-i ■ nlr --a

/

*> y i —i v ^* i— i
/\f5fV\rf!
      A' (W -5-.
#
✓
^
^ ^
•&

..&
%.
X
&
^
<4
%-
\f


^P 
 
INTRODUCTION
STUDY OF  HUMAN/ANATOMY.

                 By JAMES PAXTON,
MEMBER OF THE ROYAL COLLEGE OF SURGEONS, HONORARY MEMBER OF THE
    AHSMOLEAN SOCIETY, AND AUTHOR OF NOTES AND ILLUSTRATIONS
               TO PALEY's NATURAL THEOLOGY.

            IN TWO VOLUMES, WITH ILLUSTRATIONS.
VOLUME I.
■V
\<r
    SECOND AMERICAN EDITION, WITH ADDITIONS,

            By WJNSLOW LEWIS, Jr. M. D.
DEMONSTRATOR OF ANATOMY TO THE  MEDICAL DEPARTMENT OF HARVARD
UNIVERSITY.
W
ILLIAM D.TICKNOR, ^>sr—^- -— <J   J
  Corner of Washington and School Streets.     >V^ '■O ,R  A V v *"■•-
BOSTON:
CO
M DCCC XXXV.
03f 
    Entered according to Act of Congress, in the year 1835,
                  By William D. Ticknor,
In the Clerk's Office  of the District  Court of  Massachusetts.

As
5
          B.O 3 T o x :
TUTTI.E AND WEEKS,  PIUNTF.R9,
       No 8, Stliiwl Street. 
PREFACE OF THE AMERICAN EDITOR.
   The  evident  utility  of the  anatomical work of
Paxton, founded on the union of graphic and ex-
planatory designs,  must at  once  be  apparent  to
those, who, without such a guide, have experienced
great difficulties in conceiving of the  appearances
of parts  from verbal description alone.  The only
work on Anatomy re-published  in this country,
accompanied  with  plates, is  that of Charles and
John Bell,  which  are expensive,  without  being
well done, and  the student  is obliged to turn from
the book of the text to that of the plates.  In these
volumes  of Paxton, at  a  moderate  cost, this  is-
obviated.   The reader has,  at  a  coup cPceil,  the
representation of the part before  him,  with  a sim-
ple explanation.  This  work  only claims to be of
an elementary character, and  one to be  studied at
the  very commencement of  professional  reading :
to serve to  introduce  the student to those more
elaborate and excellent  systems, with which  our
own anatomists have enriched  this department, — 
IV
PREFACE.
Those of Wistar and of Horner are works which
may honor any country.
  The American Editor of  Paxton  has made, he
trusts, some useful additions, which he  has prefer-
red rather to  embody with the  work, than  to dis-
figure it,  by placing them as  notes.   Its  mechanical
excellence  will at leart  bear proof of  the skill of
the artists.                         W. L. Jun. 
PREFACE TO THE ENGLISH EDITION.
  The  present work contains  a concise  and clear
demonstration of the structure  of the human body ;
and on  this  it grounds its claim to the notice of
the professional  and the scientific  reader.    It is
admitted  that a  much  larger  store of anatomical
knowledge is contained  in  the works  of  Fyfe,
Bell, Lizars, and others, as well  as in  the splen-
did publications of continental  authors; but  no  one
has given  to  the public  a treatise in  its  present
form, containing graphic  and  descriptive anatomy
on  the  same  page.   The principal object  of  the
present  undertaking is to furnish the student with
sufficient  directions .for  cultivating this  particular
department of science, in  the shortest  and most
successful manner ; and for this purpose the author
has endeavored  to give a correct drawing, as well
as an exact  description of the  parts, by  which the
mind  will  be assisted in forming  its  conceptions,
and the  memory  in retaining or  recalling past  im-
pressions, when  the dissections are imperfectly re-
membered, or cannot be repeated. 
VI
preface.
  Those who are familiar with  the  admirable work
of J. Cloquet, Anatomie de VHomme, will perceive
that frequent  use  has  been  made of  it, both in
figures and description.
  Much interest has of late been excited  by publi-
cations which display the mechanism of  nature ;  in-
deed, the utility and application of  animal mechan-
ics, in  several  branches of science  beside those of
medicine and surgery, have been frequently pointed
out.  From the structure  and functions  of  living
bodies, writers on Natural Theology find ample ma-
terials for showing design and goodness  in the crea-
tion ;  and certainly no ground of argument could be
better chosen, or afford more striking illustrations of
the wisdom and  power of the Creator, than the
anatomy of man;  which, throughout, is  but the his-
tory of means adapted to certain ends.   Those only
who study the  structure  of animated  nature, can
estimate  and admire as  they ought the wonderful
contrivances of the human frame.   " It is evident,
therefore, that the  more correctly a divine  is inform-
ed  respecting  anatomy  and physiology,  the  more
effectually will he  be enabled to employ his  know-
ledge as an argument in favor of natural religion."*
And, as a branch of general education  also,  it de-
serves  the  attention of all those concerned  in the
instruction  of youth.
  It is acknowledged by most persons,  that natural
history  cannot  be  advantageously  studied  unless
*Dr Macartney. 
preface.                  vii
we are acquainted with the structure of the objects
of our research,  or  with  comparative  anatomy, so
called from its comparing the anatomy of other liv-
ing creatures with that of man.   So, also, the science
of geology, which in the present age so much enga-
ges the  attention of philosophic  inquiry,  receives
great elucidation  from  the anatomical  character of
animals.
   Natural philosophy has derived aid from the inves-
tigation of the human structure, particularly from a
knowledge of the formation of the  eye and  the ear;
for " the eye is  an  organ  or  instrument by which
vision is  performed : it  is by its nature the most per-
fect optical instrument, and the foundation of all
others."*
   The provisions in the eyes of different animals for
regulating  the admission of light,  the adaptation of
their refracting powers  to  the  different media, and
the momentary changes in their forms for the vision
of near  or distant objects, are  some of  the  most in-
teresting points  of physiology, and evidently con-
nected with the science of optics.
   The organ of hearing may be said to be completely
artificial, differing in  different  animals  according to
the circumstances in which the function is to be ex-
ercised.   All these varieties are founded on the gen-
eral laws  for  the  transmission of sound  through
various vibrating substances ;  those laws, therefore,
cannot fail to derive elucidation from a knowledge of
the mechanism of the ear.
"Emerson. 
viii
preface.
   In  the  fine  arts, sculpture  and painting receive
 considerable assistance from a knowledge of  anato-
 my.   Without some acquaintance with this science,
 the  artist  cannot determine the  correctness of his
 figures;  for the bones give the form and the propor-
 tion of the joints, and the  muscles the intervening
 outline.   The various emotions of the mind naturally
 call  into action certain muscles;  and the predomi-
 nating passion stamps upon  the  countenance a cor-
 responding  indelible  impression, though the  mind
 may not be  at  every instant  under its influence.
 The representation of muscular actions constitutes
 the anatomy of  expression;  so that  the success of
 the historical painter  must very much depend on his
 knowing  the  separate and  combined  action of the
 moving powers, in the various attitudes and positions
 of the human body ;  for not only the face, but every
 other part of the person,  participates in  the mental
 emotion, and more or less influences the  contour and
 general character of the figure.  Many of  the an-
 cient statues, as  the Lacoon, the Gladiator, and
 others, display a studied observation  and a  correct
 expression of muscular motion.
  As  a branch  of general education, anatomy and
 physiology are subservient to several  other  objects.
 For instance — in many judicial  inquiries ;  in the
 examination of  legal  evidence ; in the  regulation
 and infliction of punishments;  and in the considera-
 tion of the best  modes of  coercion, or the restraints
 which  are most  effectual in preventing crime ; — the
powers of the human constitution  should be accu-
rately  considered. 
preface.
IX
   I have taken  a cursory view of some of the col-
lateral advantages which may accrue from the study
of anatomy and physiology ;  but to the student in
medicine, these sciences  must  be considered indis-
pensable.   Not only is  it his duty, before entering
into practice, to obtain the most perfect knowledge
of this  department  of  his profession,  by studying
the structure and  functions of animal bodies, but he
must carefully, during the  whole course of his pro-
fessional career, keep up  his stock of information.
On  the importance  of anatomical science, the late
Dr Baillie has thus expressed himself: " There is
not a physician, or surgeon, who can conscientiously
discharge his duty to his  patient or to himself, who
does not occasionally, I ought to say, who does not
frequently, inspect the  human frame ; a knowledge
of which is the very foundation of medical science,
and  a guide to  us   in the  distribution of life and
health to our fellow-creatures."
   From an  acquaintance  with the  structure and
functions of the  several parts of  the  human body
when in health, we  are able, for  the  most part, to
judge of its state when under deviations occasioned
by disease, and  thus to act  upon just and rational
principles in the  treatment of the innumerable de-
rangements to which our  frame is liable.  It is in
the pages of death that we read the  history of life
— it is by taking to pieces  the  machine that we
discover some at least of the  wheels which  put it
in motion : for  the same  reason we are obliged to
     VOL. I.              B 
X
preface.
examine  the  body by dissection, before we  can ex-
plain its constitution and  actions.   The anatomist,
therefore, first  studies  the  apparently simple ele-
ments which compose  our complex  fabric, examin-
ing successively all those solid  pieces of framework
which  give to  the body  its proportions, permit or
limit its movements ;  that by separating  the  levers
of the system, he  may be better  able to  observe
their junctures, and the  fastenings  which  retained
them in their  situation.   Next  he traces  out the
moving powers which act on them and direct them,
or which  enable the  animated form to execute the
external and internal actions necessary to existence.
He then dissects the principal tubes which distribute
that vital and regenerating fluid, which  repairs the
waste of  materia], by supplying  an accession  of
substance to the complicated  machine.  Afterwards
he investigates  those  organs which  communicate
 sensation, and  transmit, swifter than  lightning, the
 orders of the will, by means of those delicate fibres
 which  establish such  intimate  relations  between
 us and  the  bodies with  which we  are surrounded.
 Lastly,  he  analyses  those  optical,  acoustic, and
 chemical instruments of  nature, which produce sen-
 sations ;  and contemplates, in their  defunct state,
 those organs which, under a living  principle, exer-
 cised  a series of functions, excelling  each  other in
 the wonder they excite,  and  following  one another
 in such intimate succession, as gives them  the ap-
 pearance of being  connected together by an invisible
 but most admirable chain. 
CONTENTS.
                    ARTICLE   I.

                  OSSEOUS SYSTEM.

                      CHAPTER I.


Of  the Bones in  General,  or Osseous Syste
  Ossification,   .....
  Eminences and depressions of bones,
  Forms of bones,      ....
  Color of bones,    ....
  Texture of bones,    ....
  Periosteum,        ....
  Composition of bones,
  Table of the bones,
  A front view of the male skeleton,
  A back view of the male skeleton,


                      CHAPTER II.

Bones of the  Heae,
  The sutures,   .....
  The frontal bone.  Os frontis,
  The parietal bones.  Ossa parietalia, .
  The occipital bone.   Os occipitis, .
  The temporal bones.  Ossa iemporum,
  The sphenoid bone.  Os sphenoides,
  The ethmoid bone.  Os ethmoides, 
xii
content^.
The Wormian, or triangular bones.   Ossa  Wor
    Iriquetra,  .....
The bones of the face,     .
The nasal bones.  Ossa nasi,  .
The lachrymal bones.  Ossa lachrymalia,
The cheek bones.  Ossa malarum,
The upper jaw bones.  Ossa maxillaria superiora,
The palatine bones.  Ossapalatina,  .
The turbinated bones.  Ossa turbinata,  .
The vomer,        .
The lower jaw.  Os maxillare inferius,
CHAPTER III.
The Bones of the  Trunk,
  The vertebrae of the neck,
  The peculiarities of the vertebrae of the neck
  The first vertebra, or atlas,
  The second vertebra, or dentata,  .
  The seventh vertebra of the neck,
  The vertebrae of the back,
  The vertebrae of the loins,
  General observations on the spine,
  The ribs.  Costce,
  The first rib,
  The eleventh and twelfth ribs.
  The breast bone,
  The bones of the pelvis,
  The unnamed bones.   Ossa innominata,
  The os sacrum,
  The coccyx.  Os coccygis,
                      CHAPTER IV.

The Bones of the  Upper Extremity,
  The collar bone.  Clavicula,  .
  The shoulder blade.  Scapula,
  The upper arm bone.  Os brachii,
  The bones of the fore arm,
  The ulna or larger  bone of the fore arm, 
CONTENTS.
  The radius,        .
  The bones of the hand,
  The bones of the wrist.  Carpus,
  The bones of the palm of the hand.  Metacarpus,
  The bones of the fingers.  Phalanges digitorum, .
  The bones of the thumb,


                       CHAPTER V.

The Bones of the  Lower Extremity,
  The thigh bone.  Os femoris,
  The knee pan.  Patella,
  The shin bone.  Tibia,    .      .       .      .
  The splint bone.  Fibula,
  The bones of the foot,    .
  The bones of the tarsus,
  The astragalus,    .
  The heel bone.   Os calcis,
  The scaphoid, or navicular bone, .
  The cuneiform bones,  ....
  The inner cuneiform bone,
  The middle cuneiform bone,  .
  The outer cuneiform bone,
  The cuboid bone.   Os cuboides,
  The metatarsal bones,    .
  The bones of the toes,       .      .
The Sesamoid Bones,     .      .       .      .
The Tongue Bone.  Os hyoides,


                      CHAPTER VI.

The Teeth, ......
  The structure of the teeth,
  The enamel of the teeth,  .      .       .      .
  The osseous substance of the teeth,  .
  The classes of teeth,      .
  The incisors,   .....
  The canine teeth,   .      .      .       •
  The grinders,  . 
xiv
CONTENTS.
  Of the formation of the teeth,
  Of the deciduous teeth,
  Of the permanent teeth,  ....


                    CHAPTER  VII.

The Medullary System or Marrow of Bones,
                 ARTICLE  II.

           CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.

                     CHAPTER I.

Cartilaginous System, or the  Gristle of Bones
                ARTICLE  III.

                  FIBROUS SYSTEM.

                  CHAPTER  I.

Fibrous System,    ....


                  CHAPTER  II.

Perichondrium,       ...


                CHAPTER  III.

The Ligaments,    ....
  Capsular ligaments,   .
  Lateral ligaments,  ....
  Ligaments within the joints,  . 
CONTENTS.
CHAPTER IV.
Particular Ligaments,
Ligaments of the  Head,  .
  Ligaments of the lower jaw,  .
  Capsular ligament,
  Interarticular cartilage,
  Internal lateral ligament,  .
  Stylo-maxillary ligament,
  External lateral ligament,  .
Ligaments connecting the  Head
  Two capsular ligaments,  .
  Anterior perpendicular ligament,
  Posterior perpendicular ligament,
  Two lateral ligaments,
and  Neck,
CHAPTER  V
Ligaments of the Vertebrje,
  Ligaments of the second vertebra.
  Transverse ligament,
  Ligaments common to all the vertebrae
  Anterior common ligament.
  Posterior common ligament,
  Intervertebral ligament,      .  .
  Ligamenta subflava,
  Interspinous ligaments, .
  Supraspinous ligaments,
  Ligaments of the oblique process.
CHAPTER  VI
Ligaments of the  Thorax,
Ligaments of the  Ribs with the Vertebrae,
  Capsular ligaments,    .      .      .      .
  Interarticular ligament,
  Middle transverse ligament,
  Inferior transverse ligament, 
XVI
CONTENTS.
  Anterior, or radiated ligament,
Ligaments of the Cartilages  of  the Ribs  with the
      Sternum,     .
 Page.
,  104

  106
CHAPTER  VII
Ligaments of the  Pelvis,
  Long posterior ligament of the ilium,
  Short posterior ligament,
  Posterior lateral ligament, .
  Great sacro-sciatic ligament,
  Smaller sacro-sciatic ligament,
  Superior ilio-lumbar ligament,
  Inferior ilio-lumbar ligament,
  Ilio-sacral ligaments,
  Symphysis of the ossa pubis,
  Membrane of the thyroid foramen,
  Ligament of Fallopius,  or Poupart,
107
107
107
108
108
109
109
109
110
110
110
110
CHAPTER  VIII
Ligaments of the  Superior Extremities, .      .       .111
  Ligaments of the clavicle,  .      .       .      •       .111
  Interclavicular ligament,      .      .       .      .       . 1U
  Sterno-clavicular ligament,       .       .      .       .112
  Interarticular cartilage,       .      •       •      •       .112
  Costo-clavicular ligament,  .....    112
  Acromio-clavicular ligament,  .      .       .      .       .113
  Coraco-clavicular ligament,       ....    113
  Ligament of the scapula.  Acromio-coracoid ligament,     . 113
  Coracoid ligament, ......    113
  Ligaments  between the scapula and humerus.  Capsular
      ligament,      .      .      .      .      .      .114
  Accessory ligament,    ...... 114
  Ligaments  between the humerus and  bones of the arm.
      Capsular ligament,       .      .       .      .       .115
  External lateral ligament,  .      .       .      .      .116
  Internal lateral ligament,      .      .       .      .       .116 
CONTENTS
XV11
Ligaments between the radius and ulna. Superior articu-	l'age.
lation. Orbicular ligament,	. 117
Anterior and posterior accessory ligaments, .	117
Middle articulation. Round ligament. Chorda transversa-	
lis cubiti, . • .	117
Interosseous ligament, .....	. 118
Inferior articulation. Interarticular cartilage. Cartilago in-	
termedia triangularis, ....	. 118
Capsular, or sacciform ligament, ....	118
External lateral ligament, ....	. 118
Internal lateral ligament, .....	119
Ligaments of the carpus, ....	. 119
Ligaments of the first row of the carpal bones,	119
Ligaments of the second row of the carpal bones,	. 120
Ligaments of the two rows of carpal bones,	120
The annular ligament of the carpus, .	. 120
Ligaments of the hand, .....	121
Capsular ligaments, .....	. 121
Superior transverse ligaments, .	121
Inferior transverse ligaments, ....	. 121
Ligaments of the fingers, .....	122
                   CHAPTER  IX.

Ligaments of  the Inferior  Extremities,
  Ilio-femoral ligaments,
  Cotyloid ligament,
  Capsular ligament, ....
  Interarticular ligament.   Ligamentum teres, >
  Ligaments of the knee joint,
  Capsular ligament,
  Lateral ligaments,  ....
  External lateral ligament,
  Internal lateral ligament,
  Crucial ligaments,
  Anterior crucial ligament,  .
  Posterior crucial ligament,
  Interarticular, or semilunar cartilage,
  Ligaments between the tibia and fibula,
     VOL. I.                  C
123
123
124
126
125
125
127
127
127
128
128
128
129
129 
xviii
COiNTENTS.
Capsular ligament,  .
Interosseous ligament,  .
Ligaments of the lower end of the tibia and fibula,
Ligaments of the ankle-joint,  .
Ligaments between the fibula and tarsus,  .
Ligaments between the tibia and tarsus,
Deltoid or tibio-tarsal ligament,
Capsular ligament,    .
Ligaments of the tarsus,   ....
Ligaments between the os calcis and astragalus,
Ligaments between the astragalus and os naviculare,
Ligaments between the os calcis and os naviculare,  .
Ligaments between the os calcis and os cuboides,
Ligaments between the navicular and cuboid bones,  .
Ligaments between the navicular and cuneiform bones,
Ligaments between the cuneiform bones,
Ligaments between the cuboid and external cuneiform bones,
Ligaments of the tarsus with the metatarsus,  .
Ligaments of the metatarsal bones with each other,
Ligaments of the metatarsus with the phalanges of the toes,
Ligaments of the phalanges of the toes,  .
 Page.
 130
, 130
 130
. 131
 131
. 131
 131
. 132
 132
. 133
 133
. 134
 134
. 134
 135
. 135
 135
 135
 136
 136
 136
ARTICLE   IV
MUSCULAR  SYSTEM
CHAPTER  I .
Muscular System,
  Form of the muscles,
  The long muscles,
  The wide muscles, ....
  The short muscles,
  Voluntary, involuntary, and mixed muscles.
  Texture of muscles,
  Cellular tissue of muscles,
  Blood-vessels of muscles,
  Nerves of muscles, ....
138
141
141
142
142
143
144
145
146
147 
CONTENTS.
Tendons of muscles,
Aponeuroses,
Chemical composition of muscles.
Sheaths of tendons, .      . <
Strength of muscles,
Actions of  muscles.
Nomenclature of the muscles,  .
Classification of the muscles,
CHAPTER  II
Table of the Muscles,
  Muscles of the head,
  ------of the face,
  ------of the neck,
  -------of the trunk,  .
  -------of the abdomen,  .
  -------of the posterior part of the  tr
  -------of the extremities,
          of the superior extremities,
— of the shoulder,
— of the arm,
— of the fore arm,
— of the hand,  .
— of the inferior extremities,
— of the haunch and thigh,
— of the leg,  .
  of the foot,
Muscles  of the Head.  Cranial region,
  Occipito-fronti.lis,
  Auricular region,
        Attollens auris,  .
        Attrahens auris,
        Retrahens auris,
Muscles  of the Face,
  Palpebral region,
        Orbicularis palpebrarum,   .
        Corrugator supercilii,  .
        Levator palpebral superiors,
ok 
XX
CONTENTS.
Ocular region,  .
      Rectus superior,
      Rectus inferior,
      Rectus internus
      Rectus externus,
      Obliquus superior,  .
      Obliquus inferior,
Nasal region,
      Pyramidalis nasi,
      Compressor nasi,
      Levator labii superioris ataque nasi
      Depressor alee nasi,
Superior maxillary region,
      Levator labii superioris,
      Levator anguli oris,
      Zygomaticus major,
      Zygomaticus minor,
      Orbicularis oris,
Inferior maxillary region,
      Depressor anguli oris,
      Depressor labii inferioris,
      Buccinator, .
      Levator menti,  .
      Masseter,
Temporo-maxillary region,
      Temporalis,
Pterygo-maxillary region,
      Pterygoideus externus,
      Pterygoideus internus,  .
Lingual region,
      Hyo-glpssus,
      Genio-glossus,
      Stylo-glossus,
      Liugualis,
Palatine region,
      Circumflexus palati,
      Levator palati,  .
      Levator uvulae,
       Palato-pharyngeus,
       Constrictor isthmi faucium, 
CONTENTS.
xxi
CHAPTER  III
Muscles  of the  Neck,
  Anterior cervical region,  .
        Platysma  myoides,
        Stejno-cleido mastoideus
        Digastricus,
        Stylo-hyoideus,
        Mylo-hyoideus,
        Genio-hyoideus,
  Inferior hyoid region,  .
        Omo-hyoideus,
        Steruo-hyoideus,
        Sterno-thyroideus,  .
        Thyro-hyoideus,
  Pharyngeal region,
        Constrictor pharyngeus inferior.
        Constrictor pharyngeus medius,
        Constrictor pharyngeus superior
        Stylo-pharyngeus,  .
  Deep cervical region,  .
        Rectus capitis anticus major,
        Rectus capitis anticus minor,  .
        Longus colli,
  Lateral cervical  region,
        Scalenus  anticus,
        Scalenus  posticus,
        Rectus capitis lateralis,
	Page.
. 181	
	181
	181
	182
	183
	183
	184
	184
	185
.	185
	186
.	186
	187
	188
	188
%	189
	189
	191
	191
	191
	192
	193
	193
	193
	194
	194
CHAPTER  IV
Muscles  of the Trunk,
  Anterior thoracic region,
        Pectoralis major,
        Pectoralis minor,
        Subclavius,
  Lateral thoracic region,
        Serratus magnus,
195
195
195
197
198
199
199 
XX11
CONTENTS.
 Intercostal region,
       Intercostales externi,
       Intercostales interni,
       Levatores costarum,
       Triangularis sterni,
 Region of the diaphragm, .
       Diaphragm,
 Abdominal region, .
       Obliquus abdominis externus,
       Obliquus abdominis internus,
       Transversalis abdominis,
       Rectus abdominis,   .
       Pyramidalis,
 Lumbar region,
       Psoas magnus,  .
       Psoas parvus,
       Iliacus internus, .
       Quadratus lumborum,
 Anal region,
       Levator ani,
       Coccygeus,
       Sphincter ani,
 Genital region in the male,
       Cremaster,
       Ischio-cavernosus,
       Bulbo-cavernosus,
       Transversus perinei,
 Genital region in the female,
       Ischio-cavernosus,
       Constrictor vaginae,  .
 Lumbo-dorsal region,  .
       Trapezius,
       Latissimus dorsi,
Dorso-cervical region,
       Rhomboideus,
       Levator scapulae,
       Serratus posticus superior,
       Serratus posticus inferior,
       Spleuius,  .
      Complexus,   .
       Trarhelo-ma.^toicleus,
 Pace.
.  200
  201
.  201
  202
.  203
  204
.  204
  207
.  207
  209
,  210
  211
.  212
  213
.  213
 214
, 215
 215
 216
 216
 217
 217
 218
 218
 218
 218
 219
 219
 219
 220
 221
 221
 222
 224
 224
 226
 227
 227
 228
 229
 230 
CONTENTS.
XX111
Posterior occipitocervical region,
      Rectus capitis posticus major.
      Rectus capitis posticus minor,
      Obliquus capitis superior,
      Obliquus capitis inferior,
      Interspinales cervicis,
Vertebral region,
      Longissimus dorsi,   .
      Sacro-lumbalis,  .
      Transversalis colli,  .
      Multifidus spinae,
      Intertransversales colli,
      Intertransversales lumborum,
CHAPTER  V
Muscles of the  Extremities,
Muscles of the  Superior  Extremity,
Muscles of the  Shoulder,
  Posterior scapular region,  .
         Supra-spinatus,  .
         Infra-spinatus,
         Teres minor,
         Teres major,
  Anterior scapular region,
         Subscapularis,
  External scapular region,
         Deltoides,
Muscles of the  Arm,
  Anterior brachial region,
         Coraco-brachialis,
         Biceps flexor cubiti,
         Brachialis internus,
         Triceps extensor cubiti.
Muscles of the  Fore-Arm,
  Anterior region of the fore-arm
         Pronator  teres,  .
         Flexor carpi radialis,
         Palmaris  longus
         Flexor carpi ulnaris,
         Flexor digitorum sublimis vel perforatu 
xxiv
CONTENTS.
                                                           Pasre.
  Anterior deep region of the fore arm,       •      .       •  255
        Flexor digitorum profundus vel perforans,        .     255
        Flexor longus pollicis manus, .                      256
        Pronator quadratus,       ....     257
  Posterior superficial region of the fore-arm. .       .       .  258
        Extensor digitorum communis,     .      .            258
        Extensor proprius minimi digiti,      .      .       •  269
        Extensor carpi ulnaris,      ....     259
        Anconeus,       ......  260
  Posterior deep region of the fore-arm,    .      .       .     260
        Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis,     .       .       •  261
        Extensor primi internodii pollicis manus,  .       .     262
        Extensor secundi internodii pollicis manus,   .       .  262
        Indicator,......263
  Radial region, .       .       .       .       .       .       .264
        Supinator radii longus,     ....     264
        Supinator radii brevis,        ....  264
        Extensor carpi radialis longior, or radialis externus
          longior,      ......  264
        Extensor carpi  radialis brevior, or radialis externus
          brevior,      ......  265
Muscles  of the Hand,     .....     265
  External palmar region,      .....  265
        Abductor brevis pollicis manus,    .      .       .     265
        Opponens pollicis,     .....  266
        Flexor brevis pollicis manus,      .       .       .     266
        Adductor pollicis manus,      ....  267
  Internal palmar region,    .....     267
        Palmaris brevis,       .....  267
        Abductor minimi digiti,     ....     268
        Flexor proprius minimi digiti, ....  268
        Adductor ossis metacarpi minimi digiti,    .       .     269
  Middle palmar region,       .                              269
        Lumbricales,              ...            269
        Interossei,      .                                     270
            1. Abductor indicis,    .       .       .            270
       ,     2. Adductor indicis,       .       .              m  271
            3. Abductor digiti medii,      .       .            271
            4. Adductor digiti medii,  ...         272
            5. Abductor digiti annularis   .       .            272 
CONTENTS.
XXV
                                                      Page.
           6. Adductor digiti annularis,     .      .       . 272
           7. Abductor minimi digiti,    .      .      .    273
The Enveloping Aponeurosis of the Upper Extremity,   273
CHAPTER  VI.
Muscles of the Inferior Extremity,	. 275
Region of the hip, ......	275
Muscles of the Haunch and Thigh,	. 275
Gluteus maximus, .....	275
Gluteus medius, ....	. 277
Gluteus minimus, .....	278
Pelvi-trochanteric region, ....	. 280
Pyriformis, ......	280
Obturator internus, ....	. 281
Obturator externus, . .	282
Gemellus superior, ....	. 283
Gemellus inferior, .....	283
Quadratus femoris, ....	. 284
Anterior femoral region, .....	285
Sartorius, .....	. 285
Rectus Femoris, .....	286
Triceps extensor cruris ; vastus externus, vastus in-	
ternus, cruraeus, ....	. 287
Internal femoral region, .....	289
Pectineus, .....	. 289
Gracilis, ......	290
Adductors of the thigh,	. 290
Adductor longus, . . . .	290
Adductor brevis, ....	. 291
Adductor magnus, . . . . .	292
Posterior femoral region, ....	. 294
Biceps femoris, ....	294
Semitendiuosus, ...	. 295
Semimembranosus, .....	296
Tensor vaginae femoris,	. 296
Aponeurosis of the thigh, ...	297
Muscles of the Leg, ...	. 299
Anterior region of the leg,	299
Tibialis anticus, .	. 299
VOL. I. D	
 
xxvi
CONTENTS.
Page.
        Peroneus tertius,
        Extensor longus digitorum pedis,
        Extensor proprius pollicis pedis,
  Peroneal region,
        Peroneus longus,
        Peroneus brevis,
  Posterior region of the leg,
        Gastrocnemius externus et internus,
        Soleus,       ....
        Plantaris,
        Popliteus,   ....
        Flexor longus digitorum pedis,
        Flexor longus pollicis pedis,
        Tibialis posticus,
Muscles  of the Foot,
  Dorsal region,  .
        Extensor brevis digitorum pedis,
        Interossei externi,
  Plantar region,     .
        Flexor brevis digitorum pedis,  .
        Abductor pollicis pedis,     .      ,
        Abductor minimi digiti pedis,   .
        Flexor digitorum accessorius,
        Lumbricales pedis,
        Flexor brevis pollicis pedis,
        Adductor pollicis pedis,
        Flexor brevis  minimi digiti pedis,  .
        Transversus pedis,
        Interossei interni,
        Aponeurosis of the leg,
        Annular ligament of the instep,
Observations on the Muscles,
Bursje Mucosje, or Mucous Bags, 
CONTENTS.
XXV11  *
   ARTICLE  V.

VASCULAR  SYSTEM

   CHAPTER  I.
Organs of Circulation,
The  Heart and its Envelopes,  .
  The pericardium,      ....
  The blood,......
  The heart,     .....
        The right side of the heart,
        The right auricle,
        The right ventricle, ....
        Commencement of the pulmonary artery,
        The left side of the heart,  .      .
        The left auricle,
        The left ventricle,   ....
        Organization of the heart,
        The vessels of the heart,
  General observations on the heart,
  Table of the arteries,     ....
  Of the  arteries in general,
  Structure of the arteries,   ....
The Aorta,      .....
  The arteries which the  aorta gives off at its origin,
        The right coronary artery,
        The left coronary artery,
  The arteries of the arch of the aorta,
        Arteria innominata,  ....
        Primitive carotid arteries,
        External carotid artery,
         Anterior branches of the external carotid artery,
         Superior thyroid artery,
         External maxillary artery,
         Branches of the  external maxillary artery,
         The lingual artery,     ....
         Posterior cranches of the external barotid artery, 
xxviii
CONTENTS.
Page.
362
363
363
366
Occipital artery,        .      .       •       •
The posterior auricular artery,
Internal branch of the external carotid, or inferior
    pharyngeal artery,     .
Branches which terminate the external carotid artery   364
Temporal  artery,      .                             364
Internal  maxillary artery,   ....     365
Branches of the internal maxillary artery behind the
    neck of the condyle of the jaw,
Middle meningeal artery,      .                       366
Inferior dental, or inferior maxillary artery,       .     366
Branches  of  the internal  maxillary between the
    pterygoid muscles, .                              367
Posterior deep temporal branch,    .       .       •     367
Masseteric artery,      .                             367
Pterygoid arteries,   .                                367
Branches of the internal maxillary artery in the zygo-
    matic fossa,        .....  367
Buccal artery,       .....     367
Anterior deep temporal artery,        .       .       ■  367
Alveolar artery,     .....     368
Infra-orbitar artery,    .....  368
Branches of the internal maxillary artery in the sphe-
    no-maxillary fossa,        ....  368
Vidian, or pterygoid artery,       .      .       .     368
Superior pharyngeal artery,    ....  368
Superior palatine artery,    ....     868
Sphenopalatine artery,        ....  369
Internal carotid artery,     ....     369
Ophthalmic artery,     .....  370
The lachrymal artery,      ....     370
The central artery of the retina,       .       .       .  370
Arteries sent off by the ophthalmic  above the optic
    nerve,      .....       .  371
The supra-orbitar artery,   .      .       .       .371
The posterior ciliary arteries,   .       .       .       .371
The long ciliary arteries,   .       .       .       .371
The superior and inferior muscular arteries,   .       .  372
Arteries sent off by the ophthalmic in its course along
    the inside of  the optic nerve,      .       .       .372
The posterior and anterior ethmoidal arteries,     .     372 
CONTENTS.
xxix
                                                          Page.
       The superior and inferior palpebral arteries, .      . 372
       Branches which terminate the ophthalmic artery,      372
       The nasal artery,       ..... 372
       The frontal artery,  .....     373
       The communicating artery of Willis,  .      .      . 373
       The artery of the choroid plexus,  .      .       .     873
       The anterior cerebral artery,   .... 87S
       Middle cerebral artery,      ....     373
       Subclavian artery,      ..... 874
       Branches of the subclavian artery, ,      .       .     375
       Vertebral artery,       .       .      .      .       .375
       Basilar artery,      .....     377
       Inferior thyroid artery,  ..... 378
       Inferior branches of the subclavian artery,        .     378
       Internal mammary artery,      ....  878
       Superior intercostal artery,  ....     379
       External branches of the  subclavian artery,  .       .  379
       Transverse cervical, or  posterior scapular artery,      379
       Superior scapular artery,       .... 380
       Posterior, or deep cervical artery,  .      .       .     380
       Axillary artery, ......  S80
       Branches of the axillary artery,   .       .       .     881
       Acromial artery,        .       .      .      .       .381
       Superior thoracic artery,   .       .       .       .881
       Long thoracic, or external mammary artery,  .       .  381
       Inferior scapular,   .....     881
       Posterior and anterior circumflex arteries,    .       . 382
       Brachial artery,    .....     383
       Superior muscular branch, or deep humeral,  .       .  384
       The inferior muscular artery,      .       .       .     384
       The ramus anastomaticus magnus,    .      .       .  385
       The external  branches of  the brachial artery,     .     385
       Branches by which the brachial artery terminates,   .  386
       The radial artery,   .....     387
       The ulnar artery,      .....  388
Arteries furnished by the thoracic aorta,  .       .       .     391
       Bronchial arteries,      .....  391
       CEsophageal arteries,       ....     892
       Posterior mediastinal arteries,  ....  392
       Inferior intercostal  arteries,        .       .       •     392 
XXX
CONTENTS.
Arteries furnished by the abdominal aorta,   .
       The right inferior diaphragmatic artery,  .
       The left inferior diaphragmatic artery,
       Cceliac artery,      .
       Coronary artery of the stomach,
       Hepatic artery,     .
       Splenic artery,   .....
       Superior mesenteric artery,
       Branches which are furnished on the left side of the
          superior mesenteric artery,
       The inferior mesenteric artery,
Arteries which are furnished laterally by the abdominal aorta,
       Surrenal arteries,   .....
       Renal, or emulgent arteries,
       Spermatic arteries,  .
       Lumbar arteries,
The arteries which terminate the  aorta below.
       Middle sacral artery,
       Primitive iliacs,
       Internal iliac, or hypogastric artery,
       Branches of  the internal iliac artery,
       Ilio-lumbar artery,
       The lateral sacra] artery,
       Gluteal, or posterior iliac artery,
       Umbilical artery,
       Vesical arteries, .
       Obturator artery,
       Middle haemorrhoidal  artery,
       Uterine artery,
       Vaginal artery, .
       Ischiatic artery,
       Internal pudic artery,   .
       External iliac artery,
       The  epigastric artery, .
       Circumflex iliac  artery,
       Femoral artery,
       Internal branches of the femoral artery
       External pudic artery, .
       External branches of  the femoral artery,
       Superficial muscular artery,
Page.
 393
 393
 393
 393
, 394
 895
, 896
 397

 398
 400
 401
 401
 402
 403
 403
 404
, 404
 404
■ 405
 405
 405
 405
, 405
 407
. 407
 407
 408
 408
, 408
 408
 408
 410
 410
 410
 411
 412
 412
 413
. 413 
CONTENTS.
XXXI
                                                  Page.
Anterior branches of the femoral artery,   .       .413
Abdominal subcutaneous, or external epigastric artery, 413
Posterior branches of the femoral artery,  .       .    413
Arteria profunda femoris, or the deep muscular artery,  413
Popliteal artery,    .      .       .      .       .415
Branches of the popliteal artery,     .      .      .416
Anterior tibial artery,      .       .       .       .418
Dorsal artery of the foot,      .... 419
Peroneal artery,     .....    420
Posterior tibial artery,  .                           421 
 
GENERAL   OBSERVATIONS.
  The  science  of anatomy investigates whatever  enters
into the composition of animated beings; and  the dissec-
tion of their dead bodies is the chief means of prosecuting
the study.   The  anatomist isolates portions, to  display
them  more distinctly ;  he  injects vessels, to exhibit their
course ; macerates  some parts, to unravel their  intimate
conformation; dries other parts, to preserve them for future
reference; and uses  various other processes  to facilitate
his  inquiries into the  intricate  and complicated machinery
of the animal  frame.  Anatomy, therefore, may be said to
be the science of animal organization; and it requires such
an examination of  the instruments of life, as shall  disclose
their  number, size, situation, form, color, connexion, tex-
ture, and functions.
  This science comprehends the structure of organized be-
ings in general; but it is the anatomy of man  only which
forms the subject of the present Introduction.
  The anatomy of  the human  body explains its  structure
under two different conditions : the first is a healthy state
of the organs, termed special  anatomy ;  the  second  is  a
diseased  state producing alterations of  structure, termed
     VOL. I.                E 
 XXxiv         GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

morbid or pathological anatomy.  I confine myself  to a de-
scription of the structures and organs of the adult in the
former of these conditions.
  The human body is composed of solids and fluids, united
in different  proportions.   The solids give  the  form  and
consistence to the  different parts  of our  bodies, and they
consist of  bones,  ligaments,  muscles,  tendons, vessels,
nerves, etc.  The  fluids form the greatest part of the body,
and are the  blood, chyle, and all  the  secreted liquids, as
urine, sweat, saliva,  tears, bile, &c.   These are  all con-
tained either in vessels,  cells,  or  reservoirs.  When  the
fluids of the animal frame are separated from the solids,
their weight is in the  proportion of eight to ten.   This has
been ascertained by an examination of human bodies found
buried in the dry sands of Arabia, with their  fluids evapo-
rated and their solids remaining perfect; and the fact  is
confirmed by experiments on inferior animals.
  The anatomy of the solids  has  been divided  into vari-
ous branches, expressive  of the parts referred to ; as,
  Osteology,   .   A description of the bones.
  Syndesmology, .  A description of the ligaments.
  Myology,    .   A description of the muscles.
  Splanchology,   .  A description of the viscera.
  Adenology,   .    A description of the glands,
  Angiology, .    .  A description of the structure and distribution of the vessels.
  Neurology,   .    A description of the nerves.
  Dermology,    .  A description of the skin.
  The  description and • composition of the animal  fluids
come under the head of Physiology  particularly.
  The solid parts of the  body are  named  organs, or the
instruments by which the  functions are exercised.
  These solid parts of our fabric, when minutely examined 
GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.           XXXV
are found to  consist ultimately of layers of minute fibres,
or filaments, varied in appearance and  texture,  according
to the use and offices of the part which  they compose.
   As the different organs which constitute the body are of
a more  simple or complex structure, they are made up of
one  or  more tissues or textures, which are  the  original
materials, performing the same  function, in whatever part
of the body  they exist.   Most of the organs of the body
are composed of a variety  of  these  elementary textures,
which are spread out in the  form of membranes, collected
into cords, or hollowed out  into canals ; and by their  di-
versity of combination, figure,  and color, they produce all
the modifications of structure and functions which different
organs possess.
   Bichat, an eminent French anatomist,  pointed out the
simple analysis or division of the body into its elementary
parts; and the knowledge of these has  been of the utmost
importance in the investigation and  treatment of diseases,
as well as of the greatest  convenience in  anatomical  ar-
rangement.
   The systems of texture may be placed in the following
order:  1st, the bony system  ; 2d, the cartilaginous ;  3d, the
fibrous; 4th,  the muscular;  5th,  the  vascular; 6th, the
nervous ;  7th, the mucous;  Sth, the serous ; 9th, the glan-
dular ;  10th, the  adipose;  11th,  the  cellular; 12th, the
dermoid.
   These are further subdivided: as the bony system, into
the  bony and medullary ; the  cartilaginous, including the
fibro-cartilaginous; the vascular is divided into the arterial,
the venous, and the lymphatic, etc.  But  in this  place I 
XXXvi          GENERAL OBSERVATIONS.

wish to take a more general view of animal structures, and
these twelve divisions will comprehend the whole.
  The elementary tissues are variously combined and pro-
portioned ; the cellular, vascular, and  nervous tissues, give
origin to a variety of  compound solids, and these solids are
furnished with the properties suited to the place they occupy
and the offices they discharge.
  It is difficult to ascertain the chemical ingredients which
enter into the composition of  the body ; but, according to
our present knowledge of animal chemistry, the inorganic
elements  consist of carbon, azote, oxygen, hydrogen, phos-
phorus, sulphur, iron,  calcium, sodium,  potassium,  etc.
These different chemical elements  again  form organic ele-
ments : as gelatin, or what is  called animal jelly ; fibrin, or
a whitish  elastic filamentous  substance; albumen,  a  vivid
transparent fluid like the white of an  egg, coagulating by
alcohol and heat; mucous, a viscid  transparent fluid, inca-
pable of coagulation ; fat, or  animal oil, a well-known sub-
stance, insoluble in water, and readily melting by the action
of heat.   More particular notice, however, of the formation
and chemical composition of individual structure will sub-
sequently occur.*

  * For the several other chemical products, I refer the reader to Berze-
nus on Animal Chemistry. 
         ANATOMY

                  OF

THE   HUMAN  BODY.
                       CHAP. I.

     OF THE BONES, OR OSSEOUS SYSTEM  IN  GENERAL.

   The  bones are  the  hardest parts of animal  bodies;
 they are a firm and  common  basis, on which  the  moving
 powers are fixed ; they constitute  a framework for protect-
 ing  the vital organs, as the heart and lungs, or form  com-
 plete cases where  the  more delicate parts of pur  organiza-
 tion, as  the brain and  spinal marrow, are securely  lodged.
 They also constitute a series of levers, by means of which,
 through the  agency of the  muscles,  locomotion  and the
 various and numerous offices of life are performed.
   A complete assemblage  of conjoined  bones forms the
 skeleton : if it be united by its natural ligaments, it is deno-
 minated a natural skeleton ; if by wires, it is called,  though
 incorrectly,  an  artificial  skeleton,  signifying,  however,
 that it is artificially articulated, which  indeed is the  most
 useful  mode of connecting  bones;  for, by this means, the
joints can be moved and examined at pleasure ;  on the con-
trary, bones united by their  ligaments have the joints  rigid
and concealed.
  The appearance of the skeleton  is  different in different
  vol. i.             1 
2
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
subjects, according to the period of life and the sex :  the
present subject is to describe its formation and particular
organization in the adult, either male or female.
   The  forms  of  the bones are  sufficiently  obvious  in
many parts of the body  to give the points to the  outline,
determining the size, proportion, and motions of its  several
members.
   The bones afford attachments to the moving powers, i. e.
to the muscles by their tendons, and also to the  ligaments.

                     OSSIFICATION.

   The bones  experience many changes  before they  arrive
to the term of their perfection, which is not until about the
twentieth year.
   In the first  periods,  their  consistence does  not  exceed
that  of  other parts.   In  four  weeks they harden and
appear  cartilaginous, their  form  is perfect,  and  they  are
covered by their peculiar membrane, the periosteum.  To-
wards the eighth week their vessels  commence to carry
red  blood, instead of  colorless  fluid, which before cir-
culated  in them.   It is at this period that the true ossifi-
cation begins, departing from certain centres,  which  are
called the points of ossification, and these vary  according
to the forms of the bones.   In the flat bones, the ossific
matter is deposited in a radiated manner; in the long bones,
in parallel lines.
   The larger bones are  the  first formed, with the  excep-
tion of the minutest in the body, viz. those of the ear.  In
these, ossification is the  soonest completed; and  they  ex-
ceed all the others in density, and in the proportion of  the
hard matter of bones  which they contain.
   The use for which  a  bone  is destined,  appears to have
some influence on the degree of rapidity with which it is
formed  and  developed.  Thus the jaw bones are  early
matured, as they are so soon in life required for use.  On 
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
3
the other hand the sternum and coccyx are  tardily  per-
fected, because it is necessary that the cavities which  they
help to inclose should be kept in  a somewhat  cartilaginous
state until a later period.
   Most of the bones  are formed  of several pieces, as  may
be more particularly observed in the long ones, which have
their extremities*  separated from their body by a thin  par-
tition of cartilage, and  it is some time  before the whole
is  united.
   In  the skull, some of the bones, in the first rudiments of
ossification, display a radiated, calcareous  phosphate, di-
verging from  the  centre to the circumference.  Unossified
substance at first occupies the interstices left between them,
but subsequently  additional bony fibres proceed until the
cranium is perfect.
   When ossification  is completed, the bones still continue
to undergo different changes.   The  general growth in sta-
ture  is completed  with  the  process of ossification ; but
increase of bulk is still for a long time advancing to middle
age, when the bone is stronger and  less vascular ;  and the
different elevations of the surface become more prominent
and  marked,  particularly  in  individuals  accustomed  to
strong exercise.   Finally,  as we advance in years,  vitality
progressively  decreases ; and in extreme old age the earthy
substance predominates, and the  bones become  extremely
fragile.

         eminences and depressions of bones.

   A  variety  of  eminences  and depressions characterise  a
number of  the bones.  The eminences are  all those pro-
jections, prolongations, or  productions, observable on  their
surfaces ; and different names have been assigned to these,
derived from  their figure, situation, and use.
" Termed epiphyses and apophyses. 
4
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
   These eminences are termed heads, when they are con-
vex, roundish, and smooth on their surface.  Necks, when
smallest at the middle, and gradually increasing toward the
extremity.   Condyles, when the head  is rather long and
unequally rounded.   Tubercles or tuberosities,  when un-
even,  rough and irregular.   Spines or spinous  processes,
when sharp or pointed.  Long elevations with sharp edges
are called cristce.   Such processes as terminate in a sharp
point or rather edge, receive  the general name of coronoid,
though most of them receive particular names  from  their
resemblance to  other things, as mastoid, styloid, coracoid.
   Processes are also named from their situation, as oblique,
transverse, &c.
   Some from  their uses.   Thus  two tubercles  on the os
femoris are designated as trochanters, because they serve to
turn that bone.
   The depressions are either deep or superficial.  Of the
deep depressions  or cavities, some are  termed  cotylce or
cotyloid, from  their  being like a cup, such as the greater
cavity which receives the head of the femur.   Others are
named alveoli or sockets,  as  those in which the teeth are
lodged.
   The more shallow or superficial cavities are called glena
or glenoid, as that part of  the scapula  which receives the
head of "the humerus.  The cavities of the interior of bones
will be described  when considering their structure.
   These  eminences   and  depressions  are  most  strongly
marked in those  persons who take  very robust  exercise,
and in the  male more than the female,  in the adult  more
than the infant.
   The eminences of articulation are  generally the expand-
ed extremities of bones, forming surfaces  of union  with
other bones, in which there are corresponding depressions.
The mode of union varies  with  the  form and  use of the
bones thus united; some being immovably  united, others
having a limited or a free motion. 
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.                  5
   Muscular  depressions are in proportion to the strength
or action of  the muscles to which they give origin;  and
the  degree of projection of  the eminences  for insertion are
always  a sure sign of  the strength of the muscles attached
to them, and the  energy  of their motion.   Asperities on
the  surface  of bones  in general  show where tendons or
muscles are implanted.  An extended line usually indicates
the attachment of a broad  tendon ; projecting points have
tendons or ligaments corresponding.
   It may be  easily conceived that  the moving powers must
act  with greater  advantage  by  being  removed farther
from the centre of the bone, by means of such projecting
points.   The eminences for the  insertion of ligaments also
afford a similar advantage, by removing, in  some degree,
the  ligament from the articulation,  thus facilitating the
motion  of the latter, as we  may observe in the elbow and
the knee.
   Eminences and depressions from apparent impression,
are such as  the irregularities  of the inner surface of the
skull, or such as muscular impressions on other bones pre-
sent.  They  are supposed to be occasioned by the  pressure
of different organs on the surface in their growth or actions.
If these impressions are not actually the result of the com-
pression of the  organs on the bone, they show that the
bones are provided  with forms admirably accommodated to
the adjacent parts.

