in order to prevent too quick
fermentation. Care is taken that
the oven be less heated for the bak-
ing of biscuit than bread; and as
soon as the last cake is formed,
that which has been first made, is
pierced with several holes, with
the point of an iron, which at once
flattens it, and gives vent to eva-
poration : it is then placed in the
oven. The biscuits are kept there
about two hours, and Avhen draAvn
out, they are packed with great
caution in boxes, lest they should
break. Each box commonly con-
tains either a half, or a whole quin-
tal ; and, Avhen filled, is placed in
a close, warm room, with Avhich
the heat of the oven has a commu-
nication. The biscuit here parts'
with its superabundant moisture,
and undergoes what is called a
sweating.
A good biscuit breaks clean and
crisp, has a shining appearance
Avithin, and the outside is glossy.
When soaked, it swells consider-
BIS
ably in the water, Avithout crum-
bling, or sinking to the bottom of
the vessel.
As the composition of biscuit is
connected with the general princi-
ples of making bread, we shall only
observe, that the defects which pre-
vail in many bake-houses are simi-
lar to those where biscuit is pre-
pared ; such as an imperfect grind-
ing, which leaA-es the bran in the
flour, or the flour in the bran, and
injures the manufacture. Ovens
too high, and not closely stopped,
consume much fuel, and produce
an indifferent baking.
One of the first rules in the pre-
paration of biscuit should be, never
to make it of any but choice wheat,
very clean, and dry, because it
ever continues to carry with it this
original principle of preservation ;
Avhile [wheat,] which is naturally
moist, be it ever so Avell ground,
and worked, has a tendency to be-
come worse. For this reason, rye
and maize are unfit to be manufac-
tured into biscuit.
It must be confessed with re-
gret, that sea-biscuit of the best
preparation, often carries in it a
principle of destruction. Some-
times it is in the bran, Avhich occa-
sions insects, and hollow spaces in
the interior part of the biscuit,
giving it a disposition to mould ;
and sometimes it is a Avant of clean-
liness which prevails in the bread-
room of the vessel. [See Ship-bread.]
M. Cardon, a biscuit-baker of
Hesse, in conjunction Avith four
others of the business, has recent-
ly made some experiments, the re-
sult of Avhich is : that 1001b. of
flour give 1261b. of dough ; Avhich,
divided into cakes of eight or nine
ounces, when well baked, aftbrd
90lb. of biscuit. Instead of mak-
BI S 283
ing use of old leaven, and of ten or
twelve pounds weight to each quin-
tal of flour, he recommends to use
the leaven while fresh, in a quan^
tity of fifty pounds, and to make
the dough less firm, that it may
be kneaded with more ease. He
has shewn biscuit, made after this
manner, to several masters of
ships, who have found it excellent,
and that it stands the test of float-
ing on the surface of water, with-
out falling to pieces.
BISMUTH, or Tin-glass, one
of the semi-metals, of a reddish or
light yellow colour, and a lamel-
lateel texture : it is moderately hard
and brittle, so that it breaks under
the hammer, and may even be re-
duced to povvder.
[It is very fusible, and soluble in
the vitriolic, muriatic, and nitric
acids, particularly in the last, and
when dissolved in it, is precipita-
ble by a mere dilution with pure
water; the precipitate is white;
and is commonly called Magistery
of Bismuth; it forms the flake-white
too often employed as a paint for
the complexion under various
names, but is a bad substitute for
temperance, exercise, and early
hours, as it frequently turns black
by the animal transpiration, and
certainly so, by an exposure to
sulphurated hydrogen gas, which
is metwith in those mineral waters,
called " sulphur springs," and in
privies.....Flake white, when mix-
ed with suet or fat, is more inno-
cently used to blacken the hair.
Bismuth, dissolved in the acids,
forms pellucid sympathetic inks,
which become black by exposure
to the vapour of alkaline sulphur-
ets.]
Most metallic substances, by an
union Avith bismuth, become mprg
284 BIS
BIS
fusible ; hence it is used in the
making of solder, printer's types,
pe-rter, he.
Bismuth reduced to powder,
mixed with the white of eggs, and
applied to wood, gives it the ap-
pearance of being silvered....when
it is gradually dried, and rubbed
with a polisher.
This semi-vnetal is commonly
deposited in cobalt-ores; which,
when of a high red colour, are
called bismuth bLom, or flowers of
bismuth. To this mixture may be
ascribed the property which bis-
muth-ore has of making sympa-
thetic ink, similar to that formed
by a solution of the regulus of co-
balt.....See Ink.
In dyeing, a solution of Tin-
glass in aqua fortis has lately been
recenmended by Dambolrney,
for fixing certain colours on avooI,
in preference to alum, or other
neutral salts....See Dyeing.
In medicine, the calx and flow-
ers of bismuth were formerly used,
in cases Avhere antimonial prepa-
rations are now employed with
greater safety, and equal effect;
so that the former are, at present,
chiefly converted into pigments and
cosmetics.....Nevertheless* we are
possessed of the most convincing
proofs,that the magistery of bLmuth
is one of the most powerful anti-.
Bpasmodics, especially in cramps
of the stomach. When cautiously
administered, in doses from half a
grain to one grain, in simple water,
repeated every half hour, or oft-
ener, according to circumstances,
it affords speedy relief in the most
excruciating pain; anel is, in this
respect, of superior efficacy to the
celebrated flowers of zinc. But
we think it our duty to repeat, that
both medicines require the greatest
precaution*
[The very great utility of bismuth
in the arts of dyeing, and parti-
cularly in the manufactory of types,
which is yearly increasing in the
United States, will cause a consi-
derable consumption of this mine-
ral. A great quantity is imported
every year by Messrs. Binny and
Ronaldson, of Philadelphia.
It is said that a specimen of
bismuth was brought to Philadel-
phia from the Juniata, in 1799, by
a man wrho died of the fever of that
year.]
BISTORT (Great), or Snake-
weed ; the Polygonum bistorta, L.
a species of knot-grass, most plen-
tiful on meadows and pastures : it
has a thick oblique root, about the
size of a finger, blackish brown
without, and reddish within; a
simple round, slender stem, near-
ly two feet high ; oval leaves, and
the stalk terminates in thick short
spikes, of whitish red flowers,
which appear in July, and are pro-
ductive of seerjs in August.....See
Withering, 382, and Engl. Bot.
509.
As this [indigenous] plant is sub-
servient to many useful purposes,
Ave have been more particular in
its description, than the limits of
our work will permit on future oc-
casions.
Cattle and sheep are exceedingly
partial to the herbage of the Great
Bistort; but horses will not eat it.
The young leaves are excellent for
culinary use ; and a small quantity
of the root, reduced to powder, and
added to the dough in baking, com-
municate an agreeable taste to the
bread, and improves its salubrity.
The Great Bistort has likewise
been usefully employed in the arts
of dyeing and tanning. According
to Gleditsch andBAUTscH, two
creditable authors, the herb Avith
B IS
BIT 285
its blossom has, by tanners on the
continent of Europe, been found to
be a proper substitute for oak-bark;
and Dambourney assures us, that
from the root of this plant he ob-
tained a deception of a mordore
bhade, in which he dyed wool of a
real beaver colour, after having
previously immersed it in a ley,-sa-
turated with a solution of Bismuth.
All the parts of this plant have a
rough, austere taste: the root, in
particular, is one of the strongest
vegetable astringents produced in
England; and,therefore,justly re-
commended in intermittent fevers,
immoderate hemorrhages, and
other fluxes, both internally and
externally, where the constitution of
the patient requires such a* medi-
cine. According to a late popular
writer, it has often, and especially
in agues, been given in larger
eloses than those commonly admi-
nistered : he has prescribed it both
alone, and together, with gentian,
to the amount of three drachms in
one day. It is allowed to be a very
powerful styptic, and consequently
possessed of antiseptic properties ;
but we doubt, whether it is suffici-
ently efficacious to supersede the
use of the Peruvian bark, or even
that of the white willow.
BISTORT (Small), Welch, or
Alpine ; the Polygonum viviparum,
L ; it has a smaller root than the
preceding species; a simple slen-
der stem, six inches high, spear-
shaped leaves, anel the stalks anel
branches terminate by stalks of
whitish red flowers, which appear
in June or July, and bear seeds in
August....See With. 383 ; and
En\-;. Bot. 669.
Although we haAre no distinct
account of the economical and
phys.cal uses of this plant, yet it
may be rationally inferred, that it
is not inferior to the preceding spe-
cies. Indeeel, Gmelin informs us,
that its root is so far from being
astringent, in the island of Ramt-
schatka, that the inhabitants eat it
in a raw state; and Steller, a
late traveller, found it sufficiently
SAveet and nutritive, to support him
without any other alii uu, for se-
veral elay>. The Samoiedes also
eat it as a sweet and wholesome
food. Several other nations dry
and reduce this root to flour, of
which they bake good bread. If
credit be cue to Oloff, who has
visited Iceland, the inhabitants of
that inhospitable climate make
bread, even of the small knots
which grow on the upper part of
the stalk.
BITE, of a mad dog, an unfor-
tunate accident which but too fre-
cpiently happens in hot summers;
[or very cold v\ inters,] and is sup-
posed to be occasioned chiefly by
suffering that faitiiiul animal to
feed upon putrid meat, without sup-
plying it with sufficient Avater ; but
more probably originates from a,
specific contagion, like the small-
pox, &c...The disease thence ari-
sing in the human species, is called
Canine Madness, or, according to
medical Avriters, Hydrophobia; a.
term which literally signifies "dread
of water."
This A'irulent disorder does net
in general, manifest itself till a
considerable time after the bite,
for, though in some instances it
has commenced in seven or eight
days after the accident, the patient
often continued in health for twen-
ty, thirty, or forty days, nay, some-
limes for several months. If the
wound be not prevented, it will
in most instances, be healed long
before the symptoms of the disease
appear; though it frequently resists
286 BIT
BIT
all healing applications, and forms
an ulcer discharging a quantity of
matter. The approach of the dis-
ease is known by the cicatrix of
the wound becoming hard and ele-
vated, and by a peculiar tingling
sensation in the part affected;
pains shoot from it towards the
throat: in some cases it is sur-
rounded with livid or red streaks;
and seems to be in a state of
inflammation; more frequently,
however, no remarkable external
change can be perceived. But the
patient soon becomes melancholy,
prefers solitude, and is troubled
with nausea. Sometimes the cha-
racteristic symptom of the disease,
the dread of water, suddenly at-
tacks the patient, and every at-
tempt to swallow liquids, is ac-
companied Avith the most painful
sensations. This appears to be
a circumstance peculiar to the hu-
man race; for mad animals do
not eA'ince any dread of Avater.......
There is not the least doubt, that
the disease is occasioned by the
saliva of the mad creature. Un-
less, therefore, part of the true
skin be injured, the poison Avill not
be communicated; but in the con-
trary case, the smallest quantity is
sufficient to produce the fatal effect.
Hence, if the cuticle has been
Wounded, it is absolutely neces-
sary to remove the surrounding
muscular substance by the knife,
and to lose no time in submitting
to this operation; as it is the only
certain and effectual preventive.....
It is, however, of consequence pre-
viously to be convinced, Avhether
the animal has been actually mad.
In order to ascertain whether a
dog is reaUy infected Avith that dis-
temper, the following particulars
deserve attention. Several days
previously to the invasion of the
disorder, the animal becomes sullen
and shews equal indifference to hit
master, his food, and drink. Hi*
ears and tail droop; instead of bark-
ing, he groAvls and snaps at every
surrounding object, runs about ir-
regularly, is no longer able to dis-
tinguish his master from strangers,
and lolls out his tongue, which is
parched, and of a lived hue. At
length, he drops down suddenly,
starts up again, bites Avhatever
seems to obstruct his passage, and
in this condition he seldom survives
twenty-four, or, at the farthest,
forty-eight hours.
If the disease has actually been
communicated by a bite, the patient
feels a burning heat in the throat
and injured part, according to the
degree of vio'ence with which the
malady is accompanied. But the
proximate cause of the affection
appears to be confined to the ner-
vous system, so that patients, la-
bouring under the influence of hy-
drophobia, have overcome the small
pox, and quartan agues, Avithout
any aggravation of symptoms.....
Hence opiates, and other narcotics,
as is the case in many nervous dis-
eases, produce no effect. As it is
generally allowed, that canine mad-
ness, if the dread of water has once
taken place, can seldom be curedj
the most essential part of the treat-
ment will be the speedy application
of preventives. For this reason,
we have already stated the imme-
diate necessity of cutting away the
parts contiguous to the wound,
especially Avherethat operation can
•be performed, without injuring any
large blood vessel. Beside this
precaution, the Avound should be
frequently washed, by pouring cold
water upon it from [the mouth of
a tea-kettle], and to prevent the ca-
nine virus from remaining aboijt
B IT
BIT 287
the wounded part, it should be kept
open, and a discharge of matter
promoted for several weeks; by
stimulating ointments, mixed, with
cantharides,or similar applications.
M. Sabatier mentions an in-
stance in which, by repeated at-
tacks of a mad elog, the patient had
received twenty-five Avounds, and
about fifty scratches: these Avere
all radically healed, by the applica-
tion of the cautery, and of fire,
which completely destroyed the
poison.
[This conclusion is highly ab-
surd, because many persons have
done nothing for their Avounds, and
yet remained well.
Indeed it may be safely said, that
the actual cautery, burning the
wound Avith gun-powder, washing
it with vinegar and water, or lunar
caustic dissolved in water, have all
been tried, and repeatedly failed to
prevent the disease. As sreneral
remedies, Dr. Mfad's celebrateel
favourites ath-liverwort and black
pepper; the Ormskirk remedy, the
Tonquin composition of musk and
cinnabar, mercury, anagalis (pim-
pernel or chickweed Avhich sec,)
and many others have again and
again been given, without the least
success.
The distance of time that elap-
ses between a bite and the appear-
ance of the disease, is very various.
In a case lately recorded by the
editor, three years anel four months
elapsed....See Med. Rep. vol. 5.....
From three to six weeks however,
is the common interval. As there
are a number of vulgar errors pre-
valent respecting this disease it
may be satisfactory to state the
truth upon several points.
1st. Neither the part of the body
bitten, nor the si age of the animal's
disease at the time of the bite, nor
the supposed difference of the ori-
ginal virulence of the poison, nor
the quantity of it inserted into a
wound ; have any influence on the
rapidity, certainty, or violence of
the attack. After much investiga-
tion of the history of nearly all the
cases of this disease, recorded with-
in the last three centuries; from
many private communications, and
from the circumstances attending
an instructive case which the Editor
had an opportunity of observing
last year ; he is fully able to make
the above positions. Whether the
bite be received in the head or foot,
during the first hour of the ani-
mal's indisposition, or just before
death ; and whether the wound be
large or small, no difference is ob-
served in the appearance of the dis-
ease.
2dly. No danger is to be appre-
hended from the saliva of a human
persou.or of a dog, falling upon .the
skin; nor from the breath of either
being received into the lungs.....
The saliva of a dog must be appli-
ed to a broken surface to infect. The
mere insertion of the tooth of a dis-
eased dog,covered with saliva ip.to
the flesh, is sufficient to produce the
disease ; and the late Dr. Hutch-
inson informed me of a case in
which it came on in conseejuence
of a dog merely licking a sore on the
leg. Another case is recorded in
the Medical Repos. of the dis-
ease being produced by a little dog
licking a sore in the ear. In both
cases the dogs discovered no symp-
toms of madness at the time. It is
of infinite consequence that all
these facts should be known.
3dly. The practice of Avorming
dogs to prevent their being attack-
ed by madness is highly ah;. ..!;
because quite useless.
The nature of the present work
288 BIT
B IT
Avill not allow of a more extensive
detail. The reader is therefore
referred to two pamphlets on the
subject by the editor, and to the
Medical Repos. vol. i. and v.
As no specific remedy has yet
been discoA-ered for the cure of
this dreadful disorder, Ave shall
suggest- [a probable] plan of treat-
ment.
Prevention.....It is a singular and
fortunate circumstance, (as the dis-
ease yvhen produced, has always
proved fatal;) that nearly nineteen
out of twenty who are bitten, es-
cape. But this exemption ought
not to induce a security vvhich may
prevent everyprecautionbeingtaken
to avert it. If the Avound be small,
and in a part capable of extirpation
no time should be lost in cutting it
out, as directed by Dr. Willich;
if the lower joint of a finger or toe
be bitten, take it off without delay.
If excision cannot be performed,
enlarge the wound, pour water on
it from a tea-kettle for an hour,
and keep it open by the stimulating
ointment mentioned above, for se-
veral months ; the application of a
caustic to the wound will not an-
swer, and no internal remedy can
be of the leait use. In case the
disease should appear, give three
grains of cantharieles in a pill, or
fifteen drops of the tincture, every
hour, diluted with a little broth, un-
till a.violent stranguary, and soreness
in the bowels are produced. Keep
up these symptoms until those of
the disease have vanished. Broth
and mucilaginous drinks, such as
flaxseed tea, may then be taken,
and clysters of the same combined
Avith laudanum, may be given to
heal the irritated boAvels: the Avarm
bath may be also used, and bark,
wine and generous diet to recruit
the strength. The reasons for
the above treatment are too long
to be inserted here, but may be
found in the two pamphlets men-
tioned before, on this subject. It
is however proper to observe, that
not one of the various modes of
treatment hitherto pursued, has
ever succeeded. And as the field
of experiment is fairly open, it is
perfectly warrantable rather to fol-
low the light of analogy and con-
jecture in pursuit of a new remedy,
than to persist in the use of such
as are proved to be incompetent
anel fruitless. The symptoms ex-
cited by cantharides, are alarming,
but not dangerous unless the re-
medy be pushed too far. The body
should also be anointed Avith Avarm
oil in a warm room.
There are feAV diseases, for the
cure of Avhich quacks have more
successfully imposed upon the cre-
dulity of mankind. The reputed
success of their nostrums, may be
referred to the following causes.
1. Every dog that bites is not
mad.
2. The part of the body bitten,
being covered by clothes, boots, or
shoes by which the saliva is wiped
from the tooth, before it reaches
the flesh, and of course the poison
is not communicated. In such
cases the exemption is attributed
to the remedy administered. -
3. As mentioned before it is
known that, a great many persons
bitten by the same dog, are never
infected with the disease. This is
an important consideration, and
ought to be attended to in forming
an opinion of a remedy. Dogs
ought not to be killed after giving
a bite, but penned up, in order to
discover Avhether they are actual-
ly mad or not. It is also of great
BIT
BIT 289
importance, to keep the mind of
the person who may be bitten per-
fectly easy.
The theory of thedisease,resulting
from the action of the canine poi-
son on the system, is probably
more involved in obscurity, than
that of any other, to which the
human body is liable. How death
takes place, has not yet been de-
termine J. It cannot be from an
exhaustion of the powers of life by
the spasms, because, as Dr. Piiy-
sick justly observes, " we see oc-
casionally more muscles in other
parts of the body affected with
spasm, without any risk being
incurred." Dr. Physick thinks it
is occasioneel by suffocation, aris-
ing from the spasmodic action of
the muscles, of the upper part of
the windpipe called glottis, and
hence very judiciously proposes to
admit air to the lungs, by the ope-
ration of tracheotomy : and where
the disease has advanced rapidly,
and no expectations are entertain-
ed of a cure, I would certainly try
this plan, which is not attended
with any danger if properly per-
formed.
Should the pain in swallowing,
continue so excessive, as to pre-
vent the possibility of swallowing,
the method suggested by Dr. Coze
of supplying nourishment, might
be adopted. This is, to pass a
flexible tube into 1 he stomach, and
thus convey liquid food into the
sy ,tem. This tube may remain
until the disease shalJ abate. The
same plan has been pursued in
France, in cases where violent in-
juries to the face anel mouth, have
produced a total inability to take
nourishment.]
BITTER, is a term applied to
substances of a peculiar taste, and
generally opposed to sweet; the
VOL. I.
principal of which are, the Gen-
tian and Bistort-roots, Hops, Lesser
Centaury, Carduus, &c.
Most bitters impart their virtues,
both to watery and spirituous fluids.
By distillation, their taste is in a
great measure destroyed ; but, on
evaporating the watery solution to
a thick consistence, the bitter prin-
ciple remains unaltered, and is
frequently improved. See Ex-
tracts.
Dr. Darwin ingeniously ob-
serves, that the bitter, narcotic, and
acrid juices of plants, are secreted
by their glands, for defending ve-
getables against the depredations of
insects, anel larger animals. An
acrid juice exists in the husks of
walnuts, and in the pellicle, or skin,
of the kernel ; but not in the lobes,
or nutritious part. Bitters appear
to have been excluded from the
seed, lest they might have been in-
jurious to the tender organs of
digestion of the embryon plant. In
some seeds, however, he adds,
there is a bitter e[uality, Avhich re-
fuses to mix Avith the oleaginous
part; as the oil expressed from
bitter almonds is as tasteless as
that from the SAveet kind.
Vegetable bitters possess the
combined properties of astringents
and aromatics. Hence they are
frequently employed in weakness
of the stomach anel intestines ; in
cold habits, where the bile and
humours require to be attenuated
or diluted ; and for promoting na-
tural evacuations, particularly those
by the pores and the urinary canal.
They are also of service in many
cases of indigestion, loss of appe-
tite, flatulency, he. when these
complaints* proceed from muscular
weakness, or a phlegmatic anel
inert state of the fluids. But, in
constitutions where the fibres are
Pp
290 £ I T
tense and rigid, or an immoderate
heat and inflammation prevail, the
continued use of bitters, especially
in the gout, Avould sensibly in-
crease the disorder, and frequently
determine it to the kidneys. Thus
the secretion of urine might be
greatly checked, to the injury of
the patient, and at length either
dropsy or consumption Avould be
the natural conseemence.
It is not easy to conceive, in
Avhat manner bitters taken by the
stomach operate on the human
system ; though they are generally
considered as poAverful tonics. So
much is certain, that they do not
act as stimulants ; because neither
the frequency of the pulse, nor the
force of the circulation, is increased
by their use. Nor can it be main-
tained, that their operation is simi-
lar to that of astringents ; so that
bitters are to be considered purely
as tonics, which strengthen, or im-
part new energy to the muscular
fibres of the stomach ; an effect
Avhich is by sympathy communi-
cated to other parts of the body.
Bitter substances are often used
as vermifuges, though seldom effi-
cacious ; and externally, as anti-
septics. In domestic economy,
they are, at present, chiefly em-
ployed for the destruction of in-
sects, &c. but it deserves to be re-
marked, that there is scarcely a bit-
ter root growing in this country,
which might not be converted to
very useful purposes....See Bread.
Bitter-Sweet. See Woody
Nightshade.
BITUMENS, are inflammable
mineral bodies, not sulphureous,
or only casually impregnated Avith
sulphur. They are of various de-
grees of consistence, and appear
in the mineral kingdom, to corres-
pond with the oils and resins in the
vegetable. By their peculiar smell,
BIT
they are easily distinguished from
either purely animal or vegetable
productions. When the native
rock-oils are mixed Avith concen-
trated mineral acids, they become
thick, and at length consistent: in
which state they are called bitu-
mens.
There is a thin fluid bitumen
called naphtha, which is found on
the surface of waters, or oozing
from clefts of rocks in the eastern
countries, particularly Persia. It
has a strong smell, very different
from that of vegetable or animal
oils, is highly inflammable, not so-
luble in spirit of wine, and almost
as limpid as Avater, Avith which it
is more averse to unite than any
other oil. Next to naphtha, in
consistence, is petroleum, or rock-
oil : the former is collected for
making varnishes, and the latter is
used for lamps and torches. Ge-
nuine naphtha is sometimes recom-
mended in diseases of the nerves,
but it is seldom obtained in a pure
state.
The solid bitumens are, amber,
jet, asphaltum, or bitumen of Ju-
dea, and fossil or pit-coal. ' By dis-
tillation, they all yield an odorous
water, more or less coloured and
saline ; an acid frequently in a
concrete state, an oil similar to the
native rock-oils, but which soon in-
creases in weight, and becomes
thicker; and, lastly, a quantity of
A-olatile alkali. The residum is a
charry matter, differing in appear-
ance, according to the nature of
the analyzed bitumen.
Barbadoes tar is a bitumen of a
consistence between a fluid and
solid ; and turf or peat is, by some
writers, supposed to belong to this
class.
It is conjectured by naturalists,
that all bitumens are of animal or
vegetable origin : and that the cir-
BL A
BLA 291
cumstances by which they differ
from the resinous and other oily
matters of vegetables and animals,
are the natural effects of time : or
of an alteration produced on them
by mineral acids; or of both causes
combined. This opinion is the
more probable, as bitumens, on a
chemical analysis, afford oil and
volatile alkali, neither of which is
found in any other minerals.
BLACK, the darkest of colours,
supposed to be owing to the ab-
sence of light, as most of the rays
which fall on black substances
are not reflected, but absorbed by
them.
There are many shades or varie-
ties of this colour. The native
black substances, are black chalk
pitcoal, black sands, black vege-
table juices, and cuttle-fish ink.
Those which are the product of
fire, comprehend charcoal blacks,
soot blacks, and black metallic
calces.
Blacks obtained by mixture, are
those from iron, silver, and from a
combination of lead with sulphur.
The infusions of certain vegetable
astringents, mixed with green vi-
triol (which is a solution of iron in
the sulphuric acid), produce a deep
black colour, of most extensive
use for dyeing and staining. The
astringent substances chiefly em-
ployed for this purpose, are the
excrescences of the oak-tree, call-
ed galls : all parts of this tree, as
the leaves, acorns, and more par-
ticularly the bark and wood. A
great variety of other vegetable
substances, such as the small
branches and flowers of the su-
mach-tree, alder bark, bistort root,
and, in general, those which are
astringent or corrugating to the
taste, possess similar properties.
The power by Avhich these vegeta-
bles strike black with vitriol, and
their astringency, are proportional
to one another, and seem to de-
pend on one and the same princi-
ple. Of the other properties of
this astringent and colouring mat-
ter, little more is known, than
that it is dissolved anel extracted
both by water and spirit of wine,
and that it does not exhale on the
evaporation of the menstruum.....
See the article Dyeing.
The only native vegetable black,
is the juie-.e of the cashew nut-tree,
or Anacardium occidentale, which
probably is the tree that yields the
black varnish of China and Japan.
....See Varnish.
Lastly, there are also several
colours artificially prepared for the
use of painters, such as lamp-
black, ivory-black, German-black,
he.....See Colour-making.
BLACK-BIRD, or Turelus me-
rula, a species of the thrush.
When young, its plumage is of a
rusty black ; but at the age of one
year, being the period of its full
growth, its feathers acquire a^deep
glossy black, the bill a bright yel-
low, and the edges of the eye-lids
a similar colour.
The black-bird loves solitude,
and chiefly frequents thickets, and
the remotest parts of plantations
and woods. In severe winters,
however, it is sometimes compell-
ed to approach barns and farm-
yards, in search of food. It builds
earlier than any other bird, and
forms its nest in hedges and thick-
ets, of withered grass and moss,
plastered Avith clay, and covered
with hay or straw. Its eggs are
commonly four or live in number,
of a blueish-green colour, marked
with irregular dark spots. About
292 B L A
the latter enel of March, it has a
young brooel, which may be taken
at ten or twelve days old. The
only way to distinguish the young
cock from the hen, is by its colour;
as that of the former is of a deeper
black. When young, they are
commonly fed Avith bread and milk,
or curds; but the most proper
nourishment is a sheep's heart
chopped small, mixed with bread,
and moistened with water: they
should be fed every two hours, and
kept very clean.
This bird, especially the male,
has a very pleasing note, but too
loud for a confined situation ; and
it may be taught to Avhistle tunes to
a pipe. It sings during the spring,
anel the early part of summer ; is
silent in the moulting season, and
resumes its music in the latter part
of autumn.
[BLACK - BIRD, (CROW).
Gracula Barita.
BLACK-BIRD (RED-WING-
ED).... Oriolus Phaniceus.
These birds make their appear-
ance in March, anel are generally
called black-birds, because in the
spring season, before the time of
incubation, and in autumn, after
they have reared their young, they
flock together, and confederate in
their depredations, on the corn
(maize) and grain fields.]
BLACK CATTLE, among
graziers, denotes all the larger kinds
of domestic animals which contri-
bute to our support or convenience;
such as oxen, cows, horses, &c.
As these will be respectively treated
of in their proper oreler, we shall,
therefore, at present, state only the
essential properties of a perfect
breed of black cattle, designed for
the purposes of the dairy, as laid
down by Mr. Marshall :
1. The head small and clean, to
BL A
lessen the quantity of offal. 2. The
neck thin and clean, to lighten the
fore-end, as well as to lessen the
collar, and make it fit close anel
easy to the animal in work. 3. The
carcass large, the chest deep, and
the bosom broad, with the ribs
standing out full from the spine;
to give strength of frame and con-
stitution, and to allow sufficient
room for the intestines within the
ribs. 4. The shoulders should be
light of bone, and rounded off at the
lower point, that the collar may be
easy, but broad, to give strength;
and Avell coA'ered with flesh, for the
greater ease of draught, as well as
to furnish a desired point in fatten-
ing cattle. 5. The back ought to
be Avide and level throughout; the
quarters long ; the thighs thin, and
standing narrow at the round bone ;
the udder large when full, but thin
and loose Avhen empty, to hold the
greater quantity of milk; with
large dug-veins to fill it, and long
elastic teats for drawing it off with
greater ease. 6. The legs (below
the knee and hock) straight, and of
a middle length ; their bone, in ge-
neral, light anel clean from fleshi-
ness, but with the joints and sinews
of a moderate size, forthe purposes
of strength and activity. 7. The
flesh ought to be mellow in the
state of fleshiness, and firm in the
state of fatness. ■ 8. The hide mel-
low, and of a middle thickness,
though, in our author's opinion,
this is a point not yet Avell deter-
mined.
Black Cattle, as well as horses,
haA-e been observed to thrive better
in salt-marshes, than in fresh-Avater
meadoAvs, or upland pastures ; and
it has been conjectured, that the
herbs produced by the lands near
the sea, are more healthy for her-
baceous animals, than such as grow
BL A
B L A 293
on higher lands. But it is said,
that the saline particles with which
the earth, as well as its produce
near the sea, is strongly impreg-
nate;!, occasions this beneficial
change in the condition of cattle ;
a:i these salts purge away the foul
humours which the beasts have
contracted, either by idleness, or by
being over-heated in labour. As
cattle are naturally fond of salt, and,
if left at their liberty, will take no
more of it than what is conducive
to their health, it is recommended
to lay common sea-salt in the fields,
for them to lick as often as they
please....See Salt.
BLACK CANKER, is the name
given by husbandmen to a cater-
pillar Avhich commits great devas-
tation among turnips. The best
method of destroying these insects
is, to turn a body of ducks into the
fields infested by them. In the
year 1784, Mr. Coke purchased
four hundred ducks, and set them
at liberty on thirty-three acres of
turnii s, Avhich they completely
cleared of the caterpillar in five
days. In a relative proportion,
twenty or thirty might be employed
upon a small farm, with considera-
ble effect.
Black Clock. See Beetle.
BLACK FLY, an insect that at-
tacks the seedling leaA'es of tur-
nips, cabbages, anel many other ve-
getables. In summer, it may fre-
quently be seen in swarms on the
wing near the ground, searching
for, and settling on the fresh bites ;
and thus, in some seasons, destroy-
ing thousands of acres. Its rava-
ges may be prevented by the fol-
lowing means :
Mix one ounce of flour of sulphur
with three pounds of turnip-seed
daily, for three days successively,
in a glazed earthen pot, and keep
it closely covered, stirring it well
at each addition, that the seed may
be impregnated with the suiphur:
then sow it as usual, on an acre of
ground, and the fly will not attack
it till the third or fourth seedling
leaf is formed, by which time the
plant will have acquired a bitterish
property, and conseejuently be out
of danger. Others advise to fix
alder-bows in a harrow, and draw
them over the land immediately
after the seed is sown. Again,
others bruise the bows, and fumi-
gate them with burnt tobacco, ami
a small quantity of asafortkla....See
TuRNir.
BLACK LAND, in agriculture,
a term used to denote a peculiar
kind of clayey soil, which in rainy
weather appears of a dusky or
blackish colour, though, when dry,
it more resembles a pale grey, than
a true black. On ploughing this
soil, especially in wet seasons, it is
apt to adhere to the plough-shares ;
and assumes a darker anel muddier
appearance, the more it is worked.
It generally abounds with small
white stones, and always con-
tains a considerable proportion of
sand. A soil of this description
may be improved, by manuring it
with such substances as tcnel to
pulverize the ground, and deprive
it of its tenacity—.See Land and
Manure.
Black Lead. See Lead.
BLACK LEATHER is that
which, having passed through the
hands of the currier, after bei.-v-
scored and rubbed three times r,:,
the grain side with copperas-wa-
ter, acquires a black colcur, in-
stead of the russet, at least by the
tanners....See Leathe r.
BLACK-LEGS, a name given
by the Leicestershire breeders to a
elisease incident to calves and sheep.
294 B L A
It is a kind of gelatinous humour,
which settles between the skin and
flesh of the neck, and not unfre-
quently in their legs. To remove
this troublesome complaint, we
conceive that the sal-ammoniac
dissolved in the smallest possible
epiantity of water, and applied to
the parts affected, by means of pro-
per compresses, or even simple
friction, conjoined with suitable ex-
ercise, would be the most effectual
remedy.
BLACK TIN, in mineralogy, a
term given to tin ore Avhen it is
ready to be melted into metal, af-
ter having been Avell stamped,
washed and dressed. It is taken up
from the Avashing-troughs in the
form of a fine black powder, and
from this circumstance is called
black tin ; two pounds of which be-
ing melted, -will produce one pound
of white tin. The principal mines
from which this useful metal is
obtained in Britain, are those in
Cornwall....See Tin.
BLACK WADD, in mineralo-
gy is a kind of ore of manganese,
remarkable for its property of tak-
ing fire, when mixed Avith a cer-
tain proportion of lintseed-oil. It is
found in Derbyshire, and is a use-
ful ingredient in paints ; for on be-
ing ground with a large quantity
of oily matter, it loses the property
above-mentioned.
BLACKBERRY, the fmit of
the common bramble, or Rubus
fruticosus, L....See Bramble.
These berries, when eaten im-
moderately, and too frequently,
are apt to produce the most vio-
lent effects, as fever, delirium, he.
[Blackberry. Rubus Ameri-
canus. We have too distinct spe-
cies, the fruit of which, in general
is called blackberries. The first
which we designate by the above ti-
BL A
tie, is a robust plant, which fre-
quently, in a rich moist loose soil,
Avill send forth shoots 10 or 12
feet in length, and an inch in dia-
meter, somewhat ribbed or angled,
armed with strong hooked spines ;
the next season after these shoots
spring out of the earth, they flower,
and bear fruit, in corymbs or clus-
ters, which terminate like the
branches, proceeding from the ax-
ills of the leaves ; the fruit is ob-
long, above an inch in length, | of
an inch in diameter, of a beautiful
shining black colour, and of an
agreeable taste, sweetish mixed
with a sub-acid astringency.
The second species we shall no-
tice, Rubus procumbens, [Rubus
hispidus of Marshall,] is com-
monly known by the name of
Dewberry. This brier does not
grow either so high or so robust
as the preceding species ; its stems
are weaker, diverge from the root,
and bear down towards the earth;
their extremities often trail on the
ground, and taking root in the
earth, form neAv plants, and in a lit-
tle time spread over uncultivated
fields. This species prefers high
hilly land; the fruit is large, near-
ly round, and black when ripe, suf-
fused with a glaucous nibula, or
mist like the Damacene plum,
grapes, &c. They possess a sweet
and lively sub-acid taste, and for
eating is generally preferred to the
former species. Wm. Bartram's
mss.
A jelly made of blackberries,
or dewberries, when on the turn
from red to black, is much used in
the United States for the gravel....
A friend of the Editor, subject to
this disease, spoke highly in praise
of the remedy.
Rubus occidentali?....See Ras-
berry.]
BL A
B L A 295
BLACKING, in general, signi-
fies a factitious black ; as lamp-
black, shoe-black, &c. The com-
mon oil-blacking, consists of ivory-
black mixed with lintseed oil. The
shining blacking is made in vari-
ous Avays, and affords employment
to several persons in the metropo-
lis, who prepare it for the supply
of the shops. The preparation
which has experienced the most
extensive sale, is probably that of
Mr. Bayley. His patent being
expired, we shall communicate the
particulars of the process. Take
one part of the gummy juice that
issues, in the months of June, July
and August, from the shrub called
the goat's thorn ; four parts of river
water ; two parts of neat's foot, or
some other softing, lubricating oil;
two parts of superfine ivory-black;
two parts of eleep blue, prepared
from iron and copper; and four
parts of brown sugar-candy. Let
the water be evaporated, and, when
the composition is of a proper
consistence, let it be formed into
cakes, of such size that each cake
may make a pint of liquid black-
ing.
[The goat's thorn mentioned, is
the Astragalus tragacantha Lin.
the plant producing the common
gum tragacantha of the shops. It
is a native of the South of France,
and of Switzerland. Mr. Miller
enumerates four species of the
plant. In the United States Ave
have tAvo herbaceous species of
this genus : -< iz. A. Canadensis, or
woolly milky vetch, and A. Caroli-
nianus, or Car. milky v....As yet,
they have been applied to no medi-
cinal purpose, but cattle eat them.
The A. tragacantha Avould certain-
ly flourish in the United States,
and ought to be sent over by our
consul at Marseilles, or brought
home by some American.]
Frankfort-blacking is made by a
process much more simple. A
emantity of the lees of wine is
burnt in a well closed vessel, and
the residuum reduced to powder,
which, when mixed with water,
is fit for immediate use; or, if
made into cakes, may be preserved
for any length of time.
Ivory-black, as imported from
Holland, is prepared in the follow-
ing manner: Small pieces of ivory
are smeared with a little lintseed-
oil, and put into a black-lead cru-
cible ; this is covered with a simi-
lar vessel inverted, but of a smaller
size, and the crevices are secured
with a lute made of potter's clay
and rye-flour, so as to prevent the
access of external air. Thus pre-
pared, the whole is exposed to a
red heat, not too intense, for about
half an hour, after which it is taken
out and suffered to cool gradually.
When cold, the charred ivory, or
bones, where the former is scarce,
ought to be reduced to powder,
and triturated, with the addition of
water, on a painter's stone, till it
assumes the form of a smooth
paste. In this state it is moulded
into small cones, and allowed to
dry....Similar black may also be
obtained by burning the stones of
peaches, after having previously
dried them and removed the ker-
nels. This useful fact we state on
the authority of Hochhkimer, a
German Avriter on general eco-
nomy.
BLADDER, in anatomy, a thin
membranous, expanded receptacle
of some juice or humour secreted
in the animal body. This term
principally applies to the vessels in
which the urine and bile are re-
296 B L A
BL A
spectively collected; and hence the
two chief reservoirs of this nature
are the urinary bladder, and that
containing the bile. In this place
we shall treat only of the former,
which is situated witliin the cavity
of the pelvis : its form is oval, and
being a continuation of the abdo-
men, it is almost uniformly sur-
rounded with bones, though below,
and at each side, encompassed by
muscles. It is remarkable, that
this vessel is considerably larger
in the female than in the male
sex.
Nature has Avisely contrived that
the human bladder should possess
a high degree of expansion, for con-
taining the Avatery parts secreted
from the chyle, as they Avould
otherwise mix with the blood of
animals, anel render that fluid too
thin for the performance of its
functions. Though a large pro-
portion of such aqueous humours,
from three to four pounds every
day, are insensibly evacuated by
the skin, yet a still greater quanti-
ty must be secreted by the kidneys,
and thence conducted to the blad-
der, lest they should accumulate
between the interstices of the cel-
lular membrane, Avhich covers all
the muscles, and occasion dropsical
sAvellihgs. On the other hand, the
diseases incident to the bladder are
various, but principally arise from
debility, spasms, and calculous con-
cretions ; for an account of Avhich,
we refer to the articles Gravel,
Stone, and Urine. At present,
we shall confine ourselves to the
inflammatory state of that vessel,
Avhich requires immediate relief....
This dangerous malady is occa-
sioned by stimulating medicines ;
gravel and stones lodged in the
orifice of the bladder ; violent exer-
cise after a long retention of urine,
and especially in hot Aveather;
lying in soft, effeminating fea-
ther-beds, he. The symptoms
are manifest from an acute burn-
ing pain, and tension of the part,
frequent inclination to go to stool,
and a constant desire to make
water, while the patient is in a
state of fever. A.s under such
circumstances, no time should be
lost in applying for proper advice,
it w-ould be needless to enlarge on
the treatment of the disease ; but
we shall observe that, beside bleed-
ing and purgatives both by the
mouth and injections, it will be
necessary to drink plentifully of
emollient decoctions, or other be-
verages of a cooling and diuretic na-
ture. Previous to the arrival of a
medical man, leeches may be ap-
plied to the part affected, the lower
belly should be diligently fomented
Avith av arm Avater, and the patient
be placed in a tepid bath, not ex-
ceeding 98°....If, hoAvever, the pain
suddenly abates, and is succeeded
by cokl SAveats, hiccough, fetid
urine, or a total suppression of it,
there is reason to apprehend a mor-
tification, and fatal issue of the dis-
ease.
[The Avant of fullness and tension
in the pulse in this disease must
not be attended to. We must be
guided by the continuance of Uie
symptoms. Bleeding should be re-
peated every three or four hours,
and half a pint taken away at a
time. No disease requires or bears
more copious bleeding. Clysters
of cool water ought also to be in-
jected.]
BLADDER-NUT-TREE, or
the Staphylca, L, is a plant contain-
ing two species, the pinnata, indi-
genous in Britain, and the trifolia,
BL A
or three-leaved bladder-nut, a native
of Virginia. For the first, to which
we shall confine our account, see
Withering, 317. The flowers
are Avhite, and grow on long pen-
dulous foot-stalks ; the plant blows
in June.
This shrub affords an oil Avhich
might be employed for lamps, but
the trouble of expressing it is too
great. The Avood is hard, and used
on the Continent for various domes-
tic purposes; and the floAvers are
much frecruented by bees.
BLAIN, in farriery, a distem-
per incident to horses and cattle,
consisting of a tumor which grows
on the root of the tongue, and
swells to such a size as frequently
to stop respiration. It is caused by
excessive irritation and heat of the
stomach, and discoA-ers itself by the
animal's gaping, and hanging out
its tongue. The method of cure is
as follows : Lay the beast on the
ground, open the tumor, and wash
it with vinegar and a little salt.
BLANCHING, the art or man-
ner of rendering any thing white.
See Bleaching.
The blanching of woollen stuffs
is performed with soap, chalk, sul-
phur, &c. Silk is blanched with
soap and sulphur ; and wax is ren-
dered white by exposing it to the
action of the sun and dew. SeeWAx.
BLANKET, an article of com-
merce so Avell knoAvn in domestic
economy, that any definition of it
would be superfluous.
The best kind of blankets is ma-
nufactured at Whitney, in Oxford-
shire : their excellency is attribut-
ed by some persons to the abster-
sive nitrous water of the river
Windrush, with Avhich they are
scoured ; while others imagine it
is to be ascribed to a peculiar
looseness in the spinning. Blank-
VOL. I.
B L E 297
ets are made of felt-wool, or that
from sheepskins, which is divided
into several sorts. Of the head-
wool anel bay avooI they make
blankets of ten, eleven and twelve
quarters broad, commonly of the or-
dinary sort, those of seven and eight
quarters ; and of the best tail-wool,
are, made blankets of six quarters
broad called cuts, and used for sea-
men's hammocks.....See IIykes.
BLAST, in agriculture and gar-
dening, is a term synonimous with
blight, which see.
That species of blasts called ure-
dines, or fire-blasts, is supposed by
Mr. Hales to originate from the
solar rays, reflected from, or con-
densed in the clouds, or collected
by the steams in hop-gardens, &c.
They wither, scorch, and blacken
the leaves, blossoms, and fruits of
trees, shrubs, grass, corn, Sec. and
this devastation is at times extend-
ed over whole tracts of ground.
Balatta. See Cockroach.
BLEACHING is the art of
whitening linen cloth, thread, cot-
ton, &c. In the present advanced
state of the linen and cotton manu-
factures of Great Britain and Ire-
land, the art of bleaching is one
of the most interesting and import-
ant. Its object is to reduce flax,
cotton, or the thread* or cloths
manufactured from them, to a state
of perfect Avhiteness. To attain
this end, oils, metallic oxides,
earthy impregnations, resins, and
other animal, vegetable, or mine-
ral particles, containing any co-
louring matter, must be discharg-
ed from the texture of the sub-
stances manufactured.
The process of bleaching is di-
vided into five parts, viz. 1. Steep-
ing and milling ; 2. Bucking and
boiling ; 3. Alternate watering and,
drying ; 4. Souring ; and, 5. Ru!>
298 B L E
BLE
bing Avith soap and Avarm water,
starching and blueing. By the
first of these methods, the cloth is
in a great degree freed from its
superficial foulness, and is rendered
more pliant and soft. The second
process is the most important of
the whole. Its object is to loosen
and carry off, by means of alkaline
leys, that particular substance in
cloth, which is the cause of its
brown colour. The operation of
alternate watering and drying is as
follows : After the cloth has been
bucked, it is carried out to the
field, and frequently watered, dur-
ing the first six hours. For, if in
the course of that time it be allow-
ed to dry, Avhile strongly impreg-
nated Avith salts, the latter, by ap-
proaching closer together, and
being assisted by a degree of heat
which increases in proportion to
the dryness of the cloth, act with
greater force, and destroy its tex-
ture. After this time, dry spots
are suffered to appear before it re-
ceives any Avater.
By the continual evaporation
which takes place on the surface of
the cloth, it is evident that this
operation is intended to carry off
some impurities that remain after
the former process of bucking.....
This is clearly proved from the
fact, that the upper side of the
cloth, where the evaporation is
strongest, attains to a greater de-
gree of whiteness than the reverse
side ; and the whole likewise turns
much lighter on being exposed to
the influence of the sun, air, and
winds.
Souring.....Every person, who
possesses the smallest knoAvledge
of chemistry, is aware that alkaline
salts may, by various methods, be
converted into absorbent earths....
One of these is, frequent solution
in water, and again evaporating it.
A transmutation, therefore, of these
salts must be continually going for-
Avards in the cloth, during the al-
ternate Avaterings and dryings of
the former process. The souring
process is sooner completed in cold
than in warm Aveather ; and it is
noAv experimentally ascertained,
that vitriol is preferable to milk
sours in bleaching.
The next is hand rubbing with
soap and warm water, rubbing-
boards, starching, and blueing.....
After the cloth has been suffici-
ently soured, it is washed in the
mill, to deprive it of the acrid par-
ticles which adhere to its surface.
From the mill, it is taken to be
washed by the hand, with soap and
warm Avater, to free it from the
oily particles which could not be
disengaged by the milling. Soft
soap is preferred to hard, for this
purpose, as the latter contains a
considerable quantity of sea-salt,
which is prejudicial to the cloth.
The management of coarse cloth
in this operation is very different
from that of fine : for the former,
instead of being worked by the
hands (a method Avhich would be
too expensive), is laid upon a table,
rubbed over with soap, and then
placed between what are called
rubbing-boards, which have ridges
and grooves from one side to the
other, in the form of teeth.
The starching and blueing, which
is the last operation, differs so little
from the process employed by laun-
dry-women, that it scarcely re-
quires discription, But it often
happens, that the cloth, Avhen ex-
posed to dry in the open air, after
being starched, is wetted by rain,
which frustrates the effects intended
by the operation: to remedy this
inconvenience, many bleachers em-
ploy a dry-house, where the linen
may be dryed in all weathers.
BL E
B L E 299
As bleaching is a process still
susceptible of improvement, scarce-
ly a year elapses, which does not
produce some new discovery in
this useful branch of manufactures.
We shall, therefore, content our-
selves with communicating a feAv
of such hints as may prove advan-
tageous to the practical bleacher ;
and with which, Ave presume, there
are many persons still unacquainted.
The new method of bleaching
with the dephlogisticated or oxyge-
nated muriatic acid, or spirit of
salt combined with manganese, is
founded upon the remarkable pro-
perty which that acid possesses of
destroying vegetable colours ; and
though various attempts have been
made to introduce it into this coun-
try, the difficulties or disadvantages
attending it have prevented its ge-
neral adoption. This acid was first
applied to the purpose of bleaching
by M. Berthollet ; and the par-
ticulars of the process are describ-
ed at length in a treatise on bleach-
ing published a few years since, at
Edinburgh.
It is to be regretted, that no ex-
act comparative statement of the
difference of expence between the
old and new methods of bleaching,
has yet been laid before the public;
but it is probable that the acid
drawn from one pound of salt, will
whiten four of linen cloth, with-
out any addition. The expence in
this case may appear trifling, but
when we compute the vitriolic acid
which is employed, and that the
residuum is almost useless, it will
soon be found to be very consider-
able ; and upon the whole, the ad-
vantage may be only in the saving
of time : but M. Berthollet as-
serts, that by this method the tex-
ture of the cloth is less injured than
by that hitherto practised.
The oxy-muriatic acid is also
very generally used for bleaching
paper. According to M. Chap-
tal, blotting-paper, Avhen put into
it, is bleached without suffering
any injury : and old books, and
prints, Avhen soiled in such a man-
ner as to be scarcely distinguisha-
ble, have been completely restored
to their original state. The simple
immersion of a print in this acid, is
sufficient to produce that desirable
effect; but with books some far-
ther precaution is necessary: they
should be unseAved, and the adher-
ing leaA'es carefully separated, that
the whole may be equally impreg-
nated.
Mr. Higgins, chemist to the
Irish Linen Board, has discovered
that the oxy-muriate of lime is, in
bleaching, not only cheaper, but in
other respects preferable to that of
pot-ash. The chemical attraction
of the former is somewhat stronger
than that of the latter; and, on
account of this quality, it does less
injury to the cloth. Alternate
boilings in solutions of pot-ash,
steepings in oxy-muriate of lime,
exposure to the action of light,
anel evaporating water on the green,
are found to complete within six
weeks, at little more than half the
expence, what otherwise cannot be
performed in less than elouble the
lime.
Notwithstanding this great im-
provement, Mr. Higgins was
anxious to diminish still farther
the expence attending the process
of bleaching. Convinced that the
mixtures of sulphur with soda, are
detergents, or cleansers of the most
powerful kind, he Avas naturally
led to conjecture, that lime, which,
in other respects, pussesses pro-
perties nearly similar to those of the
fixed alkali, might also resemble
300 B L E
them in the detergent effect of their
combination with sulphur. He
made trial: a sulphuret of lime,
composed of four pounds of sul-
phur added to twenty pounds of
lime, and diluted in sixteen gal-
lons of Avater, formed a solution
Avhich answered cold, just as Avell
for the bleaching of linen, as the
boiling solution of pot-ash. In
consequence of this experiment, he
recommends, that linen, after be-
ing perfectly cleansed from the
weaver's dressing, be immersed
alternately in solutions of sulphuret
of lime, and of oxy-muriate of
lime, namely, six times in each.
By this method, linen may be com-
pletely bleached, and with a con-
siderable saving of expence. In
Ireland, it is at present almost ge-
nerally adopted.
[The following process is com-
municated by T.Cooper, of Nor-
thumberland, an excellent chemist,
who says, it was the result of the
successful experience of three years
in England, where it is still a se-
cret.
"Bleaching Linen....ln bleaching
linen the objects are as follow : to
get rid of the sowen or paste used
by the weaver: to destroy the
colouring matter of the cloth ; to
give additional whiteness when this
is destroyed; to give apparent
fineness to the cloth.
Into a tub sunk in the ground,
put any number of pieces from 50
to 100 immersed in water. Let
them stay therein for two or three
days, until there is an appearance
of fermentation. Take them out
and dash them Avell in the dash-
wheel, and lay them down on the
grass till dry. Into a cuir or
round tub about four feet six in-
ches deep, capable of holding 220
pieces of common Irish linen, put
BLE
in that quantity. The upper pieces
should be covered by pieces twisted
and placed very close, so that the
steam may be somewhat confined ;
near the bottom of this cuir is a
hole, stopped occasionally with a
plug through which the liquor is let
out into an iron pan just beloAv....
Under this pan is a fire, with its
proper flue. Put into this iron
pan 70lb. of good pot ash. It is
absurd to use kelp or barilla : it
is more impure, much weaker
when pure, and in all respects
dearer and less efficacious, than the
vegetable alkali. Fill the pan Avith
water and make a fire under it.
The pan should hold just enough
to let the liquor cover the cloth
when the cuir is full and the plug
in.
By the side of the pap. stands a
man Avith a tin vessel, holding a-
bout a gallon, fixed at the end of a
wooden handle; with which he con-
tinually lades out the liquor in the
pan to the cloth, distributing it
evenly, beginning with it cold, and
continuing as it boils from morning
to night, occasionally filling up the
pan to prevent the alkaline solution
being too strong. This operation,
which should continue nine hours,
is called bouking. The cloth is
thus left all night, taken out in
the morning, Avell dashed and laid
down on the grass for about a week,
being turned every day or two. It
must undergo this operation of
bouking a second time with from
50 to 60lb of pot ash, and being
Avell dashed, is laid down as before.