                   FORMS OF BONES.

  Viewed in respect to form, bones  have been  arranged
under four classes — the long,  the broad, the short, and the
mixed bones.
  The first, in general,  belong to  the parts of locomotion,
where they become  levers moved  in various directions by
the muscles.  These have all  a medullary canal, and their 
6
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
extremities are  considerably larger  than their  bodies, and
are porous and reticulated,  which  gives  them  a greater
degree of lightness, increases the articulating surfaces, and
consequently diminishes their  liability  to  luxation.   The
body  of these bones  is usually round.  The  greater dis-
tance these  are  from the trunk of  the body, the  less is
their volume, but the greater their number.
  The  second,  or  broad bones, are little  connected with
locomotion, serving chiefly for the insertion  of muscles,
which proceed  to  the long bones, and  form ordinarily by
their union the  walls or parietes of  certain cavities, as the
cranium and  pelvis.  They are nearly equal in length and
breadth, but  vary  in  thickness.  They  have two laming; ^.
and  in  the cranium the internal is thinner and  harder, and
has therefore the name of tabula vitrea.
  The  third, the short bones,  are situated in  those parts
in which solidity  and motion  must be united,  as  in  the
spine, the wrist, and the instep, where their number insures
these two properties, namely:   solidity, because  the force
of external  mechanical  shocks is expended on  the wide
surface  by  which  they   are  connected;   and mobility,
because from their individual partial motions, there results
collectively a very  extensive general one.
  Besides  these three classes  of bones, there  is a fourth,
termed  by Meckel  mixed bones, for they seem to be formed
by the union of the bones of  the  other classes, chiefly of
the second and third, being composed of flat and  short
portions, viz. the sphenoid, temporal, and ethmoid bones.

                   COLOR OF  BONES.

  The color of the bones depends  upon their  age, or the
manner in which they have  been prepared.   In the adult
the color is of an opaque white, when  fresh, more  or  less
tinged with red ; in younger subjects, however,  the bones 
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
7
are more vascular and  colored than  in  those of  more
advanced years.
                  TEXTURE  OF BONES.
  The texture of the bones,  like every other animal struc-
ture, has a fibrous appearance.  The nature of bony fibre
     Fig. 1.       is everywhere  the same, but being differ-
                ently arranged admits of two essential mo-
                difications :  in one bone, or in part of the
                bone, the fibres, more or less distant from
                each  other,  display  a profusion of cells ;
                in other parts, closely  compressed  toge-
                ther,  they  form  a kind of compact sub-
                stance,  in which they cannot easily be
                discerned.  By sawing a cylindrical bone
                in the longitudinal direction, the arrange-
                ment of the fibres is evident.
                   Fig. 1 is a section of the thigh bone ;  a,
                a, the extremities, having to some extent a
                shell  of compact texture, crowded with
                small cells, diminishing in size, but increas-
                ing in number as they  approach  the  ar-
                ticulation.  They are named cancelli,  or
                spongy  structure,  c, the  cavity for con-
                taining  the marrow.   The  hollowness  in-
                creases   the  diameter,  consequently the
                comparative strength of the cylinder,   b,
                b, the  walls or  sides  of  the  shaft, very
solid.  Observe, the  compact texture is thicker near the
middle  of  the bone,  where  the greatest forces  are most
frequently  applied.
  The short bones are almost entirely of a cellular struc-
ture, covered only  by a  thin layer of compact  texture ;  in
this respect their organization is similar to the heads of long
bones.


. ^ 
8
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
  The broad bones  are usually composed of two compact
plates of a moderate thickness, having a cellular structure
interposed;  but in general wherever broad bones are thin,
and there is a deficiency of cancelli, very powerful muscles
meet, and by their thick layers compensate for the want of
solidity in the bone, as in the occiput, ilium, scapula, etc.


                      PERIOSTEUM.*

  This is a fibrous membrane, so called  from its surround-
ing all the  bones, and  providing them  with  a covering
everywhere  extended  over them, except in  such parts  as
are tipped with cartilage, and the teeth which are protected
by enamel.
  The ancients had  figured to  themselves the  periosteum
as extending from one bone  to another over the articula-
tions, and thus  forming a continued bag for the whole skel-
eton.   This idea is nearly correct;  for although the  perios-
teum ceases at the joint, it is interwoven  with the ligaments
that surround the joints; in this manner continuity may be
conceived.
  The periosteum in infancy is slightly united to the bone,
and is removed from  it  with the utmost  facility.  In the
adult the adhesion is  more  firm;  it is excessively so in an
aged person.  The inner surface, of this membrane is firmly
fixed  to the bone by numerous vessels and  fibrous threads,
particularly in the extremities of the long bones and on the
short  bones, which  we can easily conceive by the great
number  of  apertures  we see  in  them.   The  connexion
between the  periosteum and  the adjacent organs is much

  * In the English  edition,  the  description of the periosteum is deferred
until the author is on the subject of Fibrous Membranes; but being so im-
mediately connected with the Osseous System, it was considered proper
to place it where it now is. 
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
9
varied ;  for the most part  the muscles are attached to, or
glide upon it, and it is more or less united to them and to
the integuments by cellular membrane.
  The periosteum  borrows its vessels from those adjacent.
Their innumerable branches  form  an  intricate net-work,
which is rendered very striking by injections, especially in
infants;  they are  then lost  in the compact  texture of the
bone, or are returned to the surrounding parts.
  This membrane is no doubt supplied  with nerves, though
so minute as not  to be easily demonstrated.   Like bone in
its  healthy or natural state,  it possesses little or no  sen-
sibility ; yet when inflamed its feeling is exceedingly pain-
ful, so that we  cannot but allow it to be  endowed  with
nerves.
  That absorbent vessels also penetrate the periosteum,
is argued  from its restoration  from  diseases.  In  some
cases it attains an  unnatural  thickness,  and  in process of
time regains its  natural tenuity, which can only be the
result of the action of the  absorbents.
   The periosteum  is subservient to several uses.  1st. It
is  the  nutrient  membrane  of the bone; it endows its
exterior with  vitality; and if it  be separated from it, the
surface  of  the bone perishes.  2d. It gives convenient in-
sertion to nearly the  whole of the  fibrous system;  viz. the
tendons,  ligaments, aponeuroses, and  also muscles, are at-
tached to this membrane.  3d. By means of the smooth sur-
face of  the periosteum,  the  action of the muscular  fibres
and the tendons is  easy,  and  the  effects of friction are
averted.

                 COMPOSITION OF BONES.
   The composition of bones, whatever may be their forms,
is the same ; it consists of  a mixture of earthy and animal
matter.
VOL. I,
o 
10
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
  The existence of the first is  proved by burning bones in
fire; combustion,  destroying the  animal matter, leaves a
brittle  substance,  which is the earthy  part, of the  same
form with that of the bone.
  The  animal part of  bone  is not  less evident,  for by
immersion in a weak acid, the earthy  matter is dissolved,
and there remains a cartilaginous body, flexible and elastic,
bearing the same form as the bone.
  These two substances are the essential component parts
of bones.  The earthy is intended to provide them with the
degree of the strength and solidity, that characterise them;
the animal parts  endow the  bones  with the principles of
vitality, growth, and nutrition.
  The skeleton consists of about two hundred and fifty-
two* bones,  which  are divided into those of the head, the
trunk,  and the extremities; some of them are single, and
others are in  pairs.  There are
	" Frontal	-	Osfrontis	■	- 1
	Parietal	-	Ossa parietalia	■	- 2
X)	Occipital	-	Os occipitis -	-	- 1
CIS	Temporal -	-	Ossa temporum	-	- 2
-C	Sphenoidal-	-	Os sphenoides	-	- 1
03 43	Ethmoid	-	Os ethmoides	-	. 1
-*->	Nasal	-	Ossa nasi	-	- 2
O	Malar	-	Ossa malar urn	-	- 2
	Lachrymal -	-	Ossa lachrymalia	-	- 2
S o	Upper jaw bones	-	Ossa maxillaria superiora		- 2
.Q	Palate bones	-	Ossa palatina	-	- 2
03 >	Inferior turbinated bones -		Ossa turbinata	-	- 3
<-3 >->					
	Lower jaw -	-	Os maxillare inferius	-	- 1
	Teeth	-	Dentes -	-	- 32
	^ Tongue bone	-	Os hyoides -	-	- 1
  * The exact number of bones in  the human frame is variable; the
sesamoid bones and ossa Wormiana are not constant;  and in reckoning
the bones of the skeleton, the small bones of the ear are usually omitted. 
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
11
  To these may  be added the proper  bones  of the  ear,
contained in the temporal bones :
g  o
©  ©
00  ~
J" Mallei
J Incudes
I  Stapedes
)  Orbicularia
The back bone or spine consists of
©  a
o  *-
-Q  ©

    O
Vertebra
Ribs
Breast bene
Hip bones
Rump bone
Coccygeal bones
Costa
Sternum
Ossa innominata-
Os sacrum -
Ossa coccygis
24
24
 2
 2
 1
 4
 c
 o
£i
 O
T3
 a
 <U
 a

 ©
 G
 o
Collar bones
Blade bones
Arm bones
Fore arm bones -
Wrist bones
Hand bones
Finger bones
Thumb bones
Sesamoid
Thigh bones
Knee pans
Shin bones
Small  bone of the legs
Tarsal
Metatarsal
Toe bones
Sesamoid
Clavicula -   -    -    -   2
Scapula                   2
Ossa humeri               2
Radii et ulna  ...   4
Ossa carpi -   -    -    -  16
Ossa metacarpi             8
Phalanges digitorum manus  24
Ossa pollicis   -    .    -   6
Ossa sesamoidea            4
Ossa femoris   -    -    -   2
Patella   ....   2
Tibia     ....   2
Fibula                   2
Ossa tarsz -   -    -    -  14
Ossa metatarsi -    -    -  10
Phalanges digitorum pedis -  28
Ossa sesamoidea -    -    -   4

                        252
   In describing the  relative position, or the relation which
one part bears to another in the subsequent  chapters, the
anatomist supposes  the body erect.  By superior and in-
ferior is signified higher and  lower  with  respect to  the
erect position.  By  anterior and posterior is denoted  the
situation of the parts  as nearer  to the fore or  hinder sur- 
12
OSSEOUS SYSTEM.
face of the body; and by  laterally is to be understood,
that the parts so described  approach the  one side or the
other.   Inner and outer, and external and internal,  express
the relation of any given part or portion of the body to the
middle line of the body, or to  an imaginary plane bisecting
the body into lateral halves, passing through the  head and
trunk, and  continued between the lower extremities. 
 
TAB.I.
 
TABLE  I.
Represents  a front view of the  male  skeleton.
               HEAD  AND NECK.

a,  The frontal bone.
b,  The parietal bone.
c,  The temporal bone.
d,  A portion of the sphenoid bone.
e,  The nasal bone.
/,  The malar, or cheek bones.
g,  The superior maxillary, or upper jaw bone.
h,  The lower jaw.
i,  The bones of the neck.


                    TRUNK.

a,   The twelve bones of the back.
b,   The five bones of the loins.
c,d, The breast bone,  composed of two pieces.
e,f, The seven true ribs.
g,g, The five false ribs.
h,   The rump bone, or sacrum!
i,   The hip bones.

               UPPER EXTREMITT.

a,  The collar bone.
b,  The shoulder blade.
c,  The upper arm bone.
d,  The radius.
e,  The ulna.
/,  The carpus, or wrist.
  f,  The bones of the hand.
  ,  The first row of finger bones.
i,  The second row of finger bones.
k,  The third row of finger bones.
I,  The bones of the thumb.

                LOWER EXTREMITT.

a,  The thigh bone.
b,  The knee pan.
c,  The tibia, or large bone of the leg.
d,  The fibula, or small bone of the leg.
e,  The heel bone.
/,  The bones of the instep.
g,  The bones of the foot.
h,  The first row of toe bones.
t,  The second row of toe bones.
ft,  The third row of toe bones. 
TABLE  II.
Represents  a back view of the  male skeleton.

                 THE HEAD.

   a,  The parietal bone.
   b,  The occipital bone.
   c,  The temporal bone.
   d,  The cheek bone.
   e,  The lower jaw bone.

                 NECK AND TRUNK.

   a,  The bones of the neck.
   b,  The bones of the back.
   c,  The bones of the loins.
   d,  The hip bone.
   e,  The sacrum.

                   UPPER EXTREMITT.

   a,  The collar bone.
   b,  The blade bone.
   c,  The upper bone of the arm.
   d,  The radius.
   e,  The ulna.
   /,  The bones of the wrist.
   g,  The bones of the  hand.
   h,  The first row of finger bones.
   i,  The second row of finger bones.
   ft,  The third row of finger bones.
   I,  The bones of the thumb.

                   LOWER EXTREMITT.

   a,  The thigh bone.
   b,  The large bone of the leg.
   c,  The small bone of the leg.
   d,  The heel bone.
   c,  The bones of the instep.
   /,  The bones of the toes. 
TAB .T1TL.
 
k 
OF THE HEAD.
15
                        CHAP. II.

                  BONES OF  THE  HEAD.

  These comprehend the bones  of the cranium and face,
which are  twentytwo in number.  Some  of them  are in
pairs, but others are only single bones.
  In the cranium or  skull there  are  two  pairs and four
single bones, viz.
               2 Parietal.
               2 Temporal.
               1 Frontal.
               1 Occipital.
               1 Ethmoid.
               1 Sphenoid.

  To the face there are six pairs and two single bones, viz.

               2 Nasal.
               2 Lachrymal.
               2 Malar.
               2 Superior maxillary.
               2 Palatine.
               2 Turbinated.
               1 Vomer.
               1 Inferior maxillary.

  The cranium is the vaulted cavity  for lodging the brain,
its membranes and vessels.
  The inner and outer surfaces of the bones are composed
     Fig. 2.      of  compact  layers, Fig. 2,  a, called the ex-
               ternal, and b,  the  internal  tables of the
               skull.  They are not parallel to each other,
  *       c    but in some places very compressed.  There
is an intermediate cellular texture, c, between them, term-
ed diplo'e, which is similar to  the cancelli of other bones, 
16
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
and it serves a like  purpose, viz.  to convey  vessels and
nerves from one  region to another.   The  character of the
two  tables differ; the external is  fibrous, the  inner  ex-
ceedingly compact and brittle, so as  to obtain  the name of
vitreous.
                     the sutures.

  Upon the  surface of the skull we observe various lines,
dividing it into different  portions, as in Fig. 3, the upper
part of the skull.   These
lines  are  the  joining  of
the several bones  to each
other, and form a resem-
blance,  on   a  superficial
view, to the  stitches of a
seam ; they  are denomi-
nated sutures.   Their ori-
gin is this:  the radiated
fibres of the'  bones  in
their growth approacheach
other, the fibres  of one
bone entering the  interval
of  the fibres of  another
bone, and forming the serrated line of union called  suture.
   a,  a, The coronal suture, has its name from being situ-
ated at that part of the head upon which the ancients were
used  to place the  laurel  or  olive crown, given to the vic-
tors in^their games.  It passes transversely over the skull,
and joins  the frontal with the parietal bones.
   b,  The sagittal suture, named from its  straight course.
It extends from the middle of the superior margin of the
frontal, to the  angle of the occipital bone.  It is the union
 
OF THE HEAD.
17
of the two parietal bones.  This suture is occasionally
continued down the frontal bone to the nose : this part of
it is then named the frontal suture.
  c, The lambdoidal suture, receiving this  name from its
resemblance to the Greek  A.   It  commences at  the ter-
mination of the sagittal  suture, and  extends on each side
to the base of the  cranium.  It joins the occipital to the
parietals above, and to the temporal bones below.   There
is great irregularity in this  suture:  it is frequently diverted
from its regular course by  the  interposition of little bones
(separate ossifications), d,  d, which,  from being  of  a  tri-
angular  shape, have been called ossa  triquetra, or ossa
Wormiana, in compliment to Olaus Wormius, an anatomist,
who first  particularly described them.
   The superior portions of the temporal bone  are  joined
 to  the  parietal by thin,  indented, yet  scaly overlapping
of the  former, e,  e, hence named the  squamous suture.
 Near the occipital angle  it loses its squamous  character,
and is simply united by a serrated line, under the name of
 additamentum  sutura squamosce.
   Two other  sutures  are sometimes  reckoned, viz.  the
ethmoidal and the sphenoidal; but they unite  the eth-
moid and sphenoid bones to  those adjacent, by irregular
lines,  by  no  means having  the  character  of  a suture.
VOL. I.
3 
18
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
               FRONTAL BONE.   Os frontis.

   This bone forms the forehead, part of the  temples, and
the roof of the orbits ; its shape has been compared to that
of a clam shell.  Fig. 4 is a front, Fig. 5 a back view.   Two
eminences,  a,  a,  mark  the            Fig. 4.
situation of the frontal sinu-
ses.   These are formed  by
an  apparent separation of
the two  tables of the skull,
leaving  very   considerable
cavities,  which  communi-
cate with the nose.*
  On each side of the fore-
head we observe b, Fig. 4.
the temporal arch, at first          "      c     "
strongly marked, but less so as it passes upwards.   The hol-
low forms part of the temporal fossa. In the middle and at
the lower edge of this bone is c, the nasal process, and  eth-
moidal notch.   On the  ridge  over  which  the  eye-brow is
placed we  observe d, a hole; sometimes  it is only a notch,
in  the   bone,  as  on  the  other side  of  this specimen,
though it is there completed by a ligament, so as  to  form
a hole called the  upper  orbitary hole.-f   The ridges  just
mentioned  terminate  at e, e,  the  external angular  pro-
cesses.  The angles opposite are  the internal angular  pro-
cesses.  Between these are /, /, the orbitar plates,  slightly
concave, and have near  the  outer angle a depression% for
the reception of the lachrymal gland.

  * These^cavities increase the intensity  of the sound of the voice, and
render it more melodious.
  t Foramen supra-orbitarium.  For the  passage  of first branch of fifth
pair of nerves.
  {F'o=?a lachrymalis.
 
OF THE HEAD.
19
  On the internal surface, Fig.  5,  are slight  depressions,
answering to the convolutions of the brain,  h, the frontal
                              spine, is a sharp ridge com-
                              mencing at the  ethmoidal
                              notch  and  extending  up-
                              wards about an inch, where
                              it divides into  two  ridges
                              with a shallow groove  be-
                              tween   them,   called  the
                             frontal  furrow.    At  the
                              root of the  spine  at A, is a
                              small hole,  which  not per-
                              forating the bone or leading
to any cavity,  is called the blind hole.*  i,  i,  the open-
ings of the frontal sinuses.   The os frontis is joined above
and behind with the ossa parietalia, which junction  termi-
nates at a line  running  horizontally  backwards  from the
point of the angular process; between those two  points
and behind as far as the  ethmoidal notch, it joins with the
sphenoid bone  on each  side ;  within the ethmoidal notch it
receives the ethmoid bone, which joins to the orbitar plates,
at the  interior part of which it unites with the os  lachry-
male ;  in front  it joins its nasal process and spine with the
ossa nasi  and superior  maxillary bones,  and by its outer
angular processes with the malar bones.
  The muscles  attached to the os frontis are three pairs, viz.
the  temporal muscle, the corrugator supercilii, and orbicula-
ris palpebrarum, on each side.  It is  also covered by the
occipito-frontalis.
* Foramen ececum. 
20
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
the  parietal bones,  0550 parietalia,
   Are a pair, forming  the sides and  vertex, or top of the
head.   Externally, Fig.  6, each bone is convex; and as it
has four angles, they are
denominated according to
their  relative situation in
the skull, the frontal and
temporal  angles, and the
superior or inferior occi-
pital  angles.   The mar-
ginal edges also are named
from their connexions, as
a, in this  and the  subse-
quent figure; the anterior
edge  is called the frontal margin; b, the parietal margin;
c, the  occipital  margin;  d, the .temporal margin.   On the
convex surface  is a transverse arched impression, e, which
marks the attachment of the temporal muscle.
   On the internal and concave surface, Fig.  l,f,f, are im-
pressions, or furrows, which
               .    .                   Fis- 7-
are for the ramifications  of
the artery of the dura ma-
ter, or outer membrane of
the brain.  Sometimes part
of the artery runs in a ca-
nal in the bone, as in this
specimen  at  the  temporal
angle.   Near  the  superior
margin there is commonly
a small hole, through which
a vein passes from the in-
teguments of the head to the longitudinal sinus.
 
OF THE HEAD.
21
  The parietal bone is joined  by its frontal edge  to the os
frontis; by the parietal edge to its  fellow; by its occipital
edge to the os occipitis: and by  its  temporo-sphenoidal
edge to the temporal and sphenoid bones.
  The only muscle attached  to the parietal  bone is the
temporal.
           THE OCCIPITAL BONE,  OS  OCCipitlS,

   Is situated at the back part of the head, and forms part
of the base of the  skull.   It is convex externally, Fig. 8;
concave internally, Fig.  9.
   The  most  remarkable parts  to be  noticed on the exte-
                              rior, Fig.  8, are a, the  oc-
                              cipital angle; b,  a promi-
                              nence  called  the   tubercle,
                              from  each  side  of  which
                              there is a  transverse arched
                              ridge* and below is another
                              ridge,  following nearly the
                              same direction.  These are
                              to be borne in mind as indi-
                              cating  the attachment of
                              some of the muscles of the
                              head.  There are also sever-
                              al depressions, shewing the
insertion of muscles.  At the under and fore part of the bone
is c,  the great opening,^ through which passes the medulla
oblongata, or upper part of  the  spinal  marrow,  its  mem-
branes, the vertebral arteries, and the spinal accessory nerves ;
* Linea semicircularis, or arcus transversus.
t Foramen magnum occipitis. 
22
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
d, the anterior condyloid holes, through which  the lingual
nerves pass ; e, e, theposterior condyloid holes, for the passage
of the veins of the neck : frequently one or both of the latter
holes are wanting, in which case the veins proceed through
the foramen magnum ; %f, the condyles or smooth eminen-
ces for  articulating with the first bone of the neck ; g, the
basillary or cuneiform process.
   The  inner surface, Fig. 9, is concave,  and divided by a
crucial  ridge,  b.  To  the                    g
crucial  ridge are  attached
processes of the dura ma-
ter, viz. from a to b, a por-
tion separating the  poste-
rior lobes of the cerebrum;
from b  to  c,  a portion di-
viding the cerebellum; and
from 6  to g each  side, an-
other, which separates  the
cerebrum  from  the cere-
bellum.   In  this   curved
ridge from b to g, are seen
transverse grooves, shewing the situation of the lateral sinus-
es ; c, the great foramen ; e, e,  the condyles; f the basillary
process.  The occipital bone is  united by its parietal margin
to the parietal bones ; by its temporal to the margin of the
mastoid portion of the temporal bone ; by its basillary mar-
gin to the  petrous  portion of  the same bone ; and by  its
basillary process to  the sphenoid bone.
   The muscles attached to the os  occipitis are  ten  pairs,
viz.  the trapezii, complexi, splenii,  recti postici majores,
et minores  capitis, obliqui superiores capitis, recti  laterales,
recti  interni, majores,  et minores  capitis, and  the single
muscle  occipito-frontalis.
 
OF THE HEAD.
23
          THE  TEMPORAL BONES, 0550 temporum,

   Are a pair.   They are so named because they  occupy
the region of the head where the hair  usually  commences
to whiten, thus indicating the period of life.   They are ir-
regular in their form, and unequal in their thickness.  Fig.
10 is an outer  view.  Each bone is distinguished  by  two
           .               distinct portions:  the  upper
                          part is thin and of a scaly char-
                          acter, hence  named the squa-
                          mous portion ; the other half of
                          the bone is of a triangular form
                          passing inwards and downwards,
                          and being of a close texture and
                          rocky  hardness,  is called the
                          petrous portion.  If a horizontal
                          line  were  drawn  from b, the
squamous portion would be all that part  above the line.  It
forms the chief part of the temple.  The squamous portion
is bounded at its base by b, the zygomatic process, which is
a thin and narrow projection of bone ; at its root it has c, a tu-
bercle or eminence, and terminates in b, an indented process,
which, from its union with the malar or cheek bone, is called
the malar process.   Immediately behind the eminence c, is a
cavity for the articulation of the lower jaw.  At the back part
of this cavity is an apparent division in the bone, the glenoid
fissure, through which passes a nerve called the corda tym-
pani.   On the lower surface of the eminence just mentioned,
the jaw moves when brought forwards.  At d,  is a deep hole,
the external auditory passage.*  From the lower part of the
* Meatus auditorius externus. 
24
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
 bone is a remarkable long and  pointed process, e, which,
 from having some resemblance to an ancient style, or iron
 writing pen, is named styloid process.   Several muscles are
 attached to this slender  portion of bone,  and  derive  their
 names from it.   At  the root of the process, /, is a ridge of
 bone termed the vaginal process, imagination having formed
 it into the  likeness   of  a sheath to the  styloid  process.
 Further behind is g, the mastoid  process ;  it is a very con-
 siderable prominence, the texture of which is  cellular, but
 the cells are seen only in a section of the  part.  There is
 one or more holes at the back part of this process, seen at
 c, Fig. 11,  called the mastoid foramen or foramina.   Be-
 tween the root  of the styloid and mastoid  processes, is the
 stylo-mastoid foramen: it is the passage for the portio dura
 of the seventh  pair of nerves.
   Fig. 11 is  the inside  view.   On the squamous portion
 we observe marks  of the convolutions of  the brain, and a,
 the  edge  bevelled  off  where it overlaps in joining the
 parietal bone.   On  the pe-
              .   7        .                  Fig. n.
 trous portion is  b, the  inter-
 nal   auditory  passage*  by
 which  the  nerves of hearing
 have  access  from  the   brain
 to the ear.   Posterior to this
is  a foramen, called the  aque-
duct of the  cochlea:  it serves
for the entrance and exit of
the blood-vessels  of the ear.
 On the opposite side, in the interior  part of  the petrous
 portion, is a small hole called the  Vidian foramen.

  * Meatus auditorius internus. It should be observed, that this opening
soon divides into two : the first, called the aqueduct of Fallopius, for that
division of the seventh pair of nerves, the portio dura, which is distributed
to the face; the second foramen admits the other division of this nerve
the portio mollis, by several small apertures, into the  intricate passages of
the ear, to become the proper organ of hearing.
 
OF  THE HEAD.                  25
Near the point,  called the inferior angle, is /, the entrance
of the carotid canal, for the passage of the  chief artery of
the brain ;  g,  the bony part of the Eustachian  tube.*   At
the base of the  bone is the jugular fossa, or thimble-like
depression, made by the  first  turn or  commencement of
the jugular vein.   The temporal bone  is  united,  by its
malar process, to the zygomatic  process of  the  os mate ;
by the inferior edge of the squamous portion to the spinous
process of the  os sphenoides ; by the superior edge  of the
same part  to the  temporo-sphenoidal edge  of  the os pari-
etale ; by the superior edge of the mastoid  portion  to the
temporal angle of that bone; by  the inferior  part  of the
mastoid portion and the petrous portion, to the temporal
and basilar  edges of  the  os  occipitis,  and  the  basilar
portion of the os sphenoides.
   There  are sixteen muscles  attached  to the temporal
bone, viz.  the  temporalis,  masseter, retrahens  auris, occi-
pito-frontalis, sterno-cleido-mastoideus,  complexus   minor,
splenius,  digastricus, stylo-hyoideus,  stylo-glossus,  stylo-
pharyngeus, and   the  constrictor  pharyngeus  superior;
and the  muscles  moving the  small bones of the  ear,  the
tensor  tympani,  laxator tympani,  externus  mallei,  and
stapedius.
   Besides  the  parts which  have been described, the tem-
poral bone contains the organ of hearing,  which  includes
the ossicula  auditus, etc.   As, however, these  parts  can-
not be understood till several sections of  the temporal bone
have been made,  I shall refer the reader, for a further  des-
cription, to the article on the senses.

  * Iter a palato ad aurem. It is named the Eustachian tube from Eusta-
chius, an eminent anatomist, who discovered it.
     VOL. I.            5 
26
OSSEOUS  SYSTEM
                  THE SPHENOID BONE,

                     Figs. 12 and 13,

   So called from its situation in the base of the skull, where
it wedges in  and locks together most of the other bones,
for it is united to fourteen distinct bones.  Its general re-
semblance to a bat with extended wings,  has given names
to different parts  of the bone.   Fig. 12, a,  the pituitary
fossa  or  sella  turcica,
a slight concavity in the
centre  of the bone for
the  lodgement   of the
pituitary   body;  b,  b,
points having the name of
the anterior, and c, c, the
posterior clinoid process-
es, so called from their supposed resemblance to the knobs of
a bedstead.   An eminence in  front, d,  is called the olive-
shaped process, upon which the optic nerves meet and unite ;
e, e, the optic foramina, through which these nerves and an
artery pass to the eye.  The points f f continued from the
anterior clinoid processes, are the transverse processes, or the
smaller wings.   In front of the body is g, the ethmoidal spine;
h, the basilar process, which joins the occipital bone : on each
side of that process is a deep notch, forming part of the ca-
rotid foramen.   Between the transverse spinous process and
the temporal portion of the bone is i, i, the sphenoidal fis-
sure or foramen lacerum, which transmits the third, fourth, and
sixth pairs of nerves, and the first branch of  the fifth pair;
behind and below are k, k, the round foramina, which trans-
mit the second branch of the  fifth pair  of nerves ; Z,  Z, the
oval foramina, through which pass the  third branch of the
 
OF THE HEAD.
27
fifth pair of nerves; m, m,  the  spinal foramina, by which
the middle artery of the dura mater passes; n, n, the  en-
trance of the pterygo-palatine canals, by which the palatine
nerves pass to the  mouth;  o,  o, the  temporal portions,
or plates, or the larger wings ; q,  q, the spinous processes.
   In the  posterior view,  Fig. /, /, is a  profile  of the
transverse  processes;  i,  i,  the   sphenoidal fissure ;  o,  o,
the  temporal plates,  or  alae ; p,  p, the  smooth  surfaces
which constitute part of the orbit of the eye,  the orbitar
                                    plates  q,  q,  the  spi-
                                    nous  processes; r, r,
                                    the external pterygoid
                                    processes ;  s, s, the in-
                                    ternal pterygoid pro-
                                    cesses, each of which
                                    terminates in  a little
                                    curved process, called
 the hook like process* over this a tendon of the extensor
 muscle of the palate plays ; t, the azygos process; u,  the
 body containing the  sphenoidal  cells: the lines  point to
 their openings.
   There is a foramen at the base of each  pterygoid pro-
 ces,  called the Vidian foramen, from Vidius, who discov-
 ered it.   This transmits a nerve that does not  go from
 the cavity of the cranium, but returns into it.   The second
 branch  of the fifth pair, after passing out of the  cranium,
 sends back, through this foramen, a branch called the Vid-
 ian, which, upon  its arrival in  the cranium,  enters  the
 temporal bone.
    The sphenoid bone is united by its ethmoidal spine to the
 nasal plate of the  os  ethmoides ;  by its transverse process
 and the orbitar  plates to  the  os frontis; and at the back
 part of its temporal  to the  sphenoidal  angles  of the ossa
a      * Hamular process. 
 28                OSSEOUS SYSTEM

 parietalia; by the posterior edges of the same plates,  and
 its spinous process, it joins  the  squamous portions of the
 temporal  bones.  From its  spinous processes to the roots
 of the pterygoid processes, it touches the inferior angles of
 the petrous  portions  of the temporal  bones ; and by  its
 basilar process it is connected with the sphenoidal process
 of the os  occipitis:  by the  anterior edges  of its  orbitar
 plates it is united  to the ossa malarum;  by  the  anterior
 surfaces of its pterygoid plates to the  ossa palati; and  by
 the azygos process to the vomer.
  There are  thirteen pairs of muscles attached to the  os
 sphenoides;  viz. the levator palpebra,  superioris, the  recti
 muscles of the eyes,  the superior oblique  muscles of the
 eyes ; the temporal and  pterygoid muscles, buccinator,  ex-
 ternus mallei,  constrictor  pharyngis superior, and tensor
palati.

           the  ethmoid bone.   Os ethmoides.
  Fig. 14, a side  view ; Fig. 15, a posterior ; Fig. 16, an
 anterior view.   The letters refer to the  same parts in each
 figure.
Fig- 13.             Fig. 14.     Fig. 15.
       b           b           b
  The ethmoid bone derives its name from the resemblance
of its upper surface  to a sieve, being full of small holes ; it
is of a cubical form, and consists  principally of numerous
cells.
  a, the  cribriform plate,  perforated by  numerous little
holes* to transmit the olfactory nerves, or nerves of smelling,

           * Foramina cribrosa, from cribrum, a s^ve. 
OF THE HEAD.
29
into the nostril.   In the middle at b, is a sharp process, the
ethmoid crest.*  From the lower part  descends c, the nasal
plate,  making  part of the central partition of the nose;
d, the flat  or orbitar plates,-\  which form  the principal
portions of  the inside of the orbits.   We  see on each  side
of the nasal septum, e, e, the turbinated plates, thin, pen-
dulous, and convex ; and on  the back part,  this bone  has
numerous cells, fif, consisting of many convoluted plates
of bone, called  labyrinths,  very deserving of an attentive
examination, being perhaps the most curious bone of the hu-
man body.   The nerves of smelling, after passing through
the foramina of the cribriform plate, are expanded on the
perpendicular septum, and throughout the whole extent of
the cells.   A very considerable surface is thus provided for
the distribution of the nerves, occupying little space.
   The ethmoid bone is joined by the edge of its cribriform
plate to  the ethmoidal  notch  of the os  frontis, and to the
os sphenoides ;  and by the posterior part of its nasal plate
to the later bone, and to the  vomer;  by the  fore  part of
the same plate to the back  part of the nasal crista  of the
os frontis ;  by its anterior  edge to the  os lachrymale, and
by the lower edge of the same plate to the superior maxil-
lary bone.
   There are no muscles attached to. or covering this bone.
         THE WORMIAN, OR  TRIANGULAR BONES.

             Ossa  Wormiana, ossa triquetra.

  These are little irregular  bones  found in the course of
the suture formed by the parietal and occipital bones,  see
Fi°\ 3, d, d: their  existence is not constant.
M Crista galli.
t Ossa plana. 
30
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
                THE  BONES OF THE FACE

  Are in pairs, excepting two,  one of which forms part of
the partition of  the nose, and the other is the lower jaw.
  The lines of union of the  bones of the  face have been
called sutures,  and named according to their connexion
with each other; but the union is rather by simple, irregular
lines, than  by sutures.
             THE  NASAL  BONES.   Ossa nasi.

   Fig. 17, the external surface;  Fig. 18,    Fig- 17' Figl
the internal  surface.   These  bones form
the bridge of the  nose ;  they  are  convex
externally, thereby  giving  greater  resist-
ance  to  violence  from without;  and they  are concave
internally for enlarging the cavity  of the  nose ;* at their
middle part each presents a small  foramen  which  passes
through  the bone, and transmits  a vein to  the  pituitary
membrane.  Their superior margin is joined to the nasal
process,  and  spine  of the os frontis, and nasal plate of
the os ethmoides ;  their external  edges are  received into
the nasal process of  the superior maxillary bone; their
inner edges are united to each other, and their lower edges
are joined only by the alar cartilages of the nose.
   There are  two  muscles attached to them, viz. the occip-
ito-frontalis,  and compressor naris.

  * It has been stated that the  inhabitants of Java, the Hottentots, and
South-Sea islanders, compress the nose immediately after birth, conceiving
a broad nose conducive to beauty.
 
OF THE FACE.
31
      the lachrymal bones.   Ossa lachrymalia.

  Fig. 19.        Fig. 19.  This bone is nearly the size, shape,
             and indeed thickness of the finger nail, there-
             fore  has the  name also of os unguis.  It is
             called lachrymal because a, the  anterior con-
cave portion, supports the lachrymal duct, which conveys
the tears from the inner corner of the eye into the nose ;  b,
the orbitar plate, which assists in forming the orbit of the
eye.


           the  cheek bones.   Ossa malarum.

   Fig. 20.   The bone of the left side.   Its several angles
                   are named as follows: a, the superior or-
                    bitar process; b, the inferior orbitarpro-
                    cess ; c, the  maxillary process ; d,  the
                    zygomatic process.  The concave sur-
                    face, e, forms  a  portion of the orbit,
                    called the internal orbitar process.
                      There is but one foramen, f, malar
foramen, through which the malar nerve passes.
   The cheek bone is joined by its zygomatic process to the
malar process of the temporal bone ; by its superior orbitar
process to the external angle of the os  frontis; by the pos-
terior edge of its orbitar plate to  the os sphenoides ; and by
the inner edge of the same plate to the os maxillare superius.
   There  are four muscles  attached  to it;  viz. obliquus
inferior occuli,  zygomaticus  major  and  minor,  masseter;
and the orbicidaris palpebrarum is extended over it.
Fig. 20.
 
32                OSSEOUS SYSTEM
   the upper jaw bones.  Ossa maxillaria superiora.*

   The superior  maxillary bones  constitute  the  principal
 part of the bones  of the face.  Fig. 21, the outer; Fig.
 22, the inner  view.  The body of the bone is of an irre-
 gular form, having a
 large cavity, a, open-
 ing into the  nostrils,
 commonly called the
 antrum ofHighmore.-f
 On the outer surface
 is b, the infra orbitar
foramen, for  the pas-
 sage  of the second branch of the fifth pair of nerves to the
 face; c, the malar  process ;  d, the nasal process; e, a de-
 pression contributing to form the  small cavity  for lodging
 the lachyrmal sac ; this cavity descends, and becomes at /,
 part of the nasal duct.  Between the malar and nasal pro-
 cesses, extending backwards, is g, the orbitar plate.  The
 posterior surface of the bone  ati is rounded, therefore term-
 ed the tuberosity,  the inner edge of which is  rough, to join
 with the pterygoid  process of the os  palati, forming with it
 the palato-maxillary canal.   From the inner and lower part
 of the body extends horizontally h, the palatine process, form-
 ing the greater portion of the floor of the nose, and hollowed
 below,  to form an equal part of  the roof of the mouth.
 On the  upper surface is a crest or ridge, which is grooved
 to receive the  septum of the  nose.   Immediately  behind
 the front  teeth is  the foramen incisivum; the  ductus inci-
 sivus is a continuation of this foramen between the palatine
 processes into  the  nose.  There are usually  eight alveolar
 cavities in each bone to receive the teeth.

 * Superior maxillary bones.  t Sinus maxillaris, antrum Highmorianum.
 
OF THE FACE.
33
  The superior maxillary bone is united  by its malar pro-
cess to  the inferior orbitar process of the os malse ; by  its
anterior inner edge to the os nasi, and  on  the inside to
the os turbinatum; by the upper part of the os  frontis,
and the os lachrymale;  by the inner edge  of its orbitar
plate to the flat plate  of  the os ethmoides; by the poste-
rior point of  the  same plate to the  os  palati.   It  is con-
nected by its  tuberosity,  body, and palatine process with
the same bone ; by the inner  edge of its palatine process
with that of its fellow; and by the  nasal  crest  with  the
vomer.
  There are ten muscles  attached  to this bone; viz.,   the
constrictor pharyngeus   superior,  pterygoideus  externus,
buccinator, masseter, levator anguli oris, levator and depres-
sor labii  superioris alceque nasi,  orbicularis  palpebrarum,
obliquus oculi inferior, and compressor naris.
          the palatine bones.  Ossa palatina.

   Fig.  23,  the  anterior; Fig.  21,  the posterior  view of
    Fig. 23.           Fig. 24.        the  palate  bone.   The
                                letters refer  to  the same
                                part in each figure.
                                   This  bone  is  placed
                                at the  lower  and  back
                                part  of  the  last  des-
cribed bone, and below the  middle region of the base of
the skull; a, the palatine process,  wide at its outer edge
to join its  fellow ; from the outer edge of the palatine
rises up b, the  nasal process, which  forms a thin  parti-
tion between the cell of the superior maxillary  bone  and
the nose; it is  marked  internally by a strong ridge, to
which the turbinated  bone  is attached: beliind  the  nasal
   vol.  i.              5
 
34
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
process, backwards and outwards at  c, is a  projecting
point of bone, the pterygoid process; it has  two grooves,
one of which terminates in /, the palato-maxillary foramen,
through which the palatine nerve  and  vessels proceed to
the palate.   There is another small  foramen near the last,
marked g, the palatine foramen, to transmit branches  of
the same vessels and nerves to  the  soft palate.  The upper
part of this bone is divided by  a notch into  two  portions,
d, the sphenoidal process, which is  united to the body of
the sphenoidal bone ; e, a small triangular portion',  which,
entering into  the  formation of the  socket of the  eye, is
termed the orbitar process.
   The os  palati is joined to  its  fellow  by the palatine
process; and by  the nasal crest to the vomer;  by the
anterior part of the  palatine process to the superior max-
illary bone; by the ridge on the inside  to the os turbina-
tum; by the nasal  and  pterygoid  processes  to  the body
and tuberosity of the os  maxillare  superius ;  by  its ptery-
goid, sphenoidal, and orbitar processes, to the pterygoid pro-
cess and body of the os sphenoides; and by its orbitar pro-
cess to the same process of the os maxillare  superius, and
the flat plate of the ethmoidal  bone.
   Five muscles are attached to, and  connected  with the
os  palati;  viz.,  buccinator,  pterygoideus  externus and
internus,  constrictor,  pharyngeus   superior,  and  azygos
uvula.


         turbinated  bones.    Ossa turbinata.*
                         Fig. 25.
   Sometimes  called  the inferior  spongy bones,  to dis-
tinguish them from the upper spongy bones,  which  belong

                 * Ossa spongiosa inferiora. 
OF THE FACE.
35
to, and are a part of, the  ethmoidal bone.   They  are pen-
dent in  the nostrils, curved,  and  exceedingly  porous  in
    rig. 25-       their  texture.   This  bone is  joined on
                the upper and on the outer  side to the
                body  of  the  superior  maxillary  bone;
                anteriorly to the nasal process of the same
bone, and  to the os lachrymale; and  posteriorly to the
nasal process of the os palati.


                      the vomer.

  Fig.  26,  is  thus  named from  its  shape resembling a
    Fig. 26.       ploughshare.  It is divided into four edges,
                a, the sphenoidal, the  broadest, and  hol-
                lowed to receive  the  azoygos  process  of
                the sphenoidal  bone; b,  the anterior  or
nasal process, grooved to receive the nasal plate of the eth-
moid bone,  and the  cartilaginous septum of the nose; c,
the inferior or crista, uniting with  the crest of the superior
maxillary bone ; d, the posterior or pharyngeal margin, con-
cave and facing the pharynx.
 
36
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
        the lower jaw.   Os maxillare inferius.
  This is by far  the  largest  bone in  the face,  but it is
here divided, to  6hew to greater advantage  the outer and
inner surfaces.   Figs. 27, 28.  The letters refer  to  each.
a, a, the basis, is the boundary of the face ;  b, b, the angle;
                         Fig. 27.
Fig. 28.
 
OF THE TRUNK.
ol
c,  c,  the ramus; d, the  condyle;  e,  e, the coronoid pro-
cess.  Fig.  28, /,  the inferior maxillary foramen; into
which nerves and vessels enter to  supply in their course
through  the canal the teeth and  afterwards to pass out
at g, the  mental foramen.   There  are  the  same number
and kind  of teeth in  the lower as  in the upper jaw, and
consequently similar  cavities or alveoli  to  receive  them.
The number of the teeth  may be reckoned as follows, viz.
(on each side of the jaw,) h, two incisors, or cutting teeth:
i, one canine, or dog  tooth; k, two small molar; I, three
large molar, or grinding teeth.*
   The lower jaw is connected by capsular  and lateral liga-
ments with  the glenoid cavities of the ossa temporum, hav-
ing an interarticular cartilage between them.
   There are twelve pairs  of  muscles attached to  this  bone;
viz., externally, the masseteres, depressores anguli oris, de-
pressores  et  levatores labii inferioris; internally, the tem-
porales, pterygoidei  externi et interni,  buccinatores,  mylo-
hyoids, genio-hyoidei, digastrici, et genio-hyo-glossi: the
platysma myoides passes over it.
                      CHAP. III.

              the bones of  the trunk.

  The trunk is composed of the spine or  back bone,  the
thorax or chest, and the pelvis or hips.
  The spine, though spoken of as a  single bone, consists
of  twenty-four  bones,  which  turn  or  play upon each
other, and hence have been called vertebra.   The  verte-
bral column supports  the trunk, head,  and arms,  and

 * The teeth will be particularly described at the end of the osseous system 
 38                OSSEOUS SYSTEM

 admits of turning and bending of the body;  indeed, it has
 a movement in every direction: it  forms a  secure canal
 for conducting the delicate structure of the spinal marrow
 through its whole length ;  and is remarkable for combining
 those two opposite yet very essential qualities, strength and
 flexibility.
   The vertebrse  are arranged in three classes, according
 to  their situation.   1st. The  cervical,  or  those  of  the
 neck,  of which there are  seven.   2nd. The dorsal, or
 those of the back, which are twelve.  3rd.  The lumbar,
 or those of the loins, consisting of five bones.
   As  a general  description of a  vertebra,  each has a
 body, a large foramen to contain the  spinal marrow,  and
 several processes.   By the junction of the processes  and
 the  bodies of the vertebrae, the canal is formed for  the
 spinal  marrow  and  its  membranes.   The roots of those
 processes,  called   the articular  processes, are  hollowed
 out  above  and below into  notches;  these,  when  the
 vertebrse are fitted together, form apertures, called the holes
 of conjunction,  (foramina intervertebral,) on each  side
 of the spine, through which the nerves pass  out  from  the
 spinal  canal.

             THE  VERTEBRiE  OF THE  NECK.

  These are smaller than  the other  vertebrse.  Fig.  29,
 the  third, is selected as an
 example; a,  the  body,  is
 longest  from  side to side;
 b, the  spinous process,  fork-
 ed ;  c, c, the transverse pro-
 cesses,  double,  and  having
 d, d, circular foramina,  for
 the passage  of the vertebral
artery  ;  e,  e, the  superior.
 
OF THE VERTEBRA.
39
f, f,  the inferior articular  or oblique processes; g, the
spinal foramen, large and triangular, and, as before stated,
contributing  to   the  formation  of the  canal for spinal
marrow.
THE PECULIARITIES OF THE VERTEBRJE OF  THE  NECK.
Fig. SO.
Fig. 31.
                 FIRST VERTEBRA, OR ATLAS.

   The first vertebra, which, from its use in supporting the
head, has the name of atlas, consists of a ring of bone, as
we observe in Fig.  30, the upper, and Fig. 31, the lower
                                  surface.  As it receives
                                  the commencement  of
                                  the spinal marrow,  the
                             ^. d opening a, is large, and
                                  in place of the body at
                                  the front it is  further
                                  hollowed  out at b, for
                                  the reception of the den-
                                  tiform  process  of  the
                                  next vertebra; c, c, the
                                  superior  articular  pro-
                                  cesses,  irregularly  oval,
                                  and concave ; these ar-
                                  ticulate  with correspon-
                                  ding processes  of  the
skull, by which  the head has the power of bending back-
ward and forward.   In  Fig.  31,  we observe e, e, the infe-
rior articular surfaces, are  flat, and thus  adapted to the
superior articular surfaces of the adjoining vertebra, allow-
ing a horizontal motion of the head;  d,  d, the  transverse
processes, broad, a little forked, and perforated.
 
40
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
THE SECOND VERTEBRA, OR DENTATA.
ff  '
—<*
   The  most  remarkable  characteristic of this vertebra  is
a, a projecting point
called  the  tooth-like
process,! which  rises
from  the  upper part
of the body, and has
an articulating surface
on its front, which  is
received into the hol-
low of the atlas.  Fig.
32, b,  b, the superior
articular processes  of
the dentata, are flat,
for on  these planes the atlas rotates; c, c, the inferior ar-
ticular processes; d,  d, the transverse processes, small and
single:  the foramina in them  are  not  perpendicular,  but
pass upwards   and  outwards,  and  the  spinal foramen  is
large.
   Thus  two distinct  motions are  perfectly  accomplished,
without interfering with each  other.   When we  nod  the
head, we use the joint between the  head and the first bone
of the neck; when we turn the  head  round, we use  the
pivot joint formed by the dentata and atlas.
* Named dentata from its projecting tooth-like process, a.
t Processus dentatus. 
OF THE VERTEBRAE.
41
THE SEVENTH VERTEBRA  OF THE NECK.
  Fig.
others
33.   The  seventh  vertebra is  larger  than  the
it  resembles in  form the  third,  which  has been
Fig. 33.
given  as  an  example and
general description of a cer-
vical vertebra.   In this be-
fore us, neither  a,  a,  the
transverse processes ;  nor c,
the spinous process, are dou-
ble ; but the latter is so much
longer than the others, that
this bone has obtained  the
name of vertebra prominens.
              THE VERTEBRAE OF THE BACK.

   Fig.  34.  The twelve  vertebrse particularly belonging
 to the back are termed dorsal.  They are named in numer-
                              ical  order,  and diminish
                              in size from the  first to the
                              fourth,   from  which  they
                              increase  to   the  twelfth,
                              which  is   the   largest:   a,
                              the   body,  is  longer  from
                              front to  back,  than  trans-
                              versely ;  b,  the  superior,
and c, the inferior articular surfaces.  The body somewhat
flattened on either side presents small  semicircular  depres-
sions, d, e, for receiving  the  heads  of the ribs :  /, the
superior articular  process,  vertical,  and directed  back-
    vol.  i.              7
 
42
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
wards ; g, the inferior articular process, directed forwards ;
h, the transverse process,  thicker as  it extends backwards ;
*, the spinous process, long and  inclining  downwards; ;',
the notch under which pass the nerves of the spinal cord.
          THE VERTEBRiE OF  THE  LOINS.

                    Figs. 35, 36.

We  have  here two views of a vertebra of the  loins ;*
 the   lumbar  vertebrae
 are  the lowest  five of
 the  spine :  a, a, their
 bodies,  though  of  a
 circular form in front,
 are  somewhat  oblong
 from side to  side, and
 larger, and of a more
 spongy texture,  than
 any of the other class-
 es :  b,  b, b,  the  supe-
 rior ;  c, c,  c, the infe-
 rior  articular  proces-
 ses, strong  and  deep :
 the superior,  concave;
' the   inferior,  convex ;
 d, d, d, the  transverse
 processes,   are   small
 and  long;  these, like
 bony  processes  in  ge-
 neral,- serve  as  levers
 for  the moving pow-
 ers ; e. e.  the  spinous
 processes, strong, hori-
Fig. 35.
Fig. 36.
* Vertebra lumborum. 
OF THE VERTEBRA.
43
zontal, and  flattened at the sides ; /, the spinal foramen.
Numerous muscles  are attached to the  back  part  of the
spine,  viz.  the  trapezii, latissimi  dorsi, rhomboidei  ma-
jores et minores, levatores scapula, serrati postici superiores
et inferiores,  splenii, complexi,  sacro  lumbales,  cervicales
descendentes,  trachelo-mastoidei, longissimi dorsi, transver-
sales colli, spinales et semispinales colli, recti capitis  postici
majores et minores,  obliqui capitis superiores  et inferiores,
multifidi  spina, interspinales, intertransversales, et levatores
costarum; on the  fore part, longi colli, recti capitis  interni
majores  et minores, recti capitis laterales,  scaleni  antici,
medii  et postici,  draphragma,  quadrati  lumborum, psoa
magni  et parvi^ obliqui interni, et transversales abdominis.

          GENERAL OBSERVATIONS  ON THE SPINE.
   The twenty-four vertebrae,* united by an elastic  sub-
stance, form  the spine,  or vertebral column:  their volume
is very considerable in the lumbar region, but decreasing
in size as they ascend to the head, though with some irreg-
ularity :  it is  a pyramid, reposing its  base on  the sacrum,
as a sort  of pedestal, and having on its  summit  the head.
The spine in  front  appears  perpendicular;  a  lateral  view
presents  a  waved  line, having a very  near  approach to
Hogarth's line  of beauty.   Altogether, the  structure of
the vertebral column is admirable, so  that, after  an atten-
tive examination,  we  are not  surprised that all writers on
natural theology  should have  selected this  part of  animal
bodies as a  specimen of the most exquisite mechanism.f

  * If we find a separate vertebra, we may know to which class it belongs
by the following rule, viz., the peculiar characteristic of a cervical verte-
bra is the  perforations in the transverse processes.  The  dorsal are dis-
tinguished  by having articular surfaces for the heads of the ribs.  The
lumbar by  their size, and the length of the transverse processes.
  t See Paxton's Paley's Nat. Theol. ch. viii.; Durham's Phys. Theol.
ch. viii. 
44
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
                    THE RIBS, COSTiE,

   Are placed on each side of the vertebrae of the back, and
 with them  form  the posterior  and lateral parts of  the
 chest.  They are commonly divided into  seven true  and
 five false, or into  sterno-vertebral and vertebral: of  these,
 the  sterno-vertebral or true  ribs, the  seven superior,  are
 united by means of a  portion of cartilage* directly with
the sternum ; the vertebral or  false  ribs, the five inferior,
are either joined by their cartilages  to each other,  or,  as
we see in the two lowermost, are totally unconnected with
the sternum, and are sometimes called loose or floating ribs.
   The fourth rib is  here taken for general  description.
Fig. 37, is the lower, and Fig. 38,  the upper edge.   It is
                        Figs. 37, 38.
flat within and without.  The vertebral  extremity, a, a, is
called the head, which  has an articular surface divided  by
a middle  ridge  to  articulate with  the bodies  of the two
contiguous  dorsal  vertebras.  The bone at b,  b,  is con-
tracted, forming the neck;  at  the back of the rib is c, c
* Gristle. 
OF THE RIBS.
45
the tubercle, having a plain articular  surface for the trans-
verse process of the vertebra ;  further outward the  bone
suddenly  bends forward,  producing d, d, the  angle, from
which proceeds  the body, which  in  its natural situation
passes forwards  and  downwards  to e, e, the  sternal  ex-
tremity, where it has a  slight oval  concavity to which  the
cartilage adheres, and  which cartilage joins  the rib to  the
sternum or breast bone.   At the under edge of each  rib
we find, Fig.  37,/, a groove for the  intercostal vessels and
nerves.
   From the first to the  seventh pair, the ribs  increase  in
length ;  this gives  the  chest  its conical shape : from  the
seventh  they begin  to  decrease in length to  the  twelfth,
which is as short as the  first: and with  regard to  the
 direction of their inclination, that of  the first is nearly hori-
 zontal, whilst the lower ones  dip down more and more at
 their points.   But there are  other remarkable distinctions
 in the first, eleventh, and twelfth ribs — as
                  THE  FIRST RIB.

Fig. 39.  The first rib is very short, and much  curved.
                                It  is  flat  above  and
                                below;  a, the  head;
                                b,  the tubercle,  large
                                and placed at the  an-
                                gle of  the  bone;  c,
                              5  the sternal  extremity,
                                which is united  to the
                                breast bone by a short
                                portion  of cartilage at
                                a right angle.
 
46
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
           THE ELEVENTH AND TWELFTH  RIBS.

   Fig. 40, is the twelfth rib;  the eleventh is like it, only
 a little  longer.   They  do              Fig. 40,
 not  articulate  with   the
 transverse processes of the
 vertebrae,  and  are  uncon-
 nected with the breast bone.
 These ribs are much shorter  than all the others, except the
 first; their heads have only single articular  surfaces to join
 with the whole articular cavities of the  two  lowest dorsal
 vertebrae.
   The muscles attached to the  ribs are  ; the pectorales
 majores et minores. subclavii, sterno-thyroidei, scaleni antici,
 medii, et postici, latissimi dorsi, serrati majores antici, supe-
riores et inferiores postici, sacro lumbales, accessorei ad sacro
lumbalem, longissimi dorsi, levatores et depressores costarum,
intercostales, sterno-costalis, diaphragma, obliqui externi et
interni, transversales, et recti  abdominis, et quadrati lum-
borum.
              THE  BREAST BONE,  STEKNUM.

  The  situation of the  sternum, or breast bone, is  well
known.   It  is  connected  with  the cartilages of  the  ribs,
and with the collar bones, and  is usually divided  into  two
or three parts.  In the position  before  us, Fig. 41, it  con-
 
OF THE STERNUM.
47
                       sists of  two  bones.    The   first
                       is   broad  and  thick  above,  and
                       a little contracting as it descends.*
                       It is irregularly convex before, and
                       concave behind.   At the upper an-
                       gle, a,  the collar bone, is articula-
                       ted ; b, the articular surface for the
                       cartilage of the first rib ;  c, the de-
                       pression, which,   with  the depres-
                       sion of the  second bone, form an
                       articular surface  for the cartilage of
                       the second rib : d, e, f g, mark the
                       concave  articular surfaces of  the
                       third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and seventh
                       ribs ; g, points to the  two last de-
                       pressions of articulation,  which are
                       contiguous.
                         There  are  transverse   lines  on
the lower bone, which indicate its further division in early
life.
   h,  the  ensiform  or xiphoid cartilage,  terminates  the
lower extremity of the sternum.   In the  adult it is frequent-
ly ossified.
   The  sternum,  ribs,  and  dorsal  vertebrae,  form  the
chest  or  thorax,  the  offices  and  uses  of which  are
multiplied ; for it is the centre of motion for directing the
animated machine,  protects  the  heart,  lungs,  and other
important parts ;  but  its agency  in  respiration must be
considered  its most  important function.   The  muscles
attached to the sternum  are the pectorales majores, sterno-
cleido-mastoidei,  stcrno-hyodei,  sterno-thyroidei,  et  inter-
costales interni.
* This- portion of the sternum is called the manubrium or the handle. 
48
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
              THE BONES  OF THE PELVIS.

  The large bony cavity situated at the lowest part of the
trunk, by which its weight is transferred to the lower extre-
mities, is called the basin or pelvis; for it in part  contains
and supports the bowels and other  viscera.   It  consists  of
a pair, and two or more single bones.
           unnamed  bones.   Ossa innominata.

  The  two large,  broad, and  irregularly shaped bones,
called  ossa  innominata or hip bones, constitute  the fore
part and  sides of the basin,  and the  lower part of the
sides of the abdomen— the upper edge is frequently called
the hip.
  Each bone is usually described  as  three bones, from
its having been composed of three  distinct pieces in the
first period  of life : these  portions retain  the same  name
though united in one  solid broad  bone.   To obtain there-
fore a knowledge of the terms employed in  this description,
    Fig.  42.        we  must  advert to its  original construc-
                tion.   Fig. 42  shews  the three portions
                united by cartilage ; a, the ilium ; b, the
                ischium;  c, the os pubis ;  the subsequent
                description will have a reference to  these
                terms.
 
OF THE PELVIS.
Fig. 43.
Fig. 44.
VOL.  I. 
50
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
   Fig. 43, the outer surface of the hip bone or os innomina-
tum; Fig. 44, the inner surface.   The letters refer to both
views ; a, the dorsum or back of the ilium; b, the crest; c, the
anterior superior spinous process; d,  the anterior  inferior
spinous process; e,  e,  the posterior superior  and  inferior
spinous processes; f  the fifth spinous process, but is distin-
guished  by  the term  ischium;  g,   the greater  ischiatic
notch.   The  inner  surface, h,  of the os innominatum, or
rather that portion of it  called the ilium, is  concave and
smooth ;  i, an elevated line, the linea innominata or linea
ileo-pectinata, which, when joined to  its fellow, forms part
of the brim of the pelvis ; j, a large uneven articular surface
for the sacrum ; k, a large and deep hollow, the socket for
the head of the  thigh bone, called the acetabulum,  from  its
resemblance  to a measuring cup used  by  the  ancients.
The margin is not perfectly circular, but appears deficient at
the under part, forming a notch, which in the  recent subject
is filled up with ligament to complete  the edge of  the cup.
In the centre of this cavity, and continued to the notch is a
depression, to which the round ligament of the thigh bone
is fixed ;  I, the lesser ischiatic notch;  m, n, the tuberosity of
the ischium ; o,  the ramus of  the  ischium ; p, the pubis; q,
the obturator of thyroid foramen.   The muscles attached to
and covering the os  innominatum, are the psoas magnus et
parvus, iliacus,  levator ani, obturator internus, pyriformis,
coccygeus, obliquus externus et internus, transversalis, rectus,
et pyramidalis abdominis,  quadratus  lumborum, longissimus
dorsi,  sacro-lumbalis,  et  latissimus dorsi, tensor  vagina
femoris, sartorius, gluteus  maximus, medius et minimus, rec-
tus femoris, gemini,  quadratus femoris, biceps flexor cruris,
semitendinosus  et semimembranosus,  transversus perinai et
transversus perinai alter, ischiocavernosus, levator ani,  tri-
ceps adductor femoris, gracilis, pectineus, et obturator exter-
nus. 
OF THE PELVIS.
51
OS SACRUM.
Fig. 45.
  Fig.  45.   The  sacrum is the  basis  which  supports
                                the   vertebral  column.
                                The  sacrum  is  placed
                                between  the   ossa  in-
                                nominata, to  form  the
                                posterior part  of  the
                                cavity  of   the  pelvis.
                                On  the front and  con-
                                cave   surfaces  are  four
                                lines, indicating the junc-
                                tion   of  the  different
                                pieces  of  which  it   is
                                composed during  infan-
                                cy.*   Here  we have  a
                                posterior view of the ad-
                                ult bone ; a, the part with
                                which  the  body  of the
                                last vertebra of the loins
articulates; b, b, the articular processes, which correspond
with the inferior articular processes of the  lowest vertebra
of the loins; c, c, the uppermost of eight foramina, called
the posterior sacral foramina, for the passage of small nerves
and vessels.  Between these are  four eminences,  short and
horizontal,  forming a continuation of the line of the spinous
processes of the vertebrae.   Above is the commencement of
the sacral canal, terminating below atg; this canal receives
the extremity of the spinal marrow, which in this situation
is exceedingly fibrous, and, from  the nearly parallel disposi-
tion of the nerves that issue from it, has obtained the name
* These have been called the false vertebrse. 
52                OSSEOUS SYSTEM
of cauda equina, or horse's tail; d, d, the lateral surfaces,
irregular and rough,  articulating with the hip bones ; e, an
oval surface uniting  with the  os coccygis.  The  muscles
attached to the sacrum are  the longissimi dorsi, sacro lum-
bales, multifidi spina, glutei maximi, pyriformes, et coccygei.

              the coccyx.   Os  coccygis.*

  The os coccygis, f Fig. 45, is divided into several bones
which are appended  to the sacrum; and although  in  ad-
vanced  age it is one solid bone, yet in  the prime of life,
as is represented in the present instance, it consists of four
distinct bones.   The upper one is  united to the sacrum by
a flat surface, on each  side of which are  projections called
the cornua.   The only muscles attached  to this bone are
the coccygei.

                      CHAP.  IV.

           BONES of  the upper extremity.

  The  upper extremity consists  of the collar bone,  the
shoulder blade, the arm, the fore arm, and the hand.

             THE COLLAR BONE,  davicula,

  Termed clavicle from its resemblance to an ancient key,
has a body and  two extremities.   Fig.  46, a,  the sternal
                         Fig. 46.
* So called from its figure being somewhat like a cuakoen beak. 
OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.           53
extremity,  presenting a triangular  surface for its articula-
tion, by means of an intervening cartilage, to the sternum ;
b, the rhomboid process; c,  the tubercle; d,  the scapular
extremity, which is the flattest part of the bone, and has a
narrow articular surface for the  acromion of  the scapula.
   The muscles attached to the clavicle are six; to its under
part the pectoralis  major,  deltoides,  and subclavius;  and
to its upper part, the  trapezius,  sterno-cleido-mastoideus,
and sterno-hyoideus.
   The  clavicle tends to  prevent the arm from falling for-
ward on the breast; and increases  the sphere of action of
the arm, by enabling it to  describe a circle,  the centre of
which is the connexion of the clavicle with the shoulder.


            THE  SHOULDER  BLADE.  Scapula.

   The scapula or  shoulder  blade  is situated  on the back
and upper part of the ribs, and forms the posterior  part of
the shoulder.  Its form is an irregular triangle ; it is  flat,
and so very thin as to be transparent in  its greatest  extent.
This bone is retained in its situation merely by muscles  that
unite it to  the head, the os hyoides, the  ribs,  the vertebrae,
and the  upper  arm  bone;  by  means of these muscles it
consequently  has the power of moving upwards,  down-
wards, backwards, and forwards ; and by  a quick succession
of these  motions  the  arm is rotated.   Thus  the  scapula
serves not only as a support, but a  fulcrum for every action
of the superior extremity.
   Fig. 47, the front;  Fig.  48,  the back view. 
54
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
m
a    h
Fig. 48.
  The scapula is usually  described  with  reference to  its
triangular  figure; a, a, the superior angle;  b, b, the infe- 
OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.            55
rior angle;  c, the  outer angle, having an oval concave
articular  surface; d, d,  the glenoid  cavity, or  socket in
which the head  of  the  arm  bone is articulated; around
which the bone  becomes contracted at e, e,  forming the
neck.  The  sides of the triangle are thus  denominated s
f f the basis; g, g, the inferior  border, or  costa; h, h,
the  superior  border; i,  the fossa for  the attachment of
the infra-spinatus muscle: k, the fossa  for the attachment
of the supra-spinatus muscle; /,  /,  the commencement
and course of the spine,  terminating in  a flat projection;
m,  m, the  acromion*  which  we  see extended  over  the
glenoid cavity, protecting the joint, and  forming the point
of the shoulder to  which the collar  bone is articulated.
There is  another projection, n, n,  compared  to  the beak
of  a crow,  therefore termed the  coracoid process;  this
also guards the shoulder joint, and with  the acromion gives
advantageous points of attachment to muscles which move
the arm.   Between  the  coracoid process and  the superior
border is o, o, an indentation, the  semilunar notch, which
is formed into a foramen by a ligament,  and affords a pas-
sage for  the supra-scapular artery, vein,  and nerve.
   The  muscles  attached to this bone are sixteen in num-
ber ;  viz. to the  spine  above,  the  trapezius,  and below,
the deltoides ; to the base, the levator scapula, rhomboideus
minor et  major, and  serratus magnus; to the  notch  in the
superior border,  the omo-hyoideus; to the foss, the  supra
spinatus, infra spinatus, and subscapulars; to the inferior
border, the teres minor,  and the long head of the  triceps
extensor cubiti;  to the inferior angle, the teres major;  and
to  the  coracoid  process, the coraco-brachialis, pectoralis
minor, and the short head  of the biceps flexor  cubiti, the
long head of which muscle has an attachment to the glenoid
cavity.
* The point of the shoulder. 
56
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
             the upper arm.   Os brachii.

  The upper arm consists of a single bone, called also  05
humeri.  Fig. 49  represents the back, Fig. 50  the front
view ;  a, a, the  head,        Fip 49            Fig. 50.
is hemispherical, stan-
ding  obliquely back-
wards from  the bone,
and when received in-
to the glenoid  cavity
of the scapula consti-
tutes a ball and socket
joint;  b,  the smaller
tubercle; c,  the great-
er tubercle;  they  are
separated by e, a chan-
nel* in which the ten-
don  of the long head
of the biceps muscle
plays.   The  bone is
contracted at d, d, and
forms the neck.   The
body  of the bone is
nearly cylindrical. —
The  lower  extremity
of the bone is flatten-
ed,  and  constitutes
with  the  ulna a perfect hinge joint; /, the outer condyle;
g, g,  the inner condyle,  more projecting than the outer, as
it gives attachment to  the  flexor  muscles of the fingers.
The lowest part of the  bone  has  two articular  surfaces:
that on the outside, A, convex, for  the head of the radius ;
that on the inside, i, concave from  side to side, but convex
* The bicipital groove. 
OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.            57
from back to front for the reception of the sigmoid  cavity
of the ulna.   Above the articulation, and in front, Fig. 49,
there is a depression for the  coronoid process  of the ulna.
Behind, Fig. 50, is another  depression  for the olecranon
of the  ulna;  j,  the foramen for  the  medullary  artery,
which supplies  the circulation of blood to  the marrow of
the bone.
   There are twentyfour muscles attached  to the os humeri;
viz.  the deltoides, supra spinatus, infra spinatus, teres minor,
subscapularis, pectoralis major, latissimus dorsi, teres major,
coraco-brachialis, triceps, extensor cubiti, brachialis internus,
palmaris longus, flexor  carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris,
flexor digitorur., sublimis perforatus, flexor longus pollicis,
pronator radii teres, supinator radii longus et brevis, extensor
carpi radialis  longior et brevior, extensor carpi  ulnaris,
extensor digitorum  communis, and anconeus.
                   THE  FORE  ARM

Consists of two bones, the ulna and radius.
VOL. I.
9 
58
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
     THE  ULNA  OR LARGER BONE OF  THE  FORE  ARM.
                          Fig. 51.
   The ulna is placed on  the  inside of the fore arm by the
side  of the  radius.  The  upper  extremity is large and
scooped  out  in  front,  a,  forming the    Fig. si.
greater sigmoid cavity; this  is the cavity
which articulates with the base of the os
humeri.   Below,  this  apparent  excava-
tion is bounded by b, the coronoid process,
above, by e,  the olecranon,  or elbow;  this
point serves  as a lever for the extensors of
the fore arm.  There is a smaller concave
articular surface for the head of the radi-
us  at c,  the lessor sigmoid  cavity;  d, a
small eminence, called the tubercle.  The
body or  shaft  of this  bone  is strongly
marked by muscles,  and by the ligament
interposed between the bones.  The low-
er end has a rounded articular surface, f
for  the  radius, and  beneath  a shallow
cavity for an interarticular  cartilage,  the
medium of  connexion  with the  wrist.    fl^P~».—•■•/
On  the  inside, its lengthened point, g,
forms the styloid process.                    g
   There  are fourteen  muscles attached  to the ulna; viz.
the  brachialis  internus,  triceps extensor cubiti,  anconeus,
pronator radii teres, flexor carpi radialis, flexor carpi ulnaris,
flexor digitorum communis, sublimis et profundus, pronator
quadratus, extensor carpi ulnaris,  extensor  ossis  metacarpi
pollicis, extensor primi internodii pollicis, and indicator. 
OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.            59
THE  RADIUS.
Fig. 52.

  b
d
  The radius, or smaller bone of the arm, is supposed to
                be so named  from  its  imaginary  resem-
                blance  to the  spoke  of a wheel,  or to
                a measure  used by the ancients.   It is
                placed  on the  outside of the fore arm:
                a, the  body  of the bone, inclines  to a
                triangular form;  b,  the  upper  extrem-
                ity, or  head, presents a circular  cavity,
                articulating with the  smaller  condyle of
                the humerus ; its circumference joins with,
                and turns into the smaller  sigmoid cavity
                of the  ulna ;  below, at c, the bone is con-
                tracted, forming a neck, which terminates
                in d, the bicipital  tubercle, to  which is
                fixed the biceps muscle.  The lower  end
                has e, a superficial cavity, articulating with
                the scaphoid and semilunar bones of the
                wrist.   On the  inner side there is a nar-
                row concavity,  in which the lower  extre-
                mity of the ulna rotates.  The  extreme
point, /, is termed the styloid process.
  There are  eight muscles  attached  to  the  radius; viz.
the supinator radii longus et brevis, pronator teres et quad-
ratus, biceps  flexor cubiti, flexor digitorum communis  sub-
limis, flexor longus, extensor  ossis metacarpi pollicis.
  Paley has not  passed unobserved  the  remarkable me-
chanical contrivance of  the fore  arm.  For the  perfect use
of the fore arm two motions are  wanted ;  a motion  at the
elbow backward and forward, which is called  a reciprocal
/ 
60
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
motion;  and a rotatory motion, by which  the  palm of the
hand as  occasion requires, may be turned upward.  How
is  this managed?  The  fore  arm consists  of two bones
lying along side  each other, but  touching only near  the
ends.  One, and only one, of these bones is joined to the
humerus  at the elbow ; the other alone to  the  wrist.   The
first, at the elbow, by means of a hinge joint, which allows
of motion in the same plane, swings backward and forward,
carrying along with  it the other bone, and the whole fore
arm.  In  the mean time, as often  as there is occasion to
turn the palm upward, the bone, to which the  hand is at-
tached, rolls upon the first, by help of a groove or hollow
near the end of one  bone, to which is fitted a corresponding
prominence in the other.
  The first is at liberty at one end, the second at the other ;
by which means  two actions may be  performed together.
The os brachii may  be swinging with its hinge joint at the
elbow, at  the very  time that the radius which carries the
hand, may be turning round in its groove.
                      THE  HAND.

  The last division of the superior extremity is  the hand ;
it includes the wrist, the palm of the hand, and the fingers.
          THE BONES OF THE WRIST.   CarpUS.

  The wrist or  carpus  consists of eight small bones dis-
posed  in two rows,  forming an  arch  supported by liga-
ments.  Fig. 53 is the back of the  wrist, (as the shape of 
OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.          61
            lg-53,               the several bones are best
            b         a        seen in this  direction) ; a,
                               the boat shaped or scaphoid
                               bone; b,  the halfmoon  or
                           e   semi-lunar   bone;  c,  the
                               wedged like or cuneiform
                               bone ; d, the pisiform bone,
                               from  its  size  and  figure
       "     S    f          resembling  a large  pea.
In the second range we observe on the outside, -e, the tra-
pezium ; f  the  trapezoid bone; these two last  are named
from  their figure; g,  the large bone,  os  magnum; h,  the
unciform bone,  named from its hook-like process, which
projects into the hand.  From the figure before us we may
form  a tolerably correct idea of their union  and arrange-
ment: on the back of the hand the wrist bones are convex,
in front concave, the arch giving additional strength, while
the projecting pisiform bone and unciform process increase
the concavity for the passage of the  flexor tendons of the
fingers.
   The bones of the carpus  have a gentle  motion on each
other, and on the fingers; they also admit of a limited mo-
tion in every direction with the bones of the arm.
   There are two  muscles  attached  to  the  os  pisiforme ;
viz. the flexor carpi ulnaris, and abductor minimi digiti:
to  the  trapezium  four;  viz.  the  flexor  ossis   metacarpi
pollicis,  abductor  pollicis,  abductor indicis, and  extensor
ossis metacarpi  pollicis.  The only  muscle attached to the
trapezoid  bone  is the flexor brevis  pollicis.  To the os
magnum also the  same  muscle is attached.  The mus-
cles  inserted into the unciform  bone are three; viz. the
Uexor brevis pollicis, flexor proprius pollicis,  and  abductor
minimi digiti.
 
62                OSSEOUS SYSTEM
 THE BONES OF THE PALM OF THE HAND.  Metacarpus.

  The  bones called the  metacarpus,  Fig.  54, form  the
palm and  back of the hand ;  they sustain  the fingers.
                              We observe each  bone long
                             and rounded, the ends larger
                             than the bodies.   Their  up-
                             per ends have plane surfaces
                             to unite with the carpus ;  and
                             where the  metacarpal bones
                             are contiguous to each other,
                             they  have also flat articular
                             surfaces;   their  lower  ends
                             articulate  with the fingers by
convex heads, to allow of a free motion  in every  direction  5
we have at this joint a lateral motion, as well as flexion and
extension.*
   There  are eleven  muscles attached to the  metacarpal
bones, viz.  seven interossei, common to all; to that of the
fore finger, the flexor  carpi  radialis  and extensor carpi
radialis longior; to that of the  middle  finger,  the extensor
carpi radialis brevior;  and to  that  of the little finger, the
extensor carpi ulnaris.
  " Those anatomists who reckon five metacarpal bones include the first
bone of the thumb. 
OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.            63
the bones of  the  fingers.   Phalanges  digitorum.
a—
6—
             F*g 55.               Fig. 55.   The fingers
                              consist  of twelve bones,
                              arranged  in  three  rows,
                              termed phalanges.  They
                              are rounded on  the back,
                              as we see  in  this figure,
                              but  flat  and  somewhat
                              concave  in front, as may
                              be observed in Fig. 56.
                                 The  first  phalanx  or
                              row, a,  a, has sockets at
                              the superior extremities to
                              articulate with the meta-
                              carpal bones; the inferior
extremity  is convex from back to front, concave from  side
to side.
  The second phalanx, b, b, has on the  upper ends con-
cave articular surfaces, with a little rising in the middle,
dividing it into  two smaller concavities, adapted to the low-
er extremities of the first phalanx.   The lower ends of  the
second  phalanx  are  similar  to  the  lower  ends of  the
first.
  The third phalanx, c, c, has a joint similar to the second ;
the points are rough in front, but rounded at  the backs to
receive the nails.
  There are eighteen  muscles attached to the phalanges,
or finger  bones;  viz. in front, the flexor brevis digitorum
sublimis et  profundus, flexor longus  et  brevis, adductor, 
64
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
et abductor indicis, flexor proprius, et abductor minimi digiti,
four lumbricales,  and seven interossei.   At  the  back the
extensor digitorum communis and indicator.
             THE  BONES OF  THE  THUMB.


  The  bones of  the thumb, Fig.  56,
a, b, c, very much  resemble the  bones
of the  fingers ;  but as the  thumb  is the
antagonist of the fingers, it is much thick-
er and  stronger.   The first bone is con-
nected by a double articular surface to the
trapezium.
  The muscles  attached to the front of
the thumb  are the flexor brevis et flexor
ossis metacarpi pollicis, and abductor indi-
cis ; to the back  of the  thumb the exten-
sor primi internodii pollicis.
Fig. 56.
c—■ 
           OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY.           65

Fig. 57, a front view of the bones of the hand

                       Fig. 57.
                       CHAP. V.

         THE  BONES OF THE LOWER  EXTREMITY.

  The lower extremity consists of the thigh, leg, and foot.


            THE THIGH BONE.   Os femoris.

  The thigh has one bone; it is the longest of the human
skeleton, and  is remarkable  for its strength,  support-
ing the whole  trunk and upper extremities, and often with
the addition of burdens greater than the weight of the body
itself.  This bone is  placed  obliquely,*  from the great
                 *See Tab. i,ii.
VOL. I.            10 
66
OSSEOUS  SYSTEM
breadth  of the pelvis; and  this obliquity of the shaft  of
the bone is necessary to bring  it more immediately under
the centre of gravity, and to render our steps not only more
direct, but more quick and secure.*
Fig. 58.
Fig. 59.
  •ft" Whilst a man stands on both his legs, the thigh bones are oblique to
the gravitation of the body; but when one foot is raised, the whole body
being then balanced on one foot, a change takes place in the position of the
thigh bone, amd  the obliquity of that bone  is diminished; or in other
words, now that it has the whole weight to sustain, it is perpendicular un-
dent, and hastherefore acquired greater strength."-^mmaZ Mechanics. 
OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY.            67
  Fig. 58 is the front, and Fig. 59 the back of the femur
or thigh  bone;  a, a, the  head of the bone,  forming the
greater portion of the sphere; it articulates with the hip,
and is the most  complete instance  of the ball  and socket
joint that we can produce.  Besides a surrounding ligament,
common to all joints, it has an additional security in a short,
strong, yet flexible ligament, inserted by one  end into the
ball, at the depression b, b, by the  other end into a cup, or
acetabulum of the hip bone; c, c,  the neck;  d, d,  a large
process,  called  the  trochanter  major; e, e, a smaller pro-
jection,  the  trochanter  minor.  The curved  line at/, Fig.
59, the linea quadrata,  extending  from  one  trochanter  to
the other, shows the attachment of the capsular ligament,
and  the quadratus  femoris; g, g, the body of the bone;
A, A, a long, rough, elevated line, the linea aspera; i, i, the
outer, and k, k,  the inner condyle ;  these have four articular
surfaces: I, m, the  two  upper on  the fore  part, for the
patella or  kneepan; n,  o, the  two  lower, for the  large
bone of  the leg.  The  latter articular surfaces are  sepa-
rated by p,  a deep recess,  into which the  cross ligaments
are inserted; it  also affords  protection to the large vessels
and nerves  passing to the  leg.  The medullary  artery en-
ters at q, about  the middle of the bone.
   There are nineteen muscles attached  to this bone, viz.
the gluteus  medius  et minimus to the  trochanter  major;
the psoas magnus and iliacus internus  to the  trochanter
minor ; the quadratus to the linea  quadrata ; the obturator
internus  et  externus, gemini, and  pyriformis, to the fossa
trochanterica; the gluteus maximus, pectineus, and triceps
femoris,  vasti,  and  biceps flexor cruris,  to  the  linea as-
pera;  the gastrocnemii, plantaris, and  popliteus,  to the
condyles ; the crureus, sartorius, gracilis and tensor vagina
femoris,  are situated on the fore part  of the femur, but are
not adherent to  it. 
68
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
                the knee pan.  Patella.

   The small round  bone at the knee is called patella ;  it
is situated  at the front        Fig. 60.            Fig. 6i.
of  the knee joint. —
Fig.  60, the  anterior
surface,   convex   and
rough from  the adhe-
sion of the fibres of a tendon which is spread over it.  Fig.
64, the posterior surface, which indeed is divided by a per-
pendicular ridge into two slightly concave articular surfaces.
This bone gives to the  tendons which bring forward the
leg a very considerable mechanical advantage, by altering
the line of their direction, and by advancing  it further out
from the centre of motion, and  this  upon the principles of
the resolutions of force, upon which principles  all machi-
nery is founded.
 
OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY
69
THE SHIN bone.  Tibia.
   The tibia is  the large  bone of the leg, situated at the
 inner side; Fig. 62,  the  front;  Fig.  63, the  side  view.
                                 a,  the  head, having  two
                                 semicircular articular con-
                                 cavities, b,  b, b, for the
                                 condyles of   the  thigh
                                 bone ;  these  concavities
                                 are separated  by c, c,  a
                                 middle  ridge or spine,  to
                                 which the cross ligaments
                                 of the knee  are secured ;
                                 d, d, the tubercle which
                                 gives attachment to  the
                                 ligament of the patella ;
                                 e, e, a small articular sur-
                                 face for the head of the
                                 fibula or small bone of the
                                 leg; f, f,  the  spine  or
                                 shin ; g, the outer side of
                                 the base, having i,  a de-
                                 pression, or articular sur-
                                 face for the lower extre-
                                 mity of the fibula; A3 the
                                 inner  ankle,  called   the
inner malleolus, on  the under and back part  of which is  a
groove, for the passage of the tendon of the tibialis posti-
cus muscle ;  k,  k,  the surface for connecting it with  the
astragalus, or bone of the foot;  I, the foramen for the me-
dullary artery.
  There are  ten  muscles  attached  to  the tibia,  viz.  the
sartorius, gracilis,  and semitendinosus,  immediately  below
 
70
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
the tubercle; the semimembranosus, to the back part of the
head of this bone ;  the popliteus, soleus, tibialis posticus,
and flexor  longus digitorum pedis, to the back  part of its
head and body;  the  tibialis anticus and  extensor longus
digitorum pedis,  are  situated on the fore  part of its  head
and body.
THE SPLINT BONE.
Fibula.
  Fig. 64.  The  small  bone  of the leg is called fibula,
from its resemblance to  the pin of a brooch ;  it is placed
on  the outside of the leg ; the shape  of       Fig. 64.
the bone  is  irregularly  triangular ;  a,        b
the head or  upper  extremity  : it  has  a
smooth  articular  surface  at  b,  on its
inner side, to join  with  the  tibia.  The
body  presents  several  ridges and   de-
pressions  for  the lodgment and  attach-
ment  of  muscles;  c,  the inferior  ex-
tremity,  lengthened   to  form  the outer
ankle, or external malleolus ; d, an oblique
articular  surface, for  the outside  of the
astragalus.
  The  ankle joint  is strengthened  and
defended from injuries by those remark-
able prolongations of  the tibia  and fibula
which we name the external and internal
malleoli, the outer and  inner  ankle.  If
the joint is  in  danger of  dislocation out-
ward, it is curbed by the inner projection,
i. e. that of the  tibia; if inward,  by  the   d-
outer projection, i. e.  that  of  the  fibula;
between both it is locked in its position.
   Eight muscles are  inserted  into this  bone,  viz. to  the
upper extremity the biceps flexor cruris; to the  fore part
i—c 
OF THE  LOWER EXTREMITY.           71
 of its body,  the extensor longus digitorum and  extensor
proprius pollicis pedis ; on the outside  the peroneus longus
 et brevis; and behind, the soleus, tibialis posticus, and flex-
 or longus pollicis pedis.
THE BONES  OF THE FOOT.

          Fig. 65.
  Fig. 65 is a general view of the skeleton of the foot,
which consists of twentysix bones : d, e, f g, A,  and two
intervening  bones,  called  the  tarsus  or instep;  a, the
metatarsus or middle row of bones of the foot; and b, c,
i, the three phalanges of the toes.  The bones of the foot
somewhat resemble the hand, but they are stronger, larger,
and less calculated for motion.
                 BONES  OF THE TARSUS.

  The tarsus or instep consists of seven bones, and  when
joined they form  an arch, under  which tendons,  vessels,
and nerves pass into the  sole of the foot. 
72
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
THE ASTRAGALUS.
Fig. 66.
   1st.  The  astragalus, so
 called from its resemblance
 to an ancient die; or rather,
 I am  inclined  to think,  be-
 cause  a  game of dice  was
 played with the talus or huc-
 kle bone of animals to which
 this corresponds,   a, a large
 articular surface : above, it
 is convex from front to back,
 forming its largest articular  surface  for the  base of the
 tibia; b, the articular surface  for  the  lower  extremity of
 the fibula:  on  the opposite side is a surface for articulating
 with the inner  malleolus; the fore part of the bone,  c,  is
 rounded to  articulate  with the scaphoid bone;  the under
 part, d, rests on the  heel bone  by  two  articular surfaces,
 separated by a deep groove.
   The only muscle attached to this  bone  is  the  tibialis
posticus.
               THE HEEL BONE.   Os Calds.

   2d.  The  os   calcis
is the  largest  bone  of
the  foot; a, the  tube-
rosity or  heel; on the
fore  part  are  two ar-
ticular  surfaces,  at  b,
c, for  the  astragalus •  d_J
d, an articular surface
for the cuboid bone.
  There are eleven muscles  attached to the os  calcis,  viz.
 
               OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY.           73

to the upper part, the extensor brevis  digitorum pedis ; to
the under part, the abductor, flexor brevis,  abductor pol-
licis pedis, flexor brevis  digitorum, flexor digitorum acces-
sorius, and abductor minimi digiti pedis; posteriorly,  the
gastrocnemii, soleus, and plantaris.
            the scaphoid,  or navicular bone.

  3d.   The os scaphoides,  or boat-shaped bone, is placed
on the inner part of the  foot, before  the astragalus ;  at 6
               Fig. 68.                Fig. 69.
it is concave, to articulate with that bone;  in  front at a,
its general aspect is convex,  but its convexity  is divided
into three flat articular surfaces, for the  three  cuneiform
bones.  See Fig.  69, a, b, c.
  The tibialis posticus muscle is attached to this bone.
                THE CUNEIFORM  BONES.

  The cuneiform or wedge-like  bones are three in number,
denominated from their position the inner,  the  middle and
the outer cuneiform bones.  They are applied to each other
like the stones of an arch.
VOL. I.
11 
74
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
              THE  INNER  CUNEIFORM BONE.

  4th.  This bone is the  largest of the  three; it has four
articular surfaces: one behind, to form  part of the articu-
lation for the scaphoid bone;  another before, with a  plain
articular surface for the  metatarsal bone of the great toe :
its outer surface, i. e. the side towards  the centre of the
      Fig. 70,     foot,  has a  flat articular  surface  for the
               middle  wedge-like   bone,  and a  smaller
               surface  for   the  metatarsal bone of the
               second toe ;  posteriorly, the  three cunei-
               form bones  form  a  cup,  into  which  is
               received the rounded articular surface  of
the  scaphoid bone;  anteriorly,  they join  with  the  three
large metatarsal  bones, and, in  consequence of the  short-
ness of the middle cuneiform  bone, they are locked toge-
ther like a mortice and tenon.  The middle bone articulates
on the inside with the inner, and on  the outside  with the
outer cuneiform  bones;  and the outer  cuneiform is con-
nected by its outer surface with  the cuboid  bone.
   There are five  muscles attached  to these bones, viz.  to
the inner, the tibialis anticus and peroneus  longus;  to
 the outer, the flexor brevis and abductor pollicis  pedis;
and the tibialis posticus to all three bones.
             THE MIDDLE CUNEIFORM BONE.

  5th.  This is the smallest of the cuneiform bones ; it has
four articular  surfaces: one  behind for the
scaphoid bone, one before for  the  metatarsal
bone of the second toe, and one on each side
for  the first and third cuneiform bones.
 
OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY.
75
THE OUTER CUNEIFORM BONE.
6th.  This bone has five articular  surfaces ;  one behind
   Fig. 72.       for the  scaphoid, one before for the third
              metatarsal bone, two for the inside, i. e.
              for the middle cuneiform and second me-
              tatarsal, and one on the outer surface for
              the cuboid bone.
THE CUBOID  BONE.   Os Cuboldes.
  7 th.  Though this bone  is so named from  its shape, it
          Fig  73           is a very irregular cube :  it has
                          three articular surfaces,  a, the
                          largest  of  which, is posterior,
                          and  connected to the os calcis;
                          b, the anterior,  for the fourth
                          metatarsal  bones;  the  smallest
is articulated on the inner surface to the scaphoid and outer
cuneiform bones.   This bone is convex  on  its upper sur-
face, and  on the  lower surface it  has a deep groove,  in
which the tendon of the peroneus longus muscle plays.
  There are two muscles attached to  the os cuboides, viz.
the^ezor brevis minimi digiti and adductor pollicis pedis. 
76
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
                 THE  METATARSAL BONES.

   a.  The metatarsus  consists of five  bones.   Fig.  74, a,
the first,  or that of the      Fig. 74.            Fig. 75.
great toe, is the  largest
and thickest ;  the other
metatarsal   bones   are
long and slender.  Fig.
75, a, the second, is the
longest;  the others de-
crease in length  to the
fifth or little toe.   Each
bone   has  flat  articular
surfaces  to unite with
the  metatarsus,  and  a
rounded  articular  sur-
face for the first bone of
the toe.  The  metatar-
sal bones also  have flat
articular surfaces at these
posterior extremities for connecting them  with each other.
   There are fourteen muscles attached to these bones, viz.
the seven interossei and  transversalis pedis, common to all;
the tibialis  anticus and peroneus longus are attached to the
first metatarsal bone; the adductor pollicis pedis to the
second ; the peroneus brevis,  adductor,  and flexor brevis
minimi digiti, to the fifth.
 
OF THE  LOWER EXTREMITY.           77
                   BONES  OF THE TOES.

   There are fourteen bones of the toes:  two  to the great
toe, Fig. 74, b, c; three  to each of the other toes, Fig.
75, b, c, d; their division and  arrangement  are similar to
that of the fingers.
   There are  nineteen muscles attached to the phalanges
of the toes, viz. on the upper surface  the extensor proprius
pollicis and extensor longus, et brevis  digitorum pedis,  and
seven interossei.   On the lower surface,  the flexor longus
et brevis, and abductor pollicis, the flexor longus et brevis
digitorum pedis, and four lumbricales.
                     SESAMOID  BONES.*

   Besides the bones we have described,  there are  others
seldom preserved in the skeleton: such  are the  sesamoid
bones, which are very small, and found at  the roots of the
first joint of the thumb  and of the great  toe.  These are
under or  rather in the flexor tendons : they  serve as pul-
leys for increasing  the  angle  of insertion, therefore add
considerably to  the force of the muscles,  and protect  the
articulations.
   These bones give insertion  to the flexor brevis  pollicis
manus, and the  flexor brevis, adductor  et abductor pollicis
pedis.

  "Because they resemble the grains of sesamum, or Indian corn.  This
term occurs in several parts of descriptive  anatomy. " Sesamoid bonea
are sometimes found at the origin of the gastrocnemii  muscles, and occa-
sionally they are connected with the ossa pubis." — Monro, 
78
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
            the tongue  bone.   Os hyoides.

                    Fig. 76.  There is another bone not
                 immediately connected with  the  skele-
               a ton, situated at the root of the tongue,
                 the  os hyoides*   It serves for the  at-
                 tachment of the muscles of the tongue,
                 and of deglutition; a, a, the great cornua ;
                 b, the smaller cornua;  c, the basis.
  The os hyoides is not immediately connected  with any
other bone, but is kept in  its situation by numerous  mus-
cles and ligaments.
  There are ten muscles attached  to this  bone, viz. the
hyo-glossus, constrictor pharyngeus medius, sterno-hyoideus,
omo-hyoideus, stylo-hyoideus, genio-hyoideus, thyro-hyoideus,
genio-hyo-glossus, digastricus, and the mylo-hyoideus.
* So called from its resembling the Greek letter t. 
OF THE TEETH.
79
                      CHAP. VI.

                      THE  TEETH.

  The teeth are the most solid parts of the body ;  in  their
formation they bear a certain  analogy  to the horns of ani-
mals, and thus differ  in  many respects from  the  bones.
Some anatomists have described them as an appendage to
the skin, since they are,  in fact,  exterior  to it,  and  are
exposed in  a greater part of their surface to the contact of
the air, and to the mechanical and  chemical action of bo-
dies.  The greater part of their surface is inclosed in alveoli
or sockets,  which tightly  embrace  them, and form the arti-
culation termed gomphosis.  That part which is thus  con-
tained in the  socket is named the root; the middle, which
is somewhat contracted, is  the neck;  and  all above, the
crown.   All the teeth have  a  form more or  less elongated,
terminating in a pointed  manner, and in this point or end
of the root is a small hole.   This opening leads to the
hollow of  the tooth or dental  cavity, an excavation which
extends from the point of the  root to the crown;  and this
cavity represents the form of the tooth, and  lodges its ves-
sels and nerves.
   The teeth, when  all  are  developed, are  thirtytwo in
number, sixteen in each jaw.
               STRUCTURE OF  THE  TEETH

  They are formed of two substances:  one exterior, called
enamel; the other anterior, and of the  same  texture  as
bones. 
80
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
                 ENAMEL  OF THE TEETH.

   The enamel is only found round the crown of the tooth;
 it covers the  whole  surface of the crown, is moulded ex-
 actly upon it, and  thus represents  all its  inequalities.  It
 is  thickest on  that surface where trituration takes place,
 and diminishes in this respect towards the neck.  This dis-
 position is a protection to the surface  which is most worn
 in mastication.   The fibres of the enamel are small,  par-
 allel  to  each  other, and  perpendicular to  the surface of
 the tooth; by this  arrangement the enamel is not liable to
 scale off, and is better calculated to  resist attrition.  In
 Fig.  77, may be seen the  enamel, marked  a,  and extend-
 ing to b.

         THE  OSSEOUS SUBSTANCE OF THE  TEETH.