It is noAv soured in vitriolic acid
and water in tubs sunk in the
ground : the mixture should be the
strength of strong vinegar or a lit-
tle more. In this souring they should
continue two days and nights at
least: then dashed well; layed
B L E
B L E 301
down for a week and turned as be-
fore. The pieces should then be
bouked Avith 30lb. of pearl ash, and
ten pounds of soap to a cuir;
dashed, laid down for three or four
days: then soured, dashed, laid
doAvn for three or four days, turn-
ed, isfc. as before.
Bouk again with 25lb. of good
pearl ash to a cuir. Dash, lay
down for two or three days, and
then sour if you please in the oxy-
genated muriatic acid, made in the
manner directed in the article, Mu-
riatic Acid. If you do not use
the oxygenated acid, sour again in
common vitriolic acid for six or
eight hours, and wash it extremely
well. Indeed, perfect dashing con-
tinued to a certainty of all the acid
being washed out, is indispensible :
otherwise the pieces would rot on
the ground when dry.
Less than a month is not suffici-
ent to get a piece of linen cloth per-
fectly white, though half that time
Avill do for callicoes in England....
But in America the superior heat
of the sun will save at least one
fourth of the time in laying down
the pieces. After this process, the
cloth in Ireland is put under the
operation of the rubbing boards,
which certainly injure the texture,
as appears by the knap in the teeth,
although the more soap is used the
less injury is done. But it is a part
of the manufacture which may be
omitted where the cloth is required
to gain credit by the strength of
its texture.
After the rubbing boards the
cloth is gradually Avound round
cylinders of wood and beetled....
The beetles are stampers lifted up
by a cog-wheel, and let fall on the
cloth, as it is slowly taken up round
a turning cylinder. This is also a
part of the operation by which the
thread is flattened, and the cloth
made to look finer at the expence
of the texture.
It is then run through a very thin
solution of fine starch, and blued
with smalt. Then run through
two cylinders to give it evenness
and gloss, and made up for market.
Bleaching of Cotton....The pro-
cess is exactly the same as for
linen, only requiring less time and
labour, viz....
1. Steep the grey cloth for two
or three days, then wash.
2. Bouk with 70lb. of pot ash
to 230 pieces of callico of 2 Ba-
yards each, or muslinets, velver-
ets, &c. in proportion, that is to a
cuir, (keer) full, which will hold
230 callicoes in the grey. A cuir
that will hold 230 callicoes will not
hold quite so many of Irish linen
of equal length.
3. Lay the goods doAvn on the
grass three days,turning them each
day.
4. Bouk with 50lb. of good pearl
ash, and about 5lb. of soap. Dash,
lay down for three days as before.
5. Sour in vitriolic acid and wa-
ter, the strength of strong vinegar
for two days.
6. Dash well, lay doAvn for three
days as before.
7. Bouk Avith 30lb. of pearl ash,
dash and lay down for three days.
8. Bleach with oxygenated mu-
riatic acid. Dash well, lay down
for a day, dash again and make up
the callicoes."
Muslinets and Muslins require a
detail of processes after they are
white, too long and complicateel to
be described in this compendium.
A new method of bleaching cot-
ton thread and hosiery has been a-
dopted in Swabia. The operation
is performed in two days, and does
not require extensive premises. An
302
B LE
B L E
alkalizate caustic ley is prepared,
by taking two measures of epiick
lime, and covering them with ten
measures of good ashes ; the heap
is then to be sprinkled with water,
and Avhen the lime is slacked, and
the mass cooled, it is fit for making
the leArs by the addition of cold soft
water. The skains of cotton being
untAvisted and tie:l in parcels, are
to be immersed in the ley, in
which they are to be left six hours,
and to be occasionally turned ;
they are then to be washed in a ri-
ver, and afterwards boiled twelve-
hours in a bath of the same kind of
ley, in which for every sixty-six
pounds of cotton thread, six pounds
of soap have been dissolved ; the^
are then to be boiled the same
length of time in a solution of soap
and water only, according to the
former proportion ; after Avhich,
they are again to be washeel in
the river, and hung up in the air,
or laid on the grass, to dry as ejuick-
Iy as possible. The process for the
hosiery is similar. The boiler must
be made of copper, and always
well cleaned after it has been used.
The successful experiments
made by Berthollet in bleaching
vegetable goods, by means of the
oxymuriatic acid, seem to have
brought this art nearly to a state
of perfection. But this method is
not in every instance, equally eco-
nomical. It requires to be per-
formed by very skilful operators,
in order that the goods may not
be affected by a ley too corrosive,
or applied at an improper time ;
independent of which considera-
tion, it is desirable that every pro-
cess should be completely disclo-
sed, in order that the artist may
choose such means as may best
suit his pursuit. This considera-
tion has induced the publication of
the following account of Chap-
t all's simple and economical
mode of bleaching cotton thread.
At the height of about 4-1 deci-
metres (17.716 inches) above the
grate of a common furnace, a cop-
per boiler is placed, of a round
form, 5 decemetres, (19.685) inch-
es) in depth, and U- metres (52.49
inches) in diameter. The project-
ing rim of the boiler, which is about
2 decimetres (7.874 inches), rests
upon the brick work of the furnace.
The remainder of the kiln is made
of free stone, and forms an oval
boiler or digester, about 2 metres,
(78.74 inches) in height, and its
width, Avhen measured at the cen-
tre, is 1-i metre, (52.49 inches).....
The upper part of this vessel has a
round orifice, about half a metre,
(19,68 inches) in diameter, which
is closed, when necessary, by a
large moveable stone, or by a cop-
per lid adapted for the purpose. On
the flank of the copper vessel,
which forms the bottom of this di-
gester, a grating is laid, which con-
sists of bars of wood placed near
enough to prevent the cotton that
is put on them from falling
through, and sufficiently strong to
support the weight of 800 kilo-
grammes (or lbs. 1781,4oz.) When
this structure is completed, the cot-
ton thread, having been previously
divided into parcels or hanks, is
slightly impregnated Avith a solu-
tion of soda, rendered caustic by
lime. This operation is performed
in a trough of wood or stone, and
as soon as the cotton is sufficiently
impregnated with the alkaline li-
quor, it is conveyed to the digest-
er, and piled upon the wooden-
grate. In this situation, the exud-
ing liquor runs through the bars
into the copper boiler, where it
forms a stratum of fluid, and allovvs
BL E
B L E 303
the whole mass to be heated, with-
out danger of burning either the
cotton or the metal. The alkaline
Icy is composed of the best pot-
ash, one tenth part of the weight of
the cotton in cmantity.
After the cotton is properly dis-
posed in the boiler, the cover is put
on, and very little issue left forthe
disengaged vapours, in order that
they may acquire a greater degree
of heat, and act more powerfully on
the cotton. When the digester is
charged, the fire is lighted in the
furnace, and the ley submitted to a
gentle ebullition from 20 to 36
hours. It is then suffered to cool,
the cover taken off, the cotton care-
fully washed and exposed on the
bleaching ground for 2 or 3 days,
by spreading it on frames during
the day, and on the grass at night.
Thus the cotton accmires a beauti-
ful degree of whiteness; and if
some portions should accidentally
remain unbleached, which may
happen from its not having been
equally and completely impregnat-
ed with the ley, those portions
must be replaced and subjected to
a second operation, or left in the
bleach-field for some days longer.
The oxygenated muriatic acid,
was discovered by Scheele ; its
application to bleaching was first
suggested by Berthollet and
Chaptall in France, anel used at
Glasgow, by Mr. Watt, anel in
Manchester in the year 1791 in a
large way, first by Baker and Co.
whose process has never yet been
made public, and is that now about
to be detailed.
The method of making this acid
for bleaching, yet used in Manches-
ter and elsewhere, is by adding to
3 parts, by weight of manganese,
8 parts of common salt and 6 parts
of oil of vitriol, and 12 of water..••
These are distilled together, and
the products received in barrels of
water, arranged in the manner of
Wolfe's apparatus by tubes com-
municating from the retort to the
first barrel, and from the first to a
second. Sometimes the water is
only impregnated with the acid,
sometimes it is made to saturate
lime or pearl ash. This process
cannot be used with economy : the
trouble and expence of retorts, and
the attendance on the fire renders
it complicated so as ultimately to
bring it into disuse. It has not
yet, and never Avill answer for
goods in general. Where parti-
cular patterns are suddenly want-
ed for the market it may pay.
The writer of this article attenel-
ecl for three years continually to
the bleaching of cotton goods of
various kinds, to the amount of 800
pieces of callico per week, on the
average of the year, by the follow-
ing process, The goods under-
went three boukings, as described
before in this article, and two
acid baths. The third Avas the
oxygenated muriatic acid made as
follows. In a building of one room
on a bank and another over it,
were placed on substantial frames
or tressels, five wooden cylindrical
machines four feet diameter by
five feet long, the staves two and an
half inches thick and well dove-
tailed. Into each of these, twice
a day, through a funnel inserted in
a two inch augur hole and let
through the floor of the upper
room was poured 75lb. of salt and
25lb. of red lead. To this was ad-
ded 40lb. of oil of vitriol, weighing
29>oz. to the wine pint.
The machine was then filled
with Avater, the augur hole stopt
with a plug and rag, and then turn-
ed round 20 or 30 times, and in
304 B L E
BLE
15 minutes the acid Avas made.....
The vitriolic acid acts on the salt,
anel the marine acid thus produced
on the red lead, Avhich in a few
minutes is deprived of its oxygen,
and converted into vitriol of lead.
The handle of each machine was
fixed on the centre of one of the
ends with two cross-bars [X]......
The acid when made Avas let off on
the pieces placed in wooden ves-
sels in a room adjoining and be-
low. It frequently occasioned a
spitting of blood among the work-
men who took out the pieces, but
Avas never attended with any fur-
ther deleterious effects, laudanum
relieved the short phthisicky cough.
One of these vessels full was allow-
ed to 60 muslinets. No lead re-
mained in the liquor, for vitriol of
lead is insoluble.
This process may be imitated
in a small way, by pouring into a
strong vial, with a glass stopper,
about an ounce of spirits of salt on
a tea-spoonful of red-lead ; stop the
vial,heat is generated,the lead turns
white and a very strong oxygena-
ted acid is produced in a minute's
time. But this acid will contain a
little lead, while the acid made Avith
vitriol anel salt does not. This
acid has lately been recommend-
ed by Guyton Morveau, as an
effectual destroyer of putrid exhala-
tion.]
We shall conclude this article by
abstracting the patent lately granted
to Mr. Turnbull, for an improve-
ment in the common process of
bleaching cotton, or linen pieces:
Take any kind of earth Avhich is
easily mixable Avith water, such as
clay, marl, or Fuller's earth, or if
that cannot be had, any kind of
soft mud or the like, Avhich is
put into a boiler to evaporate the
moisture, dried, again mixed with
water, and passed through fine
sieves. This powder is then mix-
ed Avith quick-lime, which is slack-
ed in the earthy mass, and forms
the materials for the several bouk-
ings which the cloth is to undergo.
The pieces are to fee worked in the
bouking tubs for a number of times,
alternating this operation with rins-
ing and souring, as is usual in the
long established method, and after-
wards exposing them to the air, on,
the bleaching ground. The only
difference in the process here em-
ployed, is the admixture of earthy
mud, or clay, to the lime, so that
the corrosive power of the latter is
diminished, and may consequently
be used more freely. In the last
buckings, pot-ash is also added to
the earthy mixture. Hence the
patentee's method unites that of
fulling with soap, or washing with
alkaline lye ; and it is very pro-
bable, that by such a combination
not only time, but also expence
may be saved, as alkali is the most
valuable article used in the pro-
cess.
In January, 1798, a patent was
granted to Mr. C. Tennant, for
his method of using calcareous
earths, especially those known un-
der the names of barytes and stron-
tites as substitutes for alkalies, in
neutralizing the muriatic acid gas
employed in bleaching, he. and the
patentee directs such calcareous
earths to be calcined, pulverized,
anel sifted; after which a certain
portion of quick-lime, according to
the degree of strength required,
must be thrown into the vessel
usually employed in the prepara-
tion of the bleaching liquor, for the
purpose of retaining the oxygena-
tid muriatic gas. When the in-
gredients generally employed,
namely, manganeze and spirit of
BLE
B L E 305
Aalt, have been introduced into the
retort, and the gas begins to rise,
the liquor contained in the receiver
ought to be constantly agitated, so
that the title particles of the lime
may be diffused throughout the
whole of such fluid ; for the suc-
cess of the process depends chiefly
on this circumstance. As soon as
the manganese, or other material,
ceases to yield the oxygenated
muriatic acid gas, the whole should
be suffered to remain at rest, for
tAvo or three hours ; after Avhich
the clear liquor must be decanted
for use ; Mr. T. farther observes,
that if these calcareous earths be
mechanically suspended in water,
or other aqueous fluid, they will
unite with such gas, and form a
compound that may be advanta-
geously employed in bleaching.
The liquor, thus -prepared, is
not only a considerable saving in
the article of ashes, but also the
time usually required for bleach-
ing is remarkably shortened.
The latest Avork published on this
subject is, we belieA-e, a treatise
writtenby M.Pajot des Charmes,
of which a translation Avas lately
published in London, by Messrs.
Robinson, in one vol. 8vo.
[Since the work by Pajot des
Charmes, Citizen Chaptal, of
France, has greatly improved the
practice of bleaching, an account
of the Avhole process, as actually
conducted by Cit. Bawens, near
Paris, is detached in a publication
by R. O'Reilley, Parij year 9.
(1801). A translation of this work
may be found in Tilloch's Philadel-
phia Magazine, vol. 10, Avith some
observations on part of the process.
In the 11th vol. of the same use-
ful work, are remarks on Chap-
tal's machine for unitingoxviren
VOL. I.
with water, and on bleaching the
pulp of paper on this last process.
See a paper by Cit. Loysel, in
Nicholson's Phil. Journal, 8vo. 1 vol.
The Editor has thought it his
duty, to give a comprehensive view
of the present state of the know-
ledge on bleaching, leaving the
application of the principles and
practice to the discretion of. those
Avho may wish to follow the busi-
ness. He will gladly receive any
observations upon the various
modes recommended, from practi-
cal men.]
BLEAK, or Cyprinus Albums,
L. a well known scaly fish. See
Pearl.
BLEEDING, a term used to ex-
press either a spontaneous, or arti-
ficial, discharge of blood : in the
former case, it is by medical writers
called hemorrhage ; in the latter,
venesection, or blood-letting, of
which last we propose to treat in
its place. At present, therefore
we shall consider only those eva-
cuations which Nature directs to
take place in the system, and fre-
quently for the benefit of the indi-
vidual.
1. Bleeding at the nose generally
arises in full sanguine habits, more
commonly in young men than wo-
men, especially during adolescence.
Exposure to the heat of the sun,
a hot room, contusions of the head,
or acrid substances introduced into
the nostrils, are the general causes
of this complaint.....On its first
attack, all cumbersome clothes and
ligatures, especially those about
the wrists and neck, ought to
be instantly loosened ; the patient
should be removed to a cooler tem-
perature, and placed in an erect
posture ; his hands and legs im-
mersed in tepid water, about milk-
P R
306 B L E
BLI
warm ; and dossils of lint dipped
in vinegar, or a strong solution of
white vitriol, put up the nostrils.
[In general, bleeding of the nose
may be stopped by screwing up
the nostril, a piece of dry linen rag,
rolled very tight. Sometimes it
answers to clip the plug in a solu-
tion of sugar of lead in vinegar.]
If the bleeding does not abate, or
threatens to become more profuse,
cold Avater, or solutions of nitre and
sugar of lead, should be repeatedly
applied to the forehead and temples
as Avell as the region of the kidneys
and genitals.....One of the most ef-
fectual methods of stopping violent
bleeding, consists in the unremitted
administration of lukewarm, emol-
lient clysters, in such small propor-
tions as may be retained and ab-
sorbed by the bowels, while cold
fomentations are applied to the ab-
domen. Meanwhile, the patient
should drink lemonade, or water
acidulated with a few drops of vi-
triolic acid, and sweetened with
sugar ; or if these cannot be had,
a mixture of equal parts of vinegar
and Avater may be substituted.
2. Spitting of blood may be
owing to an abundance of that
fluid, an organic debility of the
lungs, or an imperfect structure of
the chest. It may also proceed
from exertions in blowing Avind-
instruments,loud-speaking^singing,
running, wrestling, and excess in
drinking, especially after violent
exercise. This alarming complaint
is attended Avith a dry cough, and
difficulty of breathing : and if the
evacuated blood be thin, frothy,
and florid, it indicates a rupture of
some pulmonary artery ; but if it
be thick, and of a darkish colour,
while the coughing up is accompa-
nied with pain, the disease is then
occasioned by a fall, or other ex-
ternal injury. In either case, the
diet should be cooling and diluent:
hence sweet whey, a decoction of
marsh-mallows, or barley, vege-
tables abounding in • mucilage,
the mildest laxatives, consisting of
manna, tamarinds, phosphorated
soda, vitriolated tartar, Sec. ought
to be instantly resorted to. At the
same time, emollient clysters bath-
ing the legs in tepid water, and a
suspension of all mental and bodily
exertion, are absolutely necessary.
Bleeding, cupping, styptic tinc-
tures, fox-glove, and opium, must
be submitted to the discretion of
the medical practitioner: and we
shall here only observe, that a ta-
ble spoonful of fine salt, taken dry,
has frequently afforded instant re-
lief.
3. Vomiting of Blood. See Vo-
miting.
4. Discharge of Blood by the
urethra. See Urine.
5. Bloody Flux. See Dysen-
tery.
6. Bleeding Hemorrhoids. See
Piles.
BLEND-WATER, also called
more-hough, a distemper incident
to black cattle, which proceeds
either from the state of the ani-
mal's blood, from the yellows, or
from the change of ground, which
if too hard, is apt to produce this
evil. To cure it....Take one ounce
of bole armenian, as much char-
coal as will fill a small tea-cup,
and three ounces of the rind of the
oak : let the whole be reduced to
a powder, anel given to the animal
in a quart of new milk.
BLIGHT, in husbandry, is a
disease incident to plants, and af-
fecting them in various degrees ;
sometimes destroying only the
leaves and blossoms, and frequently
causing the whole plant to perish*
BL I
Blights are generally supposed
to be produced by easterly winds,
which convey multitudes of the
eggs of insects from some distant
quarter; and these being lodged
on the surface of the leaves and
flowers of fruit-trees, cause them
to shrivel and decay.
It is the general opinion, that
one principal reason why the en-
virons of London are particularly
subject to blights, is the great
number of pruned trees and cut
hedges near that metropolis; for as
all vegetables become more or less
sickly when the course of their sap
is impeded, the trees in this state
are more liable to blight, than such
as are vigorous and uninjured by
the pruhing-knife. It is worthy of
remark, that to the westward of
London the effects of this distem-
per insensibly decrease, insomuch,
that at forty miles distance it rarely
occurs, and at an hundred miles
and upwards, it is entirely un-
known. This circumstance seems
to favour the idea of its being con-
veyed by easterly winds. But the
true cause appeal's to be, the conti-
nuance of these Avinds for several
elays, Avithout the intervention of
showers or dews, by Avhich the
expansion of the tender blossom is
checked, so that the young leaves
necessarily wither.
To cure this distemper, some
persons burn a quantity of wet
litter on the windward side of the
plants, as it is supposed that the
smoke will suffocate the insects:
others fumigate the trees, by streAV-
ing sulphur upon lighted charcoal,
or by sprinkling them Avith to-
bacco-dust, or with water in which
tobacco-stalks have been infused
for twelve hours. Ground-pepper,
scattered over the blossoms, has
sometimes proved beneficial.
BLI 307
Mr. Gullett, of Tavistock, is
of opinion that great benefit may
be derived from whipping the
branches of fruit-trees with a
bunch of elder-twigs, the leaves
of Avhich should be previously
bruised. The smell of the elder
being extremely disagreeable, no
insects will settle on the parts
touched by it; and some blighted
shoots have even been restored, by
first whipping them, and then tying
up a bunch of elder leaves among
them.
A composition of oil and sul- *
phur, mixed to the consistence of
paint, Avill also prove highly advan-
tageous, in expelling young insects
from the trees infested by them.
But the most effectual remedy is,
to wash the plants gently and fre-
quently with pure Avater, and if the
young shoots be much infected, to
rub them gently with a Avoollen
cloth, in order to clear away the
glutinous matter. This operation
should be performed in the morn-
ing, that the moisture may be ex-
haled before night.
It deserves to be mentioned, that
the blights most destructiveto fruit-
trees, are those produced by the
hoar frosts in spring mornings,
Avhich are often succeeded by Avarm
sun-shine.
We shall now give an account of
the different remedies that have
heen proposed by Mr. Forsyth,
both for its prevention and cure,
according to the various causes
from Avhich it may originate.
Where the blight arises from
long-continued easterly winds, the
diseased tree ought to be washed
Avith a mixture of urine and soap-
suds : this operation must be per-
formed as early as possible; for
the malady may thus be in a great
measure prevented; but, if the
308 B L I
BLI
young and tender shoots be great-
ly infected, it will be advisable to
cleanse them with a woollen cloth,
dipped in the following liquor:
Take 1 lb. of tobacco, 2 lbs. of sul-
phur, 1 peck of unslacked lime, and
about 1 lb. of elder-buds ; let 10
gallons of boiling Avater be poured
on these ingredients into a hogs-
head, which must now be closely
covered, and the whole be suffered
to become cool. The vessel is then
to be filled up with cold water; and,
after standing two or three days,
during which time the liquor must
be skimmed, the mixture will be
fit for use.
Another cause of blight in the
spring, is the sharp hoar frost,
which often takes place during the
night, and is succeeded by hot days;
so that the blossoms and fruit ine-
vitably perish. The only preven-
tive of such accidents, hitherto
known, is the covering of Avails
with old fish-nets, doubled three
times ; and, if a flew branches of
dry fern be placed between the
boughs, they will greatly contribute
to break the force of high Avinds, as
well as of the frost. Such shelter
ought to be employed only during
the night, and be removed in the
day time. Thus, the fruit will be
effectually preserved ; and, as the
apparent trouble attending this
practice might deter many persons
from adopting it, Mr. F. is of opi-
nion, that the object may be easily
and expeditiously attained, by con-
triving to draAv up and let down the
nets by means of pullies.
Frequently, however, the affec-
tion termed blight, is merely a
weakness in the trees, Avhich de-
pends on the difference of their
constitutions, and proceeds from
want of proper nourishment; some
bad quality in the soil; or from a
distemper in the stock, buds, or
scyons ; all of which causes pro*
duce a malady in trees, that is with
difficulty cured.
Should the cause arise from the
soil, Mr. F. directs it to be dug out,
and supplied Avith fresh mould ; or,
it Avill be advisable to remove the
trees, and to plant others, which
are better adapted to the ground;
because it is indispensibly neces-
sary to suit different kinds of fruit-
trees, as nearly as possible, to the
nature 08) the land. But, where
the weakness of trees is induced by
some inbred disease, they ought to
be dug up ; the earth be changed;
and other plants be substituted.
Lastly, there is another species
of blight that is very destvuctive to
orchards and plantations, in the
months of April and May : it is
known under the name of Blast.
This malady is conjectured to ori-
ginate from certain transparent
floating vapours, which assume such
forms as to converge the rays of
the sun, in a manner similar to a
burning glass, and to scorch those
plants on which they happen to de-
scend, in a greater or less degree,
according to their convergency.
The blast occurs most frecmently in
close plantations, where the exha-
lation of vapours from the earth,
and the perspiration of the trees
are confined, for want of a sufficient
circulation of the air to disperse
them. Mr. Forsyth, therefore,
recommends a clear, healthy spot,
to be selected for kitchen-gardens,
orchards, he. ; the trees being
planted at such a distance as to
give free admission to the air; so
that all noxious vapours may be
dissipated, before they are formed
into volumes capable of occasion-
ing blasts.
[Dr. Anderson attributes blight^
BLI
to an insect, and not to E. winds.
He thinks this opinion is proved by
the well-known fact, that when the
blight once affects a tree to a con-
siderable degree, it is ten to one
but it will be affected with the same
disease for many successive years :
because, the insects lay their eggs
in the bark of the tree, and thus
ensure their successors. Dr. A.
directs the trees to be brushed early
in the spring, in the direction of
the buds; or, when the insects are
numerous, to cut out the twigs :
this operation, though it may dimi-
nish the fruit for a year, it will put
the tree in the finest order the next
year. The twigs cut off must be
burnt. If no attention has been
paid to the trees until the leaves
appear, they must be pulled off;
and the twigs brushed, the tree will
put forth new leaves.
In a paper by the late Mr: Cur-
tis, in the 6th vol. of the Lin. So-
ciety's Transactions, London, the
sentiments of Dr. Anderson re-
specting the cause of blights, are
confirmed. Mr. C. ascribes this
disease to aphides. They greatly
multiply in consecjuence of a mild
Avinter, but are usually kept in
check by coccinella ichneumon aphi-
dum, and muses, aphidora, their de-
clared enemies. In the years 1793
and 1798, they greatly injured the
hops in England....They resist im-
mersion in water for hours toge-
ther, but quickly perish in the
smoke of tobacco. They part with
an excrementitious saccharine mat-
ter, which forms honey dire, and
gives the sooty appearance com-
monly called blight.
Fmit trees, particularly apple
and pear trees, are very subject to
the blight or blast, the cause of
which is little understoo 1. By ac-
cident, Mr. Cooper, of Xew-Jer-
B L I 309
sey, discovered some years since,
that a tree upon which a number
of iron hoops and other articles of
iron had been hung, remained free,
Avhile all the rest suffered severely.
Since that year, he has constantly
encircled tAvo or three branches of
every tree Avith an iron hoop, and
with uniform success. As a proof,
he pointed out one tree with a wi-
thered limb near the top, and ob-
served that he had neglected to de-
fend itlast year. Philosophers may
speculate as to the theory of the
operation of the iron, and cause of
the blast, but practical men will be
contented with a knowledge of the
important fact, Avhich comes from
a man of judgment, and of an ob-
serving disposition, Avho has again
and again satisfied himself that no
deception or accidental circum-
stance occurred, by reference to
which, the preservation of his hoop-
ed trees could be accounted for.]
Blighted Corn. See Smut.
BLINDNESS, implies either a
partial or total privation of sight,
proceeding from some defect of the
organs of vision, or an impaired
state of their functions. Hence it
may be either total, partial, tran-
sient, periodical, or nocturnal. The
causes of blindness are likewise va-
rious, such as weakness, or decay
of the optic nerves, preternatural
conformation of the organs, exter-
nal violence, malignant effluvia,
poisonous liquids dropt into the eye,
too frequent exposure to intense
heat, long confinement in dark pla-
ces, Sec.
As Ave propose to treat of the
principal diseases of the eye, under
the heads of Cataract, Gutta-
serena, andSicHT, we shall here
only observe, that those unfortunate
persons who are born blind, orlose
their sight in infancy, seldom re-
310 B L I
B LI
cover that important faculty, and
ought therefore to be educated for
such pursuits as are adequate to
their individual capacities. It is,
indeed, equally cruel, anel incon-
sistent Avith good policy, to suffer
these pitiable beings frequently to
spend a vagrant life, anel remain in
the darkest ignorance. On the
contrary, it has been uniformly
observed, that the privation of one
sense renders the others compara-
tively more acute and useful. Hence
blind persons generally hear bet-
ter, and possess a more accurate
sense of touch, than those who en-
joy all their sensitive faculties; and
we haA-e also many instances of the
poetical and philosophical talents
displayed by the former.
With a view to contribute our
share towards alleviating the severe
lot of such unfortunate individuals,
we shall here communicate an in-
vention of Mr. Thomas Gren-
ville, organist, of Ross, in Here-
fordshire ; Avho, in the year 1770,
received a premium of fifteen gui-
neas ; and, in 1785, for some ad-
ditional improvements, the silver
medal, from the Society for the
Encouragement of Arts, tsfc. It is
remarkable, that the ingenious in-
ventor is himself deprived of sight;
and that by the use of his machine,
any blind person may be taught
the elements of arithmetic, name-
ly, addition, subtraction, multipli-
cation, division, reduction, and the
rule of three, Avhether in money,
weights, or measures of every
kind, as perfectly as it may be per-
formed on paper. His apparatus
being of a simple construction, and
so contriAred that it may be of ser-
vice in teaching the art of reckon-
ing,to young children, in a very easy
and entertaining manner; Ave shall
first give an account of this ma-
chine, as represented in the sub-
joined cut, and then conclude Avith
a description of its mechanism.
It consists of a box nineteen in-
ches square in the clear space Avith-
in, and near two inches deep, divid-
ed into cells, containing the figures,
lines, he. hereafter described, ne-
cessary for performing the rules of
arithmetic. The lid or cover of
the box, Avhich serves as a leaf, or
slate, is pierced full of holes in
parrallel rows ; the first row has
eighteen large, and seventeen small
holes, alternately placed ; the se-
cond row, eighteen small holes,
placed under the above large ones ;
the third, as the first, and so on
alternately, thirty-five toavs, the
Avhole cover being full, and contain-
ing three hundred and twenty-four
large lioles, and six hundred anel
twelve small ones, which make an
exact square. The figures are re-
presented by pegs with cubical
heads, and distinguished by pins
placed on one side in the following
manner :....One, is expressed by a
pin's point on the right hand ; two,
by the same in the middle; and
three, by having it on the left-
hand ; four, five, and six, by pins'
heads in the above three different
situations ; seven, eight, and nine,
by crooked pins, or staples, in the
same manner: the cypher is un-
derstood by a plain peg, without
any mark. On the top of each peg
is printed the figure which it repre-
sents, to render the Avork intelligi-
ble to any person that may see it,
without being acquainted Avith the
marks. These pegs are made to
fit the large holes. Pieces of brass
wire, bent to a right angle, about
half an inch from each end, and
made to fit the small holes, serve
for the purpose of lines, to separate
the different parts of the Avork.
BLI BLI 311
The box contains twenty-eight figures, and the others for the lines
partitions, situated as in the fol- of different lengths.
lowing cut, ten of them to hold
A, The box with its several di-
visions, containing the different
pegs, bars, Sec. with which the
rules in arithmetic are to be per-
formed....B, The cover, Avhich
when turned back, and standing on
its feet as represented, shews the
holes wherein the pegs and bars
are occasionally placed to exhibit
the value of the figures....C, The
pegs marked in such manner as to
enable the blind person to distin-
guish by the touch, what each peg
is intended to represent, when
placed in the holes in the cover B.
A complete specimen of this ma-
chine may be seen in the Reposi-
tory of the Society, Adelphi build-
ings, London.
With respect to the education
of the blind, we have already re-
marked, that it deserves public sym-
pathy, and the interposition of the
legislature ; as their natural indus-
try, and persevering application,
will enable them to overcome the
greatest difficulties, and amply re-
pay the trouble and expence be-
stowed on their mechanical or li-
terary, acquirements. To strength-
en their faculties, and preserve
their health, blind children should
never be suffered to remain
idle, so that during the hours of
recreation, they ought to take suit-
able exercise, such as riding on
horseback, walking out in fair wea-
ther, the use of dumb bells, the
bath chair, Scc....In regard to diet,
their meals should be temperate,
light, and of easy digestion. Ve-
getables the most farinaceous, and
least acescent, should be preferred
to animal food. Neither ferment-
ed liquors, nor ardent spirits, should
be given them, except in cases of
general debility. Tea is likewise
pernicious ; and their regular drink
ought to consist of equal parts of
milk and Avater: a little chocolate,
312 BLI
BLI
and coffee, may occasionally be
granted; but infusions of balm,
sage, or ground-ivy, are more
wholesome. Tobacco and snuff
must be absolutely prohibited ; and
on the whole, blind persons should
neither be too much restricted to
the observance of a rigid system of
diet, nor allowed to eat and drink
whatever is suggested by their OAvn
fancy: in the former case, they are
apt to become pitiable slaves to
custom ; and, in the latter, it is a
shameful dereliction of duty in
those whom Providence has ena-
bled to see, and direct their affairs.
Blindness, in farriery, is a
disease incident to the eyes of
horses, but more particularly to
those of an iron grey, or dapple-
grey, colour; and is supposed to
proceed from riding them too hard,
or backingthem at too early an age.
This disorder may be discovered
by the walk or step, which, in a
blind animal, is always uncertain
and unequal, when led; but if he
be mounted by an expert horseman,
an apprehension of the spur may
induce him to move Avith more free-
dom, so that the blindness can
scarcely be perceived. A horse
may also be known to have lost his
sight, if observed constantly to
prick up his ears, and move them
backwards and forwards, on hear-
ing any person enter the stable.
The ordinary cause of blindness
in horses, is attributed by Dr.
Lower, to a spongy excrescence
growing in one, and sometimes in
two or three places of the coloured
part of the iris, or Avhich being
ultimately overgroAvn, covers the
pupil Avhen the horse is brought
into the light, but again dilates on
returning him to a dark stable....
See Eyes of Horses.
Blind-worm (fragilis), or slow-
Avorm ; a species of the Anguis,
or snake. It is about a foot in
length, and of the thickness of
the little finger. Its name is de-
rived from the slowness of its mo-
tion, and the smallness of its eyes.
It is chiefly found in gardens and
pastures.
The Rev. Mr. Foster, in his
" Observations on noxious Ani-
mals," asserts, from his own expe-
rience, that the bite of this crea-
ture is perfectly harmless; and he
mentions two cases in which it was
not attended with any ill conse-
quences. These observations are
farther corroborated by a passage
in the twenty-ninth volume of the
Monthly Review, respecting a dog
having been bitten by a slow-worm
without any ill effects.
BLISTER, in medicine, signi-
fies either a thin bladder, contain-
ing a watery humour raised on the
skin, or the application of vesica-
tories to different parts of the body.
With this intention, Spanish flies
are most commonly employed;
though we are possessed of a great
variety of indigenous plants, Avhich
might be effectually substituted....
Hence- Ave recommend, from ex-
perience, the following: 1. Mus-
tard-seed mixed with vinegar suf-
ficient to convert it into a thick
paste, to be spread upon linen;
2. The fresh root of the horse-
radish, grated, or in fine shavings ;
3. The bruised leaves of the dif-
ferent species of the Ranunculus, or
crow-foot; 4. The leaves of the
Polygonum hydropiper, .or Avater-
pepper, groAving wild on the banks
of rivulets ; and 5. The most poAV-
erful of all indigenous vegetables,
the Da/ihne Mezereum, or spurge
olive, every part of which is ex-
BLI
tremcly acrid, but the rind is pre-
ferably u»ed for blisters. Whether
fresh, or dried, this rind should be
previously steeped for a feAV hours
in strong vinegar, and then a piece
about one inch broad, and tAvo
or three inches long, tied over-
night to the part : after it has suf-
ficiently drawn, the blistered place
is covered with an ivy leaf; and
a similar vesicatory is applied
contiguous to the former. In
this manner, it is continued, ac-
cording to particular circumstances,
especially in chronic diseases till
the desired effect is attained......
Where no time is to be lost, we
advise the use of mustard-seed, as
before described, with the addition
of a little salt, which greatly in-
creases its efficacy. These cata-
plasms are often more proper than
the blisters prepared with Spanish
flies; because the former operate
more speedily, and act with less vio-
lence on the fluids than the latter.
Hence they are of eminent service
to promote critical eruptions; to
prevent the small-pox from break-
ing out on the face, when applied
at the commencement of the dis-
ease, either to the calves of the
legs, or the soles of the feet; to
mitigate the pain arising from in-
ternal inflammations, todrive catarr-
hal and rheumatic humours from
the more essential organs of life to
the proximate external parts, and
to rouse the indolent powers of
Nature. In the most acute pains
of the head, and the tooth-ache pro-
ceeeling from a rheumatic cause,
as Avell as in inflammatory affec-
tions of the eyes, such plasters may
be usefully applied to the neck or
the arm ; in inflammations of the
chest, to the breast and between
the shoulders ; in apoplectic fits, to
the temples, &c
VOL. I.
BLI 313
In paralytic diseases, it is of the
utmost consequence to place the
blister in that direction which cor-
responds with the situation of the
nerves in the part effected ; and, in
rheumatic disorders, such places
should be preferred, as contain
nerves connected with the painful
part, immediately under the skin.
Thus, in the most acute lumbago,
or sciatica, it would be of little use
to blister the hip or thigh, where
the nerves are situated deep in the
muscles: but by applying a vesi-
catory to the sole of the foot on
the same side, we may promise
almost certain relief.
[In the second stage of inflamma-
tory diseases : in low fevers where
a tendency to delirium takes place,
and prostration of strength prevails,
they are highly useful when ap-
plied to various parts of the body.]
We shall farther observe, that
in acute and dangerous diseases,
where it is often necessary to re-
peat the application of blisters, [to
the same part], the new one should
never be delayed till the former is
completely healed. But, with re-
spect to the time they are to be
left on the skin, much, depends
on the degree of irritability in the
patient, as well as the relative
strength of the plaster. Some
constitutions, of an irritable fibre,
experience its effects in less than
half an hour, while in others it
may remain four, six, or eight
hours, without raising the skin. In
opening a blister, it is not necessary
to cut away the epidermis, or scarf
skin, and to cause unnecessary
pain and irritation ; as a single lon-
gitudinal incision is sufficient to
give vent to the collected humour.
Blisters sometimes operate on
the urinary canal, and produce a
painful strangury, or difficulty of
S s
314 BLO
making urine : this effect may be
remedied by the internal use of
camphor, assisted by diluent amul-
sions ; such as decoctions of bar-
ley, lintseed, solutions of gum ara-
ble, See. [or by pouring warm water
from a bottle, upon the lower part
of the belly, as the person lies in
bed,] and to prevent such acci-
dents, the blister itself may be
mixed with camphor. If, on the
other hand, they will not draw, the
skin ought to be previously rubbed
with strong vinegar: or, if their
action be too violent, a little of the
extract of henbane may be added
to the composition.
Caution. We think it our duty
to warn the reader againt the use
of blisters, in Avhich the Spanish
fly is the principal ingredient. In
plethoric persons, or those of a full
habit, they increase the circulation
of the blood ; and ought to be ap-
plied only after the necessary eva-
cuations have been strictly attended
to: in "sallow, weakly, cachectic
persons, blisters are not unfre-
quently productive of incurable
mortification. These fatal effects,
however.seklom or never take place
from tiie application of mustard-
seed, or horse-radish.
BLITE, the small red, or Ama-
ranthus, blitvm, L. is an indigenous
species of the amaranth Avhich is
frequently found groAving on rub-
bish, ^c It flowers in July and
August: .on the Continent its seed
is used as a substitute for millet,
and the leaA'esare dressed and eaten
like spinach.
Blue, the upright. See round-
leaved Goosefoot.
BLOOD, the mo"t c.";>ious fluid
in the animal body: and essentially
nectssai y tothe preservation of life:
it is generahy cf a red, but in most
insects., and in all worms, of a
white colour.
BLO
Thehumanbody is,by Dr. Keill,
supposed to contain at least one
half of its weight in blood ; includ-
ing in this computation all that ex-
ists in the lymphatic ducts, nerves,
or any other vessel. This computa-
tion, however, is exaggerated ; and
Ave believe that the greatest quanti-
ty in a full-grown adult, seldom ex-
ceeds thirty pounds Aveight. Its
most remarkable property is that
of incessantly circulating in the ca-
vities of the heart, arteries, and
veins, Avhile the animal is alive.
Although Hippocrates appears
to have possessed a faint idea of this
admirable process, when he says,
" that all the blood vessels spring
from one ; and that this one has
neither beginning nor end; for
Avhere there is a circle, there can be
no beginning;" yet as he was not
acquainted with the office of the
valves, he could neither compre-
hend, nor demonstrate, the circu-
lation of the blood. This most
important of all discoveries in phy-
siology, was reserved for the im-
mortal Harvey, who first ascer-
tained the true nature and uses of
the valves, and about the year 1616,
taught, in his Lectures at Cam-
bridge,that justly admired doctrine,
the substance of whi h he published
in 1628. He proved that, in most
animals, the blood circulates in ar-
teries and veins, and through the
medium of one,tAvo, or more hearts;
(see Animal Kingdom) ; that in
arteries it moves from the trunk to
the branches ; and that, meeting
there with the branches of veins, it
returns in a languid state to the
heart; that the heart communxates
a neAv impulse, and propels it to
the trunk of the arteries ; v.F that
by these, the thickness of their coats,
exerting muscularforce,again clrivd
it into the veins.....^ alves are si-
tuated in every ,.art of this circulat-
BLO
BLO 315
ing course, in order to prevent the
return of the blood.
The colour of this fluid in the
arteriesisof a florid hue ; butsome-
what darker in the veins, except in
those of the lungs, in which it is of
a lighter ca.t. When exposed to
the open air, the blood gradually
separates into two parts, namely,
the serum, or a yellowish, some-
times greenish fluid, and the cras-
samcntum, or cake, Avhich resem-
bles a red mass swimming distinct-
ly on the top. The latter contracts
greatly in its dimensions, and in-
creases in solidity; properties which
depend on the state of the indiv i-
dual at the time when the blood is
drawn. Hence, in vigorous per-
sons, when attacked with an in-
flammatory disease, the solid part
is so tough that it resembles a piece
of flesh, and has therefore been
called the buffy coat; whereas, in
other diseases, it is very soft and
tender, breaking in pieces on the
slightest touch. By chemical ana-
lysis, it discovers the same princi-
ples with other animal substances;
yielding in distillation a volatile
spirit, a great quantity of phlegm,
and fetid oil ; lastly, there remains
a charred matter, Avhich, when
burnt in the open air, leaves a white
earth similar to calcined hartshorn.
According to some chemists, how-
ever, it contains both an acid and
an alkali. But the most remarka-
ble circumstance in the blood, is
its texture, which consists of mil-
lions of red globular particles, or
more properly, as Mr. Hewson
calls them, flat vesicles, each of
which has a little solid sphere in
its centre. He observes, that they
are flat in all animals, of very dif-
ferent sizes in different creatures,
and impart to the blood its red colour.
In man, they are small, perfectly
flat, and appear to have a dark spot
in the middle. To see them dis-
tinctly, he diluted the blood with
fresh serum. Their shape he sup-.
posed to be of great importance,
but it can be altered with a mixture
of different fluids. By a deter-
minate quantity of neutral salt con-
tained in the serum, this fluid is
adapted to preserve those vescicleS
in their flat shape ; for, if mixed
with water, they become round,
and dissolve perfectly, but on add-
ing a little of any neutral salt to
the water, they remain in it with-
out dissolving, or any alteration of
their form.
The uses of the blood in the ani-
mal economy are so various and
important, that some have not
scrupled to maintain that it is pos-
sessed of a vital principle, from
which the life of the whole body is
derived. This opinion Avas former-
ly entertained by Harvey, anel has
lately been revived and supported,
with many ingenious, though in-
conclusive arguments, by John
Hunter. Yet, so much is certain,
that the blood stimulates the cavi-
ties of the heart and vessels to
contract, that its circulation con-
tributes to generate the heat of
the body, and propagate it to the
remotest parts ; in bhort, that it
nourishes every part, and supplies
all the secretions, Avhich, Avithout
exception, are separated from the
blood. Hence it forms the bones,
ligaments, tendons, membranes,
muscles, nerves, vessels, and the
whole organized body.
The blood is of differentdegrees
of viscidity in different animals,
and even in the same creature, at
different times. It ahvays pos-
sesses a considerable degree of te-
nacity ; Avhich, however, is re-
markably greater in strong than in
316 BLO
BLO
weak animals: thus, the blood of
bulls was usee! by the ancients as a
poison, on account of its extreme
viscidity, Avhich renders it totally
indigestible by the human sto-
mach.
The principal use of blood is
confined to the arts, for making
Prussian blue ; sometimes for cla-
rifying certain licniors ; and very
large quantities are used in the
manufacture of loaf sugar. In
horticulture, it is recommended
as an excellent manure, Avhen
poured in spring on the roots of
fruit-trees, having previously re-
moved the soil round the trunk:
thus employed, it promotes the
growth of the tree, and enriches its
fruit. A mixture of blood Avith
quick-lime, forms an exceedingly
strong cement, and has therefore
been used in preparing chemical
lutes, as well as in making the
floors of common farm-houses, and
other humble habitations. For the
latter purpose, a mixture of clay,
ox-blood, and a moderate portion
of sharp sand, beaten Avell together
and uniformly spread, produce a
neat, firm floor, and of a beautiful
colour.
Whether blood really affords nou-
rishme nt, has been doubted by some,
and affirmed- by others. In our
opinion, it contains little or no ali-
mentary matter; and though it
may be digested by very poAverful
stomachs, it might be more advan-
tageously employed in manuring
the soil. In hot climates in parti-
cular, it is highly alkalescent, and
was therefore wisely prohibited to
the Israelites. When blood Avas
used as a common article of food
in this country, the scurvy not only
prevailed more generally than at
present, but it Avas a more violent
and obstinate disease.
Travellers inform us, that in
some countries the savage natives
are accustomed to intoxicate them-
selves by drinking the warm blood
of animals. This barbarous prac-
tice, with its consequent effect, ap-
parently confirms John Hunter's
opinion, that this fluid is the im-
mediate reservoir of the vital
principle ; and the inebriating ema-
lity of the blood certainly deserves
the farther researches of the che-
mical philosopher. Several ex-
pressions in Scripture also tend to
countenance the conjecture of this
acute inquirer.....See Transfu-
sion.
BLOOD-HOUND, Sanguina-
rius, a species of dog remarkable
for possessing the sense of smell-
ing in the highest degree. This
animal is distinguished by his long,
smooth, anel pendent ears, broad
chest, muscular form, a deep tan
colour, and is generally marked
with a black spot above each eye.
We believe the breeding of this
species has of late years been ne-
glected.
These animals were formerly
much employed in the discovering
of game that had escaped, or been
stolen out of the forest. From the
acuteness of their smell, they are
said to have also been able to trace
the footsteps of man with the great-
est certainty ; hence, they were
trained for discovering delinquents
who endeavoured to escape the
hands of justice.
[Dogs of this species were taken
to Jamaica by Lord Balcarras, to
hunt down the maroons, in the
interior of the island.]
BLOOD-SHOT EYES, an in-
flammation of the membranes
which invest the eye. As avc pro-
pose to treat of the diseases incident
to that organ, in general, under its
BLO
alphabetical head, we shall at pre-
sent only state the first, and most
necessary rules for preventing the
progress of inflammatory com-
plaints ; namely, rest, and exclu-
sion of light, without heating the
eye by a close cover; cold fo-
mentations repeatedly applied,Avhen
they become Avarm; abstinence
from animal food, and all heating
or stimulating liquors ; mild aperi-
ents ; and, if these do not produce
the desired effect, leeches may be
applied, near the eyes; though
drawing blood, by cupping and
scarifying near the temples, has
generally been found more effec-
tual.
BLOOD-SPAVIN, in farriery,
is a swelling and dilatation that runs
along the inside of the horse's leg,
forming a small, soft tumor in the
hollow part,and is not unfreemently
accompanied with Aveakness and
lameness of the part affected.
The cure of this disorder should
at first be attempted with restrin-
gents and bandages, which will be
found very efficacious in strengthen-
ing the joints. [Taplin recom-
mends the following : strong white
wine vinegar, 4 oz. camphor : spi-
rits 3 oz. extract of lead 1 oz. or
sugar of lead \ oz. Shake well
together at every time of using....
Rub in about two large spoonsful
twice daily, and keep on a pledget
of tow, wet with the same.] But,
if these should fail, in reducing the
vein to its natural size, the skin
must be opened, and the vein tied
Avith Avaxed thread passed under it
with a crooked needle, both above
and below the swelling, and the
turgid part suffered to digest away
with the ligatures: for this pur-
pose, the wound should be daily
dressed with a mixture of turpen-
tine, honey, and spirit of wine.
BLO 317
BLOOD - STONE, or Hema-
tites, is a hard mineral substance
of a red or purple colour. It is
found in masses of different forms,
and contains a considerable portion
of iron, insomuch, that forty pounds
of that metal have been extracted
from a quintal of the stone. The
iron is of a very inferior quality, and
therefore seldom used; but the
blood-stone itself, on account of its
hardness, serves to burnish or po-
lish metals.
Dragon's Blood. See Dragon.
BLOOD - LETTING, in sur-
gery, is performed with a view ei-
ther to diminish the emantity of the
circulating fluid, or to relieve a par-
ticular part, in case of inflamma-
tion, and, conseemently, it is either
general or local.
General blood-letting, is that
which is performed upon a vein or
an artery : hence we have the terms
phli botomxj and arteriotomy.
Local, or topical blood-letting, is
performed by scarification and cup-
ping-glasses, by leeches, or by
punctures made Avith a lancet, ac-
cording to the nature of the di.-.or-
der. This latter, or topical blood-
letting, is never dangerous, but in
many cases has been found effec-
tual in rc'.iev ing the patient. With
respect to venesection, however, as
different opinions are entertained
of its utility by diflerent physicians,
it may nofc be improper to offer a
few remarks.
There was a period, during which
blood-letting was in very general
use, and obtained great credit, as
one of the most effectual means of
prolonging life : while a plethoric
habit was supposed to be a principal
causeof early dissolution. Through
the veins thus regularly opened, at
certain seasons, the superfluous cr
vitiated blocd was emitted, while
318 BLO
BLO
that of a more salubrious quality
Avas supposed to be left behind. It
is now Avell known, however, that
the corrupted part of the blood
cannot be separated from the mass,
so as to preserve the remaining
particles sound and uncorrupted.
If the quality of the blood ever be-
come vitiated and diseased; if it be
too thick and viscous, or too acrid
and serous, the whole mass neces-
sarily participates in the infection:
neither is it in the power of art to
co.itrive any method, by Avhich the
corrupted part may be separated
from that which is in a sound state.
It would be ermally unreasonable
to expect, that a spoiled cask of
wine could be cured of its tartness,
by attempting to draw the acid and
impure portion from the top, in or-
der to leave the sweet and whole-
some part behind.
Considered as a remedy, phlebo-
tomy must certainly be allowed to
possess its us; s ; it is sometimes a
necessary expedient, to produce an
immediate diminution of the ful-
ness of the blood, particularly when
the time is too short, anel the dan-
ger too pressing, to aelmit of any
other method for effecting that pur-
pose. As there can be no eloubt,
that blood-letting is an invaluable
remedy in some disorders, it is the
more peculiarly incumbent on the
practitioner, to distinguish Avith
care those cases in which imminent
danger may be averted, and health
restored by the use of it. There
are two cases, and perhaps only
two, in Avhich venesection is likely
to be attended with real advantage ;
1. When it is recjuired to prevent
the fluids from gaining access to
the parts more essential to life ;
and 2. Where means must be spee-
dily used to counteract a threatened
inflammation in the intestines. But
even in those two cases, the intel-
ligent physician is at no loss for
other remedies, Avhich may be fre-
quently administered with greater
safety and equal success.
The blood contains in itself, and
affords to the vessels, nerves, mus-
cles, membranes, tendons, liga-
ments, bones, in short, to the whole
organired body, all the substance
and properties which enter into the
formation of each, and constitute
them what they are. Each of these
parts iseAolvedfrom the blood, and
adapted to its proper place, in so
wonderful a manner, that the hu-
man mind is totally at a loss to
comprehend how this operation is
performed ; neither have the re-
searches of the most acute and at-
tentive observer been able to ac-
count for it. And as the blood
serves to supply the waste, and to
make up the losses, Avhich those
parts occasionally sustain, it may
be considered as the original source
of our whole organization. Now
it requires little reflection to per-
ceive, that by wasting this vital
fluid, the sources of animal sup-
port and regeneration are in a great
measure obstructed and diminish-
ed. Although it be true, that the
blood lost by periodical bleedings
is soon reproduced by the activity
of the vital powers, yet this resto-
ration is not effected Avithout con-
siderable efforts, and at the expence
of the Avhole machine. As this
exertion, therefore, is a great pres-
sure upon the vital powers, it must
of course be attended with a pro-
portionate degree of their consump-
tion. And experience has shewn
in numberless instances, that per-
sons accustomed to frequent blood-
letting are not only rendered more
delicate in their constitutions, and
more subject to diseases, but also
BLO
BLO 219
that they die in general at an earlier
age than others.
The absurd notion, that bleeding
is useful and necessary to the pro-
longation of human life, is still
pretty generally received among
the common people of all countries.
Yet neither the good nor the bad
days, superstitiously marked in the
almanacks for the amusement of
the vulgar, can palliate or justify
the mischief with which this dan-
gerous error is pregnant: for bleed-
ing can only be of service in some
urgent cases, and when performed
at the proper time : but to the
healthy it is always injurious.
[A.very common accident in per-
forming the operation of bleeding,
is the wound of a tendon.... Where
this has happened, pain and ten-
sion are perceived near the part
where the orifice was made ; in-
flammation comes on, and extends
the whole length of the limb. To
cure this complaint, the lhnb must
be kept perfectly cmiet, and in the
most relaxed position fiossible. Ap-
ply double linen cloths dipped in
lead water, made by dissolving half
an ounce of sugar of lead in a ejuart
of rain, snow, or river water : give
gentle laxatives, and observe a low
diet.]
Blood-letting, in farriery, an ope-
ration often undertaken when it is
as useless and pernicious as in the
human species. Such horses, how-
ever, as stand much in stable, and
are full fed, occasionally require
bleeding, especially when their
eyes are heavy and inflamed, or
when they Eel unusually hot, and
champ their hay.
i'oung horses should be bled
when they are shedding their teeth,
as it allay* tho.>c feverish heats to
Avhich they are t :h;ect at that pe-
rio .; but the case* t.:.d more par-
ticularly require bleeding, are colds,
falls, injuries of the eyes, strains,
and all inflammatory disorder?.
These noble creatures should al-
ways be bled by measure ; two or
three quarts are generally a suffi-
cient quantity: aud when vene-
section is repeated, strict attenti„a
should be paid both to tne disease
and constitution of the animal.
BLOOD-VESSELS, in anato-
my, are long membranous canals,
which convey tne blood through
every part of the body. They are
divided into two classes, arteries
and veins. For an account of tne
construction, situation, and uses of
the former. See Artery.
The veins originate from the ex-
tremities of the arteries, and return
the blood from them into the au-
ricles of the heart, which is the
common termination of ail the
veins. Like the arteries, the veins
are also composed of tnree mem-
branes, but moi e ckhcdte than those
of the former, and nearly transpa-
rent ; they are di tided lino trunks,
branches, ramuli, he. In general,
the veins are situated by t:.e sid^s
of the arteries, but more superficial-
ly ; and as they proqe.et towards
the heart, they gradually become
larger. As the veins do not pulsate,
the blood, which they itc-ive from
the arteries, is urged forward lardy
by the contractibility of their co...s,
partly by the pressure of tne blood
from the arteries, ai d >f t A/it //tfuPyfP.
BOA
people standing on the ends to pre-
vent the sea moving them ; then,
with the assistance of the anchor
and cable (which has been laid out
at sea for that purpose) the boat's
crew Avould draw her over the
highest sea.
" Upon the boat returning to the
shore, tAvo double blocks are pro-
vided, and having a short strop
fixed in the hole, in the end of the
boat next the sea, the boat is easily
drawn upon the carriage."
Mr. Thomas Hinderwell
stated, " That the peculiar nature
of the curviture of the keel of the
boat, is the foundation and basis of
its excellence. It regulates, in a
great measure, the shear with the
elevation towards the ends. This
construction spreads and repels the
water in every direction, and ena-
bles her to ascend and descend
Avith great facility over the break-
ers. The ends being reduced re-
gularly from the centre, to less
than one-third proportion to the
mid-ships, both ends are lighter
than the body section. By means
of the curved keel, and the centre
of gravity being placed in the cen-
tre of the boat, she preserves an
equilibrium in the midst of the
breakers. The internal shallow-
ness of the boat in the body sec-
tion, occasioned by the convexity
of the keel, and the shear of the
top, loaves so small a space for the
water to occupy, that the boat,
though filled with Avater, is in no
danger of sinking or upsetting.
The buoyancy of the boat, Avhen
filled Avith water, is also assisted by
the cork being placed above the
water line."]
BOATS, (ICEJ a modem inven-
tion of Thomas Ritzler, of
Hamburgh, whose name deserves
to be transmitted to posterity ; as
BOA 327
his ingenious and useful contriv-
ance has already saved many valua-
ble lives from a watery grave. We
have given an accurate representa-
tion of such a bo»t, with our First
Number, and shall here furnish
our reader with the description.
Fig. 1, Is a perspective view of
the boat, the body of which con-
sists of wicker-work covered with
leather, to render it impermeable
by water ; and so remarkably light,
that it may be easily managed by
one person, both on the ice and in
the Avater. Its length, when mea-
sured on the outside, is 7^ feet in
the keel, and 12 feet above from
end to end : its breadth, 3 feet at
the bottom, and 4 at the upper
part.
Fig. 2, Represents the plan of
the boat, the bottom of which is
shod Avith two small pieces of iron,
marked x, x : by means of two
hooks, one of which is delineated
on the plate, the boat may with
the greatest facility be slided over
the ice. In the lower part, or body
of the vessel, there is a large open-
ing, 3 feet long, and 15 inches wide,
pointed out by o, o, o, fig. 2 ; and o,
fig. 3 ; the four sides of which are
secured by a frame-work, marked
r, fig. 1, and 3, to prevent the Ava-
ter from entering the vessel.
Through this opening, also, the
boatman is enabled to step upon the
ice in those places Avhere it is too
uneven to admit the sliding of the
boat, and to carry it, by means of
the handles, as represented in fig.
1, Avhere the person standing is
marked only with clotted lines, .to
sheAV that he has emitted his former
station in the boat. Another ad-
vantage derived from this aperture,
in the middle of the boat, is the
counterpoise Avhich a column of
Avater in its centre produces, and
328 BOA
BOD
thus prevents it from being over-
set, while the man who carried it
over the ice, immediately raises
himself above the level of the wa-
ter, and sits do' n in the vessel.
But, in order to approach nearer
to the person whose life is endang-
ered, there is al>o employed a
ladder Avith a long jointed handle,
which is pushed forward and held
by another assistant standing on the
firm ice. On this ladder (which
Avill be delineated among- the im-
plements of restoration from
Drowning) the boatman places
himself, and advances as near as
possible to the body immersed in
the water. Having successfully
extracted it, no time should be lost
in laying it in a proper posture in
the boat; for which purpose there
is a kind of chair with an elevated
back, on the stern of the boat,
marked n, in fig. 1, and 3 ; Avhich
last exhibits the longitudinal section
of the vessel.
Mr. Gunther, one of the most
active members of the Hamburgh
Society for the Encouragement of
the Arts and useful Trades, informs
us in the third volume of their
Transactions, published in 1795,
that he has often been present when
unfortunate persons have been res-
cued from untimely death, by means
of the ice-boat, and that the swift-
ness and dexterity with which this
machine may be managed by ex-
pert assistants, is almost incredi-
ble. Hence the vessel is not in-
trusted to any but skilful hands, anel
during summer it is deposited in
an airy place, and the leather pre-
served from becoming either too
diy or mouldy. The Avhole of this
useful apparatus costs only 150
marks currency, or about 101.
sterling ; a sum so insignificant,
that, Avhile the city of Hamburgh
has built five such ice-boats, the
great city of London ought to be
in possession of at least one hun-
dred.
A patent has lately been granted
to Mr. Edavard Steers, of the
Inner Temple, for a machine to be
applied to boats and other vessels,
for the purpose of moving them
with ease and swiftness. This in-
vention consists of two or more
paddles, moving by means of ma-
chinery, in contrary anel alternate
directions. The paddles are so
constructed, that Avhen the machi-
nery is set in motion, the broad
surface of one or more of them will
press against the Avater, while the
broad surface of the other, or
others, will give Avay to it, and by
this means the vessel will be mo-
ved.
BODY, in physics, implies an
extended, solid, divisible substance,
Avhich in itself has no power of
motion, but acts by external im-
pulse ; it also possesses the pro-
perties of attraction and repulsion.
Whatever relates to this branch of
knoAvledge, under its various modi-
fications and appearances, through
the Avhole creation, is the subject
of physics, or natural philosophy :
if it concern the economy of the
human body, in particular, anel the
treatment of its various disorders,
it belongs to the province of me-
dicine, or the department of the
physician. In this sense, there-
fore, the term body is useel in op-
position to soul, and forms the sub-
ject of anatomical research.
Whatever tends to impart a pro-
per tone and vigour to the body,
that is, every impression Avhich is
most likely to soothe and harmon-
ize the passions, at the same tjme
contributes to regulate the pe>wers
of the understanding, and gives
BOD
B O I 329
them their due force and energy.
Hence, temperate gratifications, as
they are highly conducive to these
ends, promote the harmony of vir-
tue ; for by contributing to the
health andsprightlincss of the body,
they invigorate the powers of the
mind, and check the violence of
the passions.
The human body is a machine
so artificially and admirably orga-
nized, for withstanding the various
impressions of external agency, or
the sudden vicissitudes of heat and
cold, dryness and moisture, as well
as for performing its v arious func-
tions, that it bears evident marks
of a wise and omnipotent Creator.
It is composed of fluids and solids :
the principal of the former arc,
the blood, chyle, saliva, bile, and
the gastric liquor ; of which the
three last mentioned materially
promote the digestion of food: the
chief of the solids are the bones
and cartilages, which give firm-
ness and attitude to the body.
It would lead us too far from
the plan of this Avork, to enter
into particulars respectingthe com-
plicated and wonderful structure
of the human frame: Ave shall,
therefore, only observe, that it
ceases to grow in height when the
bones arrives at a certain degree of
firmness and rigidity, which will
not admit of farther extension by
the motion of the blood. This pe-
riod appears to take place between
the age of eighteen arid twenty-
four ; but in females, often one or
two years earlier than in males.
Lastly, it is remarkable, that the
height or length of the human body
varies at different parts of the day:
thus, in the morning, after a long
and refreshing sleep, an adult will
be found one inch taller than he
was in the preceding evening.
VOL. I.
BOG, a^juagmire covered Avith
grass, but not firm enough to sup-
port a heavy body.
Various theories have been start-1
ed, to account for the formation of
bogs; but the most probable is, that
they have originated from the roots
of trees, and other decayed vegeta-
bles. Under some bogs of consi-
derable depth, are to be seen the
furrows of land once ploughed.....
The black bog is a solid, weighty
substance, which cuts like butter,
and is similar to rotten wood : but
the red bog is of a lighter texture,
though under it there is commonly
a solid black stratum, which makes
good fuel. Sound trees are found
in both sorts of bogs, particularly
in those of Ireland, Avhich differ
from the English, as the former
sometimes present a perfect see-'
nery of hill and dale, while the lat-
ter are mostly of a level surface....
Of the most common spontaneous
growth are, heath, bog-myrtle,
rushes, and seedy grass. Bogs
are of various depths, some being
found to be fifty feet deep, and
others still deeper. A good method
of draining boggy lands is, by deep
trenches partly filled Avith stones,
and covered Avith thorns and straw.
A quantity of hard, dry earths,
such as gravels, sands, chalks,
stones, 8cc is of great use in the
improvement of bogs, as these sub-
stances serve to bind, fatten, and
warm the soil, Avhile they prevent
springs from oozing up and over-
flowing the surface. By this me-
thod, boggy or marshy grounds
may be improved so as to produce
good grass. [See Swamp-Drain.]
BOHEA, a species of tea....See
Tea.
BOILERS. Many ingenious
vessels and utensils have, at dif-
ferent periods, been iiiA-ented, Avith
U V
330 B O I
BOI
a view to facilitate the process of
boiling, and save the consumption
of fuel. In the latter respect,
Count Rum ford stands at the
head of those experimental inquir-
ers, who have directed their la-
bours to the benefit of society ; yet
we must confess that there is still
great room for improvement. One
of the latest inventions in this de-
partment of domestic economy is
that of Mr. Tho. Rowntree, en-
gine-maker, of Great Surry-street,
Blackfriara-road [London], who in
1798, obtained a Patent for " a neAv
method of applying fire for the pur-
pose of heating boilers and other
vessels, Avhere heat is required."
But as the Patentee had not given
a clear specification, from Avhich
an ordinary tradesman could have
constructed a furnace on his prin-
ciples, without any farther expla-
nation, his patent was declared
void, after a trial before Lord El-
don and a special jury, on the 3d
of NoA'ember last, and has conse-
cmently become public property....
These proceedings, hoAvever, have
been attended Avith a good effect,
as the obscure account published
by Mr. Roavntree, has been more
clearly defined by the evidence
given in Court, especially by that
of Mr* Hindmarsh. We shall,
therefore, present our readers Avith
the specification communicated by
the Patentee, and accompany it
with the necessary illustrations.....
The folloAving is a literal abstract
of the inventor's description......
" For heating of coppers, boilers,
furnaces, ovens, and stoves, my
fire-place is much smaller than
heretofore made use of for the
same sized copper, boiler, furnace,
oven, or stove. Instead of placing
my fire-place, accordingto the com-
mon practice, immediately under
the boiler, or other vessel, I place
it at the front, side or end, as I see
most convenient, in such a man-
ner as to oblige the flame to rise
in the front, side or enel, and pass
all round the vessel, he. while at
the same time it strikes the bot-
tom of the vessel, he, Avithout suf-
fering the flame to pass off in a flue,
or flues, as it usually does in the
common way, and by that means
sending the heat into the flues, in-
stead of its being used where it
ought to be, namely, on the vessels,
he. this, my method effectually
prevents ; for, by means of a small
perpendicular, or other opening,
into a box or trap, which I call a
reservoir, and Avhich I place hori-
zontally, or diagonally, as the situ-
ation may require, and is made of
iron, brick, stone, or any other ma-
terial capable of bearing heat, where
a valve is placed riding on centres
or otherwise, and standing in a dia-
gonal or other direction, as is found
most convenient, the flame is re-
turned or impeded in its progress
to the chimney, and made to de-
scend beloAv the bottom of the ves-
sel, and pass out at the bottom,
top, or side of said box, trap, or re*
servoir, into the common chimney.
This reservoir is placed between
the vessel, Sec. and the chimney....
To the opening, which admits the
flame into the reservoir, are affixed,
Avhen necessary, sliders, registers,
or stops, which serve to increase
or diminish the heat. The valve in
the reservoir is for the same pur-
pose in another degree, Avhich more
immediately appertains to increas-
ing or diminishing the draught,
Avhich it does by moving the said
valve into different positions, as
the speed of the operation may re-
quire."
It would be needless to state the
particulars of the evidence relative
to the effect produced by the new
BOI
Invented furnaces, in heating boil-
ers, 8ec. as Avell as the great sav-
ing of fuel, which was proved to be
more than one-third, and in some
cases nearly one-half, of what is
usually consumed in furnaces con-
structed on the old plan. Hence
Ave shall communicate only the
substance of Mr. IIind.marsh's
evidence, which greatly tends to
illustrate the principles of the in-
vention. This, he conceives, prin-
cipally consists in the three follow-
ing circumstances:
1. In the peculiar mode of con-
structing the furnace, or setting
the boiler, and of placing the fire,
not immediately under, but a little
in front, or at one side of it,
whereby the flame and hot air can
get access to every part of the ves-
sel, and not only strike Avith force
against its bottom, but also with
equal effect reverberate against,
and violently embrace its sides, and
whole external surface ; unlike
every former contrivance, the most
perfect of which could only cause
the flame and hot air to act par-
tially upon the bottom and sides of
the vessel.
2. In the eleA-ated situation, and
smallncss of the aperture leading
from the furnace towards the
chimney ; Avhereby the flame and
hot air are impeded in their pro-
gress to the atmosphere, and com-
pelled to tarry in the cavity of the
furnace, and occupy every part
thereof much longer than they
otherwise would do. This effect
in stopping, checking, and as it
were arresting the flame and hot
air, in their attempt to escape into
the atmosphere, Mr. Hindmarsh
considered as not only new, but
singularly beneficial ; for, by this
means, the flame and hot air are
detained in the very place where
BOI 331
their presence is most wanted, and
constrained to give forth their en-
ergies with an impetus against the
bottom and sides of the vessel to
be heated : whereas, in none of
the furnaces heretofore erected,
Avas any effectual stop interposed
between the fire and the chimney,
to cause the flame and hot air to
dwell under and round the sides of
the A-essel; but they passed ra-
pidly off into the atmosphere, either
by a direct communication through
the chimney, or indirectly, but al-
most as speedily, by flues ; or else
by a drain (as it is called), the
aperture of which is equal in di-
mensions to that of the chimney
itself.
3. In an open space between the
furnace and chimney, called by
the Patentee a box, trap, or reser-
voir, and intended as a receptacle
of the flame, hot air, and smoke,
after they have quitted the fur-
nace, anel passed through the small
aperture as above described. This
space, or -reservoir, for the flame,
hot air, and smoke, being closed
at the top and external sides, and
open only at the bottom outwards,
for the purpose of permitting the
smoke, he. to pass off into the
chimney, still farther checks and
detains the flame and hot air in the
furnace; and being itself constantly
full cf warm air, smoke, he. causes
the heat to be reverberated against
the sides and bottom of the vessel
or boiler, and effectually preA-ents
the admission of the cold atmos-
pheric air from thechimney, which,
on the old plans of construction, is
found by experience to rob the fur-
nace and vessel of more than half
the supply of heat which any given
quantity of fuel is capable of yield-
ing. The valves, sliders, and dam-
pers, are not essential parts of the
532 BOI
BON
invention, but merely as regulators,
which, in many cases, may be alto-
gether omitted, Avithout detriment
to the operation of the fire.
Although Count Kumford has
successively extended his research-
es to discover the most economical
plan in the management cf fire,
end the generation of heat for culi-
nary anel other purposes,it does not
appear from his Avritings, that he
had a distinct conception of the
neAv method suggested by Mr.
Rowntree, till after the enroll-
ment of his specification in May
1798. Nay, says Mr. Hindmarsh,
the Count evidently takes it for
granted (see vol. II. p. 73, of his
Essays), and even reasons on the
fact, Avhich he there supposes to be
unavoidable, and beyontl remedy,
that the fire cannot be made to
impinge against the sides of a ves-
sel with the same force and effect
as against the bottom : which is a
plain proof, that at the time of
writing that essay, he Avas totally
unacquainted Avith Mr. Rown-
tree's method of applying and
managing the fire ; in which the
very effect Avhich the Count con-
si lers as a desideratum in science,
and which appears to have been
one grand object of his philosophi-
cal pursuits, is now in a great mea-
sure completed....[See Kitchen.]
BOILING, in the culinary art,
is a method of dressing animal
food, vep-etables, he. by decoction
in hot Avater, for the purpose of re-
moving their natural crudities, and
renebring them more easy of di-
gestion. By too much boiling,
however, flesh is deprived of a con-
siderable part of its nourishing
juice, as the gelatinous substance
of the meat is extracted, and incor-
porated with the Avrter, Avhile the
spirituous and balsamic particles
are dissipated by evaporation. The
culinary process of stewing is more
profitable, especially if conducted
in close vessels, as it is better cal-
culated to preserve and concen-
trate the most substantial and nu-
tritious parts of animal food.
BOLES, are viscid earths more
friable titan clay : they are soft and
unctuous, and gradually melt in
the mouth, communicating a slight
sensation of astringency. There is
a great variety of these earths,
Avhich have been recommended as
astringent, sudorific, and alexi-
pharmic, but Avithout sufficient
grounds. They are still prescrib-
ed in fluxes, and complaints of the
first passages.
BOMBAST, in composition, is
an endeavour, by strained and tur-
gid description to give a low or
familiar subject that importance of
which it is not susceptible; in-
stead, therefore, of being sublime,
it always proves ridiculous. The
style of a writer, Avho has no real
genius or talent for description, is
extremely prone to deviate into
bombast, and vitiate the taste of
others. Hence, books written in a
redundant or affected style, ought
never to be entrusted to the hands
of youth, who are more apt to
listen to and imitate the language
which is addressed to the imagina-
tion and the senses, than the seri-
ous and dignified admonitions
Avhich are supported by reason and
experience.
BONES, are solid substances
composed of animal earth and glu-
tei:. They support and form the
stature of the body, defend its vis-
cera, anel give adhesion to the mus-
cles. Their number in the human
frame is generally 240 ; but in
some individuals, Avho have two
additional bones in each thumb and
BON
BON 333
great toe, they amount to 248....
The' regular division of them is as
follows : 63 bones of the head, in-
cluding the 32 teeth : 53 of the
tmnk : 64 of the upper, and 60 of
the lower extremities.
One of the most remarkable dis-
eases of animal bones, is their oc-
casional softness and reduction in
the living body ; of which there
are several Avell authenticated in-
stances. The late Mr. Gooch, a
respectable surgeon of London, re-
lates the case of a Avoman naturally
five feet six inches high, Avho Avas
gradually* reduced doAvn to three
feet four inches. In rickety child-
ren, the bones are obviously softer
than they ought to be in a sound
state, owing perhaps to their ero-
sion, occasioned by the discharge of
an acrimonious humour. In a simi-
lar manner, the scurvy has often
been remarked to affect these solid
parts of the human frame. Hence
in the former instances, attention to
a proper diet, gentle friction with
coarse cloths, exercise, fresh air,
and cold bathing, Avill frequently
change the constitution of such
children, insomuch, that at the age
of twenty, there will not remain the
hast symptom of their former de-
bility.
It is generally believed, that the
'bones, in a healthy statue, are in-
sensible to pain, because the larger
ones are unconnected with any
nerve : hence the operation of the
trepan has been performed upon
sound persons who were not un-
der the influence of opium, with-
out giving them any additional pain
during the perforation of the skull.
See Fractures and Teeth.
Decomposition of Bones. After
being separated from the animal,
they maybe hardened and softened,
both by acids and alkalies, accord-
ing to the quantity of saline matter
employed, and the manner in which
it is applied. Although Boerhaave
asserts, that alkaline salts render
them harder and firmer, and that
acids make them softer and more
flexible, yet these effects take place
only in certain circumstances. Thus
Newman found, that bones be-
came harder and more compact by
steeping them in oil of vitriol; but
when this acid was in sufficient
proportion, it destroyed their co-
hesion, and dissolved them. Dr.
Lewis,on the other hand, observed,
that diluted vitriolic acid, though
it rendered them remarkably soft,
made them at the same time brit-
tle ; but that either in aqua-fortis,
or spirit of salt diluted, as well as in
the acetous acid, they became
flexible and soft like leather. The
mosteffectual and cheapest method
of reducing the hardest bones to a
soft pap or jelly, is that effected by
the action of simple water, heated
in what is called Papin's Digester ;
a machine consisting of a strong
and close iron vessel, in which the
steam of boiling liquors is confined,
and thus a more intense decree of
heat is produced than any fluid
could otherwise acquire. This ef-
fect, however, may be accomplished
in a much shorter time, Avhen, in-
stead of pure water, alkaline solu-
tions are employed; yet the latter
could not properly be used in any"
culinary process.
If bones be exposed to a mode-
rate fire, either in open vessels, or
in contact with the burning fuel,
they become opaque, white, and
friable: by increasing the fire,
they are still more reduced, and
easily crumble into powder. But, if
they be at first submitted to an in-
tense heat, such as is required to
melt copper or iron, they become
334 BON
BON
firm, semi-transparent, and sono-
rous not unlike hard mineral
stones. This curious experiment
deserves the farther researches of
the chemist.
[If bones reduced to powder
between a pair of toothed iron cy-
linders, are boiled in eight or ten
times their weight of water, for the
space of three or four hours, or till
about half the Avater is Avasted, the
liquor will be found, on cooling, of
a gelatinous consistence. A vessel
with a tight cover should be used,
that the water may acquire as
much heat as possible, and it
should not be of copper, as this me-
tal is easily dissolved by animal mu-
cilage.
Bones from different parts, af-
ford different proportions of jelly.
According to the experiments of
Professor Prouest of Madrid, five
pounds of the middle part of the
bone of a leg of beef, will afford
nine pints of jelly : the same quan-
tity of the bone of the joint, fifteen
pints ; of the ribs and spine, eleven
quarts; of the rump and edgebone,
thirteen quarts. Five pounds of
mutton bones, of every sort toge-
ther, give nineteen pints of jelly-..
Pig bones yield a little more. To
Mr. P's taste, the jelly from pig
bones Avas the most agreeable of
all: that from mutton had the fla-
vour of the meat. Of the jellies
from beef bones, that from the ribs
was most pleasing, both to the
sight and palate, that from the leg
and joint least. In warm Aveather
the liquor must be boiled down
somewhat more, if it be intended to
assume the same gelatinous con-
sistence when cold; as the same
quantity of bone that would afford
a quart of jelly in winter, will not
yield above a pint and a half in sum-
mer, but then it contains propor-
tionably more nourishment. If
this jelly be boiled till it acquires a
consistence a little thicker than a
syrup, then poured out into plates,
and, when cold, cut into pieces, and
dried on a net, it will keep a long
time, and be particularly useful at
sea. One ounce of this dry porta-
ble jelly, being soaked in water for
a quarter of an hour, to soften it,
and then boiled, will make a pint
and a quarter to a quart of jelly,
equally good as that which is fresh
extracted.
Mr. P. prepares a very pleasant
restorative for the sick, by adding
an ounce and a half of sugar, and a
little salt, to fourteen or fifteen
ounces of the jelly, and then making
it into an emulsion, with twelve
SAveet, and four bitter almonds, and
a little orange peel.]
A method of producing phos-
phorus in large quantities from
bones, has been invented by M.
Scheele, who employed for this
purpose the vitriolic acid : it has,
therefore, been doubted, Avhether
the phosphoric acid is naturally
contained in the bones, and united
with calcareous earth, or whether
it is generated by a combination of
the vitriolic acid Avith a certain
quantity of lime. As, however,
the phosphoric acid has, likewise,
though in a smaller quantity, been
discovered in the gastric juice of
animals, there is reason to conclude
that it forms one of the elementary
constituents of bones....See Ben-
zoine.
Colouring of Bones.....This pro-
cess may be performed either by
immersing bones in the common
dyeing liquors made of animal and
vegetable - substances, or staining
them without heat, by different me-
tallic solutions. To succeed in the
former method, the bones should
BON
BON 335
previously be boiled in a solution of
alum, and afterwards steeped in a
decoction made of any colouring
substance. Thus, for instance, to
stain them of a red colour, half a
pound of Brazil-wood may be boil-
ed for an hour in a gallon of water,
in which the bones are suffereel to
lie till they acquire a propercolour :
if they assume too deep a hue of
purple, it will be necessary to plunge
them into a solution of alum, Avhich
has the effect of bringing them to
a crimson or scarlet shade.
By metalic solutions, bones may
be easily spotted or variegated.....
Thus a solution of silver in aqua-
fortis, imparts, according to its
strength, a brown or black colour ;
a solution of gold in aqua-regia, or
in spirit of salt, a fine purple ; a
solution of copper in the acetous
acid, a pleasant green ; and solu-
tions of the same metal in the vo-
latile spirit of ammonia, at first a
deep and beautiful blue; but Avhich,
on exposing it to the air, changes
into a green, or blueish green.
On touching the bone with the two
solutions first mentioned, itacquires
the desired tint in a few hours,
when placed in the open air; but
in those liquors made with copper,
it 6hould be steeped for at least
twenty-four hours, sufficiently to
imbibe the colour. In such cases
as require immersion for some time,
the bone may be variegated, by co-
vering those parts which are in-
tended to remain av hire, Avith Avax,
or other matter not soluble in the
staining liquor.
Economical uses of Bones.....Be-
side the various toys, and other ar-
ticles of elomestic economy, made
of bones, they are extensively use-
ful in many of the chemical arts;
for instance, to absorb the sulphur
of ferruginous ores for renelering
cast-iron malleable ; to form tests
and cupels, or vessels for refining
gold and silver with lead ; to make
glasses and porcelain of a milky
colour ; to rectify volatile salts, and
empyreumatic oils ; to produce
glue, he. But the most important
and beneficial uses, to which bones
may be rendered subservient, are
those in rural economy.
In Evelyn's Philosophical Dis-
course of the Earth, we meet Avith
a note by Dr. A. Huntea, the edi-
tor of a new edition of this trea-
tise, published in 1778, fromAvhich
we shall extract the following ac-
count : Bones are an excellent ma-
nure, though not generally known ;
they should, however, not be cal-
cined, as their virtue will be dis-
sipated by the fire. A. St. Leger,
Esq. had once laid down to grass a
large piece of very indifferent lime-
stone land, with a crop of corn ;
and from this uniformly well-dres-
sed piece he selected three rods of
equal quality with the rest, and ma-
nured them Avith bones broken very
small, at the rate of sixty bushels
per acre. Upon the land thus ma-
naged, the crop Avas infinitely su-
perior to the rest. The next year's
grass Avas also more luxuriant, and
has continued to preserve the same
superiority for at least eight years,
insomuch, that in spring it is green
three Aveeks before the rest of the
field. He also dresseel two acres
with bones, in two different fields
prepared for turnips, at sixty bush-
els to the acre, and found the crops
incomparably more productive than
the others managed in the common
way. Upon grass-lands, he ob-
served, that this kind of manure
exerts its influence more powerful-
ly in the second year than in the
first. For whatever soil it be in-
tended, the bones should be well-
336 BON
broken, before they can be equally
spread upon the land. No pieces
should exceed the size of small
marbles. To perform this neces-
sary operation, he recommends
the bones to be sufficiently bruised,
by putting them under a circular
stone, Avhich, being moved round
upon its edge, by means of a horse,
in the manner tanners grind their
bark, will very expeditiously effect
the purpose. Some people break
them with small hammers upon a
piece of iron, but that method is
inferior to grinding. Although
bones of ull kinds may be used
with advantage, yet those of fat cat-
tle are doubtless the best; but un-
ground bones should never be em-
ployed, as they are of little or no
service to the soil. , A. St. Leger
has also found it very beneficial to
mix ashes Avith the bones : a cart-
load of the former being put to thir-
ty or forty bushels of the latter, and
heated for twenty-four hours (which
may be known by the smoking of
the heap), the Avhole should be
turned. After lying ten days lon-
ger, this excellent manure will be
fit for use. Lastly, Dr. Hunter
remarks, that the best method of
grinding bones, is that between
two cast metal cylinders. And as
mills are very rarely erected pur-
posely for this operation, the appa-
ratus may be added to any com-
mon water-mill, at a very trifling
expence.
BONE-SPAVIN, is a bony ex-
crescence, or hard swelling, on the
inside of a horse's leg. A spavin,
which begins on the lower part of
the hock, is not so dangerous as
that Avhich groAvs higher, betAveen
the tAvo round processes of the leg-
bone ; and that which appears near
the edge, is less injurious than if
it Avere situated more tOAvards the
BON
middle and inwards, av here it would,
in a greater degree, impede the
bending of the knee.
A swelling occasioned by a kick
or blow, is not at first the true spa-
vin, nor so dangerous as when it
proceeds from a natural cause ; and
that Avhich grows on the leg of a
colt, is not so inveterate as that of
ahorse come to maturity. In old
horses, the spavin generally is in-
curable.
The usual method of treating
this disease is, by blisters, and the
actual cautery. When a fullness
on the fore part of the hock is oc-
casioned by hard riding, or any
other violence, cooling and repel-
ling applications are proper, as in
the case of bruises or strains.
Among the various prescriptions
for the blistering ointment, the fol-
loAving, by Mr. Gibson, is prefer-
able: Nerve and marsh-mallow
ointment, of each two ounces;
quicksilver, one ounce, thoroughly
mingled with one ounce of Venice
turpentine ; Spanish flies, poAv-
dered, a dram and a half; subli-
mate, one dram ; oil of origanum,
tAvo drams.
When the hair is cut as close as
possible, the ointment is to be ap-
plied pretty thick to the injured
part, in the morning, and the horse
should be kept tied up without any
litter till night. He should then be
untied, that he may lie doAvn, and
a pitch plaster fastened to the part,
with a proper bandage.
After the blister has done run-
ning, anel the scabs begin to peel
off, another may be applied, which
will have a still better eflect; and
in young horses, will generally
complete the cure. But if the spa-
vin has been of long standing, a re-
petition of the blister five or six
timesj will perhaps be requisite.
BOO
BOO 337
Each application must be made at
intervals of a fortnight or three
weeks, lest the blemish of a scar,
or baldness, remain on the part.
Spavins on old or full-aged
horses, as they grow more inward,
and run among the sinuosities of
the joint, are for the most part,
incurable.
In such cases, the strongest cau-
stic blisters must be applied, or the
part immediately fired ; but the
best and safest Avay to preserve the
use of the limb is, by long-repeat-
ed applications of the above-men-
tioned blistering ointment,for some
months, if necessary. The horse,
in the intervals, should be exer-
cised moderately ; and by degrees
the hardness will be dissolved, and
disappear.
If the spavin is deep, and runs
so far into the joint that no appli-
cation can reach it, all medicines
will be unavailing. When the dis-
ease does not penetrate the joint,
and the blistering method is found
ineffectual, the swelling may be
safely cauterized with a thin iron,
forced pretty deeply into the sub-
stance : and it should afterwards
be dressed according to the forego-
ing directions.
BOOK, a general name for most
literary compositions ; but should,
with propriety, be applied to such
productions only as extend to the
size of a volume.
The writings of Moses are al-
lowed to be the most ancient of
any extant; but as several are
cited by this author, some must
unloubtedly have been Avritten
previous to his time. Next to these,
the oldest with which we are ac-
quainted, are Homer's Poems;
though the Greek authors men-
i on no less than seventy other
Avriters prior to Homer.
vol. i.
The materials used by the an-
cients instead of paper, were of
various kinds ; as plates of lead
and copper, the bark of trees,
bricks, stone, wood, &c. Instead
of Avooden tables, the leaves of
the palm-tree Avere afterwards used,
and the inner part of the bark of
the lime, the ash, the maple, and
the elm : as these could be rolled
up, they received the name of vo-
lumen, or a volume, which appel-
lation was aftei-Avards transferred
to similar rolls of paper, or parch-
ment.
The material next introduced for
the purpose of transmitting the re-
cords of the learned to posterity,
was wax; and afterwards leather,
or the skins of goats and sheep,
which at length were manufactured
into parchment: these were suc-
ceeded by lead, linen, silk, horn,
and, lastly, paper. Books Avere
first made square, in the form of
blocks and tables ; but that of rolls
was afterwards found most conve-
nient : they were composed of se-
veral sheets fastened together, and
rolled upon a stick; the whole
making a kind of column, which
was managed by the stick as a
handle, it being considered a crime
to lay hold of the roll itself. The
volume, when extended, was com-
monly fifty yards in length, and a
yard and a half wide. The pre-
sent form of books, consisting of
separate leaves, was not unknoAvn
to the ancients, though little used
by them.
With the form of books is also
connected their internal economy,
as the order and arrangement of
lines and pages, margins, he.
these have undergone many varia-
tions. At first, the l^Lers Avere
only divided into lines ; afterwards
into separate Avords, Avhich by de-
X x
338 BOO
BOO
grees Avere distinguished by ac-
cents, and distributed by points
and stops into periods, paragraphs,
chapters, and other divisions. The
Orientals began their lines from
the right, and carried them to the
left; while the Greeks Avrote in
both directions, alternately begin-
ning in the one, and returning in
the other. The method of writing
practised by the Chinese is still
more curious, as they extend their
lines from the top to the bottom of
the page.
Complaints were made as early
as the time of Solomon, respect-
ing the multiplicity of books ; and
they are now too numerous, not
only to be procured and read, but
even to be knoAvn by their names
or titles. The editors of the En-
cylo/iaelia Britannica remark, that
" England has more to fear on this
score than other countries, since,
besides their own produce, they have
for some years past drained their
neighbours." It is but justice to
observe, however, that this idea is
unfounded, as it is a Avell known
fact, that the number of A7olumes
annually published on the Conti-
nent, and particularly in Germany,
is more than four times the amount
of those issued from the British
press in the three united king-
doms : besides Avhich, many hun-
dred volumes are annually export-
ed, thus rendering the number in
the country nearly Avhat it would be
without the importation of foreign
books. This truth will be evident
to those who reflect on the relative
difference between the price and
quality of the paper employed on
the Continent, and that used in
England, not to mention the ex-
tremely high price of labour^ and
many other circumstances, Avhich
we apprehend, Avill ultimately tend
to impede the progress of British
Literature. But with respect to
a superfluity of books, they are
doubtless of use ; for knowledge
is ever advantageous, and cannot
be too Avidely diffused.
We shall conclude this article,
by stating a method of preserving
books from the depredations of
worms and insects. There is a
very small insect that deposits its
eggs-in books during the month of
August, especially on those leaves
nearest the cover. .These gradu-
ally produce a sort of mites, similar
to Avhat are generated in cheese ;
and Avhich afterwards change their
state, and become beetles: and
when the time of their transfor-
mation approaches, they eat their
way through, till they gain the
extremity of the book. The best
preventive against their attacks
is mineral salts, to which all insects
have an aversion. The salt call-
ed in the old system of chemis-
try, arcanum duplicatum, alum and
vitriol, are proper for this purpose;
a small emantity of which should
be mixed with the paste used by
book-binders. To prevent the de-
predations of the book-worm, M.
Prediger advises book-binders to
to make their paste of starch in-
stead of flour. He likevvise di-
rects a little pulverized alum to be
strewed between the book and its
cover, and also upon the shelves of
the library.
Books are liable to be stained
Avith grease, tallow, oil, or other
fat substances ; by Avhich their
beauty and value are greatly im-
paired : hence Ave shall add the fol-
lowing recipe for restoring them
to their former colour, on the au-
thority of M.Deschamps. He di-
rects (" Biblmheejuc Economi-ue,"
Arol. i.) the soiled paper first to be
BOO BOO 339
warmed, and as much of the grease medy which, the plan here repre-
as is possible, to be taken out, by sented is found very useful. The
means of blotting-paper. A small figure represents one half a book-
brush is then to be dipped in the case. Two strips of wood, in
essential oil of well-rectified spirit Avhich are cut teeth like those of
of turpentine, previously heated till a saw, about half an inch deep, are
it nearly boil, and to be drawn over screwed on each side of the front,
both sidesof the paper, which ought and two other corresponding pieces %,
to be kept warm. This operation on the back comers of the book-
is to be repeated, till all the grease case....Two cross bars, about f of
be extracted ; when another brush, an inch broad, for each shelf, are
immersed in highly-rectified spirit then to be fitted into the teeth to
of wine, must be passed over the support the shelves. By this con-
same paper; by which expedients, trivance, the shelves may be re-
the spots will completely disappear; moved so as to fit a row of books
the paper will resume its original of any size. Book-cases made
whiteness; and, though the pro- upon this plan are now becoming
cess be employed on a part contain- common in Philadelphia. Mr.
ing written or printed characters, Car stairs, South 8th St. who fur-
they av ill experience no alteration, nished the draAving from Avhich the
[The common form of book-ca- cut Avas taken, first made them in
ses with fixed shelves, is attended this city, from a pattern in the pos-
with many inconveniences, to re- session of Mr. Jefferson.]
BOOK-KEEPING, is the art of Book-keeping comprehends the
recording mercantile transactions folloAving heads : the debts owing
in a systematic manner. to a merchant, and those due by
A merchant's books should con- him to others ; the goods which
tain every particular which relates belonged to him, Avith the quantity
to his affairs ; and exhibit the state and value sold, and those which re-
ef his business, the connection of main in his possession ; also the
the diflerent parts, with the amount amount of his stock when the books
and success of the Avhole. Accord- were opened, together Avith his pro-
ingly, they should be so full and fits and losses, and the extent of
regular, as to afford information in his property at present.
every point for which they may be The Italian method of book-
consulted, keeping by double-^ntry, is founded
340 BOO
B OO
on the most universal principles,
and is therefore the 'best in exten-
sive and complicated mercantile
transactions, indeed the account-
ant Avho thoroughly understands it,
can Avith facility either adopt or in-
vent any other form better suited
to any particular business.
According to the Italian method,
three principal books, namely, the
Avaste-book, journal, and ledger,
are used. The Avaste-book, or day-
book, begins with an inventory of
the owner's goods, a list of debts
due to him, and of the debts he
owes to others ; and it is continued
with a clear statement of the mo-
ney received or paid, and the goods
bought or sold by him, 8cc. The
accountant's first care should be,
to have nothing defective ; and his
second, to insert nothing superflu-
ous in the waste-book.
The journal is a concise record
of transactions compiled from the
Avaste-book, in the same order as
they stand there, but expressed in
a technical style. The whole art
of writing the journal depends upon
the proper choice of the Drs. and
Crs. Every thing received, or per-
son accountable to us, is Dr. ; and
every thing delivered, or person to
whom we are accountable, is Cr.
On these tAvo comprehensiA'e rules,
and their various modifications, de-
pends the regularity of accounts.
As for the more particular rules,
they will readily be suggested by
the judgment of the accountant.
From the journal, the different
transactions are posted in the ledg-
er. Each account is distinguished
by a proper title, anel articles of
the same kind received and deli-
vered, are entered on opposite sides
of the same folio. For instance,
money received is entered on the
one side, and money paid on the
other ; or goods bought on the one
side, and goods sold on the other.
The left hand page is called the
Dr. side; the right hand page the
Cr. side of the account; and the
difference between the sums of the
Dr. and Cr. sides, is denominated
in the balance.
Accounts, in the ledger, are of
three kinds, personal, real, andflc-
titious. Personal accounts are those
opened for every person or compa-
ny Avith whom the merchant has
any dealings or credit; real ac-
counts are those of property, such
as ready money, goods, ships, hou-
ses, 8cc.; and fictitious accounts
are stock, together with profit and
loss, and its subsidiary accounts.
The stock account contains, on
the Dr. side, the amounts of the
debts due by the merchant when
the books were opened; and on
the Cr. the amount of money,
goods, he. belonging to him ; con-
sequently the balance shews the
amount of his nett stock. Profit
and loss account contains every ar-
ticle of gain on the Cr. and of loss
on the Dr. side ; therefore the ba-
lance is the nett gain or loss, Avhich
is posted on the proper side of the
stock account above-mentioned.
Several subsidiary accounts are
opened, to shorten and methodize
that of profit and loss, such as in-
terest account, proper expences, he.
These are used, or others invented,
according to the nature and purpo-
ses of the business.
Accounts may be opened in the
ledger, in the same order as they
occur in the journal; or those of a
similar kind may be placed toge-
ther ; the personal accounts in one
part of the book, and the real ac-
counts in another.
Besides the three principal, there
are subsidiary books used by me.r-
BOO
BOO 341
. wants of extensive connections and
business. These are, the cash-
book, book of charges of merchan-
dize, book of house-expences, in-
voice-book, sales-book, bill-book,
receipt-book, letter-book, and poc-
ket-book. Some merchants also
keep a memorandum-book; but
the man of business cannot be re-
stricted to these, as he will either
use them, or invent others more
conformable to the nature of his
business.
In the year 1796, a patent was
granted to Mr. Edward Thomas
Jones, of Bristol, for his method
or plan of delecting errors in ac-
counts of all kinds, by Avhich they
may be adjusted in a regular and
concise manner. This work is en-
titled, The English System of Book-
Kee/ring, which requires a day-
book, or journal, an alphabet, and
a ledger, ruled in the following
manner: namely, the day-book
has three columns on each page,
for receiving the amount of the
transactions ; one column of which
to receive the amount of the debits
and credits, one column to receive
the debits only, and another to re-
ceive the credits only ; or it may
be ruled with only two columns on
each page, one to receive the amount
of the elebits, and the other the
amount of the credits. There must
also be on each page of the day-
book, four other columns ruled, two
on the left side, next the amount of
the debits, and two on the right
side next the amount of the credits,
for receiving the letter or mark of
posting, and the page of the ledger
to w hich each amount is to be post-
ed. The alphabet need not be rul-
ed at all, but must contain the name
of every account in the ledger, the
letter that is annexed to it as a
mark of posting, and the page of
the ledger. The ledger must be
ruled with three, four, five, or seven
columns on each page, as may be
most agreeable, for receiving the
amounts of the different transac-
tions entered in the day-book.
But in order to prevent any mis-
takes that may happen from the
hurry of business in a counting-
house, Mr. Jones has given only
one column for receiving the amount
of every transaction, whether debits
or credits, at the instant of making
the entry : and, for the convenience
of separating the debits from the
credits, previous to posting, which
is necessary to prevent confusion
and perplexity, he has two other
columns on the same page ; that
on the left side, into Avhich the
amount of every debit must be
carefully entered, and that on the
right for the amount of the credits;
which columns must be cast up
once a month. The column of de-
bits and credits of itself forms one
amount; the column for the debits
produces a second amount; and the
column of credits a third amount;
which second and third amounts,
added together, must exactly agree
with the first amount, or the work
is not done right. By this means,
the man of business may obtain
monthly such a statement of his af-
fairs, as will sheAV how much he
owes for that month, and how much
is owing to him ; and the debits
being added together for any given
time, with the value of the stock
of goods on hand, will, when the
amount of the credits is subtracted
therefrom, shew the profits of the
trade.
The patentee's manner of exa-
mining the books kept by this me-
thod, also professedly differs from
that hitherto practised, as well in
expedition as in the certain accu-
342 BOO
BOO
racy Avhich attends the process ; it
being only necessary to cast up the
columns through the ledger debits
and credits, according to the exam-
ples given, and the amount of those
columns, if right, must agree with
the columns in the day-book for the
same corresponding space of time.
These castings should take place
once a month, and if the amounts
do not agree, the posting must
then, but not else, be called over;
and when the time, whether it be
one, two, three, or four months,
that is allotted to each column of
the ledger, is expired, the amount
of each column should be put at
the bottom of the first page, and
carried forward to the bottom of
the next, and so on to the end of
the accounts ; taking care that the
amount in the day-book, of each
month's transactions, be brought
into one gross amount for the same
time.
Having already enlarged upon
this subject, we shall only observe,
that this new system of book-keep-
ing, however ingeniously contriv-
ed, has not met with that general
approbation to Avhich it is apparent-
ly entitled. To enforce his claim
to public patronage, Mr. Jones
concludes the specification of his
patent by asserting, that upon his
plan every page -will be proved in
the progress of calculation, and
"_ the balances of ten thousand
ledgers could not unobservedly be
taken off wrong."....We give him
full credit for this assertion; though
it has, perhaps, by inviduous rivals,
been objected that his method is
more complicated than the old Ita-
lian system of book-keeping; which
bas,by experience, been found fully
adequate to the purpose of mercan-
tile accuracy.
BOORCOLE, is a species of thtf
Brassica, L. and generally culti-
vated in the open fields like turnips,
cabbages, or the turnip-rooted cab-
bage.
It is one of those hardy plants,
the leaves of which may be cut
without detriment to its growth,
and will produce a neAv crop in the
course of a month or six weeks.
According to an experiment
made by Mr. Baker in the year
1763, an Irish acre of fallow
ground, which Avas planted with
boorcole, at the distance of two feet,
and hoed in the Tullian method,
produced plants which Aveighed
about five'pounds ten ounces each,
on an average, and the whole pro-
duce of an Irish acre was 40,096
pounds.
It should be observed, that the
land must be well manured, and in
a high state of tillage, for the cul-
tivation of this plant, which, if
kept constantly hoed, will grow very
luxuriantly, and, in the hottest wea-
ther, be infinitely more brittle in
the leaves than any other cultivated
in gardens ; Avhich is a certain in-
dication of its being a healthy plant*
It is Avorthy the attention of the
farmer or grazier, on account of
the rapidity of its growth, and the
property of withstanding the effect
of severe frosts, Avhile it affords an
excellent vegetable for the table,
and may be used Avith advantage
for feeding sheep.
Mr. Baker farther observes,
that sheep should not be suffered to
depasture so long upon a crop of
boorcole, as to injure the stalks ;
because its future groAvth will be
checked by depriving it of the
sprouting leaves.
BOOT, a cover or defence for
the leg and foot, made of leather,
BOO
B O R 343
■md generally worn by horsemen.
The boot is by no means a modem
invention, as it was worn in the
Roman army by the infantry asAvell
as the cavalry. It was originally
made of leather, but afterwards of
brass or iron, that it might be proof
against the sword.
There are various kinds of boots,
as hunting-boots, fishing-boots,
jack-boots, he. The fishermen of
New-England preserve their boots
water proof by the following com-
position : One pint of boiled lint-
seed oil, half a pound of mutton
suet, six ounces of pure bees-wax,
anel four ounces of rosin. These
ingredients are melted together over
a slow fire, and the boots or shoes,
Avhen new and quite clean, are
warmed, and rubbed with the com-
position till the leather is complete-
ly saturated.
There is an improved composi-
tion for preserving leather, the good
effects of which are sufficiently as-
certained, One pint of drying oil,
two ounces of yellow wax, two
ounces of spirit of turpentine, and
half an ounce of Burgundy pitch,
should be carefully melted together
over a slow fire. With this mix-
ture new shoes and boots are rubbed
either in the sun, or at some dist-
ance from a fire, with a sponge or
brush : the operation is to be re-
peated as often as they become dry,
until they be fully saturated. In
this manner, the leather becomes
impervious to wet; the shoes or
boots made of it last much longer
than those made of common lea-
ther ; acquire such softness and
pliability that they never shrivel
nor grow hard or inflexible ; and,
in that state, are the most effectual
preservatives against cold and chil-
blains. It is, however, necessary
to remark, that shoes or boots,
thus prepared, ought not to be
worn till they have become per-
fectly dry and elastic; as, in the
contrary case, the leather will be
too soft, and wear out much sooner
than even the common kind.
[The following composition is
recommended in ,u An Essay on
Shooting," Dublin edition, 1789.
Tallow, half a pound.
Hog's lard, 4 oz.
Turpentine, ")
New bees Avax, v 2 oz. each.
Olive oil, J
To be melted by a gentle heat and
rubbed on the leather (when free
from dampness) the night before
the shoes or boots are wanted.]
BORAGE, the Common, or Bo-
rago officinalis, L. It is rough,
and clothed with small prickly
hairs; has alternate leaves,, and
bears blue spreading flowers in
June and July. See With. 230,
and Engl. Bot. 36.
The flowers of the borage are
much frequented by bees, and the
plant itself may be used as a culi-
nary vegetable, or as an ingredient
in lettuce-salad, to which it im-
parts an agreeable flavour. The
whole of this plant abounds with
nitrous particles, which may be
easily obtained by elixation ; for
after evaporating the lixivium to a
proper consistence, and allowing it
to stand in a cool place, crystals
will be formed, which deflagrate
upon the fire, and possess all the
properties of salt-petre.
BORAX, in chemistry, a salt
proeluced in the mountains of Thi-
bet, in Asia, both naturally and ar-
tificially by evaporation.
The borax imported from China
is purer than that of Thibet, and
is found in a natural state in small
masses of irregular crystals, of a
faint Avhite colour. Beside the vi-
344 BOT
BOT
trescible earth, Avhich is an essen-
tial principle of borax, it contains
copper and the marine acid, but
no traces of the vitriolic. It has
also been clearly proved by expe-
riments, that borax consists of
fossil alkali, in some degree neu-
tralized by a peculiar salt. When
dissolved and crystalized, it forms
small transparent masses ; and the
refiners have a method of shooting
it into large crystals, which, how-
ever, in many respects, differ from,
and are inferior to, the genuine
salt.
Borax is useful in metallurgy,
for soldering; in the fusion of
a verifiable earths, Avith which it
forms glass ; as Avell as in several
other chemical processes; and
dyers frequently employ it for giv-
ing a gloss to silks.
Its medical properties have not
been sufficiently investigated. Mr.
Bisset recommends a weak solu-
tion of this salt in water, for heal-
ing aphthous crusts, or the thrush
inthe mouth and fauceus of children.
A small quantity of it, powdered
and mixed with sugar, is often ap-
plied for the same purpose. We
are not acquainted with a more bal-
samic application to sore nipples,
or chapped lips and hands in frosty
Aveather, than a few grains of bo-
rax dissolved in warm water, Avith
the addition of a little pure ho-
ney.
BOTANY, that part of natural
history which relates to plants or
vegetables.
This pleasing science had the
misfortune of being, from its in-
fancy, considered merely as a
branch of medicine ; and while the
naturalist Avas employed in disco-
A-ering the virtues of plants, the
knowledge of their organization
was in a great measure neglected.
In consecvuence of this erroneous
idea of botany, the study of it was
for a long time confined to medici-
nal plants ; which Avere searched
for Avith a vieAv to discover reme-
dies.
On the revival of letters, instead
of investigating plants in the gar-
den of Nature, they were studied
only in the writings of Pliny and
Dioscorides : thus translators,
commentators, and practitioners,
seldom agreeing, a variety of names
were given to the same plant, and
the same name to several plants.
At length, more careful researches
and many excellent observations
were made ; but the latter being
enveloped in a chaos of nomencla-
ture, physicians and herbalists no
longer understood each other.
Botanists of real genius indeed
occasionally published instructive
books, among which the principal
are the Avritings of Cordus, Ges-
ner, Clusius, and Coesalpinus;
but each of these authors regulat-
ing his nomenclature by his own
method, created new genera, or
divided the old ones, according to
his own fancy. Hence the genera
and species were so intermingled
and confounded, that almost every
plant received as many names as
there were authors employed in its
description.
The advancement of the study
of botany was, however, greatly
promoted by the writings of the
indefatigable Bauhins, two bro-
thers, each of Avhom undertook
an universal history of plants, in-
cluding a synonymy, or exact list
of the names of each plant in the
Avorks of all the writers that pre-
ceded them.
Meanwhile, voyages of discove-
ry enriched botany with new trea-
sures, and Avhile the old names
BOT
over-loaded the memory, new ones
were invented for the newly disco-
vered plants. In order to extricate
themselves from this immense la-
byrinth, botanists Avere obliged to
adopt some methodical arrange-
ment. Ray, Herman, Rivinius,
proposed their respective plans;
but Tournefort, who published
his system in 1697, surpassed them
all. To him Ave are indebted for
the first complete regular arrange-
ment of the vegetable kingdom ;
his plates of generic characters are
excellent, but his work is defi-
cient, as it contains no characters
or descriptions of the different spe-
cies.