  This forms  the most considerable  portion of the tooth,
 as the whole  of the root and the interior of the crown.  It
 is composed of an exceedingly dense and  compact tissue,
 bearing an analogy to ivory ; for it has  no cancelli, and its
 fibres, when seen by  the assistance of a microscope, appear
 concentric, parallel to the surface of the tooth.
  By chemical analysis, the osseous substance  gives nearly
 the same results  as the other bones, with the exception of a
 small quantity of fluate of lime.
  Like the medullary organs of bones,  the central part of
 the teeth  contains a  soft  spongy  substance, formed by a
 network  of vessels  and nerves.   The  vessels  are derived
 from  the internal  maxillary artery ;  the      Fig. 77.
 nerves, from the second and third branches      a
 of the fifth pair.  Fig.  77, is a section of      tfSmtm
an incisor and molar tooth, showing the     If)JtHf
cavity which contains the nerve and vessels      "w j§Wc
 marked c, c. 
OF THE TEETH
81
                   CLASSES OF TEETH.

   The teeth are divided into three classes :  incisors, canine
 teeth, and grinders.


                        INCISORS.

   The front or cutting  teeth are eight in number,  four in
 each jaw.   They vary from the others  in  the  form of the
 crown, which is like a wedge.  They are convex  in front,
 concave  posteriorly.   The  layer of enamel which  covers
 the crown is thinner  behind than in front.  The roots of
 these teeth are always single, very  long, and  of a conical
 form, slightly compressed at the  sides, and a little thicker
 before than behind.
   Fig. 78,  shows  a front, and Fig. 79, the  Fi„ 78 79
 profile of  an incisor.  The  lower incisors
 are smaller  than the upper, their roots larger,
 and laterally  more  compressed, sometimes
 deeply furrowed.


                     CANINE TEETH.

   These are called also cuspidati, from their being spear-
 pointed.   There are two in each jaw, placed next in order
 at the sides  of the incisors.  They have each but one root,
 which is  longer than the corresponding portion  of any of
 the other teeth.  Fig. 80,  the front,  Fig. 81,   Fig. 80,81.
 the profile.   The canine teeth of the upper
jaw have longer roots than those of the lower,
 and are vulgarly called eye-teeth, and those of
 the lower jaw stomach-teeth.
     vol. i.             12
 
82
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
                    THE GRINDERS,

  Or molar teeth, are twenty in number, ten  in  each jaw,
five on each side.
  The first  two pairs  of grinders are called bicuspidati.
Their crowns are surmounted by two conical   Fig. 82, 83.
tubercles; the root of  each is generally sim-
ple, but has a well-defined groove on each side
of its lateral surfaces.   Fig. 82, a front view,
and Fig. 83, the profile of a small grinder.
  The next three,  which terminate the  row, are  called
multicuspidati.   They  are remarkable for their  great size,
and on the surface of their crowns are  four pyramidal tu-«
bercles, separated by very distinct grooves ;  the roots are
divided into two, three, four, or five parts or  fangs, each of
which present an aperture  for  the  passage  of the dental
nerve  and  vessels.  Fig. 84,  a  view  of a
large grinder.   The root of  the last grinder
(dens sapientia)  in the lower jaw is simple,
short and conical; but  in the upper jaw it is
generally divided into four short roots.
          OF THE FORMATION OF  THE TEETH.

  The teeth are formed in a manner different from that of
any other part of the body, and their developement presents
many remarkable phenomena.
  Before they are visible, they are  formed in the interior1
of the maxillary  bones.   They are developed  in small
rounded  sacs, which  are composed of  two  membranes;
both these membranes  are vascular, according to Meckel
and Fox, but the external  is the more  so.   The  internal
membrane  is the firmest,  but thinner  than  the external;
 
OF THE TEETH.                 83
its connexions with the teeth are more intimate, for strictly
speaking, this is the formative organ.  The dental vessels
branch  out on  it; and  when they are injected, it appears
entirely red.  The external is of a  more spongy, looser,
softer, and thicker texture, than the internal ; it  is contin-
uous with the gums, lines the  interior  of the  alveoli, and
forms their periosteum.
  At the first,  these  small  sacs simply  inclose  a  reddish
fluid ;  but  at about the  fourth month of pregnancy,  there
appears from  the  base  of the  internal  membrane a small
body, which is vascular  and soft.   This  is  the  germ, or
pulp of the tooth.  Numerous  nerves and vessels, supplied
by the internal  membrane, ramify  in this pulp, which  gra-
dually assumes the appearance of a  tooth, this  being the
nucleus around which a tooth is moulded.
   The ossification of the tooth commences about the mid-
dle term of pregnancy,  and begins on as many  points  of
the  pulp as the future  tooth  will have  eminences on its
surface; thus  the incisores and cuspidati commence  with
one  point, and  the  molares with  several.  The several
points increase until they come in contact,  then  the  tooth
grows as an entire body.  The pulp elongates at its  base
to form  the root.   In  those teeth  which  have  only one
root, a conical  shell of  bone is formed  around  the pulp,
which continues to increase in length in proportion as the
ossification advances ; while in those which have several
roots, a division of the pulp takes place  at  this part into a
corresponding number of processes.
   The outer lamina  of  bone is first completed; and then
lamina after lamina is deposited, one within the other, the
pulp still receding, until at  length there remains only the
permanent cavity of the tooth, lined  with  its proper mem-
brane, and filled with the  remaining portion of  the  pulp,
which now serves as the bed upon which the vessels and 
84
OSSEOUS SYSTEM
nerves ramify previously to their entering the  bony  sub-
stance of the tooth.
  The secretion of the enamel begins shortly after the de-
velopement of the bony matter; this  substance is secreted
by the internal  face of the internal capsule which envel-
opes the crown of the tooth, so that it is moulded exactly
to the projections and depressions on that part.   The fluid
which is poured out from this internal membrane is thickish,
and  is  soon consolidated  into a dark  chalky  substance,
which afterwards becomes white and hardened by  more
perfect crystallization.  This is the enamel; but at an early
period this enamel is not very hard, and  can be easily sepa-
rated, and can in its  perfect state be  readily  detached by
heat.   The glandular apparatus which forms this substance
is not demonstrable.

               OF THE DECIDUOUS  TEETH.

  Infants have teeth, which are the deciduous or milk teeth,
twenty in number, ten in each jaw, five on each side, viz.
two  incisors, one cuspidatus, and two molares.  These
commence to appear ordinarily about the sixth month, and
generally in  pairs, those of the lower  jaws, first and  then
the similar ones in the upper; and the whole twenty appear
at about the thirtieth month.
              OF THE PERMANENT TEETH.

  The deciduous teeth drop from the gums, and are follow-
ed by the permanent; and the whole  process  of dentition
is  not completed until about the age  of twenty years, the
last appearing  being  the dentes  sapientiae.  These per-
manent teeth are developed,  and appear nearly in the same
order  as the milk teeth. 
                    OF THE TEETH                  85

  Nature has limited the duration of life in the teeth more
than in the other bones.  The power of nutrition becomes
gradually enfeebled  in  these organs, and they perish by
their nutritious foramina being obliterated.  Being no longer
retained in  their alveoli by any organic connexion,  they
become loose and  fall out; their sockets  are absorbed.
But the tone of  the  stomach being weakened  naturally at
this advanced  period of life, man  is thereby  reduced  to
feed upon soft substances,  accommodated to the  languid
state of the gastric powers and the loss of  the teeth.
                     CHAP. VII.

               THE MEDULLARY SYSTEM,

                 OR THE MARROW  OF BONES.

  I shall first describe the deposition of marrow occupying
the cellular structure of the short and flat bones,  and  the
extremities of the  long bones.  The medullary membrane
of this structure appears to be a  continuation and  expan-
sion of the vessels that penetrate the foramina,  and which,
on reaching the internal  surface of the spongy part of the
bone, ramify ad infinitum, and unite  a  thousand  different
ways.  Their  interweavings  give to the  interior  of  the
cellular tissue its peculiar  florid aspect,  which is more
evident as  we examine it nearer to the period of infancy,
because the vascular system of bones is then very conspic- 
86
MEDULLARY SYSTEM,
 uous, while it gradually contracts and fades away as age
 advances.*
   This  vascular  extension  can be  distinctly seen  in  the
 injected bone, forming, as it were, a membrane throughout
 the innumerable cellulae of the bone; and the exhalation
 of the medullary fluid or marrow, which  fills the interstices
 I  have just mentioned, seems to proceed  from this vascular
 network.
   The  medullary  system  of the middle of long  bones,
 whose largest  cavity  it fills,  somewhat differs from  the
 preceding,  in having less vascularity ; while  a thin trans-
 parent membrane lines the wrhole cavity, and is  repeatedly
 folded upon itself,  giving  rise  to   numerous extensions,
 some of which  surround the  very minute  filaments of  the
 cancelli  of  the sides  of the cavity, others pass from the one
 side of the membrane to the other without adhering to any
 ossified portion, the  whole of which forms spherical cells
 filled with marrow, and when viewed through a microscope
 resembles a cluster of pearls.
   The medullary system of bones, in a healthy state, pos-
 sesses little sensibility,  or  only such a degree of  organic
 sensibility as is indispensable to  its functions.  As a proof
 of this, the marrow  may be irritated  in a  living  animal
 without any sign of feeling being expressed.  The sawing
 of the skull with the trephine, and the division of the bone
 in amputations,  are not attended with pain.


  * The blood vessels of bones are much more numerous than we should
 expect  from their  color,  for the earth of the bone conceals them;  and
 hence they are not apparent even after being filled with a red injection,
 until by immersion in diluted muriatic acid, the earth of the bone has been
 destroyed. When a bone has been thus prepared, and put into oil of  tur-
pentine, its vascularity is shown to great advantage. 
OR MARROW OF BONES.
87
  Marrow, according to Berzelius, is a  species of fixed
oil, possessing peculiar properties,  and  something like but-
ter.   It consists of the following ingredients :

     Pure marrow or fixed oil,
     Skin and blood vessels,
     Albumen,
     Gelatine,
     Extractive,        '
     Peculiar matter,
     Water,   ....


  The use of the marrow in bones,  I believe to  be the
same as the use of the fat in or about other parts of the
human body, viz.  it is a mere deposit of superfluous nutri-
tious matter.
0,96
0,01


0,03


1,03 
ART.   II.
                        CHAP. I.

 CARTILAGINOUS  SYSTEM, OR THE GRISTLE OF BONES,  ETC.

   In order to render  the motions of the bones  on  each
 other more easy, the ends are incrusted with a substance of
 a white or pearly color, hard, yet very  elastic.  This  is  a
 peculiar substance found in various parts of the body, espe-
 cially on the articular  surfaces of bones,  the  end of the
 hose, the edges of the eye-lids,  the ear, the wind-pipe
 and air passages,  the ends  of the ribs,  etc.  Cartilage
 forms a considerable share of those parts where flexibility
 and firmness are to a  certain  degree combined, in order
 that the organ may, after being bent, recover its determined
 form.
   The cartilaginous tissue is a net work of fibres, so closely
 interwoven that at  first sight it appears  completely homo-
geneous and formed  of a mass of  albumen  without any
particular  order or direction;  however,  a more attentive
examination  will discover longitudinal  fibres, crossed by
others in a transverse direction.   The fibrous arrangements
of the cartilage of joints are perpendicular  to  the  surface
of the joint, and after  maceration for  six  or eight weeks,
may be observed to be placed at right angles in respect to
the bone to which they are united.
  The surfaces of cartilages which are in comae* are finely
polished, that by its smoothness it may facilitate the hiding
motion of the two bones  on  each  other.  The elasticity
reflects a  considerable  part of the motion, which by a  liMe
yielding becomes extended, and thus moderates the effec^ 
CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
89
of violent shocks to which  the limbs are  often  liable in
active exertions.
  The elasticity of cartilage  is  very  conspicuous,  particu-
larly in youth and adult age.  If the blade of a scalpel is
thrust into cartilage, the two edges  of the division will
re-act upon  it, and repel the instrument; when pressed it
becomes flattened, but resumes  its primitive shape as soon
as the cause of compression is removed.  Thus has nature
placed cartilages where,  to  answer particular  purposes, it
is requisite that a physical  property  should  be united  to
the vital powers, as in the larynx ;  and in the nasal  parti-
tion, to produce a kind of vibration in the passage of air;
at the end of the ribs, to maintain  that kind  of contortion
indispensable to mechanical respiration; and in the articular
extremities,  to resist the effects of external violence,  for
in those  situations they serve as a kind of elastic cushions,
yielding  on compression,  and regaining their form on that
compression being removed.
   During life this elasticity  of  cartilage is  most apparent,
although it remains after death.
   The cartilages are divided into  articular, interarticular,
connecting cartilages, and cartilages of particular  cavities.
   Articular cartilages cover the surfaces of bones  in  the
movable joints.
   Interarticular cartilages are interposed between  the ends
of bones to form a movable socket, which, like  the fric-
tion wheels of machinery, aid the motion of the joint.
   Connecting cartilages unite the articular surfaces  of bones
by  an immovable  union, as in the sutures of the  skull,
the connexions of the bones of  the pelvis, etc.
   Cartilages of cavities  are such  as form  the  larynx, tra-
chea, part of the nose, etc.
   The number and  the thickness  of cartilages interposed
between each bone, renders  the acts of running, jumping,
and performing  other feats of activity, much  more  easy.
     vol. i.            13 
90
CARTILAGINOUS SYSTEM.
 Severe blows on the ribs do not break them,  for their  car-
 tilaginous extremities recoil, and yield to the violence ; as,
 however, in age the  quantity  of cartilage diminishes,  and
 some cartilages entirely disappear, so  the bones  lose  that
 elastic  medium, and their extremities are  unyielding  and
 inelastic, and any degree of violence is frequently attended
 with fracture.   For instance, a child falling twice its height,
 from the elasticity  of its frame would receive little  or  no
 injury;  the condition of  old  age  is very  different;  the
 bones are consolidated, and a fall of the same nature might
 prove most disastrous.
   The  blood-vessels, nerves, and absorbent  vessels of car-
 tilage,  are  so  small as to  elude observation; but there
 cannot be a doubt of their existence, of which there  is the
 clearest evidence from the phenomena of its inflammation
 and absorption  in disease; but in its natural state its vital-
 ity is very obscure,  sensibility  and contractility being such
 only as  are necessary for its growth and nutrition.   When
 divided, if the edges  be brought into contact, after a length
of time  re-union will  lake place, as I have observed in
wounds of the cartilage of the nose and of the ear. 
ART.  III.
                      CHAP.  I.

                   FIBROUS SYSTEM.

  All the fibrous organs are absolutely of a similar nature,
and the same fibres contribute to the composition of all the
forms; yet, in their arrangement, they vary in an astonish-
ing degree;  and it is the variety  in  their form, situation,
and office, that has caused them to be denominated and
designated  by the names of tendons,  aponeuroses,  liga-
ments, etc.
  The fibrous parts of the human system  everywhere dis-
play a  whitish, or shining silvery appearance.  The basis
is a dense fibre of a peculiar nature,  rather elastic, insen-
sible, hardly admitting of contractility, sometimes arranged
in juxta-position,  and assembled  together in  bundles par-
allel to each other, as in the tendons and ligaments; at
other times they are intersected and  spread out in sheets,
the fibrous  web of which turns in diversified directions, as
in the membranes, the capsules, the fibrous sheaths, etc.
  The strength of the  fibrous tissue  renders every organ
it composes fitted to  sustain the utmost efforts  its uses
require.  Thus the ligaments strongly retain  the articular
surfaces  in  apposition.   The  aponeuroses  prevent  the
displacement of the muscles, and give  attachment to their
fibres.   The tendons, incessantly exposed  to  the contrac-
tion of the muscles, are placed  between the power they
conduct  and their attachments, offering a resistance that 
92
FIBROUS SYSTEM
frequently  proves stronger  than the bone  itself.   For by
muscular exertions the patella, the olecranon, and  the os
calcis, have been  sometimes  fractured.

  The several forms of the fibrous membranes are —
  1st.   Those  which  include the  periosteum, the  dura
mater, the  tunica sclerotica, the tunica albuginea, the pro-
per membranes  of  the  kidneys, spleen,  etc.  They are
generally intended to cover certain  organs,  to the  texture
of which they contribute.
  2d.   The  fibrous capsules, very different, as  will be
shown,  from the synovial surfaces, are a kind of cylindrical
bags that are  found around some articulations, especially
around  those of  the humerus and the femur, where they
are  connected with the  scapula and ilium, inclosing both
their articular surfaces.
  3d.   The  fibrous sheaths  are  intended  to confine the
tendons in their situation, particularly on their  passing
over the bones, where they  undergo flexion, as in  the fin-
gers and toes; for without this contrivance  they would be
liable to deviate,  and thus  transmit but imperfectly mus-
cular  motion.   The fibrous  sheaths  have  been   divided
into two species :  those which confine a number of tendons,
as at the wrist, instep, etc., others, like those of the  fingers,
are  intended for an isolated  tendon,  or for the reception of
two only.
  4th.   The aponeuroses are a kind of  fibrous  canvas,
more or less extended, and  always  connected with  loco-
motion, and disposed  in such a  manner that they some-
times form  coverings for different parts, and at other times
they provide the muscles with points for  insertion.

  The fibrous organs formed in fasciculi are —
  1st.   The  tendons found at the extremities, or in the
centre   of muscles;  these are either single, in the  form of 
OF THE PERICHONDRIUM.             93
extended strings, or compound, as in the rectus femoris,
flexors, etc.
  2d.   The  ligaments which secure  the articulations,
around which they are placed ;  these are formed of regular
fasciculi, as the ligaments of the jaw,  elbow, knee, etc., or
of irregular fasciculi, as those of the ribs, pelvis, etc.
                      CHAP.  II.

                    PERICHONDRIUM.

  This is a membrane perfectly similar to the periosteum ;
it covers the cartilages in the same manner, and serves the
same general purposes to cartilage as the periosteum  does
to bone.  The perichondrium of the larpyx, the ribs, etc.
is a thin tissue of fibres, intersected in  every direction, is
highly vascular,  and can be  injected.   But the vessels of
this  membrane,  where it covers the articular surfaces, can-
not be  demonstrated ; indeed it adheres so closely  as to
appear like the cartilage itself, although it can be proved to
be a reflection of the synovial membrane of the joint. 
94
FIBROUS SYSTEM
                     CHAP. III.

                    THE  LIGAMENTS.

  The ligaments are those fibrous substances which connect
the articular ends of the bones and  cartilages, by which they
are all united into one admirable  structure, the individual
parts  of which are firmly maintained  in  such particular
relative situations as are best calculated to admit with safety
the numerous motions that are required.
  The bones are united  by  strong  investing membranes,
and by flexible and  elastic bands, composed of dense fibres
intimately  interwoven with each other, and passing in  dif-
ferent directions, the greater number  of  which  pass in
direct lines between the parts which the ligaments connect.
The ligaments then may be  described as an assemblage of
strong fibres, firmly joining  together the articular  surfaces
of bones, and  giving that  security which  will prevent dis-
placement, and yet  such a latitude of motion as will admit
of the easy movement of one bone on the other.
  The ligaments receive  their  supply of blood from the
vessels in  their immediate  vicinity; they  possess  but  a
very  small share of elasticity,  and in a sound state are
nearly destitute of sensibility.   Bichat  asserts  that  no
nerves can be  discovered in them; but Dr Monro  traced
them  distinctly into their  substance, and  we know under
diseased excitement they are extremely sensible.


                  CAPSULAR LIGAMENTS.

   I .have mentioned the periosteum as covering the  bone;
the same  periosteum, as it  were,  is continued  over the 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
95
joint, and forms a loose bag termed the capsular ligament,
which contains the glairy  fluid* with which  the  joint is
lubricated.   The  capsular  ligaments  are  strengthened by
the addition of irregular fasciculi of fibres which cross over
the joints in different directions; not to mention  that the
further security of the joint is provided for by the muscles
and tendons which pass over it.


                  LATERAL LIGAMENTS.

  These ligaments are strong skeins of fibres, firmly united
to the periosteum, and passing  from one extremity of bone
to another, and are always  found in  the hinge-like joints.
The  lateral  ligaments moderate, and  in some   measure
limit, the movements of the joint.


             LIGAMENTS WITHIN THE  JOINTS.

  These ligaments are for  giving additional  strength, and
regulating the movements  of  certain  articulations, as the
round ligament of the hip, and the cross ligaments of the
knee.

  These are the principal species of ligaments of the body;
there are, however, others that unite the bones which do
not move on  each other, as the os  sacrum and os  innomi-
natum.  There is  also an  elastic substance, which  is an
antagonist to the muscles, and  by  which they are  restored
to their original situation, or supported in it.   These some-
times form part of the muscles ; thus the head is supported
by a strong  elastic ligament appended  to the muscles of

  * The synovial membrane which produces this fluid must be distinguish-
ed from the capsular ligament. The  former! is allied  by  structure and
function to the serous membranes, the  latter to the fibrous. 
96
FIBROUS SYSTEM
the back.   In those animals  which have long necks, this
is particularly strong, as in the ox  and the horse ; for the
head acting at the end of a long lever, could not be sup-
ported for any length of time, or  would  be in  danger of
dislocation, were it not for this elastic tape which supports
the head without the expense of muscular power.  Those
ligaments   usually  denominated  interosseous   ligaments,
placed between the radius and  ulna, tibia and  fibula, etc.
are simply aponeurotic membranes, serving for the attach-
ment of muscles ; and thus supplying the  place of  bones,
save an unnecessary weight and incumbrance.
                      CHAP. IV.


            PARTICULAR  LIGAMENTS.

               LIGAMENTS OF THE HEAD.

  These may be divided  into two classes : the first con-
nects the lower jaw to the  temporal bones; the second, the
head to the neck.
            LIGAMENTS OF THE LOWER JAW.

  The condyles of the jaw are fixed to the articular cavi-
ties of the  temporal bone by a capsular and  two  lateral
ligaments, with the  addition of an interarticular cartilage. 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.                97
CAPS
ULUR
LIGAMENT.
The capsular ligament consists  of  dense  fibres, which
                            are  superiorly attached to e>
          Fig. 82.               i       •   o  i
                            the margin of the zygomatic
                            eminence,  and  to  the fis-
                            sure in the glenoid cavity.
                            It is again  attached to the
                            edge of b, the interarticular
                            cartilage, and inserted  infe-
                            riorly at a, into the  neck of
                            the  condyle  of the lower
                            jaw.   Fig. 82 exhibits  a
                            a section of the joint.
INTERARTICULAR  CARTILAGE.
  This cartilage, b, forms  a sort  of  movable  cover  over
each condyle of the jaw, separating the capsule into two
parts, by its circumference adhering strongly to it.
INTERNAL LATERAL LIGAMENT.
   This   ligament  is
attached  above  at a,
the edge of  the  gle-
noid cavity; below at
b, the margin of  the
posterior  dental  fora-
men,  in  the ramus of
the jaw.
vol. I.
14 
98                 FIBROUS SYSTEM
              STYLO-MAXILLARY LIGAMENT.

  This ligament is extended from c, the  styloid process of
the temporal bone, to e, the angle of the jaw.


             EXTERNAL LATERAL  LIGAMENT.
                                             Fig. 84.

  This  ligament  passes  obliquely
across  the  capsular ligament, from
a, the zygoma, to the posterior  part
of b, the neck of the jaw.
     LIGAMENTS CONNECTING  THE  HEAD  AND NECK.

                                      Fig. 85.


  The ligaments con-
necting the  head   to
the neck  may  be  ar-
ranged  as follows : —
the  capsular, perpen-
dicular, and  lateral  li-
gaments.
              TWO CAPSULAR  LIGAMENTS.

  These ligaments connect the condyles of the  occipital
bone to the articulating cavities of the atlas.
 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.                99
          ANTERIOR  PERPENDICULAR LIGAMENT.

  A broad  ligament attached  superiorly to the anterior
edge of the  foramen  magnum, and inferiorly to  the ring of
the atlas;  its fibres extend some  distance down the cervi-
cal  vertebrae.


          POSTERIOR PERPENDICULAR LIGAMENT.

  A broad and strong ligament, extending from the poste-
rior edge of the occipital foramen to the upper  vertebra of
the neck.   Its direction and attachments are shown in Fig.
85, from a,  a, though a part of  it is removed to show other
ligaments.


               TWO LATERAL LIGAMENTS.

  These ligaments,  Fig. 85, b, b, are seen  extending  from
the margin  of the occipital  foramen to the odontoid  pro-
cess of the dentata or second vertebra.
                      CHAP.  V.

            LIGAMENTS OF  THE VERTEBRA.

  The spinal  column is composed of numerous bones, so
wonderfully connected to  each other, that motion is per-
mitted to  a  requisite extent,  without  the safety  of the
spinal marrow, or the strength of the column, being in the
least impaired.  Several ligaments  are  required to effect
these important purposes : these differ from each other in 
100
FIBROUS SYSTEM
form and in use ; some are common  to  all the vertebra?,
others are confined to two of them,  others again are pecu-
liar to the cervical vertebrae.
            LIGAMENTS OF THE SECOND VERTEBRA.

                 TRANSVERSE LIGAMENT.

  This is a strong fasciculus of ligamentous fibres, Fig. 85,
c, extending from one  side  of the articular process of the
atlas to the opposite side ; it is  narrow  at  the extremities,
but wide in the centre, where it is almost of a cartilaginous
hardness.  This ligament secures the odontoid process in
its proper place, and prevents the possibility of its pressure
on the spinal cord.

           LIGAMENTS -COMMON TO  ALL THE VERTEBRjE.

              ANTERIOR COMMON LIGAM1

  This is a smooth, resplendent, broad
ligament, a, a, which  extends along the
anterior, convex  surface of all the ver-
tebras.  This  ligament  is  composed of
parallel fasciculi,  which, however,  sel-
dom  extend beyond two or three verte-
bra?, where one set terminates  and ano-
ther commences : thus its entire extent
receives an access of  fibres from almost
every vertebra it covers.  It is attached
only to the anterior  part of the spinal
column,  though occasionally it sends off
small oblique  processes, which  are  lost
on its sides.   A profile of this ligament
is seen in Fig. 91. r.
 
OF THE LIGAMENTS
101
POSTERIOR COMMON LIGAMENT.
Fig. 87.
  This is somewhat similar to the anterior, except that it
passes along the inner, concave part of  the  bodies of  the
                 vertebras, and terminates at  the  sacrum ;
                 a,  the intervertebral fibro-cartilage,  cut
                 transversely; b,  b,   b,  b, the  part  from
                 which  the arch  of the  spinal ^jfflial is
                 removed; c, c,  the postejddr  vertebral
                 ligament, situated  behind wie  bodies  of
                 the vertebrae, smooth/and  resplendent,
                 broader on  a levttj>*with each  fibro-car-
                 tilage than with»tne body of  the vertebra.
                   These ajffij^numerous  short and strong
                 ligamentous   fibres  crossing each  other
                 obliquely,  joining  the   vertebras  together
                 upon  the outer  edges  of  the  vertebral
                 substance, called  by Fyfe,  crucial  inter-
                 vertebral ligaments.
INTERVERTEBRAL LIGAMENT.
                       Fig. 86, c, c, c, c, c.

  There is placed between  the bodies of the vertebras a
peculiar substance, described by most  authors as a  texture
between cartilage  and ligament, partaking of the property
of both, hence  sometimes very properly called interver-
tebral fibro-cartilage.   It is composed  of  white  shining
fibres, arranged  in laminae of different thicknesses, but  in
very regular  order.   If this  substance is  divided by a hori-
zontal  section, its  fibrous  structure is very distinctly seen,
the laminae running in regular concentric circles, or rather 
102
FIBROUS SYSTEM
the circle is a little concave  posteriorly,  corresponding  to
the form of the articular surface of the bodies of the ver-
tebras.    Although the  external  laminae  are of a cartila-
ginous firmness,  and  offer  great resistance  on pressure,
the internal laminae  are  more soft and  delicate, and at a
greater distance from each other, in the interstices of which
there is a peculiar substance,  not  so  firm as cartilage, nor
quite so soft as gelatin.  The  smaller circles of fibres are
gradually softer in their  texture as they  approach the cen-
tre, where nothing is seen except  a nucleus of semi-liquid
or mucous form.  Thus each vertebras resting on a sort  of
fluid fulcrum, or pivot, the  motion to either  side is easy,
and quickly performed.  The motions of the back bone  or
bones therefore, are performed  on an almost  fluid centre,
surrounded by a perfectly  elastic  medium, which remark-
able union of flat surfaces admits  of the requisite degree  of
motion, and  prevents injury to the delicate texture of the
spinal cord and  brain in  violent exercise.
                  LItJAMENTA SUBFLAVA.

  These ligaments are of a  pale  yellow color; they are
attached superiorly and inferiorly  to the  opposite  margins
of  the  arch of the  spinous processes  of the  vertebras,
completing those deficiencies of the spinal  canal which are
observed in  the skeleton at the posterior  part of the spine,
and extending as far forwards as the oblique processes, the
articulations of which  they strengthen.  These ligaments
possess great elasticity, yet resist too  much flexion of the
vertebral column. 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
103
                INTERSPINOUS  LIGAMENTS.
                                        Fig. 88.
  The  interspinous liga-
ments, Fig. 88,  b, b, b,
are attached to the upper
and lower margins of each
spinous  process.   Like
interosseous   membranes
of the fore arm  and  leg,
they present an extensive
surface for the attachment
of  muscles, and connect
one spinous process with
another.
                SUPRASPINOUS LIGAMENTS.

   The supraspinous ligaments, Fig. 88, a, a, are extended
from the point of one spinous process to that of another,
in the whole line from the seventh cervical vertebra to the
sacrum.


         LIGAMENTS  OF THE OBLIQUE PROCESS.

   The articulations of the oblique articular processes of the
vertebras are secured by a strong  capsular ligament,  com-
posed of short fibres,  which permit but little motion, except
between the first and second vertebras, the articular processes
of which are very large, and  the ligament allows of a con-
siderable rotatory motion.
 
104
FIBROUS SYSTEM
                      CHAP.  VI.

     LIGAMENTS  OF  THE THORAX

          LIGAMENTS OF THE RIBS  WITH THE VERTEBRA.

                  CAPSULAR LIGAMENTS.

   The capsular ligaments are attached to the heads of the
ribs ;  and as  there are two articular
    '                           .            Fig. 89!
surfaces  to  the head of each  rib, so
there are  two  regular capsular liga-
ments, which are opened in the figure,
a, a;  their  fibres  are radiated, one
portion of its fasciculi being extended
to the  vertebra  above, another  to  that below.  The fibres
of the capsule extend along the  bone for some way, and
mix with their anterior common  ligament.   The back of
the rib is articulated to the  transverse  process; conse-
quently there is a capsular ligament belonging to this  joint
also.
               INTERARTICULAR  LIGAMENT.

  The interarticular  ligament, Fig. 89, b, is fixed to the
central projecting angle on the head of each rib, connecting
it to the intervertebral substance.   This ligament has no ex-
istence in the first and  two last ribs:  as the capsular liga-
ments are single, each  has but one articular surface on its
head, and is connected with one vertebra only.
 
OF THE LIGAMENTS
105
             MIDDLE TRANSVERSE  LIGAMENT.

  This  ligament,  a, consists  of          Fig. 90.
irregular fasciculi of  fibres, which
occupy the  interval  between the
rib at c, and the anterior surface  *?
of the corresponding transverse
process at b.  It cannot be well seen until the rib is forcibly
separated from its attachments.
INFERIOR TRANSVERSE LIGAMENT.

             Fig. 91.

              en
  This ligament, c, e, is composed of two fasciculi, the one
extending from the lower edge of the transverse process of
the vertebra to the upper edge of the rib  above, near its
articulation with the body of the vertebra.  The other fas-
ciculus is smaller, and is attached  to the base of the trans-
verse process, and is extended to the head of the rib beneath.
           ANTERIOR OH  RADIATED LIGAMENT.

  This  ligament,  Fig.  91, d, d,  is formed of three  flat
fibrous  fasciculi,  which are  fixed  separately  to the two
    vol.  1.                15 
JOG               FIBROUS SYSTEM
vertebras,  and  to  b, the fibro-cartilage; these strongly se-
cure the rib, by converging and attaching themselves to its
head and neck.  The  eleventh  and twelfth ribs, however,
in this situation, present only a single order of fibres.
LIGAMENTS OF THE CARTILAGES  OF THE  RIBS  WITH  THE
                       STERNUM.

  The cartilages of the seven superior ribs are joined to b,
the sternum,  by  strong ligamentous
bands at a, which cover  the syno-
vial membranes ;  although this  arti-
culation  has but a  very obscure
motion, it  has a regular socket and
capsule.  These cartilages are united                 j
to the ribs by symphysis, or an immovable articulation.
   The upper part of  the sternum receives some  ligamen-
tous  fibres from  its  articulations with the clavicles.  The
sternum  is also covered, both on its anterior and posterior
surfaces, by a strong  aponeurosis, which is inseparably con-
nected to  the periosteum;  its  fibres  are very conspicuous
anteriorly, and resemble tendinous  bands, taking a longitu-
dinal  direction, and  uniting those  portions  of the bone
which in young  persons it is found to consist of.
   Some  fasciculi extend beyond the margins of the sternum,
and are attached to  the cartilages  of the ribs.  The apon-
eurosis which covers the internal surface of this bone  is
more smooth and polished, and its fibres take a longitudinal
course.
   The xiphoid  or ensiform cartilage is connected to the
sternum  by the above-mentioned aponeurosis, and  has radi-
ated ligamentous fasciculi connecting it with that bone, and
with the cartilage of  the seventh rib.
 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.              107
                     CHAP.  VII.

         LIGAMENTS OF  THE   PELVIS.

  These consist of the ligaments connecting the ossa inno-
minata, the sacrum, and coccyx.
LONG  POSTERIOR  LIGAMENT OF THE ILIUM.

                  FiR. 93.
   This ligament is attached outwardly, at a, to the posterior
superior spine of the ilium, descends obliquely inwards, and
is inserted, at d, into  the third and fourth transverse tuber-
cles of the sacrum ; g, the great sacro-sciatic ligament.

              SHORT POSTERIOR LIGAMENT.
  This ligament is attached inwardly in  common with the
preceding, and extends to the third tubercle of the sacrum,
at c. 
108
FIBROUS SYSTEM
             POSTERIOR LATERAL LIGAMENT.

  This is a narrow  ligament,  extending from  the internal
surface of the same spinous process of the ilium, at a, to
the lower margin of the first division of the sacrum, b.


            GREAT SACRO-SCIATIC  LIGAMENT.

                         Fig. 94.
  This  ligament is situated at the lower and posterior part
of the pelvis; it is of a triangular form attached superiorly
at a, a, the posterior and inferior iliac spine, to the fourth
and fifth tubercles of the sacrum, to the  lower portion of
this bone and to the  coccyx.   The fibres converge, and pass
obliquely outwards and downwards to be inferiorly attached
at a, the tuber ischii. 
OF THE LIGAMENT.
109
           SMALLER SACRO-SCIATIC LIGAMENT.

   This ligament is attached inwardly at b, b, to the margin
of e, e, the sacrum and coccyx; its  converging fibres are
outwardly inserted  at  b, into  the  spinous  process of the
ischium.  The figure shows the crossing of the sacro-scia-
tic ligaments about their centre, giving great support to the
contents of the pelvis ;  these ligaments also give attachment
to some fibres of the levator ani and coccygeus muscles.
   The coccyx is connected  to the sacrum by a strong ten-
dinous aponeurosis, e, e, which is continued down from the
tendons of the lumbar muscles ; beneath this are two strong
ligaments, which pass from the  last spinous tubercle of the
sacrum to the first bone of the  coccyx;  and there  is also a
capsular ligament between the sacrum and coccyx.


           SUPERIOR ILIO-LUMBAR LIGAMENT.

   This ligament, Fig.  93,  e,  runs transversely from  the
upper edge of the ilium to the  transverse processse of the
two  last lumbar vertebras.


           INFERIOR ILIO-LUMBAR  LIGAMENT.

   This  ligament, /, is situated  immediately below  the for-
mer, runs the same course, and has nearly the same attach-
ments.

                ILIO-SACRAL LIGAMENTS.

  The anterior part of  the surface of the sacrum and ilium
are mutually connected by cartilage, the  posterior by strong 
no
FIBROUS SYSTEM
 ligaments,  which pass in every direction from one bone to
 the other.  This synchondrosis in front, and syndesmosis
 behind, is so very strong, as to prevent any motion between
 the ilium and sacrum.


             SYMPHYSIS  OF THE OSSA PUBIS.
   The fibro-cartilaginous  connexion  of these bones con-
 sists of concentric layers, which unite  the two  oval sur-
 faces which the ossa ilii present  anteriorly, and they are
 further secured by strong ligamentous  fibres, crossing from
 one side to the other; an examination of which must lead
 us to deny the possibility of any separation taking place in
 parturition.

          MEMBRANE  OF  THE  THYROID FORAMEN.

   This is a fine, smooth,  tense membrane, attached to the
 circumference  of this  opening;  it  consists of two laminae,
 the use of which is to give origin  to  the  external and in-
 ternal obturator muscles.


          LIGAMENT  OF FALLOP1US OR POUPART.

   This has been considered as  a tendon at the inferior border
 of the  external oblique muscle ; it may, however, be strictly
considered as a distinct ligament, extending from the anteri-
or superior  spinous process of the ilium to  the ossa pubis.*

  * It has three insertions.
  1st. Insertion into the symphysis pubisand pubis of the opposite side.
This forms the superior column or pillar of the abdominal ring.
  2d.  Insertion into the spine of the pubis, forming the inferior column
or pillar.
  3d Insertion passes backwards to be attached to the crest of the pubis,
and is the ligament known by the name of Gimbernat's. 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
Ill
To its upper edge the abdominal muscles are attached, and
to its lower the fascia  lata of the  thigh.  It is subtended
like a cord across the cavity between the spine of the ilium
and the pubis, thus protecting the femoral vessels and nerves
as they leave  the pelvis  along with  the  psoas and  iliac
muscles.
                     CHAP. VIII.

     LIGAMENTS OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITIES.

  Under this head I shall describe the ligaments of the  cla-
vicle, shoulder, arm, fore-arm, wrist, and hand.


         LIGAMENTS OF  THE  CLAVICLE.
INTERCLAVICULAR  LIGAMENT.

           Fig. 95.
  The interclavicular ligament, a, is a fasciculus of strong
ligamentous fibres,  extending in a  transverse  direction
above  the  sternum, from one  clavicle  to  the other, con-
necting them  together, and attaching those bones to the
sternum. 
112
FIBROUS SYSTEM
              STERNO-CLAVICULAR  LIGAMENT.

   This ligament, b, forms an imperfect capsule, its fibres
extending over the articulation from the triangular or sternal
end of  the  clavicle,  to  the anterior and  posterior sur-
faces of the sternum ; a few fibres are also attached to the
first rib.

               INTERARTICULAR  CARTILAGE.

   This is an  apparatus similar  to the articulation  of  the
jaw ; it is a movable  carti-
i         i • ,      •                           Fi--96-
lage, a, thick  at  its circum-
ference, and thin in the cen-
tre, adapting  the extremity
of one bone to the other.  It
is  fixed at one edge to b, the
clavicle; and  the  capsular
ligament is adherent  to the
root of the border.  In the
figure this ligament is cut, and the bones  separated, to ex-
hibit the cartilage.


              COSTO-CLAV1CULAR LIGAMENT.

   The chasm between the clavicle and first rib is  closed
by this ligament,  Fig. 95, e.   It  is of a rhomboidal  figure,
extending from the inferior surface of the clavicle near its
sternal end, to the upper and anterior part of the cartilage
of the first rib.   Some fibres also adhere to the interarticu-
lar cartilage.
 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
113
             ACROMIOCLAVICULAR  LIGAMENT.

  This ligament, Fig. 97,/, is attached to the superior and
outer rough surface of the clavicle, extending a considera-
ble  length, to connect the corresponding surface of the
acromion scapulas.
             CORACO-CLAVICULAR LIGAMENT.

  This  ligament, d, is very strong, and is formed by a co-
noid fasciculus of diverging fibres fixed to the tuberosity on
the outer extremity of the  inferior  surface of the clavicle,
and is extended  to the internal part of b, the coracoid pro-
cess of  the scapula.
         LIGAMENTS  OF THE  SCAPULA.

                 ACROMIO-COHACOID LIGAMENT.

   This ligament, e, is attached to the  superior convex sur-
face of b, the coracoid process; its  fibres, which  are  thick
and strong, ascend  obliquely outwards, and  are inserted
into/, the inferior surface of the acromion scapulas.


                  CORACOID LIGAMENT.

  This is merely a ligamentous chord, g, extended  over
the semilunar notch so as to convert  the latter into a  fora-
nten.   The  supra-scapular vessels and nerves pass under
this ligament.
     vol.  i.              16 
114
FIRROUS SYSTEM
LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE SCAPULA AND HUMERUS.


                CAPSULAR LIGAMENT.

                        Fig. 97.
  This ligament, h, consists of an oblong sac, surrounding
the neck of the scapula, and inclosing the head of  the
humerus;  the capsule is perforated  by i,  the long tendon
of the biceps muscle passing  through it, i. e.  between  the
fibrous and synovial membrane, to be attached to the edge
of the glenoid cavity of the scapula.

                 ACCESSORY LIGAMENT.

   The accessory ligament is  formed of a strong fasciculus
attached to the coracoid process of  the scapula, and direct-
ing itself forwards and outwards ;  it is expanded over the
upper and anterior part of  the joint, giving the capsule ad-
ditional strength.
   The capsular ligament forms but  a loose and weak con-
nexion  between the humerus and  shoulder, were it not for
the several muscles whose tendons adhere to and strengthen
it; the  infra-spinatus and  teres minor  by their united  ten- 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
115
dons cover it externally, the  supra-spinatus superiorly, and
the subscapulars internally ; in addition to these muscles,
the deltoid, the coraco-brachialis. and biceps, all co-operate
in no small degree to strengthen  the connexion  between
these two bones.
  There is a fibro-cartilaginous rim which increases  the
depth of the glenoid cavity of the scapula, termed by Clo-
qjjet the glenoid ligament; although I consider it merely a
cartilaginous  border to the socket  of the scapula, not only
useful  in  rendering the socket deeper, but for preventing
fractures of the rim in  robust  exercises, to which, were  it
bony, it would be very liable.
LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE HUMERI'S AND BONES OF THE ARM.
CAPSULAR LIGAMENT.
    'he capsular  ligament, a, envelopes  the  entire articula-
                   tion of the  elbow  joint; on  the  pos-
                   terior  surface  of  the  humerus  it is
                   attached to  the margin  of  the  great
                   sigmoid notch which receives  the ulna,
                   and passing obliquely  downwards  be-
                   neath  the condyles, round  to the fore
                   part  of  the bone, descends  to  the
                   ulna ;  it is inserted  into  the olecranon
                   process, into the  margin of  the sig-
                   moid  cavity, and   into  the  orbicular
                   ligament  which  connects  the  radius
                   to  the  ulna. Externally  this capsule
is rough, and strengthened by bands which run in irregular
directions ; internally it  is lined by  the  smooth  synovial
membrane.   It  is very loose  anteriorly and posteriorly, to
 
116
FIBROUS SYSTEM
admit of a free flexion  and extension ; but on  either side
it is tense, and  strengthened  by lateral  ligaments, which
prevent any lateral motion.


             EXTERNAL  LATERAL LIGAMENT.

  This ligament, Fig. 98, e, is attached to the most promi-
nent point of the  external condyle, and descending expands
itself so as to be inserted into /,  the orbicular ligament,
and not  into the radius : the  rotatory motion of the fore
arm on the humerus is thus permitted.
             INTERNAL LATERAL LIGAMENT.

  This ligament, b, is longer and broader than the preced-
       es- "■        ing, and  extends  from the  internal
                    condyle of the humerus, in a radiated
                    direction, to the inside of the coro-
                    noid process of the ulna ; a few fibres
                    descend  a little backwards, and are
                    attached  to the margin of the ole-
                    cranon.  The lateral ligaments adhere
                    so firmly to the capsular, that  they
                    appear to form part of its texture.
                      The two ligaments  called the ante-
                    rior  and posterior,  are  both  thin
                     and irregular fibrous bands, the one
placed in  front and the other behind the articulation ; the
former is fixed in front of the internal  condyle  of the hu-
merus, and to the annular ligament of the  radius ; the lat-
ter to the  posterior part of the external  and internal con-
dyles of the humerus.
 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
117
     LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE RADIUS AND ULNA.

                   SUPERIOR ARTICULATION.

              ORBICULAR  LIGAMENT,

  This ligament, Fig. 98, /, surrounds the upper extremity
of the radius, and with the small sigmoid cavity forms a sort
of ring, in which the radius turns with ease.   The superior
margin is attached to the capsular ligament, the inferior to
the neck of the radius.   Its  use  is to confine the head of
the radius in its proper situation.


     ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR ACCESSORY  LIGAMENTS.

  These are ligamentous fibres which run in various direc-
tions upon the fore and back parts of the joint, and  contri-
bute exceedingly to  its  strength ;  the anterior extending
from the coronoid process to  the orbicular ligament; the
posterior  from the lower  border of  that  ligament  to the
lateral smooth surface of the olecranon.
            MIDDLE  ARTICULATION.

                     ROUND LIGAMENT.

             CHORDA TRANSVERSALIS CUBITI.

  This is a small round fibrous chord, Fig. 99, c, extending
from  the  outer side of the tuberosity of the  ulna to  the
radius, a little below  the tubercle  for the insertion of the
biceps.  It prevents too great a  degree of supination  of
the radius. 
118
FIBROUS SYSTEM
                INTEROSSEOUS LIGAMENT.

   This ligament  occupies the space which exists  between
 the radius and ulna, although it  is not quite so long,  being
 deficient at its upper part.   It has the  appearance of  a thin
 aponeurotic  resplendent  membrane,  extending from  the
 sharp edge of the radius to the  opposite edge of  the ulna.
 It constitutes a medium of connexion between these bones,
 and affords  an  extensive  surface  for  the attachment  of
 muscles.

            INFERIOR  ARTICULATION.

                 INTERARTICULAR CARTILAGE.
          CARTILAGO INTERMEDIA TRIANGULARIS.
   This is a fibro-cartilage, placed  transversely between  the
 lower extremity of  the radius and  ulna;  the superior sur-
 face is  continuous  with the cartilaginous covering of  the
end of the  radius, and together  with  this  bone completes
the cavity for receiving the upper part of the carpus;  each
extremity is connected  by strong ligaments  to the radius
and carpus.  The apex of this cartilage is firmly attached
to the depression which separates the styloid process of  the
 ulna from the articular surface of that  bone.

           CAPSULAR OR SACCIFORM LIGAMENT.

   This ligament passes from the radius to the ulna, forming
between them a very loose  cul-de-sac, which  allows  the
radius to turn upon the ulna.

             EXTERNAL  LATERAL LIGAMENT.

   This ligament,  Fig. 100, extends  from  the styloid pro-
cess of the  radius to the  scaphoid bone and  annular liga-
ment of the carpus. 
                 OF THE LIGAMENTS.               119


             INTERNAL LATERAL LIGAMENT.

  This ligament, b, extends from the styloid process of the
ulna to the  cuneiform bone and annular  ligament of the
carpus.   There are other and more  delicate fibres, termed
the anterior and posterior ligaments, atfd there is a synovial
membrane for the whole articulation.
              LIGAMENTS OF THE CARPUS.

       LIGAMENTS  OF THE FIRST ROW OF THE CARPAL BONES.

                      Fig. 100, a, b, c, d.
   The three upper bones of
the carpus are  united toge-
ther, 1st, by interosseous lig-
aments placed in the  inter-
vals between  the scaphoid,
semilunar,  and  cuneiform
bones ; 2d, by  dorsal liga-
ments extending  transversely,
the one between  the scaphoid
and  semilunar  bones,  the
other between the latter and
the cuneiform bone ;  3d, by
palmar ligaments, c, similar to
the preceding.  The pisiform
bone is articulated to the cu-
neiform by a loose capsular or
synovial membrane, strength-
ened by some irregular bands
of fibres,  v
Fig. K0.
 
120
FIBROUS SYSTEM
LIGAMENTS OF THE  SECOND  ROW  OF THE CARPAL BONES.

  These are united : 1st, by dorsal and palmar ligaments,
three on either side, which extend  inwards and backwards;
and 2d, by interosseous ligaments;  of these  there  are only
two : both are irregirlar fasciculi, intermingled with adipose
tissue.

    LIGAMENTS OF THE TWO  ROWS OF CARPAL BONES.

  1st.  There are  two short  lateral ligaments, the one ex-
ternal,  the other internal.   2d. Two  fibrous fasciculi, one
in front, the other behind, termed the anterior and posterior
ligaments; these  last-mentioned ligaments form a fibrous
membrane, enveloping the whole carpus.  3d. There is
also a synovial membrane which lines the surface, by means
of which the two rows of the carpal  bones  are in  contact.
Lastly, we find at g, two ligaments of the pisiform bone,
connecting it  to  the cuneiform bone and the metacarpal
bone of the little finger.


        THE ANNULAR LIGAMENT OF THE CARPUS.

  The annular ligament is situated on a plane much ante-
rior to  that of  the other ligaments of the carpus ; it is com-
posed of strong and tense fibres, which  are  attached prin-
cipally  to the cuneiform bone internally, and the trapezium
externally; near the latter, some of the fibres are also fixed
into the scaphoid bone, and assist in completing the annu-
lar passage or channel in which the flexor tendons of the
fingers pass, covering and confining them in  their course. 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
121
               LIGAMENTS  OF THE HAND.

  The metacarpal bones  are very  securely joined  to  the
carpus, not only by their wedge-like surfaces,  but also by
strong ligaments.


                  CAPSULAR LIGAMENTS.

  These ligaments are seen distinctly surrounding the upper
extremity of each metacarpal bone, and  are  inserted into
the opposite  bones  of the  carpus; they are secured by
accessory bands, which pass in various directions.


            SUPERIOR TRANSVERSE  LIGAMENTS.

  These ligaments,  d, d, extend  across  the  upper extre-
mities of the four metacarpal bones,  and are attached to
each  of  them.*


            INFERIOR TRANSVERSE  LIGAMENTS.

  These ligaments, e, e, present exactly the same arrange-
ment, connecting the inferior extremity  of the  four meta-
carpal bones  with each other, not indeed so closely as at
the upper end, for there  is  greater freedom  of motion at
the lower than at the upper part.   The  metacarpal bones
are also united  to each other  by a strong transverse apo-

  * The capsular ligament is the only ligament  which  connects the tra-
pezium with the metacarpal bone of the  thumb.  This joint, however,
derives much strength from a number of small muscles around it, as well
as by accessory bands.
     VOL. I.            17 
122
FIBROUS SYSTEM
neurosis, which is connected with the sheath
tendons, and covers the  tendons of the lur
interossei muscles.
              LIGAMENTS OF  THE FINGERS.

  The first phalanges or rows of the finger  bones are at-
tached to the metacarpal bones by  loose  but strong cap-
sular ligaments,  which  are  strengthened  anteriorly  by a
semicircular ligament embracing  the anterior  part of each
articulation, and  posteriorly by the extensor tendons, which
expand very much while passing over these  articulations;
also at the sides by  lateral  ligaments, f f which  are at-
tached to slight depressions on the lower end of the meta-
carpal bones, and into the condyles  of the  first phalanx.
Similar ligaments to  these exist at the  articulations of the
finger bones with each other,  viz. each joint  has an  ante-
rior ligament, two lateral ligaments, and a capsular ligament
or synovial membrane.
  The  flexor tendons also are  confined  in  their course
along the fingers  by  circular and vaginal  ligaments.  The
former adhere on each side of the  tendon  to the proper
ligaments of the  joint, the  latter inclose the  flexor tendons
of each finger in a strong sheath : each sheath is composed
of circular fibres, and strengthened by  oblique and cunei-
form  bands,  and  are attached on each side to  the  ridge
which separates the  anterior concave from the posterior or
convex surface of each phalanx ; by this means the tendon
is confined in  the mesial  line  of the  finger.   All  these
sheaths are lined  by  a smooth synovial membrane. 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.               123
CHAP. IX.
       LIGAMENTS OF THE  LOWER EXTREMITY.

                  ILIO-FEMORAL LIGAMENTS.

  The hip joint has great freedom of motion, and requires
powerful ligaments ; it is therefore  furnished  with a syno-
vial  membrane, a capsular ligament, an interarticular liga-
ment, and a cotyloid ligament.
                  COTYLOID LIGAMENT.

  This is  a fibro-cartilaginous substance, attached to the
whole  circumference of the acetabulum,  except at its in-
ternal and  inferior part, where the bony  part also of the
margin is deficient; it projects a considerable  distance be-
yond the bone, so as to deepen the cavity very much.
  There is another strong band  of fibres  situated at the
lower and  internal part of  the  acetabulum, where the last-
described ligament is deficient: it is attached to the pubis,
where this bone  forms the sinus  over the obturator liga-
ment, and into the ischium or inferior margin of the notch
of the acetabulum: this ligament is superficial to  the for-
mer, and between  both  an oblique fissure is left for the
passage of  vessels to and from the cavity of the joint. 
124
FIBROUS SYSTEM
                   CAPSULAR LIGAMENT.

   The capsular ligament, o, embraces  the  whole  articu
 tion of the hip.   Excepting the  capsular  ligament of 1
                           knee,  it surpasses all similar
                           ligaments in strength, extent,
                           and capacity:   it is   attached
                           at a considerable distance from
                           the margin of the cavity, par-
                           ticularly in front, where it ex-
                           tends as far as  d, the inferior
                           spine of the ilium;  inferiorly
                           it  is inserted into the femur,
                           incloses the neck of that bone,
                           and descends  as far  as c, the
                           line which lies between the two
                           trochanters.    The   synovial
                           membrane does  not descend  so
                           low  as  the external   capsule,
but is reflected on all sides towards  the head  of the bone ;
in this course it is  bound by folds, and immediately behind
the head of the femur it is confined  by  circular bands.
There is a fasciculus of fibres,  a, taking an  oblique course
over the capsule towards the lesser  trochanter, sometimes
called  the accessory  ligament:  it  adds  strength to this
part of  the capsule.
 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
INTERARTICULAR LIGAMENT.
Ligamentum teres.
  The  interarticular liga-
ment is a strong triangular
fasciculus of fibres, perfect-
ly concealed within the cav-
ity of the acetabulum ; in
the figure there is a section
of the head and neck of
the femur, b, and os inno-
minatum, e, e, to show the
attachments  of  (c)  this
ligament to  the bottom of
the acetabulum and to the
head of the femur.
Fig. 102.
LIGAMENTS OF THE KNEE JOINT.
CAPSULAR LIGAMENT.
   This ligament or  mem-
brane is of a great extent,
since the knee joint is  the
largest of the whole body ;
it is attached at 6, h, d, to
the whole circumference of
the condyles of the femur ;
anteriorly to e, the patella;
inferiorly to the tibia, and
to the semilunar cartilages.
Above  the  hollow for the
reception of the patella  it
lines/,  the  tendon of the
extensor muscles :  it ad-
h-
d—
 
126
FIBROUS SYSTEM
heres also to the articular surface of the patella  in  such
a manner that this bone seems to form part of the capsule
of the joint; lastly, it is reflected  over the articular  sur-
face of i, the tibia, and ligaments  within  the joints.   It is
very loose on either side, but  tense posteriorly,  where it is
closely  connected with the  flexor  tendons and posterior
crucial  ligaments.  These connexions,  as well  as the la-
teral ligament, serve to  confine this membrane in  its situ-
ation,  and  preserve it, in  the  motions of the joint, from
being compressed between the bones.
  This capsule of the  knee,  which  in  itself is very  fine
and weak, receives considerable  strength from additional
fibres, termed  accessory  ligaments.   These  appear  like
duplicatures of the capsule at the sides of the patella; they
are also called ligamentum alare,  majus et minus.  There
is a fold of the capsular membrane of the  same character
as those just described, but inclosing a  little fat, for which
reason some anatomists  have given it the name of adipose
or mucous ligament;  it is  situated  very  near the  external
condyle, and in front of the anterior  crucial  ligament;  it
retains the synovial  substance in  its proper  place in  the
actions of the joint.   Another accessory fasciculus  of fibres
covers the capsular membrane posteriorly,  called  the pos-
terior ligament of Winslow. 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
127
                  LATERAL LIGAMENTS.

  The lateral ligaments, as the name implies, are situated
at the sides of the joint, and  adhere to  the  capsular liga-
ment.

             EXTERNAL LATERAL LIGAMENT.

  The  external  lateral ligament,  Fig.  103, a, is a thick
round chord, attached to a tubercle on the  upper part of
b, the external condyle  of  the femur ; it  is adherent to the
semilunar cartilage on that side, and is inserted into c, the
fibula,  a little below its  head.
              INTERNAL LATERAL LIGAMENT.
                                       Fig. 104.
                                              0

  The internal lateral ligament,
a, is attached  superiorly so the
internal  condyle,  inferiorly  to
the tibia, the fibres passing ob-
liquely forwards till they  have
reached the  head of the bone,
b, c, d, the  ligament  of the
patella.
 
128
FIBROUS SYSTEM
CRUCIAL  LIGAMENTS.
Fig. 105.
  The crucial ligaments,  e, d,
are exposed  in this  figure by
throwing down the patella, and
removing  the  adipose  sub-
stance ; they  are  very strong
fibrous  cords,  crossing  each
other : hence their name.
ANTERIOR CRUCIAL  LIGAMENT.
  The anterior crucial  ligament, d, is  extended from the
depression  between the two condyles of the femur to the
spine in the middle of the articular  surface of the  head of
the tibia.
            POSTERIOR CRUCIAL LIGAMENT.

  The posterior  crucial ligament, e, is also extended from
the depression above named, to a groove behind the spine
on the tibia.  In  Fig.  106,  a,  the crucial ligaments are
separated from the femur, to show their direction and in-
sertion into the head of the tibia.
   The ligamentf of the patella,  Fig. 103,/, g, is merely a
continuation of the tendon of the extensor muscles  of the
leg, in the substance of which, e, the patella  seems  to  be
formed, in  a  similar manner to  the  sesamoid bones.  In 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
129
Fig. 105, the patella is represented turned down over the
head of the tibia;  h, a  synovial bursa  opened ; this is  a
remarkable bag, extremely loose, and  plentifully  supplied
with synovia.
       INTERARTICULAR OR SEMILUNAR CARTILAGES.

                 Fig. 105, b, f, Fig. 106, b, c.

   These are two fibro-cartilages, placed between the con-
 dyles of tjie femur and the superior extremity of the tibia ;
           Fig. 106.             they are  crescent  shaped,
              a               flexible  and elastic ;  each of
              /\              these  cartilages is broad in
                             the  middle, and   narrow  at
                             their extremities;  the outer
                             convex  edge  is   thick,  the
                        c    inner concave  edge thin, thus
                            rendering the cavities  for the
 condyles of the femur deeper, and adapting the  tibia more
 accurately to  that bone.   The  extremities of these carti-
 lages are fixed by  ligaments  to the spine in  the  centre  of
 the articular surface of  the tibia; the anterior extremities
 are joined to each  other by a  transverse  ligament;  the
 outer edges adhere to the capsular and the other  ligaments,
 so as to allow  a little play or slight motion upon the tibia,
 which by  favoring  the  general motion of the  joint,  has
been compared to the friction  wheels of machinery.
      LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE TIBIA AND FIBULA.

  The tibia and fibula are  united  at their  extremities  by
capsular and  other ligaments, and in the middle  by  an
intervening fibrous membrane.
    vol- i.              18
 
130
FIBROUS SYSTEM
                  CAPSULAR LIGAMENT.

  The capsular  ligament of the upper end of the fibula is
continuous with  the periosteum; some irregular fibres have
been called anterior and  posterior ligaments.  This articu-
lation is moreover secured by the external lateral ligaments
of the knee, and by the  tendon of the biceps flexor cruris,
part of which passes from the fibula to the tibia.

                 INTEROSSEOUS  LIGAMENT.

  The  interosseous ligament  of the  leg resembles that
which is between the  radius and ulna; it is a thin  aponeu-
rotic membrane, composed of oblique fibres extended from
the outer edge of the tibia to the inner edge of the fibula.
This membrane  presents several apertures for blood vessels.

  LIGAMENTS  OF  THE  LOWER END OF THE TIBIA  AND FI-
                         BULA.

  These  ligaments are anterior and posterior, which may
be divided into  superior and  inferior, according to their
situations.
  The superior  ligaments are  attached  to the fibula  and
tibia, where these two  bones are in  contact: the anterior
having a triangular form, the fibres being the shortest.
  The injerior  ligaments have  the  same direction as  the
superior; they are not so broad, but are thicker and longer;
they both extend from the  extreme point  of the tibia  to
the lowest  part of the  external malleolus. These  four
ligaments connect the tibia and fibula so closely to one
another, that they appear as  one firm piece,  whose base is
supported  by two  projections  called malleoli,  between
which the astragalus and os calcis, and of course the whole
foot,  are firmly  secured. 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.             131
           LIGAMENTS  OF THE ANKLE JOINT.

  Slrorig ligaments pass from'the'malleoli to the bones of
the tarsus; there is also a capsular  membrane  for the whole
articulation.


     LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE FIBULA  AND  TARSUS.

  The ligaments between the fibula and tarsus  are  three
in number; the anterior passing from the point of the ex-
ternal malleolus forwards to the upper  part  of the  astra-
galus.   The middle is a strong fasciculus of fibres, which
descends perpendicularly  from  the lowest  point of the
fibula to the side of the os calcis.  The  posterior is con-
cealed by the tendo A chillis:  it passes  from the external
malleolus  horizontally  inwards,  to the  back part  of the
astragalus.
LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE TIBIA AND TARSUS.

         DELTOID OR TIBIO-TARSAL LIGAMENT.

                        This  ligament,  b,  is  an as-
                      semblage  of fibres   extending
                      from  the   internal  malleolus
                      to  the  astragalus;  inferiorly,
                      its fibres diverge,  and  are at-
                      tached to the os calcis; and by
                      c, to the os  naviculare.
 
132
FIBROUS SYSTEM
                  CAPSULAR  LIGAMENT.

  The capsular  ligament, a, a, is situated within the  for-
mer ligaments ; it covers the opposed surface of the bones
which enter into the  articulation, and  is very loose: the
synovial membrane which Hnes it contains a great quantity
of synovia.
              LIGAMENTS OF THE TARSUS.

  The seven bones of the tarsus have  a very limited mo-
tion between one another, or only such a degree of motion
as gives  pliancy and elasticity  in  walking,  running, etc.
They are united in a. manner  peculiarly strong,  and well
adapted to support the weight of the trunk in standing, or
in the different motions of the body.  See Fig.  107. 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
133
LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE OS CALCIS AND ASTRAGALUS.
              Fis-m             There is, 1st, a  capsular
                              membrane,  b,  c, connected
                              to the edges of the articular
                              surfaces  of the two bones;
                              it is closely covered by  the
                              lateral ligaments of the  an-
                              kle, and  by the sheaths of
                              the tendons;  2d, an interos-
                              seous ligament, formed of a
                              thick fasciculus of fibres, at-
                              tached by  one part  to  the
                              groove which  separates the
                              two surfaces of the astraga-
                              lus, and by the other to that
                              which is  between  the sur-
                              faces of  the os  calcis;  3d,
                              by  a  posterior ligament,
                              composed of parallel fibres,
                              a, inserted into the posterior
                              part of the astragalus and
into the adjacent part of the os calcis.
LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE ASTRAGALUS AND OS NAVICULARE.
  This articulation has considerable motion ; for the con-
vex head of the astragalus is received into the cavity of the
navicular bone, in which it is secured by a capsular and ac-
cessory ligaments. 
131
FIBROUS SYSTEM
  LIGAMENTS BETWEEN  THE  OS CALCIS AND NAVICULARE.

   We find two ligaments passing from one of these bones
 to the other ; they  are also connected by  a fibro-cartila-
 ginous  trochlea, or inferior  ligament, sapporting the  side
 of the  head of the astragalus, and affording a passage for
 the tendon,of the tibialis posticus muscles; "below this liga-
 ment there are two external ligaments, which proceed from
 the anterior  internal part of the os>; calcis to the external
 inferior part of the os naviculare.


 LIGAMENTS  BETWEEN THE OS  CALCIS ?AND " OS *CUBOIDES.

  There is, 1st, a superior  ligament,  extending' from the
 anterior part of the  os calcis to the superior part of the os
 cuboides;  2d, an inferior ligament,  composed of a super-
 ficial and deep-seated fasciculus of fibres, passing from one
 bone to the other, and partly to the extremities of the third
 and  fourth metatarsal bones;  3d,  a capsular or synovial
membrane, covering the articular surfaces^andthe two pre-
 ceding ligaments.


LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE NAVICULAR AND CUBOID BONES.

  These bones are connected by a dorsal ligament, I, com-
posed of transverse  fibres, extending from the navicular to
the cuboid  bone;  and by a plantar ligament, extending
obliquely from the inferior part of one bone to the neigh-
boring part of the other. 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
135
  LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE ;NAV/ICUJLAR AND CUNEIFORM
                         BONES.

  The three surfaces  of the  os  naviculare are articulated
with those of the three cuneiform bones, 1st,  by three dorsal
ligaments, g, i, k;  2d, by  three  plantar  ligaments, similar
to the preceding, extending from the inferior part of the
os naviculare to the inferior surfaces of the three cuneiform
bones ; 3d, by a synovial membrane, folded on  the articular
surfaces, and on the plantar and dorsal  ligaments.


      LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE  CUNEIFORM BONES.

  The cuneiform  bones are  maintained in apposition by
synovial   membranes; and  by three  superior  ligaments, e,
f, k, extending  transversely over  thin superior surfaces ;
and by  inferior ligaments, similar  to  the preceding,  but
less distinct.

    LIGAMENTS BETWEEN THE CUBOID  AND  EXTERNAL
                   CUNEIFORM  BONES.

  The cuboid and external cuneiform bones are  united
together  by strong ligamentous  fasciculi, h,  which  pass
from  the edge of one bone to that of the other.   The su-
perior are termed dorsal, the inferior plantar  ligaments.


   LIGAMENTS OF THE TARSUS WITH THE METATARSUS.

  The tarsal and metatarsal bones are  articulated together
in a similar  manner to the carpus and metacarpus; i. e.
there  are, 1st,  capsular membranes;  2d, dorsal,  m; 3d,
transverse ligaments,  I, each of the  metatarsal  bones re-
ceiving one from the tarsal bone with which it is connected; 
136
FIBROUS SYSTEM
4th, plantar ligaments : these are equal in  number to the
preceding, and disposed nearly in the same manner.

LIGAMENTS OF THE METATARSAL BONES WITH EACH OTHER.

  All the bones of the  metatarsus,  except  the first, are
articulated together at their posterior extremities by small
cartilaginous surfaces, covered by prolongations of the cap-
sular membranes of the preceding articulations, and  main-
tained, 1st, by dorsal and plantar ligaments: these extend
transversely in  each region  from the second to the third,
and from the third to the fourth, and from  the fourth to
the fifth  metatarsal bones;  2d,  by interosseous  fibres,
found between  the inarticulated  points of the posterior ex-
tremities of these bones; and 3d, by transverse metatarsal
ligaments, o,  situated at  the anterior  extremities of the
metatarsal bones, and are  in  all respects similar to those I
have described as belonging to  the heads of the four last
metacarpal bones.

  LIGAMENTS OF THE METATARSUS WITH THE PHALANGES
                     OF THE TOES.

  The posterior extremities of the first phalanges are con-
nected  to  the metatarsal bones  at n  by capsular  and
lateral ligaments.

      LIGAMENTS OF THE  PHALANGES OF THE TOES.

  These ligaments are similar to those of the fingers.
  The tendons of the foot also are  provided  with nearly
the same sheaths and  ligaments as those in the  hand, for
the purpose of confining  them  in  their situation, and di-
recting them in their proper course.  The  tendons which
pass in front and at each side of the ankle joint, are firmly 
OF THE LIGAMENTS.
137
secured by  ligaments  and  tendinous sheaths, which are
attached to the adjacent bones;  anteriorly, the extensor
tendons are bound down by  a strong annular  ligament,
whose fibres take a circular direction.
  The plantar  aponeurosis is composed  of strong  liga-
mentous fibres, extending from the os  calcis  as far as the
first phalanges of the toes, where it is  lost in the  tendinous
sheaths.   Each  of the flexor  tendons is confined  by a
strong  ligamentous sheath, which  is  continued  along the
phalanges, in the same manner as in the hand; each sheath
is strengthened  by circular bands at  different situations.
On the sides of each articulation of the phalanges with the
metatarsus, a fascia is sent off from the extensor tendon :
it is composed of glistening fibres, which  run toward the
sole of the foot, and  unite with the plantar  aponeurosis;
these fasciae are of important service in retaining the exten-
sor tendons in their situation.
VOL. I.
19 
ART.   IV.
                       CHAP.  I.

                   MUSCULAR SYSTEM.

  The organs, which we distinguish by the term, muscles,
are composed of that substance which is commonly known
by the name of flesh ; those, therefore,  who have not seen
the muscles of the human body, may form a very good idea
of them by an examination of the flesh of quadrupeds.
  The muscles are instruments or active agents in produc-
ing the various movements of our body;  by  their means
we are endued with the power of moving  from place  to
place, and of performing every manual  exercise or bodily
exertion.  Not only are they the  prime moving powers  in
locomotion, but speech,  singing, and the acts of chewing,
swallowing, etc., are performed by them ; indeed, by means
of these organs the blood is circulated,  the  stomach and
intestines urge on their contents,  and the different conduits
of the glands propel their fluids.
  The most characteristic  property of muscles is contrac-
tility :  in whatever position  our limbs may repose, it must
be muscular contraction to produce their action.  Muscular
contractility is displayed in the amputation of a limb ; for
immediately as  soon as the  muscles  are divided, the two 
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
139
ends contract in opposite directions, leaving between them
a space  proportionate  to  the retraction of the muscles,
which is  more or less, according to the length of the mus-
cular fibres.
  This contractility of muscles constitutes muscular action,
and consists in  drawing  the more  movable towards the
most fixed point to which it is connected.  Every movable
point in the animal frame is  constantly situated between
two muscular  powers  opposed  to  each  other: between
those of flexion  and extension, of elevation and  depres-
sion, of  adduction and abduction, etc.; this opposition is
a condition essential to motion : for in whatever direction
the limb is  to be moved,  the  movable  point  must neces-
sarily be in the opposite direction; the act of flexion re-
quires  it should be  first extended, and vice versa.   But
when flexors and extensors are both in a state of action,
they counterbalance each  other;  there  is a  rigid  state  of
the muscles, and the limb is fixed.  The effect of every
muscle that contracts, is not only to act upon the bone into
which it is implanted, but also on the opposite muscle, and
this constitutes the phenomena of antagonist muscles; the
muscles  are so  situated  that the  one class  cannot be
extended without the other contracting, and reciprocally.
I shall be  pardoned if I give the familiar  but clear expla-
nation of Paley in reference to antagonist muscles; —
" Every  muscle is provided  with an adversary.   They act
like two  sawyers in a pit, by an  opposite pull; the nature
of  the muscular  fibre  being  what it is, the purposes  of
the animal could be answered by no other.  And not  only
the capacity for motion, but  the  aspect and symmetry  of
the body, is preserved  by  the muscles being  thus  mar-
shalled according  to this order;  e. g. the mouth is holden
in the middle of the face, and its angles kept in a state  of
exact correspondency, by  several muscles drawn against
and balancing each other,   In hemiplegia, when the mus- 
140
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
cles on one side  of the  face are weakened, the muscles
on the other side drawn the mouth awry."
  The muscles on contracting, become evidently harder;
they increase in thickness and  decrease  in length, but
their  volume  remains  nearly  the same ; what  is  lost in
length is compensated in  thickness.   Prevost and Dumas
describe their fibres, in a  state of  repose, as straight lines;
but, when  acting, all  at once  bending themselves  in a
waved direction, and presenting in an instant a great num-
ber of angular and regularly opposed undulations,  thus,
 —r-- : .  if the cause which led to the contraction ceases,
the right lines of the fibres are restored with the same ra-
pidity as the waved lines were produced.
  This contractility, on which depend  all  the phenomena
of animal  motion, and  which also promotes  many of the
exterior and inferior  functions, is exclusively seated in the
muscular system.   It possesses the faculty of moving under
the influence of the brain,  whether that influence  be de-
termined by the will  or by other causes.  If the brain of
a man is compressed, the  faculty  of contracting the mus-
cle  ceases.   The intensity  of muscular contraction, that
is, the degree of power with which the extremities of the
fibres approximate, is  in  proportion to the  excitement of
the brain; it is generally  regulated by the will, according
to certain  limits,  which are different  in  different  indivi-
duals.   When  the organization of the  muscles  is strongly
fibrous, and they are of a deep red  color, such muscleSj
with an equal power of the will, produce much more pow-
erful efforts than muscles  whose fibres are fine, pale, and
smooth.  The  cerebral influence  and the structure of the
muscular tissue, therefore, are the two elements  on which
depend intensity of muscular contraction.
  Irritability of muscles, called by Haller  the vis insita,
is the latent power inherent in  the  muscular fibres, pro-
ducing that  tremulous motion  which is often felt in various 
                  MUSCULAR SYSTEM.              141

 parts of the body, without any evident cause, and inde-
 pendent of the will.   It is  to be  distinguished from mus-
 cular contractility by being more permanent, and by occur-
 ring on the application of chemical  or mechanical stimuli.
 A muscle  may be  separated from  the limb, or the heart
 removed from the body,  and for some time afterwards,  on
 pricking  it  with  a needle or  passing the  electric shock
 through it, there  will be  seen convulsive twitchings of  its
 fibres.  The irritability of a  muscle is  present after death ;
 and, though  doubtless a phenomenon  worthy of study, is
 not to be confounded with the muscular contraction I have
 just described.

                 FORM  OF THE  MUSCLES.

   The muscles, like the bones, with reference to their forms,
 may be divided into long, wide, and short muscles.

                  THE LONG MUSCLES.

   These muscles are  generally placed on the limbs,  to the
 conformation of which they very much contribute.   Sepa-
 rated from the  skin by a strong  membrane called  aponeu-
 rosis, and from the bone by periosteum, they are contained
 in a fibrous envelope,  which strictly maintains them in their
 respective  situations  and in  which  they are  deposed in
 layers  more  or less  numerous.   In  proportion, however,
 as they are deeper seated they also become shorter; they
 are separated by  cellular  layers,  loose  in  parts in which
 extensive motions are performed, and  tight  wherever the
 motion is more confined.  The long  muscles are in some
instances a single bundle of fibres, in others they  result
 from an  assemblage   of many; scarcely any  of the  fibres
run  the whole length of the  fleshy mass ;  in most of  the
muscles they are disposed in an oblique  direction, between 
142
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
two aponeuroses, or between a tendon and an  aponeurosis.
Some muscles have tendinous intersections, which are placed
at different distances in the course of the fibres.

                  THE WIDE  MUSCLES.

   These muscles are generally situated  on the parietes of
the cavities, especially on  those of the  chest and abdomen,
whose  parietes are chiefly formed by them ; they  protect
the internal organs, aid their functions,  and move the body
or limbs according as the one or the other is the fixed point.
They have always short tendons.
   The wide muscles are not very thick ; the  greatest part
of  them   representing muscular membranes, sometimes
disposed  in layers,  as  on the  abdomen,  at  other times
applied over the long muscles,  as on the back.  When  the
wide muscles  are attached to,  or  are  inserted into one of
the great cavities,  they preserve in all the parts nearly the
same width ; but if from a cavity a muscle extends to a long
bone, the  fibres concentrate by degrees, grow narrower and
thicker, and the muscle  terminates in  a tendon, and thus
contracts  into  a narrow compass the fibres which are largely
disseminated.   The pectoral  and  great dorsal muscles are
instances  of this form and  disposition.

                  THE SHORT MUSCLES.

   These muscles are commonly  met with in  parts  where
considerable power on  the one hand, and a limited extent
of motion on  the other,  is required, as in the movements
of the jaw, the hip, the thumb, and the foot;  and most of
them have a square or triangular shape.  Numerous mus-
cles attached to the spine, as, the  interspinales, recti, etc.,
display the form I am here  describing.  They  are  the
most powerful of all the  muscles, and  are placed  where 
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
143
 great force is required, as  at the articulation of the jaw, in
 the vertebral  column, &c.  Though  the division of the
 muscles into long, wide, and short, is similar to that of the
 bones, and is generally applicable, yet it is liable to a mul-
 tiplicity of modifications:  since nature varies  according to
 the functions which the organs are intended to perform.
   There are further distinctive characters of  muscles, viz.
 they are simple when  the  fibres have  a parallel direction,
 as the sartorius or  the quadratus lumborum; if they pro-
 ceed  from an  extended  surface, and  converge to a small
 tendon, they are termed radiated, as the temporal  muscle.
 When the tendon occupies the middle of the  muscle, and
 the fibres are placed obliquely to the tendon like a feather,
 the muscle is named penniform, as the rectus femoris; where
 the muscular fibres  are placed on one side  of  the  tendon,
 it is called half-penniform,  as the peroneus longus.   In the
 compound muscles there is a single mass of muscular fibres
 and several tendons, like the flexors  of the fingers, or there
 are several muscular  and tendinous portions, as in the sacro-
 lumbalis, etc.  Sometimes the  bundles of the fibres and
 tendons are variously and often intricately woven, as in the
 lingual muscles.

    VOLUNTARY,  INVOLUNTARY,  AND  MIXED MUSCLES.

  The division of muscles  into voluntary and involuntary
 is sufficiently accurate to convey a distinct idea of the two
 classes of exciting causes.   In ordinary circumstances those
 under the influence of the  will must  be  voluntary muscles,
such as  the  muscles of locomotion.  But  there are other
muscles over  which the  will has  no dominion: the vital
organs, the heart, stomach,  and intestines, afford examples
of this description, and are brought forward by writers  on
natural theology as  marks of the Divine wisdom ; for were
the action of  these  organs within the control of the will, 
144
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
and the vital functions left  to man's government, I need
not say they would be subject to a thousand interruptions;
these organs, therefore, are furnished with involuntary mus-
cles.  There is another class of muscles, which are termed
mixed, as the diaphragm and  other muscles of respiration,
the orbicularis  oculi, etc.; of the  action of these  muscles
we are not sensible, unless the attention of the mind  be
directed to them;  yet we  have the power of increasing or
suspending their action for a certain length  of time.


                  TEXTURE OF MUSCLES.

   The  muscular or fleshy fibres are soft, red, downy, lin-
ear,  and possess a small  degree of elasticity; they  retain
little tenacity in the dead body, and  are  easily  torn asun-
der, but during life they resist very great force  without
breaking.   A muscle is composed of  a number of muscular
fasciculi,  which  are formed of fibres  still  smaller; these
result from fibres  of less  volume;  at least, by progressive
division, we arrive at a fibre no longer practically divisible,
but which, were  our means  of division  more perfect, pos-
sibly might  be reduced to such a degree of tenuity as to
elude even the microscope.   However,  the last  of these
filaments  which  can  be perceived  is the  muscular fibre.
Numberless researches  have  been made  to determine with
certainty the volume of this  fibre ; I need not mention the
result of these researches : the correctness cannot be re-
lied on, and the investigation  could  add  nothing to  our
notions respecting muscular motion.
   Every muscular  fibre runs its extent without ramifying:
it is merely in juxta-position  with the adjoining ones.  The
intimate nature of  this fibre, upon which so much has been
written, is  still unknown to us.   Prohaska*  found  the
"Operum minorum pars i. p. 198. 
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.               145
muscular fibre ^u Part of an incn  m  diameter,  while  Mr
Bauer*  estimates  it at  only  2^.    The  latter describes
the fibres  as moniliform, that is,  consisting of globules
lineally and closely arranged, like the beads of a necklace.
Sir E. Home is inclined  to consider  these  globules to be
the remains of the  globules of  the blood  from which they
have originated, an opinion which  the facts of the case by
no means warrant; and all that has been affirmed respect-
ing the continuation of the muscular fibre with the nervous
or vascular organs,  is supported by no positive proofs, and
is unworthy of claiming a moment's attention.  " To arrive
at correct  conclusions, we must  study nature where she
comes within the cognizance of our senses."f


              cellular tissue of  muscles.

   The fibres of muscles are united by this  substance; it is
one of the most  important elements  of  the animal system,
consisting of very  minute, soft, white  filaments, crossing
each other in a multitude of different directions,  and leav-
ing between them  certain interstices  which serve for  the
reception of fat.   The  muscles are  abundantly supplied
with this cellular web : it  forms a very considerable layer
round every muscle ; it is most generally loose, or filled
with fat; sometimes it is tighter, and actually  spread  in
the form of a membrane, and  then the dissection becomes
difficult  for the young student.   Besides affording this gen-
eral covering to  the muscles, it extends into the substance
of these  organs  themselves, and   largely contributes  to
their structure;  each fasciculus is provided with  a continu-
ation of  sheaths of cellular tissue,  and not only  surrounds
and binds  the muscles together,  but also unites each of

     * Phil. Trans. 1818, p. 175.                t Bichat.
    vol. i.            20 
146
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
their fibres with those adjoining.  These coverings accom-
modate the motions of the fibres, which they separate from
each other, either by the fat which they contain, or by the
serum  of the cellulae.
  The quantity of intermuscular  cellular tissue  varies very
considerably;  sometimes  it  is so abundant  among the
muscles as to divide  them into separate  portions, and  con-
sequently has confused anatomists in the division of these
organs.*


               BLOOD-VESSELS OF MUSCLES.

  With  the exception of certain viscera,  as  the  lungs,
liver, spleen, etc., few organs, in proportion to their size,
receive more blood  than the  muscles;  the  blood  being
essentially necessary to  keep  up excitement, and by this
fluid the  human muscles are  colored.  The  arteries are
exceedingly apparent:  they penetrate  their substance from
all points of their surface.   The principal branches creep at
first between the largest  fasciculi of fibres; then they di-
vide and subdivide into an almost infinite number of rami-
fications, which,  reduced  to  capillary tubes,  supply the
secondary skeins, twine among the most minute fibres, and
deposite the  nutritive substance of the muscle.
  The  veins of muscles  constantly attend  the  arteries,
but surpass  them, as they do  in all other parts of the body,
in number and magnitude.
  The  absorbent vessels may be traced, but  not without
difficulty.  They are most readily injected in  the muscles
of the face, the tongue, and the diaphragm.

  * In consequence of these cellular intersections, some authors have
divided  the deltoid muscle into three distinct muscles.  As another in.
stance, I may mention also the pectoralis major, which is thus divided into
a clavicular and sternal portion. 
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
147
                  NERVES OF  MUSCLES.

  The muscles are  liberally endowed with nerves ; indeed,
excepting the skin and  organs of sense,  no part of the
body is so abundantly supplied with  them.   Each branch,
on reaching the  fleshy  fibres, first divides, then  subdivides
in the  interstices, until it entirely disappears.   Dr Monro
thought  that each  individual  fibre had  its corresponding
nervous  filament:  and  the observation of  Bichat may
induce one to believe it, namely, that on the principal ner-
vous branch being irritated, every fibre of the muscle comes
into play.


                  TENDONS OF MUSCLES.

  The tendons  are a part of  the muscle; they  are a kind
of fibrous cord,  conducting the motions of the muscle to
the bone, particularly where there  is not room for the in-
sertion of the muscular fibres which are necessary for the
motion of the joints ; they frequently concentrate the whole
power of a very  large muscle  on a small bony surface : in-
deed, without such a medium  of attachment, the  articula-
tions would be encumbered in their actions.  The tendons
are composed of small  white  fibres, closely united to each
other, having a beautiful  slyning silvery appearance ; they
differ from the ligaments  chiefly in  this particular, that one
of their extremities is attached to the muscle.
  Tendons possess very little elasticity or sensibility ; they
have few blood-vessels, in fact none  are  observed in their
ordinary  state; nor have  nerves or lymphatics  been traced
into them.
  Some muscles form a complete circle, and have no ten-
dinous structure, and are termed sphincters. 
148
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
  Usually the  tendons are  at the extremities of muscles,
but sometimes are found in  the middle, as in the digastric
muscles, the diaphragm, omo-hyoideus, &c.
                     APONEUROSES.

  Aponeuroses are precisely similar to tendons ; frequently
they seem to result from the expansion of a tendon.   They
maybe divided  into  two classes:  1st.  Aponeuroses of in-
sertions, those fibrous expansions which receive fleshy fibres,
so as to afford the greatest advantage in multiplying prodi-
giously the points of insertion, without increasing the extent
of bony surface, as the  tensor vaginae femoris ; others col-
lect the muscular power into a line of attachment, as in the
oblique and transverse muscles of the abdomen.  2d, En-
veloping aponeuroses: these are found around the limbs,
where they maintain the muscles in their respective situa-
tions, so that in great exertions,  the muscles  are not liable
to displacement; their inner surfaces often send  fibrous par-
titions, between the muscles  which extend to  the perios-
teum of the neighboring  bone; and at the same time that
they retain the muscular  fibres in their situation, give points
for their insertion.   Like the tendons,  their hue is of a re-
splendent white ;  in a healthy state they have little vascu-
larity, and may be considered  as destitute of sensibility.
           CHEMICAL COMPOSITION OF MUSCLES.

  Owing to the difficulty of separating the muscular fibres
from the fat, blood,  cellular  membrane,  etc., with which
they are very intimately  blended,  the organic elements of
the  muscular tissue are still  involved  in obscurity;  but 
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
149
when freed  as  much  as  possible from those substances
which adhere to  them, they  consist of albumen,  a great
quantity of fibrin, and a principle of  a peculiar nature, col-
ored, soluble in alcohol, giving to broth  its taste and smell,
named osmazome.  There also  occur in these organs a co-
loring  matter, carbonate, hydrochlorate, and phosphate of
soda, phosphate of lime, and oxide of iron.
                 SHEATHS OF  TENDONS.

  In general these  sheaths  form a semi-cylindrical canal,
completed by the bone in the opposite part in such a man-
ner that the tendon slides in a  canal, which is partly bony
and partly fibrous ;  this canal is lined with a synovial mem-
brane.  On their external surfaces the fibrous sheaths cor-
respond to  the adjacent parts with which they are united,
and adhere to them by loose cellular tissue.  All the sheaths
are composed of dense and strong fibres ; indeed, stronger
than might be supposed to be sufficient to restrain the efforts
of the tendons that act upon them ; the tendons are  thus
kept down  in their proper  places, and are prevented from
deviating  from  their  destined  course.   Some  of these
sheaths, as  those at the wrist andon the instep, contain the
united tendons of several muscles : these bear the name of
annular ligaments ;  the tendons of the hand and foot  hav-
ing to pass  a narrow space, it was indispensably necessary
they should be there maintained.  Other sheaths,  as those
of the fingers, are intended for a single  tendon, or for two
only.   Besides these uses, the sheaths in  some cases change
the direction of the tendon, as  we observe in the trochlea
of the eye,  and the sheaths of the  tendons  of the thumb
and little finger. 
150
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
                 STRENGTH OF  MUSCLES.

   The natural strength of muscles  probably depends on
the number of fibres  which enter  into  their composition;
but  the  effect of habit and  exercise  of  the  muscles  in
giving  strength,  mobility,  and  dexterity, is astonishing.
The  muscles  grow  stronger  in  proportion  as they  are
used, provided  they  are well  used, and not exhausted by
violence or over exertion ;  but the same muscles in differ-
ent individuals, though of  the same length and thickness,
and,  as far as we are  able to  examine composed of  the
same number of fibres,  are by  no means  uniform  in  the
degree of power they are  capable of exercising.   Under
particular excitement  the muscular efforts may be carried to
a wonderful degree ;  we know the strength of an enraged
person, of maniacs and of persons in convulsions ; but such
violent contractions  cannot be  carried  beyond  a certain
time, after which a painful  feeling of weariness takes place,
which goes on increasing  until  the muscle refuses  to act:
by rest, however,  the feeling of fatigue  subsides, and the
muscles recover  their wonted  energies.  If, however, the
brain of a man be  compressed,  the  faculty of  contracting
the muscle ceases ; the  nerve  of a  muscle  being cut, the
muscle loses  all power of contracting,  thus showing that
muscular action depends on the brain, and that it is gener-
ally regulated, to a certain  degree, by the will.*

  * " There are many muscles given to us which the common customs and
habits of life seldom render it necessary to exert, and which,  in conse-
quence, grow stiff and immovable.  Tumblers  and buffoons seem to be
aware of this fact; and it is principally by the cultivation of these neglect-
ed muscles that they are able to assume those outrageous postures and gri-
maces, and exhibit those feats of agility,  which so often amuse and surprise
us.''—Dr Good's  Book of Nature. 
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
151
                  ACTIONS OF  MUSCLES.

  Many muscles  acting together, producing the same kind
of motion, are called congener es;  those  which  act in the
opposite direction are termed antagonistes.  The first ordi-
narily arise from  the  same fixed point or from  the  same
region, the second or antagonists from the opposite.
  The various movements produced by the contraction of
muscles are, adduction and abduction, flexion and extension,
and  rotation, etc.  These various motions are not usually
effected by the action of one muscle alone, but by  the  co-
operation  of several congeneres.
  The flexors are commonly  stronger than the  extensors,
and it is for this  reason,  that  when  the  extremities  are at
rest, or in a state  of freedom, or  in paralysis,  or during
sleep, that they are bent or slightly  flexed.  And the  flex-
ors are attached further from the centre of motion than the
extensors, and their direction is less parallel to the bone ;
consequently the angle is  more open, and  the power more
favorably  applied.


            NOMENCLATURE OF THE  MUSCLES.

   The denomination of the muscles is derived from several
considerations, as, viz., from their
   Size, as great, small, long, broad, thin  ;
   Figure, as triangular, scalenus, deltoid, orbicular,  rhom-
     boidal, etc.
   Direction, as straight, oblique, transverse ;
   Composition, as complexus,  triceps, biceps,  semimem-
     branosus, perforans,  etc.
   Attachment,  as  stylo-hyoideus,   pterygoideus,  sterno-
     cleido-mastoideus ;
   Uses, as flexors, adductors, rotators, etc. 
152        CLASSIFICATION OF MUSCLES.

  The inconvenience from  such a multiplicity  of names
from such different sources, has long been felt among anat-
omists, and many  nomenclatures  have been  suggested to
remove it.  All the  synonyms of muscles may be found in
Lizars' System of Anatomy.
            CLASSIFICATION  OF THE  MUSCLES.

  The muscles have  been distributed into classes, accord-
ing to the  different parts of the body which they occupy :
each of these parts  has  received  the name  of a region.
The following table presents a general view of the  names
and classification. 
TABLE OF THE MUSCLES              153
CHAP.  II.
TABLE OF THE MUSCLES.
  The total  number of the  muscles  amount to  527, of
which 257 are  pairs,  and lie on either side of the body.
There are four single  muscles situated  on the middle line,
independent of those muscles  which perform the  internal
vital functions.
MUSCLES OF THE HEAD.
I. Cranial region.


2. Auricular region.
  Occipito-frontalis.

 f Attollens auris.
< Attrahens auris.
 ^Retrahens auris.
MUSCI.ES OF THE FACE.
1. Palpebral region.
2. Ocular region.
3. Nasal region.
4. Superior maxillary region.
 f Orbicularis palpebrarum.
< Corrugator supercilii.
 (^ Levator palpebral superioris.

 ("Rectus superior.
 J Rectus inferior.
J Rectus internus.
 | Rectus externus.
 I Obliquus superior.
 ^Obliquus inferior.

 f Pyramidalis nasi.
J Compressor nasi.
) Levator labii superioris, alique nasi.
 (^Depressor alas nasi.

 'Levator labii  superioris.
  Levator anguli oris.
  Zygomaticus major.
  Zygomaticus minor.
  Orbicularis oris.
                             (* Depressor anguli oris.
                             |  Depressor labii superioris
5.  Inferior maxillary region.     I  Depressor labii inferioris.
                             '  Buccinator.
                               Levator menti.
                               Masseter.
VOL-  I.
21 
154
TABLE OF THE MUSCLES.
6.  Tempcro-maxillary region.

7.  Pterygo-maxillary region.


8.  Lingual region.




9.  Palatine region.

  Temporalis.

 C Pterygoideus externus.
 I Pterygoideus internus.

  Hyo-glossus.
  Genio-glossus.
"5 Stylo-glossus.
 ^Lingualis.

 f Circumflexus palati.
  Levator palati.
■I Levator uvula?.
 I Palato pharyngeus.
 ^Constrictor isthmi faucium.
MUSCLES OF THE NECK.
1.  Anterior cervical region
2.  Superior hyoidean region.
3.  Inferior hyoidean region.
4.  Pharyngeal region.
5.  Deep cervical region.
6.  Lateral cervical region.
C Platysma myoides.
I Sterno-cleido mastoideug.

fDigastricus.
J Stylo-hyoideus.
| Mylo-hyoideus.
(^ G -mio-hyoideus.

  {Omo-hyoideus.
  Sterno-hyoideus.
  Sterno-thyroideus.
  Thyro-hyoideus.

 f Constrictor pharyngeus inferior.
J Constrictor pharyngeus medius.
 | Constrictor pharyngeus superior.
 (^ Stylo-pharyngeus.

 f Rectus capitis anticus major.
■I Rectus capitis anticus minor.
 ^Longus colli.

  {Scalenus anticus.
  Scalenus posticus.
  Rectus capitis lateralis.
MUSCLES OF THE TRUNK.
1   Anterior thoracic region.


2„ Lateral thoracic region.


3. Intercostal region.


4. Diaphragmatic region.
Pectoralis major.
Pectoralis minor.
Subclavius.

 Serratus  magnus.

Intercostales externi.
Intercostales interni.
Triangulares sterni.
Levatores costarum.

Diaphragma. 
TABLE OF THE MUSCLES.                 155
MUSCLES  OF THE  ABDOMEN.
1. Abdominal region.




2. Lumbar region.



3. Anal region





4. Genital region.
 T Obliquus abdominis externus.
 | Obliquus abdominis internus.
< Transversalis abdominis.
 I Rectus abdominis.
 ^Pyramidalis.

  {Psoas magnus.
  Psoas parvus.
  Iliacus internus.
  Quadratus lumborum.

 f Levator ani.
< Coccygeus.
 l_ Sphincter ani,

 fist. (In the male)  Cremasterischio-
 I   cavernosus.
 | Bulbo-cavernosus.
<{ Transversus perinei.
 I 2d. (In the female.)  Ischio-caver-
    nosus.
 ^Constrictor vagina?.
MUSCLES OF  THE POSTERIOR PART OF THE TRUNK.
I.  Lumbo-dorsal region.
2.  Dorso-cervical region.
3.  Posterior occipito-cervical
    region.
4.  Vertebral region.
 C Trapezius.
 £ Latissimus dorsi.

  'Rhomboideus.
  Levator anguli scapulae.
  Serratus posticus superior.
■I Serratus posticus inferior.
 I Splenius.
 | Complexus.
  l_ Trachelo-mastoideus.

  Rectus capitis posticus major.
  Rectus capitis posticus minor.
  Obliquus capitis superior.
  Obliquus capitis inferior.
  Interspinalis cervicis.

 f Longissimus dorsi.
  Sacro-lumbalis.
■i Transversus colli.
 I Multifidus spinas.
 L Intertransversales colli et lumborum. 
156             TABLE OF THE  MUSCLES.
MUSCLES OF  THE SHOULDER.
1.  Posterior scapular region.


2.  Anterior scapular region.

3.  External scapular region.
{Supra-spinatus.
Infra-spinatus.
Teres minor.
Teres major.

Subscapularis.

Deltoides.
MUSCLES OF THE ARM.
1. Anterior branchial region.
{Coraco-brachialis.
Biceps flexor cubiti.
Brachials internus.
Triceps extensor cubiti.
MUSCLES OF THE FORE-ARM.
1.  Anterior region of the fore-
    arm.
2.  Anterior deep region of the
    arm.
3.  Posterior superficial region
    of the fore-arm.
4.  Posterior deep region of the
    fore-arm.
5. Radial region.
 CPronator teres.
  Flexor carpi radialis.
  Palmaris longus.
  Flexor carpi ulnaris.
  Flexor digitorum sublimis vel perfo-
    ratus.

 f Flexor digitorum profundus vel per-
j   forans.
 *, Flexor longus pollicis manus.
 1^ Pronator quadratus.

 f Extensor digitorum communis.
J Extensor proprius minimi digiti.
j Extensor carpi ulnaris.
 ^Anconeus.

 f Extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis.
J Extensor primi et secundi internodii
 |   pollicis  manus.
 ^Indicator.