At length, Linnaeus formed
the vast project of new moulding
the Avhole science of botany. Hav-
ing prepared the rules by which it
ought to be conducted, he deter-
mined the genera of plants, and
afterwards the species ; and by
keeping all the old names that
agreed with these neAv rules, and
new modelling all the rest, he esta-
blished a clear nomenclature, form-
ed upon principles more consonant
with Nature. He also invented
specific names, which he joined to
the generical ones, in order to dis-
tinguish the species.
The whole Linnsan system is
founded on the idea, that there is
in vegetables as well as in animals,
a real distinction of the sexes ; that
each plant may be analysed by its
several organs of fructification;
and, consequently, that it is ne-
cessary to acquire an accurate
knowledge of the number, shape,
situation, and proportion of these
parts. Hence, only the student will
be enabled to understand the ele-
ments of the science. And as all
vegetables are capable of producing
blossoms and fruit, or seed, the
VOL. I.
BOT 345
following parts, which compose a
flower, must be minutely examin-
ed in every plant, namely : l.The
calyx, or flower cup, or empale-
ment; 2. The corolla, or blossom,
or flower-leaf; 3. The stamina,
or chives; 4. The pistillum, or
pointal; 5. The pericarpium, or
seed-vessel ; 6. The semina, or
seeds. To these may be added
the nectary, or honey-cup; and
the receptacle, or base.
It required the resolution, know-
ledge and ingenuity of Linnaeus,
to effect this reform with success.
His system at first met Avith re-
sistance, and meets Avith it still
from his rivals in fame ; but on
account of its practical utility it
has been almost universally adopt-1
ed throughout Europe.
To pursue the study of plants
Avith advantage, that of the nomen-
clature must not be neglected;
Names, it is true, are arbitrary ;
but if the most engaging part of
Natural History merits the atten-
tion of the curious, it will be ne-
cessary to begin with learning the
language of the writers, in order to
knoAV with precission to Avhat ob-
jects the names employed by them
actually belong.
The vegetables on the face of
the globe may be considered as
analogous to its inhabitants ; under
which view of the subject vege-
tables may be said to resemble the
inhabitants in general; classes, the
nations ; orders, the tribes ; genera,
the families ; spedes, the individu-
als ; and varieties, the same indivi-
duals in different circumstances.
Beside the satisfaction which the
study of the Avorks of Nature, and
especially that of botany, affords to
an inquisitive mind, it counteracts
the passion for more frivolous
amusements, and always prevents
346 BOT
BOT
objects Avorthy - of contemplation.
Hence the late Dr. Withering
very justly remarks, that, inde-
pendently of its immediate use, the
study of botany is as healthful as
it is innocent; that it beguiles the
tediousness of the road ; furnishes
amusement at every footstep of the
solitary Avalk ; and, above all, that
it leads to pleasing reflections on
the bounty, the wisdom, anel the
power of the Great Creator !•
Among the latest elementary
works of this' branch of science are
the following : Dr. Withering's
" Arrangements of British Plants,"
in four volumes 8vo. (■!/. 11*. 6d.)
.....Prof. Martyr's translation of
Rousseau's "Letter's on the Ele-
ments of Boteeny, addressed to a
Lady ;*' (7s.)....Priscilla Wake-
Field's " Introduction to Botany;"
(-3s. 6d« Avhh plain, and 7s. with
coloured plates) ; Dr. Hull's In-
troduction to- the Study of Botany.
[To these may be added, Mar-
tyn's Language of Botany, and
lastly the Elements of Botany, by
Dr. Barton, just published.]
BOTTLE, a small vessel made
Of glass, leather, or stone. Glass-
bottles are better for cyder than
those of any other substance.
Dr. Percival censures the com-
mon practice of clean ■ting wine-
bottles with shot; for if, through
inattention, any of it should remain,
Avhen the bottles are again filled
with Avme, the metal will be dis-
solved, and the liquor impregnated
with its deleterious qualities. For
this reason, he recommends pot-
ash in preference to shot, as a few
ounces of the former dissolved in
water, will cleanse a great number
of bottles : and where the impuri-
ties adhere to the sides; a few pieces
of blotting paper put into the Ares-
*el, and shaken with the Avater,
will remove them in an expeditious
manner.
BOTTLING, the filling of bot-
tles with liquor, cud corking them
in order to preserve it. Particular
caution should be used in bottling
cyder : the best Avay to secure the
bottles from bursting, is to have
the liquor thoroughly fine before it
be bottled. If one bottle break, it
w'll be necessary to give vent to
the remainder, and cork them up
again. Weak cyder is more apt
to burst the bottles than that of a
stronger quality : they should be
placed so that the corks may be
kept Avet, and stowed in a cellar
not exposed to the changes and in-
fluence of the air. For this pur-
pose, the ground is preferable to a
frame ; and a layer of saw-dust
or sand better than the bare soil:
but the most proper situation is a
stream of running water.
Bottled beer may be much im-
proved by putting a small quantity
of crystals of tartar, spirituous
liquor, or sugar boiled with the
essence of cloves, into each bottle*
In order to ripen bottled liquors,
they are sometimes exposed to mo-
derate warmth, or the rays of the
sun, which in a few days, will
bring them to maturity.
BOTTS, in zoology, a species
of short worms produced and
nourished in the intestines of a
horse.
As the flies, from Avhose eggs
the botts are produced, do not fre-
quent the neighbourhood of large
towns, horses are not liable to this
disease, if they be kept in the sta-
ble during summer and autumn.
In summer the females of these
flies enter the anus of the horse,
where they deposit their eggs,which
are soon hatched by the heat, and
the worms penetrate into the in-
B O T
testines, sometimes as far as thg
stomach.
Botts are very large maggots,
composed of circular rings Avith
prickly feet, by which they adhere
to the part where they breed, and
derive their nourishment. When
they reach the-stomach, they fasten
themselves in its muscular coat,
and suck the blood like leeches,
each worm ulcerating the part
where it fixes, till it resembles a
lioney-oomb. These worms are
not unfrequently the cause of con-
"»ulsions.
Botts that are generated in the
stomach of the horse are extremely
dangerous, and seldom discovera-
ble till they have acquired some
strength, Avhen they throAv him into
-great agonies.
The symptomsof the other kinds,
.which are more troublesome than
dangerous, are the following: The
horse becomes lean, and looks
jaded ; his hair stands out roughly;
he often strikes his hindfeetagainst
his belly ; he is sometimes griped,
but generally lies down epiietly on
.his belly for a short time, anel then
-gets up and eats his food. But the
surest sign is, when he voids the
botts in his dung.
For the cure of botts in the sto-
mach, calomel should first be given
in large cjuantities, and repeated at
intervals, ilrthiops mineral may
be given afterwards.
The botts, that many horses are
troubled with, in the beginning of
summer, are always seen on the
.rtraight gut, and are often thrown
.out with the dung and a yellowish
matter. They are not dangerous
in that part, though they render
-the horse restless. The season
when they affect the animal is
commonly in the months of May
.♦ad June, after which they are
BOT 347
rarely seen, as they do not con-
tinue with the horse above a fort-
night or three weeks. Botts in the
straight gut may be cured by giv-
ing the horse a spoonful of savin,
cut small, once or twice a day, in
oats or bran moistened, to which
may be added three or four cloves
of garlic. The following aloetic
purge should also be given at in-
tervals : Fine socotrine aloes, ten
drams ; fresh jalap, one dram; ari-
stolochia, or birthwort and myrrh
powdered, of each two drams ;
oil of savin and amber, of each one
dram; syrup of buckthorn, enough
to form the whole into a ball.
[Mr. Andrew Billings,of Pou-
keepsie, New-York, has proved
that botts are produced from the
eggs deposited by a fly upon the
hairs of horses. The fly is about
the size of the honey-bee, and
the head and neck not much un-
like it. It flies with its head and
body erect and perpendicular to
the horizon, while its tail forms a
sharp angle with their bodies, be-
ing bent towards the horse, so that
they touch the hair of his legs, or
belly (which are the parts they
most affect), only Avith the extre-
mity of the tail, and in this way
will fly about him for an hour dis-
charging a great number of eggs,
which adhere to the ends of the
hair. Mr. Chancellor Living-
ston observes, that the late Dr.
Wemple, a man of veracity and
accuracy, proved the truth of Mr.
B's theory by the following expe-
riment : One of his horses having
beenkilled by the botts, he took
the largest of the worms, and pre-
serving them in a proper tempera-
ture, they Avent through the usual
changes, and produceel flies exact-
ly resembling those already de-
scribed. Mr. B. also kept, a hair
348 BOW
BOW
to which an egg was attached, for
some time, in a box, when a per-
fect bott extricated itself.
Valisnery's theory of the in-
troduction of the botts into the bo-
dies of the animal, as stated by Dr.
Willich, is probably erroneous.
May not the egg be introduced by
the horse licking and biting the
part on which the eggs are depo-
sited, to relieve an occasional itch-
ing ?
To guard against the botts there-
fore, attention must be paid to the
flies, anel killed when found buz-
zing about horses. The nits should
should be scraped off and a handful
of salt given weekly.] *
BOUNTY, in commerce, a
premium paid by government to
the exporters and importers of cer-
tain commodities, such as corn,
fish, 8cc.
Bounties are sometimes given to
support a new manufacture against
one of a similar kind established by
other nations. To promote the
manufacture of sail-cloth in this
country, is doubtless an object of
the greatest national importance,
on account of our vast consumption
of that article.
The principal intention of boun-
ties to exporters is to enable the
trader to become beneficial to his
country, by giving him a com-
pensation for his ingenuity and
industry. As bounties are usually
grantee! only for a limited time,
they can never be the cause of any
material loss to a nation, though
avaricious men are often stimu-
lated by a desire of gain, to con-
vert to their private advantage
what Avas intended for the benefit
pf the community.
BOW, a Aveapon made of wood,
hom, or some other elastic sub-
stance, and bent into a curve, in
which position it is kept by a string
fastened to each end. The elastic
poAver thus acquired, is such that
after bending and unbending, an
arrow is impelled with great force.
The long-bow, so called by way
of distinction from the cross-bowj
is the most ancient of all Aveapons,
and has very generally been used
by remote and barbarous nations.
The Laplanders, Avho support
themselves principally by hunting,
excel the most civilized nations in
the construction of this instrument.
Their bow is composed of two
pieces of strong elastic wood, of an
equal size, which are flat on each
side, and glewed together. This
instrument expels the arrow with
much greater force than if it were
formed of one piece of similar di-
mensions.
The Indians still make use of
the bow; and the repository of
the Royal Society contains a West-
Indian bow two yards long.
In the the year 1749 aboAvand
quiver containing twenty-four ar-
roAvs made of reed, pointed with
steel, and bearded, Avere found in
the New Forest, Hampshire, sup-
posed to have lain there since the
reign of William Rufus, who
was shot there 649 years previous
to their discovery: the reeds Avere
not decayed, nor the steel points
rusty.
The strength of a bow is calcu-
lated on the principle, that its spring
or elastic power is proportionate to
the extent of its curve. The use
of the bow is termed archery, and
those who practice it, are called
bowmen, or archers.....See Ar-
chery.
Cross-bow. This weapon con-
sists of a steel bow set in a shaft of
.avoocI, Avith a string and trigger....
It is bent by means of a piece of
BOW
steel, and expels bullets, large ar-
rows, darts, &c. Avith great velo-
city.
BOWELS, or intestines, are
very important parts in the animal
economy, (See Abdomen); and are
often subject to diseases, which, if
neglected, may be attended with
dangerous consequences. Of this
nature, in particular, are inflam-
mations of the bowels, Avhich ma-
nifest themselves by a continued
acute pain, frecmently accompa-
nied with a sensation of burning.
The abdomen is pained on the
slightest touch, and the body is
generally costive. After taking any
kind of nutriment, the patient is
inclined to vomit; but the princi-
pal symptom, by Avhich the inflam-
matory state of the intestines may
be distinguished from a mere colic,
in a peculiar fever, Avith a small,
though hard pulse, Avhile the heat
in the extremities of the body con-
tinues almost the same as when in
a state of health. The most fre-
quent causes of this dangerous com-
plaint are, acrid substances in the
boAvels; crude and hardened feces ;
confined ruptures ; suppressed he-
morrhages ; violent diarrhoeas and
dysenteries ; abortions, Sec. At
their commencement, inflamma-
tions are often confounded with
other complaints ; anel sometimes
they terminate in a fatal mortifi-
cation, though more frequently in
suppuration. The degree of dan-
ger may be ascertained by the in-
creasing coldness of theextremities,
and the more or less inveterate ob-
stipations of the bowels. Hic-
cough, and vomiting of excrements,
indicate the approach of dissolu-
tion.
If the inflammation be occasioned
by a confined rupture, it sometimes
may be reduced by applications of
BOW 349
cold water and ice, or still more
effectually by dropping and evapo-
rating vitriolic xther on the protu-
berant part. Diluent and emolient
liquids are of no service in this
case, as they only contribute to
distend the bowels ; and where the
external application of cold has no
effect, the patient must, without
delay, submit to an operation.
Suppressed hemorrhoids [or piles]
and other natural fluxes, should be
restored by applying leeches to the
parts, and repeated warm fomem-
tations. Diarrhoeas and dysente-
ries ought to be treated according
to their causes ; and poison intro-
duced into the stomach, should be
remedied according to the rules
given under the head of Anti-
dotes.
When there is reason to suspect
an inflammation, venesection Avill
be necessary ; but the emantity of
blood draAvn must be'regulated by
the strength of the patient, and the
nature of the fever. The bowels
should be opened by emolient clys-
ters ; or, if these prove ineffectual,
strong solutions of pot-ash, in vine-
gar, ought, without elehy, to be
injected, and the abdomen rubbed
with balsamic and antispasmodic
embrocations, such as the campho-
rated liniment,mixed with an equal
quantity of honey ; or, in cases of
extremity, the latter dissolved in
a strong decoction made of sage-
leaves and vinegar. If these reme-
dies produce no relief, the smoke
of tobacco may be introduced by
the rectum, and.blisters applied to
the abdomen. But, during the
obstipation, 1.0 medicines should
be used internally ; as stimulating
the stomach and boAvels cannot
fail to increase the inflammation,
and thus endanger the life of the
patient.
.-350 BOW
[Inflammations of the bowels
:very commonly proceed, in the
United States, from exposure of
the body to alterations of heat and
■cold. The disease should be early
.attended to, and the progress of in-
flammation prevented, by copious
.bleeding, and frequent clysters of
cool Avater, in which Glauber's salts
have been dissolved; if these do
oiot succeed in procuring stools,
cold water must be dashed upon
.the feet, and clysters of tobacco in
decoction with antimonial wine
given. This last remedy succeed-
ed, when a variety of pthers failed.
Med. Com; vol. £th.]
Diseases of the Bowels in Horses.
Jt is difficult to form a proper judg-
.ment respecting disorders of the
stomach and oowels of these ani-
and assisted
by an emollient clyster prepared
with a- handful of salt, will answer
this purpose. Scalded bran, with
an ounce of fenugreek and lintseed,
•ccasionally given, will prevent
costiveness. But Avhere it is con-
stitutional, and the horse continues
in perfect health, no inconvenience
will arise from it; nay, it is Avell
knoAvn, that such horses are re-
markably vigorous and hardy.
BOX - TREE, or Buxus, L. a
genus of plants containing three
•pecies; namely, the sempervirens,
or common box, with oval leaves ;
the augustifolia, or narroAV-leaved
box ; and the suffruticosa, or Dutch
box ; the first of which only is in-
digenous. The tAvo first-mentioned
species, groAv in great abundance
upon Box-hill, near Dorking, in
Surrey,- Avhere there were formerly
large trees of this kind. Of the
first species, there are two or three
varieties, Avhich are propagated in
gardens ; and this, as well as the
second, may be either raised from
seeds or cuttings ; the latter should
be planted or sown in autumn, on
a shady border.
Box-trees may be transplanted
at any time, except Midsummer,
provided they be taken up with a
good mass of earth, but the best
time for their removal is October.
The Dutch, or dwarf-box, is in-
creased by parting the roots, or
planting the slips : it should be in-
termixed with other evergreens.
The uses of the large kind of box
are various : many articles of tur-
nery, and musical instruments, are
manufactured of its wood: which
is of greater specific gravity than
any other of European growth, as
BOX 551
it will not float upon Avater. In
Paris, combs are made of no other
material than this Avcod ; and the
quantity imported annually from
Spain into that city, is estimated
at 10,000 livres. Box admits of a
beautiful polish when made into
articles of furniture, for which it is
now much employed, as its bitter
quality renders it secure from the
attacks of worms.
It is asserted, that a decoction of
box-wood rubbed on the head, will
speedily restore the hair decayed
in consequence of malignant fe-
vers ; but care should be taken in
applying it, to prevent it from
touching the skin of the face,
which, in consequence of this em-
brocation, would likewise be co-
vered Avith hair. A similar decoc-
tion has been recommended as a
powerful sudorific, even preferable
to Guaiacum ; though, at present,
neither the wood nor the leaves of
the box-tree are used for medicinal
purposes.
BOXING, the art of fighting
with the fists, Avhich, among the
Romans, Avere either naked, or in-
closed a stone or leaden ball. Hence
this exercise is very ancient, hav-
ing been in vogue in the heroic
ages.
To the disgrace of England, the
art of boxing, about half a century
since, formed a regular kind of
amusement, was encouraged by the
first nobility of the kingdom, and
even tolerated by the magistrates.
About the time above-mentioned,
a booth was erected at Tottenham-
court, to which the public paid for
admission the same as at a regular
theatre, and the profits were divid-
ed among the combatants; the
victor receiving two-thirds, and the
remainder devolving to the loser.
In consequence of the inconveni-
352 BRA
BRA
encies sustained at Taylor's booth,
by the patrons of this refined art,
Mr, Broughton, then the princi-
pal actor in these exhibitions, erect-
ed a more commodious amphithe-
atre near Oxford-street. This bar-
barous amusement was at length
neglected; though within these
few years it has again engaged a
considerable degree of the public
attention : a fatal issue, however,
which took place at one of the com-
bats, again brought the practice
into disrepute. On this occasion,
one of the combatants Avas killed on
the spot; and his royal highness
the Prince of Wales, Avho
was present, declared, that on ac-
count of the dreadful example he
had then witnessed, he would never
again be present at, or patronize
another exhibition ofa similar kind.
[Broughton was, however, ho-
noured by being made one of the
Yeomen of the King's Guards ;
and boxing in England has again
become fashionable.]
Boxing also signifies the tapping
of a tree, to make it yield its juice.
This operation is performed on the
maple, by making a hole in the
side of the tree, about a foot from
the ground, with an auger or chis-
el : from this juice or sap a good
sugar may be extracted.
BRACES, a supplementary arti-
cle of dress, now very generally
adopted, which by rendering a tight
cincture altogether unnecessary,
cannot be too much recommended
both to men and women, for the
sake of health as well as comfort.
If they were used to keep up the
stockings, instead of tight garters,
it Avould be an improvement of
much greater moment than many
are inclined to imagine; for garters
doubtless occasion great mischief,
whether tied above or below the
knee, in causing the part to Avhich
they are applied to acquire an un-
natural hardness, in disposing the
thighs and legs to dropsy, and in-
ducing great fatigue in walking.
BRAIN, in anatomy, a great
viscus in the cavity of the skull, of
an oval figure, and larger in man,
in proportion to his size, than in
any other animal. The brain is
uniformly considered as the grand
sensorium of the body, or the or-
gan of all the senses ; and hence it
is supposed, not Avithout reason, to
be the seat of the soul. The most
important functions of an animal
body are those of the brain. To
afford a more distinct view of the
subject, Ave shall mention a few
experiments Avhich have been made
upon animals.
If the brain be irritated, dread-
ful convulsions take place all over
the body. If any part of the brain
be compressed, that part of the
body which derives its nerves from
the compressed part, is immedi-
ately deprived of motion and sen-
sation. On compressing, tying, or
dividing a nerve, the muscles to
which the nerve proceeds, become
paralytic. If the nerve thus com-
pressed, tied, or divided, had be-
fore any particular sensation, it
exists no longer ; but on removing
the compression, or untying it, its
peculiar sense returns.
From these phehomena, it is
evident, that every sensation in an
animal body is derived from the
brain, or from the spinal marrow,
which is a continuation of the brain;
and that it is conveyed thence,
through the medium of the nerves,
to all parts of the sentient body....
But, in what manner the various
sensations are produced by the
nerves, and how the will operates
upon the contiguous and remote
BRA
•rgans, so as to put them into in-
stantaneous motion, are difficulties
which have never been satisfactori-
ly explained, and, in all probability
will always baffle the keenest in-
vestigation.
As the brain is the representa-
tive organ of the mind, its sound
and perfect state is of the utmost
importance in the exercise of the
intellect. If, therefore, the brain
of an individual, be pretematurally
soft, or too firm and hard, or spe-
cifically too light, or proportionate-
ly too small; or if it be in any man-
ner compressed or shaken by ex-
ternal violence ; or if acrimonious
humours should settle on it, in con-
secruence of various diseases; or,
lastly, ii in plethoric habits too great
a portion of blood should flow to-
wards the head, and too much ex-
tend its vessel ;....in all these cases,
the representing faculty will more
or less partake of the disorder......
Thus the power of imagination, or
fancy, is sometimes so much in-
creased, that the patient is either
in part, or entirely, deprived of the
faculty of judgment. Such, for in-
stance, is the case in delirious per-
sons, who are then only called ma-
niacs, when a total privation of
their reasoning faculty is evident.
In ideots, or stupid people, how-
ever, the mental disease arises
chiefly from their incapacity of
comprehending and properly ar-
ranging ideas.
The causes of these humiliating
elerangcments of the human mind,
though various, may be reduced to
the following heads: namely, in-
ordinate passions, especially those
which are 'attended with a great
dissipation of strength; debauchery
of every kind ; anel irregular mode
of life ; excessive eating anel drink-
ing ; intense, an well ax long-con-
vol. I.
BRA 353
tinued application to study ; and
likewise, a sudden change of cli-
mate, air, and aliment.
It deserves to be pointed out as
a vulgar error, that abscesses of the
brain discharge themselves through
the mouth and ears; and that snuff
is liable to enter into the brain ;
neither of these is capable of pas-
sing through that bone, which has
the form of a sieve ; nor is any
matter, or fluid, secreted in a com-
mon cold, evacuated by that canal,
though discharged through the nos-
trllsi The seat of this disease is,
indeed, not in the brain, but in the
cavities of the nose ; and if impost-
hurnes take place in the ear, they
suppurate and empty themselves
externally.
Inflammation cf the Brain, is a
disease more common in hot than
in temperate climates ; in the lat-
ter, hoAvever, it may also take place
from external violence, or in con-
sequence of severe falls, blows
and bruises upon the head ; night-
watching ; hard drinking ; strong
passions, especially those of grief,
anger, and anxiety; exposure to
the heat of the sun during sleep,
with the head uncovered, he. Phe
principal symptoms of this danger-
ous malady are, pain of the head,
redness of the eyes, want of sleep,
and slight dropping of blood from
the nose ; these are attended Avith
costiveness and a retention of urine.
As the disease, when neglected, is
often fatal in a fewr days, medical
advice should be called in Avithout
delay. Meanwhile, the patient
ought to be kept as quiet as possi-
ble, and free from the access of
strong light ; his body must be
kept open by clysters; the legs
bathed in warm water ; trie bleed-
ing of the nose promoted by. w a; m
fomentations to the part; and the
354 BRA
BRA
head, after being shaved, should
be frequently rubbed Avith vinegar
and water ; or cloths dipped in the
folloAving solution may be applied,
and repeated every hour, or half
hour, Avith the best effect. Take
two ounces of nitre, and one ounce
of sal.ammoniac, dissolve them in
five pints of water and half a pint of
strong vinegar. Of this mixture
the patient may also drink a table
spoonful every hour, or often er.
BRAKE is a large and weighty
harroAV, used to reduce a stubborn
soil. It consists of four square bulls
each side five inches thick, and six
feet and a half in length. The teeth
are seventeen inches long, anel bend
forward like a coulter; four of these
are inserted in each bull, fixed
above, with a screw nut, having
twelve inches free below, Avith a
heel close to the under part of the
bull, to prevent its being pushed
back .by stones. This instrument
reejuires four horses, or the same
number of oxen, and may be ap-
plied with great advantage in fal-
lowing strong clay that requires
frequent ploughings, as a breaking
between each ploughing will pul-
verize the soil. In the month of
March or April, on ploughing
strong ground for barley, a cross
brakeing is preferable to a cross
ploughing, and may be performed
at half the expence.
A brake with a greater number
of teeth than that above described,
is not proper for ground that is
rendered adhesive by the roots of
plants, such as land newly broken
up : on the contrary, a less num-
ber of teeth would not sufficiently
break the clods.
BRAMBLE, the Common, or
Rubus fruticosus, L. a species of
the raspberry-bush, which groAvs
Avild in hedges, and has three va-
rieties one of which bears Avhite
fruit....See Withering, 469.....
There are several other species in-
digenous in England ; as the saxa-
tilis, or stone bramble, the arcticus,
or dwarf crimson bramble, the
chamacmorus, or mountain bramble,
by some called cloud-berry, and
the corylifolius, or, hazel-leaved
bramble.
The bad effects of the fruit of the
bramble, when eaten too freely,
have already been mentioned under
the article Blackberry. In Pro-
vence, in France, it is employed in
the colouring of Avine. The Rus-
sians mix the berries of the saxa-
tilis Avith honey, which, when fer-
mented, is a pleasant beverage....
Wine and vinegar are also made
from the fruit of the bramble ; and
a syrup and jelly prepared from it,
are used as gentle astringents....
The leaves afford several colours in
dyeing.
As this plant is of quick growth,
it may be advantageously employed
for inclosures ', because it defends
the young epiick-set hedge from
sheep, and by intertwining itself
with a dead hedge, preserves it
from injury. The usual method
of planting it, is in two rows upon
the bank, the lower of bramble, and
the upper of white-thorn.
BRAN, the husks of wheat,
which when ground are separated
from the flour by a sieve. It con-
tains a portion of the farinaceous
matter, less glutinous than flour,
and slightly detergent and purga-
tive. Infusions of bran are often
applied externally, to cleanse the
hands instead of soap ; and it also
removes scurf and dandriff.
Bran may, in times of scarcity,
be advantageously employed in
the making of common household
bread; this is effected by previous-
ly boiling the bran in water, and
then adding tfre whole decoction to
BRA
BRA 355
the dough : thus the bran Avill be
sufficiently softened, and divested
of its dry husky quality ; Avhile the
nutritive part, which is supposed to
contain an essential oil, is duly pre-
pared for food. It is asserted, that
the increase in the quantity of
bread, by the addition of 14lb. 14
oz. of bran to 5 61b. of flour, is
from 34lb. to 361b. of bread, be-
yond what is produced by the com-
mon made. In one instance, 56lb.
of flour, with 14lb. 14oz. of bran,
produced, on being weighed the
next clay, when cold, 1061b. and a
half of bread ; which is above half
as much more than what is com-
monly made, and about twice the
quantity obtained from a bushel of
Avheat, when merely the fine flour
is used.
[Ten ounces of bran Avere boil-
ed in somewhat more than two
quarts of water, from fifteen to
twenty minutes. The water was
then strained off; and when of a
proper degree of heat, 7 pounds
of flour were wet Avith it in the
usual way, with the common quan-
tities of salt and yeast. The pro-
duce was, 121b. lOoz. of bread....
The same quantity of flour, made
at the same time by the same per-
son, and baked in the same oven,
as bread is generally made, pro-
duced 91b. of bread.]
BRANDY, is a spirituous and
inflammable liquor, obtained by
distillation from wine. French
brandies are accounted the best in
llurope ; and those of Bourdeaux,
Uochc'lle, Cogniac, Charenton, Sec.
are held in the highest estimation.
Good brandy is clear, not too hot,
nor sharp, and of a pleasant vinous
flavour. French brandy acquires
by age a great degree of softness,
and at the same time a yellowish
brown colour, which our distillers
have imitated in their artificial pre-
parations. But this colour being
found only in such brandies as
have become mellow by long keep-
ing, it follows that the ingredient,
from which it is extracted, is the
wood of the cask, and that the
brandy in reality has received a
tincture from the oak. The pecu-
liar flavour which French brandies
possess, is supposed to be derived
from an essential oil of wine, mix-
ed with the spirit; but, more pro-
bably, it originates from the A-ery
nature of the grape, or the wine-
lees, t
It deserves to be remarked, that
our distillers frequently make use
of the spirit of nitrous at her, com-
monly called, dulcified spirit of
nitre : a very small proportion of
which, added to pure whiskey, or
a liquor obtained by the distillation
of malt, imparts to it a flavour, not
unlike that of French brandy.
A vinous spirit has been extract-
ed from carrots by Mr. Thomas
Hornby, of York, (England,) Avho,
in 1788,communicated to Dr. Hun-
ter a particular account of the
whole process. This may be vieAV-
ed in the light of a national advan-
tage, as it affords the means of
supplying another material for the
distiller, and of saving great quan-
tities of barley and wheat. By Mr.
Hornby's experiment, it Avas
found, that an acre of carrots (20
tons,) produced 240 gallons of
spirit Avhich is considerably more
than what can be obtained from
five quarters of barley, the average
produce of an acre.
Brandy,even of the most genuine
kind, is less wholesome than rum ;
but the counterfeit and adulterated
sorts are exceedingly detrimental
to those who are habitually addict-
ed to the use of this pernicious
liquor. It should, therefore, be
drunk very moderately,rather from
356 BRA
necessity than for gratification....
When the stomach is empty, Aveak,
and lax, a moderate dram excites
a pleasant Avarmth and gentle ten-
sion ; it is said to promote diges-
tion, by dissolving the viscid
phlegm Avhich loaded that organ,
invigorating its fibres, and stimu-
lating its coats to act Avith more
vigour. Yet all these good effects
Avill not counterbalance the mis-
chiefs done by an indiscreet and
immoderate use of this cordial.
Melancholy tempers, as Avell as
choleric and sanguine habits, can-
not fail to be injured by ardent
spirits : and, in short, a too free
use of them in any constitution,
is of the most fatal conseepience.
Hence, Sydenham, with great
justice and propriety, exclaims,
" Would to Gocl brandy were to-
tally abstained from, or used only
on occasions to support Nature,
and not destroy it, unless it were
thought proper to prohibit any in-
ternal use of it at all, and leave it
entirely to surgeons for bathing
ulcers and burns."....See also Dis-
tilling.
[Excellent brandy is made from
apples in the U. States, notwith-
standing Avhat Chaptal has said
on the subject. If carefully distilled
from sound apples, and kept a few
years in a warm situation, it is A'ery
agreeable when diluted Avith wa-
ter. Peaches also yield a liquor,
which when properly distilled, is
by many preferred to the finest
French brandy.
The following recipe for making
apple-brandy, was communicated
by Mr. Joseph Cooper, of New-
Jersey, already mentioned. The
licjuor made agreeably to this pro-
cess, is mild, melloAV, anel plea-
sant, and greatly superior to apple
spirits procured by the common
mode.
BRA
" Put the cider preA'iously to dis-
tilling, into vessels free from must
or ill smell, and keep it till in the
state which is commonly called
good sound cider, but not till sour,
as that lessens the quantity and in-
jures the quality of the spirit. In
the distillation, let it run perfectly
cool from the Avorm, and in the
first time of distilling, not longer
than it will flash when cast on the
still head and a lighted candle ap-
plied under it. In the second dis-
tillation, shift the vessel as soon as
the spirit runs beloAV proof, or has
a disagreeable smell or taste, and
put what runs after with the low
wines. By this method the spirit
if distilled from good cider, Avill
take nearly or quite one third its
quantity to bring it to proof; for
which purpose take the last run-
ning from a cheese of good water
cider, direct from the press, un fer-
mented, and in forty-eight hours
the spirit Avill be milder and better
flavoured than in seA'eral years
standing if manufactured in the
common Avay. When the spirit is
draAvn off, which may be done in
five or six days, there will be a thin
jelly at bottom, which may be dis-
tilled again, or put into the best
cider, or used for making royal ci-
der....it being better for these pur-
poses than the clear spirit, as it
Avill greatly facilitate in refining
the liquor."
One wine glass full added to a half
gallon bowl of punch, highly im-
proves the flavour of that drink. In
Virginia, peach brandy has long
been distilled, and might be made
a very profitable article of internal
commerce, as the peach-tree ap-
pears to thrive better in that state,
than in almost any other in the
Union.]
BRASS, in metallurgy, is a fac-
titious metal, made of copper and
BRA
BRA 357
zinc, or lapis calaminaris. The
French call it yellow copper. The
Scriptures informs us, that the first
formation of brass was previous to
the deluge ; but the use of it was
not, as is generally believed, and
as the Arundelian marbles assert,
prior to the knowledge of iron. In
the earliest ages, whose manners
have been delineated by- history,
we find the weapons of their war-
riors invariably framed of this fac-
titious metal. Military nations were
naturally studious of brightness in
their arms : and the Ancient Bri-
tons, particularly, gloried in the
neatness of theirs. Hence various
nations continued to fabricate their
amis of brass, even after the dis-
covery of iron.
By long calcination alone, and
without the mixture of any other
substance vrith it, brass affords a
beautiful green or blue colour for
glass : but if it be calcined Avith
powdered sulphur, it Avill give a
red, yellow, or chalcedony colour,
according to the quantity, and
other variations in using it.
Brass-colour, is that prepared by
colour-men and braziers to imitate
brass ; of Avhich there are two
sorts : namely, the reel brass, or
bronze, which is mixed with red-
ochre, finely pulverized; and the
yellow, or gilt brass, which is made
of copper-filings only. Both sorts
arc used with varnish.
Corinthian brass, is a mixture of
gold, silver, and copper ; so called
from the melting and running to-
gether of immense quantities of
those metals, when the city of Co-
rinth was sacked and burnt, 146
years before Christ.
In 1781, a patent Avas granted
to Mr. James Emerson, for his
invention of making brass of cop-
per and zinc. The Patentee directs
the spelter to be melted in an iron
boiler, then passed through a per-
forated ladle and placed over a ATes-
sel containing water; by which
means the zinc will be granulated.
Fifty-four pounds of copper shot
are now annexed with lOlbs. of ca-
lcined and pulverized calamine, to-
gether with about one bushel of
charcoal: a handful of this mixture
is first put into a casting-pot, then
3lbs. of the granulated zinc ; upon
which the composition before spe-
cified is laid till the vessel is fil-
led : Mr. Emerson, however, has
not stated the exact proportion of
the ingredients. Eight similar pots
are now to be supplied Avith the
same materials, and the whole
must be submitted to the heat of
a furnace, for the space of 12 hours;
when the process will be corn-
pleated and 821bs. of brass be pro-
cured ; which the Patentee asserts
to be of a very superior cmality to
that manufactured from copper and
calamine.
[Various articles made of brass
have sometimes an appearance
of Avell gilt metal. This appear-
ance, we nowknow, is produced by
means of a solution of gum-lac in
spirit of wine, with Avhich they
are rubbed. As long as the lac
lasts, they retain their splendour.
These articles," however, are at-
tended Avith one inconvenience,
that they must never be cleaned
with a strong brush, or scoured
with chalk or Avhiting, but only
wiped with a soft rag; for as
soon as the lac is rubbed off they
loose their brilliancy. A varnish
of this kind may be prepared in
the following manner:
Dissolve two ounces of very pure
and fine gum lac in forty-eight
ounces of alcohol, and place the
solution in a sand bath exposed to
a moderate heat. To prevent the
too abundant evaporation of the-
358 BRA
B RE
spirit of Avine, as Avell as the burst-
ing of the glass, a piece of bladder
ought to be bound over the latter,
and a few holes made in it with a
needle. In another glass, dissolve
in the same quantity of spirit of
wine, an ounce of dragon's blood
in grains. When both the solu-
tions are completed, mix them to-
gether, then put three grains of
yellow wood into it, and suffer it to
remain there twelve hours in a mo-
derate heat: after which, strain
the liquor through filtering paper,
and preserve it for use in a clean
glass bottle. To give this lac-
varnish a high gold colour, yellow
wood is preferable to every other
substance. If the varnish be in-
tended to be pale, and not to change
the colour of the brass, the yellow
wood may be omitted, but if a
stronger colour be required, a half
more of the yellow Avood may be
added.]
Brassica. See Cabbage,Cole-
wort,R ape, Rocket, and Turnip.
BRAWN, is the flesh of a boar,
pickled or souced, which is ahvays
found to be better tasted, accord-
ing to the greater age of the ani-
mal. The most approved method
of preparing it is as folloAvs : Af-
ter the boar is killed, take the
flitches only, Avithout the legs, and
extract the bones from them;
sprinkle the flesh with salt, and lay
it in a tray till the blood is drained
off; let it then be salted a little
more, and rolled up as hard as pos-
sible. The collar of brawn should
be made of the Avhole length of the
flitch, so as to measure nine or ten
inches in diameter. The flesh
thus prepared is to be boiled in a
large kettle or copper, till it be-
comes tender enough to be pierced
Avith a straAV : then set it by, till
it is thoroughly cold, and immerse
it into the following pickle: To
every gallon of water, put near two
handsful of salt, and as much
wheat-bran ; boil them well to-
gether ; then drain the liquor from
the bran as clear as possible ; and
when the liquor is quite cold, put
the bran into it.
BREAD, an important article
of food, prepared of flour kneaded
with a mixture of yeast, water,
and salt, and afterwards baked in
an oven.
Before the invention of mills for
grinding com, bread was prepared
by boiling the grain, and forming
it into viscous cakes,not very agree-
able to the palate, and difficult of
digestion. In process of time, ma-
chines were constructed for grind-
ing corn, as well as for separ'ating
the pure flour ; and a method was
discovered to raise the dough by
fermentation. Dough may be fer-
mented either by leaven or by yeast;
but as the latter raises the kneaded
mass more uniformly, and produ-
ces the sweetest and lightest bread,
it is generally preferred. Bread
Avell raised and baked is not only
more agreeable to the taste than
un fermented bread, but more rea-
dily mixes with water, Avithout
forming a viscous mass, or puff,
and is at the same time more easi-
ly digested in the stomach.
Bread in [England] is divided
into three kinds, namely, white,
wheaten, and household. Fine
white bread is made only of flour ;
the wheaten contains a mixture of
the finer oart of the bran ; and the
household of the Avhole substance
of the grain.
An act for regulating the assize
of bread was passed [in England,]
in the year 1773 ; by Avhich it was
enacted, that all bread made of the
flour of wheat, anel which shall be
the whole produce of the grain,
the hull thereof only excepted, and
BRE
B R E 359
which shall weigh three-fourth
parts of the weight of the wheat,
shall be allowed to be made, baked
and sold, and shall be understood
to be a standard wheaten bread ;
also, that every standard wheaten
peck loaf shall always Aveigh 171b.
6 oz. avoirdupois ; every half peck
loaf 81b. I loz. and every cmar-
tern loaf 4lb. 5ioz. and be marked
with the letters S. W. anel that
every peck loaf, half peck loaf, and
quartern loaf, shall always be sold,
as to price, in proportion to each
other respectively.
Although we have, in the article
Baking, given general directions
for successively conducting this
complicated process, yet we think
it will be useful, in this place, to
add, by Avay of supplement, a few
particulars relative to this subject,
and more especially applicable to
domestic purposes. Mr. Dossie,
who appears to have paid great at-
tention to the art of baking, gives
the folloAving simple and much ap-
proved method of making good
white bread : Take of fine flour,
six pounds ; of water, moderately
warm, but not hot, two points and
ahalf; of liquid yeast, eight spoons,-
ful; and of salt, two ounces. Put
about a pint of the warm Avater to
the yeast, and mix them well, by
beating themtogethet with a whisk.
Let the salt be put to the remain-
ing part of the water, and stirred
till completely dissolved. Then put
both calamities of the fluid gra-
dually to the flour, and knead the
mass well till the whole is pro-
perly mixed. The dough thus
made must stand four or five hours,
that is, till the exact moment
of its being fully risen, and before
it is sensibly perceived to fall. It
is then to be formed into loaves,
and immediately placed in the
oven. To bake it properly, is at-
tended with some difficulty to
those who are not skilled in the
art. The first care is to see that
the oven be sufficiently heated, yet
not to such a degree as to burn the
crust. If a green vegetable turns
black when put in, the oven will
scorch the bread; in whichcase it
must stand open till the heat has
somewhat abated. The next cir-
cumstance to be attended to is,
that the mouth of the oven be well
closed, till the bread has risen to its
full height, which will not take
place in less than two or three
hours. After this, but not before,
the oven may be opened for the
purpose of view ing the bread, and
seeing that it is baked without
being either burnt or too crusty ;
for if the mouth of the oven be not
kept closely stopped till the bread
is fully risen, it will flatten and be-
come heavy. When properly ma-
naged, the above-mentioned ingre-
dients will have lost about one
pound two ounces in Aveight, so
that a well-baked loaf of this kind
should amount to seven pounds
twelve ounces.
Bread may be made without
yeast, as is practised in Hungary,
by the following process : Boil two
good handsful of hops in fouremarts
of water ; pour the decoction upon
as much wheat bran as the lieruor
Avill moisten. Then add four or
five pounds of leaven ; mix the
whole together, till perfectly unit-
ed. Put this mass into a Avarm
place for twenty-four hours ; then
diride it into pieces about the size
of a hen's egg ; let these be dried
in the air, but not in the sun, and
they will keep good for six months.
Or, make the above into six large
loaves, take six good handsful of
dough, broken small and dissolved
inejght quarters of warm water,and
poured through a sieve into one
360 B R E
J3RE
end of the bread-trough; then
pour three quarts more of warm
water through the sieve after it,
and what remains in the sieve must
be well expressed.
[To make Bread with Soft...Take
as much salt as is necessary to a
loaf of the size intended, dissolve
it in as much Avarm water as will
mix the flour. Set it in a pot at
a distance from the fire, sufficient
to warm, but not to bake the flour
on the side of the pot; a yellow
Avater will rise on the top, Avhich
take off with a spoon, and the ris-
ing will begin. Then mix it Avith
as much flour, as will make the
loaf, and if it should not be suffici-
ent, add a little warm Avater ; in
less than an hour it w ill be fit to
bake. From the time the salt
Avater and flour are mixed, three
or four hours are required. The
mass does not rise like bread
made with yeast. The Editor has
tasted bread made agreeably to the
above recipe, and found it pleasant
and light.
Mr. Ferryman, of England has
invented a machine for separating
the outer coat or bran of wheat,
without loosing the internal coat,
which adheres to the outer, and
has always hitherto been throAvn
off with the former ingrinding. It
is asserted that this second coat, is
highly nourishing and gives a
sweetness to bread, which it ne-
ver has, when made from common
flour. The late Duke of Bedford
bore testimony before a commit-
tee of the house of commons, of
the superiority of bread made of
grain thus blanched. The only
objection which can be made to such
bread is that it is of a darker hue
than common bread.....See Wheat.
One hundred pounds weight of
flour will make from 134 to 138-|
pounds of bread.
In an experiment made to ascer-
tain the number of loaves of bread
which a barrel of flour will produce,
it appeared that 3^1b of flour produ-
ced 4 lb. 9 oz. of good light bread.
This is an increase of about 40
per cent. Therefore, a barrel of
flour will make 272Jlbs. of bread,
which will produce 312 loaves,
weighing 14 oz. and at 6 cents, or
TV of a dollar, yield gl9. T^.
A machine for kneading flour is
used in the public baking houses
at Genoa, and is calculated to save
much labour. An account of this
machine, together with a plate
may be found in Nicholson's
Phil. Jour, and the Re/i. of Arts ;
taken from the Trans, of the Pat.
Society of Milan, vol. 2.]
Like all other farinaceous sub-
stances, bread is very nourishing,
on account of the copious mucilage
it contains ; but, if eaten too free-
ly, it is productive of viscidity
which obstructs the intestines, and
lays the foundation of habitual cos-
tiveness. Leavened bread, or such
as has acquired an acidulated taste
by a slow fermentation of the
dough, is cooling and antiseptic.
By this process, all the viscous are
combined Avith the drier parts of
the flour, and the fixed air is
expelled in baking. New baked
bread contains a large proportion
of indigestible paste, which may
be rendered less unwholesome by
allowing it to dry for two or three
days, or by toasting it. This
mode ought to be adopted, both
on account of health and economy,
especially in times of scarcity.
Stale bread, in every respect, de-
serves the preference to that Avhich
is newly baked ; and persons trou-
bled with flatulency, cramp of the
stomach, or indigestion, should
abstain from new bread, and parti-
cularly from hot rolls.
BRE
Various substances have been
used for bread, instead, of wheat.
In the years 1629 and 1630, when
there Avas a dearth in England,
bread was made in London of tur-
nips, on the recommendation of
Dr. Bealk. In 1693 also, when
corn was very dear, a great quan-
tity of turnip-bread was made in
several parts of the kingdom, but
particularly in Essex, by a receipt
registered in the Philosopldcal
Transactions. The process is, to
put the turnips into a kettle over
a sIoav fire, till they become soft;
they are then taken out, squeezed,
and drained as dry as possible, and
afterwards mashed and mixed with
an equal weight of flour, and knead-
ed with yeast, salt,and a little warm
water.
The folloAving is another method
of making bread of turnips, which
deserves to be recommended for
its cheapness : Wash clean, pare,
and afterwards boil a number of
turnips,till they become soft enough
to mash ; press the greatest part of
the water out of them, then mix
them with an equal weight of
Avheat-meal, make the dough in
the usual manner with yeast, 8ec.
it Avill rise well in the trough, and,
after being well kneaded, may be
formed into loaves and put into the
oven. Bread prepared in this man-
ner has a peculiar sweetish taste,
which is by no means disagreea-
ble ; it is as light and white as the
Avheaten, and should be kept about
twelve hours before it is cut, when
the smell and taste of the turnip
will scarcely be perceptible.
Potatoes have also been maele
into bread, by different processes.
The simplest is to choose the large
mealy sort, boil them as for eating,
then peel and mash them very fine
without adding any water. Two
vol. i.
BRE 371
parts of wheat flour are added to
one of potatoes, and a little more
yeast than usual. The whole mass
is to be kneaded into dough, and
alloAved to stand a proper time to
rise and ferment, before it is put
into the oven. Bread thus pre-
pared is good and wholesome ; and
if bakers Avere to make use of no
Avorse ingredients than this nutri-
tive root, they might be justified
in times of scarcity, provided they
sold it at a moderate price, and
under proper limitations.
M. Parmentier found, from a
variety of experiments, that good
bread might be made of equal quan-
tities of flour and potatoe meal. He
also obtained Avell-fermented bread
of a good colour and taste, from a
mixture of raw potatoe-pulp and
Avheaten meal, with the addition
of yeast and salt.
Dr. Darwin asserts, that if
eight pounds of good raw potatoes
be grated into cold water, and af-
ter stirring the mixture the starch
be left to subside, and when col-
lected, it be mixed with eight
pounds of boiled potatoes, the mass
will make as good bread as that
from the best wheaten flour. He
likewise observes, that hay, which
has been kept in stacks, so as to
undergo the saccharine process,
may be so managed, by grinding
anel fermentation Avith yeast, like
bread, as to serve in part for the
sustenance of mankind in times of
great scarcity. As an instance of
the very nutritive quality of hay, it
is mentioned, that a cow, after
drinking a strong infusion of it for
some time, produced above double
the usual quantity of milk. Hence,
if bread cannot be made from
ground hay, there is reason to be-
lieve, that a nutritive beverage
may be prepared from it, either in
- A
572 BRE
BRE
its saccharine state, or by ferment-
ing it into a kind of beer.
There are other vegetables, says
Dr. Darwin, Avhich would pro-
bably afford wholesome nutriment,
either by boiling, or drying and
grinding them, or by both these
processes. Among these may be
reckoned perhaps the tops and
bark of gooseberry-trees, holly,
gorse, and hawthorn. The inner
bark of the elm may be converted
into a kind of gruel, [See Elm,]
and the roots of fern, and probably
those of many other plants, such
as grass or clover, might yield nou-
rishment either by boiling, baking
and separating the fibres from the
pulp, or by extracting the starch
from those which possess an acrid
mucilage, such as the white bryony.
The adulteration of flour and
bread has often been the subject of
animadversion.- Mealmen and mill-
ers have been accused of adding
chalk, lime, and whiting to the
flour, and bakers of mixing alum
Avith the dough.- There is much
reason to suspect, that these prac-
tices are but too prevalent.
It has been asserted, that the
adulteration of bread is OAving to
the legal distinctions in the quality
of it, and to our making colour the
standard of goodness. Dr. Dar-
win observes, that where much
alum is mixed with bread, it may
be easily distinguished by the eye :
when two loaves so adulterated
have stuck together in the oven,
they break from each other with a
much smoother surface, Avhere
they had adhered, than those loaves
do, which contain no alum.
An excellent method of making
'bread of rice is, by boiling three-
fourths of wheaten flour and one-
fourth of rice separately. The rice
should be Avell boiled, the Avater
squeezed out (which may be after-
wards used as starch for linen, for
there can be no better), and the
mass should then be mixed with
the flour. It is made in the same
manner as common bread, and is
very nutritive. One pound and a
half of flour mixed with half a
pound of rice, will produce a loaf
weighing from three pounds to
three pounds two ounces, which is
greater than that obtained by bak-
ing bread of wheat flour only. Rice
has also been tried in the same
proportion with barley, and makes
good bread for labouring people ;
but the gain in baking is by no
means ecpial to that obtained by
mixing it with wheat.....See Rice.
Another mode of preparing bread
with all the bran, the result of
which we have stated under the
head of Bran, is as follows.....
" Take seven pounds seven ounces
of bran and pollard, and fourteen
quarts of water, and boil the-
whole very gently over a slow fire.
When the mixture begins to swell
and thicken, let it be frequently
stirred, to prevent its boiling over;
or burning either at the bottom or
sides of the vessel. After having
boiled two hours, it will acquire
the consistence of a thin pudding.
Now put it into aclean cloth, and
squeeze out the .liquor : take a
quart of this, mix it with three
pints of yeast, and set the sponge
for twenty-eight pounds of flour.
The mass, bran, and pollard, even
after the liquor has been separated,
will be found to be above four
times its original weight ; it is then
to be placed near the fire. In about
two hours, the sponge will have
sufficiently risen.. The bran and
pollard, then lukewarm, should be
mixed with the flour ; and, after
adding half a pound of salt, the
whole must be well kneaded, with
one quart of the bran liquor. Thus
BRE
, BRE 573
prepared, the dough is formed into
loaves, and baked for two hours and
a quarter in a common oven. The
bread, when cold, will Aveigh one-
half more than the same ejuantity
of flour would, without the addition
of the bran.
If the bran-Avater only is used,
and the bran itself (which, by the
boiling, increases consielerably in
weight) is not added to the dough,
the increase of bread will still be
considerable ; but not more than
one-third of the increase obtained,
when all the bran is used.
[It is known that rice gains
greatly in boiling; and hence,
Avhen made into bread with flour,
is highly economical,as will appear
by the following experiments : Six
ounces of rice Avere boiled in a
email of Avater, till it Avas dry and
soft, and two»pounds of flour were
then added, and the whole, Avith
two table spoonsful of yeast Avell
worked into dough together, with
the usual quantity of salt, giving it
rather longer time to rise, which
it was found it reemired.....The loaf
thus made, when baked, Avas light
in ciuality, sweeter and more pa-
latable than the common bread,
and produced three pounds, seven
ounces and a half.
From this experiment the fol-
lowing fact appears, that rice gains
in weight in a double proportion to
that of any other grain. This will be
further seen by the following state-
ment : en;.
2 pounds of flour........32
Bice..................6
38
Bread produced.........55|
Deduct per contra......38
Gained..............17\
To make a quartern loaf
are generallyused three
pounds and an half of oz.
flour,...............56
When baked, is by stand-
ard to weigh four
pounds five ounces
eight drachms,......I 69 i
Deduct as per contra .... 56
Gained.............13i
Therefore the difference is, that
two pounds of flour and six ounces
of rice, produce four ounces weight
morethan three and ahalfpoundsof
flour....Two pounds of flour, and
six ounces of rice boiled till it was
quite dry and soft, produced four
pounds twelve ounces of excellent
bread.....One pound of flour, and
three ounces of rice, Avet Avith
bran-water, produced one pound
twelve ounces of bread.
Another experiment....In doub-
ling the quantity of rice to the
same quantity of flour, which was
found to answer for immediate
consumption, but would not answer
for general purposes; it may be
safely concluded, that one-fifth
of rice may be used with flour to
great advantage to the public, by
increasing the subsistence, and
with profit to the baker, Avho can
afford to sell it at lJ-d. under the
assize, and gain double Avhat he
does by baking the standard bread.
In making the foregoing expe-
riments, it was proved, that nine-
tenths flour and one-.tenth rice,
and in the same way as directed
for making bread (except using
yeast and salt) produced a finer
crust in pastry than using flour
alone.
Bread thus made keeps longer
moist than Avheaten bread, and is
better the second day than the first.
Rice may be steamed rather than
boiled , and if the qualitv of the
rice is good, half a pound steamed
374 BRE.
BR E
in a little more than a quart of wa-
ter, till it is quite dry and soft,
gains two pounds, that is, four-
fifths in weight.]
French bread is prepared in the
following manner: Take half a
bushel of the best wheaten flour,
and dilute one pint of good yeast
with three quarts of Avarm water ;
mix the Avhole properly, and cover
it Avith flannel, till the sponge be
formed. After the dough has suf-
ficiently risen, six quarts of luke-
Avarm skimmed milk, and one
pound of salt, are to be worked in,
with the fingers, till the sponge be
weak and ropy ; Avhen it must again
be covered, and kept warm. The
oven being now made very hot,
and the paste moulded into bricks
or rolls, they are put in expediti-
ously ; the former requiring one
hour and a half; but the latter
only half an hour. As soon as the
bread is baked, it must be draAvn ;
and, if burnt, the black crust
should be rasped....When the milk
is added to the sponge, two ounces
of butter are sometimes incorpo-
rated ; but this addition being im-
material, it may be omitted.
The great advantage of eating
pure and genuine bread must be
obvious. Every part of the Avheat,
which may be called flour, Avas
not only intended to be eaten by
man, but it really makes the best
bread, since that may be called the
best which is of most general use,
and so fine as to contain no part of
the husks of the grain. But the
delusion, by which so many per-
sons are misled, to think that even
the whole flour is not good enough
for them, obliges them to pay a
seventh or eighth part more than
they need, to gratify a fanciful ap-
petite. Had it not been for the
custom of eating Avhiter bread than
the Avhole of the flour will make,
the miller and baker Avould not
have employed all their art to ren-
der the bread as Avhite as possible,
and make the consumer pay for
this artificial whiteness.
New Substitutes for Flour
or Bread. We have, in the pre-
ceding analysis, as Avell as on for-
mer occasions, mentioned various
substances which might advanta-
geously be employed in the manu-
facture of this indispensably article
of human sustenance ; independ-
ently of the different kinds of grain
and roots that are already made
subservient to this beneficial pur-
pose. In order to exhibit a dis-
tinct view of the most promising
substitutes, Avhether indigenous or
exotic, and especially such as have
actually been used, on the authori-
ty of creditable evidence, Ave shall
here divide them into three classes,
and, in the course of the work, give
a more particular account of each
article, in its alphabetical order.
I. Farinaceous Seeds....Wheat-
grass, or Triticum Spelta ; Millet,
or Panicum miliaceum ; Common
Buck-wheat, or Polygonum fagopy-
rum ; Siberian Buck-wheat, or Po-
lygonum tartaricum ; Wilel Buck-
wheat, or Polygonum convulvulus ;
Wild Fescue-grass, or Festuca flui-
tans; Maize, or Indian Corn, the
Mays Zea ; Rice, or Oryza Sativa ;
Guinea Corn, or White Round-
seeded Indian Millet; the Holcvs
Sorghum, L. Canary-grass, or Pha-
laris canariensis; Rough Dog's-tail
Grass, or Cynosurus echinatus;
WaterZizany, or Zizania aquatica;
Upright Sea Lime-grass, or Elymus
arenarius; Sea-reed, Marram,
Helme, or Sea Mat-Aveed, the Ca-
lamagrostis, or Arundo arenaria.
The folloAving mealy fruits, how-
ever, deserve a decided preference
BRE
over many of the preceding : viz.
Water Caltrops, or the fmit of the
Trapa nutans, L. Pulse of various
kinds, such as Peas, Lentils, Beans,
and the seeds of the Common
Vetch, Fetch, or Tare-acorns, and
especially those of the Quercus
cerris and csculus; the seeds of the
White Goose-foot, Common Wild
Orange, or the Chenopodium album ;
the seeds and flowers of the Rocket,
or Brassica eruca ; the seeds of the
Sorrel, or Rumex acetosa ; of the
different species of Dock, or La-
pathum ; of the YelloAV and White
Water-lily, or the Nymphoea lutea
and alba ; of the Corn-spurrey, or
Spergula arvensis ; of the Spinage,
or Spinacia oleracea, L. of the
Common Cromwell, or Graymill,
the Lithospermum officinale ; of the
Knot-grass, or Paniculum avicu-
lare ; the Beech-nut (see p. 247) ;
the husks of the Lint-seed, &c.
II. Farinaceous Roots ; namely,
those of the Common and YelloAV
Bethlem Star, or Ornithogalum lu-
teum and umbellatum; of the Yel-
|oav Asphodel (see p. 141) ; of the
Wake Robin, or Arum maculatum
(after being properly dried and
Washed); of the Pilewort, or Lesser
Celandine, the Ranunculus ficaria ;
of the Common Dropwort, the Spi-
na fllipendula ; of the MeadoAvr-
sweet, or Spiraa ulmaria ; of the
White Bryony, or Bryonia alba ;
of the Turnip-rooted Cabbage, or
Napobrassica ; of the Great Bistort,
or Snake-weed (p. 284) ; of the
Small, Welch, or Alpine Bistort
(p. 284) ; of the Common Orobus,
or Heath-Pea ; the Tuberous
Vetch ; the Common Reed ; both
the Sweet-smelling and Common
Solomon's Seal; the Common
Cora-flag, or Gladiolus Communis;
the Salt-marsh Club-rush, or Scir-
pus maritimus, Sec.....Indeed, some
BRE 375
authors also include in this list the
roots of the Mandragora-t Colchi-
cum, Fumaria bulb., Helleborus ac-
conitifol. and nigr., Liliam bulbif.,
and many others ; but for these
last mentioned we have not suffi-
cient authority.
III. Fibrous and less juicy roots:
viz. those of the Couch-grass, or
Creeping Wheat-grass; the Clown's
or Marsh Wound-Avort (p. 34) ;
the Marsh Mary-gold, or Meadow-
Bouts ; the Silver-weed, or Wild
Tansey ; the Sea Seg, or Carex
arcnarius, he.
Having thus stated the various
substitutes for bread, which have
either already been adopted Avith
success in this country, or which
might, in times of real scarcity, be
easily converted into proper nutri-
ment, Ave cannot better conclude
this article than in the words of
Arthur Young, Esq. who, in his
Observations on the late Royal
Proclamation, recommending fru-
gality in the consumption of corn
as one of the surest and most ef-
fectual means of alleviating the
present pressure of the times, es-
pouses the cause of the unfortunate
poor, nearly in the following words:
Every master or head of a family
is in duty bound to second, without
compulsion, the humane view.-, of
the legislature. Hence, bread
made of the whole produce of the
wheat, excepting only seven pounds
of the bran in each bushel, and ad-
ding one-fourth or third part of a
substitute, would probably be the
most effective saving. If the con-
sumption of the whole kingdom be
computed at 8,000,000 of quarters
in twelve mon ths, this saving on
all the wheat consumed in nine
months Avould be 700,000 quarters,
which Avould feed 875,000 persons,
ra the ordinary consumption of one
\
376
BRE
BRE
quarter a head per annum ; and
probably be equal, under the pre-
sent restrictions, to afford food to
1,000,000 of people for the next
nine months.....Farther, if the sav-
ing of oats to the supposed number
of 500,000 horses of luxury, be
calculated only at one bushel per
Aveek, this Avould, in nine months,
amount to 18,000,000 of bushels ;
■or sufficient to support 1,000,000 of
persons for the same period of time,
allowing to each not less than twen-
ty-five bushels per annum.....With
due deference to Mr. Young's sta-
tistical information, however, we
beg leave to doubt whether 500,000
fat horses, crammed on the food of
man, move about the country ;
though it must be acknowledged,
thatpleasure horses " are spectacles
of envy to the starving poor.....abo-
shinable and scandalous spectacles,
Avhich, in times of scarcity, ought
to be removed from the view of
those whose miserable children
might be fed on the corn thus sav-
ed."
BREAD-FRUIT-TREE, or the
Artocarpus, L......a plant which
grows in the South-Sea Islands, and
is remarkable for the size and nu-
tritive quality of its fruit. Altho'
this tree has been mentioned by
many voyagers, it Avas little noticed
till the return of Captain Wallis
from the South Seas. It groAvs in
abundance on the Ladrone Islands.
In the Society Islands, it is of the
size of a middling oak ; its leaves
are about a foot and a half in length,
of an oblong shape, deeply sinuat-
ed like those of the fig-tree, which
they resemble in colour; and, Avhen
broken, exude a milky juice. The
fruit is shaped like a heart, and at-
tains the size of a child's head. Its
rind is thick, green, and covered
with excrescences of a hexagonal
figure. The internal part of the
rind is composed of a pulpy sub-
stance, full of twisted fibres : this
pulp becomes softer tOAvards the
middle, Avhere a small cavity is
formed, containing no kernels or
seeds. The inhabitants of Suma-
tra dry the soft internal part, and
use it as bread with other food. At
Amboyrta, they dress the inner
rind with the milk of the cocoa-nut,
and fry it in oil like fritters. It
affords much nourishment, is very
satisfying, and therefore proper for
labouring people. Being of an as-
tringent quality, it is also benefi-
cial to persons of a laxative habit.
Its taste is rather harsh, and similar
to the potatoe bread made in the
West of England. The milky
juice Avhich issues from the tmnk,
when boiled with cocoa-nut oil,
makes a very strong bird-lime.
From the investigations ©f bota-
nists it appears, that this tree can
only be propagated by suckers or
layers, owing to a deficiency in the
parts of fructification.
Breakstone(Chickweed). See
Procumbent Pear lav ort.
BREAM, or Brama, is a spe-
cies of the Cyprinus, or carp. It
inhabits lakes, or the deep parts of
smooth rivers, and affords sport to
the angler, though it is not much
esteemed for its flavour. The rules
for catching this fish are nearly si-
milar to those established fortaking
carp in general, which Avill be stat-
ed under the article Carp : the
tackle, hoAvever, should be finer
than Avhat is commonly used for
that fish ; and the angler should
throw his line as nearly as possible
into the mieldle of the stream. The
bream may be taken with a blue-
bottle fly, either by whipping, or
in the common method, by paste
or gentles.
BRE
BRE 37?
BREAST, or fore part of the
chest, signifies that cavity of the
trunk which is composed of many
bones, namely, the sternum or
breast-bone in front, twelve ribs on
each side, twelve vertebra, or turn-
ing joints of the spine, as the body
is turned upon them, and two shoul-
der blades. The thorax, or chest,
extends from the lower part of the
neck to the midriff, and contains
the organs most essential to life,
such as the heart, the lungs, and
likewise the Avind-pipe and the gul-
let. W ith respect to the diseases
of the breast, we refer to the arti-
cles Cough and Inflammation.
Breasts, or mamma, in females,
are two glandular, protuberant bo-
dies on the sides of the chest, in
the most proper situation for giv-
ing food to the infant. In some
instances there have been found
three, and even/bur breasts in one
person, all yielding milk alike.
They are very sensible to the touch,
and ought therefore to be carefully
guarded against external injury ;
as a very slight bruise or bloAV may
be attended with fatal conseepien-
ces. No part of the human body
is so easily affected by cold, and
so liable to cancerous complaints,
as that of the female breast.....See
Cancer.
There prevails a custom of draw-
ing the breasts after delivery, when
the secretion of milk is so great,
tliat from an incapacity of the child
to empty, or relieve, them by early
sucking, the vessels are consider-
ably distended, and the breasts so
completely filled as to occasion
much pain to the mother. This
practice is severely censured by the
Rev. C. Crutwell, in his " Ad-
vice to Lying-in Women," publish-
ed in 1779: and he is of opinion
that the attempt is unnatural, as
applying a different agent from
that designed by Nature : and in-
delicate, because a disease of a ma-
lignant tendency may thus be easi-
ly communicated ; while it is pain-
ful and dangerous to the patient.
According to his experience, the
neglect of drawing the breasts has
never been prejudicial. If, says he,
they were not touched during this
state of fullness, hardness, or in-
flammation, but the whole suffered
to subside, which Avould happen in
a few hours, the chilel might then
be safely put to the breast. It is
the application of too great force in
drawing them, or placing the child
to suck at an improper time, and
not the delay, Avhich causes the
mischief. If the infant cannot be
suckled the first day, or before the
hardness appears, it should be de-
ferred till the breast becomes soft.
This callocity is chiefly produced
by some external injury, such as
drawing the breasts, heated rooms,
hot and stimulating liquors, medi-
cines, he. all of Avhich contribute
to excite inflammation, or increase
a slight degree of irritation, so as
to occasion a milk-fever, abscesses,
or both....See Nipples snd Suck-
ling.
[Sore breasts are very common
attendants upon lying-in women;
anel the source of infinite pain.....
The most frequent cause of this
complaint is a chill, induced by
exposure of the body to draughts
of cold air; by pennitting the fire to
go down during the night; or by
not accommodating the quantity
of clothing to the change in the
air from heat to cold. A sudden
fright has frequently been known to
produce it. To guard against this
truly dreadful complaint, attend to
the prevention of the abovemen-
tioned causes; and by all means
378 BRE
BRE
keep.the breasts well drawn, either
by the child or by a grown person.
Nipple glasses may also be used
for this purpose, but the mouth of
a young person is much more ef-
fectual in emptying the breasts of
the milk. A slight hardness of
the breast will sometimes go off by
gently bathing it for a quarter of
an hour, twice a day, with a Avarm
hand smeared Avith sweet-oil, and
covering the part with a cabbage-
leaf, which promotes perspiration
and thus relieves the vessels......
More threatening cases may be
treated by annointing the breast
Avith an ointment of the juice of
the leaves of stramonium or James-
Town weed, (commonly called Jim-
son) : but the grand remedy, which
will quickly disperse the most
alarming swelling in the breast,
is a blister to the /.art. Care must be
taken to apply it smoothly, and to
cause it to adhere tightly. A wide
hole must be cut in the centre of
the blister for the nipple to pass
through. Dress the sore with an
ointment composed of equal parts
of sweet-oil and spermaceti. The
breast must be drawn constantly
during the whole course of the dis-
ease, and anodynes given occa-
sionally. Should an abscess make
its appearance, asit seldomornever
can be dispersed, apply a poultice
of bread and milk, with an onion
cut fine in it, until fit to open,
Avhen a slight touch of a lancet in
the most distended and depending
part, Avill afford great relief, by dis-
charging the matter. The poul-
tices must now be continued, and
the wound kept open, to permit a
free discharge. Breasts will fre-
quently heal and break out again
and again. A hardness sometimes
follows an abscess in the breast;
this is effectually removed, by ap-
plying a little mercurial ointment,
Avith a hand covered Avith a blad-
der, every night to the hardness,
or rather below it.]
BREATH, fetid, a misfortune
to which many persons are liable,
though they may appear to be in
perfect health. It may arise from
various causes, the principal of
which are, carious teeth, putrid
gums, ulcerations of the lungs, or
some peculiarity in the constitu-
tion of the individual.
If it originate from hollow teeth,
care should be taken that no frag-
ments of provisions, and especially
cheese, remain in them after eat-
ing ; hence the mouth ought to be
washed, or properly rinsed, after
every meal, with tepid water, or
hike-warm chamomile tea. A simi-
lar precaution is necessary, when
the teeth are carious, or the gums
in a flacid and spongy state: but
if the lungs, or other organs of
respiration be deceased, due regard
ought to be paid to the primary af-
fection, of Avhich Ave shall treat
under the head of Pulmonary
Consumption. In this case, as
well as in some peculiar habits,
where the real cause of fetid gums
cannot be easily ascertained, the
skill of the practitioner is frequent-
ly baffled ; yet we shall venture to
suggest a remedy Avhich has, in a
great variety of instances, been at-
tended with the desired effect.....
Many persons afflicted with that
disagreeable complaint are, also,
subject to habitual costiAreness,
Avhich cannot, in general, be re-
lieved without administering lax-
atives : these, by relaxing the
bowels, ultimately tend to injure
the constitution. On the other
hand, we have observed from ex-
perience, that finely powdered
charcoal, newly prepared, and kept
BRE
in close vessels, has a remarkable
tendency to open the boAvels, with-
out inducing an extraordinary de-
gree of Aveakness, especially if it
be mixed with the syrup of yellow
roses. For this purpose, a table-
spoonful of each, diluted with a
little Avater, should be taken two or
three times every day, according to
circumstances. Thus, if the pa-
tient abstain, for some timei from
the use of animal food, the most
distressing costiveness may be gra-
dually relieved with perfect safety
to the constitution ; while the car-
bon acts on the whole system as
the most effectual antiseptic with
which we are acquainted. To in-
crease the effect of this mild medi-
cine, a tea-spoonful of squill vine-
gar may occasionally be added to
each dose, together Avith a little
cinnamon, or other aromatic water.
The best palliatives for sweeten-
ing an offensive breath, are gar-
gles consisting simply of lime-
water ; or a decoction of the Peru-
vian bark ; or a liquor made by
mixing two ounces of compound
alum-Avater, and half an ounce of
essence of lemons, with three
ounces and a half of fennel-water,
which should be frequently used
previous to going into company.
BREATHING, is that alternate
contraction and expansion of the
lungs and breast, by which animals
inspire and expire the surrounding
atmosphere ; a process essentially
necessary to the support of life.
From the moment a child enters the
world the air penetrates into its
lungs, Avhich Avere previously filled
with a watery mucus, but are then
opened for the circulation of the
blood. Thus respiration, one of the
primary and most important of the
vital functions, commences with
birth, and is incessantly active ; as
VOL. I.
BRE 379
it cannot be interrupted for many
minutes, without endangering the
life of the individual.
There have, indeed, been in-
stances of persons wantonly endea-
vouring to restrain the act of
breathing, nay, even to check the
pulsation of the arteries, so as to
exhibit a specimen of apparent
death, for several minutes. We
still remember the account of such
a hazardous experiment, related
by a most respectable professor in
the University of Edinburgh, who
informed his pupils, that a man
possessing the talent here alluded
to, at length paid the price of his
life, by remaining in one of his
exhibitions, a fatal example of his
temerity.
More frequent, however, though
not so immediately dangerous, are
the instances in which persons, in
other respects sensible, unthink-
ingly expose themselves to situa-
tions, where they must necessarily
breathe the most vitiated and per-
nicious atmosphere. Such is the
case in all public assemblies, which
are confined in narrow limits, par-
ticularly in theatres and other places
of amusement to which numbers
of spectators indiscriminately re-
sort, and where each individual is
obliged to respire part of the aggre-
gate mephitic vapours 01 .he com-
pany. Far from wishing to discou-
rage the frequenting of those fa-
shionable places of resort, in gene-
ral, Ave only think it our duty to
warn such invalids, as are liable to
asthmatic or pulmonary complaints,
against a too free indulgence in
theseenticingamusements. Indeed,
Ave are convinced, by numerous
facts, of their deleterious influence ;
and if any person be disposed to
doubt the propriety of this caution,
let him reflect on the dreadful ef-
iB
380 BRE
fects frequently produced by shut-
ting up 5 or 6 passengers in a stage-
coach, only during a short space
of time ; and he will acknowledge
that ouradmonition is well founded.
Hence we would advise those who
lead a studious or sedentary life,
never to continue for several hours
together, in a close,andperhapslow,
apartment, where they admit the
same air to re-enter the lungs,
Avhich has before been respired, and
has become at length totally unfit
for supplying the vital principle....
Thus, they deprive themselves of
the most beneficial cordial of life,
namely, fresh air, and exhaust the
source of vitality as much in one
hour, as was perhaps destined by
Nature for the support of Aveeks,
or even months. Instead of fol-
lowing such an irrational practice,
they ought either to remove to an-
other atmosphere, or to open the
Window or door, to admit a supply
of pure air, rather than to destroy
themselves by an obstinate or in-
dolent perseverance in their for-
mer habit.
BREECHES, a part of the dress
Of most Europeans, worn by males,
and reaching from the Avrist to the
knees*
With respect to the construction
of this article of our dress, it may
be useful to observe, that if made
too tight in the waistband, or of
improper materials, they must ne-
cessarily occasion uneasiness, and
prove injurious to the body. The
form most to be preferred, and now
very generally adopted, is that of
pantaloons: these ought to be of a
sufficient width, of a thin substance
in summer, and of warm cloth in
winter. Breeches made of leather
and so narrow as to fit exactly the
shape of the limbs, are liable to
many inconveniencies: they be-
BRE
numb the hips and thighs, occa-
sion a painful pressure upon the
parts, especially the abdomen; and
by the close texture of the leather,
in a great measure impede perspir-
ation.
BREEDING of Cattle: As the
different circumstancesto be attend-
ed to in the management of cat-
tle, will be stated when treating of
the various kinds of useful animals,
we shall here only observe, that the
first thing to be considered is beauty
of form ; the next is proportion of
parts, or Avhat may be called utility
of form ; the third, which has en-
gaged the attention of midland
breeders, is the texture of the mus-
cular parts, or what is called flesh;
a quality which, however familiar
it may have been to the butcher
and consumer, has not in general
been attended to by breeders. In
short, it is a rule applicable to all
sorts of live-stock, to breed from
straight backed, round bodied, clean,
small boned,healthy animals: care-
fully rejecting such as have roach
backs and heavy legs, with much
external appearance of offal, &c.
To the late Mr. Bakewell, of
Dishley, Avho Avas undoubtedly the
most scientific breeder of his time,
we are indebted for many new and
important improvements in the art
of breeding cattle. His principle
was, to procure the best beast, that
Avould Aveigh most in the valuable
joints ; and thus, while he gained
in point of shape, he also acquired
a breed much hardier, and easier
feel, than any other.
With respect to the breed of
oxeui Mr. Bakewell asserts, that
the smaller the bones, the more
perfect will be the make of the
beast, and the quicker it will fatten.
The breed preferred, and consider-
ed by him a3 the best in England,
BER
BBE 381
is that of Lancashire. The shaps
which should be the criterion of a
cow or bull, an ox, or a sheep, is
that of a hogshead, or a firkin, with
legs as small and short as possible.
He found from various experiments
in different parts of the kingdom,
that no land is too bad for a good
breed of cattle, and particularly of
sheep. The great advantage ari*.
ing from his breed is, that the same
quantity of food will suffice them,
much longer than it will any other
kind; besides which, the wool is of
the finest quality, and the sheep
stand the fold perfectly Avell.
The wintering of cattle, also re-
ceived particular attention from this
professional breeder: his homed
beasts were tied up during the win-
ter, in sheds, and fed with straw,
turnips, or hay ; all the lean beasts
were fed with straw alone, and lay
without litter. Young cattle, that
require to be kept in a thriving
state, are fed upon turnips ; and as
the spring advances, and this ve-
getable becomes scarce, hay is
their only food.
The floors, on which the cattle
stand, are paved, and raised six or
eight inches above the level of the
yard; and each crib being only
broad enough for a beast to stand
on, its dung falls on the lower pave-
ment; by which contrivance it is
kept perfectly clean without litter.
[See Cattle.]
[Ljttle attention has been paid to
the preservation of a good breed of
cattle in the United States. Some
with excellent qualities, have been
imported, and are occasionally met
with; but they are in general
fattened and killed, instead of being
carefully preserved for breeding cat-
tle. But this is not the Avay to im-
proA'e. It was by apractice directly
the reverse that Bakewell brought;
his breed to unrivalled celebritv.
Some attempts have been made
near Baltimore, and in the state of
New-York to improve the breed by
an imported stock. Will these
meritorious gentlemen who are
making the experiments, inform us
of the breed, the qualities of the
animals, and the success that has-
attended their well meant efforts ?
Droves of cattle are annually
brought to Philadelphia from New
England and North-Carolina. The
former are larger and more profita*-
ble than the latter, which are gene-
rally small, and wild from having
been fed in the woods.
Several very large cattle have
been fed and killed within a few
years in Philadelphia. They have
in general been raised near Eliza-
beth-town, New-Jersey, but whe-
ther from a native or imported
Stock is unknown. The following
are the weights of a few of these
heasts:
1. A Cow raised by the late Mr.
Hiltzheimer, of the city ofPhi-
delphia, and killed on the 2d of
March, 1787.
The fore-quarters weighed,
(one)......326 lbs.
The other, 328 lbs.
---- 654
The hind-quarters weigh-
ed, (one) 283
The other, 289.......571
The nett Beef............1225
The Hide weighed.....Ill
Head and Heart.... 49
Belly »nd Feet.....72
Facie............35
Tallow..........163......430
Entire weight (exclusive of guts). . 1555
2. A five year old steer, fed by
Mr. Sickle, of Philadelphia, a few
years since, one summer and one
winter, Aveighed alive, l,494f lbs.
The belly fat......278
Kidney do........100
382 BRE
3. Ten head of cattle, fed by the
same gentleman, produced 2,439
lbs. of belly and kidney faty with
one summer feeding on grass.
4. A steer, raised at Tulpohock-
en, was killed on the 12th March,
1787, weighed alive, 2,184 lbs.
5. A steer raised at Haddonfield,
New-Jersey, killed at Philadelphia,
on the 7th April, 1787, weighed
alive, 2,140 lbs.
Formerly a great prejudice pre-
vailed in faA-or of large beasts, but
it has been ascertained that this
large big boned breed is not so
profitable as the middle sized bar-
rel shaped short legged kind......
Much may be done towards im-
proving the breed, by a careful at-
tention to stock. Mr. Bakewell
and hisdesciples relied upon a.kind-
ly skin, as a principal point in the
choice of a beast. By that is meant
a skin that feels soft, though firm
to the touch, which is equally dis-
tant from the hard dry skin, pecu-
liar to some cattle, as from the
loose and flabby feel of others.
Some breeds have a tendency to
generate fat on certain parts of the
body in great quantities, while
others have it more mixed Avith
the flesh of every part of the body.
These particulars demand the at-
tention of improvers.
It is said, that cattle having fore-
quarters heavier than their hind,re-
quire more food than others. Is
this the fact ?.]
Breeding of Fish. The neces-
sary qualities of a pond for breed-
ing fish, are very different from
those Avhich are requisite to make
it serve for their nourishment. A
good breeding pond is more rare to
be met Avith than a good feeding
one. The best indications of the
former, are plenty of rushes and
grass about its sides, with gravelly
BRE
shoals, like those of horse-ponds.
The quantity of the spawn of fish
is prodigious ; and where it suc-
ceeds, one fish may sometimes
produce millions. Hence two or
three melters, and as many spaw-
ners, placed in such a pond, will,
in a short time, stock a whole coun-
try. If it be not intended to keep
these ponds entirely for breeding,
but to let the fish grow to a consi-
derable size, their numbers should
be thinned, or they -will otherwise
starve each other. Different kinds
of fish may also be added, which
will prey upon the young, and pre-
vent their increasing in number.....
For this purpose,eels and perch are
most useful, because they not only
feed upon the spawn itself, but also
upon the young fry. Some fish
will breed abundantly in all kinds
of waters ; of this nature are the
roach, pike, perch, Sec. [See
Fish.]
Breeding, Good; an expression
which is used to denote the proper
deportment of persons in the ex-
ternal offices and decorum of social
intercourse.
Good breeding necessarily im-
plies civility; though a person,
Avithout being Avell bred, may be ci-
vil : the one is the result of good-
nature; the other, of good sense
joined to experience, observation,
and attention.
The most perfect degree of good
breeding is only to be acquired by
great knowledge of the world, and
keeping the best company. To at-
tain this desirable object we would
advise parents not to suffer their
children, after a certain age, to
spend the greatest part of their
time among servants, or menial de-
pendents; from whom neither good
language nor proper manners can
be expected; and who seldom fail
B RE
to instruct the susceptible young
mind in all the low cunning, and
artifices of the vulgar. Good-
breeding adorns and enforces virtue
and tmth ; it connects, it endears,
and while it indulges the just li-
berty, restrains that indecent licen-
tiousness of conversation, which
alienates and provokes. Great ta-
lents render a man famous ; great
merit procures respect ; great
learning, esteem : but good-breed-
ing alone can ensure love and affec-
tion. Hence it deserves to be pe-
culiarly recommended to women,
as the greatest ornament to such as
possess beauty, and the safest re-
fuge for those of a contrary descrip-
tion. It facilitates the conquests,
and decorates the triumphs of beau-
ty ; Avhile, on the other hand, it
atones, in some degree, for the
want of that quality. On the Avhole,
good-breeding is attended with so
many advantageous effects, that,
though it cannot be called a virtue
in itself, it may be justly considered
as one of the most pleasing and use-
ful accomplishments; insomuch as
it has a direct tendency to check
the violence of all the turbulent
passions, and to render the path
through life more comfortable and
easy.
BREWING,theartof preparing
beer or ale from malt, by extract-
ing all its fermentable parts in the
best manner; by adding hops in
such proportions as experience has
shewn, will preserve and meliorate
the extracts ; anel by causing a per-
fect fermentation in them, by
means of yeast and barm. One
of the most approved methods of
performing this operation, is as
follows:
Take of the purest and softest
water you can procure, as much as
you As ill have occasion for; boil it,
BRE 383
put it into large tubs, and let it
stand exposed to the air to purge
itselfi, at least one week. Grind a
sufficient quantity of the best
brown, high-dried malt; let it re-
main four days before you use it,
that it may mellow, and dispose it-
self for fermentation. Fill a copper
with your prepared water, and let
it boil; then lade about three-quar-
ters of a hogshead into the mash-
tub, filling the copper up again,
and making it boil. When the
Avater in the mash-tub is cooled to
such a degree, that in consequence
of the steam subsiding, you may
see your face in it, empty into it,
by degrees, nine bushels of the
malt, mash it Avell, and stir it about
with the rudder near half an hour,
till it is thoroughly wetted, and in-
corporated with the water: then
spread another bushel of malt
lightly over its surface, cover the
whole with empty sacks to keep in
the steam, and leave it for an hour.
At the end of the hour, the wa-
ter in the copper being boiling,
damp the fire, and let the water
cool a little as before : then lade as
much as is necessary on the mash,
till the whole together will yield
about a hogshead of wort. When
this second quantity of water is
added, stir it again well, cover it,
and leave it for another hour. Then
let the first wort run in a small
stream into the under back, and
lade another hogshead [or 64 gal-
lons] on the mash : stir it again as
before, cover it, and let it remain
for two hours.
In the mean time, return the first
wort into the copper, and put into
it six pounds of fine brown seedy
hops, first rubbing them between
the hands. Then make a brisk
fire under your eopper, till the li-
quor boils ; let it continue- to boil
384 BRE
BRE
till the hops sink : [the sinking of
the hops is not always a sign of the
liquor being boiled enough. A bet-
ter method is Avhen the wort bucks
well and is perfectly clear. The
casks must be filled up every three
hours. A. A.] Then damp the fire
and strain the liquor into coolers.
When it is about as warm as new
milk, mix some yeast or barm
with it, anel leave it to work till
the surface appears in curls ; then
stir and mix the whole properly
Avith a hand-bowl, and let it again
ferment. Repeat the stirring Avith
the bowl three times, then tun it,
and leave it to work in the hogs-
head. When it has nearly done
working, fill up the cask, and bung
it, but let the vent-hole remain
open.
Set the second wort aside for the
next breAving, which, as far as Avet-
ting the mash, must be managed
exactly in the same manner as the
first; but afterwards, instead of
water, heat the second wort of the
first brewing, and lade it on the
mash, which will give the neAv
wort additional strength anel soft-
ness. Make the second Avort of
the second brewing Avith water,
and save it for the first wort of the
third ; and so on for as many brew-
ings as you please. A third wort
may be taken from the first brew-
ing, which should be heated and
laded on the mash of your second
brewing, after taking of the second
wort ; and thus an additional hogs-
head of very good mild beer may
be procured.
On taking a review of the above
process, and the multiplicity of cir-
cumstances to be attended to, it is
easy to see that the operation of
brewing is of a very precarious na-
ture ; and requires great skill and
desJerity to manage it Avith com-
plete success. The goodness of
the beer will depend on the quality
of the malt from which it is made;
on the peculiar properties of the
water with which it is infused;
on the degree of heat applied in the
mashing; on the length of time
the fusion is continued ; on the due
manner of boiling the Avort, toge-
ther with the quantity and quality
of the hops employed: and on the
proper degree of fermentation: to
ascertain all which particulars, with
precision, constitutes th^ great
mystery of brewing, and can only
be learnt by experience and repeat-
ed observation.
Mr. Mills, in his " System of
Practical Husbandry" and Mr.
Comb rune, in his " Theory and
Practice of Breiring," give the fol-
loAving directions for the choice of
materials used in brewing, and for
conducting the whole process:
1. Of the Water. Pure rain-
water, as being the lightest, is es-
teemed the most proper. Well and
spring waters are commonly hard,
and consequently unfit for drawing
the tincture completely^ from any
vegetable. River-Avater, in point
of softness, is next to rain-water:
and even pond-water, if pure, is
equal to any other for brewing.
2. Of Malt. Those malts are to
be preferred for brewing, Avhich
have been properly wetted and ger-
minated, then dried by a moderate
heat, till all the adventitious mois-
ture is evaporated, without being
blown, vitrified, or scorched, by too
hot or hasty fires. For, the better
the malt is dryed, the sounder will
be the beer brewed from it, and the
longer it will keep. In order to
ascertain the quality of this article
bite a grain of it asunder, and if it
tastes mellow and sweet, breaks
soft, and is full of flour from one
BRE
BRE 385
•nd to the other, it is good ; which
may also be known by its SAvim-
ming on the surface, when put into
the Avater. The best way of grind-
ing it, is to bruise it in a mill com-
posed of two iron cylinders. These
break the malt without cutting its
husk, so that the hot water instant-
ly pierces its whole substance, and
scon draws forth a rich tincture,
with much less mashing than in
the common Avay.
3. Of Hops. Experience has
proved, that hops slack-dried, or
kept in a damp place, are perni-
cious ingredients for making beer;
and likeAvise, that they yield their
aromatic bitter more efficaciously,
when boiled in wort than in Avater :
hence, to impregnate the extracts
from malt with a due proportion of
hops, their strength, as Avell as that
of the extract, should previously be
ascertained. The newer the hops
are, the better they always prove ;
the fragrance of their flavour being
in ttme degree lost by keeping,
notwithstanding the care used in
preserving them. Private families,
who regard only the flavour and
salubrity of their malt liquors,
should use from six to eight bush-
els of malt to the hogshead of
their strongest beer. The quantity
of hops must be suited to the taste
of the drinker, and to the time the
liquor is intended to be kept. From
two to three pounds will be suffi-
cient for a hogshead, though some
go as far as six pounds....Mr.
Mills is of opinion, that small beer
should always be brewed by itself;
in which case, two bushels and a
half of malt, and a pound and
a half of hops, are sufficient to
make a hogshead.
4. Of the Vessels used in Brew-
ing....Thc brew-house itself, and
©very vessel in it, ought to be per-
fectly clean and sweet; for if the
vessels are in the least degree taint-
ed, the licmor put into them will
contract a disagreeable scent and
taste. A vessel of the most sim-
ple and excellent contrivance,
among the multiplicity of brewing
utensils adapted to family purposes,
is that of Mr. J. B. Bordley, Avho
has described it in his " Essays and
Notes on Husbandry and Rural Af-
fairs." (Philadelphia, 1801.) He
terms his process, by wvay of dis-
tinction, a tripartite method of
brewing; because the kettle-appara-
tus, represented in the subjoined cut,
is worked in three dhrisions. The
whole vessel is 40 inches long, 20
broad, and 24 deep : namely, di-
vision a, is thirteen; b, nine ; and
c, two inches deep. The dotted
lines are marked, where the per-
forated moveable bottoms are
placed. In a is the water or wort;
b, contains the malt; and into c,
the hot water is pumped up, or
poured over from a to c, by means
of the small pump, d; and thus
passes through every particle of
the malt; so that, by frequent
agitation, the water in a manner
washes out its whole substance, and
extracts all its farinaceous and sac-
charine ingredients. This opera-
tion is repeated, occasionally stir-
ring up the grains, till the liquor
becomes clear, Avhen [it must be let
386 BRE
BRE
off into a kettle and boiled with
hops, the proper proportion of
which must be determined by ex-
periment ; it must afterwards be
let out into coolers.] Mr. Bord-
ley ingenuously acknowledges,
that a Swedish method of brewing
in camp afforded him the hint for
this invention. He also observes,
that his tripartite kettle is made of
copper, and the small pump of
metal; though Ave are inclined to
think that, for the latter, Avood, or
pure tin, would be preferable to
brass, in order to prevent the for-
mation of verdigrise. At the bot-
tom is a cock on one side of the
vessel. On the whole, Ave consider
this as the most proper and con-
venient piece of machinery, ever
contrivecl for family-breAving.
[The Editor having no experi-
ence of the method of brewing re-
commended by Mr. Bordley, he
cannot say any thing respecting its
merits ; but wishes to knoAV from
those Avho may try it,whether, if two
mashings of a certain quantity of
malt,' give ten gallons of beer when
boiled in the old way, will the tri-
partite mode give the same strength
and quantity in one operation ?]
5. Of the heat of the water for
Mashing. Particular care should
be taken, that the malt be not put
into the water whilst boiling hot.
In order to bring the Avater to an
exact heat, Mr. Combrune advises
us, to put on the fire 22 quarts,
gallons, or barrels, according to
the quantity Avanted ; and when it
has just arrived at the boiling point
of the thermometer, to add 10 si-
milar measures of cold water,
which, when mixed with the for-
mer, will be of a temperature not
exceeding 161° of Fahrenheit:
and this he considers as the most
proper heat for mashing. He far-
ther remarks, that Avater Avhich
has endured the fire the shortest
time, provided it be hot enough,
will make the strongest extract.
6. Of Mashing. When the Avater
is brought to a due heat, the malt
is to be put in very leisurely, and
uniformly mixed with it.
7. Of boiling the Wort. As the
design of boiling the Avort is to
clear the liquor of its impurities,
and to obtain the virtue of the hop,
a much shorter time than usual is
sufficient. Long boiling of the
hop is a most pernicious practice,
and produces an austere, nause-,
ous bitter, but not a pleasant aro-
matic one. Instead of adding the
hops to the wort, when this is put
into the copper, or before it boils,
they may be infused about fiAre mi-
nutes before the Avort is taken off
the fire: if this is not sufficient to
give the desired degree of fragrant
bitter, ten minutes may be taken,
or as much longer as will be found
necessary. Mr. Mills prefers
putting the hops to the wort towards
the latter end of the boiling, rather
than at the beginning, because the
continued boiling of the liquor is
apt to dissipate their fragrance.
8. Of Fermentation. One gallon
of yeast, in the coldest fermenting
weather, is, according to Mr. Com-
brune, sufficient to ferment the
extract from one quarter of malt;
and, if properly managed, will yield
two gallons of yeast. Great care
should be taken in the choice of
yeasts, as they are liable to be soon
tainted, and very readily communi-
cate their infection to the liquors
fermented. The whole process of
fermentation should be carried on
in the slowest and coolest manner;
so that the temperature, which at
the commencement was between
40 and 50° of Fahrenheit, should
BRE
B'R E 387
very gradually be raised to the
70th degree. [This is proper for
a large quantity ; but for small, 66
is the best.] Fermentation will
always succeed best where the air
is purest. If too hot water has
been employed for obtaining strong
and fatty extracts, from the malt,
fermentation will be retarded: on
the contrary, in weak extracts, it
is so much accelerated, that the
whole soon becomes sour.....
When the fermentation is at its
height, all the feculent matter, or
foul yeast, which rises on the sur-
face, must be carefully skimmed
off, Avhatever be the quality of the
liquor. The beer as soon as it is
tolerably clear, should be racked
off into perfectly clean and sweet
casks ; and when managed in this
manner, will remain a long time in
a state of perfection.
9. Of fining the Liquor. As the
excellency of all fermented liquors
depends, in a great measure, on
their transparency,it often becomes
necessary to resort to artificial
means, in order to bring them to
this state of perfection, if the pro-
cess of fermentation has been mis-
managed. Thus, a solution of isin-
glass in stale beer, is used to fine
and precipitate other beers : but,
as this method has proved ineffec-
tual in broAvn beers, we are in-
formed by Dr. Combrune, that
brewers " sometimes put one pound
tf oil of vitriol into one butt though
four ounces should never be ex-
ceeded in that quantity." On this
subject we refer the reader to p.
235 of our work.
10. Of the distempers of Malt
Liquors. Among the distempers
incident to beer, one, Avhich has
been found most difficult to cure,
is that of its appearing ropy. A
bunch of hyssop put into the cask
VOL. 1.
will, however, effectually remedy
this evil.... A satisfactory account of
the different methods of recover-
ing flat, tart, or sour beer, having
been already given in this Ency-
clopaedia, p. 256 and 257, it would
be superfluous to repeat it in this
place.
It desenes to be remarked, that
brown beer, made from Avell-dried
malt, is, in the opinion of Mr. Com-
brune, less heating than pale beer,
brewed from slack-dried malt. If
extracts from pale malt be made
with very hot water, they will keep
sound for a long time ; but those
obtained from brown malt, with
too cold water, will frequently turn
sour.
[Family brewing,and breAving in
small quantities.
An establishment for a moderate
family may be thus :
A Brew-house 20 feet by 15 on
the ground plan. A copper with
a brass cock at the bottom ; to
hold not less than 40 gallons, to
be set high. A mash-tun to hold
twice as much as the copper, for
the malt will occupy when wetted
as much space as the water. The
mash-tun should stand a little be-
low the level of the cock of the cop-
per ; so that the water of the cop-
per can run into the mash. The
mash-tun should have a false bot-
tom on which the malt is placed,
this should be bored Avith A inch
holes, at about 3 inches distance ;
the depth betAveen the solid bottom
and the false moveable bottom 6
inches. A cock or plug should
be fixed between the two bottoms,
to let off the wort into the under-
back ; this should hold as much
as the copper.
From the under-back, the wort is
pumped up into the copper, to be
boiled: when boiled, it is let into the
3 C
388 BR'E
BRE
Coolers : Of these there should be
two, each to hold 45 gallons. They
should be placed one under the
other, and a little below the level
of the cock of the copper ; that is
on a level with the top of the mash
tub. The AVort,when boiled, is to
be let off into the first cooler, and
then into the cooler underneath ;
whence it runs into a working tun
of the same size as the mash-tun :
for tho' not more than 32 or 33 gal-
lons of wort runs in at a time, yet
the head, produced during the
Avorking or fermentation, will oc-
cupy a considerable space. The
coolers should not be more than
6 inches deep....Thence the esta-
blishment of utensils will be.
A copper of 40 gallons, or 45.
A mash-tun of 80 gallons.
An under-back of 40 gallons.
A working tun of 80 gallons.
Two coolers 6 inches deep to
hold each 40 or 45 gallons, 6 feet
by 2 feet 6 inches each.
A hand pump to pump the wort
into the copper, unless it can be
done by the Avater pump.
Pales, Bowls, Sec.
A stilling to set the casks on
when full about ten inches high,
and 14 inches wide in the clear.
Four rum puncheons sawed thro'
the middle, would answer tolera-
bly Avell for almost all the utensils.
One bushel of malt and lib. of
sugar will make one barrel of good
table beer, of strength between ale
and small beer, if the first and se-
cond worts are boiled and mixed
together. This, exclusive of trou-
ble, will not cost above Jg- of a
dollar a gallon. The Brewhouse
shold be placed on the north side
of the buildings ; it should be open
on three sides to let in air, and
let out steam ; the three open sides
should have hooks fixed to them, so
as to hang on flap-boards, or slant-
ing battens to keep out the wet.
But there are many small fanviles,
who cannot afford such an estab-
lishment these may brew in small
quantities as follows.
Every family has a large kettle
or vessel to boil their clothes in ;
suppose this to contain about 3 gal-
lons, this will serve for a copper.
A common pail with a hole bored
through the bottom, and set upon
a stilling or some other contrivance
to raise it, another pail may receive
the wort, and may answer for a
fermenting tun, and when the beer
has worked so as that the head be-
gins to fall, draw it off into a five
gallon keg.
Proportions for 5 gallons of ale.
Malt 1 and -*- peck ; of sugar Alb.
hops -A of a lb. malt amber colour-
ed, or pale dried.
Proportions for 5 gallons of por-
ter, brewed in that quantity.
Malt li peck ; sugar made into
essentia lib. molasses Alb. hops
Alb. ginger about a teaspoonful.
The malt to be high dried, or else
half amber and half high dried.
These proportions, used acord-
ing to the foregoing directions, will
produce a good wholesome liquor,
that the Avomen of the family may
brew occasionally when they have
not much else to do.]
Of the Brew - House......
The following is an eligible con-
struction where brewing is fol-
lowed as a trade. " The cold li-
quor* pump A.A. raises the wa;
ter from the river or Avell B. which,
as Avell as the wort pump M.M. is
driven by a horse Avith proper ma-
chinery, which likewise grinds the
* Brewers call water, whether wTarmorcold, liquor.
rise the term water.
It is a fine among them to
BRE
malt used in the breAV-house. The
grinding house is situated between
the pumps, as may be seen by the
mill-spout P. which conducts the
malt from the mill into the mash
tun H. The liquor from the river
B. is pumped into the cistern or re-
servoir C. Avhere it is ready at all
timesduring the hurry of brewing ;
and from the cistern it passes
through the large pipe D. into the
liquor copper E. where it may be
stopped by a cock at the extremity
of the pipe. The liquor Avhen
Alarmed for mashing is let into the
mash-tun II. by opening the cock
V. in the bottom of the copper,
and runs down the trunk Z. Avhich
carries into the raising spout G. in
the mash-tun II. this spout by a
notch in the moveable or false bot-
toms of the mash-tun, conducts the
liquor between the moveable and
real bottoms, which, by ascending,
assists the mashing very much.
" The extract or wort is let go, by
turning the cock K. into the under-
back L. and is from thence carried
by the horse-pump M.M. into a
leA-el with the wort copper O. and
runs from the pump through the
pipe N. N. into the wort copper.
" When cold liquor is required
for mashing, as is the case in small
beer brewing, it is obtained from
the cistern C. by the pipe Q. which
communicates with it.
" Thus these three very labori-
ous parts of the business, viz.
pumping the liquor from the river
or wefl; mashing, and pumping up
the Avorts into the copper, may be
easily performed by two men; and
they are able to mash a very con-
siderable quantity of malt, and at-
tend to the steeming of the casks,
BRE 389
liquoring the backs, he. between
the mashes. When all the worts
are in the great copper O. and are
boiled sufficiently, they are run off
into the first back T. by turning the
cock R. the spout W. conducting
the worts from the drainer S. which
detains the hops. This back com-
municates with the two large backs
Y.Y. which are sufficient to con-
tain all the worts, and they may
be laid at a greater or less depth,
by using one or both these backs,
stopping either of the pipes X. by
putting in one of the plugs U.U.
The situation of these two backs is
higher than the fermenting tuns,
anel by pipes the worts are conveyed
into them below : and if there is
conveniency, the tuns, when Clean-
sing, ought to be high enough to
fill the casks in the cellars by means
of a leathern pipe."
Of Brewing.....Take care that
every utensil is made perfectly
clean.
Boil your licmor (water) ; Avhen
boiled, reduce it to about the tem-
perature of 175 of Fahrenheit'*
thermometer. If the malt is new-
ly ground, do not let the water go
on, till it is reduced to 165°.
If you have no thermometer,
there are three rules Avhich may
sen^e tolerably well.
1st. Let the boiling Avater be
mixed Avith cold water, till you can
perfectly see your face in it; or,
2dly. till it will just scald your fin-
ger, unless you take it ou^ imme-
diately. Or,
3dly. Add in winter 1 gallon of
cold to 16 of boiling, and in sum-
mer 1 gallon of cold to about 12 of
boiling water, if you use rain or
river water; for of these the tem-
* Cleansing means filling the casks from the fermenting tub.
390 BRE
perature varies Avith that of the at-
mosphere. If you use well water,
1 gallon to 16 for your first wort
throughout the year, will be about
enough. Never use rain water,
where the washings of the roof give
it a bitter taste.
Your first wort will require about
twice as much Avater as the two
succeeding ; for the malt imbibes
and retains about one half of the
whole quantity: never let the malt
stand dry in the mash-tub. When
the water is risen through the holes
of the moveable bottom sufficient-
ly, pour in yourmalt, and let a man
stir it about with a rake while you
pour it in. When the malt is tho-
roughly wetted, stir it up with the
oars, and raise the malt repeatedly
from the bottom, and beat it about:
this should be done for a quarter
of an hour or 20 minutes. Then
sprinkle some dry malt over the
top, cover it with a cloth or mat to
retain the heat, and let it remain 3
hours in winter, and 2 in summer.
Then run it off: pour back the
first runnings if they are muddy.
A handful of hops put into the ves-
sel in which the wort runs, is ad-
vantageous, particularly in sum-
mer; preventing the liquor from
turning sour.
While this first mash is about,
fill your copper again and boil the
water forthe nextmash, which may
now be at 185, or 10 degrees hot-
ter : rake and beat this as before,
and let it stand one hour. For the
third mashing, use Avater at about
190 ; let it stand also an hour: it
is convenient to finish mashing by
evening, in order to gain the cool-
ness of the night for the wort.....
When all the wort is extracted,
put them together and boil them
till you get the quantity you mean
to have from the malt. The boil-
B RE
ing should be quick and fierce: the
hops should be wetted and then
broken in among the worts. The
worts may boil from an hour to an
hour and a half: the copper should
have a sloping rim.
The strength of the worts, and of
consequence of the liquor, may be
ascertained by an hydrometer; a
mode first suggested by Richard-
son, in his treatise on brewing.....
Thus, if a Florence flask filled with
water accurately, up to a mark in
the neck, Aveighs 2 lbs. for instance,
the same flask filled with wort pro-
perly boiled for ale, and ready to
be let off into the cooler, will weigh
more. When you have once as-
certained the weight of the wort
which will make good ale, you may
always know in future when your
wort is sufficiently boiled ; for lit-
tle evaporates but steam of water
impregnated with the oil of the
hops. When boiled, turn the worts
into the coolers, and the instant
they are cool enough, put them to
ferment. Otherwise, especially in
summer, they are apt to fox, as it
is called ; that is they acquire a
reddish colour and a disagreeable
flavour.
They are cool enough at 45 or 50,
that is, for a large brewing, but for
smaller brewing 60 to 62 degrees
will be proper, and in family brew-
ing 66 to 70, and in very cold wea-
ther 76° will be the right tempera-
ture. Fahrenheit's scale is allutled
to.
In winter, allow one gallon of
yeast to the quarter of malt: in
summer half a gallon. In winter
put in the yeast at once, in sum-
mer one half at first, or when the
tun is about half full of wort, and
the other half when the beer is fit
to be cleansed, (that is filled up with
wort). When the wort begins to
BRE
cream, stir it about and mix the
yeast well with the liquor. In
winter the beer should be cleansed
when the head or froth is just be-
ginning to become solid and thick-
en. In summer, as soon as it be-
gins to shew a white head.
Generally, when the head be-
comes brown, solid, and of a yeasty
consistence, and seems just ready
to fall back into the liquor, the beer
should be put into the casks. Ne-
ver suffer the head to break. Bet-
ter fill the casks a few hours too
soon than one hour too late. Strong
beer if brewed in Small quantities,
and ale in any quantity, should be
tuned the second day.
The casks, when well cleaned
with hot water, (and if necessary
also with lime or ashes to neutra-
lize the acid absorbed by the wood),
should be filled and put upon the
stilling, or frame of about 12 inches
high.
Fill up the casks as they work
over, once every hour for the first
6 or 8 hours : be sure to keep the
casks filled till the fermentation has
entirely subsided, which will be in
a few days.
Place vessels under the casks to
collect the workings over, and the
casks may be filled up with the
clear part of these workings.
Take great care, to keepyour cel-
lar dry, and free from the drippings
of the casks : if the cellar be damp
and musty, your beer will be in ha-
zard of smelling.
When the beer has Avorked in
the casks, bung it and remove it, if
necessary, to the place Avhere it is
to remain: then draAV the bung,
and fill up Avith clear beer, scum-
ming off the sediment that may be
thrown up by rolling. Bung the
casks tight; bore a vent hole, and
put in a vent peg, Avhich should be
BRE 391
rather slack while the beer is ob-
served to be on the fret. If it runs
out at the vent hole, draw off about
a quart, to give it room and prevent
the starting of the wood.
When beer is drawn, take care
never to leave the vent peg out, or
loose : the best licmor may soon
become flat and vapid by the care-
lessness of servants in this respect.
Take care also that the sides of
the barrels, the stoops and the floor,
are not suffered to remain wet Avith
the beer spilled or mnning over.
Dirtiness and moisture are apt to
make the beer smell in the barrel.
Of the proportions of Malt
and other' Ingredients.......
The following are about the aver-
age proportions of malt, used in
England : but the barley of Ame-
rica is not equally good, nor is the
process of malting carried to such
perfection : hence, the same quan-
tity of ale or porter will require
about one fourth more of malt to
make a liquor in America of equal
strength.
When nothing is used to make
ale or porter, but malt and hops,
it will require in England about
three bushels of malt to make one
barrel of ale of 32 gallons, or por-
ter of 36 gallons. But this will
be strong.
For ale intended to be drank im-
mediately, ? of a lb. of hops to the
bushel, wrill suffice. If meant to
be kept a twelvemonth, allow 1 lb.
to the bushel : if longer 1A lb.
Porter reepiires 1-| lb. of hops to
the bushel, if no bitter but hops be
used.