  {Supinator radii longus.
  Supinator radii brevis.
  Extensor carpi radialis longior.
  Extensor carpi radialis brevior. 
TABLE  OF THE  MUSCLES.
157
MUSCLES  OF THE HAND.
1. External palmar region.
2.  Internal palmar region.
 f Abductor brevis pollicis manus.
J Opponens pollicis.
 ] Flexor brevis pollicis manus.
 [^Adductorpollicis manus.

 f Palmaris brevis.
 | Abductor minimi digiti.
j Flexor proprius minimi digiti.
 ] Adductor ossis metacarpi minini
    digiti.
 I Lumbricales.
3.  Middle palmar region. )-  Interossei.
 '1. Abductor indicis.
  2. Adductor indicis.
  3. Abductor digiti medii.
^ 4. Adductor digiti medii.
  5. Abductor digiti annularis.
  6. Adductor digiti annularis.
  7. Abductor minimi digiti.
MUSCLES OF THE HAUNCH  AND THIGH.
1. Region of the hip.
2. Pelvi-trochantric region.
3. Anterior femoral region.
4. Internal femoral region.
5. Posterior femoral region.
 f Gluteus maximus.
^ Gluteus medius.
 ^Gluteus minimus.
(" Pyriformis.
| Obturator internus.
 Obturator externus.
 Gemellus superior.
 Gemellus inferior.
 Quadratus femoris.
 ("Sartorius.
^ Rectus femoris.
 ^Triceps extensor cruris.

 fPectineus.
 I Gracilis.
■{ Adductor longus
 I Adductor brevis.
 ^ Adductor magnus.

  {Biceps femoris.
  Semitendinosus.
  Semimembranosus. 
158
TABLE OF THE MUSCLES.
MUSCLES OF THE LEG.
1. Anterior region of the leg.
2. Peroneal region
3. Posterior region of the  leg.
 ( Tibialis anticus.
J Peroneus tertius.
 | Externus longus digitorum pedis.
 ^Extensor proprius pollicis pedis.

 C Peroneus longus.
 ( Peroneus brevis.

 f Gastrocnemius externus.
 | Gastrocnemius internus.
 | Soleus.
J Plantaris.
 I Popliteus.
 I Flexor longus digitorum pedis.
 I Tibialis posticus.
 (^ Flexor longus pollicis pedis.
MUSCLES OF THE FOOT.
1. Dorsal region.
2. Plantar region.
C Extensor brevis digitorum pedis.
\ Interossei externi.

f Flexor brevis digitorum pedis.
 Abductor pollicis pedis.
 Abductor minimi digiti pedis.
 Flexor digitorum accessorius.
  Lumbricalis pedis.
  Flexor brevis pollicis pedis.
 Adductor pollicis pedis.
 Flexor brevis minimi digiti pedis,
 Transversus pedis.
L Interossei interni. 
MUSCULAR SYSTEM OF THE HEAD.       159
MUSCLES  OF  THE HEAD.

          CRANIAL  REGION.

       OCCIPITO-FRONTALIS.

             Fig. 109,
  This is the only muscle which properly  belongs  to the
scalp ; it consists of two distinct parts,  an  anterior  and a
posterior, which are  united by an aponeurosis or tendinous
membrane.  The posterior portion,  a, has  an aponeurotic
and fleshy attachment to the transverse ridge of the occipi-
tal  bone; it forms, b,  the cranial  aponeurosis,  a  broad
fibrous expansion which covers the whole upper part of the
cranium: the anterior portion,  seen  in   Fig.  Ill, a, is at-
tached to c, the circular muscle of the   eyelid, and  to the
skin ; and by b, to the inner angle of the frontal bone, and
the os nasi.   The outer surface of this muscle is covered by
the integuments, the inner rests on the cranium.
  The anterior portion   of this  muscle  raises  the  brow, 
160
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 wrinkles the forehead, and brings forward the  integuments
 of the head ;  the posterior draws back the skin  to its ori-
 ginal situation.   The direction of the muscular  fibres  and
 the aponeurosis are also seen, Fig.  112, a, b.*

                     AURICULAR REGION.

                    ATTOLENS AURIS.
                          1
                         i\
   Fig. 112.   The attollens auris, c, is of a triangular figure,
 situated on the temple above the  ear;  superiorly it is attach-
 ed to the  cranial aponeurosis, and inferiorly to the cartilage
 of the ear.   The outer surface of this muscle is covered by
 the skin, the inner covers the temporal aponeurosis.
   The action of this muscle raises  the ear.

                  ATTRAHENS AURIS.

   The attrahens auris, d, is situated before the ear, and has
 the same form as the preceding ;  anteriorly  it is attached to
 the border of the cranial aponeurosis, and posteriorly to the
 cartilage or anterior  helix of the  ear.
   This muscle draws the ear forward and upward.
   The outer surface of this muscle  is covered by the skin;
 the inner is situated  upon the temporal muscle and temporal
 artery.

                    RETRAHENS  AURIS.

   This muscle, e, is situated behind the ear,  and is extended
 from the mastoid process of the  temporal bone to the back
of the ear.   It frequently consists of two small bundles of
 fibres, and is then described as two muscles.

  "This is sometimes divided by anatomists into two muscles, the occipital
and frontal muscles. 
OF THE HEAD.
161
  This muscle is covered by the integuments, and  is sepa-
rated from the  temporal  bone  by cellular  tissue.   The
action of this  muscle carries the ear backwards.*

                  MUSCLES  OF THE FACE.
                     PALPEBRAL REGION.
               ORBICULARIS PALPEBRARUM.
                    Fig. Ill, c, Fig. 112,/.
  The fleshy fibres of this muscle surround the orbit of the
eye, and form part of the eyelids ;  superiorly it is attached
to the frontal  bone, and inferiorly to the  superior maxillary
bone, where it has a tendinous point of insertion into the
nasal process.
  The  anterior surface of this  muscle is  covered  by  the
integuments;  the posterior is applied upon the corrugator
supercilii, the fibro-cartilage of the upper eyelid, the malar
bone, the muscles of the superior maxillary region, the liga-
ment and fibro-cartilage of  the lower  eyelid, the ascending
process of the superior maxillary bone, and the lachrymal
sac.
  This muscle shuts the eye, by bringing  down the upper
eyelid and raising the lower, the fibres contracting towards
the inner angle ;  it also depresses the eyebrow at the same
time it raises the cheek.

                 CORRUGATOR SUPERCILII.
                         Fig. 111.
  This muscle, p, is placed on the arch of the orbit, in the
thickness of  the  eyebrow ; it is attached on the one  part
to the superciliary ridge, and on  the other  to the occipito-
frontalis and orbicularis muscles.

  * The other muscles of the ear will be described with the organ of hearing.
     vol. i.              22 
162
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
  The  anterior surface of this muscle is covered  by the
orbicularis  palpebrarum,  the  occipito-frontalis, and the
pyramidalis nasi muscles;  the posterior is in  contact with
the frontal bone, the superciliary artery,  and  the  frontal
branch of the ophthalmic nerve.
  This muscle draws down the brow in the expressions of
anger and the malevolent passions.
LEVATOR PALPEBK.E SUPERIORIS.

             Fig. 110.
  This muscle, a, is situated in  the superior part of the
orbit, and is fixed to the bottom of it; it is then spread out
into a broad tendon, which is attached  to the cartilage of
the upper eyelid, as is seen also in Fig. Ill, n.
  The superior surface of this muscle  is  connected with
the  orbit and frontal branch of  the ophthalmic  nerve ;  and 
OF THE HEAD
163
more anteriorly it is separated from the orbicularis  palpe-
brarum by the palpebral ligament;  the inferior is connected
with the rectus superior and membrana conjunctiva.
  The action of this muscle raises  the upper eyelid.
                     OCULAR REGION.

                    RECTUS SUPERIOR.

                         Fig. 110.
   This muscle, b, is situated in the  orbit above the eye,
 under the levator palpebral; it is broad and thin, tendinous
 at its extremities, and fleshy in the rest of its  extent.  Pos-
 teriorly it is attached to the optic foramen, and anteriorly to
 the membrana sclerotica.
   The superior surface  of this muscle is  covered by  the
 preceding;  the inferior  is placed upon the optic nerve, the
 ophthalmic artery, and the nasal branch of the ophthalmic
 nerve in front upon  the eye itself.
   The action of  this muscle raises the eye.


                    RECTUS  INFERIOR.

   The figure and structure of d, the rectus inferior, is like
the preceding; posteriorly it is attached to the inferior part of
 the optic foramen, and anteriorly to the sclerotic membrane.
   The  inferior  surface  of this muscle is separated from
the floor of the orbit by  adipose tissue ; the  superior is in
connexion with the  optic nerve, a branch  of  the third pair
of nerves, and the eye.
  This muscle is  the antagonist to the rectus  superior, and
draws the eye downwards. 
164
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
                   RECTUS INTERNUS.

  This muscle, c, c, is similar  to the two described; it is
situated on the inner side of the  eye, and is  attached pos-
teriorly to the margin of the optic  foramen ; anteriorly, to
the inner side of the eye.   In this  figure the central part is
removed to show k, the optic nerve, but its attachments are
preserved.
   This muscle draws the eye towards the nose.

                    RECTUS  EXTERNUS.

   The  rectus  externus is similar  in  its figure and attach-
ments to the other recti, but is situated  on  the outer side
of the eye.  In this  figure the muscle is supposed to be
removed.
   The outer surface of this muscle is in apposition with the
orbit and lachrymal gland ; the inner with the optic nerve,
 the sixth pair, and the lenticular ganglion.
   The office of this muscle is to carry the eye outward.

                   OBLIQUUS SUPERIOR.

    This muscle, e, is situated  at the internal  and  superior
 part of the orbit; posteriorly  it is attached to the  optic fo-
 ramen,  passes forward horizontally  to  the internal orbitar
 process, where it forms a thin round  tendon,  which passes
 through/, a cartilaginous ring ;* runs obliquely downwards
 and backwards, and  is  inferiorly attached at g, by a radi-
 ated  tendon,  to  the  globe of the eye.  On the  inside of
 the pulley or ring is a synovial  capsule,  which is  reflected
 over the tendon.
• At least this loop forms a ring with the superciliary notch. 
OF THE HEAD.
165
  This muscle is situated between the orbit  and the optic
nerve, the superior and internal recti muscles, and the globe
of the eye.
  The office of this muscle is to roll the eye,  and to turn
the pupil downwards and outwards.


                   OBLIQUUS INFERIOR.

   This muscle is situated at the anterior part of the orbit.
Anteriorly it is attached at i, the inner edge of the orbitar
process of the superior maxillary bone,  near its  union with
the  os unguis; it  is directed  backwards  and  outwards,
under d, the rectus inferior, and is attached posteriorly  by
h, a thin tendon, to the sclerotic  membrane.
   The inferior surface of this muscle is placed on the floor
of the orbit; the superior corresponds  with  the ball of the
eye, and with the rectus inferior.
   By means of the inferior oblique muscle the eye is turned
 upwards and inwards. 
166
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
NASAL  REGION.
PYRAMIDALIS NASI.

      Fig. in.
   This muscle,  b,  is confounded with the occipito-fronta-
 lis ;  its figure is thin  and triangular; it is  attached by  its
 summit to the last-named muscle, covers the , nasal bones,
 and  is fixed by its base to the compressor nasi.   This mus-
 cle is sometimes regarded as  merely a portion of the frontal
 muscle ; the  upper part is certainly intermixed with it, but
 the lower part is very distinct.
  The  anterior  surface is connected  with the skin ; the
posterior with the currugator supercilii, the os  frontis, and
 the proper bones of the nose.
  This muscle assists in bringing down the integuments of
 the forehead, and raising the skin of  the nose. 
OF THE HEAD.
167
COMPRESSOR  NASI.

      Fig. 112.
  This muscle, Fig.  Ill, o, Fig.  112, h,  is attached on the
outer side of the cartilage of the nose to  the adjacent  part
of the bridge of the nose, where it meets  its fellow.
  The anterior surface is covered by the  skin, the posterior
lies upon the superior maxillary bone and upon the lateral
cartilage of the nose.
  This muscle compresses the nostrils ; it  sometimes  acts
with the pyramidal and frontal muscles, to  which it is con-
nected, and then it raises the nostril.


        LEVATOR  LABII  SUPERIORIS  ALJEQUE NASI.

  This muscle, Fig. 112, i,  is attached by a small tendon
to the nasal process of the superior  maxillary bone,  close 
168
MUSCULAR  SYSTEM
by the tendon  of the orbicular muscle  of the  eyelids ; as
it approaches  the nose  it is spread out into two portions,
one of which is inserted into  the  ala  or cartilage of the
nostril, the other into the upper lip.
  The anterior surface  is placed  beneath the skin, and at
its upper part it is concealed by the orbicularis palpebrarum.
The posterior is connected  with the preceding  muscle, the
nasal process of the superior maxillary bone, the  border of
the levator labii superioris, and the depressor nasi.
  This muscle raises the ala of the nostril and  upper lip.
                   DEPRESSOR ALJE NASI.

  This muscle,  Fig.  113, e, is  a  small fleshy  fasciculus,
placed beneath the ala or wing of the nose.  Superiorly it
is attached to it; inferiorly to the superior  maxillary  bone
immediately above the upper incisor teeth.
  The fibres of this  muscle  are  covered  by those of the
levator labii superioris alaeque nasi, and by the mucous mem-
brane of the mouth, and are applied to the superior maxil-
lary bone.
  The contraction  of this muscle depresses the ala of the
nose.
              SUPERIOR MAXILLARY REGION.

               LEVATOR LABII  SUPERIORIS.
  This  muscle, Fig. 112, k, is situated  in the  middle of
the face; superiorly it is  attached to  the  lower part of
the orbit, inferiorly  to the upper lip; it contracts as  it
descends, and its fibres are confounded  with the  circular
muscle  of the lips,  between  the  nose  and  angle of the
mouth.   At the upper part,  this  muscle is covered by the 
OF THE HEAD
169
orbicularis palpebrarum, and at the lower part by the skin.
The posterior  surface  is  in connexion with  the levator
anguli oris, from which  it is separated  by the infra-orbitar
vessels  and nerves.


                 LEVATOR ANGULI ORIS.

   This  muscle,  Fig.  112, 7, is situated near the middle of
the face;  superiorly it  is attached  to the canine  fossa;
inferiorly to the angle of the mouth.
   The  anterior surface is connected, as  we  see in  the
figure, with other muscles of  the face;  the posterior surface
with the canine fossa, the  mucous membrane of the mouth,
and the buccinator muscle.
   This  muscle  raises the angle of the mouth.


                  ZYGOMATICUS MAJOR.

   This  is  a long  and  slender  muscle, Fig. Ill,/,  Fig.
112, m, situated on the  side of the face, and passing down-
wards and inwards; superiorly it is attached to  the  upper
part of the cheek  bone; inferiorly  to the corner of the
mouth.

                  ZYGOMATICUS  MINOR.

   This  muscle, Fig. Ill, e, Fig.  112, n, is  not found in
all subjects.   It  is situated  on  the inner side of the  pre-
ceding  muscle  between k, the elevator of the  upper  lip,
and m, the great zygomatic muscle.  It passes in the same
direction as the last-mentioned muscle, and has nearly  the
same attachments.
  The arJerior surfaces of the zygomatic muscles are gene-
rally covered by a great  quantity of fat as well as skin ;  the
    vol.  i.                 23 
170
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
posterior surfaces  are placed  on the malar  bone and the
buccinator muscle ; their connexion with the other muscles
of the face is obvious in the figure.
  The zygomatic  muscles raise the angle of  the mouth, as
 n laughing, etc.

                   ORBICULARIS ORIS.

  The form of this muscle, Fig. 111, i, Fig. 112, t, is ellip-
tical ; its fibres are found in the substance of the  lips, and
are completely interlaced and  confounded with those of the
other muscles which terminate near the angle of the mouth.
  The skin adheres firmly to the  anterior surface  of this
muscle; the posterior surface is lined by the mucous mem-
brane of the mouth, and  its free edge is invested with the
 red membrane of the lips.  The connexion with  the other
 muscles of the face is intricate.
   This  muscle is an  antagonist  to the  other muscles of
 the lips; it is a  true  sphincter  muscle,  contracting the
 aperture of the mouth; its action is evident in  playing the
 flute, in sucking, in masticating, &c.

                 INFERIOR  MAXILLARY REGION.

                 DEPRESSOR ANGULI  ORIS.

   This  muscle,  Fig. Ill, it, Fig. 112, o, is of a triangular
 form, and situated at the lower part of the face ;  superiorly
 it is attached to the lower jaw ;  inferiorly to the angle of the
 mouth,  where the fibres are confounded with  those  of the
 levator anguli oris.
   The outer  surface  adheres  to the skin and the platysma
 myoides; the inner is connected  with  the  buccinator and
 the depressor labii inferioris.
   This  muscle depresses  the  angle of the mouth, and its
 action expresses grief. 
UF THE HEAD.                171
             DEPRESSOR LABII  INFERIORIS.

  This muscle, Fig. lll,m, Fig. 112, p, is thin, and nearly
quadrilateral; its situation  in the  face is obvious  in  the
figures referredJ;o.  Inferiorly it is attached to the  lower
jaw;  superiorly to the lower lip, where its fibres  are con-
founded with the orbicularis.
  The anterior surface is connected with  the skin  and part
of the preceding muscle.   The posterior surface is con-
nected with the lower jaw, the mental  vessels  and nerves,
the levator menti, and the labial muscles.
   The use of this muscle is to pull the lip downwards.
                     BUCCINATOR.

   This muscle, Fig. 112, s, is situated in the cheek; supe-
riorly it is attached to the  sockets of the molar teeth  of
the upper jaw; behind, it is connected with the constrictor
muscle of the pharynx, and  in front with the angle of the
mouth.   The middle fibres are horizontal, the superior and
inferior a little  converging to the angle  of the lips.   It is
perforated in the middle  by  the duct of  the parotid gland.
   The outer surface is covered by a thick layer of  fat, the
zygomaticus major, the platysrna myoides,  the depressor
anguli  oris, the skin, and labial artery and  vein.   The
inner is lined by the mucous membrane of the mouth.
   This muscle is  seen remarkably dilated in blowing the
horn or trumpet:  its use is to force the air out of the mouth
by contracting its  cavity, to draw  the  angle of the mouth
backwards,  and in mastication to press the food within the
line of the teeth. 
172
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
                    LEVATOR MENTI.

  This muscle, Fig. 112, r, js  placed on the chin; supe-
riorly it  is attached  to the depression  on the  sids  of the
symphysis  of the  jaw, under the alveoli  of the  incisor
teeth.  The fibres diverge  downwards, and  are  inserted
into the skin  of the chin.
  Anteriorly it is covered by the skin ; posteriorly  by  the
mucous membrane of the mouth.
  This muscle raises the chin.
                       MASSETER.

   This muscle, Fig. Ill, A, Fig.  112, v, is composed of
aponeurotic and fleshy fibres,  situated on the side of the
face ; it is very thick, and attached superiorly to  the two
anterior thirds of the inferior  part  of the zygomatic arch,
to its internal surface, and to  the aponeurosis of the tem-
poral muscle; inferiorly to the angle of the  lower  jaw,  to
its external surface, and to the inferior border of the ramus
of the same.  The masseter is sometimes described as two
distinct portions which decussate  one another; ihe ante-
rior portion  running backwards, is fixed into the side of the
lower jaw as far as the angle ;  the posterior portion  passing
forwards, is  united to the coronoid process.
  On the outer side is found the parotid gland and its duct,
the platysma myoides, the facial nerve, the transverse facial
artery, etc.  The inner surface is  placed  on the ramus  of
the inferior  maxilla, the tendons  of the  temporal  and  the
buccinator muscles.
  This  muscle raises the  lower jaw,  and acts powerfully
during mastication. 
OF THE  HEAD.
173
TEMPORO MAXILLARY REGION.


      TEMPORALIS.

       Fig. 113.
   The situation  and direction  of the fibres of this muscle
are  shown  in  the annexed  figure:  a portion  of c, the
zygoma, is removed to show the whole of the muscle.   It
occupies the whole temporal  cavity, and is covered with a
strong aponeurosis, while another is placed in the midst of
the fleshy fibres, dividing it  into two  planes, terminating
inferiorly in a strong  tendon.   It is attached  superiorly to
the temporal fossa,  and  to  a,- a,  b, the semicircular  line
bounding it; inferiorly  at j?,  the  coronoid  process of the
inferior maxilla.
  The outer surface of  the temporal muscle is covered  by
the  epicranial aponeurosis,  the superior and interior auric-
ular muscles, and a portion of the orbicularis palpebrarum
and masseter muscles ;  the  superficial temporal vessels and
nerves also ramify over  it.  The inner  surface is  situated 
174             MUSCULAR SYSTEM
upon the temporal fossa and the internal maxillary artery.
The pterygoideus externus, and buccinator  muscles,  are
separated from it by a considerable quantity of fat.
  The office of this muscle, as well  as the preceding, is to
draw the lower jaw upwards.  In carnivorous  animals  the
temporalis is the strongest muscle in the whole body.
 PTERYGO-MAXILLARY REGION.


PTERYGOIDEUS  EXTERNUS.

         Fig. 114.
  This muscle is situated in the zygomatic fossa;  it is at-
tached by one portion at b, c, to the external surface of the
pterygoid process, and by the  other to the zygomato-tem-
poral surface of  the sphenoid bone; from thence the mus-
cle is directed outwards and backwards, and is inserted into
a, the anterior part of  the neck of the condyle of the lower
jaw, and  into the fore  part of the  circumference of the
interarticular cartilage. 
OF THE HEAD.
175
  The outer surface is in contact with the temporal muscle,
and  frequently with  the internal  maxillary artery.  The
inner surface corresponds with the  peterygoideus internus,
the  inferior  maxillary  nerve, and  the middle  ^meningeal
artery.  The upper surface  touches  the zygomatic  fossa
and the temporal  and masseteric nerves.
  This muscle  brings  forward and to  the  opposite  side
the condyle  of the jaw and the  interarticular cartilage ;
when the pair of  muscles act together, the jaw is drawn
directly forwards.
               PTERYGOIDEUS  INTERNUS.

  This muscle, d, is placed at the inner and posterior part
of the branch of the inferior maxillary bone.   It is attached
superiorly by tendinous and fleshy fibres  to the inner plate
of the pterygoid process of the sphenoid  bone, and  to the
pterygoid process  of the  os palati, filling all  the  space
between the two plates: inferiorly it is attached by  tendi-
nous  and fleshy fibres to the inside of  the  angle of the
lower jaw.
  The inner  surface is connected with the  circumflexus
palati, the constrictor pharyngis  superior, and  the sub-
maxillary gland.   The outer surface lies upon the inner
part of the branch of the lower jaw, much  in the same
manner as the masseter does upon the outer part.
  When the pair of muscles act together,  they bring  the
jaw horizontally forwards ;  when they act singly, the jaw is
moved obliquely  to  the  opposite  side.  The pterygoid
muscles move the jaw from side to  side,  and  perform  the
motion of grinding with the teeth. 
176
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
LINGUAL REGION.


HYO-GLOSSUS.

    Fig. 115.
  This muscle, d, is situated at the front and  upper part
of the neck; it is thin, flat, and quadrilateral.   Inferiorly,
its fibres are attached to the  os hyoides ; superiorly, to the
side of the  tongue,  and mix  with a, e,  the  fibres of the
stylo-glossus.
  The  outer surface is covered  by  the hyo-glossus,  the
mylo-hyoideus,  the  genio-hyoideus   and digastricus,  the
hypo-glossal  nerve,  and the  sub-maxillary  gland.  The
inner surface is connected  with the  constrictor pharyngis
medius, the genio-glossus, the lingual artery and the glosso-
pharyngeal nerve.
  The  hyo-glossus  draws  the tongue inwards and down-
wards.

                     GENIO-GLOSSUS.
  This muscle, i,X  is situated  between the  tongue and I,
the lower jaw ; its fibres are radiated, extending  from the 
OF THE HEAD.
177
mental process to the inferior surface of the tongue and the
os hyoides.
   The external surface  of the  genio-glossus is  connected
with the sublingual  gland, and the stylo-glossus, hyo-glos-
sus,  lingualis,  and  mylo-hyoideus muscles;  the internal
surface is in contact  with that of the opposite side.
   According to the direction of its fibres, so  it moves the
tongue: those which go to the point draw  it backwards;
those which pass  backwards  thrust the tongue out of the
mouth ; and the central fibres have the power of rendering
the upper surface  of  the tongue concave.
                     STYLO-GLOSSUS.

  This muscle takes an oblique direction from above where
it is attached, at a,  to the styloid process of the temporal
bone, and to/, the  stylo-maxillary ligament; the muscular
fibres are finally  lost at e,  in the substance of the tongue.
  The outer surface is covered by  the digastricus, the lin-
gual nerve, the  sub-maxillary gland,  and the mucous mem-
brane of the mouth :  the inner surface covers the constric-
tor pharyngis superior, the hyo-glossus, and  the lingualis.
  The stylo-glossus moves the tongue sideways and back-
wards, when it  acts alone ;  but  when it contracts at the
same time with  the  corresponding muscle,  the tongue is
carried upwards and backwards.
                       LINGUALIS.

  The fibres of this muscle run  from the root to the tip of
the tongue, and are intermixed at its lateral parts with the
muscles just mentioned.
    vol. r.            24 
178              MUSCULAR SYSTEM
  The upper surface is confounded with the fleshy texture
of the tongue;  the lower surface is covered by the mucous
membrane of the mouth.
  This muscle contracts the tongue and depresses its point.
I'ALATISE REGION.
CIRCUMFLEXUS  PALATI.

        Fig. 116.
  This muscle is placed in the substance of the velum of
the palate.  Superiorly it is attached  to  the wing  of the 
OF THE HEAD.
179
sphenoid bone and to  the  Eustachian tube ; its tendon, /
passes  round the hook of the  internal plate  of  the  ptery-
goid process of that  bone, and spreads into g, a tendon at
the semilunar edge of the os palati and velum palati.
  The external surface is covered by the  pterygoideus  in-
ternus ; the inner surface is  in apposition  with the levator
palati and constrictor pharyngis superior, the mucous mem-
brane of the pharynx and of the velum palati.
  This muscle stretches the  palate horizontally.
                    LEVATOR  PALATI.

  The shape and direction of  this muscle, b, b, is apparent
in the  figure.   Superiorly it is attached at m, the petrous
portion of the temporal bone ; the inferior fibres are  in-
serted  into a, the pendulous  part of the palate,  its  fibres
being confused with the other muscles in that situation.
  The outer surface  is connected  with the  circumflexus
palati,  the palato-pharyngeus,  and the constrictor pharyngis
superior ;  the inner is lined  by the mucous  membrane of
the  pharynx and of the velum palati.
  This1 muscle draws the curtain of the palate upwards and
backwards in the time of swallowing, and thus prevents the
food or drink from passing into the nose.
                    LEVATOR UVULjE.

  This muscle, a,  occupies the  substance of the uvula, or
that  small fleshy  substance hanging in  the middle of the
palate.  The uvula muscle is one of the four instances of
a single muscle; it  is attached to the palate bones, and
runs  down the whole length  of the  uvula, adhering to the
tendons of g, the circumflex muscle. 
180             MUSCULAR SYSTEM
  It is connected anteriorly with the levator  palati, and is
covered posteriorly by  the membrane of the velum palati.
  This muscle raises the uvula.
                 PALATO-PIIARYNGEUS.

  This muscle  is placed  in the  substance  of the velum
palati and that of the pharynx ; superiorly it is  attached,
at c, to the arch of the palate ;  inferiorly, at d, to the thy-
roid cartilage, and the bag of the pharynx.
  The posterior surface of this  muscle is covered  by  the
mucous  membrane of the velum palati, and the constric-
tores pharyngis; the anterior  surface is connected  with
the  aponeurosis of the circumflexus  palati and the  mucous
membrane of the pharynx.
  This muscle draws the uvula downwards and backwards.
shuts the passage of the  posterior nostrils, and  assists in
swallowing.
              CONSTRICTOR ISTHMI FAUCIUM.

  This is a small fleshy fasciculus, h, attached to the  cur-
tain of the palate and to the base of the tongue.
  The action of this muscle lowers the  velum palati, and
assists in raising the tongue. 
OF THE NECK.                 181
CHAP, III.
MUSCLES  OF  T II E  N F. C K .



     ANTERIOR CERVICAL REGION.
PLATYSMA MYOIDES.
  This is an  extremely thin  layer of fleshy  fibres,  spread
over the other muscles, and attached to the cellular  mem-
brane of the  neck; it  requires some skill in dissection to
display this muscle, for as  it is merely  a web of muscular
fibres, it is frequently  removed with the integuments  un-
noticed.   Superiorly  it extends to  a,  the  face, where its
fibres are  lost in  the cellular  tissue  of the  cheek, and 
182
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
inferiorly at b ; its fibres cover a portion of c, the pectoral,
and of d, the deltoid muscles.
  The outer surface of this muscle is covered by the skin ;
the inner is placed over the deltoides, pectoralis major and
sterno-cleido-mastoideus muscles, the clavicle,  the  muscles
of the hyoidean and maxillary regions, and the sub-maxil-
lary and parotid glands.
  This muscle draws  the  skin  of the  cheek  downwards,
and when  the mouth  is shut,  brings  the skin under  the
lower jaw  upwards.
STERNO-CLEIDO-MASTOIDEUS.

          Fig. US.
  This muscle is situated at the side of the  neck.   Supe-
riorly it is attached, at  a, to the  mastoid process  of the
temporal bone, and to a part of the occipital bone; inferi-
orly, at b, to the summit of  the sternum,  and at c,  to  the
internal third of the superior border of the clavicle.
  The outer surface is covered  by the platysma  myoides,
excepting at its upper extremity, which lies  under the skin 
OF THE HEAD.
183
and  parotid  gland; between it  and the preceding muscle
the external  jugular vein  and some nervous  filaments of
the cervical plexus are situated.   The inner surface is con-
nected to the articulation of  the sternum with  the  clavicle,
the sterno-thyroideus, sterno-hyoideus,  and omo-hyoideus
muscles, the internal jugular  vein, the  carotid artery, the
pncuino-gastric  nerve, the scaleni,  the  levator scapulae, the
splenius and digastric muscles.


                      DIGASTRICUS.

   This muscle is so called from  having two  bellies,  g, g,
one of which is attached to the mastoid groove of the tem-
poral bone, and becomes tendinous in  the middle, travers-
ing  a perforation  in  h,  the  stylo-hyoideus  muscle; the
other is inserted into  the inner part of  the chin, Fig. 119,
h.   The central  tendon is  braced  down by aponeurotic
fibres to d, the os hyoides.
   The outer surface  is covered  by the  lesser complexus,
splenius,  and  sterno-cleido-mastoideus muscles ;  the sub-
maxillary gland is lodged in  the  angle  formed by  the ten-
don.  The inner surface is placed upon the stylo-hyoideus,
the  stylo-glossus, and the  stylo-pharyngeus  muscles, the
 external and internal  carotid arteries,  the internal jugular
 vein, the hypo-glossal nerve, and the hyo-glossus and mylo-
 hyoideus muscles.
   When  the mouth is shut  the action  of this  muscle  raises
 the os hyoides, and the pharynx  at the time of deglutition;
when these parts are fixed it opens the mouth.


                    STVLO-HVOIOEUS.

   The form of this muscle, Fig. 118, h, is long and  slen-
 der, having a tendinous attachment superiorly  to the styloid 
184
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 process, and inferiorly to d, the os hyoides.  1 ts perforation
 to admit the tendon of the  digastricus has been mentioned
 in the preceding description of that  muscle,  and is also
 represented in Fig.  115.
    The  digastric muscle is  extended across the  outer sur-
 face; the  inner  is  connected with the  external carotid,
 labial, and lingual arteries,  the internal jugular  vein,  the
 stylo-glossus,  stylo-pharyngeus,  and  hyo-glossus  muscles,
 and the hypo-glossal nerves.

                     MYLO-HVOIDUUS.

   This is  a  broad,  thin, triangular muscle, Fig. 115, i;
 superiorly it is attached  to  nearly the whole extent of the
 inside of the lower jaw, between the molar  teeth  and the
 chin ; inferiorly the fibres converge, and are  inserted into
 the os hyoides.   This muscle unites with its fellow  in a mid-
 dle line, which extends from the os hyoides to the chin.
   The  outer surface  is  covered by  the digastricus, the
 platysma myoides, and  the  submaxillary gland ;  the inner
 is placed in contact with  the genio-hyoideus, genio-glossus,
 and hyo-glossus, the  sub-lingual gland, the prolongation  of
 this gland, and the lingual nerve.
   This  muscle raises the  os hyoides, or depresses the jaw.

                     GENIO-HYOIDEUS.

   This  muscle,  Fig. 115, k, Fig.  119, i, is  placed above
 the preceding; its figure  is  thin  and  narrow.  Anteriorly
 it  is attached to the mental process of  the  lower jaw;  pos-
 teriorly  to the surface of the body of the  os hyoides.
   The anterior  surface is covered by  the  mylo-hyoideus ;
 the posterior is in  contact with  the genio-glossus and hyo-
glossus ; the inner edge meets that of the opposite side.
   The action of this  muscle raises the  os hyoides, carrying
it forward, or it depresses  the lower jaw. 
OF THE NECK.
185
INFERIOR HYOID  REGION.



   OMO-HYOIDEUS.


       Fig. 119.
   This muscle, c, c, and  in the  preceding  figure,  e, e, is
 situated at the side of the neck ;  it is very long, thin, and
 narrow.   Superiorly it is attached to the hyoid bone, de-
 scends obliquely across the neck, and forms a tendon in its
 centre, where it passes behind the sterno-cleido-mastoideus,
 and becoming fleshy again, is  inserted into the root of the
 coracoid process and semilunar notch of the scapula.
   The outer surface is  covered by  the  trapezius, the pla-
 tysma myoides, and the  sterno-cleido-mastoideus; we see
 in the figure the  clavicle  lying  across it.   The  inner  sur-
face corresponds to the scaleni muscles, the anterior bran-
 ches of the inferior cervical nerves, the primitive  carotid
     vol.  i.               25 
186
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
artery,  the internal  jugular vein, the  superior  thyroidean
vessels, the sterno-hyoideus and  sterno-thyroideus muscles.
  This muscle depresses the hyoid bone, drawing it a little
backwards.

                    STERNO-HYOIDEUS.

   This is a  long,  thin muscle, Fig. 119,  b,  presenting
generally towards its  middle an  aponeurotic intersection.
Superiorly it is attached  to the body of the hyoid bone;
inferiorly to the superior part of the sternum, the clavicle,
and sometimes to the  first rib.
   The clavicle passes across the  anterior surface of  this
muscle, and  is covered  by  the sterno-cleido-mastoideus,
the omo-hyoideus, the platysma-myoides, and by the com-
mon integuments.  The  posterior  surface is in apposition
with  the  sterno-thyroideus, crico-thyroideus,  and thyro-
hyoideus muscles, the thyro-hyoid membrane,  the  thyroid
gland, and the superior thyroid vessels.
   This muscle depresses  the  larynx,  and furnishes a fixed
 point for the depressors of the jaw.


                    STERNO-THYROIDEUS.

    This muscle, d,  is placed  behind  the former,  and its
 form is like it; superiorly it is attached to the  thyroid car-
 tilage ; inferiorly to  the  upper and posterior  part of the
 sternum, opposite  the cartilage of the  first  rib.   It fre-
 quently presents at its lower part an oblique or transverse
 aponeurotic intersection.
    The anterior surface is covered by the sterno-hyoideus,
 sterno-cleido-mastoideus, and omo-hyoideus muscles.   The
 posterior surface covers the subclavian and internal jugular
 veins, the primitive carotid artery,  the trachea, the thyroid 
                     OF THE NECK.                187

gland, the crico-thyroid muscle, and a part of the constric-
tor pharyngis inferior.
  This muscle draws the larynx downwards.
                  THYRO-HYOIDEUS.

  This is a small oblong muscle, e, attached  superiorly  to
the hyoid bone, and inferiorly to the thyroid cartilage.
  The anterior surface of this muscle is covered  by the
sterno-hyoideus, the omo-hyoideus, and the  platysma my-
oides; the posterior  lies  upon  the  thyroid  cartilage, and
the thyro-hyoid membrane.
  This muscle brings the larynx and  hyoid bone  towards
each other. 
188
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
          PHARYNGEAL REGION.


CONSTRICTOR  PHARYNGEUS  INFERIOR.

                 Fig. 120.
   This is the  largest muscle,  c,  of the pharynx.   It is
broad and membranous ;  anteriorly it is attached  to h, the
thyroid and cricoid cartilages, and to i, the upper rings of
the trachea ;  posteriorly it is united to its  fellow, in a ver-
tical tendinous line.   The direction of its fibres is expressed
in the figure. 
OF THE NECK.                  189
  The exterior surface is covered  by the sterno-thyroideus,
the thyroid  gland, and the  primitive carotid artery.  The
posterior  surface is connected with the  rectus capitis anti-
cus major and longus colli  muscles, and with the anterior
vertebral ligament by cellular  tissue.  The interior  surface
is covered by  the  constrictor medius,  palato-pharyngeus,
and the stylo-pharyngeus muscles, the  mucous membrane
of the pharynx, and the thyroid and cricoid  cartilages.
  This muscle  contracts that  part of the pharynx which it
covers.

            CONSTRICTOR PHARYNGIS  MEDIUS.

  This muscle, b, is of a  triangular shape situated at  the
middle part of the  pharynx.   It  is attached  anteriorly to
the greater and lesser horn of g, the  hyoid  bone,  and to
the stylo-hyoidean ligaments;  posteriorly to its fellow, in a
tendinous line at the back of  the pharynx, and superiorly it
is fixed to the basilar process of the occipital bone.   Ob-
serve the  direction of its fibres in the figure.
  This muscle  is connected on its  outer surface with  the
hyo-glossus muscle  and the lingual artery, and by the infe-
rior constrictor below; in the  rest of its extent it  is con-
nected with the  muscles of the  deep cervical region  and
the anterior vertebral ligament.  The inner surface is cov-
ered by the mucous membrane of k, the  pharynx,  the stylo-
pharyngeus, palato-pharyngeus, and the superior constrictor
muscles.
  This muscle  compresses that part of  the  pharynx which
it invests.


           CONSTRICTOR PHARYNGIS SUPERIOR.

  Like the other constrictors, this  muscle, a, is broad  and
thin ;  its  figure is nearly quadrilateral.   It is partly covered 
190
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
by the middle constrictor, and its connexions  are most ex-
tensive.  Superiorly, it  is attached to  the  occipital  bone
before the large foramen;  lower  down, to the pterygoid
process of the sphenoid bone, to the upper and under jaw
near the last molar teeth, and to k, the  buccinator muscle.
Some fibres also are fixed  to the root of the tongue and
palate.  Posteriorly, like the  two preceding, its fibres are
united in a line to the corresponding muscle.
  The outer surface is connected with  the  preceding mus-
cle,  the  stylo-glossus, the stylo-pharyngeus,  the  internal
carotid artery, the internal jugular vein, the pneumo-gastric,
hypo-glossal, and  spinal nerves.  These different parts oc-
cupy a triangular space, which is found between the con-
strictor pharyngis superior  and the pterygoideus internus.
The inner surface is connected with the palato-pharyngeus
and  the levator  palati, and  is lined by the  mucous mem-
brane of the  pharynx.
  This muscle compresses the pharynx  at the  upper  part;
the constrictors act in succession, and contract that portion
of the alimentary canal when it is filled with food, and force
it downwards into the oesophagus. 
OF THE NECK.                 191
STYLO-PHARYNGEUS.
                             This  muscle  is  situated  at
                          the  side  and back part of the
                          pharynx ; it is attached superi-
                          orly to a, the styloid process,
                          and inferiorly it is expanded on
                          the  pharynx  and back  part of
                          the thyroid cartilage.
                             The outer surface is covered
                          by the stylo-hyoideus, constrictor
                          medius,  and  external  carotid
                          artery; the inner is connected
                          with the internal carotid artery,
                          the  internal  jugular  vein,  the
                          mucous  membrane of the pha-
                          rynx,  and  the  superior  con-
                          strictor and palato-pharyngeus
muscles.
  This muscle raises the pharynx, and also draws upwards
the thyroid cartilage.
DEEP CERVICAL REGION.
            RECTUS  CAPITIS ANTICUS  MAJOR.

  This muscle, Fig. 122, a, is placed on  the anterior and
lateral part of the cervical column ;  superiorly it is attached
to the basilary process of the occipital bone; inferiorly by
small tendons to the anterior tubercle of the transverse pro-
cesses of the  third, fourth, fifth, and sixth cervical verte-
brse.  It is a little  drawn aside in the figure to show the
muscle to be next described.
  The anterior surface corresponds  to the carotid artery. 
192
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
the internal jugular vein, the pneumo-gastric nerve, the su-
perior  cervical ganglion, and  the pharynx ; the posterior
surface covers the longus colli, the rectus capitis  anticus
minor,  the articulations of the atlas with the occiput, the
articulation also of the axis or dentatus with  the atlas, and
also the transverse process of the cervical vertebras.
  If this muscle acts in conjunction with that of the oppo-
site side, it bends the head forward ; and  laterally, if it acts
by itself.
RECTUS CAPITIS  ANTICUS MINOR.
  This is a small and thin muscle, e, situated close to the
uppermost vertebra;  it is tendinous at its insertions, apon-
eurotic at its anterior surface, fleshy in the rest of its extent.
Superiorly it is attached to  the occipital bone near the con-
dyle ;  inferiorly to the atlas, or first vertebra. 
OF THE NECK.
193
  It is connected anteriorly with  the preceding muscle ;
posteriorly with the articulation of the atlas and occiput.
  This muscle assists the preceding in supporting or bend-
ing the head.

                     LONGUS  COLLI.

  This muscle, b, b, lies behind  the oesophagus, and the
great vessels and nerves  of  the  neck.   Superiorly it is
attached to the tubercle on the  interior arch  of  the atlas;
inferiorly to the anterior surface of the bodies of the first
three dorsal  and  last  four cervical vertebrae, to the inter-
vertebral fibro-cartilages, and to the anterior border  of the
transverse  processes of the third, fourth, and  fifth cervical
vertebra?.
   The anterior surface is covered by the rectus  capitis
anticus major, the pharynx, the carotid artery, the pneumo-
gastric and great sympathetic nerves, and  the oesophagus.
The posterior surface covers the vertebrae and their fibro-
cartilages to which it is attached :  on a level with the first
two dorsal vertebra?, its external  border is separated from
the anterior scalenus by a triangular space lodging the ver-
tebral artery and vein.
   The office of this muscle is to support  the neck, to bend
it forward  and to one side.

                  LATERAL CERVICAL REGION.
                   SCALENUS  ANTICUS.
   This muscle, c, is situated at  the inferior and lateral part
of the  neck.   It is elongated and divided above into several
portions; superiorly it  is attached by tendons to  the ante-
rior tubercle of  the transverse processes of the third, fourth,
fifth, and sixth cervical vertebrae;  inferiorly to the superior
border of h, the first rib.
   vol. l.                 26 
194
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
   On the  anterior surface of this muscle we find the sub-
 clavian vein, transverse and ascending cervical  arteries, the
 diaphragmatic nerve, the  omo-hyoideus  and  the sterno-
 cleido-mastoideus  muscles.  The posterior surface  forms
 with  the following muscle  a  triangular space, in which are
 lodged the subclavian artery and those cervical nerves which
 form  the brachial plexus.   The inner side  is separated from
 the longus colli by the vertebral artery and veins.
   This muscle bends the head and neck laterally, and  raises
 the first rib.

                   SCALENUS  POSTICUS.

   This muscle, d, is placed behind  the  preceding;  supe-
 riorly it is attached to the  posterior  tubercle of the trans-
 verse processes of the last six  cervical vertebra?, by six small
 tendons;  inferiorly  to  the surface of the first rib, and to
 the superior border of the  second rib.
   The anterior surface of  this muscle is connected with the
 preceding muscle, from which it is separated by the subcla-
vian artery and the anterior branches of the cervical nerves;
the posterior surface is connected with the transversus cervi-
cis, splenius, and  levator  scapulae muscles; on the  inner
side with the first dorsal and summit of the lower six trans-
verse  cervical processes.
   The anterior and posterior scaleni muscles bend  the neck
to one side;  but when the  muscles of both  sides  act they
incline the neck forwards ;  or when the neck  is fied, they
have  the power of raising the ribs and expanding the chest.


              RECTUS  CAPITIS LATERALIS.

   This is  a short, flat, and thin muscle,/ extending from
the occipital bone to the transverse process of the atlas. 
OF THE TRUNK.                 195
  It is connected anteriorly with the jugular vein ; posteri-
orly with the vertebral artery.
  This muscle bends the head  sideways.
          CHAP. IV.

MUSCLES  OF  THE TRUNK.

     ANTERIOR THORACIC REGION.

       PECTORALIS MAJOR.

             Fig. 123.
   This muscle is very large ; its  triangular form  and the
direction of its fibres  are  marked in the  figure at a, b, c.
1st, it is attached to the  inner half of a, the clavicle; 2d,
to the middle part of c, c, the whole length of the sternum ;
3d, at b, to the cartilages of the true ribs, excepting the first,
and a little to the bony portion of the fifth rib;  and lastly,
from an aponeurosis common to it with the abdominal mus-
cles.   The fleshy fibres run obliquely across the breast, and 
196
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
converging form a small tendon which is fixed to the outer
border of the bicipital groove of the os humeri.
  This tendon is shown in Fig. 124, broad and folded upon
itself, and is thus composed of two  laminae, which with the
insertion into the humerus on the inner  side of g, the long
tendon of the biceps, is very apparent.
  The anterior surface of the pectoralis major  is  covered
by the platysma myoides, see Fig. 119, by the mammary
gland, and common integuments.   The posterior surface is
situated on the sternum, the cartilages of the ribs, a part of
their osseous portions, the thoracic  vessels  and  nerves, the
subclavius,  pectoralis  minor, external intercostal,  serratus
magnus, rectus,  and obliquus abdominis muscles.   On the
axilla it is connected with the  axillary ganglia, the  axillary
vessels, the nerves of the brachial  plexus, and a consider-
able quantity of cellular tissue.
   The pectoralis major is a most powerful muscle in mov-
ing the arm ; it carries the arm inwards and forwards, and
when it  lowers it, as in striking a blow.   When the hume-
rus is fixed it acts upon the thorax,  and  becomes a muscle of
inspiration ; or it can raise the  trunk  upon the limbs, when
holding  by  the hands in climbing a tree, &c. 
OF THE TRUNK.
197
PECTORALIS MINOR.

     Fig. 124.
  This muscle, a, b, c, d, is situated behind  the  preceding
muscle; its shape and the direction of its fibres are obvious
in the figure.  Superiorly it  is attached  by  a strong  flat
tendon to d, the coracoid process of the scapula; inferiorly
by three  divisions at a, b, c,  to the  third, fourth, and fifth
ribs.
  The anterior surface is covered by the preceding muscle ;
between  them  we  find  some of the  thoracic vessels  and
nerves.   The posterior  surface is  connected with  the ribs,
the  external intercostals, the serratus  magnus, the axillary
vessels, and the brachial plexus of nerves.
  The pectoralis minor draws the shoulder bone forwards
and downwards, and when that bone is fixed it elevates the
ribs. 
198
MUSCULAR  SYSTEM
SUBCLAVIUS.


  Fig. 123.
  This muscle a, is placed obliquely under the clavicle.  It
is attached by its external extremity to the  inferior surface
of b, the clavicle ;  by  its internal extremity it is fixed by a
flat tendon at c, to the cartilage of the first rib.*
  The anterior  surface of the subclavius is covered by the
pectoralis major ; between them we observe  a thin apon-
eurosis extending from the clavicle and coracoid process of
the  scapula towards  the first  rib.  The posterior surface
is placed  upon  the axillary vessels  and  the  nerves of the
brachial plexus; indeed, these separate it from the first rib.
  This muscle brings forward and downward the clavicle,
and consequently the shoulder.
* d the sternum. 
OF THE TRUNK.                 199
LATERAL THORACIC REGION.


  SERRATUS MAGNUS.