Small-beer is usually brewed from
the malt after the quantity of wort
intended for ale is taken off: then
a quarter (or 8 bushels) of malt,
will make about one barrel of strong
ale, and two barrels and a half of
392 BRE
good small-beer : the hops used for
the ale, kept in a net during boil-
ing, will do with a little addition for
the small-beer.
But small-beer so made, is never
so good as when it is run off by
itself from a quantity of malt whol-
ly appropriated to it.
In this case about 1A or 1A bush-
el of malt will make one barrel of
good small-beer, with A of a lb. of
hops to the bushel.
But in all malt liquor, the addi-
tion of a small portion of sugar,
gives more strength to the liquor,
and enables it to keep better; par-
ticularly in summer time : hence
the followingproportions seem pre-
ferable in practice, for this country
(America).
Ale.....Malt (amber) three bush-
els : hops 3 lbs.; good moist sugar
1A. lb. ; about A an ounce of cori-
ander seeds will be an improve-
ment. The addition of the sugar
Avill nearly make up for the defici-
ency in strength of the American
malt. This Avill make one barrel of
strong ale. For an account of Mash-
ing Machine....see that article.]
Having thus afforded an analy-
tical view of this important subject,
Ave shall conclude it with an ac-
count of the latest patents, Avhich
have been granted to those who
have contributed, or attempted to
improve, the Art of Brewing.
In March, 1788, Mr. W. Ker,
of Kerfield, Tweedale, received the
King's patent for his improvement
in brewing ale, beer, porter, and
other malt liepjors, so as to save a
considerable portion of hops, to pro-
duce the liquors of a superior fla-
vour and emality, and render them
less liable to become acid or putrid.
The steam which arises from the
boiling copper, is known to be
BRE
strongly impregnated with the es-
sential oil of the hops, in which
their flavour consists. Instead,
therefore, of allowing it to escape
and evaporate, as it does in the
common mode of brewing, Mr.
Ker contrives to preserve and con-
dense it, by means of a winding-
pipe fixed to the copper, similar to
the worm of a still, or by a straight
pipe passing through cold Avater, or
any other cooling medium. The
oil and water, thus obtained, are
returned into the worts when boil-
ed ; or the oil, after being separated
from the water, along with which
it had been exhaled, is returned into
the worts after they are boiled; and
the Avatery part, which, after the
oil is separated, still continues im-
pregnated with the aromatic taste
and bitter of the hop, is returned
into the next copper or boiling ves-
sels, and so on, from one copper or
boiling vessel into another. By this
process, a considerable part of the
hop and flavour, which is lost in
the ordinary mode Of brewing, is
preserved; the flavour of the liquor
is improved by the preservation of
the finer parts of the aromatic oil;
and the ale and beer ate better se-
cured from any tendency to acidity
or putrefaction, and therefore must
be fitter for home consumption and
exportation.
In June, 1790, Mr. John Long,
of Ireland, obtained a patent for an
improvement, Avhich he calls an
entire new method, in all the essen-
tial parts, of brewing good malt
liquor. Though his method, in one
respect, is similar to that adopted
by Mr. Ker, yet as it compre-
hends the whole procees of brew-
ing, we shall lay it before our read-
ers, nearly in the Avords of its
author.
B RE
BRE 593
l. For the better extracting the ing-tun, instead of loosing its first
virtues of malt, place near a mash- heat (which it does by the present
tun a shallow copper, or other ves- practice), continues to increase in
sel, that will readily heat, the curb heat every moment by conveying
of which to be on a level with the the heated liquor through the tube
tun, and to contain from two to six into the tun ; by which means, at
hogsheads, according to the dimen- the end of two hours, the working
sionofthe tun, more or less ; and, brewer can have the tun brought
at the lower end of the copper, to any degree of heat he shall
have a cock, from two to five inches think best suited to the different
in diameter, to conduct the heated qualities of the malt. Persons who
liquor from the copper into a tube, would wish to save expence, may
which passes down the external part heat their mashing-tun at the side
of the tun, and enters it through or bottom, by a large piece of me-
an aperture about six inches from tallic substance made fire-proof,
the bottom ; then forming two re- and fixed therein ; which, in some
volutions, more or less, through the degree, will ansAver the end pro-
body of the tun, and communicat- posed, but with great trouble and
ing its heat to the wort as it passes delay.
through the tube ; and then, at a 2. To prevent the wort- from
convenient distance from the place receiving a disagreeable flavour,
where it first entered, it runs from while in the under-back, a tube
the tun into a cistern or tub, situate must be placed at the cock of the
as near as convenient to the copper mashing-tun, to receive the wort as
or heating-vessel. In the tub or it comes off, and convey it to a
cistern is to be placed a pump, for great cistern, or refrigeratory,
the purpose of conveying the cooler which is supplied Avith a stream of
liquor back to the copper or heat- Avater. The wort, passing through
ing vessel again, there to receive that medium in a spiral tube, soon
the heat of 208 degrees, more or loses that heat Avhich so often
less (which it will require after the proves prejudicial to the brewer
first half hour), and then convey it in warm weather ; it is then pour-
through the mashing-tun, as be- ed from the tube into a vessel in
fore, anel in the same manner, as Avhich pumps are placed, to return
long as the working brewer may the Avorts into the copper, for the
think necessary, to raise the mash- purpose of boiling off.
ing-tun to any degree of heat re- 3. As the great object of long
quired. By adhereing to the fore- boiling the Avort is remedied, by
going process, the first liquor may this invention of taking the extract
with the greatest safety, be let upon from the hops in a separate manner
the malt, from 20. to 30 degrees from the worts, Mr. Long boils the
lower than the present practice; latter no longer than from fifteen
by which means it operates Avith to twenty minutes ; and, by pur-
gentleness, opens and expands the suing that method, he saves much
malt, and prepares it for the recep- time and fuel, and regulates the
tion of sharper or warmer liquor, length of time accordingly.
so as to extract the Avhole of the 4. He steeps his hops, the pre-
saccharine quality from the malt, ceding day to which they are to be
By the foregoing method,the mash- used, in a copper or other vessel.
394 BRE
BRE
with as much fluid, blood-warm, as
will cover the hops ; where it is to
remain over a slow fire, at least four-
teen hours, close covered; the
copper, at the tenth hour, not to
be of a greater heat than 175 de-
grees, continuing slow until the last
hour. Then he brings the copper
gradually to a simmer, or slow boil;
in which state he suffers it to re-
main about ten minutes, and then
runs off the fluid; and this he does
at the same time the first wort is
boiled off, that they may both pass
together through the refrigeratory,
into the fermentation or working-
tun. Afterthe foregoing operation,
he covers the hops again with other
liquor, brings the copper to boil as
soon as convenient, and lets it re-
main in that state a considerable
time, until the second worts are
boiled off. Then he passes the
hop-fluid with the wort, the same
as in the first instance ; and, if there
is a -third wort, he boils the hops
a third time with small worts, and
drains off the liquid as before ; by
Avhich means, he gradually obtains
the Avhole of the essential oil and
pleasant bitter from the hops, which
is effectually presented in the beer.
5. When the wort is boiled off,
it is conducted from the cock of the
copper or boiler into a tube of a
proper dimension, which passes the
wort from the cock to the large cis-
tern or refrigeratory, and there per-
forms several revolutions, in a spi-
ral manner, through the same tube ;
which is immersed in a constant
supply of cold water, Avhere it loses
the greatest part of its heat in a
short time, and thence continues a
straight course through the tube, a
little elevated, and of a suitable
length, placed in brick-work, until
it meets a small refrigeratory, sup-
plied with colder Avater from a re-
servoir made for that purpose, at
the head of the Avorks ; Avhence a
continual stream runs on the surface
of the tube down to the great refri-
geratory, cooling the wort as it pas-
ses, in order to enable the Avorking
brewer to send it into the backs, or
working-tuns, at whatever degree
of heat he may think proper. The
tubes may be made of lead, or any
other metallic substance.
6. To* enable him to brew in the
warm summer months, Mr. Long
sinks the backs, or working-tuns,
at least to a level with the ground,
but if deeper the better, and covers
them closely by an arch made of
bricks, or other materials, that will
totally exclude the atmospheric air.
He then places them as near as pos-
sible to a spring or sand-drain, as
their depth will naturally draw the
water thence, which must be so
contrived as to pass or flow round
the backs or tuns. Next, he intro-
duces a large tube, which passes
through the tuns, and keeps the
wort several degrees lower than
can possibly be done by the present
practice ; by which means he pro-
duces a complete fermentation, even
in the dog-days.
7. Incold or frosty Aveather, if the
tun and backs should lose the first
heat, intended to be conducted
through the process by the fore-
going method, a supply of warm
or boiling Avater may be conveyed
by the tube, Avhich passes through
the body of the backs or tun, com-
municating its heat, which rises to
any degree the working brewer
shall think proper: by pursuing
this method, in the coldest season,
a fermentation may always be pro-
cured.
In February 1798, Dr. Richard
Shannon obtained a patent for his
method of improving the processes
BRE
BRE 305
of brewing, distilling, boiling, eva-
porating, raising, applying and con-
densing steamor vapourfrom aque-
ous, spirituous, saccharine, saline,
and other fluids. The principle of
his invention consists chiefly in the
following arrangement: By cover-
ing and making the mash-tun air-
tight, and casing it round, under
and over, with asteam-tight casing,
so that, during the mashing and
soaking of the malt and grain used,
the heat may be preserved, or raised
and regulated to any pitch, by the
application of steam, both in and
between the casing of the mash-
tun ; by which contrivance, the
whole of the farina and substance
of the grain may be as effectually
extracted in one, or at most in two
mashings, as is now done in three
or four. The steam, conducted by
a proper tube or pipe, is to be also
employed for sweetening and clean-
sing all the brewing, distilling, and
vinegar-making utensils, and casks
employed in each, Etc. so as in fu-
ture to prevent furring, foxing, he.
even in the inmost crevices.
In June 1798, the same patentee,
in partnership with Mr. Robert
Burnett, of Vauxhall, procured
another patent, for the discovery of
a principle anel invention of a me-
thod of improving the process of
fermentation, by Avhich porter, beer,
ale, malt and molasses Avash, wine,
cyder, and all other saccharine and
fermentable fluids, may be con-
ducted with certainty through the
vinous process of fermentation in
mild, warm, hot, and cold weather,
without being materially injured as
heretofore, by the different changes
of the atmosphere, 8cc.....But as
these improvements depend on the
application of an expensive pneuma-
tic apparatus, which does not ap-
pear to us adapted to the use of fa-
VOL. I.
nrilies, we refer the reader to the
tenth and fourteenth volumes of the
" Repertory of Arts and Manufac-
tures," Avhere he will find a detailed
specification of both patents.
The last patent we shall mention,
is that of Mr. Thornton, of East
Smithfield ; which, being dated
April 15, 1778, is earlier than ei-
ther of the preceding, and does not
strictly relate to the process of
brewing, as his invention consists
in a new method of reducing malt
and hops to an essence or extract,
from which beer may be made ei-
ther at sea or in distant countries.
The whole is managed by the trans-
mitted heat of compressed vapour
of boiling water, and a proper ap-
paratus forthat purpose. This ap-
paratus may be made of iron, tin,
or copper : it consists of a boiler of
any dimensions, a double vessel,
and conducting tubes. The dou-
ble vessel consists of one vessel
placed within another, and fitted
tight at their rims. The upper
vessel forms the upper part of the
under vessel, and contains the li-
quor to be evaporated. The under
vessel is every where inclosed, ex-
cept at an aperture communicating
with the boiler, and at another aper-
ture commuuicating with the con-
ducting tubes; and is constructed
so as not to allow any part of the
vapour condensed into drops within
it to escape, except back again into
the boiler: it is not so extensive
as to act as a common refrigerato-
ry, and yet is capacious enough to
prevent the liquor boiling over.
The aperture communicating with
the boiler, is large enough to free-
ly admit the vapour from the boiler
into the under vessel ; and the
aperture communicating Avith the
conducting tubes, is of a proper
size to alloAv of the vapour in the
3D
390 B R I
BRI
under vessel being compressed, to
a degree capable of transmitting
to the liquor to be evaporated a
proper heat, and at the same time
to serve as a passage for more heat
than is necessary to keep up that
degree of compression. The con-
ducting tubes are to convey this su-
perfluous heat or vapour, to be
used for farther purposes, or im-
mediately out of the building.
Those of our readers who are
desirous of farther information on
the subject, may consult the last
eelition of " Philosophical Princi-
ples of Brewing," by Mr. Richard-
son, of Hull, England; a Avork
of acknowledged merit, and prac-
tical utility.
BRIAR, the SAveet, or Rosa ru-
biginosa, L. by Hudson anel Duroi,
called Rosa eglanteria, is a well
known indigenous plant, found in
hedges and on heaths. It grows
to> the height of five or six feet,
having green branches, armed Avith
prickles. See W"ith. 466.....The
varieties of this species are the
common single-flowered, semi-
double-floAvered, double-floAvered,
blush double-flowered, and yellow-
flowered. This shrub deserves to
be cultivated in every garden, on
account of the odoriferous property
of its leaves. The best places for
planting it, are the borders conti-
guous to walks, where it will pro-
fusely emit its refreshing fragrance.
The young branches of the sweet-
briar area rich addition to the odour
of nose-gays and bough-pots. The
blossoms of this shrub are con-
stantly visited by bees, anel the
leaves are used on the Continent, in
tanning soft leather.
Wild Briar, or Hep-Tree. See
the more general name of Dog-
Rose.
BRICK, a mass of clay formed
into oblong squares, and dried in
the open air, or burnt in proper
kilns, to serve the various purposes
of building.
English statute-bricks ought,
Avhen burnt, to be nine inches long,
four anel a quarter broad, and two
and a half thick: they are com-
monly used for paving cellars,
sewers, sinks, hearths, Sec. There
is, however, a great variety of bricks,
in consequence of their different
forms, dimensions, uses, and the
method of making them.
On comparing the strength and
durability of modern bricks Avith
those of the ancients, it is evident
that the former are in every respect
inferior; and that we are either
unacquainted with the exact mate-
rials of Avhich those admirable pro-
ductions of art are composed, as
Avell as with the proper manner of
preparing them ; or that this use-
ful manufacture has been shame-
fully neglected, while our masons
and brick-makers are little con-
cerned about the quality of their
materials, if they can obtain them
in a cheap and expeditious manner.
Such appears to be the tendency of
the patents that have, from time
to time, been procured by various
scheming men, who are generally
ignorant of the first principles of
chemistry, on which the success-
ful practice of this important branch
of the arts chiefly depends. In or-
der to afford a concise view of the
subject, we shall premise an ana-
lysis of the requisites of a proper
clay for making bricks ; then state
a few rules applicable to practice
in all situations ; and conclude with
a general account of the late in-
ventions, for which the King's pa-
tent has been granted : by whichv
means the reader will be enabled
to ascertain their respective merits*
It is an erroneous notion, that
bricks may be made of any earth
B RI
that is not stony, or even of
•eaouse ; for those only will burn
red, which contain iron particles.
In England, they are chiefly made
of a motley, yellowish, or some-
what reddish, fat earth, vulgarly
called loam. Those of Stourbridge
clay, and Windsor-loam, are
esteemed the most proper and dur-
able bricks ; such as will stand the
greatest degree of heat, without
melting. In general, the earth for
this manufacture ought to be suffi-
ciently fine, free from pebbles, and
not too sandy ; which would ren-
der the bricks heavy and brittle ;
nor too fat, which would make
them crack in drying. Nor should
it contain too many calcareous and
ferruginous ingredients; as the
former prevent the mass from be-
coming firm in burning, and occa-
sion the bricks to crumble, when
exposed to the air ; while the lat-
ter, or iron particles, retard the
preparation of bricks, insomuch
that it is sometimes impossible to
give them due consistence : this
inconvenience, however, may be
remedied, by allowing the clay to
lie for a considerable time under
the influence of the atmosphere,
then soaking it in pits, and after-
wards working it Avell, in the usual
manner......The common potter's
clay, Avhich is also employed for the
manufacture of bricks, is opaque,
imparts a slight colour, sometimes
yellowish, blueish, greenish, but
more frequently of different shades
of light-grey, excepting that of
blue, Avhich is always dark : by
kneading and spreading such clay,
it becomes smooth and glossy ; it
is soft, fat, and cold, though agree-
able to the touch, slightly adheres
to the tongue, and, Avhen of the
best quality, it should neither be
too light nor too heavy. Its con-
ituents chemically examined, are
B RI 397
found to consist of thirty-seven parts
of pure argillaceous or clayey
earth, and sixty-three parts of si-
licious or flinty earth.
Whoever is desirous of produc-
ing the best and most durable kind
of bricks, ought to attend to the
following rules : 1. Clay of every
description, whether fat or lean,
whether more or less mixed Avith
particles of lime, iron, &c. must
be dug up after Midsummer, that
is, between the beginning of July
and latter end of October, before
the first frost appears: it should
be repeatedly worked with the
spade, during the winter, and not
formed into bricks till the following
spring. 2. The clay, before it is
put into pits for soaking, must be
broken as small as possible, and
allowed to lie at least ten days:
every stratum of twelve inches
should be covered with water, as
in this manner it will be more uni-
formly softened. 3. Two such
pits, at least, will be necessary for
every brick-manufactory, so that
after having been suffered to re-
main for five days, the second may
be prepared, and thus the manu-
facture carried on without inter-
ruption. 4. The next step is that
of treading and tempering the
clay, which requires double the
labour to Avhat is usually bestowed
on it; as the quality of the bricks
chiefly depends upon the first pre-
paration. If, in tempering them,
too much water be used, they be-
come dry and brittle ; but, if duly
tempered, they will be smooth, so-
lid, and durable. Such a brick re-
quires nearly as much earth as one
and a half made in the common
way, when too great a proportion
of water is added ; in Avhich case
the bricks becomes spongy, light,
and full of flaws, partly through ne-
glect in Avorkingthemproperly, and
398 B R I
BRI
partly by a mixture of ashes and
light sandy earth (as is generally
practised in the vicinity of Lon-
don), with a view to dispatch and
facilitate the Avork, as well as to
save culm or coals in the burning.
5. Bricks made of proper earth,
being more solid and ponderous,
require a much longer time for
drying than those made in the com-
mon way ; they ought not to be
removed to the kiln, till they have
become lighter by one-half, and
give a hollow sound on collision;
because the proper drying of bricks
will prevent them from cracking
and crumbling in the kiln. 6. Of
whatever materials the kiln be con-
structed, each burning of from 6
to 10,000 bricks, requires that the
fire be kept up for 24 hours, and
double that time for a number of
from 12 to 50,000. The uniform
increase of heat deserves great at-
tention ; the duration of it should
be regulated according to the sea-
sons ; and, during the last 24hours,
the fire should be unintermptedly
supported by means of flues ; but
afterwards the kiln must not be
suddenly closed, as there is always
some danger either of bursting the
flues, or more probably of melt-
ing the bricks.
It would be useless here to enter
into particulars relative to the man-
ner of burning bricks in the neigh-
bourhood of London; we shall
therefore only observe, that they are
chiefly burnt in clamps built of the
bricks themselves, after the manner
of arches, in kilns, Avith a vacancy
between each brick to admit the
passage of the fire, but with this
difference, that instead of being
arched, the bricks project one over
another on both sides of the space,
for laying in the weed and coals till
they meet, and are bounded by the
bricks at the top. Th.e place for
the fuel is carried up straight on
both sides, till about three feet
high, Avhen it is almost filled with
wood, over which is laid a stratum
of sea-coal, and then the arch is
spanned over. Farther, sea-coal
is also strewed over the clamp, be-
tween all the rows of bricks ; and
lastly, the wood is kindled, which
also communicates Avith the coals;
and when the whole is consumed,
the manufacturer concludes that
the bricks are sufficiently burnt.
[Fire bricks are made in Phila-
delphia of certain proportions of
clay from the banks of the Dela-
ware, a few miles beloAv Borden-
ton, and the sand found near the
lover bridge on the Schuylkill.
Besides their great utility in the
construction of furnaces,theyought
to be used for lining the backs and
sides of fire-places. See Fire-
places.]
Among the multiplicity of pa-
tents lately obtained forthe making
of bricks, it is someAvhat singular,
that the inventors confine their lu-
crative views chiefly to the forma-
tion of this useful article, without
paying much regard to the materi-
als of Avhich it may be composed.
Of this nature are the patents
granted to the folloAving individu-
als :
1. Mr. Edmund Cartwright,
of Doncaster, England, for his in-
vention of a newr principle, on
which bricks, stones, or any other
building materials to be substituted
for those articles, may be so form-
ed, as to be applied with peculiar
advantage in the erection of walls,
and in the construction of archer.
(Dated April 1-1, 1795.) His im-
provement consists in giving bricks
such a shape or form as that, when
in work, they shall mutually lock
into, or cramp each other. The
principle of his invention, he says,
BRI
B RI 399
will be readily understood, by sup-
posing the two opposite sides of a
common brick to have a groove or
rabbet down the middle, a little
more than half the width of the
side of the brick in which it is
made ; there will then be left a
shoulder on each side of the groove,
each of which shoulders will be
nearly equal to one quarter of the
width of the side of the brick, or
to one-half of the groove or rabbet.
....Buildingsconstructed with bricks
on this principle, will reeruire no
bond-timber, one uniArersal bond
running through, and connecting
the whole building together; the
walls of which can neither crack
nor bulge out, Avithout breaking
through the bricks themselves.
When bricks of this simple form
are used for the construction of
arches, the sides of the grooves oc
rabbets, and the shoulders, should
be the radii of the circle, of Avhich
the intended arch is to be the seg-
ment. ' In forming an arch, the
bricks must be coursed across the
centre on which the arch is turned,
and a grooved side of the bricks
must face the workman. They
may be either laid in mortar, or
dry, anel the interstices afterwards
filled, and wedged up, by pouring
in lime-putty, plaster of Paris,
grouting, or any other convenient
material, at the discretion of the
workman, or builder. It is ob-
vious, that arches upon this princi-
ple, having no lateral pressure,
can neither expand at the foot, nor
spring at the crown, consequently
they will want no abutments, re-
quiring only perpendicular walls to
l.e let into, or to rest upon; anel
they will want no incumbent weight
upon the crown, to prevent their
springing up ; a circumstance of
great importance in many situa-
tions, in the construction of bridges.
Another advantage attending this
mode of arching is, that the
cent re s may be struck imm ediately;
so that the same centre (which in
no case need be many feet wide,
whatever may be the breadth of
the arch) may be regularly shifted,
as the work proceeds. But the
greatest and most striking advan-
tage attending this invention is,
the absolute security it affords (and
at a very reasonable rate) against
the possibility of fire ; for, from
the peculiar properties of this
arch, requiring no abutments, it
may be laid upon, or let into com-
mon Avails, no stronger than what
are required for timbers, of which
it will preclude the necessity, and
save the expence....For a more
particular account, we refer the
reader to the third volume of the
" Repertory of Arts and Manufac-
tures," p. 84, and following, of
which he will also find annexed two
plates illustrating the subject.
2. Mr. Francis Farquhar-
son, of Birmingham, England,
obtained a patent (dated Feb. 20,
1798,) for machinery for making
bricks and tiles ; and,
3. Mr. James Douglas, also,
for a machine for making bricks, of
the same date ; but we are not in
possession of the specifications of
the two last-mentioned patents.
4. A very important dis-
covery has lately been made by
Mr. Whitmore Davis, at Castle
Comber, in the county of Kilken-
ny, Ireland. He observed some
persons in the vicinity of a colliery,
to employ a mortar for the backs
of their grates, which in a short
time became hard. This substance
he found, on examination, to be
what miners term scat-coal, or
that fossil which lies between coal
400 B RI
and the rock. It has been sub-
mitted to the investigation of Mr.
Kirwan, who is of opinion, that
it Avill, when mixed in due propor-
tions with clay, produce a kind of
bricks, capable of resisting the ac-
tion of fire, and consequently well
calculated for furnaces, or similar
Structures. Mr. Davis has ac-
cordingly employed it with suc-
cess ; and he farther observes, that
seat-coal, if properly prepared, will
answer every purpose of tarras, for
buildings beneath water.
5. Mr. Isaac Sandford, of
Hartford, in Connecticut, [New-
England,] on the 20th of January,
1800, received the royal patent
for a method communicated to him
by Mr. A. Kinsley, of the same
place, for manufacturing bricks,
tiles, and pottery-ware, in general,
and for discharging the moulds used
therein. The principle of this in-
vention is amply detailed in the
Specification, a copy of which is
inserted in the 13th volume of the
" Repertory of Arts," he. p. 148,
and following, illustrated by a
plate.
[A fair trialof thisplanwas made
by a company in Philadelphia, un-
der the direction of the patentee.
It Avas "found that the machine made
bricks with great rapidity, and in
this respect diminished labour to a
considerable extent; but that in
order to lay them on the ground to
civ, and afterwards to carry them
to the shed, as many hands were
required as in the common mode.
Hence the plan vv as given up.]
To conclude, we shall only add,
that the reasons why the modern
bricks are so very inferior to those
made by the ancients ; which, in
their monuments, after having
withstood the ravages of time for
many centuries, are still in perfect
BRI
preservation, appear to be princi-
pally the folloAving : In the pre-
sent expensive state of society, the
price of manual labour, though
far from being adequate to the
pressure of the times, is so consi-
derable, that the manufacturer is
under a kind of necessity to make
choice of those materials which
are the cheapest and most easily
procured : thus, a mixture of the
most improper earths and clay is
often employed in the manufacture
of bricks, without reflecting that
two bodies specifically different in
their nature, must necessarily re-
quire different degrees of heat in
the kiln, in order to produce an
uniform hardness, and an intimate
combination of parts. On the con-
trary, the ancients not only select-
ed the very best sort of clay, but
combined it with other ingredients
Avell adapted to form the most
complete cement, such as coarsely
powdered charcoal and old mortar
added to the clay. Of this descrip-
tion, likewise, were the bricks
which Professor Pallas, on his
last journey through the southern
provinces of Russia, discovered in
the stupendous Tartar monuments,
and Avhich would scarcely yield to
the force of a hammer. Another
advantage peculiar to the bricks
and tiles manufactured by our
fore-fathers, arose from their me-
thod of burning them uniformly,
after being thoroughly dried. There
is no doubt, that if all the defects
before pointed out, Avere removed,
and modern brick-makers were to
pay more attention to their art, by
digging the clay at proper seasons,
working it better than is done at
present, bestowing more care on
the burning of them, and particu-
larly by making them much thin-
ner than what is prescribed by the
BRI
standard form, we might produce
bricks of an equal strength and
durability to those of our less en-
lightened, but more provident and
industrious, ancestors.
Brick-layers, artisans whose
business it is to build with bricks,
and to perform brick-work ; such
as tiling, Availing, chimney-Avork,
and paving Avith bricks and tiles:
in country places, they also under-
take the masons' and plasterers'
business. The London brick-layers
were incorporated as a regular
company in 1568, consisting of a
master, two wardens, 20 assist-
ants, and 78 of the livery.
The art of brick-laying has been
analysed in a particular treatise by
Moxon ; in which he describes
the materials, tools, and method
of working used by bricklayers.
Great care should be taken that
bricks be laid joint on joint in the
middle of the walls as seldom as
may be. If they be laid in winter,
let them be kept as dry as possi-
ble ; if in summer, they ought
to be Avetted, because they will
then unite Avith the mortar better
than if they Avere quite dry, and
render the work much stronger.
In large buildings, or where it is
too troublesome to dip each brick
separately, water may be thrown
on every course after they are laid,
as was judiciously done, when
building the College of Physicians
in London, on the suggestion of
Dr. Hooke. If bricks are laid in
summer, they should be covered,
to prevent the mortar from drying
too quickly ; because thus it will
not be cemented so firmly as if it
were left to dry more gradually.
In winter also they ought to be
well covered, to protect them from
rain, snow, and frost, which last
is the worst enemy to mortar,
BRI 401
especially if the work has become
wet before the frost happens.
Oil of bricks, a singular pre-
paration, formerly much esteemed
in the cure of many diseases ; but
now justly exploded as absurd and
pernicious rather than useful. It
is obtained by soaking fragments
of bricks in olive oil, and after-
wards distilling them in the usual
manner. In the present improved
state of chemistry, it has been
found that, by this fanciful pro-
cess, the oil of olives, so far from
being impregnated with healing in-
gredients, is necessarily cormpted.
Brick-water, or water impreg-
nated with the contents of bricks,
is possessed of properties so pecu-
liarly striking, and at the same time
so pernicious in their effects, when
used for culinary purposes, that we
cannot, in justice to our readers,
withhold from them the following
curious experiment made by Dr.
Percival, and stated in the first
volume of his Essays. He steeped
two or three pieces of common
brick, four days in a bason full of
distilled water, which he after-
wards decanted off, and examined
by various chemical tests. It was
not miscible with soap ; struck a
lively green with syrup of violets ;
by the fixed alkali, and by a solu-
tion of sugar of lead. No change
was produced on it by an infusion
of tormentil-root. Hence the Doc-
tor justly concluded, that the lining
of wells with bricks, a practice very
common in many places, is ex-
tremely improper, as it cannot fail
to render the water hard and un-
wholesome. Clay generally contains
a variety of heterogeneous matters;
and coloured loams often partici-
pate of bitumen, and the ochre of
iron. Sand and lime-earth are still
more common ingredients in their
402 BRI
BRI
composition ; and the experiments
of Mr. Geoffrey and Mr. Pott
prove, that the earth of alum also
may in considerable quantity be
separated from clay. As, therefore,
clay is exposed to the open air for
a long space of time, before it is
moulded into bricks and burnt, this
process in many respects resembles
that by which tbe alum stone is
prepared. And it is probable, that
the white efflorescence, Avhich is
frequently observable on the sur-
face of new bricks, is of an alumin-
ous nature : indeed the combina-
tions of the vitriolic acid with the
earth of alum, may be sufficiently
accounted for, partly from the long
exposure of clay to the air, before
it is moulded into bricks, and part-
ly from the sulphureous exhalations
of the pit-coal used for burning
them, together with the suffocat-
ing, bituminous vapour arising from
the ignited coal.
[The above experiments of Dr.
Percival are highly interesting,
anel deserve the serious attention
of city corporations and private
persons. The wells of pumps are
in general only steined, that is, lined
Avith dry bricks. Tavo disadvan-
tages arise from this practice. The
first, is the bad cmalities which it
appears are communicated to the
water by the bricks; the second, is
tbe inability of these bricks to pre-
ventthe filthy contents of drainsand
privies from soaking through the
ground into the wells, to vvhich
cause may be fairly attributed the
bad taste of the water in many
pumps in Philadelphia, which Avere
formerly proverbial for their excell-
ence. Every privy and well ought
to be lined Avith the valuable ce-
ment of Capt. Hunn. It is easily
made, and, if the work be Avell
done, the cement will last for ever*
See Cement.]
BRIDGE, aconstruction of stone
timber, or iron, consisting of an
arch or arches, and built over a
river, canal, See. for the convenience
of passengers. A bridge built of
stone is evidently the strongest and
most durable : the proper situation
for it is easily known; and the only
circumstance necessary to be ob-
served is, to make it cross the
stream at right angles, that boats
may readily pass through the arches
with the current of the river.
Those bridges built for a com-
munication between high roads,
ought to be so strong as to resist
all accidents, and afford an easy
passage to the Avaters: they should
therefore be at least as long as the
river is wide at the time of its
greatest flood; because, by the ac-
cumulation of the Avaters above,
too great a fall may be occasioned,
and the foundation of the piers,
and abutments may thus be under-
mined.
The necessary requisites in a
bridge are, that it be well designed,
commodious, durable, and suitably
ornamented. The piers of stone
bridges should be equal in number
that the central arch may be where
the current is strongest. As the
piers always diminish the bed of a
river, it must be holloAved in pro-
portion to the space occupied by
them, especially where frequent
inundations prevail, so that the
waters may gain in depth, what
they lose in breadth. It has been
ascertained by experience, that
Avhen the height of the piers is six
feet, and the arches are circular,
it is sufficient to build the former
two feet more in thickness than the
sixth part of the width of the latter;
B R I
BRI 403
t/r in other words, the thickness of
the piers of an arch of 36 feet
ought to be 8 feet; those of an arch
of 48 feet, 10 feet, 8ec. Rectangu-
lar piers are seldom adopted, ex-
cept in bridges over small rivers.
In all others they project by a tri-
angular prism, which presents an
edge to the stream, in order to di-
vide the water, anel prevent the
accumulation of ice, as well as to
hinder vessels from running against
them.
When the banks of rivers are of
a tolerable height, the bridge should
be made quite level above, and all
the arches of an eejual width ; but
where the banks are Ioav, and, for
the sake of navigation, a large arch
is made in the middle of the stream,
then the bridge ought to be more
elevated in the centre than at the
ends ; in which case the slope
should be easy and gradual on both
sides, so as to form one continued
curve.
The width of small bridges is
generally thirty feet, but those near
large towns usually have thirty feet
clear carriage way, besides the foot-
path : the parapet walls on each
side are about eighteen inches thick
and four feet high; they commonly
project with a cornice underneath;
sometimes ballustrades of stone or
iron are placed upon the parapet,
as at Westminster-bridge ; but this
method is only employed where a
bridge of great extent is construct-
ed near a capital.
Where stone bridges cannot be
erected on account of the expence,
very strong and durable bridges
may be constructed of Avood : these
ought to be so framed, that all the
parts may press upon each other
like an arch: and thus, instead of
being weakened by the pressure of
a heavy body in its passage over it
VOL. I.
they will become stronger. The
method of forming a Avooden bridge
is so well known to every architect,
that it is needless to enlarge upon
the subject.
Among the Romans, the build-
ing and repairing of bridges Avas
committed to the pontifices, or
priests ; and the care of these edi-
fices was afterwards undertaken by
the Emperors themselves. In the
middle ages, the constructing of
bridges was classed among the acts
of religion, and a regular order of
hospitallers was founded by Saint
Benezet, towards the end of the
twelfth century, who were denomi-
nated pontifices, or bridge-builder?.;
their office Avas to facilitate the
progress of travellers, by making
bridges, establishing ferries, and
receiving strangers into hospitals,
or houses, on the banks of rivers.
Of all the bridges of antiquity,
that built by Trajan over the Da-
nube is allowed to be the most
magnificent: the piers were 20 in
number, built of square stone, and
each 150 feet above the founda-
tion, 60 feet in breadth, and 170
feet distant from each other. The
piers of this vast structure still re-
main. Among mcdern bridges,
that built over the Thames at West-
minster, may be considered as one
of the most magnificent in the
world : it consists of 13 large, anel
two small arches, together with 14
intermediate piers : the two mid-
dle piers are each 17 feet in thick-
ness at the commencement of the
arches, and contain 3000 cubic
feet, or near 200 tons of solid
stone : the middle arch is 76 feet
wide.
We cannot,in justice, avoid men-
tioning the patriotic efforts of Mr.
Burdon, .member for Durham,
who in 1792 obtained an act for
3 E
404 BRI
BRI
the erection of a bridge across the
river Wear, near Sunderland. This
Structure is of cast iron, and con-
sists of six ribs, at five feet distance
from each other : the spandrils are
composed of cast iron circles. The
six ribs were put together over the
river in the short space of ten days.
The superstructure is of timber,
planked over to support the car-
riage-road, Avhich is composed of
marl, lime-stone, and gravel, Avith
a cement of tar and chalk upon the
planks, to preserve them: the
whole width of the bridge is 32
feet, and the arch is supposed to
Aveigh upwards of 900 tons, of
which 260 are iron.
This magnificent structure is
erected on improved principles, yet
differing from those adopted by
the Colebrook-Dale Company. Al-
though adhering to the ancientcon-
struction of bridges, by the subdivi-
sion of the parts of the arch, in the
manner of key-stones, Mr. Bur-
don took advantage of the duc-
tility and tenacity of iron, to pro-
duce an arch of that metal, at least
fifteen times lighter than a corres-
ponding arch of stone, and most
easily put together.
The expence of constructing this
bridge amounted to 26,0001. the
whole of which, except 40001. Avas
furnished by Mr. Burdon. This
gentleman, in 1795, also obtained
a patent for his invention of the
manner of making and applying
cast iron blocks, to be substituted
in lieu of key-stones, in the con-
struction of arches, which blocks,
tubes, 8cc. he employed in the
bridge above-mentioned.
A patent was granted to Mr.
Nash, of Dover-street, in 1797,
for an invention somewhat similar
tp that above-mentioned. He pro-
tides hoiloAv masses of cast or
wrought iron, which are to be filled
with earth, sand, Sec and have the
appearance of solid bodies. Ac-
cording to this plan, the arch of
the bridge is formed by hollow
frames, or boxes, each consisting
of four sides and a bottom. These
boxes, after being properly arrang-
ed in the manner stated by the pa-
tentee, are then to be filled with
sand, stones, 8cc. by Avhich means
the arch becomes like one solid
body cased with iron. A farther
explanation of this invention may
be seen in the sixth volume of the
Repertory of Arts and Manufac-
tures.
The latest patent for bridges,
was that granted in June 1800, to
Mr. Samuel Wyatt, of Chelsea
College, for his invention of a new
method of constructing bridges,
ware-houses, Sec. without the use of
wood, as a constituent part. The
principle of his discovery consists
in the combination of pipes, tubes,
or hollow pieces of cast iron, in a
longitudinal direction, and plates or
pieces of the same material, having
sockets in them to receive the ends
or shoulders of the pipes, placed
transversely, and extending from
one side of the bridge to the other,
so that when the reciiiisite number
of pipes, Sec. are put together, they
form the arch so firmly as not to
reepiire the aid of screws, bolts,
cramps, or any iron fastening Avhat-
ever; but the joints should be
closed Avith lead or cement.
When applied to ware-houses and
other buildings, Mr. Wyatt's in-
vention consists in forming arched
cielings of cast iron, and support-
ing them and the floors by hollow
pillars, or cylinders, of the same
material. It ought to be remarked,
that the number of sockets in the
transverse iron plates, should al-
BRI
ways correspond with the number
of ribs in the arch.
Various other kinds of bridges
are constructed, according to the
purposes to Avhich they are de-
signed, such as pendent or hang-
ing-bridges, draw-bridges, floating-
bridges, and those made of copper,
or wooden-boats, fastened with
stakes or anchors, and covered
with planks; but as the descrip-
tion of them would swell this ar-
ticle to an undue length, and as they
are not immediately connected with
subjects of economy, we shall con-
tent ourselves with having given
the preceding account of bridges
in general.
[The bridge Avhich Judge Find-
ley, (near Union-town), had under-
taken to erect across Jacob's Creek,
at the joint expence of Fayette and
Westmoreland counties, Pennsyl-
vania, near Judge Meason's, on
the great road leading from Union-
toAvn to Greensburgh, is now com-
pleted. Its construction is on prin-
ciples entirely new, and is perhaps
the only one of the kind in the
world. It is solely supported by
two iron chains, extended over 4
piers, 14 feet higher than the
bridge, fastened in the ground at
the ends, describing a curve line,
touching the level of the bridge in
the centre. The first tier of joists
are hung to the chains, by iron pen-
dents or stirrups of different
lengths, so as to form a level of
the whole. The bridge is of 70
feet span and 13 feet wide; the
chains are of an inch square bar,
in links from five to ten feet long,
but so that there is a joint, where
each pendent must bear.
The projector, has made many
experiments, to ascertain the real
strength of iron, anel asserts, that
an inch square bar of tolerable
BRI 405
iron, in this position will bear be-
tween 30 and 40 tons, and of course,
less than one eighth part of the
iron employed in the bridge,
would be sufficient to bear the neat
weight thereof, being about twelve
or thirteen tons.
Mr. Findley, embarked in this
business at his own risk, and en-
gaged that the work should endure
at least 50 years (except what
should be necessary for repairs of
flooring) for the moderate sum of
six hundred dollars: He further
observes, that a bridge of the same
width and 280 feet span, would be
about 50 tons weight, the chains
double as strong as the foregoing,
the whole of the iron required,
would then amount to six tons, and
say the smith-work to half its va-
lue. The piers 46 feet 8 inches
high....These chains, so placed,
would support 240 tons, decluct its
own weight of timber, and so much
of the iron, as falls between the
piers, say 53 tons, remainder 237
tons.]
BRINE, or Pickle, is water sa-
turated with saline particles. It is
either native, as the sea-water ; or
factitious, when formed by a solu-
tion of salt in water.
Pickle made according to the
common rule, that it should bear
an egg, may be sufficiently strong
to preserve substances intended for
early use. A true pickle, however*
for preserving meat, fish, and
butter, during a long voyage, ought
to be boiled down till the salt be-
gins to crystalize, which is disco-
verable by a thin scum on the sur-
face of the liquid while it continues
over the fire. The water being then
completely saturated with salt, the
pickle is perfect.
In th: salt-Avorks at Upw;ck. in
Worcestershire, a pit yields at th*
406 BRI
BR r
same ti ne three sorts of brine,-of
different legrees of strength. This
pit is worked by a pump, and the
strongest salt first brought up from
the bottom, is called first man ; the
next, Avhich is of an inferior qua-
lity, is denominated middle man ;
and the third, or Aveakest, last man.
Leach brine is Avhat drops from
the granulated salt in drying: it is
preserved and boiled a second time,
being stronger than the brine of the
pit.. The species of sand found in
the Staffordshire brines, after coc-
tion,tit is supposed by naturalists to
be produced by that operation, as it
Avas not previously found in the
water.
Brine-pan, a place where salt-
water is confined and exposed to
the heat of the sun, by which salt
is obtained by evaporation.
Brine-springs, those saline foun-
tains Avhich yield water for the
manufacture of salt. It is sup-
posed that the saline spring at
NamptAvich, in Cheshire, Avould
be sufficient to yield salt for the
consumption of the whole country.
Besides this, there are several
other remarkable brine-springs in
England, particularly that of East-
Chennock, in Somersetshire, Avhich
rises twenty miles from the sea;
and another at Barrowdale, near
Keswick, in Cumberland. The
latter rises in a plain near a bog,
and sixteen gallons of the Avater
yield one of pure salt, which is
the more remarkable, as an equal
quantity cannot be obtained from
less than twenty-two gallons of the
waters of the German ocean.
There are several other salt-
springs beside those above men-
tioned, particularly at a place in
Durham, called Salt-water Haug/i,
where a multitude of saline springs
rise in the river Wear, to the ex-
tent of about forty yards in length?
and ten in breadth. One of these,
which issues from a rock is so
strong, that in the space of a hot
summer's day, the surface is cover-
ed with pure crystalized salt. In
these springs the Avater is strongest
at the bottom, and richer in dry
than in wet weather. They gene-
rally yield four ounces of salt to a
pound of brine. It is probable that
there is an immense mass of fossil
salt in the bowels of the earth in
the counties where these springs
arise. There are several other sub-
stances dissolved in this water be-
side salt, particularly sulphureous
matter, an impure ochre which dis-
colours the brine, but speedily sub-
sides; and in most, a selenitic
earth is found deposited at the bot-
tom of the salt-pans.
Brining of Corn....See Smut.
[BRISTOL MINERAL WA-
TERS, are near the town of Bris-
tol, twenty miles north of Philadel-
phia. Dr. De Normandie first
analysed them, as appears by his
paper in the 1st volume of the
Transactions of the American
Philosophical Society, and they
were again subjected to a more
critical examination by Dr. Rush ;
both these physicians found
them strongly impregnated with
iron, and it is certain that they
have produced very excellent ef-
fects in all cases of general debili-
ty, whether resulting from previous
disease, or natural causes. They
powerfully increase the appetite,
in cases of jaundice, or of great
weakness and derangement of the
system, attended with chronic liver
complaints, they have frequently
been of great service. In a relax-
ation of the stomach and nervers,
which very often produce violent
sick headachs, the Bristol wa-
BRO
B R O 407
ters when used in the way of a
shower-bath, and also drank freely,
are truly valuable. They have been
highly useful in gravelly complaints :
they must, however, be drank re-
gularly, and aided by temperance,
and the strict observance of such a
diet as is found to agree best with
the stomach. Prom half a pint to
a pint, may be taken three times a
day : when the cold bath is used,
care must be taken to accommo-
date it to the strength of the pa-
tient. At first, the water may be
a little warmed ; afterwards, the
water should be used of its natural
temperature.
Bristol waters were formerly
much used ; but they have latterly
given way to the more fashionable
places at Ball-town New-York, and
the springs of Virginia.]
BROAD-CAST, a term in hus-
bandry, used to denote a particular
mode of sowing corn, pulse, tur-
nips, clover, grasses, and most
field-plants. When seeds are scat-
tered over the surface of the
ground by the hand, they are said
to be sown in broad-cast; by which
this method is distinguished from
drilling, and horse-hoeing, or the
new husbandry.
The comparative merit of the
drill and broad-cast, has, by several
experiments, been determined in
favor of the former. One of the
most practical details on this sub-
ject, was communicated to the«So-
cietyfor the Encouragement of Arts,
Manufactures, and Commerce, by
Mr. Boote, of Atherstone, who,
in the year 1789, obtained the gold
medal from that patriotic institu-
tion, as an acknowledgement of
his merit, in ascertaining this inte-
resting point.
Mr. Boote selected a piece of
cold clay land of twenty acres, four
of which were drilled with four
bushels of wheat; and, at the same
time, four acres adjoining, of a si-
milar soil, were sown in the broad-
cast way, with ten bushels of the
same grain.
In the beginning of April, 1788,
the drilled wheat was first hoed,
and again in the last week of the
same month, when the broad-cast
was also hoed, with hoes of a pro-
per size for the purpose.
At harvest, the crops were se-
parately reaped and threshed, to
ascertain the difference of each
produce. That of the four acres
drilled was one hundred and nine-
teen bushels, one gallon, and four
pints; and the four acres broad-
cast yielded ninety-four bushels,
two gallons,and four pints. Hence
the difference in favour of the for-
mer, was twenty-four bushels, se-
ven gallons, valued at five shillings
and six pence a bushel, together
Avith six bushels of seed saved by
drilling, which cost seven shillings
anel four pence half-penny a bushel*
amounting in the whole to nine
pounds one shilling and three
farthings.
In this comparative experiment,
a bushel of wheat produced by the
broad-cast Avas nearly equal in
Aveight to a bushel of that obtained
from the drill. Mr. Greenway,
however, by an experiment made
in the year 1787, found that the
grain of his drilled crop Avas supe-
rior to that of his broad-cast, not
only in quantity -..:.. in quality, the
former weighing two pounds per
bushel more than the latter. But
as his broad-cast crop was not hoed,
n may be fairly inferred, that it did
not arrive at full maturity, either
in co.isequence of the injury doi.e
to it by weeds, or for want of the
soil being pulverized by the hoc-
408 B R O
BRO
The superiority of the drill me-
thod, in the culture of turnips, was
ascertained by Mr. Dann, of Gil-
lingham, and the silver medal of
the Society adjudged to him for his
successful experiment.
On the 6th of July, 1789, he
drilled four acres of turnips, and,
on the same day, in the same field,
he sowed two acres broad-cast. A
very considerable difference ap-
peared in favour of the dri lied plants,
from their first coming up, in con-
sequence of which he soAved no
more by broad-cast. The drilled
turnips were ready for hoeing five
or six days before those that were
soAvn broad-cast on the same day.
Besides drilled turnips being less
liable to injury from frost, and less
difficult to hoe, than those sown by
broad-cast, about three-fifths of the
seed used in the latter method, are
sufficient for the ground when dril-
led. When the turnips were come
to maturity, Mr. Dann selected
two perches from each of those cul-
tivated according to the different
methods before -mentioned, and
found that the two perches drilled,
produced 494 lbs. and those broad-
cast only 446 lbs.....making a dif-
ference of 48 lbs. in favour of the
former method.
It must be evident to the agri-
culturist, that seed deposited from
one and a half to three inches deep
in the soil, will vegetate sooner, and
grow faster, than that sown on the
surface, Avhich is seldom buried
deeper than from one-quarter of an
inch to an inch....at a season, when
moisture is particularly requisite
for the growth of the plant.
BROCCOLI, a species of the
Brassica, or Cabbage-plant, culti-
vated for the use of the table.....
There are several kinds of this
plant, particularly the purple, the
white, and the black broccoli, &c*
but the Roman, or purple species,
is preferable to all others. The
seeds of this vegetable should be
sown about the latter end of May,
or beginning of June, and when
the young plants have germinated
eight leaves, they should be trans-
planted into beds. By this manage-
ment, towards the latter end of July
they will be fit to be planted out
in some well sheltered piece of
ground, at the distance of a foot
and a half in the toavs, and two
feet between each row.
The soil proper for broccoli is
rather light than heavy. The
brown or black species, though in-
ferior to the Roman is much har-
dier. It should be sown in the mid-
dle of May, and planted about two
feet and a half asunder. Naples
broccoli has a white head similar
to the cauliflower, and is scarcely
distinguishable from it in flavour.
According to Dr. Darwin, the
cultivation of broccoli and cauli-
flower must be very similar, ex-
cept as to the seasons of the year;
for they are varieties of the same
species. The following directions
for the culture of this plant Avere
transmitted to the Doctor by Mr.
Tighe, of Ireland; Avhich for their
practical utility, we shall lay before
our readers.
Broccoli may be so managed, as
to supply the table with a delicious
and salutary vegetable during se-
ven months of the year, namely,
from the beginning of November
till the end of May. For this pur-
pose, procure prime seed from
Rome or Naples, both for early and
late sowing. Sow at the cessation
of the vernal snows, and repeat it
once a month till the end of May,
or longer. When three leaves ap-
pear, transplant them; and whetf
BRO
six leaves appear, transplant them
a second time. Afterwards in June,
July and August, transplant them
again two or three feet asunder,
and let them remain. During Sep-
tember and October, the ground
must be loosened, repeatedly clear-
ed from weeds and stones, and the
plants earthed up, to preserve their
roots from the frost, and to prevent
their being injured by the equinoc-
tial winds. Sprinkle the mould
about them occasionally with wa-
ter impregnated with dung. Care
should be taken to sow and plant
them at a distance from hedges,
trees, and walls.
The head of the broccoli is ge-
nerally completed in five or six
days from its first appearance, and
should not be suffered to remain
much longer; the stalk may be
boiled with the flower, but should
be peeled before it is brought to
the table.
Some kinds of Italian broccoli
are said to produce bulbs at their
roots, which are supposed to be for
the purpose of supporting other
stems. If such stalks appear, they
should be broken off Avhen the
principal stem is transplanted.
In order to obtain good seed of
the Naples broccoli, a few of the
largest heads of the earliest growth
must be reserved to run up to seed.
All the under shoots should be
taken off from time to time as they
sprout, leaving only the principal
stem to produce flowers and seed.
By this management, if no other
species of cabbage be permitted to
seed near the broccoli, its seeds
will be as good as those imported,
and the propagation of the plant
may thus be continued for many
years.
BROME-GRASS, or Bromus,
L. a genus of plants comprehend-
ing forty-six species.
BRO 409
1. The Stcalinus, or Smooth
Rye Brome-grass; the Polymorphu*
of Withering ; which floAvers in
July. Cattle are fond of this grass,
the seeds of which are prevalent
among rye, in a considerable pro-
portion, and Avhen ground with the
latter for bread, not only render it
blackish, but produce a narcotic or
stupifying effect. From its flower-
bundles, as Bechstein informs us,
a beautiful green dye may be easi-
ly extracted.
2. The mollis, or Soft Brome-
grass, Lob-grass or Oat-grass, is
mostly found growing in corn-
fields, though sometimes in mea-
dows, pastures, hedge-banks, and
even on walls: flowers in May and
June. Bechstein affirms that this
plant affords a very agreeable fod-
der to all kinds of cattle, and that
it deserves to be cultivated on sandy
lands, as being well adapted to con-
solidate the soil. But its merits
and demerits, in an agricultural
view, are not sufficiently ascertain-
ed. Mr. Swayne says, that it is
a troublesome weed in corn-fields,
and therefore disliked by farmers ;
while it is of little value in pastures
and mowing grounds, where it ge-
nerally sheds its seed before the
time of mowing, and produces ve-
ry feAV root-leaves.
3. The pinnatus (Festuca pin-
r.ata, L.) or Spiked Heath Brome-
grass is found groAving on heaths,
and fields of a calcareous soil: it
flowers in July. This grass is
much relished by cattle of every
de^c iption, but especially by sheep
and goats.
It deserves to be remarked, with
respect to the different species of
brome-grass, that, though they may
be alloAved to grow in meadows and
pasture grounds, their seeds should
not be suffered to mingle with
corn. To extirpate this noxious
410 BRO
BRO
weed from rye and wheat-grounds,
the farmer Avill find it his interest
to employ (as is frequently done on
the continent) young people, or
even children, in early Aveeding.
Such an expedient should be parti-
cularly adopted, when the crop of
a promising field of Avheat is in-
tended for seeel-corn ; as, by this
precaution, not only the land may
be cleared of the pernicious roots,
but the farther propagation of this
weed will be effectually prevented.
Lastly, the seeds of brome-grass,
Avhen mixed with corn, render it
much lighter, and consequently of
less value to those who purchase
and sell grain by weight.
BRONZE, a metallic compound
of copper and tin, to which zinc
and other substances are sometimes
added. It is hard, brittle, sonorous
and specifically heavier than the
metals of Avhich it is composed.
M. Tillet, in his memoir con-
cerning the ductility of metals, ob-
serves, that in bronze the colour of
the copper is totally disguised by
that of the tin, even though the
proportion of the former be four-
fifths to that of the latter. This
compound is much more fusible
than copper alone, and less liable to
be covered Avith verdigrise.
From the properties here enu-
merated it appears, that bronze is
well calculated for the casting of
bells, cannons, statues, and other
Avorks exposed to the air and Avea-
ther.
Bronze-colour, in imitation of
the metal, is much used by the
colourmen of Paris, Avho prepare
two sorts of it, namely, the red
bronze, and the yelloAv or golden :
the latter is made solely of the very
finest and brightest copper-dust;
the former is prepared of the same
material, by adding a small propor-
tion of well pulverised red ochre.
Both are applied, with varnishes,
to the outside of substances, as
gold leaves are in gilding. But, to
prevent it from turning green, the
bronzed work should, as soon as
laid on, be carefully dried over a
chafing-dish.
BROOK, a little river, or small
current of water. It is distinguish-
ed from a river by this circum-
stance, that in general it has a cur-
rent only at particular seasons,
whereas a river flows throughout
the year.
Considerable damage is some-
times occasioned by the overflow.
of brooks, in consequence of sud-
den and heavy falls of rains. An
inundation is caused by a stoppage
of the water in its course, which
prevents it from running off as fast
as it comes in ; consecpiently, if
the channel for the efflux be larger
than that for the influx, the water
will not overflow the banks. Thus,
by opening the channel of the river
Welland, at Harborough, in Lei-
cestershire, England,to a consider-
able distance beloAv the bridge,
the river has never since overflow-
ed the town, as it formerly did after
sudden rain.
The legislature has enforced the
clearing of the channels of brooks
near turnpike-roads, by enacting,
that the commissioners shall give
notice in writing, to the* overseers
of the highways, of the several pa-
rishes through which such brooks
or rivers flow, to open their re-
spective channels, that the Avater
may have free passage.
BROOK-LIME, the Veronica
Beccabunga, L. a species of Speed-
avell, growing in sIoav shallow
streams, and near springs that sel-
dom freeze. The whole of this
perennial plant is smooth and sue-
BRO
BRO 4U
culent; the stem creeping; the
leaves are egg-shaped, flat, ser-
rated Avith glands ; the blossoms
Avhich are blue, appear in June and
July....We have mentioned it as
one of the neglected vegetables,
which may occasionally be used for
culinary purposes, and particularly
as a salad.
^ BROOM, the Common, or S/?ar-
tium scoparium, L. an indigenous
plant, very common on sandy pas-
tures and heaths, and requiring no
particular description. When grow-
ing of a large size, the broom de-
serves a place among our flowering
shrubs, on account of the profusion
of its gold-coloured blossoms. Its
use is very extensive, not only in
domestic economy, but likewise in
the arts, and in medicine. Although
this vegetable is chiefly employed
for making brooms, thatching
houses, and covering stacks in pre-
ference to straw, as it more readilv
admits the air into the stack, and
equally well secures it from rain ;
yet it also serves as a substitute for
the oak-bark, in the tanning of
leather ; for which purpose both
the twigs and branches are usefully
employed. The old wood of the
common broom furnishes the cabi-
net-maker with most beautiful
materials for veneering. In some
places, the tender branches of this
plant are mixed Avith hops in brew-
ing ; but we doubt whether they
are wholesome, as it is affirmed
that sheep become intoxicated by
browsing upon them. The flower-
buds may be preserved as pickles,
and eaten instead of capers. From
the roasted seeds, a kind of coffee
has been maele by the house-wife,
though of inferior taste to that ob-
tained from the roots of the carrot,
beet, succory, &c.
The macerated bark of the broom
has been found sufficiently fibrous
v ol . I.
and elastic, to be manufactured
into cloth....A tolerably pure alka-
line salt is produced by burning the
whole plant.
In proof of the medicinal proper-
ties of this vegetable. Dr. Mead
relates the case of a dropsical per-
son, who was recovered by taking
half a pint of the decoction of green
broom-tops, with a spoonful of
whole mustard seed, every morn-
ing and evening. The patient had
been tapped three times, and had
tried the usual remedies to no pur-
pose. Dr. Withering, on this oc-
casion, observes, that an infusion
of the seeds, drunk freely, has been
known to produce similar happy
effects ; but whoever expects such
benefit to follow in every dropsical
case, will be greatly deceived. He
has known them succeed in one
case that was tmly deplorable ; but
out of a great number of trials fairly
made, this proved to be the only-
instance, in which the medicine
had a good effect. A strong lixivium
of the ashes was used in the Sweed-
ish army, in the year 1759, for the
cure of dropsies consequent to a
catarrhal epidemic fever. The
urine became plentiful, and the pa-
tients were soon restored to per-
fect health.
Broom, the Spanish, or Sparti-
um junceum, L. an exotic shrub,
which may be easily cultivated in
our climate, by sowing it either in
the spring or autumn : but as the
plants will not succeed Avhen re-
moved after attaining a large size,
they should be transplanted before
they are two years old....The twigs
are employed for basket-AVork, and
the flowers afford a plentiful sup-
ply of food for bees : hence the cul-
ture of this shmb is recommended
near bee-hives.
Broom-grass. See Brome-
grass.
3 F
412 BRO
BROTH, a liquor in Avhich the
flesh of animals has been boiled ;
and which is rendered palatable by
the addition of herbs, Sec. If other
ingredients be used, such as rice,
pearl-barley, oat-meal, Sec. it is
then generally called soup.
We have already, in the article
Beef-tea, pointed out the com-
mon error, that broth is more easi-
ly digested than solid food. And
though we are countenanced in
this opinion by the most enlight-
ened physicians of the age, yet, we
fear, that old customs and deep-
rooted prejudices will continue to
prevail, while supported by so
many old women, beside those
of the Faculty. Perhaps nothing
but experimental conviction of the
contrary, can produce a change of
sentiments inbibed with the mo-
ther's milk. Mutton-broth, veal-
broth, and chicken-broth, are such
comfortable things, Avhen the ap-
petite is disordered, and the sto-
mach fastidious, that they are ge-
nerally administered in all states of
fever, Avithout any regard to the
nature of the disease, or the con-
stitution of the patient. In this
preposterous manner, the stomach
is inundated, and the bowels are
drenched, till all their tone and
vigour are irrecoverably destroyed.
Indeed, from the slight degree of
attention paid to the subject of
diet, an accurate observer may be
led to conclude, that the stomach
is destined for a certain time to
serve the purpose of a laboratory,
where the effect of medicines is to
be ascertained, before the vessel to
be used in this chemical process
has acquired sufficient vigour to
withstand the attack. Yet such is
the infatuation of the multitude,
that they would rather encourage
the prosperous commerce in eme-
BRO
tics and purgatives, than listen to
suggestions, which tend to con-
fute spurious notions; and, by
correcting their former errors,
would eventually deprive them of
many favourite cups and dishes.
Thus, we are not vain enough to
flatter ourselves with producing
such a change on the prevailing
manner of living, as to banish
either teas or broths to their pro-
per places...the apothecaries'shops;
and to substitute in their room,
more wholesome articles of nutri-
ment ; though we are firmly per-
suaded, from reason and daily ex-
perience, that the physical order
of things has also been perverted in
the present age, and that the swal-
lowing of drugs is not a primary,
but a secondary, object in the cure
of diseases.
To return from this digression,
which every friend of suffering hu-
manity will readily excuse, we
shall give a few directions for pre-
paring broths from other substan-
ces, beside those made of butcher's
meat.
Artificial Broth. Dr. Darwin
observes, that all the mushrooms
which are cooked at our tables, as
Avell as the ketchup made by pre-
serving their juices in salt and Ava-
ter, possess an animal flavour. In
proof of this, the following cir-
cumstance may be adduced, which
occurred in a family of invalids,
who frequently wanted weak broth:
the sagacious cook-maid repeatedly
eleceived them, by administering a
mixture of thin gruel with a small
quantity of good ketchup, aeleling
only a little salt, and a feAV shred-
leaves of parsley.
Fish-broth, though nourishing.
is by no means equal to that made
of Avholesome butcher's meat. Af-
ter separating the heads of fish,
BRO
gutting, and carefully cleansing
them from the gall, put them into
an earthen pipkin, or a tin sauce-
pan, and cover them with water,
from half an inch to one inch above
their surface, accordingly as the
broth is intended to be weak or
strong. Onions, parsley, or celery,
may be added at pleasure, and the
whole should be seasoned with
pepper anel salt. After simmering
the fish over a gentle fire, till they
fall to pieces, add a proportionate
lump of fresh butter well floured:
when this is dissolved, and the li-
quor strained from the bones, the
broth is ready for the table ; and
may be eaten with bread, either
toasted or plain. The fish best adapt-
ed for making this palatable soup, are
mackerel, perch, roach, dace, gud-
geons, bleak, or minnows. And
though we do not recommend the
preparation of such liquid dishes as
eligible, either in point of health
or economy, yet as fish in many
places, especially near the sea-
coast, are of easy purchase, they
may occasionally serve as good sub-
stitutes for more solid animal food,
for Avhich we have lately submitted
to pay an exorbitant and unreason-
able price.
Broth for horses, was formerly
considered as an useful medicine
for these noble animals, especially
in all complaints of the bowels, or
the colic. Some farriers also com-
mended the use of broth made of
■ tripe, on account of its mucila-
ginous quality, in fevers and other
elistempers, Avhich prevent a horse
from feeding. From later and more
accurate observations, however, it
appears that liquid animal food,
being contrary to their nature, is
pernicious to granivorouscreatures,
and may generate such disorders as
cannot be easily remedied. The
B R U 413
use of broth should therefore be
confined to the administration of
clysters when a horse is costive:
thus, by injecting two or three
quarts of a fat and emollient de-
coction, prepared either of tripe or
other intestinal substances contain-
ing fatty matter, the crude visci-
dities of the bowels may be re-
lieved. If the guts be very full, so
as to require a strong stimulus,
more or less common salt may be
added to the clyster, without Avhich
the operation will seldom succeed.
BRUISES, or contusions, being
frequently neglected at first, may
produce consequences more alarm-
ing than those of wounds. "Blows
received on the head, pit of the
stomach, hip, or the knee, are the
most dangerous. A violent inflam-
mation, in consequence of injured
nerves, or the destruction of blood
vessels, often occasions the morti-
fication of those parts, which the
most skilful treatment cannot re-
trieve, if the accident be neglected
for many hours or days. Instead,
therefore, of listening to officious
old women, or neighbours, an ex-
perienced surgeon ought instantly
to be consulted. We know a re-
cent melancholy instance, of a most
promising youth, Avho, when study-
ing physic at Edinburgh, was so
improvident as to suffer a slight
contusion on the knee to pass un-
noticed ; which, however, proved
fatal to him a week after the acci-
dent.
When the contusion is slight/
fomentations Avith lukeAvarm vine-
gar and water, repeatedly applied
to the part, will generally relieve
it: but if it be of'a more serious
nature, either decoctions of the
German leopard's bane (Arnica
montana, L.) or arquebusade wa-
ter may be preferably used........
414 B R U
BRU
•Dr.BucHAN informs us, that he has
often seen cataplasms of fresh
cow-dung applied to violent con-
tusions occasioned by blows, falls,
bruises, Sec. and never knew them
fail to have a good effect. In more
violent cases of this nature, the pa-
tient's diet and regimen ought to
be in every respect similar to that
suggested under the head of In-
flammation.
Bruises, if neglected, even in
temperate climates, are often at-
tended with painful effects; but
'they frequently prove fatal in hot
countries....With a view to pre-
vent inflammation, Dr. Dancer
advises speedily to apply embroca-
tions, consisting of opodeldoc ; of
camphor and strong rum; or of
both the last mentioned articles
with a little soap; to which a small
quantity of laudanum may be add-
ed. Should the inflammatory symp-
toms increase, he directs the fol-
lowing saturnine solution to be
employed: Let one or two tea-
spoonsful of Goulard's extract, or
from one to two drachms of sugar
of lead, be combined with 8 oz. of
water, 4 oz. of vinegar, and two
tea-spoonsful of laudanum. Last-
ly, to remove the debility which
usually remains after contusions,
or sprains of the joints, he recom-
mends the affusion of cold water,
or stimulating frictions, and elec-
tricity.
Bruises of dogs, which they of-
ten receive either in hunting, or by
ether accidents, may be cured, ac-
cording to Professor Bradley, in
the folloAving manner : If a bruise
appear externally, anoint the SAvell-
ing with a decoction of chickAveed
and groundsel, boiled in strong
ale ; which will assuage the pain,
and reduce the tumor: but, if it
be a wound, cut away the hair, and
co\-er it with a plaster made of
equal quantities of the roots of
great comfrey, meliot, and oil of
roses. As the latter, however,
might be too expensive an ingre-
dient, we recommend either to sub-
stitute a little of the spirit of turpen-
tine, or more simply, to lay two or
three folds of the common black,
adhesive plaster on the injured
part, immediately after the acci-
dent, so as to prevent bleeding, and
to exclude the air. But, if there
be reason to suspect that the
bruise is imvard, give the dog a
drench, composed of a pint of new
milk, and a quarter of an ounce of
spermaceti.
Bruises on the withers of a Horse,
arise from pinches of the saddle,
and from want of care, often im-
posthumate, and turn fistulous.
Such tumors may be bathed three
or four times a day with warm
vinegar; and if this application
proves ineffectual, either an ounce
of the oil of vitriol, or half an ounce
of white vitriol, dissolved in a little
Avater, should be mixed with a
quart of vinegar, which makes an
excellent repellent lotion, and will
frequently prevent the formation of
an abscess. But when the swell-
ing is attended with heat,smarting,
and little watery pimples, the fol-
lowing mixture may be preferally
applied : take two ounces of crude
sal ammoniac, boiled in a quart of
lime-water ; or, instead of these, a
handful of wood, or pearl-ashes,
boiled in common water ; pour off
the decoction, when settled, and
mix it with half a pint of spirit of
wine ; anoint the parts afterwards
with lintseed oil, or elder oint-
ment, to soften and smooth the
skin.
In critical swellings, however,
tbe repelling method roust be
BRU
.avoided, and the swelling relieved
by suppurating poultices. These
tumors ought never to be opened
before they are ripe, but suffered
to break of themselves ; otherwise
the whole sore will be spongy, dis-
charge a bloody ichor, and soon
degenerate into an ulcer. The
openings, however, may be enlarg-
ed, and the lips pared away, that
the dressings maybe easily applied,
taking care to avoid the ligament,
which runs along the neck to the
Avithers. If a suppuration appears
on the opposite side, let it be treat-
ed in the same manner. The open-
ings should incline downward, to
let the matter flow out easily. If
the bones are foul, they must be
dressed with tincture of myrrh, till
they scale off. When the fungus
is very troublesome, and the matter
discharged is oily, yellow, and vis-
cid, pleelgets soaked in the follow-
ing preparation will be found be-
neficial : take of blue vitriol, dis-
solved in a pint of water, half an
ounce; oil of turpentine, and rec-
tified spirit of wine, of each four
ounces ; white wine vinegar, six
ounces; oil of vitriol, and ^Egyp-
tiacum, of each two ounces. Let
this be made hot, and the pledgets
soaked in it, and then immediately
applied to the part affected, taking
, care to bathe the SAvelling round it
Avith spirit of wine and vinegar.
When the cavities are fistulous, the
callosities must be cut out Avith a
knife, where it can be done conve-
niently, and the remainder be de-
stroyed by corrosives.
BRUSH, a domestic implement,
consisting generally of a collection
of hairs or bristles, fastened in a
frame of wood, bone, or ivory ;
with, or without a handle; and
used for various purposes. This
simple manufacture is capable of
BRU 415
great improvement; as we seldom
meet with brushes, the hair of
which is so firmly cemented, or
otherwise secured in the frame, as
to ensure their constant use, until
the hair itself is worn out by me-
chanical friction. We shall, un-
der the head of Cement, commu-
nicate a few hints for remedying
this defect.
Flesh-Brush, an instrument fre-
quently employed for increasing
the circulation of the fluids in lan-
guid habits, especially in paralytic
and rheumatic cases, in order to
relieve pain and uneasiness of me
skin. Although Ave do not depre-
cate, but rather strongly recom-
mend, friction to the aged and se-
dentary in particular, yet we are
of opinion that this simple and use-
ful operation may be performed
with equal ease, and more atten-
tion to cleanliness, by a piece of
flannel, than by a flesh-brush ; be-
cause the perspirable matter ad-
hering to each hair of the latter, is
thus spread from one part of the
body to another: whereas the for-
mer may be frequently turned, and
afterwards washed, as often as is
necessary.
Stomach-Brush, a curious instru-
ment which excited considerable
attention about the middle of the
last century. It was invented by
the ancient physicians, but again
brought forward by the surgeons
of France and Germany, with a
view to scower or cleanse the
stomach, or remove foreign bodies
fallen down the fauces and gullet.
It consists of a piece of sponge
fastened to a long whale-bone
probe ; or is composed of soft hair,
formed into a fascicle by twisted
brass or steel-wire, the handle or
stem of which may be invested
with silk or thread. Previous to
416 BRU
B RU
its application, the patient drinks a
small draught of warm water; then
the brush, being moistened in some
convenient liquor, is introduced
into the gullet, and sloAvly pro-
truded into the stomach, by twist-
ing round its wire-handle. We
doubt, however, whether many of
our readers Avould submit to this
painful operation, which we have
mentioned here, on the authority of
the Gentleman's Magazine for De-
cember, 1750; where a medical
correspondent farther advises the
operator to draw the handle of
this brush up and down in the
stomach, and through the oeso-
phagus, like the sucker in a
syringe till it be, at length, wholly*
extracted. He farther suggests the
utility of plentiful drinking, while
the brush is at work, and so long as
any foul matters are discharged.
Those readers who incline to try
the experiment (which probably no
modern surgeon would recommend,
unless for removing material ob-
structions in the throat, Sec.) will
find a cut of this instrument in the
Avork above-mentioned...See Gul-
let, Windpipe, and [Probang.]
Tooth-brush.....Many complaints
prevail concerning the imperfect
manner inAvhich these instruments
are manufactured. We shall not
presume to offer any advice to the
mechanic ; having, in this respect,
uniformly deprecated the use of
either brushes or sponges. Regard-
less of vulgarprejudices,we venture
to recommend the application of
the small finger to the gums, Avhen
there are no interstices between the
teeth ; or the use of a soft piece of
calico: the former is a natural
instrument, not liable to hurt the
gums, as it has the advantage of
being soft and pliable; and, by
foeling the least pressure or resist-
ance, will have no tendency to in-
jure the teeth or gums. Nothing,
therefore, but injudicious delicacy
can oppose this simple substitu-
tion.
BRUTE, a general name for all
animals, except mankind. Among
brutes, the monkey kind bears the
nearest resemblance to the human
race, both in external shape, and
internal organization. Investiga-
tions relative to the structure and
economy of brutes, form the sub-
ject of what is called Comparative
Anatomy.
The essential characteristics of
brutes, by which they may be dis-
tinguished from man, have attract-
ed the attention of many philoso-
phers. By some, a brute is de-
fined to be an animal not risible, or
a living creature incapable of laugh-
ter ; by others a mute animal. The
peripatetics alloAved to brutes a sen-
sitive power, but denied them a ra-
tional one. The Platonists consi-
dered them as possessed of reason
and understanding; though, in a
degree less pure and refined than
that of man. Descartes main-
tained that brutes are mere inani-
mate machines, destitute not only
of .reason, but of all thought and
perception ; and that their actions
are only consequences of the ex-
quisite mechanism of their bodies.
This opinion was probably adopted
by Descartes' with a view to ob-
viate two objections of great mag-
nitude : one, against the immor-
tality of the souls of brutes, if they
be allowed to have any ; the other,
against the goodness of God, in
suffering creatures which had never
sinned to be subject to so many
miseries. The Cartesian system
is far from being conclusive, be-
cause, even admitting the argu-
ments in its favour, to their utmost
BRU
extent, it only establishes the pos-
sibility of brutes being inanimate,
and that the power of God is capa-
ble of producing various actions
from inanimate machines, but by
no means proves that he actually
has done so ; besides which, it is
defective, because it has no limits,
as by the Cartesian method of ar-
guing, every man might prove his
neighbour to be an inanimate ma-
chine, as well as a brute.
The most rational opposers of
the Cartesian system, maintain that
brutes are endowed with a princi-
ple of sensation, though of an in-
ferior nature to ours. From this
subject many disputes have origin-
ated ; some persons insisting that
the soul in brutes is merely sensi-
tive, and that they are entirely des-
titute of reason and understand-
ing ; others, that they not only
possess the power of reason, but
employ it to greater advantage than
men do. That bmtes are endow-
ed only Avith sensation, and are
destitute of all power of reason-
ing, or reflection, cannot be main-
tained upon good grounds, nor can
it be asserted that their actions
proceed entirely from instinct. It
is proved by numerous instances,
that education will overcome many
of the natural instincts of brutes,
which could never be the case, if
they were absolutely incapable of
reflection. On the other hand, it
is certain that no brute has ever
yet been sufficiently qualified by
instructions, either to understand
the use of fire, or to undertake the
management of that element; a
circumstance that alone seems to
imply a total defect of rationality.
There is a very ingenious trea-
tise on this subject, published by
the late Prof. Bergmann, entitleei,
" Researches designed to sheAv
B R Y 417
what the Bmte Animals certainly
are not, and also Avhat they proba-
bly are." He proves that they are
not machines, without, hoAvever,
considering them as beings whose
actions are directed to moral ends,
or as accountable creatures subject
to future rewards or punishments.
That brutes are capable of re-
flection and sentiment, and are sus-
ceptible of the kindly as Avell as the
irascible passions, independently of
sexual attachment and natural af-
fection, is evident, from the vari-
ous instances of regard and grati-
tude daily observable in different
animals, particularly the dog: of
these and other sentiments, such
as pride and glory, many surpris-
ing and indubitable proofs are ex-
hibited by the elephant, of which
we shall give some account in its
proper place.
But, besides the qualities above
alluded to, certain animals seem,
on many occasions, to be inspired
with a kind of presentiment, with
respect to events unforeseen by the
rational beings whom they con-
cern ; and various instances of this
faculty may probably occur to the
recollection of most of our readers.
By Divine Revelation, brutes
are held out to us as objects of
mercy : nothing, therefore, can be
a greater reproach tohuman nature,
than cruelty towards dumb and
helpless animals. Of the differ-
ent species of cruelty, none Avas
more general in England, particu-
larly in the metropolis, than that
of bullock-hunting; but it is to be
hoped, that by the late legal en-
actments, together Avith the vigi-
lance of the magistracy, this bar-
barous practice will at length be
entirely suppressed.
BRYONY, the White, or more
properly, the Red-berried Bry-
418 B R Y
BRY
Ony, or Wild-wine ; the Bryonia
alba or dioica, L. The root is pe-
rennial, large, often a foot in cir-
cumference ; the stem is several
yards" in length ; the leaves nearly
hand-shaped ; the flowers of a yel-
lowish green colour, appearing in
May and June ; and the fruit is a
smooth red berry, containing five
or six seeds. Some curious persons
have a method of carving these
roots into human figures, and sel-
ling them as mandrakes ; but this
useful production may be converted
to much better purposes. By long
steeping, and cleansing in seA'eral
waters, the roots may ultimately
be deprived of all their acrimony
and bitterness, so as to afford a to-
lerable flour; from which (if credit
be due to the late Rev.. Dr. Boh-
mer, senior of the University of
Wittenberg, in Saxony), M. Mo-
rand has prepared both starch and
bread.
Although this is generally consi-
dered as one of the poisonous na-
tive vegetables, yet there is reason
to believe that, especially in sum-
mer, Avhen the bitter juice has in a
great measure ascended from the
root to the stalk and branches, it
may usefully be converted into
bread : and as it grows to a prodi-
gious size, a little trouble would
be Avell rewarded ....Mr. Holle-
fear states, that two or three of
the berries have been eaten Avith-
out any observable effect.
Bryony-root is purgative and
acrid: its smell, Avhen fresh, is
strong and disagreeable : its taste
nauseously bitter. In spring, it
abounds Avith a thin, milky juice,
Avhich is so sharp as speedily to
excoriate the skin ; but a great part
of the acrimony, and almost the
whole of the scent, is lost by dry-
ing. In summer, the root is less
juicy, and weaker both in smell
and taste. An extract prepared in
water, acts more mildly, and with
greater safety, than the root in sub-
stance. When given in a quantity
from half a drachm to a drachm,
or half an ounce of it infused in
wine, it proves a gentle purgative,
and likewise operates powerfully by
urine. Hence small doses of its
milky juice have been strongly re-
commended by Bergius, for drop-
sical and asthmatic complaints. A
cold infusion of the root, in water,
is externally used in rheumatic
pains, or the sciatica. In the form
of a cataplasm, it proves a most
powerful discutient. Decoctions
made with one pound of the fresh
root, are the best purgatives for
horned cattle. In short, observes
Dr. Withering, the active vir-
tues of this plant entitle it to more
attention than is bestowed on it at
present.
BRYONY, the Black, or the
Bryony lady-seal, the Tamus com-
munis, L. It has a large root,
sending forth several stems, large
heart-shaped, dark green leaves;
greenish flowers, and red berries.
It blows from May to August, and
is frequently found under hedges.
According to Dr. Withering, its
young shoots are good eating,when
dressed like asparagus ; but horses
refuse to eat the plant. Its root is
like that of the white bryony, acrid
and stimulating.
The several exotic species of the
bryony, as the Africana, the race-
mosa, with a red olive-shaped fruit,
the Cretica, or spotted bryony of
Crete, the variegata, or American
bryony, merit cultivation, on ac-
count of their beautiful appearance,
when full of fruit.
BUC
B U C 419
BUCK-BEAN, or Menyanthes,
L. a genus of plants, comprising
four species.
1. The trifbliata, or marsh tre-
foil, water trefoil, marsh-cleaver,
or trefoil buck-bean: it grows in
moist, marshy places, in many
parts of Britain, and its very beau-
tiful flowers appear in June and
July. This useful plant is, accord-
ing to Bechstein, a very agreea-
ble fodder to cattle : its cultivation
is therefore recommended, for im-
proving marshy lands. Dr. Wi-
thering informs us that cows,
horses, and swine refuse it. From
experiments made at Upsal, in
Sweden, it appears that though
goats eat it, sheep will not always
relish its leaves ; which, by some
persons, are smoked instead of to-
bacco. It is farther asserted by
others, that such sheep as have a
relish for the marsh trefoil are, by
eating it, cured of the rot.
In Lapland, the powdered roots
of this plant are converted into
bread, which, however, is not very
palatable : and the country people
of West-Gothland, in Sweden, em-
ploy it for imparting a bitter to ale ;
for which purpose two ounces are
equally efficacious as one pound of
hops.
Dr. Darwin also recommends
these leaves as a substitute for
hops ; anel adds, that they might be
equally wholesome and palatable.
In dyeing they afford, according
to Bechstein, a green and yellow
colour.
An infusion of the leaves is ex-
tremely bitter, and is prescribed in
rheumatisms and dropsies : one
drachm of them, in powder, both
purges and vomits ; and is occa-
sionally given as a vermifuge. Dr.
Lewis considers the Menyanthes
as a powerful aperient and deob-
VOL. I.
struent, promoting the fluid secre-
tions. It has of late gained great
reputation in scorbutic and scro-
phulous disorders. Inveterate af-
fections of the skin, have been cur-
ed by an infusion of the leaves taken
at proper intervals, to the quantity
of a pint in twenty-four hours, and
continued for several weeks....Bo-
er haave cured himself of the
gout, by drinking the juice of this
plant mixed with whey. Stubborn
facts, like this, require great au-
thorities.
2. The nymphaoides, or fringed
buck-bean, or lesser yellow-water-
lily, growing in large ditches and
slow streams. The leaves of this
species are heart-shaped at the
base, rounded at the end, some-
times spotted, about two inches
long, and swim on the water. Its
fine yellow blossoms appear in July
and August.
Bechstein relates, that the in-
habitants of Japan, where the
fringed buck-bean is also indige-
nous, eat it as a pickle, simply
prepared with salt; or, after sim-
mering it in water, and removing
the impurities from the top, they
use it in broths.
BUCK-THORN, or Rhamnus,
L. a numerous genus of plants,
consisting of 48 species.
1. The catharticus, or purging
buckthorn, a shrub groAving in
Avoods and hedges, very common
in Shropshire, England. It at-
tains, if cultivated, the height of
16 feet, flowers in May and June,
and its fruit ripens about Michael-
mas. Goats, sheep, and horses,
eat the leaves, but cows refuse
them. In our markets, the fruit of
the black-berry bearing alder, and
the dog-berry tree, have lately been
substituted for those of the buck-
thorn. But this species of fraud
3 G
426 BUG
BUC
may be easily discovered by open-
ing the berries ; for the genuine
kind have generally four seeds,
those of the'alder two, and those
of the dog-berry only one. Be-
sides, buck-thorn berries alone,
Avhen bruised on white paper, give
it a green tint. The wood of this
shrub is one of the finest for tur-
nery, produced in this climate, as
it sometimes grows to a size of six
or eight inches in diameter. From
the juice of the unripe berries, with
alum, a yellow ; and from the ripe
ones, a fine green dye is obtained:
the bark also strikes a yelloAV and
broAvn-red colour. The juice of the
unripe berries is of the colour.of
saffron, and is used for staining
maps or paper : that of the ripe
berries is the sap-green of minia-
ture-painters, and is much esteem-
ed ; but if they are gathered late
in autumn, the juice is purple.
Bechstein remarks, that the
book-binders in Germany extract
this colour by mixing the fresh
juice Avith deep-red, or violet li-
quids, with which they dye the
most beautiful sorts of paper and
leather.
In medicine, buck-thorn berries
have long been esteemed, and a
syrup prepared from them is still
kept in the apothecaries' shops,
though seldom prescribed; as it
occasions much sickness and grip-
ing. In a late Latin treatise, pub-
lished by Dr. J. G. Kolb, of Er-
lang, 1794, the bark of the buck-
thorn is much recommended as a
mild, cheap, and efficacious reme-
dy, in every respect preferable to
the berries. After being exposed to
the air,or soaked in water, this bark
soon assumes a yellow, orange
colour. It contains a considerable
proportion of gummy ingredients,
which render it a tonic, gently as-
tringent, and antiseptic medicine.
The resinous extract is acrid and
astringent, strongly purgative and
resolvent: but the bark, in pow-
der, mixed with honey, gum ara-
bic, or any other mucilage, as well
as a watery decoction of it, operates
mildly, when taken in small doses,
for the cure of intermittents: it
may also be beneficially employed
in slow, putrid, or nervous fevers,
and in general debility after chronic
diseases. Externally applied, in
green Avounds, laxity of the fibres,
malignant foul ulcers, and in stop-
ping the progress of mortification,
this remedy possesses tonic, gently
stimulating and healing proper-
ties. The decoction is of great
service in reducing inveterate in-
flammations of the eyes, and curing
the itch; as it cleanses the skin,
and abates the burning heat, with-
out repelling the humours. But it
should never be employed in ulcers
that have arisen in consequence of
erysipelas, or the rose : in other
cases, its application will always
be more safe, and attended with
better effects, when it is at the same
time used internally.
2. \ihe frangula, or alder buck-
thorn, or black-berry bearing alder,
grows in Avoods and moist hedges;
it generally attains a height of from
six to ten feet. The wood of this
shrub, Avhen young, is soft and
yellow, but becomes hard and light-
red with age : its external bark is
dark-grey, with white spots, but
internally yellow; the branches
contain an orange-coloured medul-
lary tube. Its yellowish leaves
appear late in May, or June, and
sometimes a second foliage comes
forth in autumn. The berries are
at first dark-green, then become
red, and at length black, when ful-
ly ripe ; containing a sweet, though
BUC
BUG 421
unpleasant juice. Goats devour
the leaves with avidity, and they
are also eaten by sheep : the flow-
ers are particularly grateful to bees.
The bark dyes yellow, and with
iron, black. The berries gathered
before they are ripe, dye" avooI
green. Charcoal prepared from
the wood, is preferred in making
gun-powder. Dambourney made
the following successful experi-
ment with the ripe berries. He
bmised them in cold water, and
alloAved the whole to undergo the
vinous fermentation, which took
place in eight days. This liquor
he boiled for half an hour, and
then dyed wool that had been pre-
viously prepared Avith bismuth:
thus he obtained a very beautiful
green colour, which he called a
new, or native green, because it
was not in the least affected either
by strong vinegar, or a solution of
potash. On adding a little sugar
of lead to the dye, the vivacity
of the colour was considerably in-
creased.
The rind, boiled in milk, is as-
serted to be a safe and efficacious
remedy for eruptions of the skin ;
yet Ave do not advise the reader to
try experiments Avith this, or simi-
lar remedies without consulting a
medical friend. Decoctions of the
bark in table-beer, are very certain
and brisk purgatives, in dropsies,
or constipations of the bowels of
cattle.
Buck-Thorn, the Sea, or com-
mon salloAV-thorn, the Hippopha
rhamnoides, L. is a very important
shrub, growing wild on sandy
shores, in various parts of the Bri-
tish coast, it sometimes attains the
height of eight or ten feet. Its
bark is light-brown the wood
white, the small leaves of a sea-
green colour, but silvery white be-
low. The leaves appear early
in spring; the yellow flowers in
June and July ; the fine red ber-
ries late in autumn.
In situations contiguous to the
sea-shore, or the banks of rivulets,
this shrub eminently deserves to
be cultivated, as it is Avell calculat-
ed to bind a sandy soil, and to
prevent the water from penetrat-
ing through banks and fences. It
may be raised from seeds, but
more expeditiously by planting
layers, or propagating it from the
very abundant spreaeling roots.....
On account of its thorny points, it
affords excellent hedges, even on
a sandy soil.
Although cows refuse the leaves
of the sea buck-thorn, yet they are
broAvsed upon by goats, sheep, and
horses. The berries are strongly
acid, with an austere vinous fla-
vour : in Lapland, they are pickled
and used as spice, but the fisher-
men of the Gulph of Bothnia pre-
pare from them a rob, which, ad-
ded to fresh fish, imparts a very
grateful flavour.
From the leaves of this shmb,
M. Suckow obtained an agree-
able dark-brown dye for wool and
silk, first treated with vitriol of
iron : Dambourney succeeded in
producing a similar colour on cloth
that had been previously steeped in
a solution of bismuth.
BUCK-WHEAT, the Polygo-
num fagnpyrum, L. a species of
the Persicaria, also called snake-
weed, bucke,branks, French wheat,
or crap. As this useful plant re-
quires no botanical description, we
shall proceed to state its most ap-
proved method of culture, and im-
portant uses in agriculture: both
subj ects being intimately connected.
422 BUC
BUC
Buck-wheat was introduced into
Europe nearly four centuries since;
and, according to Gerard's Her-
bal, cultivated in England, about
the year 1597......It is a native of
the northern parts of Asia. Dur-
ing the last thirty years it has ex-
cited the attention of able agricul-
turists, who have furnished us with
the following result of their ex-
perience. This grain delights in a
mellow, dry, loose, sandy soil, but
does not thrive so well in a free
loamy stone-brash, and should
never be sown in wet, poachy
ground. It requires little or. no
manure, but frequent sun-shine....
On heaths newly ploughed up, the
turf of which has been burnt, or
that have been manured with Avood-
ashes, its vegetation is luxuriant.
The proper season for soAving is the
last week in [July.] A shower of
rain, after the seed is harrowed in,
greatly promotes its groAvth, and
it generally appears above ground
in five or six days.
Buck-wheat is in flower through-
out the summer, and would yield
much larger crops, if all the grains
would uniformly ripen, and could
be collected at the same time.....
About half a bushel is sown on each
acre, in this country ; and the Ger-
mans calculate sixty pounds weight
to every hundred square rods of
land. [From seven to eight weeks]
only are required for bringing it to
maturity, and it produces from
twelve to tAventy fold. In this state
it affords an excellent substitute for
hay ; and it is affirmed, that the
German farmer obtains, at less ex-
pence than by mowing and drying
the whole in the usual Avay, ten
times the quantity of corn.
Another variety of this grain was,
about a century ago, introduced in-
to Germany, and has lately also
been cultivated in Britain, knoAvri
by the name of Siberian Buck-
wheat. It possesses considerable
advantages over the former; be-
cause it is not only a fourth part
heavier in the grain, but also more
palatable, and, in this respect, re-
sembles rice. It thrives in the
poorest soil, is not affected by cold,
and being more disposed to branch
out and spread its stalks, requires
scarcely one half of the seed ne-
cessary for the culture of the pre-
ceding species.
From repeated experiments,
made in this country, it appears
that the culture of buck-wheat
ought, in many cases, to be adopt-
ed in preference to a summer-fal-
lowing; as the crop produced is
not only so much clear gain, but
also affords a considerable quantity
of straw for fodder and manure ;
besides which, it is a more advan-
tageous preparation for the next
crop. There will be sufficient
time to soav the land with buck-
wheat after spring feedings, a crop
of turnip-rooted cabbage or vetch-
es. When sown in July, buck-
wheat is an excellent sheltering
crop to clover ; and two crops of
this grain have,in favourable years,
been obtained from the same land.
Mr. Arthur Young, in the sixth
volumn of the Annals of Agricul-
ture, has inserted an instructive
paper, communicated by the Rev.
R. Moseley (Sept. 11th, 1786,)
from which we leam the following
valuable facts : That three crops
were sown on the same ground,
between autumn and autumn, with
only three ploughings, namely,
winter-tares in September, with
one ploughing, which were reaped
early in the succeeding summer;
BUC
BUC 423
then immediately buck-Avheat Avas
sown, after one ploughing and har-
rowing : in September the buck-
wheat was ploughed in, and Avheat
was sown on this one ploughing,
the crop of which was great. Thus,
says Mr. Young, as the spring ad-
vances, and the sun becomes poAV-
erful enough to exhale the humidi-
ty of the land, the crop also ad-
vances and screens it from the ac-
tion of his beams. The weeds in
the soil vegetating with the young
tares, are either strangled by their
luxuriance, or cut off with them,
before they produce seed. This
crop is cleared from the land so
early, that the soil Avould remain
exposed to the sun for three
months, in the most scorching heat
of the summer; and, if thus left
exposed, the three ploughings
would be hurtful to the soil, except
that they might destroy some
weeds. Hence to give one plough-
in gwmfrfzafe/i/, and harrow in buck-
wheat, saves expence; and the
growing herbage shades the earth,
when it most requires to be pro-
tected : by this management, a
dressing of manure is gained at the
cheapest possible rate. In short,
to introduce a system more com-
plete, is not in the power of sci-
ence.
It appears to be undecided, whe-
ther buck-wheat improves or im-
poA-erishes the soil. There can be
no doubt that it will produce the
latter effect, like all plants that are
suffered to run to seed ; and, on
the contrary, that it renders the
soil more fertile,when ploughed in,
before the seeds are formed. Such
at least, is the opinion of Mr.
Bordley and Mr. Farrer a con-
siderable corn-factor in London.
But Mr. Young, whose knowledge
and reputation are equally great,
observes, on the strength of his
own experience, that this plant
ameliorates the soil insomuch, that
the farmer may have any crop after
it, especially wheat; for which
reason it is (1784) commonly culti-
vated about Norwich, England.
One of the principal uses of
buck-wheat in this country, is that
of feeding horses. Mr. Farrer
advises it to be mixed with bran,
chaff, or grains, either whole or
broken in a mill. When consum-
ed in the state of grass, it flushes
coavs with milk ; hence it is pre-
sumed, that the meal mixed with
grains would have the same good
effect, and enrich the milk. One
bushel of it is equal to two bushels
of oats, even mixeel with beans,
and four times the quantity of bran;
it will be full food for a horse a-
Aveek, and require much less hay.
According to his experience, eight
bushels of buck-wheat meal will go
as far as twelve bushels of barley
meal. But the American farmers
assert, that it is an improper food
for horses on a journey, or employ-
ed in active labour; though its
meal, when mixed with other com,
or cut straw, answers well even for
horses in a slow draught. It is
unquestionably a cheap corn, sub-
servient to many good purposes,
and peculiarly excellent for fatten-
ing hogs and poultry : the former
are said to become intoxicated by
eating the whole plant; but no such
effect takes place from the seeds
alone. Dr. Withering observes,
that sheep feeding upon this vege-
table, become unhealthy ; but it is
relished by cows and goats.
[Hogs feeding upon this vegeta-
ble are very liable to scabby erup-
tions.
Buck-Avheat should be sown thin,
because the top blossoms are very
424 BUC
BUC
apt to be burnt by the sun, in which
case, the under ones will be saved,
as they spread out and protect one
another from the sun. If sown
tliick, the plants cannot throw out
under branches. If the grain
stands, when ripe, it may be cra-
dled ; but Avhen it has fallen, the
scythe must be used, and the crop
permitted to lie three days....then
raked while the dew is on, to. pre-
vent the grain shedding....then
threshed by horses.
Buck-wheat answers very well
with clover. Sow the buck-wheat
first and harrow, then sow the clo-
ver seed, and let the roller follow
immediately. In this way the land
Avill be sown even, and the ground
made level for the cradle. The
advantages of the buck-wheat are,
that it preserves the moisture of
the land, in case a dry season
should follow; shelters the clover
till the month of Oct. when the
buck-Avheat is cut: after which,
the sun can no longer injure
the clover, but gives it a due por-
tion of warmth, and pushes it for-
Avard until the cold of winter locks
up all vegetation.
With respect to the question,
Avhether buck-Avheat is, or is not an
exhauster of the soil, a positive
answer may be given. A field in-
tended for barley, Avas partly sown
with buck-Avheat, and when in blos-
som in Sept. it Avas ploughed in ;
the other part of the field was left
falloAv until seed time. In the suc-
ceeding season, the barley groAving
on the part in which the buck-
Avheat had been ploughed, Avas evi-
dently superior to that Avhich grew
on the fallow part. This experi-
ment, made by a plain farmer, on
the German-toAvn road, with a lau-
dable Aiew of determining the
question, leaves no room to doubt,
that buck-wheat ploughed in when in
full blossom, acts as an excellent
green dressing manure.
The straw of buck-wheat is but
little esteemed. Sheep, however,
feed on it. It also makes good
manure when thrown into the farm
yard.]
For culinary purposes, also, the
grain of the buck-wheat is used in
various forms, anel affords a nutri-
tious meal, which is not apt to turn
sour on the stomach. Mixed with
barley, it is in Tuscany, baked in-
to bread, which possesses the pro-
perty of retaining its moisture
much longer than that of pure
wheat; and though of a darker co-
lour, it is equally nourishing.....
In Germany, a very palatable grit,
or a granulated meal, serving as
an ingredient in pottage, puddings,
Sec. is prepared of buck-wheat;
and if the seed be pure, the pro-
duce of each bushel is ten pecks.
In the electorate of Brandenburgh,
not only ale and beer is brewed
from a mixture of it with malt, but
likewise a veiy excellent spirit of
a blueish shade is obtained by dis-
tillation ; the flavour of which re-
sembles that of French brandy.
The taste and colour of stale beer,
may be much improved by addifig
a small quantity of the flour of this
grain.
From this, as well as the pre-
ceding species of buck-wheat, the
Tartars prepare a delicious food,
by simply blanching the seeds, with-
out mills or ovens, in a manner
very ingenious, and applicable to
most other species of grain. They
first pour cold water on the seed,
and stir it well, in order to bring the
light and imperfect grains to the
top, Avhich are thrown away with
the water. Then the wet com is
put in sacks, where it is suffered to
BUC
BUC 425
remain from ten to twelve hours :
thus, after swelling a little, it is
roasted over a slow fire in iron pans,
and continually stirred till the grain
becomes tolerably hard, so that it
feels tough and elastic, between the
teeth. In this manner, the husks
soon crack, and may easily be se-
parated from the kernel, in one of
the plainest domestic implements,
a wooden mortar, or a bruising ma-
chine made of the hollow trunk of
a tree. By this process, the grain
acquires a yellow transparent ap-
pearance, and is much improved in
taste.
[Buck-Wheat reduced to flour,
mixed with water, and a little yeast,
will rise in the course of two hours,
if placed near a fire, and being then
baked upon a hot iron, previously
greased, forms very pleasant cakes,
which when buttered, constitute
part of the diet of many persons in
the U. States during the winter.
By depriving the grain of its husk
before grinding, the flour is render-
ed white, and is much esteemed.]
From the fresh blossoms of these
plants, Dambourney dyed wool,
prepared with bismuth and tin, of
a beautiful brown colour; and, from
the dryed floAver-bundles, different
shades of green. Those of the Si-
berian species, in particular, yield-
ed a fine yellow, which, on boiling
the wool still longer in the dye,
changed into a golden tint, and at
length assumed a brilliant yellow.
There is a third species of buck-
Avheat, thecultureof which has late-
ly been strongly recommended by
Professor Pallas, and Dr. Wi-
thering ; and which we shall pre-
sently describe.
Buck-Wheat, the Climbing,
black bindweed, or climbing snake-
weed ; the Polygonum convolvulus,
I., a native vegetable, groAving
about corn-fields, gardens, and
hedges ; it floAvers in June and
July. Its seeds are as good as
those of the two preceding species,
are produced in greater quantity,
may be more easily collected, as
they ripen more uniformly, and the
plants bear cold better than the ex-
otics before mentioned. Accord-
ing to Linnaeus, cows and goats
eat it, but sheep, swine, anel horses,
refuse it.
Its culture in fields, is, however,
attended Avith this inconvenience,
that its creeping stalks must be
supported by brush-wood, and it is
consequently better adapted for be-
ing cultivated in gardens.
It is remarkable, that most Bri-
tish and foreign Avriters indiscri-
minately recommend the culture
of the buck-wheat, likeAvise, on ac-
count of its flowers, which are very
grateful, and beneficial to bees ;
and that Dr. Darwin, in particu-
lar, (see page 243 of this Encyclo-
paedia), mentions a species of buck-
wheat, the Polygonum melampirum,
of which we can find no account in
the botanical works of this country:
with deference to his profound
knowledge of natural history, we
are almost inclined to think, the
Doctor alludes to a very different
species of buck-Avheat (perhaps
cow-wheat) that is not cultivated
in Britain.
BUCKING, one of the opera-
tions performed in the Avhitening of
linen cloth,or yarn.....See Bleach-
ing.
BUCKRAM, is coarse linen
cloth, stiffened with glue, and used
in the makingof garments, to keep
them in proper form. It also
serves for av rappers to cover cloths,
serges, and other articles,of mer-
chandize, in order to preserve them
from being soiled, and prevent their
426 BUD
colours from fading. In general,
old sheets and pieces of cloth are
converted into buckram ; but some-
times new ^pieces of linen cloth are
used for that purpose. Buckrams
are sold wholesale by the dozen of
remnants, or small pieces, of about
four ells long, and of different
breadths.
BUD, in botany, the embryo or
rudiment of a plant, growing on
the stems anel branches of trees,
and covered with scales, or with a
resinous varnish, to protect it from
the winter cold, and from the de-
predation of insects....Buds proceed
from the extremities of the young
shoots, and along the branches,
sometimes single, sometimes two
by two, either opposite or alternate,
and sometimes collecteel in greater
numbers. In general, we may dis-
tinguish three kinds of buds : the
leaf-bud, the flower bud, and that
containing both in one covering.
The first species contains the rudi-
ments of several leaves, which are
variously folded over each other,
and surrounded by scales. The
second species, or flower bud, con-
tains the rudiments of one or seve-
ral flowers, folded and covered in
a similar manner. This bud is
called by Pliny oculusgemma, or
the eye of the bud, and is employed
in that species of grafting, called
inoculation. The third sort, which
is the* most common of any, pro-
duces both flowers and leaves.
Buds, together Avith bulbs, Avhich
are a species of buds, generally
seated on, or near the root, are
very properly called by Linn^us
hybernacula, a term signifying the
winter-quarters of the embryon
shoot.
As plants are supposed to bear a
striking analogy to animals, they
may, not improperly, be reckoned
BUD
both v iviparous and oviparous ; in
Avhich view, seeds may be consi-
dered as vegetable eggs ; buds, as
living foetuses, or infant plants,
which renew the species as certain-
ly as the seed.
As each bud contains in itself
the rudiments of a plant, and would,
if separated from its parent vege-
table, become in all respects similar
to it, Linnaeus, to shew the won-
derful fertility of Nature, has made
a calculation, from which it appears,
that in a trunk scarce exceeding a
span in breadth, no less than ten
thousand buds may be produced.
How great then must be the num-
ber of plants, which are capable of
being raised from one large tree!
.....See the article Leaves.
Flower-buds of many trees, says
Dr. Darwin, arise immediately
from the terminating shoots or
spurs of the preceding year, and
are either accompanied with leaf
buds or separately, as in apple and
pear-trees. Others proceed from
the shoots of the present year, al-
ternately with leaf-buds, as those
of vines, and form the third or
fourth buds of the new shoots.
They differ from leaf-buds, because
they perish when their seeds are
ripe, without producing any addi-
tion to the tree ; the leaf-buds, on
the contrary, decay in autumn, and
their caudexes are then gradually
converted into alburnum, or sap-
wood ; over which the new leaf-
buds shoot forth their caudexes
and radicles, or insert them into it,
and gradually fabricate the new
bark and root fibres.
Some of the disciples of Lin n;&•
us are of opinion, that about Mid-
summer leaf-buds may be changed
into floAver-buds, orflower-buds into
leaf-buds ; and this may be effected
even after the vegetable embryons
BUG
are generated, by weakening or
strengthening the growth of the
last year's buds. Hence, if some
inches of a branch be lopped off
at Midsummer, which is sometimes
done by unskilful gardeners, the
remaining buds on that branch will
become more vigorous, and produce
leaf-buds instead of flower-buds.
But the contrary effect will take
place, if a vigorous branch of a
wall-tree be bent beneath the hori-
zon, so as to impede the generation
of new caudexes.
Budding. See Engrafting.
[BUFFALO.....Some successful
attempts have been made in the
Western Country to domesticate
this very powerful animal. When
taken young they are broken to
the yoke with as little trouble as
common steers. Considering the
uncommon strength of this animal,
which is twice as great as that of
oxen, and the great numbers that
are annually killed by the hunters,
in the wilds of the Western World;
it is surprising that they are not
upon every farm on the Mississippi
and Ohio. It is very probable that
a cross with a common cow might
produce a highly valuable breed,
and it h an experiment worthy of
the numerous enterprising charac-
ters residing in that extensive coun-
try.]
BUG, in zoology, a species of
cimex, too well known to need any
description. Of the various recipes
for the extirpatidi. anel prevention
of these vermin, the following have
been found by experience, to be
the most effectual:
1. Take of the highest rectified
spirit of wine, half a pint; newly
distilled oil, or spirit of turpentine,
half a pint: mix them together,
and crumble into it half an ounce
vol. i.
BUG 427
of camphor, which will dissolve in
a few minutes: shake the whole
well together, and with a piece of
sponge, or brush dipped into it,
anoint the bed, or furniture, in
which those vermin harbour and
breed ; and it will infallibly kill
and destroy both them and their
nits. Should any bug, or bugs,
happen to appear after once using
it, the application must be repeat-
ed, and at the same time some of
the mixture poured into the joints
and holes of the bedstead and head-
board. Beds that have much
wood-work, require to be first
taken down, before they can be
thoroughly cleared of these ver-
min ; but others may be perfectly
cured without that trouble....It is
advisable to perform this work in
the day-time, lest the spirit con-
tained in the mixture take fire from
the candle, while using it, and oc-
casion serious damage :
2. Or, Take an ounce of quick-
silver, and the whites of six or
eight eggs ; beat them together till
the quicksilver appears like a black
sediment at the bottom of the ba-
son ; then rub it over all the joints
and crevices of the bed with a
painter's brush. This will have
the desired effect, while it gives a
varnish to the furniture, and im-
parts no disagreeable smell.
3. Or, mix the pulp of the bitter
apple with a solution of vitriol, and
apply the composition carefully to
all the crevices, Avhich serve as a
nursery to the bu> at present, used in
our daily food, chiefly on account
of its agreeable taste, Ave shall
first speak of its physical proper-
ties....To render it less hurtful, it
ought to be perfectly fresh, and
free from rancidity; which it easily
acquires, if the butter-milk has not
been completely separated. Fried,
or burnt butter, is still more detri-
mental to health ; as it is thus con-
verted into an acrid, and even caus-
tic fluid, which cannot fail to dis-
order the stomach* to render di-
BUT
BUT 453
gestion difficult and painful, to
excite rancid belchings, and ulti-
mately, to taint all the fluids with
a peculiar acrimony. Hence, toast
and butter should never be eaten
by persons who value their health;
as there are many who, even by
fresh butter, are affected with those
inconveniencies. Nor can we re-
commend the prevailing custom of
melting butter with flour and wa-
ter; for, in this manner, it forms
a compound more indigestible,than
sweet butter is in its natural state.