        Fig. 126.
  The serratus magnus is situated on the side of the chest.
The form of this muscle and the direction of its fibres are
represented in the figure ; but as part of it lies between the
blade bone and the ribs, the  collar  bone  is  here divided at
d, e, and the blade bone thrown back from the trunk.  The
serratus magnus  is anteriorly attached to eight or nine of
the first  ribs, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, a, by as many digitations; 
200
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
posteriorly to b, b, b, the whole length of the  base of the
scapula.*
   The outer surface of this  muscle  is  covered by  the two
pectoral muscles, the latissimus dorsi, and subscapularis, the
axillary vessels, and the  brachial  plexus; the inner surface
is  placed over seven or eight of the first ribs, the correspond-
ing external intercostal muscles, and a portion of  the serra-
tus posticus.
   The office of this muscle is to bring the scapula forward;
when that bone is fixed, it becomes a muscle of inspiration :
the obliquity of its fibres contributes to raise the ribs.


                     INTERCOSTAL REGION.
                          Fig. 127.
  *ft the inferior portion cf the levator scapulas, g, the inferior portion of
the scalenus anticus, b, b, b, c,the subscapular!-. 
OF THE TRUNK.                201
                 INTERCOSTALES EXTERNI.

                          Fig. 127.

   These muscles  are  the external  layers of fleshy fibres
 which  fill up  the  space between  the  ribs, a specimen of
 which is marked a.  They are attached on one part to the
 inferior border of the rib;  on the other, to the superior bor-
 der of the rib beneath;  the fibres  are  oblique from above
 downwards and from behind forwards.
   The  outer  surface of  these muscles is  covered by the
 pectoral muscle, serratus magnus, obliquus externus abdom-
 inis, serratus posticus superior and  inferior, and sacro-lum-
 balis.  The inner surface is in contact with  the pleura, from
 the  tuberosity as far as the angle of the ribs ; in the rest of
 their extent they are in contact with the internal intercostal
 muscles.


                 INTERCOSTALES  INTERNI.

   These muscles,  a specimen of  which is marked b, are
 similar in number and in situation to the preceding.   They
 extend from the inferior margin  of  one rib  to the superior
 margin of the rib below, and from  the spine to the breast
 bone.  They differ  only in having the fibres pass obliquely
 from above downwards and from before backwards.
   The outer surface of this set of muscles is covered by
 the preceding  muscles, and is in contact with the inter-
 costal vessels and nerves.   The inner  surface is  lined by
 the pleura.
   The intercostal muscles are two sets of muscular  fibres,
 the one external, a,  the other internal, b, passing in contrary
directions, as  the  old  anatomists  describe them  like St
   vol. i.         27 
202
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 Andrew's cross; excepting  that  between the cartilages of
 the ribs, see Fig. 126, there is merely the  internal layer, and
 at a small space from the spine the external layer only.
   The offices of both the external and internal intercostals
 are the same;  they elevate or depress the ribs, in  the mo-
 tions of inspiration or expiration, according as the upper or
 lower attachment is the line from which they act.


                  LEVATORES  COSTARUM.

       Fig- 128-             These  are twelve very small thin
        &              triangular muscles on either side of
                       the dorsal vertebra?;  they appear as
                       if they were portions of the  exter-
                       nal  intercostals.   Each muscle  is
                       attached superiorly to the transverse
                       process of the lowest cervical and
                       the eleven uppermost dorsal  verte-
bra? ; inferiorly to a part of the upper border of the rib next
below.*  Three or four of the inferior  elevators, however,
are longer than  the  others, and  run down over one rib, to
be attached to the alternate rib ;  hence  Albinus denomina-
ted this set of muscles levatores costarum  breviores  et lonsi-
ores.
  The action of these muscles assists in raising the ribs and
in supporting the spinal column.

  *A specimen of these muscles is given in the  figure; b, the transverse
process; a, the rib.  The whole are represented in Fig. 143, b, b, b, b, b, b, b.
 
OF THE TRUNK.
203
TRIANGULARIS STERNI.


        Fig. 129.
  This muscle  is situated within the ihorax, behind  the
cartilages of the ribs.   It is attached on the outer side at a,
b, c, d, by four triangular tendinous and  fleshy portions, to
the cartilages of the third, fourth, fifth, and sixth ribs; on
the inner side to the  posterior and  inferior part of e,  the
sternum, and at/ to the ensiform cartilage.
  We have here a posterior view of  the triangularis sterni,
and this  surface is covered by the  pleura, and a small part
by the diaphragm.   The anterior surface  is covered by  the
curtilages of the ribs, the inner intercostal muscles,  and  in-
ternal mammary vessels.
  This muscle  depresses the cartilage?  and  lowers  the 
204
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
extremities of the ribs, and  is consequently subservient to
expiration.
REGION Of THE DIAPHRAGM.


    DIAPHRAGMA.


        rig. 130.
  This is a broad, thin muscle, dividing the  cavity of the
chest from the abdomen.   Its form is nearlv circular, it is 
OF THE TRUNK.                205
fleshy at its circumference, aponeurotic in the middle.   The
direction of its  radiated fibres is; represented in this figure.
Anteriorly it is attached  at o, to  the ensiform  cartilage ;
laterally to the internal surface of  the cartilages of the six
last ribs ;  posteriorly to the transverse processes of  the first
lumbar vertebra; by its left pillar at c* to the bodies of the
three first vertebra? of the same  region ;  by its right pillar
at d, to the bodies of the first four.  The structure of the
diaphragm consists in part of a three-lobed  aponeurosis, b,
b, termed the  phrenic centre,  having an  opening  for  the
vena cava, I; it is fleshy at a, a, a, in the  rest of  its extent,
and presenting posteriorly two openings, one at  m, for the
oesophagus and pneumo-gastric nerves, the other traversed
by n, the aorta; the  vena azygos  and throracic duct also
pass through it.
   The upper surface of the diaphragm is  connected with
ihe pericardium, the mediastinum,  and the  pleura ; it sup-
ports the heart and the base of the lungs.   The  lower sur-
face posteriorly is in contact with  the kidneys, the  surrenal
capsules, the pancreas, and the duodenum, on the right
side  with the liver; on the left  side with  the spleen and
stomach ;  in its whole extent  it is covered  by the perito-
naeum.
   The dipahragm performs a most important office in  the
phenomena  of  respiration;  every time  we draw  in  our
breath it contracts, and changing its vaulted form to that of
a plane, it enlarges the capacity of the chest so as to admit
of the dilation of the lungs ; it may therefore be  called the
principal muscle of inspiration.  On the other hand, when
it relaxes, the abdominal muscles press their viscera upwards;
and the diaphragm ascends in the  thorax and compresses

  * Termed  also tendinous feet, cr crura, c, d, c,f.  These feet or crura
run obliquely upwards and forwards into two fleshy portions called alec,
which mixing and  crossing fibres terminate in b, b. the tendinous centre. 
206
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
the lungs, and thus contributes to expiration.  It also  acts
in coughing, vomiting, laughing, and  speaking, and  assists
in various other functions, as in the expulsion of the con-
tents of the uterus, bladder, and intestines.
   The motion of the diaphragm is moreover subservient to
snuffing  odors,  to sighing, yawning,  coughing,  sneezing,
hiccup, and all those actions connected with inspiration and
expiration. 
OF THE TRUNK.
207
MUSCLES  OF  THE  ABDOMEN
ABDOMINAL  REGION.
OBLIQUUS ABDOMINIS RXTERNUS.



             Fig. 131.
This  muscle is situated on the anterior and lateral parts 
208
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 of the abdomen; its  figure is  broad, thin, and irregularly
 quadrilateral.  It is attached superiorly by fleshy triangular
 slips, called digitations, to the external surface  and inferior
 margin of the seven or eight last ribs ; inferiorly to the two
 anterior thirds of the edge of the hip bone.  The muscular
 fibres, i, are directed obliquely from above downwards and
 from  behind forwards,  and  about the  middle terminate
 abruptly  at b, b, the  semicircular line  (linea semicircu-
 laris), which runs from the  pubis to the ribs.  A flat tendi-
 nous expansion  or aponeurosis is then continued  to meet
 with that on the  opposite  side, where it forms a central
 tendinous cord,  a, a, termed  the white  line (linea alba),
 which extends from  the  ensiform cartilage to the  pubis.
 This line appears to be  the result  of the  reunion  of the
 aponeurosis of the two oblique and transverse muscles upon
 the median line of the abdomen ; and it is composed of in-
 extricable fibres of a very strong texture,  forming a kind of
 ligament to unite the sternum to the pelvis.  There are lines
 of a similar nature, passing  from the linea semicircularis to
 the linea alba, marked with  the letters c, c, and termed linea
 transversales.   The letter d, marks the umbilicus or navel,
 consisting of condensed cellular membrane: in the foetus
 it was  a foramen  which gave passage to the nutrient vessels,
 which  connected the  foetus  with the placenta.   Inferiorly
 the external oblique muscle  is fixed to PouparVs ligament,
 which  appears like a  strong resistent  fold stretched from
 the  anterior superior  spine of  the ilium to  the pubis.
 Near this insertion  there is a  small oblique opening at e,
 formed as  it were by the  splitting of the aponeurosis ; it
 is  named the abdominal ring:  it allows the spermatic cord
 in  the  male,  and  the  round ligament of the uterus in the
female, to pass through it.   The fibres being again united,
cross each other, and  are inserted into  the  pubes.  This
opening is likewise  strengthened  by  tendinous  fibres, 
OF THE TRUNK.
20P
which pass transversely, and in various  directions,  forming
it into an elliptical aperture.
  The outer surface of this muscle is covered  by the com-
mon integuments, and at  the  back part by the latissimus
dorsi;  the inner surface  is placed on  the anterior part of
the last eight  ribs and  their cartilages, the corresponding
intercostal muscles, and the obliquus internus.
             OBLIQUUS  ABDOMINIS  INTERNUS.

  This muscle, Fig. 131, /, is placed beliind the preceding,
and like it is broad, thin, and somewhat  quadrilateral.  It
is attached superiorly to the border of the cartilages of the
eighth, ninth,  tenth, and  eleventh ribs;  inferiorly,  to the
spine of the ilium,  to the  crural  arch, and to  the  pubis ;
posteriorly,  to the  spinous  processes  of the lumbar ver-
tebras,  and to  the  sacrum; anteriorly, to the  linea  alba.
The figure expresses by its lines the direction of the fibres ;
viz., the superior  fibres are oblique from below  upwards,
and from behind forwards ; the middle, horizontal; the infe-
rior, a little oblique from above downwards.  The  muscle
becomes aponeurotic at the linea semicircularis, and adheres
firmly to  it, then divides  into  two layers.   The  anterior
layer unites with  the tendon of the external oblique, the
internal adheres  to the muscle behind  it; they inclose  a
long muscle, k, k, and are finally  reunited at a, a, the cen-
tral linea alba.  The anterior tendon  is  here removed  to
show the rectus muscle.
  The outer surface is covered by the  preceding  muscle
and by the latissimus dorsi; the inner surface is in  contact
with the transversalis abdominis and sacro-lumbalis.
VOL. I.
oq 
210
MUSCULAR SibTEM.
TRANS V E I. S A LIS  ABDOMINIS.
Vis. 132.
  This muscle  is situated behind the oblique miotics;  its
form is similar, and  is attached  superiorly to d, the carti-
lages of the seven lower ribs ; inferiorly, to  the crest of b,
the ilium, and at c,  to the two internal third, of the crural
arch ;  posteriorly, to  the summit  of the  transverse and 
OF THE TRUNK
211
spinous processes of the four first lumbar vertebras.  The
fleshy fibres  proceed transversely,  and end in  e,  a  flat
sheet of tendon or aponeurosis, which, after being con-
nected to the tendons of the two  oblique  muscles  at  the
semicircular line, it then divides into two  laminae to form
a sheath for the rectus abdominis; the anterior lamina is
united with the aponeurosis of the^external oblique muscle,
and is extended over the front of the rectus ; the posterior
lamina is united  with  the aponeurosis of the  internal  ob-
lique, and is  extended behind  the rectus, excepting at  its
lower part; for at the middle distance  between  the umbi-
licus and pubes, a slit or  fissure is formed at h, in the apo-
neurosis of the  transversalis, through  which  the  rectus
passes, so  that  the  remainder  of the  aponeurosis  passes
before  the  rectus,  and is  anteriorly  inserted  into/ the
ensiform cartilage,  and g, the  linea  alba.  The  external
surface of this muscle is covered by  the obliquus internus,
the internal by the peritonaeum.


                   RECTUS ABDOMINIS.

  This  muscle, Fig. 131, k,  k,  Fig.  132, i,  is  situated
immediately in front of the  abdomen, on each side  of the
linea alba, under the anterior laminae of the  tendons of the
oblique muscles.   The  rectus abdominis is  long and flat,
and  is  attached  superiorly  to the cartilages  of the fifth,
sixth, and seventh ribs,  and to the ensiform cartilage ; infe-
riorly to the pubes.  It is divided by three  or  four tendi-
nous intersections, marked  in Fig.  131, c, c, denominated
the transverse lines ; by these divisions the muscle  is con-
nected firmly to the anterior part of the sheath, while it
adheres very  slightly  by  loose cellular  substance to  the
posterior layer.
  The anterior surface of  this muscle is  covered  by  the 
■212
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
aponeurosis of the pectoralis major, and by a lamina of the
abdominal  aponeurosis, except  at  the lower  part, where
we commonly find the pyramidalis.  The posterior surface
is extended over the cartilages of the  last three true ribs,
a portion of the cartilages  of the last  two  false ribs,  the
ensiform cartilage,  the  posterior  fold of  the abdominal
aponeurosis,  the internal mammary and the epigastric arte-
ries, and the  peritonaeum.
   The office of the  last-mentioned  muscles,  viz., the ex-
ternal and internal  oblique, the transversalis, and  rectus,
is  to draw  down the ribs in expiration : to bend the body
obliquely, or to one side  when one  set acts singly, but
when they act together they bend the thorax directly for-
wards.   They have  the power,  when  the ribs  are fixed, of
raising the pelvis ; they also  compress the abdominal  vis-
cera, so as to raise the  diaphragm and expel the air from
the lungs; lastly,  they assist in  the  expulsion of the fetus,
urine, and faeces.

                      PYRAMIDALIS.

   This is n very small  muscle,  Fig.  131, h,  placed  over
 the  pubes.  It is  attached  superiorly,  near  half-way be-
 tween  the pubes  and  umbilicus, to the  linea alba ; inferi
 orly to the pubes.
   It is connected  anteriorly with  the  abdominal aponeu-
 rosis ; posteriorly with the,rectus abdominis.
   This muscle merely assists the  recti muscles. 
OF THL' TRUNK
218
LUMBAR REGION.
PSOAS MAfiNUS.





    1'ig. 133.
This muscle, g, g, is  situated  on  the  side and  lower 
214
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 part of the vertebral column.   It is attached superiorly,  at
 e, to the  last vertebra of  the back, and at h, i, k, I, to the
 four superior vertebras of the  loins; inferiorlv, at m, to the
 smaller trochanter of the os femoris.
   The anterior surface of  the  psoas magnus is connected
 with the  diaphragm,  peritonaeum,  kidney, psoas  parvus,
 external iliac artery, crural artery and vein ; the inner side
 with the bodies of the lumbar vertebra? and the fibro-carti-
 lages which separate them, and with the external iliac vein
 and the pectineus ;  the posterior surface  with the quadra-
 tus lumborum, lumbar nerves, and the anterior  lamina of
 the  aponeurosis of the  transversalis  abdominis.   Lower
 down it is connected with the  os ilii and the capsular liga-
 ment of ihe hip joint.
   This muscle is  a flexor of the thigh  on the  pelvis, bend-
 ing the thigh forwards, and rolling it  outwards ; or if the
 inferior extremities are  fixed,  it will  assist in bending the
 body.

                      PSOAS PARVUS.

   This muscle, d, does  not exist in  every subject; it is
 small and thin, and placed  before  the preceding  muscle.
 It is attached superiorly, at e,  to the  last dorsal vertebra
 and fibro-caitilage, which separates  it from h, the first lum-
 bar vertebra; inferiorly, at/ to the brim of the  pelvis.*
   The anterior surface of  the  psoas  parvus  has  the dia-
 phragm, renal vessels and nerves, the peritonaeum,  and the
 external iliac artery,  extending over it; the posterior sur-
 fase is united in its whole extent by  the  cellular tissue to
 the psoas  magnus.
  The  contraction  of this muscle  will  assist  the  great
muscle in  bending the body forwards on the pelvis.
* This edge is also named the linea ilio-pectinea 
OF THE TRUNK.
215
                    ILIACUS INTERNUS.

   This muscle, o, is placed in the cavity of the ilium, from
 which it is named ;  it is large,  thick, and radiated.   It is
 attached superiorly, at p, to the two anterior  thirds of the
 crest of the ilium, and to the principal  part of the concave
 surface of  that  bone; its  converging  fibres join g, the
 psoas magnus, and are  inserted  inferiorly with it by one
 common tendon  into (m) the small trochanter of the thigh
 bone.
   The 'anterior surface of this muscle is covered  above by
 the peritonaeum on the right, and  by the coecum; on the
 left, by the sigmoid  flexure of the colon ; more inferiorly,
 that is, below  the crural arch,  by  the  sartorius,  the  pec-
 tmeus, and by the crural vessels and nerves.  The posterior
 surface is extended over the iliac fossa,  the superior part of
 the rectus femoris, and the hip joint.
  This muscle powerfully assists in bending the  thigh on
the pelvis, or  the latter on  the thigh ; it acts strongly in
progression, and in maintaining the  body in the  erect posi-
tion.
                 Q.UADRATUS LUMBORUM.

   The name of this muscle, a, a, is expressive of its figure
 and situation.   It is attached superiorly, at b,  to  the last
 nb ; inferiorly, at  c,  to  the  posterior part of the crest of
 the ilium, and to the  ilio-lumbar ligament; and on the
 inner side, by tendons,  to the transverse processes of the
 four first lumbar vertebras.
  This muscle has the  power of inclining the body to one
side;  if both  muscles act, they  are flexors  of the  chest
upon the hips, and reciprocally the pelvis upon  the trunk. 
216
MWSCULAR SYSTEM
LEVATOR ANI.

    Fig. 135.
  This muscle, k, with its fellow, is  a sort of concave floor
to the abdominal and pelvic cavity, or it may be compared
to a shallow funnel surrounding the extremity of the intes-
tine.  It is very  thin, and  is attached superiorly  to  the
inner part of the pubes,  to the superior part of the obtu-
rator foramen, and to the spine of the  ischium; inferiorly,
the middle  and anterior fibres unite beneath the  rectum
enveloping this intestine; the most anterior seem attached
to the prostate gland ; other  fibres spread forwards on the
commencement of the urethra, and  backwards to n, the os
coccygis. forming a tendinous line. 
OF THE TRUNK.
217
  The outer surface of this muscle is connected by a layer
of cellular tissue to the  gluteus maximus,  the  obturator
internus, and transversus perinasi.  The inner surface is
connected with the bladder, prostate gland and lower part
of the rectum.
  The use of this muscle, as its name  implies, is  to  draw
up the rectum after its contents have been expelled.

                      COCCTGEUS.

  This is a thin,  flat  triangular  muscle,/ attached on the
one  part  to  g,  the  spinous  process  of the ischium; its
fibres  diverge, and are inserted on the  other part into  n,
the border of  the os coccygis, and into h, the extremity of
the sacrum.
  The posterior  surface of  this  muscle,  which inclines
downwards, is covered by the sacro-sciatic  ligaments ;  the
anterior is connected  to the rectum by  cellular tissue.
  This muscle moves the coccyx,  and  secures  it  in its
situation.

                     SPHINCTER ANI.

  This muscle, e, is of an oval figure,  open in its centre;
its fibres surrounding  the extremity of  the rectum or anus
are accurately expressed in the figure.   It is attached, at
n, to the os coccygis,  by a species  of cellular tendon, from
whence two fleshy  fasciculi  proceed,  uniting  together  in
front of the anus.
  The upper surface  is connected with  the levator ani by
a cellular tissue ;  the  lower surface is covered by the com-
mon integuments.
  This muscle closes the  anus, and  in the male  draws
down the bulb of the urethra.
     vol.  i.             29 
218
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
                GENITAL  REGION.

                     I. IN THE MALE.

                      CREMASTER.

  This muscle consists of a few scattered fibres, sent off by
the obliquus internus abdominis, over the spermatic cord,
and expanded upon the tunica vaginalis  testis.   For a view
of this muscle we must refer back to Fig. 131, g.
  This muscle draws up the testis.


        ISCHIO-CAVERNOSUS, OR  ERECTOR  PENIS.

   This is a small, elongated muscle,  c, placed along  the
ramus of the ischium, and root of o,  the  corpus caverno-
sum.  It is attached on the one part to the tuber ischii, and
on the other part to  the  fibrous  membrane of the corpus
cavernosum.
   The  outer  surface corresponds  with the ramus of the
ischium ;  the inner is connected with the transversus peri-
nsei and bulbo-cavernosus.
   This muscle draws the root of the penis downwards and
backwards.


       BULBO-CAVERNOSUS, OR  ACCELERATOR URINffi.

   This muscle, d, is  situated beneath  the bulb of the ure-
 thra,  and covers part of p, the corpus spongiosum.   It
 is attached to  these parts,  and its fibres  are  confounded
 with the  muscles of the anal  region; but it is separated
 from its fellow  muscle by a tendinous line. 
OF THE TRUNK.
219
  The supenor  surface  covers  the  bulb and  commence-
ment of the spongy portion of the urethra  and corpus cav-
ernosum;  the  inferior surface is connected with  the  pre-
ceding muscle and common integuments.
  This muscle compresses the  posterior part  of the ure-
thra, and  urges  forward  any fluid  which that  canal  may
contain ;  hence  it has been  sometimes  denominated acce-
lerator urinae, vel ejaculator seminis.
                TRANSVERSUS  PERINJEI.*

  This is  a flat  and thin muscle, /; the name indicates its
situation.   It is attached on its outer part to the ramus and
tuberosity  of the ischium ; on the inner part to the middle
line, with its fellow on the opposite side.
  The exterior surface is covered by  the  common integu-
ments ; its other relations may be seen in the figure.
  This muscle is supposed to dilate the  urethra; it cer-
tainly supports the lower part of the bladder and rectum.
  There is frequently another slip of  muscular fibres, tak-
ing the same course, termed transversus perinai alter.
                    II. IN THE FEMALE.

       ISCHIO-CAVERNOSUS, OR ERECTOR CL1TORIDIS.

  This muscle is similar to that just described in the other
sex, but is  much smaller.   It is attached on the outer side
to the tuber ischii; on the inner it terminates by embracing
the cavernous body of the clitoris.

  *The perinceum is that space which is between the genitals and anui, 
220
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
CONSTRICTOR VAGINA.


       Fig. 136.
  This muscle, a, consists of a number of muscular fibres,
forming a sort of broad fleshy ring surrounding the vagina*
  This muscle contracts the part which it embraces.
* b, the pubis, c, the bladder, d, the uterus, e, the rectum, 
OF THE TRUNK.
221
MUSCLES OF THE POSTERIOR  PART OP THE  TRUNK.





                  LUMBO-DORSAL REGION.





                      TRAPEZIUS.




                         Fit'. i?r.
 
222
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
  The trapezius is a broad, flat, muscle,  a, b, d, and Fig.
138, a, e, d, situated  at  the  posterior  part  of  the  neck,
shoulder, and upper part of the back.   It is attached supe-
riorly,  at a, the  superior transverse  line of the occipital
bone, and to the cervical ligament, and to the spinous pro-
cess of the seventh  cervical  vertebra;  inferiorly  to  the
spinous processes of all the dorsal vertebra; on the outer
side to d, the spine of the scapula, and  the  edge  of  this
muscle slides over e, a triangular space at  the extremity of
that bone, to the  acromion, and  to c,  the external third of
the clavicle.  The direction  of the fibres is  shown by the
lines of the engraving.
  The posterior surface of the trapezius is entirely  covered
by the common integuments ;  the anterior surface is con-
nected  at its upper  and  inner part  with the  complexus
major ;  further down with the splenius, levator  anguli  sca-
pulas, and serratus posticus superior  : at its lower part it
covers the supra-spinatus, infra-spinatus,  rhomboideus, la-
tissimus  dorsi, and sacro-lumbalis muscles.
   When all the  fibres of this muscle act simultaneously,
they draw back the  scapula and clavicle ; the upper fibres
will elevate the tip of the shoulder, the lower will move it
backwards and obliquely  downwards.  If the  shoulder is
fixed, the trapezius has the power of  inclining the head to
one side.
                   LATISSIMUS DORSI.

  This is a large, thin, flat muscle, placed on the back and
side of the lower part of the trunk.  It is attached supe-
riorly,  at /  to  the inner  edge of the groove in  the  os
humeri, which  receives the  long  tendon of the biceps;
inferiorly, to the posterior  half of g, the external  border
of the crest of  the  ilium, and at /, to the back  and  upper 
OF THE TRUNK.
223
part of the sacrum ;  on the inner side it is fixed to the spi-
nous  processes (from b to I) of all the  lumbar  vertebrae,
and to those of the six or seven lower dorsal; on  the outer
side to  the four last  ribs, at n, n, n, n, by as many digi-
tations.  The direction of the  fibres is expressed in the
figure;  they  are aponeurotic at the internal  and inferior
part of  the muscle,  tendinous at its  insertion into the hu-
merus, and fleshy in other parts.  The superior edge passes
over the inferior angle of the scapula at m, and sometimes
has a slip attached to it, and the margin at / forms the fold
of  the back- part of the arm-pit.  This muscle is also  repre-
sented in Fig. 138, at b.
   The posterior  surface of this muscle is covered by the
 integuments, excepting at its upper  and inner part,  which
 is covered by a,  d,  b, the trapezius.   The anterior surface
 is connected with the obliquus abdominis, serratus posticus
 inferior, sacro-lumbalis, levatores costarum, external inter-
 costal muscles, the serratus  magnus,  rhomboideus, teres
 major, infra-spinatus, the  lower ribs, and  the inferior angle
 of the  scapula.
    The office of the latissimus dorsi  is  to carry the  arm
 backwards and downwards ; or when the  hand is fixed, to
 bring forward the body. 
224
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
DORSO-CERVICAL REGION.
RHOMBOIDEUS.





    Fig. 133.
The situation  and  form  of this  muscle, i, / is  clearly 
OF THE  TRUNK.
225
exhibited in the figure.   It is attached  by its internal mar-
gin to the  posterior cervical  ligament, to the spinous pro-
cess of the seventh cervical vertebra,  and to  those of the
four or five first dorsal; by its internal margin, at n,  to all
the base of the  scapula below o, the  spine  of that bone.
This muscle is divided by a cellular line into two portions:
therefore frequently denominated, / the rhomboideus major,
i, the rhomboideus minor.
  The posterior surface of the rhomboideus is covered by
the trapezius  and  latissimus dorsi; the  anterior surface
covers the serratus posticus superior, the splenius, the sacro-
lumbalis, the ribs and external intercostal  muscles.
  The action  of this muscle is  to bring the scapula ob-
liquely upwards and directly backwards.
VOL. I-
30 
226
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
LEVATOR SCAPULJE.


     Fig. 139.
  This is a long, thick muscle,  a,  placed at the side  and
back of the neck.   It is attached  superiorly to the trans-
verse processes of four or five of the superior vertebra? of
the neck, by  distinct tendons; these unite  and form  a
strong muscle, which is fixed inferiorly into the base of the
scapula above e, the spine.   See also Fig.  133, h.
   The outer surface of this muscle  is covered on the upper
part by the sterno-cleido-mastoideus, in the middle by the 
OF THE TRUNK.
227
skin, and below by the trapezius.  The inner surface is con-
nected with the serratus posticus superior, the sacro-lumba-
lis, and splenius.
   This muscle raises the  posterior  angle  of the  scapula,
and consequently depresses  the tip of the shoulder ; it has
the power also of inclining the  neck to one side, or main-
taining it in an erect position when it acts  in conjunction
with its fellow.

              SERRATUS POSTICUS  SUPERIOR.

   This muscle, g, is very thin ; its  situation and  form are
delineated  in  the figure.   It  is attached  by  its internal
border  to  the posterior cervical  ligament,  to the spinous
process of  the last cervical  vertebra, and to  those of the
three upper dorsal; outwardly, by  distinct  fleshy portions,
or digitations, into the second, third, fourth, and sometimes
the fifth ribs, a little beyond the angle.
   The posterior  surface  is  connected  with the  rhomboi-
deus, the  levator  anguli  scapulas,  serratus magnus, and
trapezius ;  the anterior surface with the splenius,  longis-
simus dorsi, transversalis colli, sacro-lumbalis, ribs, and the
external intercostals.
   The action  of this muscle dilates the thorax, by elevating
the ribs.

              SERRATUS POSTICUS  INFERIOR.

   For the form of this muscle,  the  reader is referred back
to the preceding engraving, Fig. 138,7.   It is situated  at
the inferior part of the  back, and,  like the serratus supe-
rior, is broad and thin.  It is attached  by its  inner border
to the spinous processes of the two  lower dorsal vertebrae,
and to those of the three upper lumbar ; at its outer border,
by distinct  slips into the four inferior ribs. 
228
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
  The posterior surface is connected with  the  latissimus
dorsi; the anterior  surface  with the  three lower ribs, the
corresponding intercostal muscles, and the posterior lamina
of the aponeurosis of the transversalis abdominis.
  This muscle depresses the ribs, and  draws them  back-
wards.
                        SPLENIUS.

  This muscle, Fig. 138, k, Fig. 139, b, c, d, is  placed
obliquely  at  the  back  of the  neck ; its  form is elongated
and flattened.  It is divided by a line of cellular membrane
into two portions, which have sometimes been considered
as two muscles, and in the last-mentioned figure is attached
superiorly at b,  to  the mastoid process of the  temporal
bone, and at c, to the occipital bone immediately below the
superior transverse ridge; inferiorly, at  d, to the last cervi-
cal and six upper dorsal vertebrae.
  The  external surface of the splenius is  connected with
the  sterno-cleido-mastoideus,  the trapezius, levator  anguli
scapulae, serratus posticus superior, and rhomboideus ; the
internal surface with the great and little complexus.
  The contraction of this muscle will  turn the  head, or
incline the head  and neck completely backwards ; when
both muscles act together,  they bend the head  directly ,
backwards. 
OF THE TRUNK,
229
COMPLEXUS.

   Fig. 140.
   The situation  and  form of this muscle,  a,  is obvious in
the figure  before us.   It is attached  superiorly, at  b,  be-
tween the transverse ridges of the occipital bone ;  inferiorly,
by isolated  fasciculi of tendinous and  fleshy fibres, at c, c,
c, c, c, c, to the  transverse and articular  processes  of the
last six  cervical  vertebras, and  at e, e, e, e, to  the trans-
verse processes of the four  or five first dorsal  vertebrae.
These attachments are frequently confounded  with those
of the transversus colli.
   The external  surface is connected   with the  trapezius,
splenius, and  trachelo-mastoideus ; the  internal with the 
230
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
semi-spinalis colli, the arteria cervicalis  profunda,  the pos-
terior  branches  of the  cervical  nerves,  the rectus capitis
posticus minor, and the obliquus capitis inferior.
  This muscle  draws the head backwards and to one side.
When the two act together, the face is turned upwards.
TRACHELO*-MASTOIDEUS.

          Fig. 141.
   This muscle is much smaller than the preceding, and is
placed on  its outer edge.   It is attached superiorly at  a,
to the posterior part of the mastoid process of the temporal
bone ; inferiorly, at  b,  to  the transverse processes  of the
four last cervical vertebrae, and sometimes, at c, to the first

  * So called from a Greek word for the spine. This and the former mus-
cles are as frequently denominated  complexus major et minor, and their
resemblance may be seen by comparing the figures before us. 
OF THE TRUNK.
231
dorsal,  by distinct  tendinous and fleshy fasciculi.   The
trachelo-mastoideus is also connected at its inner edge by a
fleshy band to the longissimus dorsi.  Both this and the pre-
ceding muscles are traversed by aponeurotic intersections or
bands, varying in direction and position.
  The outer  surface of this muscle is  connected with the
splenius and  transversalis colli; the inner with the complex-
us  and obliquus  capitis, the posterior  extremity  of the
digastricus, and the occipital artery.
  The action of this muscle  keeps  the  head  erect, or in-
clines it a little backwards or to one side, without rotation.

             POSTERIOR OCCIPITO-CKRVICAL REGION.

             RECTUS CAPITIS POSTICUS MAJOR.
                          Fig. 1-J2.
  This is a small muscle, a, situated on the upper part of
the back  of the neck.   It is  attached superiorly  to  the
lower transverse ridge of the occipital  bone, and to part of 
232
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
the depression above that ridge,  between  the rectus capitis
posticus minor and obliquus capitis  superior.  Inferiorly it
is fixed to the spinous  process of  the dentata or  second
cervical vertebra.
  The posterior surface of this  muscle is connected with
the complexus and  obliquus capitis  superior ; the anterior
surface with the occipital bone, the atlas,  the rectus capitis
posticus  minor and the vertebral artery.
             RECTUS  CAI'ITIS POSTICUS  MINOR.

  This is a very small muscle, b, attached superiorly to the
occipital bone behind the foramen magnum, and  a little to
the side of the inferior curved line ; inferiorly to  the tuber-
cle  at the posterior arch of the atlas.
  The posterior  surface  of  this muscle, which is inclined
downwards, is connected with the great complexus and with
the preceding muscle; the anterior  surface  with the occi-
pital bone, the atloido-occipital ligament, and  the  vertebral
artery.
               OBLIQUUS  CAPITIS SUPERIOR.

  The  relative size and  situation  of  the  obliquus capitis
superior, c, is expressed in the figure ;  it is attached superi-
orly to  the outer  part of the curved line of  the occipital
bone;  inferiorly to the transverse process of the first cervical
vertebra, in front of b, the preceding muscle.
  The posterior surface  is  connected  with  the complexus,
the trachelo-mastoideus, and the splenius ; the anterior with
the occipital bone, the vertebral artery, and the attachment
of the rectus capitis posticus major. 
OF THE TRUNK.
233
               OBLIQUUS  CAPITIS  INFERIOR.

  This muscle, d, will be found to resemble very much the
superior oblique ; it is attached superiorly to  the transverse
process of  the atlas, and inferiorly to the  spinous process of
the dentata.
  The posterior surface is  connected with  the  complexus
and trachelo-mastoideus ; the anterior with  the second ver-
tebra, and  with the posterior ligament uniting the  axis and
atlas, and with the vertebral artery.
  The office of the four muscles just described, according
to  their several directions  and obliquity, is  to  rotate  the
head, incline it backwards or to  one side, and to maintain
the head in the erect  position.


                INTERSPINALES CERVICIS.

  There  are six very  small  muscles, at e, e, e, e, e, e, on
either side  of the intervals of the  spinous processes of  the
neck.  Each of them  is  attached  superiorly to  the  lower
surface of the spinous process, and inferiorly to the  upper
surface of the next spinous process below it.
  These  muscles  draw  the spinous  processes  nearer to
each other, and consequently incline  the  head backwards.
Similar  seta of muscles  occupy the  spaces between  the
spinous process of the vertebrae of the back  and loins; in
the  neck, however, they are double, corresponding to the
bifurcations of the spinous processes.   In  the  back and
loins they are indistinct, and  are  rather  like tendons than
muscles.
VOL. I.
31 
234
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
VERTEBRAL REGION.
LONGISSIMUS  DORSI.





      Fig. 143.
The longissimus dorsi, d, d, constitutes part of the thick 
OF THE TRUNK.
235
muscular mass which occupies the space  between  the spi-
nous processes of the vertebrae and  the  angle of the ribs.
On the inner side it is attached by small double tendons to
all the transverse  processes of the  back, and to  the last
transverse process of the neck ;  from its outer side it sends
off fleshy and tendinous filaments, which are inserted into
the eight lower ribs.  Inferiorly, it is attached in common
with the sacro-lumbalis.
  The internal surface of the longissimus dorsi is connect-
ed with the  multifidus spinae, complexus, and transversalis
colli; the external is contiguous to the sacro-lumbalis; the
anterior is placed upon the levatores  costarum, the ribs, the
transverse processes of the  vertebras,  the  posterior  costo-
transverse ligaments, the  dorsal vessels  and  nerves, and a
portion of the external intercostal muscles.   The posterior
surface is connected with the aponeurosis of the obliquus
internus  and  transversalis abdominis,  serratus  posticus
superior,   latissimus  dorsi, trapezius,  rhomboideus,  and
splenius. 
2JJ
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
SACRO-LUMBALIS.
  This muscle, a, a, is situated on the outer side of b, the
longissimus dorsi, extending from the sacrum  to the neck. 
OF THE TRUNK
237
On the  right side of the figure we see it  attached  on  the
outer part of the lower  edge of  all the ribs, by as many
distinct tendons ; on the inner part we find it is attached to
the upper border of nine or  ten  of the  lower ribs by  as
many tendons.   The muscle on the left side is drawn back
with the hook,/ to show these tendons.   There are some
portions of this  muscle  marked g, g, which  are  inserted
into the transverse  processes of five  or six  of  the lower
cervical vertebrae by  as many distinct  tendons.   These
fasciculi are  frequently  described  under  the  name of the
cervicalis descendens.   The sacro-lumbalis is inferiorly fleshy
within and aponeurotic without; and,as I before observed,
forms one inseparable muscle with the longissimus dorsi,
which is attached at e,  to the sacrum, the posterior spine of
the ilium,  all the spinous processes, and near  the roots of
the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebras:  not sepa-
rating from b, b, its companion just mentioned, till it reaches
the ribs.
   The anterior  surface of the sacro-lumbalis  is  connected
with the  aponeurosis  of the transversalis  abdominis, the
ribs, and external intercostal muscles, the longissimus dorsi,
and transversalis colli.  The inner side  with the longis-
simus dorsi; the outer side  with  the  line of  union of the
posterior laminae of  the aponeurosis of the transversalis ab-
dominis.
   The longissimus  dorsi and sacro-lumbalis  preserve  the
vertebral column from  yielding to  the  weight  placed on it
and before it; in a word, they are the most powerful mus-
cles that are employed  in keeping the body erect.

                 TRANSVERSALIS  COLLI.

   This  muscle, Fig. 143, a, lies on the inner side of the
longissimus dorsi, and  is indeed  sometimes considered  as
an  appendage  to it.  It is  attached  superiorly, by small 
238
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
tendons,  to the transverse processes of the second, third,
fourth, fifth, and  sixth  cervical vertebrae;   inferiorly it is
fixed by tendinous and  fleshy slips  to  the transverse pro-
cesses of the third, fourth, fifth, sixth, and  seventh  dorsal
vertebrae.
   The posterior edge of this muscle is  blended with the
trachelo-mastoideus  muscle: in the  middle it is connected
with the levator anguli  scapulas  and the serratus posticus
superior, and below with the longissimus dorsi.  The ante-
rior edge is connected with the transverse processes of the
second cervical to the eighth  dorsal vertebra.  The outer
surface corresponds  with the splenius,  levator  anguli sca-
pulae, and  sacro-lumbalis ;  the inner with the complexi and
part of the multifidus spinas.
   This muscle turns the neck  obliquely backwards and  to
one side.

                   MULTIFIDUS SPlNiE.

   The fasciculi, c, c, Fig. 143, composing this  mass  of
muscles, are placed obliquely from  the transverse processes
to  the spinous processes.   They are attached  by distinct
tendons to all  the spinous, transverse, and  articular pro-
cesses of the six last cervical vertebras, the twelve dorsal, and
the five lumbar, and to the posterior surface of the sacrum.*
   The posterior surface of these muscles is connected with
the trachelo-mastoideus, arteria cervicalis profunda, posteri-
or cervical nerves,  and longissimus dorsi; the anterior sur-
face with  the plates of the  vertebras, their  transverse and
oblique processes, and the ligamenta subflava ; on the inner
side with the spinous processes of the vertebrae, the  inter-
spinal'^ cervicis, and the  dorsal and lumbar interspinous
ligaments.

  ■These have been described by some anatomists as three distinct sets of
muscles, viz. transversospinalis colli, transversospinal is dorsi. transvcrso-
spinalis lumborum. 
OF THE TRUNK.
239
   The office of these  muscles is to incline  the  vertebral
 column to one side ; but when the muscular fibres on each
 side act, they keep the body erect.


               INTER-TRANSVERSALES COLLI.

   These are small muscles which fill up the spaces between
 the  transverse  processes  of  the vertebras  of the  neck.
 They are  distinguished into  anterior, six in number  on
 either side, and into posterior, five  in  number.   The two
 muscles of each  interval  are  separately attached,  and ex-
 tend from the  inferior  border of the transverse process of
 the vertebra above, to the superior border of the transverse
 process of the vertebra  below.
   The anterior set are  connected in  front with the rectus
 capitis anticus major;  the posterior behind, with  the  sple-
 nius, transversalis colli,  and sacro-lumbalis.
   These muscles contribute to  the lateral motions of the
 neck.

            INTER-TRANS VERSALES  LUMBORUM.

   Between the transverse processes of the lumbar vertebras
 are fleshy fasciculi, similar to those  just described.  There
 are five on each side ; they are stronger  and  more distinct
 than the preceding muscles.
   Their posterior surface  is connected with the sacro-lum-
 balis; the anterior  with the quadratus lumborum.   Their
 lower and upper edges are connected with the correspond-
 ing adjacent transverse processes by means of short apon-
 eurotic fibres.
   These muscles are supposed to bend the lumbar region
of the  vertebral column laterally ; the short muscles of the
spine certainly strengthen the  back   during muscular exer-
tions. 
240
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
                   CHAP.  V.


         MUSCLES OF THE  EXTREMITIES.

MUSCLES  OF  THE SUPERIOR  EXTREMITY.

           MUSCLES OF  THE  SHOULDER.
POSTERIOR SCAPULAR REGION.

    SUPRA-SPINATUS.

        Fig. 145.
  This muscle, I, fills up the cavity above the spine of the
scapula.  Its attachment on the  inner side is  fleshy, from
the whole concave  surface above /;, the spine of the  sca-
pula, from  the spine, and from the superior border of that
bone, passing under the acromion and adhering to the cap-
sular ligament of the joint; on the outer part  it forms a
strong tendon, which is inserted into the greater tuberosity
of the humerus. 
OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY.         2 tl
  The posterior surface of this muscle is  connected with
the trapezius, deltoides, and coraco-acromial ligament; the
anterior with the fossa supra-spinata, the  superior  scapular
vessels and nerves, and with the  capsule of the  shoulder
joint.
  This muscle raises the arm, and if the arm is fixed it acts
upon the shoulder.

                    INFRA-SPINATUS.

  The infra-spinatus, a, b, c, d, occupies that space on the
back of the  scapula which is  below the spine.   It is at-
tached, on the inner side, to the two internal thirds of the
infra-spinata  fossa; the fibres converge towards  a central
tendon which runs over the neck of the bone, adheres to
the  capsular  ligament, and is  inserted into d, the greater
tuberosity of the humerus.
  The posterior surface of the infra-spinatus is connected
with the deltoides, trapezius, latissimus dorsi, and integu-
ments ;  the  anterior  surface with the infra-spinata fossa,
from which  it is  separated, in its outer third, by cellular
tissue, and by the  superior scapular nerve and vessels.   It
is  also applied  upon  the capsule of  the  shoulder joint.
The lower edge, is confounded with e, /  the teres  minor.
  This muscle turns the arm outwards, and assists in rais-
ing it.

                      TERES MINOR.

  This muscle, e, / is placed along  the  inferior border  of
the scapula.   A strong aponeurosis  covers  this  and  the
infra-spinatus; indeed, the  two muscles  in  some  subjects
are  so closely united,  as to be with difficulty separated.
On the inner part, it is attached to the inferior angle of the
scapula, and to the  third  of  the inferior  border of that
     vol. i.               32 
242               MUSCULAR SYSTEM
bone;  on  the  outer part it  extends to / the lower  and
back part of the tuberosity of the humerus, where it is fixed
by a strong tendon.
  The  posterior surface is  connected with  the  deltoides
and integuments ; the anterior  with the  external  scapular
artery, the long portion of the  triceps, and  the  capsule of
the articulation  of  the shoulder.   Superiorly, it is con-
nected  with c, d, the lower edge of the infra-spinatus mus-
cle ; inferiorly, with g, h, the  teres  major, from  which at
one part it is separated by i, the long portion of the triceps.
  The  office of the teres minor is  similar  to that of the
preceding muscle.


                      TERES MAJOR.

   This muscle, g, h, is situated beneath the teres  minor.
On the inner side it is attached to  the quadrilateral surface
of  the inferior border of the infra-spinata fossa, and to the
lower third of  the base of the scapula.   On  the outer side
it is inserted by a broad tendon into  the inner side of the
bicipital groove of the humerus.
   The  posterior surface is connected with  the  latissimus
 dorsi, the integuments, the humerus, and the long portion
of  the  triceps  ; the  anterior with the subscapularis, latissi-
mus dorsi, coraco-brachialis and biceps,  the axillary  vessels
and brachial plexus  of  nerves.   The lower edge is covered
by the integuments, and with the latissimus dorsi, forms the
posterior edge of the axilla.  The upper edge is  united to
the teres minor, from which at one part  it  is separated by
the long portion of  the triceps.
   The  teres major turns  the  arm  inwards and draws it
backwards. 
OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY.         243
ANTERIOR SCAPULAR REGION.


    SUBSCAPULARIS.

        Fig. 146.
  This is a very thick triangular  muscle, a, occupying the
whole of the subscapular fossa.  It is attached on the inner
side to the internal three fourths of  the  subscapular  fossa;
the fibres are  disposed in fleshy bundles with aponeurotic
septa, which, converging, slide over the inner surface of the 
244
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
neck of the scapula, and pass under i, the coracoid process;
it then forms a broad and flat tendon which adheres to the
capsule of the joint, and is  finally fixed  at c, to  the small
tuberosity of the humerus.
  The anterior surface of the subscapularis is connected by
a thick layer of cellular tissue with the serratus magnus, the
brachial plexus of nerves, the axillary artery, and the coraco-
brachialis, the biceps and the deltoid muscles; the posterior
surface with the subscapular fossa, and with the teres major,
the long portion of the triceps extensor cubiti, and with the
capsule of the articulation of the shoulder.
  When the arm is distant from the body it draws it near;
or it turns the arm inwards ; or when raised  depresses it.

                 EXTERNAL SCAPULAR REGION.
DELTOIDES.

   Fig. 147.
* So named from its resemblance  lo the Greek letter A. 
OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY.         245
  The deltoides forms  the fleshy part of the shoulder ;  its
shape and the direction  of its fibres are exhibited in the
figure.  Superiorly it is attached by aponeurotic fibres at a,
to the  external third of the clavicle;  at bt to the acromion
process;  and at c, to the lower margin of the spine of the
scapula ;  inferiofly the fibres concentrate to a tendon which
is inserted  at  d, into the deltoid impression  in the middle
part of the external surface of the humerus.  This muscle
is composed of large fasciculi of fibres separated by grooves
more or less deep.   The inner surface is aponeurotic ; and
where it  lies over the greater  tuberosity of the os humeri,
there is a bursa of  considerable size.
  The external surface of the deltoides is connected with
the platysma  myoides, the integuments ; the internal with
the infra-spinatus, teres  minor, and triceps extensor mus-
cles, the tendon of the supra-spinatus, the acromio-coracoid
ligament,  the  subscapularis,. pectoralis  minor,  biceps and
coraco-brachialis muscles, the coracoid process,  the cap-
sule of the articulation,  the superior third of the external
surface of the humerus, and tendon of the pectoralis major.
The anterior  part, which  is parallel to  the external border
of the biceps,  is separated  from the  pectoralis major by
the cephalic vein.
  The principal office  of this muscle is to raise the arm;
but it  is  also capable of moving it forwards or backwards,
according as the anterior or posterior fibres are brought
into action. 
246
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
MUSCLES OF  THE  ARM






    ANTERIOR BRACHIAL REGION.





      CORACO-BRACHIALIS.





             Fig. 148.
 
OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.          247
  We see the situation of this muscle, a, in the figure ; it
is long, flat, and narrow.   It is attached by a tendon at a,
to the apex of b,  the coracoid process of the scapula; it
terminates  tendinous about c, the middle of  the humerus,
and is inserted into a rough elevated line.
  The anterior surface is connected with  the deltoides,
pectoralis major,  and biceps ; the posterior   with the sub-
scapularis  muscle,  the united  tendons  of the latissimus
dorsi  and  teres major, the  axillary artery,  the musculo-
cutaneous and median nerves, and the brachial artery.
  This  muscle moves the arm forwards, upwards, and in-
wards.
  The  coraco-brachialis  is perforated by  a nerve called
musculo-cutaneous.   The intermuscular aponeurosis is seen
extending from the lower part of this muscle along a ridge
to the internal  condyle,  separating the brachialis internus
from the third head of the triceps.