Butter, forms a considerable ar-
ticle of trade. It is affirmed that
not less than 50,000 tons are an-
nually consumed in London; of
which the counties of Cambridge
and Suffolk are said to furnish
.50,000 firkins, each containing
561b. None, however, is equal
to that produced in Essex, and
known by the name of Epping but-
ter, which Avas formerly sold at
from 12d. to 14d. per pound avoir-
dupois ; but, lately, at the exorbi-
tant price of Is. 8d.
With respect to the various me-
thods of making butter, we shall
state only those practised in Essex;
to enable the reader to select the
most useful parts of the different
processes, and apply them to par-
ticular situations.
The Epping method has been
describedby Mr. Josiah Hazard;
from whose directions Ave extract
the following particulars : After
having stated the proper requisites
for a Dairy-house, which we
shall communicate under that hcael
of the alphabet, he observes, that
a good milch-cow may be worth
from 7 to 101. a year, whereas an
indifferent one will bring in no
more than from 5 to 61. during the
same period: hence the farmer
ihou'.d never keep any but such as
afford an abundance of milk. No
milk must be suffered-to remain in
the udder, as by this neglect the
coav will give less every meal, till
at length she becomes dry before
her proper time, and, the next
season, will scarcely give suffici-
ent to repay the expences of keep-
ing her.
If a cow's teats are scratched, or
Avounded, her milk will be foul,
and should not be mixed with that
of other cows, but given to pigs.
In warm weather, the milk should
remain in the pail till it is nearly
cool, before it is strained ; but, in
frosty weather, this should be done
immediately, and a small quantity
of boiling water mixed with it;
which will produce cream in abun-
dance, especially in pans, or vats,
of a large surface.
During the hot summer-months,
the milk should stand only 24
hours, and the cream be skimmed
from it, either early in the morn-
ing, before the dairy becomes
Avarm ; or jn the evening, after
sunset. In winter, the milk may
remain unskimmed for 3-6, or even
•48 hours ; the cream ought to be
preserved in a deep pan, kept, dur-
ing summer, in the coolest part of
the dairy, or in a cool cellar where
a free air is admitted. Dr. An-
derson (whose aphorism on this
subject we shall quote at the con-
clusion of the present article), is of
opinion, that the temperature of a
dairy should, if possible, be kept
between 50 and 55* of Fahrenheit;
Avhich is nearly about the average
temperature of a building secured
from the external air, in the man-
ner he has proposed ; and a deli-
neation of which the reaelerwill find
under the article Milkhouse.
Those, Avho have not an oppor-
tunity of churning every other
454 BUT
BUT
day, should shift the cream daily
into clean pans, in order to keep
it cool; but they should regularly
churn twice a Aveek in hot wea-
ther, and this in the morning be-
fore sun-rise, taking care to fix
the churn in a free draught of air.
Nor should this vessel be exposed
to a fire so near as to heat the
wood in cold seasons, as by this
means the butter will acquire a
strong rancid flavour.
A correspondent in the Papers
of the Bath and West-qf-England
Society, observes, that the opera-
tion of churning may be much
facilitated, by adding a table-
spoonful or two of distilled vinegar
to a gallon of cream, but not till
after the latter has undergone consi-
derable agitation. When the butter
is churned, it should immediately
be washed in several waters, till it
be perfectly cleansed from the
milk ; but a warm hand will soft-
en it, and make it appear greasy.
Hence it is advisable to employ
two pieces of wood, such as are
used by cheese-mongers ; an ex-
pedient by which those who have
naturally a very warm hand, might
render their butter more saleable.
See Churning.
In many parts of England, but-
ter is artificially coloured in Avin-
ter ; though this process adds no-
thing to its goodness. The far-
mers in and near Epping, take
sound carrots, the juice of which
they express through a sieve, and
mix Avith the cream, when it enters
the chum ; which makes it appear
like May-butter. There is very
little salt used in the best Epping
butter ; but it is a fact, that a cer-
tain proportion of acid, either na-
tural or artificial, must be used in
the cream. In order to ensure a
successful cfiurniu^ some keep a
small quantity of the old cream for
that purpose; some use a little
rennet, and others a few tea- spoons*
ful of lemon juice. Cleanliness
in the dairy is, at all times, an
essential requisite.
The Lancashire method of pre-
paring milk for butter, is as fol-
lows : The whole milk is divided
into two parts ; the first drawn be-
ing set apart for family use, after
being skimmed; the cream of
which is put into proper vessels, as
also the Avhole of the second, or
last drawn milk, provincially called
afterings. These two, being mix-
ed together, are stirred, but not to
a great depth, to prevent the bad
effects of foul air accumulating on
the surface, anel kept according to
the season of the year, exposed to
the fire, for promoting the acetous
fermentation, which is accelerated
by the acid remaining in the pores
of the vessels. For this reason they
are not scalded, except after hav-
ing contracted some taint; and, in
this case, they are sometimes very
expeditiously rinsed out with sour
butter-milk : during this prepara-
tion for souring, the milk is kept
ready for the churn ; and, in con-
sequence of such judicious treat-
ment, more butter is obtained,
and of a better quality, than if
the milk were churned in a
sweet state>
Decisive experiments have been
made, in order to ascertain whether
it be more profitable to churn the
Avhole milk, or only the cream
Avhich the milk produces; it Avas
found that one day's milk of a par-
ticular coav, churned by itself,
yielded only 12oz. of butter; and
the cream of two days milk pro-
duced 31b. 2oz. Hence it appears
to be more profitable to collect the
cream, and chum it, than to churn
BUT
the whole milk. Cream-butter is,
likewise, the richer of the two,
ihough it will not keep so long
sweet.
In justice to Dr. James Ander-
son, who has favoured the public
with an excellent Essay " On the
Management of the Dairy." inserted
in the correspondence of the Bath
and West -of-England Societij, we
shall communicate a few of his
aphorisms: 1. The first milk
drawn from a cow is ahvays thin-
ner, and of an inferior quality to
that Avhich is afterwards obtained ;
and this richness increases pro-
gressively, to the very last drop
that can be drawn from the udder.
2. Tin.' portion of cream rising first
to the surface, is richer in quaiitv,
and greater in euiantity, than what
rises in the second equal space of
time, and so forth : the cream con-
tinually decreasing, and growing
worse than the preceding. 3.
Thick milk produces a smaller
proportion of cream than that
which is thinner, though the cream
of the former is of a richer qua-
lity. If, therefore, the thick milk
be diluted with water, it will af-
ford more cream than it would
have done in its pure state ; but its
quality will at the same time be
inferior. 4. Milk carried about in
pails, or other vessels, agitated, and
partly cooled, before it be poured
into the milk-pans, never throws
up such a good and plentiful cream
as if it had been put into proper
vessels immediately after it came
from the cow.
[From these fundamental facts,
says Dr. Andfk son,respecting the
dairy; many very important coroll-
aries, serving to direct the practice,
may be deduced ; among which we
shall only take notice of the fol-
lowing:
BUT 455
First. It is evidently of much
importance, fhat the cows should be
always v.iilked us near the dairy as
possible, to prevent the necessity
of carrying and cooling the milk
before it be put into the dishes ;
and as cows are much hurt by far
driving, it must be a great advan-
tage in a dairy farm to have the
principal grassfields as near the
dairy or homestead us possible.....
In this point of view also, the prac-
tice of feeding cows in the house
rather than turningthem out to pas-
ture in the field, must, appear to be
obviously beneficial.
Second. The practice of putting
the milk of all the cows of a large
dairy into one vessel, as it is milk-
ed, there to remain till the whole
milking be finished, before any part
is put into the milk-pans, seems to
be highly injudicious, not only on
account of the loss sustained by the
agitation and cooling; but also, and
more especially, because it prevents
the owner of the dairy from elis-
tinguishing the good from the bad
cow's milk, so as to enlighten his
judgment respecting the profit that
he may derive from each. With-
out this precaution, he may have
the whole of his dairy produce
greatly debased I y the milkofotv
bad cow, for years together, with-
out being able to discover it. A
better practice therefore Avould be,
to have the milk drawn from each
cow separately, put into the cream-
ing-pans as soon as milked, Avithout
being ever mixed with any other:
and if these pans were all made of
such a size as to be able to contain
the Avhole of one cow's milk, each
in a separate pen. so tlpt the care-
ful dai (an evcellcnt i -• rovincial
word denoting the person who has
the chief concern in a eh.iry) vvould
thus he able to remark, without
456
BUT
BUT
any trouble, the quantity of milk
afforded by each cow every day,
as Avell as the peculiar qualities of
the cow's milk. And if the same
cow's milk were always to be placed
on the same part of the shelf,
•having the cow's name Avritten be-
neath, there never could be the
smallest difficulty in ascertaining
which of the cows it would be the
owner's interest to dispose of, and
which he ought to keep and breed
from.
Third. If it be intended to make
butter of a very fine quality, it will
be advisable, not only to reject en-
tirely the milk of all those cows
which yield cream of a bad quali-
ty ; but also, in every case, to keep
the milk that is first drawn from
the cow at each milking, entirely
separate from that which is got
last; as it is obvious, if this be not
done, the eiuality of the butter
must be greatly debased, without
much augmenting its emantity. It
is also obvious, that the quality of
the butter -will be improved in pro-
portion to the smaliness of the
quantity of the last draAvn milk
which is used, as it increases in
richness to the very last drop that
can be drawn from the udder at
that time, so that those who Avish
to be singularly nice keep for their
best butter a very small proportion
only of the last drawn milk.
It is a matter of some import-
ance, to determine in what way the
inferior milk which is thus set
apart, when fine butter is av anted,
can be employed with the greatest
profit. In the highlands of Scot-
land, the people have adopted a
practice merely from considera-
tions of convenience and economy,
without thinking of the improve-
ment of the butter, which answers
r.iai'y jjood purposes. As the rear-
ing of calves is there a principal
object with the farmer, every covf
is allowed to suckle her calf Avith a
portion of her milk, the remainder
only being employed for the pur-
poses of the dairy. To give the
calf the proportion allotted to it re-
gularly, it is separated from the
cow, and put into a small inclosure
made for the express purpose, on
every farm, of confining all the
calves belonging to that farm. At
regular times the cows are brought
to the door of this enclosure, Avhere
the young ones fail not to meet
them. Each calf is then sepa-
rately let out, and runs directly to
its mother, Avhere it is allowed to
suck till the dairy maid judges that
it has had enough ; it is then se-
parated, the legs of the mother
having been previously shackled,
by a very simple contrivance, to
oblige her to stand still, and the
dairy maid milks off what was left
by the calf. They proceed in this
manner till the whole of the cows
are milked, and thus do they obtain
a small quantity of milk, it is true,
but that of an exceeding rich qua-
lity ; which, ir the hands of such
as know how tr. manage it, is ma-
nufactured into the richest mar-
rowy butter that cvn be ;uiy where
met Avith. This richness of the
highland butter has been long re-
marked, arel has beev vi.rversally
ascribed to the rid grabs that the
cows feed upon in those remote
glens ; but it is in fact chiefly to be
attributed to the practice here des-
cribed, Avhich \>s long prevailed
in those districts.
Other secondary uses might be
found for the milk of inferior qua-
lity. It might be converted into
butter of a stcondary C|uality; or
might be sold SAveet, where the si-
tuation of the farm is within reach
BUT
of a town; or it might be convert-
ed into cheeses, Avhich by being
made of sweet milk, if made with
care and skill, might be of a fine
quality.]
Dr. Anderson, in the same
paper, imparts the folloAving judi-
cious hints : The milk should be
forced out of the cavities of the
butter with a flat, Avooden ladle,
or skimming dish, provided with
a short handle ; and this, should be
dexterously performed, with as
little working of the butter as pos-
sible ; for if it be too much beat
and turned, it will become tough
and gluey, which greatly debases its
quality. To beat it upby the hand,
is an indelicate practice. [When
butter is first made, and just taken
out of the butter-milk, get out of
it as much of the butter-milk as you
can; then spread it thin over a mar-
ble-stone, or plate of clean iron, and
soak up the remaining moisture by
patting it with dry towels. This
will tend to keep it sweet longer
than otherwise.] It is also very
detrimental to pour cold water on
the butter, during this operation.
If the heat should be so great, as to
render it too soft to receive the
impression of the mould, it may be
put into small vessels, allowed to
SAvim in the trough of cold water
under the table ; preventing, how-
ever, the water from touching the
butter : thus it will, in a short time,
acquire the necessary degree of
firmness, especially if a small piece
of ice be put into the vessel. The
Doctor, on this occasion, severely
censures the practice that prevails
in many private families, of keep-
ing fresh butter in water, and thus
bringing it to table in aglass vessel.
If coolness only is Avanted, he ac'-
tises to put the butter into a dry
BUT 457
glass, and immerse this into cold
Avater : and if it be taken out im-
mediately before it is used, such
butter will, in our climate, always
have sufficient firmness.
After the butter has been beaten
up and cleared from the milk, it is
ready for being salted. The ves-
sels intended for this purpose, be-
ing rendered perfectly clean, should
be rubbed in the whole inside with
common salt; and a little melted
butter should be poured into the
cavity, between the bottom and the
sides : thus prepared, they are fit
to receive the butter.
The following methoel of prepar-
ing butter is advantageously prac-
tised in Holland. W hen the cows
are milked, the fluid is not poured
into pans, till it becomes perfectly
cold ; it is then stirred two or three
times in the day, so that the cream
and milk may more intimately com-
bine, and if it be agitated till a spoon
will nearly stand upright, the but-
ter thus obtained is held in high
esteem. As soon as the milk ac-
quires a proper consistence, it is
poured into a churn, Avorked for an
hour, anel Avhen the butter begins
to form, one or two pints of cold
water are added, in proportion to
the capacity of the vessel; with a
view to separate the milk with
greater facility.
After the butter is taken out of
the chum, it is repeatedly washed
and kneaded, in pure water, till the
last affusion be clear and free from
milk. In this simple manner, a
larger portion of butter is gained
from an equal proportion of milk,
and which is not only more firm
and sweet, but also remains fresh
for a longer time than that usually
made in England, while the butter-
milk is more palatable.
458 BUT
[Dr. Anderson observes that
wooden vessels are most proper for
containing salted butter. They
should be made of cooper work,
and joined with wooden hoops. It
will be advisable to make them
strong where they are to be return-
ed to the dairy ; for as it is a mat-
ter of considerable difficulty to sea-
son new vessels so well, as that they
shall not affect the taste of the but-
ter, it is always advisable to employ
the old sound vessels, rather than
make new ones. Iron hoops should
be rejected ; as the rust from them
will in time sink through the wood,
though it be very thick, and injure
the colour of the butter: one iron
hoop may be put at the top, and
another below and beyond the bot-
tom ; the projection below the bot-
tom being made deep for the pur-
pose.
An old vessel may be prepared
for again receiving butter by the or-
dinary process of scalding, rinsing
and drying ; but to season a new
vessel requires greater care. This
is to be done by filling it frequently
with scalding Avater, allowing it to
remain till it slowly cools. If hay,
or other SAveet vegetables, are put
into the vessel with the Avater, it is
sometimes thought to facilitate the
process. A considerable time is
required before they can be render-
ed fit for use.]
Although common salt is gene-
rally employed for preserving but-
ter, yet Dr. Anderson has found
by experience, that the following
composition not only preserves the
butter more effectually from any
taint of rancidity, but makes it also
look better, taste sweeter, richer,
and more marrowy, than if it had
been cured with common salt alone.
Best common salt, two parts; salt-
petre, one part; sugar, one part :
BU T
beat them up together, so that they
may be completely blended. To
every pound, or sixteen ounces of
butter, add one ounce of this conn
position. Mix it well in the mass,
and close it up for use. Butter
prepared in this manner, will keep
good for three years, and cannot
be distinguished from that recently
salted. It should, however, be re-
marked, that butter, thus cured,
does not taste well till it has stood
a fortnight, or three weeks. In
the opinion of Dr. Anderson, such
butter would keep sweet during
the longest voyages, if it were so
stowed, that it could not melt by
the heat of the climate, and occasion
the salts to separate from it. Hence
the butter ought to be previously
freed from its mucilage, which is
more putrescible than the oily parts.
In order to prepare it for a distant
voyage, let it be put into a vessel
of a proper shape, which should
be immersed into another, contain*
ing water. Let this be gradually
heated, till the butterbe thoroughly
melted, in which state it may re-
main for some time, and then be
allowed to settle. Thus, the muci-
laginous part will fall entirely to
the bottom, and the pure oil will
swim uppermost, perfectly trans-
parent, while hot; but, on cooling,
it becomes opaeme, assumes a co-
lour somewhat paler than the origi-
nal butter, before it was melted,
and acejuires a firmer consistence ;
by which it is better enabled to re-
sist the heat of tropical climates.
When this refined butter is become
somewhat firm, yet soft enough to
be handled, the pure part should
be separated from tbe dregs, then
salted, and packed in the usual
manner.
There is another, still more cu-
rious way of preserving this refined
BUT
BUT 459
butter, stated by Dr. Anderson.
After it is purified, add to the but-
ter a certain portion of firm honey,
mix them well, and they will tho-
roughly incorporate ; this mixture,
when spread on bread, has a very
pleasant taste, and may be given to
aged persons, if they relish it, in-
stead of marrow; and to others, as
being useful for coughs and colds.
The proportion of honey employed
was considerable ; and the Doctor
remarks, that this mixture has been
kept for years, without acquiring
the least degree of rancidity ; so
that there can be no doubt that but-
ter might thus be safely preserved
during long voyages.
Besides the different modes of
curing butter already described, it
may be easily preserved in a sweet
state, by melting it down in large
vessels over a slow fire ; care being
taken to remove the scum that rises
to the surface. This method be-
ing adopted by the Tartars, we have
inserted it on the authority of Mr.
Eton, who states, in his late inte-
resting " Survey of the Turkish Em-
pire," he. 8vo. that he has used
butter, thus boiled, anefthen salted,
as is usual in Britain ; in which
state it remained perfectly SAveet
for the space of two years.
[Butter has been sent from Phi-
ladelphia to the W. Indies in sum-
mer, and kept well, by packing it
in a stone jar, and pouring a strong
pickle on the top, about two inches
deep. The cover of the jar was se-
cured by a cloth, and over this there
Avas a covering of Plaister of Paris
(C\ ;,sum).]
The food of coavs very often af-
fects the taste of butter. Thus,
if wild garlic,chavloc, or May-weed,
be found in a pasture ground, cows
should not be suffered to feed there,
before the first grass has been mown,
vol.. l.
when such pernicious plants will not
again appear till the succeeding
spring ; but milch-cows must not
partake of the hay made of those
plants, as it will likewise communi-
cate their pernicious influence.
Cows should never be suffered to
drink water from stagnant pools, in
which there are frogs, spawn, Sec ;
or from common sewers, or ponds
that receive the drainings of stables
....all which are exceedingly im-
proper.
As turnips and rape imp" a dis-
agreeable taste to milk and butter,
Mr. Arthur Younxj directs the
dairy-man to boil two ounces of
saltpetre in a quart of water ; to
bottle the decoction; and, when cold,
to put a large tea-cupful of the mix-
ture into ten, or twelve quarts, of
neAv milk, immediately after it
comes from the cow. As the tur-
nips become stronger, the propor-
tion of nitre may be increased.....
A shorter, and equally effectual me-
thod, is, to scald the pans, or trays,
with boiling water, just before the
milk is poured in, and [add one
quart of boiliig water to eight of
milk.].....But it is not generally
knoAvn that the bad flavour, or ran-
cidity of turnip-butter, arises solely
from the green food, or the tops of
that plant. By previously cutting
these away, the evil is completely
prevented. Lord Egremoxt has
adopted this expedient: he fed from
25 to 30 cows, for the greatest part
of the winter, with turnips, the tops
of which were carefully separated :
and the butter prepared from their
milk was equal to the very best of
the kind.
For removing, or rather prevent-
ing, the bitter taste of barlev-straw
butter, as well as the rancidity of
turnip-butter, Mr. Marshall sug-
gests the following simple, and ra-
3 M
460 BU T
tional means : Instead of putting
the cream, immediately after it is
skimmed off the milk, into the jar,
or other retaining vessel, it is first
poured upon hot water, and having
stood till cool, it is again skimmed
off the water.
According to experiments ac-
curately made by Mr. Joseph
Wimpey, to determine the com-
parative value of butter and cheese,
105-1 gallons of milk, properly dis-
posed in pans for skimming off the
cream, produced 361b. of butter,
and 60lb. of skimmed cheese.....
From a like quantity of milk Avere
made 1061b. of raw-milk cheese,
and 6lb. of whey butter. After
selling the cream-butter at 8|d.
and the skimmed-cheese at 2d. the
pound, when the raw-milk cheese,
two months old, was worth 3|d.
the pound, and the Avhey-butter
7d. it appears that a small advan-
tage of about three per cent, lies on
the side of butter and skimmed
cheese.
Many abuses are practised in the
packing and salting of butter, to
increase its bulk au * weight,against
which we have an express statute.
Lumps of good butter are frequent-
ly laid, for a little depth, at the top,
and Avith an inferior quality under
it; sometimes the butter is set in
rolls, touching only at top, and
standing hallow at bottom. To
prevent such deceptions, the fac-
tors at Uttoxeter, in Staffordshire,
a market famous for good butter,
employ a surveyor, who, in case of
suspicion, tries the cask, or jar,
with an iron instrument, made not
unlike a cheese taster, and which
he thrusts in obliquely to the bot-
tom. But Ave understand that the
greatest frauds are committed Avith
the Irish butter, imported in fir-
kins. One of our sagacious cor-
BUT
respondents has suggested to us
the propriety of communicating
the marks, Avhich the butter-casks
ought to have on them, to distin-
guish their real goodness, before
they are exportad from Ireland :
such information might be a guide
to private families, who purchase
a whole, or half a firkin at a time.
On particular inquiry, we could
only learn from several eminent
butter-men, that the name of Bel-
fast, or some other town in the
north of Ireland, is usually mark-
ed on the cask, with an additional
cross, and either one or more inci-
sions under it, according to the su-
perior quality of the butter. We
trust, however, that no person will
be disposed to purchase so preca-
rious an article, without previously
examining the contents of the
vessel.
Lastly, we cannot omit to ani-
madvert upon the pernicious prac-
tice of keeping milk in leaden ves-
sels, and salting butter in stone
jars, which begins to prevail, from
a mistaken idea of cleanliness.
But, in the hands of a cleanly per-
son, there*surely can be nothing
more wholesome than wooden dish-
es. We fully agree with Dr. An-
derson, that vessels made either
of solid lead, or badly glazed, are
alike destructive to the human con-
stitution ; that we may doubtless
attribute to this cause the frequen-
cy of paralytic complaints, which
occur in all ranks of society ; and
that the well known effects of the
poison of lead, are, bodily debility,
palsy....death. '
Milk-Butter is principally
made in Cheshire; where contrary
to the usual practice in other parts
of the kingdom, the Avhole of the
milk is churned, without being
skimmed ; preparatory to which
BUT
BUT 461
©peration, in summer, immediately
after milking, the meal is put to
cool in earthen jars, till it becomes
sufficiently coagulated^ and" has ac-
quired a slight degree of acidity,
sufficient to undergo the operation
of churning. This is usually per-
formed, during the summer, in the
course of one or two days. In win-
ter, in order to forward coagulation,
the milk is placed near a fire; but,
in summer, if it has not been suffi-
ciently cooled, before it is added to
the former meal, or, if it has been
kept too close, and be not churned
shortly after it has acquired the ne-
cessary degree of coagulation and
acidity, a fermentation Avill ensue;
in which case, the butter becomes
rancid, and the milk does not yield
that quantity, which it would, if it
had been churned in proper time.
This is also the case, when, in win-
ter, the jars, or mugs, have been
placed too near the fire, and the
milk runs entirely to whey. No
peculiar process attends the mak-
ing of this kind of butter.
Whey-Butter is so called,
from its being made of whey, which
is either green or white. The for-
mer is taken from the curd, out of
the cheese-tub ; the white whey is
pressed out of the curd, by the
hand or otherwise, after having
been put into the cheese-vat. This
kind of butter is made as follows :
Sometimes the white Avhey, or, as
it is called in Cheshire, the thrust-
ings, is set in cream mugs, to ac-
quire a sufficient degree of coagu-
lation, and acidity for churning,
either by the warmth of the season
or of a room, in the same manner
as above described, for making
milk-butter. In other instances,
the green and thj white whey are
boiled together, and turned by a lit-
tle sour ale, or other acid, Avhich
produces fleetings. See scalding
Whey. In this case, when the
green whey is boiled alone, it is
necessary to keep up such a fire
as will make the whey as hot as
possible, without boiling it ; and,
Avhen it has acquired that degree
of heat, the butyraceous particles,
which it contains, will break and se-
parate, and rise to the surface,
which effect usually takes place in
the space of an hour. Care should
be taken to rub the boiler, if of
iron, Avith butter, to prevent the
whey from acquiring a rancid taste.
In other respects, the process of
making whey-butter differs little
from that of milk-butter. But the
former will keep only a few days,
has a marbled appearance, and
does not cut so firm, or clear, as
butter made of cream. One of
our correspondents observes, that,
in the year 1794, whey-butter was
sold by contract, for the whole
year, at lOd. per pound, and car-
ried 20 miles to Manchester : he
further remarks, that thefleetings
are " nice eating," with sugar,
though some epicures adel wine or
brandy.
BuTTER-MiLKisthatpartofthe
milk which remains after the butter
is extracted. Curds of butter-milk
are made by pouring into it a
quantity of hot new milk. The *
quality of butter-milk greatly de-
pends on the manner of managing
the process of churning. If it be
obtained according to the Lanca-
shire mode, above-described, it be-
comes an excellent food for man,
being both wholesome and plea-
sant ; though it is in many English
counties, given to hogs.
Good butter-milk is refreshing
and cooling : hence it is often re-:
commended in hectic fevers, for
abating preternatural heat and
462 BUT
flushings of the face. In spring,
if drank freely, it is said to pro-
duce a favourable change on the
fluids, when they are in a state of
acrimony, and, though modern
physicians smile at the idea of
sweetening, or purifying the blood,
yet the good effects of butter-milk,
as well as sweet Avhey, in proper
cases and constitutions, have too
often been experienced, to admit
of any doubt, in consequence of an
unsettled theory.
BUTTER-BURR, the Com-
mon, or Coll's-foot, the Tussilago
Petasites, L. grows in moist mea-
dows, pastures, and banks of rivers.
Its leaves are the largest of any
plant in Britain, and, in heavy rains,
afford a shelter to poultry, and other
small animals. Its flowers appear
in April, before the leaves, as in
most other vernal plants. The
root, dug up in spring, abounds
with a resinous, aromatic matter :
it has a strong smell, and a bitter-
ish, acrid taste.
In Germany, the leaves of the
butter-burr are bruised, and mixed
with chaff, or cut straw ; in which
state they are fondly eaten by
cattle.
Formerly, the root of this plant
was highly esteemed as a sudorific,
and alexipharmic, for which pur-
poses a drachm of it was given for
a dose ; but, as it has been found to
possess those virtues in no very
eminent degree, it has again been
neglected in the shops. The late
Sir John Hill, however, in his
" Virtues of British Herbs," pub-
lished in 1770, calls the common
butter-burr an admirable medicine
in fevers of the worst kind ; as,
when taken early, it prevents the
mischiefs that often arise naturally
in the disease; and oftener from
the errors of physicians. Sir
BUT
John farther informs us, that,
about the middle of the last cen-
tury, when a disease of the putrid
kind prevailed in England, the
same fever raged also in Germany;
and while the English died by
bleedings, and by chemical medi-
cines, the Germans lived by the
use of the butter-burr. He also
very seriously speaks of a heavier
visitation, and if the greatest of all
calamaties should come, there are
few things from which we might
expect so great relief as this herb.
The Greeks used it with the great-
est success ; and the very name of
the plant among the Germans, is
pestilence-wort.....We trust, how-
ever, there will be no necessity
for putting Sir John's assertion
to the test of experience ; as we
should be apprehensive of the re-
sult.
BUTTER-CUP, Butter-flow-
er, or Upright Meadow Crow-
Foot, the Ranunculus acris, L. a
very common weed, abounding in
meadows and pastures: it has
hairy leaves and leaf-stalks ; and
bears yellow flowers in June and
July.
Many continental farmers attri-
bute the sudden death of cattle,
which is often inexplicable, to
their feeding on this plant; and
therefore carefully extirpate it from
fields and meadows....It is, how-
ever, certain, that the seed-buds of
the butter-cup are extremely acrid,
and may therefore be employed for
vesicatories, instead of the Spanish
fly ; though its blossoms are ea-
gerly visited by bees. Indeed, the
Avhole plant is very acrid, and ea-
sily blisters the skin. Neverthe-
less, it is eaten by sheep and goats,
but- refused by cows, horses, and
swine, let their pasture be ever so
bare. When made into hay, the
BUT
butter-cup is perfectly harmless,
nay, even nutritious to cattle. For
this important discovery we are
indebted to Dr. Pulteny, (Trans-
actions of the Linn aan Society), who
extends the^ame observation to the
lesser Spearwort, the Bulbous,
the round leaved Water and the
common Crow-foot : He farther
remarks, that the avidity with which
sheep, cows, and horses, eat the
last mentioned plant, is an excep-
tion to the commonly received
opinion, that animals are led by
instinct to reject what is noxious.
BUTTERFLY, or Papilio, in
zoology, a well knoAvn insect, of
which there are 273 species, prin-
cipally distinguished by the colour
of their wings.
The beauties of this elegant part
of the creation, excite the admira-
tion of every contemplative mind.
Many persons, who conceive but-
terflies to be of a poisonous nature,
are frequently under apprehension
lest they should eat them with
herbs and salads ; but such alarm
is groundless, as they are perfecly
harmless, and equally eatable as
snails and oysters.
Mr. Edwards, in his " Natural
History of Birds," gives the fol-
lowing curious directions for tak-
ing the figure of these insects:
Take butterflies, or field-moths,
clip off the wings close to their
bodies, and lay them on clean pa-
per, in the form of the insect Avhen
flying; then have ready prepared
gum-arabic, which has been some
time dissolved in Avater and is of a
thick consistence; then pour a
drop of ox-gall into a spoonful of
this liquid, mix it well together,
and spread a little of it on a piece
of thin, white paper, wide enough
to take both sieles of the fly ; when
it begins to feel clammy, the paper
BUT 463
is in proper order to lake the doAvn
from its wings ; lay the gummed
side on the wings, and it will ad-
here so as to take them up; then
double the paper, so as to have all
the wings between it; lay it on a
table, pressing it close with the
fingers, or it may be rubbed gently
with something hard and smooth ;
after which, on opening the paper,
the wings will come forth transpa-
rent ; the doAvn of the upper and
under sides, adhering to the gum-
med paper, forms an accurate like-
ness of both sides of the Wings,
in their natural shape and colour.
When the gummed papers have
been opened, the bodies of the
flies should be copied from the na-
tural ones, upon stiff, and separate
paper, painted in Avater colours,
and fixed between the representa-
tions of the wings.
As the larvx or grubs, and
chrysalids, or butterflies, do exten-
sive injury to fruit trees, Mr. For-
syth directs them to be carefully
collected and destroyed: after
which the trees must be washed
with a mixture of lime and tobac-
co-water.
BUTTERWORT, or the Ph-
guicula, L. a genus containing
six species, of which the most re-
markable is the vulgaris, or com-
mon butterwort, or Yorkshire sa-
nicle, growing on bogs, or low,
moist grounds, in England and
Scotland. Its leaves are covered
with soft, upright, pellucid prick-
les, secreting a glutinous liquor ;
the blossoms violet, purple, and
reddish, with white lips and an
ash-coloured woolly spot on the
palate : its flowers appear in May
and June. Linnaeus informs us,
that if the fresh gathered leaves of
this plant be put into a strainer,
through which the milk of the
464 B U X
rein-deer is poured while warm,
and set by for a day or two, to be-
come acescent, it acquires such a
degree of consistency and tenaci-
ty, that neither whey nor cream,
separate. The inhabitants in the
north of Sweden eat this coagulat-
ed milk, as a very grateful food....
When the leaves have been once
used, it is not necessary to have
recourse to them again ; for half
a spoonful of prepared milk, mix-
ed Avith a fresh quantity of other
milk, will ahvays effect the pur-
pose : but Mr. Hawes, who tried
this experiment with cow's milk,
did not succeed.
The juice of the leaves of com-
mon butterwort kills lice in men
and brutes; and likewise cures
chaps in coav's udders. Neither
sheep, cows, horses, goats, nor
swine, will feed upon the plant;
though it is erroneously believed
that it occasions the rot in sheep.
External applications of the root,
are, according to Bechstein, a
good vulnerary ; and, if credit be
due to him, decoctions made of the
whole plant, tend to restore the
hair to a bald head.
BUXTON WATERS are those
Avarm mineral springs which rise
in a village of that name, in Der-
byshire, England, and have long
been celebrated for their medicinal
properties. One of the earliest
treatises on the virtues of this
spring, Avas published in the year
1752, by Dr. Jones, of Derby: at
Avhich period Buxton appears to
have been a place of great resort.
With respect to its sensible pro-
perties, the Buxton Avater cannot
be distinguished from common
spring Avater, when heated to the
same temperature. It is clear and
colourless, and does not become
turbid on being exposed to the air;
BUX
it leaves no sediment, nor does it
form any incrustation on the pipes,
or stones, through which it flows.
Its temperature in the gentlemen's
bath is invariably at 82°. During
the cool of the morning and even-
ing, a thin column of steam is per-
ceptible over the surface of the
bath; but, if this continues through-
out the day, it is considered as an
indication of approaching rain.....
The principal peculiarity in the ap-
pearance of this spring, is a large
quantity of elastic vapour that rises
and forms bubbles, which pass
through the "rater, and break as
soon as they reach the surface.
The air of these bubbles was ascer-
tained by Dr. Pearson, to consist
of azotic gas, mixed with a small
proportion of atmospheric air.....
By evaporation to dryness, he found
that a gallon of the water contained
only 15 grains of residuum, of
which he estimated 1-| grains to be
muriat of soda, 2£ sulphat of lime,
and 101 carbonate of lime.
As the temperature of 82ais
several degrees below that of the
human body, a slight shock of cold
is felt on the first immersion into
the bath; but this is almost imme-
diately succeeded by a pleasing
glow over the whole system. It is
therefore proper for very delicate
and irritable habits.
The cases which derive most be-
nefit from the external use of Bux-
ton waters, are those in which a
loss of action, and sometimes of
sensation, affects particular limbs;
in consequence of long-continued,
or violent inflammation, or exter-
nal injury. Hence,, the chronic
rheumatism, succeeding the acute,
and where the inflammation has
been seated in particular limbs, is
often wonderfully relieved by this
bath. The internal use of the wa-
BUZ
BUZ 465
ter has been found to be of consi-
derable service in symptoms of de-
fective digestion, and derangement
of the alimentary organs. A judi-
cious use of this simple remedy
will often relieve the heart-burn,fla-
tulency, and sickness ; it will in-
crease the appetite, animate the
spirits, and improve the health.
At first, hoAvever, it sometimes oc-
casions a diarrhoea, which is rather
salutary than detrimental. It also
affords great relief, when taken in-
ternally, in painful disorders of the
bladder and kidneys; and has like-
wise been recommended in cases
of the gout; but when taken for
these complaints, Dr. Denman ad-
vises the addition of some aroma-
tic tincture.
BUZZARD, or the Buteo, a spe-
cies of the Falco, or eagle, is the
most common of the hawk-kind in
England. It breeds in large woods,
and lays two or three eg£s, which
are either perfectly white, or spot-
ted with yellow. This bird is of a
sluggish anel inactive disposition,
as it will remain perched upon the
same bough for many hours, and
is generally found in one place. It
feeds on small birds, rabbits, moles,
and mice ; but it will also eat frogs,
worms, and insects. The colour
of the buzzard is various: the breast
and belly of some are brown, but
more frequently the former is of a
yellowish white, with oblong rust-
coloured spots : the back of the
head, neck, and coverts of the
wings, are of a deep brown, edged
with a pale rust colour ; the tail is
barred either with black, or ash
colour.
There is another species, the
aruginosus, or moor-buzzard, with,
a greyish body, and yellow legs.
It makes its nest in a tuft of grass
or among mshes, is a fierce andvo-
racious bird, and a great destroyer
of rabbits, young ducks, anel other
water-fowl.
c.
CAB
CABBAGE, or Brassica, L. a
genus of plants comprising six-
teen species, of which the follow-
ing are the principal:
1. The campestris, or field-cab-
bage, which is also a native, and
grows on the sea-shore near Do-
ver. The severest winters do not
injure this plant, Avhich becomes
peculiarly useful when every other
species is destroyed. It is more
generally known under the name
of cauliflower, and its culture has
been much improved in Britain,
where it has become a source of
national wealth ; the greater part
of Europe being supplied thence
with seeds, and, till lately, Holland
almost wholly with plants.
2. The Napus, or rape, or cole-
seed cabbage, which is indigenous,
and also reared in various parts of
England, especially in the Isle of
Ely, for its seed, from Avhich rape-
oil is extracted ; the refuse is called
oil-cake, and is useful for the fat-
tening of oxen, and other cattle.
The most piercing frost affects not
this hardy plant, which, in severe
Avinters, is of no small service in
feeding eAves ; when, from the in-
tenseness of the cold, the ground is
so frozen that no turnips can be
taken up. In the county of Nor-
folk, the cakes are broken to pieces
and streAved on the land as manure,
for Avhich purpose it is considered
CAB
particularly efficacious. The cul-
tivated variety, though it has a
stronger taste, may be eaten like
the turnip.
3. The rapa, or turnip-cabbage.
This is a native of Britain, and
grows principally in corn-fields :
it is eaten either boiled, roasted, or
raw, generally with the addition of
pepper. The importance and va-
lue of this species, forthe fattening
of cattle in particular, have not been
generally known or ascertained
till within these few years. The
soil intended for planting, ought to
be manured and tilled in the same
manner as for the common turnip,
the necessary extent of old pasture-
grounel being previously breast-
ploughed and burnt. ' The land
should be dug as shallow as possi-
ble, and the ashes turned in: about
midsummer, or sooner, should the
Aveather be favourable, the planting
ought to be commenced; two
perches, if well stocked with
plants, being sufficient to supply an
acre.
Independently of the utility of
this plant, as a fodder for cattle
during the winter season, it hr.s
been much recommended as a sea-
store, from the facility with which
it may be preserved on ship-board:
and as it furnishes an agreeable
and wholesome food for sailors on
long voyages, at a time when every
CAB CAB 467
ether fresh vegetable is entirely ble-dung which may be prevented
spoiled. from pressing on it, by placing a
4. The Oleracea, or sea-colewort, feAV sticks in the form of a cone
sea-cabbage, or common cabbage, over each root; it should then be
is also indigenous, and grows prin- covered Avith long litter to the
cipally on cliffs near the sea-coast, height of two or three feet. About
Early in the spring, this species is the beginning of January it may
preferred to those that are culti- be gathered, and the cutting conti-
vated ; but, when gathered on the nued till May, one bed being kept
sea-coast, it is requisite that it be under another. It should be boil-
boiled in two waters, to deprive it ed, and sent up on toast, like aspa-
of its saline taste. The roots may ragus.
be eaten like those of the preceding To this species also belong those
species ; but they are by no means varieties of the brassica, denominat-
so tender. All the various kinds ed the turni/ -rooted cabbage, and
of garden-cabbage in use at our the drum-headed cabbage. The
tables, originate from this. The former is generally supposed to
red cabbage is chiefly used for have been brought from Lapland,
pickling. In some countries, the and is found to be well calculated
white cabbage is buried in autumn, for uplands and wolds. It delights
when full grown, and is thus pre- in a dry, sandy, mixed soil, which
served during the whole winter, is prepared in the same manner as
See Yv'ithering, p. 592. They for turnips. The seed is usually
are cut in pieces by the Germans, sown in the beginning of June, and
who, mixing them with some aro- yields so abundantly, that half a
matic herbs and salt, press them pound of it, if soavh on a seed-bed
closely down in a tub, where they ' two or three perches square, will
soon ferment, and are eaten under produce plants sufficient to stock an
the name of sauer kraut. acre. But if they run too much to
Dr. Darwin observes, that Sea- stalk,care must be taken to trans-
Cale is much esteemed for the de- plant them, and thus to check their
licacy of its taste, which is superior luxuriant vegetation. This plant
to most kinds of broccoli. It ap- is very hardy, and its bushy tops
pears that this species of the cab- furnish a most excellent and abun-
bage should be soAvn the latter end dant food for cattle during the
of March, or the beginning of spring. It is principally raised for
April, in drills, and afterwards feeding oxen, cows, hogs, and
earthed up. In autumn, it should horses ; but, if given to sheep dur-
be transplanted into high beds, one ing Avinter, it occasions a species of
row of roots in each bed, about a white flux, of which, however, they
foot asunder; and, in Avinter, it soon recover on a change of food;
should be covered up. The beds and which is seldom, if ever, at-
should be made in dry ground, and tended with any dangerous conse-
the produce will not be fit for the quences.
table till the third year after sow- 1 he drum-headed cabbage is
ing. The year before it is cut for usually sown on a bed towards the
eating, it must be covered in the end of February or March ; but
beginning of Avinter, first with sta- sometimes also in August, in which
vol. i. 3 N
463 CAB
case the plants* are set out in No-
vember, and transplanted in July.
A hardy variety, of a deep green
colour with purple veins, and of
the same size as the drum-head,
has been produced from this cab-
bage, by planting it alternately
with the red kind; and when the
pods were completely formed, by
cutting dovvn the red and leaving
the other for seed. This variety
is particularly useful in the feeding
of cows or ewes ; as it affords an
increase of milk, far superior to
that produced by turnips : and is
equally excellent for the fattening
of cattle, Avhich it does six weeks
sooner than any other vegetable.
Although these plants are gene-
rally supposed to impart a disa-
greeable flaAourtobutterand cheese
made from the milk of cows fed
upon them, yet this may be easily
prevented, either by putting one
gallon of boiling water to six gal-
lons of milk, when it is exposed in
the leads; or by dissolving one
ounce of nitre in a quart of spring-
water, and mixing about a quarter
of a pint of it Avith ten or twelve
gallons of milk, when warm from
the cow. By breaking off the loose
leaves, and giving only the sound
heart to the cows, this disagreeable
quality may also be obviated ; as
other cattle will eat the leaves
without injury.
5. The muralis) or wall-cabbage,
which is usually found on old walls
and rubbish. This plant is a native
of Britain ; all its parts are consi-
derably acrid, and have a rank,
disagreeable smell: it is, there-
fore, never cultivated.
6. The Alpina, or Savoy. This
is an exotic, and is chiefly propa-
gated for winter use ; being gene-
rally preferred when nipped by the
frost- It is sown towards the lat-
C AB
ter end of April, and the culture
of it varies but little from that pur-
sued Avith respect to the common
Avhite cabbage ; the only difference
being, that the latter species may
be set more closely together thai*
the former ; for, if planted in close
places, it is subject to be almost
consumed by caterpillars or other
vermin.
To these species may be added
the Scotch cabbage, so denominat-
ed from being more particularly7
cultivated in Scotland, where it con-
stitutes a very considerable article
of food for cattle. The variety in-
troduced into England a few years
since, is the green Scotch cabbage,
Avhich will grow extremely Avell
on moor-lands, and, if cut just
before the frost sets in, and hung
up under cover, forms a food so
peculiarly agreeable to cattle, that,
when once they have tasted it, they
will rarely relish any other.
There is another species of the
Brassica, denominated the mowing
cabbage (choux afoucher). It ap-
pears to be a native of Germany,
but has been cultivated with consi-
derable success in France, both as
a pulse for mankind, being free
from the bitter herbaceous taste of
the other cabbages, and as a fodder,
equally good and abundant for
cattle* This plant is reared from
seed, and will admit of being cut
four, five, or six times in the year
it is sown ; after which it is left for
the winter. In the month of Fe-
bruary it shoots forth, when its
leaves may be cut again ; in April
it begins to grow up, and produces
stalks and seed, which may be ga-
thered in June. During the first
year of its groAvth, this plant does
not send forth any stalks ; its leaves
appearing to rise immediately out
of the ground, from Avhich circum-
C AB
-stance it may be cut like grass, and
dried in a similar manner for hay.
It will also yield oil, far superior
to that of cole and poppy seed, and
equal to that expressed from
olives.
Culture. The different modes
of cultivating this plant do not, in
general, vary much. The soil best
calculated for cauliflowers, is a spot
of ground tolerably rich, and well
defended from the north, east, and
west Avinds, by hedges, pales or
walls, the first of Avhich, especial-
ly if constructed Avith reeds, are
most preferable, as they meet the
Avind, which, by falling on them,
cannot reverberate, as is the case
with the latter. But, should the soil
selected for this purpose, be natu-
rally wet, h will be requisite to
raise it up in beds two feet and a
half, or three feet broad,, and about
four inches above the level of the
ground. -On the contrary, if it be
dry, no embankment is necessary.
[To produce early cabbages....ln
the spring, as soon as the sprouts
on the cabbage-stalks have grown
to the length of a plant fit for set-
ting, cut them out with a small
slice of the stalk, about two inches
long ; and, if the season permit,
plant them in a garden, and the
.usual care will produce good.cab-
bages.
A gentleman in the vicinity of
Philadelphia pursued the following
plan: He sowed his seed in Au-
.gust, and set out the plants in
autumn, letting them remain out
all winter* If very cold, he co-
vered them with straw ; of 500
plants, 300 commonly lived and
headed very early : the rest an-
swered for greens.
Dr. Darwin says, that in trans-
planting cabbages, it is better to
pluck them than dig them up ; as
CAB 469
by that means more of the root
fibres are torn off, and the plants
become almost totally oviparous.
Mr.Deane(N.England farmer)
says, cabbages require a rich soil,
rather -moist than dry. A clay soil
well mixed with other matters, is
very proper .for them. They are
said to grow well indrained swamps,
without manure. Hog-dung Avell
rotted, door-dung and ashes are
suitable manures for them.....Each
plant should have at least four feet
of ground: in other words, the
plants should be two feet asunder.
In gardens and small yards, this is
a good distance: but in fields,
Avhere they are to be cultivated.by
the plough, a greater distance is
necessary. The rows may be three
feet apart, and the plants two feet
in the rows.
Some think cabbages will not
answer morethan one year on the
same spot. But this is an erroneous
opinion. I have raised them for
eighteen years in the same part of
my garden, being an unfavourable
soil, dry and gravelly: and the
crops are better than they were at
first, though the ground has been
but little manured. Though cab-
bages seem to require much nour-
ishment, they do not impoverish
the soil. This is so well knoAvn to
Europeans, that they call cabbages
a fallow crop, meaning a crop
which answers instead of fallow-
ing. They form so close a covering
for the surface of the ground, as to
cause a putrefaction of the soil,
which increases its fertility.
Some set the seeds where the
cabbages are to grow. By this they
escape being stinted by transplant-
ing. For winter cabbages, the
latter part of May is early enough
to put the seed into the ground,
whether the.plants are to be remov-
470 CAB
ed or not. I have tried both ways,
and on the whole, I prefer trans-
planting. They are otherwise apt
to be too tall, and to have crooked
stems. Wet weather is favourable
for transplanting them; and the
holes should be filled with Avater
before the plants are set, unless the
ground be naturally very moist.
This has a better effect than pour-
ing a much greater quantity of
water on them afterwards. Suds
would be better than clear water
for wetting the plants.....Covering
of plants with leaves is not a good
practice. They will be much heat-
ed through some sorts of leaves;
the free circulation of air about
them will be prevented, and their
perspiration partly obstructed. If a
hot sun cause them to droop, a
shingle stuck into the ground will
be a sufficient shelter if it be on the
south side of the plants. I com-
monly allow each plant two shingles,
one on the south-east side, and one
on the south-west.
The principal things Avhich pre-
vent the groAvth of cabbages, are,
the fumble-foot, so called, grubs,
and lice. Manuring Avith ashes and
lime tends to prevent the first, as the
roots become misshapen by means
of being Avounded by insects, to
Avhich the hot qualities of ashes and
Jime are antidotes.
The gmb, orblack-AVorm, travels
in the night from plant to plant,
eats off the stalks just above the
ground, and buries itself in the
soil when the sun is up. To guard
against this worm, a little circle
pf lime, or rock-weed round the
plant is of service.
To destroy lice on cabbages, they
should be washed with strong brine,
or sea-water, or smoke should be
made among them with strawr, sul-
phur, tobacco, Sec. But the hard
CAB
frosts in autumn do not fail to sub-
due them.
If cabbages grow near to a barn-
yard, or other yard where cattle are
lodged, the under leaves, when they
begin to decay, may be taken off",
and thrown to them. The plants
will not be at all injured, and they
are an excellent food for cattle, and
will increase the milk of cows.
But the least decayed of them
should go to the coavs, lest they give
the milk an ill taste. Much ac-
count is made of cabbages in Eng-
land for feeding cattle in the win-
ter. But the difficulty of preserving
them alters the case with regard to
us. They can gather them there as
they have occasion to use them,
through the winter.
Preserving cabbages through the
winter for the table, is a matter of
some difficulty in this country. My
method is, to pull them up in windy,
dry weather, and let them lie a few
hours Avith the roots upwards, to
drain. The later they are taken
up, the better, while the ground
continues open. I let as much soil
remain on the roots as I can, and
set them upright together in a cel-
lar, which is so cold as to admit of
some degree of frost; and I seldom
fail of making them keep till April.
In very Avarm cellars they will soon
decay.
But that I may have a few yet
later in the spring, I make atrench
in the driest sandy ground, nine
inches Avide, and of equal depth ;
in which I place a toav of cabbages,
roots upAvards, contiguous to each
other; fill the cavities about them
Avith some dry straw ; and then
shovel the earth up to the stalks oh
each side, almost as high as the
roots, shaping it like, the roof of a
house. The cabbages Avill come
out in May as sound as when they
CAB
CAB 471
were put in, and the outer green
leaves will be turned quite Avhite.
As they are not apt to keep vrell
after they are taken out, two or
three at a time may be taken, as
they are wanted for use, and the
breach immediately closed up with
straw and earth as before.]
With respect to the other species
of cabbage, with a few exceptions,
they delight in situations rich,open,
and dry, yet not too much exposed
to the inclemencies of our variable
climate ; care being taken at the
same time not to plant them too
near, especialh/ when intended for
seed ; as, independently of their
mutually obstructing the groAv th of
their roots, by the commixture of
their effluvia, they will produce a
mixture of kinds. This is particu-
larly the case with respect to the
planting of Avhite and red cabbages
together, and of Savoys Avith either
of those species. In fact, it is to
this cause Ave owe the continual
importation of fresh seeds from
abroad, our gardeners rarely saving
any good red cabbage-seed; where-
as, if a contrary conduct were pur-
sued, they might continue the
species as good in Britain as any
other part of the Avorld.
In whatever light Ave A'iew this
plant, whether as an article of food
for man, or as fodder for cattle, it
fully merits all the attention Avhich
of late years has been bestowed
upon it. It amply repays the care
and diligence which the industrious
cultivator confers on it, each species
being equally fruitful. And it is a
fact, though not generally known,
but which deserves greater publici-
ty, that when the common garden
cabbage is in perfection, and we
wish to cut it, if, instead of sever-
ing the whole from the stalk, as is
Usually done, the loaf, or heart
only be scooped out, and all the
large lower leaves left entire, a
young cabbage will, in due time,
be produced, superior in flavour, if
not equal in size, to that of the first
groAvth.
Upon the whole, from a compa-
rative estimate, and from the con-
current testimony of the most ex-
perienced cultivators, #it appears
that the success of cabbages de-
pends much on their being planted
in a rich soil; for, as this plant is
extremely vigorous, its roots strike
deeply into the grounel, so that it is
well calculated for improving the
fertility of the soil: it demonstrates
the advantage of manuring and fal-
lowing, as also the very great profit
of applying the best land of a farm
to its culture.
From the earliest stage of its
growth, the cabbage becomes the
prey of a variety of insects, none
of which is more formidable than
the caterpillar. When young, its
principal enemy is the Chrysomela
saltatoria, or turnip-fly, and as it ap-
proaches nearer to maturity, the
Papilio Brassica, or cabbage-but-
terfly. To expel the former, Dr.
Withering directs the ground to
be strewed Avith soot. He also adds,
that if the plants be Avhipped with
the green boughs of alder, [elder,]
the latter Avill not touch them......
With respect to caterpillars, it has
been recommended as a certain
remedy forthe mischief they cause,
that all the borders of the ground,
Avhere it is intended to plant cal>-
bages, be soAvn with hemp; and,
however, the vicinity may be in-
fested Avith those insects, the
ground enclosed will be found to
be perfectly free from them ; no
vermin will approach i'. There
472 CAB
CAB
is also another remedy prescribed,
which, though somewhat more
complex than that above-mention-
ed, has nevertheless been of con-
siderable efficacy in exterminating
those insects from cabbage planta-
tions: for an acre of ground, two
ounces of common asafoetida are
directed to be taken and boiled i«
a small pot of -dung-juice, till the
Avhole is dissolved. This decoction
is to be emptied into a shallow tub,
with the addition of a pint *.- * ■ «■• ■ * ^ -- >r'J'^"i- *AZs
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