                 BICEPS  FLEXOR  CUBITI.

   This muscle, Fig. 146, k,  is  situated  at  the front  and
 inner part  of  the arm ; it is thick at its middle portion, thin
 at its extremities, the superior of which  is divided into two
 portions.   Its short  portion is attached  at h, to the cora-
 coid  process  of the scapula, along with m,  the preceding
 muscle, and by g, its long portion, to  the superior part of
 the glenoid cavity ;  at k, the  two portions or heads form a
 thick mass, and about the middle of the  arm become insep-
 arably united ; it is finally inserted at its inferior extremity
 to I, the tubercle at the upper end of the radius, "and by a
 tendinous expansion into the aponeurosis of the fore arm.
   The anterior  surface of this  muscle  is connected with
 the deltoid and great pectoral  muscles, the brachial apon-
 eurosis, and the integuments; the posterior  with  the hu-
 merus a, Fig. 148,  the coraco-brachialis  d, e, the brachialis 
248
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
internus, and the musculo-cutaneous nerve; on the inner
side with the coraco-brachialis above, and in the middle and
below with the brachial artery.
  The biceps flexor cubiti bends the fore-arm on the arm,
and the arm on the shoulder.

                 BRACHIALIS INTERNUS.

  This  muscle,  d, e, is situated at the anterior and inferior
part of  the arm.   At its upper extremity, d, it is attached
on  each side of the insertion of the deltoides,  to the ex-
ternal and  internal surface of c, the humerus, and to most
of the lower  and fore part of the bone, as far as the articu-
lation of the  elbow joint; it has also  an attachment to the
external and  internal aponeurosis, and inferiorly,  by a
strong tendon at e, to the rough surface immediately below
the coronoid  process of  the  ulna.   The  fibres pass over
the joint, and adhere to the capsular ligament.
  The  anterior  surface of this muscle is connected with
the brachial aponeurosis and the integuments, the supinator
radii longus,  the biceps, the musculo-cutaneous nerve, the
brachial artery, the median nerve, and the pronator teres ;
the posterior  surface with  the inferior part of the humerus,
and the  articulation of the elbow.
  The brachialis internus bends the fore-arm.

               TRICEPS EXTENSOR  CUBITI.

  The triceps, / g, h, i,  occupies  all the posterior part of
the arm.  It  is very  thick and fleshy, and is divided at the
upper part into  three portions, from whence it derives its
name.   Of these, the first or middle,  which  is longer and
larger than the others, is attached by a broad tendon,/ to
the inferior border  of the  scapula, near its neck ; it then
forms a large fleshy mass, which covers  the back of the 
              OF THE  UPPER EXTREMITY.          249

os humeri.   The second, or outer portion, g, is attached
by a pointed  extremity  to the outer and back part of the
os humeri, below the great tuberosity, and to a ridge which
runs from that eminence to the outer condyle, and to the
intermuscular  aponeurosis, which  is common to it and the
brachialis internus.   The third or inner  portion, h, which
is the shortest, commences by an acute  form  from the
inner edge of  the os humeri near its middle, and receives
an addition of fibres from the  intermuscular partition;  its
fleshy fasciculi descend backwards and  outwards.   The
three portions  of this muscle unite about the middle of the
humerus, invest the whole back part of the bone, and ter-
minate by a very strong, broad, and thick tendon, which is
inserted into the upper part  of  the olecranon.
   The posterior surface of the  triceps extensor is connect-
ed above with the deltoides  and teres  minor, the brachial
aponeurosis and integuments.   The anterior surface is con-
nected with  the subscapularis, teres major, and  latissimus
dorsi, the  capsule of the articulation of  the  shoulder, and
the posterior part of the elbow joint.
   The triceps  extensor, by extending the fore-arm, acts in
opposition to the biceps flexor.  The long portion has the
power of carrying the arm backwards.
VOL. i.
33 
260
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
          M U S C L E S  OF  T UK  F O R E - A R M .

              ANTERIOR  REGION OF  THE FORE-ARM.

                    PRONATOR TERES.

   This muscle, a, is extended obliquely across  the  upper
        Fig. m<j.            and anterior part of the fore-ami.
                         See also Fig. 150, a, b, c,  and
                         Fig. 153,  a,  b.   Superiorly it is
                         attached  to the  anterior part of
                         the inner condyle of the humerus,
                         and  to the inner side of the coro-
                         noid process of the ulna;  between
                         these two parts the median nerve
                         passes.   Inferiorly it  is  fixed to
                         the  middle part of the  external
                         surface of the radius.
                           The  anterior  surface  of  this
                         muscle is connected with the apo-
                         neurosis  of the fore-arm and inte-
                         guments, the supinator  radii long-
                         us, the radial vessels  and nerves,
                         and  the  external radial muscles ;
                         the posterior surface with the bra-
                         chialis  internus, the flexor  subli-
                         mis,  the  median nerve, and  the
                         ulnar artery ; on the  inner side
                         with the  triangular space for  the
                         tendon of the biceps,  the brachial
                         artery,  the median nerve, and the
                         supinator radii brevis.
  The pronator teres turns the radius and hand inwards, or
it may assist as a flexor of the fore-arm.
 
OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.           251
                FLEXOR CARPI RADIALIS.

  This muscle, b, is situated on the inner  side of the  pre-
ceding.    It has a tendinous attachment to the fore part of
the inner condyle of the humerus, fleshy to the  fascia and
intermuscular  aponeurosis, and to the  upper end  of the
ulna.  The extent of its muscular fibres is marked in the
figure.  The tendon of this muscle passes under the annu-
lar ligament of the wrist, through a groove  in the trapezium,
and is fixed to the base of the metacarpal  bone which sus-
tains the fore-finger.
  The anterior surface of  the flexor carpi radialis is con-
nected externally with a, the  pronator teres, and with the
aponeurosis of the fore-arm ;  the posterior surface with the
flexor digitorum perforatus, the flexor longus pollicis muscles,
and the  wrist.
  This muscle bends the wrist, turning it  a little inwards.
It' also serves as a flexor of  the fore-arm.


                   PALMARIS  LONGUS.

  This muscle, c, d, is not always  to be found in the arm.
It has a  slender form, and  is  attached superiorly by tendi-
nous fibres to the inner condyle of the os humeri;  it then
forms, at c, a thin fleshy mass, which, about the middle of
the arm, sends off a small  tendon which is inferiorly adhe-
rent to the annular ligament, and  is spread out into a very
strong tendinous membrane, d, named the palmar aponeuro-
sis, which is finally fixed to  the roots of all the fingers.
  The anterior surface is connected  with  the aponeurosis
of the fore-arm ; the posterior surface with the  superficial
flexor of the fingers.
  The palrnaris bind down  the muscles of  the  palm of the
hand, and its  aponeurosis  protects the  blood-vessels  and
nerves in their course to the fingers. 
252
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
                 FLEXOR  CARPI ULNARIS.

  The flexor  carpi  ulnaris, e, is situated  internally to the
preceding muscles of the  fore-arm.   It  is half-penniform,
and is attached by means  of a common tendon to the inner
side of the olecranon, and to  the posterior  border of the
ulna; a number of its fibres  are also  united to the apon-
eurosis of the fore-arm.   Inferiorly it  becomes tendinous,
and is inserted into the pisiform bone, and  some fibres are
detached from it to the annular ligament of the wrist.
  The anterior  surface of this muscle  is  connected  with
the aponeurosis of the fore-arm ; the posterior surface  with
the deep flexor of the fingers,  the ulnar artery and nerve,
and the pronator quadratus, and on the outer edge with the
flexor sublimis.
  This muscle bends the  wrist, inclining it a little towards
the ulna.   When  it  contracts at the same  time with the
flexor carpi ulnaris, it draws the hand directly upwards. 
OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.          253
FLEXOR DIGITORUM SUBLIMIS VEL  PERFORATUS.
Fig. 150.
   This muscle, d, e, it situated  immediately beneath  the
                         preceding muscles.  It is attached
                         superiorly at d, to the inner con-
                         dyle of the humerus ;  at b, to the
                         coronoid process of the ulna; and
                         at c, to  the upper part of the an-
                         terior border of the radius; these
                         several  attachments as they  de-
                         scend form a  strong fleshy mass,
                         which sends off four tendons ; the
                         tendons are connected by cellular
                         tissue, and pass under the annular
                         ligament of the wrist; from thence
                         diverging as they proceed towards
                         their respective fingers, each ten-
                         don, as  it were, splits  at  the ex-
                         tremity of the first phalanx for the
                         passage  of the  flexor  profundus,
                         and is  attached  to  the second
                         phalanx.
                           In this figure the fibrous sheaths
                         of the  fingers are pinned open ;
                         and in  the fore finger, at g, we
                         observe the splitting of the tendon
                         just mentioned.
                           The   anterior  surface  of this
                         muscle is connected with  the pro-
nator teres, the flexor carpi radialis, the palmaris  longus, the
aponeurosis of the fore-arm, the annular ligament, the pal-
mar  aponeurosis,  the fibrous sheaths of the fingers, and
with the tendons of the deep flexor.  The posterior surface
 
254
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
is connected with the flexor  profundus, the flexor  longus
pollicis, the median  nerve, the ulnar artery, the lumbricales
muscles, and the phalanges.
  This muscle bends the second joint or phalanx upon the
first, and the hand upon the fore-arm.
Tig. 151.
  a, Tendon of the flexor  sublimis ;  b, the division or slit
in the tendon for the passage of c, the tendon of the flexor
profundus, to be attached at e, the extremity of the finger. 
              OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.           255


           ANTERIOR DEEP REGION OF THE FORE-ARM.

     FLEXOR DIGITORUM PROFUNDUS  VEL PERFORANS.

  This muscle is situated beneath the preceding;  superiorly
                        it is attached, at  a, to  the three
                        superior fourths of the  anterior
                        and interna] surfaces of the ulna,
                        and at b, to the interosseous lig-
                        aments ; the muscular fibres then
                        form a thick mass  upon  the fore
                        part of the  ulna, and divide into
                        four portions, each of which is ter-
                        minated by a tendon.  These ten-
                        dons pass under the annular liga-
                        ment of the wrist, and  perforate
                        the slits or  fissures in  the flexor
                        sublimis, as  in  Fig. 150, and at
                        length are  inserted into the ante-
                        rior part of the third phalanx of
                        the  fingers.    Figure  151  best
                        explains the mode in which  the
                        tendon of the  flexor sublimis, a,
                        divides at b, to  transmit  the ten-
                        don of the  flexor profundus, c, c.
                           The anterior surface  of  the
                        flexor profundus is connected with
                        the flexor sublimis and flexor carpi
                        ulnaris muscles, the median and
                        ulnar nerves, and the ulnar artery ;
                        the posterior surface with the fore
and inner surfaces of the ulna, the  interosseous  ligament.
the; pronator quadratus, the anterior radio-carpal ligaments,
the fore part of the metacarpus, the  flexor  brevis and  ad-
ductor pollicis, and the two last palmar interosseous muscles.
 
256
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
  This  muscle bends the third, or extreme joint of  the
fingers,  and  assists generally in  the  flexion of the fingers,
hand, and wrist.


            FLEXOR LONGUS POLLICIS MANUS.

  This muscle. Fig. 150,/ h, Fig. 152, c.lies on the outer
side of the flexor profundus; superiorly it  is attached by
fleshy fibres to the fore part of the radius and interosseous
ligament, and has frequently a tendon  from the inner con-
dyle of  the humerus.  The fibres, / pass obliquely into a
tendon  on the anterior part of  the. muscle; this tendon
passes under the  annular  ligament of the wrist, runs be-
tween the two portions of  the  short  flexors of the thumb,
and is attached inferiorly at h, the last joint.
  The anterior surface of  the  long flexor of the thumb is
connected  with the flexor  digitorum sublimis, flexor carpi
radialis, and  supinator longus muscles,  the radial artery,
and the anterior annular ligament of the wrist; the poste-
rior surface  with the radius, part of the  interosseous liga-
ment, the pronator  quadratus, the fore part of the carpus,
and the flexor brevis pollicis.  The inner  edge  lies upon
the flexor digitorum profundus.
  The action of this muscle  bends the  last  joint of  the
thumb upon  the first, the first upon the corresponding me-
tacarpal  bone, and  the latter upon the radius ; it likewise
assists in the flexion of the fore-arm. 
OF THE  UPPER EXTREMITY.         257
PRONATOR QUADRATUS.
This muscle, c, d, d, as  its name implies, is of a quadri-
Fig. 153.
^
 lateral form, and  lies close to the
 bone on the lower part of the fore-
 arm.  It is attached broad, by ten-
 dinous and  fleshy fibres,  on the
 inner side at c, to the anterior sur-
 face of the ulna,  extending from
 the lower extremity of  that bone
 two inches up its edge.   The
 fibres passing nearly transversely,
 adhere to  the interosseous  liga-
 ment, and  on  the outer side, at d,
 d, is attached  to the anterior sur-
 face of the radius.
   The  anterior surface of this
 muscle is connected with the flexor
 profundus, flexor  longus pollicis
 manus, flexor  carpi radialis, flexor
 carpi ulnaris, and with  the radial
 and  ulnar  arteries; posteriorly,
with the two  bones of the fore-
arm and the lower part of the in-
terosseous ligament.
  This  muscle  turns the  radius
together with  the hand inwards.
tol, u
34 
258             MUSCULAR SYSTEM

        POSTERIOR SUPERFICIAL REGION OF THE FORE-ARM.

             EXTENSOR DIGITORUM COMMUNIS.
  This muscle, /  is  situated at the posterior part of the
arm.  It  is  attached  superiorly
to  the  lower part  of the  outer
condyle of  the  humerus,  to  the
aponeurosis of  the  fore-arm, and
to the aponeurotic  septa of  the
different  muscles in  that region.
From these several  attachments it
descends  vertically, and  at  the
middle of the fore-arm the fleshy
mass forms  four tendons, which
pass under g, the annular ligament
of the wrist.  Below the ligament
the  tendons  diverge,   become
broader, and proceed to the lower
extremities  of  the   metacarpal
bones; they sometimes send apon-
eurotic  bands,  more  or less  ob-
lique,  to each  other, as  in  the
figure before us.  These tendons
terminate on the back of the fin-
gers by an aponeurotic expansion,
reaching  to the  last phalanx.
   The  posterior surface  of  the
common extensor of the fingers is
connected with  the aponeurosis of
the fore-arm;  the anterior  sur-
face with the supinator brevis, ex-
tensores pollicis, extensor  indicis,
 the wrist, the  metacarpus, the  fingers, and the interossei
dorsales.
 
              OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.          259

  This muscle opens the hand, and bends it back upon the
fore-arm.
           EXTENSOR PROPRIUS MINIMI DIGITI.

  This  muscle,  h,  which is placed on the inner  side of
the preceding, is of a very slender form.  It is attached
superiorly to the external condyle  of the  humerus, and to
the aponeurotic septa which separates it from the extensor
communis and flexor ulnaris;  and its muscular fibres, at/
constitute one mass with these muscles.   Within  a short
distance of the wrist  its fibres pass into a tendon, which
is transmitted  through a  distinct ring at g, in the  annular
ligament,  and arrives at the posterior  surface of the little
finger, to which  it is attached in the same manner as the
tendons of the extensor communis.
  The posterior  surface of  this muscle is connected with
the aponeurosis of the fore-arm, and at  the back of the
hand  with the  integuments.  The anterior  surface  with
the supinator  brevis,  extensores   pollicis,  and  extensor
indicis.   The  outer edge  is united to the extensor digito-
rum communis;  the inner edge  to  the extensor carpi
ulnaris.
  This muscle  extends the little  finger, and  assists  in
bending back the hand.
               EXTENSOR CARPI  ULNARIS.

  This muscle, i, is  situated on the posterior  part of the
arm ;  its  shape is exhibited in the  figure.  It  is attached
superiorly to the lower part of the outer condyle of the
humerus, to the  intermuscular  septa  and aponeurosis of
the fore-arm, and nearly the middle third of the posterior 
260
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
border of  the  ulna.    It  terminates  in  a strong tendon,
which  is inserted into the upper  part of the metacarpal
bone of the little finger.
  The posterior surface of this muscle is connected with
the aponeurosis of the fore arm, to which it adheres above ;
the anterior surface with the supinator brevis, the extensor
ossis metacarpi and  extensor secundi internodii pollicis,
and extensor proprius indicis muscles, and upon the  ulna.
Its  outer  edge with  the former  muscle; the inner edge
with the anconeus.


                       ANCONEUS.

  This muscle, Fig. 154, /, Fig.  154*, a, which is situated
at the outer side of the olecranon, consists of a triangular
fleshy  mass adhering  to the  capsular  ligament.  It is at-
tached superiorly to the external  condyle of the humerus
by a distinct tendon ; inferiorly  to  the superior  third of
the external border and surface of the ulna.
  The posterior surface of the anconeus is connected with
the aponeurosis  of  the  fore-arm;  the  anterior surface
with the orbicular ligament  of the radius, the supinator
radii brevis, and with the ulna.
  The office of this  muscle  is to assist  in  extending the
fore-arm. 
OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.            261
POSTERIOR DEEP REGION OF THE FORE-ARM.
M
          EXTENSOR OSSIS METACARPI  POLLICIS.

  This muscle, b, is placed obliquely at the back and outer
part of the fore-arm. It is attached          Fig.isi*.
superiorly, by a pointed extremity
to the  posterior surface  of  the
ulna, to the interosseous ligament,
and to the posterior surface of the
radius below  the  attachment of
the supinator  radii brevis.   The
fleshy fibres terminate in a tendon,
passing along a groove  on the out-
er edge  of the lower extremity of
the radius, and is attached inferi-
orly to  the  superior part of the
metacarpal bone of the thumb.
   The posterior surface  of  this
muscle is  connected with the su-
pinator radii brevis, extensor carpi
ulnaris,  extensor minimi digiti, ex-
tensor digitorum communis, and
extensor secundi internodii polli-
cis ;  at the lowest part it is in ap-
position  with the aponeurosis of
the fore-arm.   The anterior sur-
face  is connected with a  portion
of the ulna above  ; crossing the
interoseous ligament and  the pos-
terior surface of the radius in the middle, and lying upon
the outer surface of the  radius, the tendons of the radial
extensors, the radial artery, and the wrist below. 
262
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
  This muscle extends the metacarpal bone of the  thumb
outwardly.  It  is  therefore  called by   some  anatomists
abductor longus pollicis manus.


      EXTENSOR PRIMI INTERNODII POLLICIS  MANUS.

  This  muscle,  c, is much shorter than the preceding, but
of a similar form, and is situated immediately below it.  It
is attached  superiorly by fleshy fibres to the back  part of
the ulna below its middle, from  the interosseous  ligament
and radius.   Its tendon follows the same direction  as that
of the extensor ossis metacarpi pollicis;  inferiorly it is at-
tached to the back of  the first bone of the thumb, and
its  tendon is  also continued  into  the second or extreme
joint.
  The posterior surface of this  muscle is  connected  with
the extensor  secundi internodii pollicis, extensor minimi
digiti, and extensor digitorum  communis ;  at its lowest part
with the aponeurosis of the fore-arm.   The anterior surface
has the same connexions as the  preceding muscle, except-
ing at its inferior extremity, where it is placed  upon the first
articulation  of the thumb.
  This muscle extends the first joint of the thumb obliquely
outwards.
    EXTENSOR SECUNDI  INTERNODII POLLICIS  MANUS.

  This muscle is situated below the two last.   It is attach-
ed,  tendinous and  fleshy,  to  the posterior surface of the
ulna, and to the interosseous ligament; its muscular fibres
terminate in a tendon which passes in a distinct groove at
the  back of the radius.   It is seen to join the tendon of the
extensor primi  internodii   pollicis,  and  is  inserted  into 
OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY           263
the  back  part of  the  last, or  extreme  joint  of  the
thumb.*
  The posterior surface of this muscle is connected with
the extensor carpi ulnaris, the extensor digitorum communis
and the extensor indicis, and  at  its lowest part with the
integuments: the anterior  surface with  the  extensor ossis
metacarpi pollicis  and  extensor  primi internodii pollicis,
the bones of the fore-arm, the tendons of the radial exten-
sors, the first  metacarpal bone, and the  phalanges of the
thumb.
  This muscle  extends the last joint of the thumb, and it
maybe observed that the extensors just described have also
the power of carrying the hand outwards and  backwards.
                       INDICATOR.

   This muscle, d, is placed nearer to the inner edge of the
arm than the extensors of the thumb.   It is attached supe-
riorly to the back part of the  ulna, and to the interosseous
ligament.   Its tendon passes through the same sheath of the
annular ligament as  those of the extensor digitorum com-
munis ; and terminates at the back of the fore-finger  with
the tendon of the common extensor.
   The posterior surface  is  connected with  the  extensor
carpi ulnaris. the extensor  proprius minimi digiti, and the
extensor digitorum communis; the anterior surface with the
ulna, the interosseous ligament, the extensor secundi inter-
nodii pollicis, the inferior extremity of the radius, and the
back of the hand.
  The office of  this  muscle is to point the  fore-finger, from
which it takes its name.

  * No letter happens to mark this muscle, although it is distinctly drawn
in Fig. 154*, and placed between the points of c, and d. 
264
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
                      RADIAL REGION.

              SUPINATOR RADII  LONGUS.

   This muscle Fig. 149, g, is attached by short  tendinous
 fibres  to the external condyle of the humerus, whence it
 passes downwards fleshy as far as the  middle of the radius
 where it terminates in a tendon, which runs along the outer
 edge of the  radius and is  inserted  near  the  base of  the
 styloid process of that bone.
   Its action is to roll the radius outwards, and consequently
 the palm of the hand upwards.

                SUPINATOR RADII BREVIS.

   This muscle, which is  seen in Fig. 153, e, arises tendi-
 nous from the external condyle of the humerus : both ten-
 dinous and fleshy from the external and upper part of the
 ulna, and  adheres firmly to  the  ligaments  that join these
 two bones, and is inserted into the head, neck and tubercle
 of the radius.
   Its use is to roll the radius outwards and thus to supinate
.the hand.


 EXTENSOR CARPI RADIALIS LONGIOR, OR  RADIALIS EXTER-
                      NUS LONGIOR.

   This muscle, Fig. 154, b, arises from the inferior part of
 the external edge of  the humerus and superior part of its
 external condyle, and is inserted into the  posterior  part of
 the upper extremity of the second metacarpal bone.
   It extends the wrist and hand, and abducts them a little.
 Acting with the extensor carpi ulnaris, it extends the hand
 directly.   Acting with the flexor carpi radialis* it produces 
OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY.          265
the direct abduction of the hand.  If the hand be fixed, it
extends the fore-arm upon the wrist.

EXTENSOR  CARPI RADIALIS  BREVIOR, OR RADIALIS EXTER-
                      NUS BREVIOR.

  This muscle is precisely similar to  the preceding, behind
which it is placed.   It arises from the external condyle of
the humerus  and is  inserted in  the posterior part  of the
upper extremity of  the third metacarpal bone.
  It assists the former.
          MUSCLES  OF  THE  HAND.

               EXTERNAL PALMAR REGION.

         ABDUCTOR BREVIS POLLICIS MANUS.

This muscle, b,  c,  constitutes the outermost portion of
                            the  ball of the thumb.  It
Fig. 155.
is attached at b, to the ante-
rior  surface of the  annular
ligament of the wrist, and to
the  os scaphoides  and  os
trapezium;  from  thence it
descends  a  little  obliquely
outwards.   Its  fibres con-
verge  towards each other,
and are attached  by a ten-
don, at c, to the  outer side
of the extremity of the first
phalanx of the thumb.  In
this figure the muscle is di-
vided and turned back.*
 'Sometimes this forms two muscles, designated abductoresrrevespollicis
manus, interior et exterior.
  vol.  i.         35 
266
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
  The anterior surface is connected with the palmar aponeu-
rosis and the integuments ; the posterior  surface with the
opponens and flexor brevis pollicus manus.
  The office of the abductor pollicis is  to carry the thumb
from the fingers.

                  OPPONENS POLLICIS.

  This muscle, d, lies under the preceding.   It is attached
superiorly by aponeurotic fibres to the annular ligament of
the wrist, to the os naviculare and the  os trapezium.  In-
feriorly to the anterior  and lower  part of the metacarpal
bone of  the thumb.
  The anterior surface  of this muscle is covered by the
preceding and by  the integuments ; the posterior surface
is connected with the  anterior annular ligament of the
carpus, the  articulation of  the trapezium  at the first meta-
carpal bone, part of the anterior surface of that bone, and
the flexor brevis pollicis manus.
  The office of this muscle is to bring the thumb inwards,
so as to oppose the fingers, from which circumstance  it has
derived its name.

             FLEXOR BREVIS POLLICIS  MANUS.

   This muscle, Fig. 156, e, is of a short, thick, triangular
form, and is  placed beneath  the two preceding.  It is at-
tached superiorly  to the under part of the annular ligament
of the carpus, to the  os  magnum, and to the third  meta-
 carpal  bone; inferiorly it is  inserted into  the  sesamoid
bone, which is connected by a ligament  to the fore part of
 the upper extremity of the first joint of the thumb.
   The anterior surface of this muscle is connected with
 the tendon of the flexor brevis pollicis manus, the tendons
 of the flexor profundus digitorum,  the two first lumbricales,
 with an aponeurosis, the  integuments, and  the  adductor 
OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY.        267
minimi  digiti; the posterior surface  with the first meta-
carpal bone, the first two dorsal and the first palmar inter-
osseous muscles, and the tendon of the flexor carpi radialis.
  This  muscle bends  the first phalanx of the thumb,  and
the whole thumb towards the wrist.
ADDUCTOR POLLICIS  MANUS.
  This muscle, c,  which is broad, thin,  and triangular, is
           F«g- 156.               still more deeply  seated
                                than  the  flexor  brevis.
                               On the inner side it  is
                               attached  to  nearly  the
                               whole length of the me-
                               tacarpal bone of the mid-
                               dle finger,  and crossing
                               the metacarpal  bone  of
                               the fore-finger,  its fibres
                               converge, and  are  out-
                               wardly inserted by a ten-
                               don with e, the preceding
                               muscle,  into the inner and
                               upper  part of  the  first
                               bone of the thumb.
                                  The  anterior surface
is connected with the tendons of the flexor profundus, the
two first lumbricales, and with the integuments ; the poste-
rior with the interossei and the bones of the metacarpus.
  This muscle draws the thumb towards the fingers.

                 INTERNAL PALMAR REGION.
PALMARIS  BREVIS.
  The palmaris brevis is not easily demonstrated  in every
subject, for it consists merely of several small fasciculi of
muscular  fibres, situated  immediately under the  skin of 
268
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
the palm of the hand.  On the outer side it  is attached to
the annular ligament of the wrist, and to the palmar apo-
neurosis ; on  the  inner side  to the chorion of the skin
which covers the little finger and inner edge of the hand.
   The  anterior surface of this  muscle is connected with
the integuments ; the posterior  surface  with the abductor
and  flexor muscles  of the little finger, the ulnar artery
and the nerve.
   The office of these fibres is to contract the skin of the
palm of the hand.

                ABDUCTOR  MINIMI DIGITI.

   This muscle,  Fig. 155, / is placed on the inper edge of
the palm of the hand.   It  is attached superiorly to the os
pisiforme, and to the adjacent annular ligament of the car-
pus ; its fibres  extend  along  the metacarpal bone of the
little finger, terminating in  a tedinous  attachment to the
inner side of the first  phalanx of that  finger, and in the
aponeurotic expansion  which covers the back part of the
same finger.
   The anterior surface  of the abductor  of the little  finger
is connected  with  the  preceding muscle, a very thin apo-
neurosis, and  with  the  integuments; the posterior surface
with the adductor ossis  metacarpi minimi digiti.
   The action  of this muscle draws the little finger inwards
and forwards, and separates it from the other fingers.

            FLEXOR PROPRIUS MINIMI DIGITI.

   This muscle,  Fig. 155, g,  is situated by the side of the
preceding.  It extends  from the os cuneiforme, and from
the  annular  ligament of the  carpus to the upper portion
of the  first phalanx of the little finger, to  which it is at-
tached  with  the preceding muscle by a round tendon ; its
connexions are the same as the preceding muscle. 
OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY         269
  This muscle bends the first joint of the little finger, and
assists the adductor.


      ADDUCTOR OSSIS METACARPI MINIMI  DIGITI.*

  This  muscle, Fig. 156, a, is  almost  concealed by the
two  muscles last described.  It is attached superiorly, by
fleshy fibres, to  the os unciforme and annular ligament  of
the carpus ; it forms a thick  mass, which is attached infe-
riorly by a tendon to the fore part of the metacarpal bone
of the little finger.
  The posterior surface is connected  with the last interos-
seous muscle, the fourth  metacarpal  bone, and the tendon
of the flexor sublimis, which passes to the little finger.
  This muscle carries the metacarpal  bone  of the little
finger outwards, and assists the flexor.

                   MIDDLE  PALMAR. REGION.

                      LUMBRICALES.f
  The  lumbricales are four small muscles, Fig.  155, a, a,
a, a, situated in the palm of  the hand.  They are attached
superiorly to the tendons of  the flexor digitorum profundus
perforans; each muscle has a  tendon, which passes along
the side of the finger, and is attached inferiorly to the back
part of the  first joint.
   The  anterior surface is connected with the tendons of
the  flexor digitorum  profundus, the palmar aponeurosis,
and the  collateral  vessels and  nerves of the finp-ers ; the
posterior  surface  with the  interosseous muscles, the infe-
rior transverse  metacarpal ligament, and the phalanges.
  These  muscles  bend the  first phalanx : they are small

  * This muscle is frequently designated opponens minimi digiti.
  t These derive  their name from their resemblance to the  lumbrkus or
earth-worm. 
270
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
and  appear insignificant as flexors, when compared  with
the powerful muscles  already  described, but they are in-
dispensably necessary  in  the  performance  of the rapid
movements of the fingers, as in playing on musical instru-
ments, etc.  Hence Cowper gave them the name of mus-
culifidicinales.

                       INTEROSSEI.

   These are seven little muscles named interossei, situated
in the intervals of the metacarpal bones :  four, Fig. 157, a,
a, a, a, on the back of the hand, and three, Fig. 158, a, b,
d, in the palm :  the latter  are  not seen till the other mus-
cles of the thumb and fingers are removed ; they are desig
nated adductors, and abductors, according to their uses.

                   I. ABDUCTOR INDICIS.
Fis. 157.             Fig. 158.
  This  muscle,  c,  Figs.  157 and 158, is of a triangular
form ; it is  attached  to  the outer  edge of the metacarpal 
OF THE SUPERIOR EXTREMITY.         271
bone of the fore-finger, and to the upper part of the inner
edge of  the  metacarpal bone  of the thumb.   The two
fasciculi unite into a tendon, which terminates on the outer
side of the upper extremity of the  first phalanx, and the
extensor tendon of the fore-finger.
  The posterior surface  of this muscle is  connected with
the integuments;  the  anterior with the first lumbricalis,
the flexor brevis, b, the  abductor pollicis,  and the integu-
ments.
  This muscle, approximates the fore-finger to the thumb,
and inclines the metacarpal bone inwards.

                  2. ADDUCTOR INDICIS.
  This muscle, Fig. 158,  d,  is placed in the palm of the
hand;  it is attached superiorly to the inner side  of the
metacarpal bone of the fore-finger ; inferiorly by a tendon
in the same manner as the preceding.
  The anterior surface  of the  adductor  indicis  is  con-
nected with the flexor  brevis and adductor pollicis ; the
inner surface corresponds with the next muscle.
  The action of this muscle carries the fore-finger inwards.

                3. ABDUCTOR DIGITI MEDII.
  This muscle,  Fig. 157, is seen at the back of the hand.
It is attached  to  the  inner  side of the second and third
metacarpal  bones, and  terminates  by a tendon, like the
preceding,  which is attached to the outer  side of the first
phalanx of the  middle finger, and its extensor tendon.
  The posterior surface of this muscle  is  connected with
the integuments,  the  tendons of the extensor muscles of
the fore-finger,  and with an aponeurosis which passes from
the second to  the third metacarpal bone;  the anterior
surface with the flexor brevis and adductor  pollicis.
  This muscle draws the middle finger outwards. 
272
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
                 4.  ADDUCTOR DIGITI MEDII.

   This muscle, Fig.  157, is also  situated at the back of
 the hand.  It is attached to the inner side of the third and
 fourth  metacarpal  bones,  and terminates like  the others
 in  a tendon which  is inserted  into the  inner side of the
 upper extremity of the first phalanx  and extensor tendon
 of  the middle finger.
   The posterior surface of  this muscle is connected with
 the integuments and  tendons of the  common extensors of
 the fingers.
   This muscle carries the middle  finger towards the ring
 finger.

               5. ABDUCTOR DIGITI ANNULARIS.

  This muscle,  Fig.  158, b,  is placed  in  the palm of the
 hand; it is attached to the  outer side of the  fourth meta-
 carpal bone ;  and its  tendon is inserted into the  outer side
 of the first phalanx and extensor tendon of the ring finger.
  The anterior  surface  is  connected with the lumbricales
 muscles and  tendons  of the flexor profundus.
  This muscle draws  the ring finger towards the middle
 finger.


              6. ADDUCTOR DIGITI ANNULARIS.

  This  muscle,  Fig.  157, is situated  on the back of the
hand.  It is attached  to  the  inner side of the fourth meta-
carpal bone, terminating in a tendon which is inserted into
the inner side of the ring finger.
  The posterior surface of this muscle is  connected  with
an aponeurosis which passes from the  fourth to the  fifth
metacarpal bone, the extensor tendons of the  little finger, 
OF THE  SUPERIOR EXTREMITY.         273
  and the  integuments ; the  anterior surface is  concealed
  above  by  the interosseous muscle of the little finger, but
  below appears between it and the preceding muscle.
    This muscle brings the ring finger towards  the  little
  finger.

                 7.  ABDUCTOR MINIMI DIGITI.
    This  muscle, Fig.  158, a,  is seen  in the palm of the
  hand.  It  is  attached to the outer  surface of the  fifth
  metacarpal bone; its  tendon is inserted into the  outside
  of the first  phalanx and  the extensor tendon of the little
  finger.
    The  anterior  surface of this muscle is connected with
  the adductor  ossis  minimi digiti; the outer  surface  cor-
  responds with the preceding muscle.
    The action  of this   muscle carries the little finger  out-
  wards.

  THE ENVELOPING APONEUROSIS  OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.

   The muscles of the  arm are  covered by  a delicate  cel-
 lular tissue, very different  from aponeurosis, and  therefore
 is usually, in dissections, taken  off with the  integuments.
 But on the fore-arm we find a strong fascia or aponeurosis,
 investing  all the superficial muscles.  This  external apo-
 neurosis  is continued  from the intermuscular aponeurosis,
 which passes down to the  condyles of the humerus.  It is
 attached  to the condyles and  to the olecranon, and  on  the
 back  part receives  a  great  addition  of fibres  from  the
 tendon  of the  triceps.  On the fore part of the arm it
 appears  to be a  continuation  of the  aponeurotic insertion
 of the biceps, and is attached to all  the muscles by septa,
 or  fibrous partitions.   The sheath  descends  along  the
 fore-arm, adhering to the whole inner  edge of the ulna, and
arriving  at the  wrist, is continued  into the  annular liga-
     vol.  i.                 36 
274
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
ments.  The outer surface is covered by skin, cellular tis-
sue, adipose substance, and by the superficial veins, nerves,
and lymphatics of the arm.   It appears to form thin sheaths
for these different organs ;  it sends also between them, and
especially above  them, areolae and arches, through which
the branches  of superficial veins and  nerves  pass.   The
fibres have no constant direction, but cross each other in
all  directions, and leave  between them  small  openings,
which are traversed by blood-vessels. 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         275
CHAP. VI.
MUSCLES  OF  THE  INFERIOR EXTREMITY

                  REGION OF THE HIP.


       MOSCLES OF THE HAUNCH AND  THIGH.


                 GLUTEUS  MAXIMUS.

                       Fig. 159.
  This muscle is placed at the back part of the hip, cover-
ing all the muscles situated  on that part.   A correct idea
of its form may be  had from the annexed representation. 
216
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
It is attached superiorly, at a, to  the posterior  crest of the
illium ; at b, to the  posterior surface  of the sacrum ; at c,
to the border of the os coccygis,  and to the  posterior sur-
face of the sacro-sciatic ligament; the  fleshy fibres pass
obliquely downwards and  forwards, forming a very broad,
thick, coarse muscle ;  its  fasciculi  gradually  converging,
terminate in a strong flat tendon, which is attached inferi-
orly at d, e, the upper and  outer part of the linea aspera of
the femur.  A  great portion  of tendinous fibres also unite
it to the  aponeurosis of the thigh.
  The posterior surface of this muscle is covered by an ex-
tremely thin lamina  of the fascia  lata, adipose  tissue, and
skin.   The anterior surface is applied  to the ilium, sacrum,
and the os coccygis ; the attachments of the sacro-spinalis,
the gluteus medius, pyriformis, gemelli, obturator internus,
and quadratus  femoris muscles;  to the  sciatic  nerve, the
tuber ischii, the posterior sacro-sciatic  ligament, the upper
extremity of the biceps, semimembranosus  and  semitendi-
nosus, the great  trochanter, and to the triceps adductor
muscles.
  The office of the gluteus maximus is to extend the thigh
by drawing it backwards and somewhat outwards.  It ex-
tends likewise the pelvis on the thigh  in standing; and as-
sisted by the other glutei  in  progression, it maintains the
equilibrium of  the body on the lower extremity, which rests
on  the ground. 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         277
GLUTEUS MEDIUS.

     Fig. 160.
  This muscle, a, is broad, strong, and radiated; it is situ-
ated under the preceding, except at its anterior part, where
it is covered only by aponeurosis.  Superiorly it is attached
by fleshy fibres to b, b, the whole of the outer  edge of the
crista of the  ilium, and  to  the  dorsum of  that bone;  its
converging fibres, a, are collected, and terminate in a broad
aponeurosis, which is somewhat  concealed  in its substance,
but is converted into a tendon, and  is inferiorly inserted
into the upper part of c, the great trochanter.
  The outer surface of this  muscle is connected with  the
posterior half of the gluteus maximus. and its anterior with 
278
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
the fascia lata;  the inner  surface  with  the iliac  bone, the
gluteus minimus, pyramidalis, triceps extensor muscles, and
the gluteal artery.  The anterior edge is  connected above
with the tensor vaginae femoris, but is separated  below by
an interval occupied by a great quantity  of cellular tissue
and branches of the external  circumflex artery.   The pos-
terior edge, at its upper part, is parallel  to the  pyriformis
muscle.
  The gluteus medius draws the thigh outwards and a little
backwards.  It also acts in standing and in progression.


                   GLUTEUS  MINIMUS.

                          Fig. 161.
  This muscle, a, a, b, is smaller than  the gluteus medius
and is entirely concealed until  that muscle  is raised from
its  connexions.   A synovial bursa is found  between  their 
             OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         279

tendons.  The gluteus minimus is attached superiorly by
fleshy radiating fibres at a, a, to the semicircular  ridge  of
the ilium, and to the dorsum of that bone below the ridge.
Its fasciculi descend and are collected together, terminating
inferiorly in a strong tendon, which is attached at b, to the
anterior and superior part  of the trochanter major.
  The outer surface of the gluteus minimus is connected in
the greater part of its extent with the  preceding  muscle;
posteriorly with the pyriformis  ; the inner surface  with the
ilium, the  fibrous capsule of  the articulation of the hip, the
curved tendon of the rectus  femoris, and with a small part
of the triceps extensor cruris.
  This muscle assists the two former muscles. 
280
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
PILTI-TROCHANTERIC REGION.


     PYRIFORMIS.

        Fig. 1C3.
  This, like the other small muscles of the hip, cannot be
demonstrated till the gluteus maximus is removed.   It lies
behind and below the gluteus medius, but it is not at all cov-
ered by it.  On the one  part  it is attached at a, by three
fleshy portions, to  the  concave surface  of  the sacrum, and
becoming round and  tapering, it passes out of the pelvis
below the notch of the posterior part of the ilium, and above
c,  the  superior sacro-sciatic  ligament; that part  which 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY         281
passes out of the pelvis is seen  in Fig. 161, at  e, termi-
nating in a round tendon, and is inserted into the  cavity at
the root of b, the trochanter major.
  In the pelvis, the anterior surface is  connected with the
rectum, the  sciatic  plexus,  and  the  hypogastric vessels.
After leaving that cavity,  it is in contact with the ilium,
the capsule of the hip joint, and the gluteus minimus.   The
posterior surface  is connected with the  sacrum  and  the
gluteus maximus ; the upper  edge with the gluteal artery,
gluteus medius, and gluteus minimis;  the lower edge with
the anterior  sacro-sciatic  ligament, and is separated from
the superior gemellus by the sciatic nerve.
   This muscle turns the thigh outwards : in some  degree it
has the  power of  turning the pelvis on the thigh.


                 OBTURATOR INTERNUS.

   The superior part of  this muscle, Fig. 162, a, is situated
within the  pelvis ; it is  attached by radiated fibres to more
than one-half of  the margin of the obturator foramen, and
to the inner surface of the aponeurosis which  fills up that
hole.   Its  fibres  concentrate into a round tendon / Fig.
161, which passing over the ischium between the spine and
tuber of that bone, leaves the cavity of the pelvis, is inclosed
in the  sheath of the gemelli, e, g, (as seen- in Fig. 160 ;)
finally it is attached with them at the root of  c,  the great
trochanter.   Where the obturator bends there is a synovial
capsule, lining the cartilaginous layer of the lesser sciatic
notch, and reflected over the tendon.
  The outer  surface of the obturator internus is connected
with the ilium, pelvis, obturator ligament, sciatic nerve, and
gluteus maximus ; the inner surface with the aponeurosis to
which the  levator ani is  attached, and with the capsule of
the articulation of the hip.
     vol.  i.         37 
282
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
  The office of this  muscle is  to  rotate the thigh and leg
outwards, and to draw it in the same direction.
OBTURATOR  EXTERNl'S.


        Fig. ICo.
  This muscle covers the  external obturator foramen.  It
is not distinctly seen until all the  muscles which run from
the pelvis  to the upper  part  of the  thigh  are  removed.
Inwardly, it  has  a fleshy attachment, at a, to the circum-
ference of the obturator foramen, and  to  the  external sur-
face of the  obturator  aponeurosis ;  its fibres are directed
outwards through the notch placed between  the  inferior
margin of the acetabulum and the tuberosity of the ischium,
pass  round  the  cervix of  the  femur, adhering to  e, the
capsular ligament, and  terminate in a tendon which is at-
tached outwardly, at  the  root of  the  trochanter major. 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.          283
immediately below the gemelli, as seen in Fig. 160, below
the letter g.
  The anterior surface of the obturator externus is  con-
nected with the pectineus, the adductors, and the quadratus
femoris ;  the posterior surface with the ilium, the obturator
ligament, and the capsule of the articulation of the hip.
  The office of this muscle is to rotate the  thigh obliquely
outwards.
                  GEMELLUS SUPERIOR.*

   This muscle, Fig. 160, e, is placed below the preceding.
 It is short, flat, and broad, thicker in  the middle than at the
 extremities.   It is attached on  the inner side to the external
 border of the sciatic  spine, then proceeds transversely out-
 wards, and embraces the  tendon of / the  obturator inter-
 nus, and becomes attached outwardly to the upper part of
 the inner surface of the great trochanter.
   The posterior surface of the gemellus superior  is con-
 nected with  the sciatic nerve  and gluteus maximus; the
 anterior surface with the ilium and the capsule of the articu-
 lation  of the hip.


                  GEMELLUS INFERIOR.

   This muscle, Fig. 160, g, has the same form, attachments,
 and connexions, as the gemellus  superior.   The two ten-
 dons of the gemelli unite behind  that of the obturator in-
 ternus, so as to form a kind  of  channel.
  These muscles roll  the thigh outwards, and draw the one
 from the other.

  * This muscle, and the following, are frequently  designated under the
general name  of muscnli gernivi 
284
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
                  QUADRATUS FEMORIS.

  This muscle, Fig.  161, is  situated  below  the  inferior
gemellus.   On the  inner  side, it is attached, at c,  to the
ischium, between its tuberosity and the  obturator foramen ;
on the outer side, its  fibres run transversely, and  are at-
tached at the back part of the femur to  a rough line, which
extends from the root of the great to that of d,  the small
trochanter.*
  The posterior surface of the quadratus femoris  is con-
nected with the sciatic nerve, the gluteus maximus, the
semimembranosus, and the adductor magnus muscles ; the
anterior surface with  the  obturator externus, the extremity
of the tendon of the  psoas magnus, and the posterior part
of the small trochanter.
  The office of this muscle is  to turn the lower  extremity
outwards.
"This muscle is also shewn in Fig. 163, at b. 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY
285
INTERIOR FEMORAL REGION.
SARTORIUS.
This
Fig. 164.
muscle, b, which is the longest of  the human body,
                      is situated on the front and
                      inner  part of the thigh, be-
                      fore the other muscles.  Su-
                      periorly it is attached, at h,
                      to the anterior superior spi-
                      nous process of the  ilium ;
                      crosses the thigh  obliquely,
                      passes behind the inner con-
                      dyle of the femur, at e, and
                      is inserted inferiorly by  a
                      broad tendon,  at i,  to  the
                      inner side of the head of the
                      tibia, near the  inferior part
                      of its tubercle.
                         The  anterior surface of
                      the  sartorius is connected
                      with the fascia lata ; the pos-
                      terior surface   from  above
                      downwards with  the  psoas
                      magnus and iliacus internus,
                      the  rectus femoris,  triceps
                      extensor  cruris,  adductor
                      longus,  adductor  magnus,
                      and  gracilis muscles;  with
                       the  crural artery about the
                       middle of the thigh ; and at
                       its lower part with the inter-
                       nal  lateral ligament of the
 
286
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
articulation of the knee.  The inner edge of the  superior
part of  this muscle forms with the adductor  longus a trian-
gular space, in which the crural artery, vein, and  nerve, is
situated.
   The action of this muscle brings the leg obliquely inwards,
as when tailors cross their legs at work ; and from this cir-
cumstance the muscle obtains its name.   Its continued con-
traction will also bend the thigh on the pelvis.
                    RECTUS  FEMORIS.

  The rectus  femoris,  Fig.  164, c, is situated immediately
in front of the thigh ; its fibres are penniform.  Superiorly
it is attached by  a tendon to  the anterior inferior spinous
process of  the ilium,  and by another  strong tendon to the
dorsum of  that bone a little above the edge of  the acetabu-
lum, and is also adherent to the capsular  ligament of the
hip joint.   These two tendons unite and form a fleshy mass,
which terminates inferiorly in a flat tendon at / and is in-
serted into  the upper part of the patella, g, where a thin
aponeurosis is continued over that bone, and becomes liga-
mentous at h, connecting the lower part of the  patella  to
the tibia.   Thus,  virtually the rectus is attached  to  the
large bone  of  the leg.
   The anterior surface of the rectus femoris  is connected
with the fascia lata, iliacus externus, and sartorius muscles;
the posterior  surface with the articulation of the hip, the
external circumflex vessels, and the triceps  extensor cruris.
   The office of  this muscle is to extend  the leg on the
thigh, and  the thigh on  the pelvis ; when standing, it assists
in fixing the body. 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.        287
      TRICEPS EXTENSOR


This muscle embraces the
        Fig. 165.
       C Vastus externus,
IRURIS. < Vastus internus,
       ( Crurceus.

femur from  the base of the
  trochanters to  the  patella.
  The older writers described
  it as three distinct muscles ;
  and as its upper part is divi-
  ded into three fasciculi, the
  distinction is here retained.
    1 st. The external fascicu-
  lus, or vastus externus.£ This
  portion forms the fleshy mass
  which occupies the  outer
  side of the thigh bone; it is
  attached superiorly, by ten-
  dinous and fleshy fibres, at a,
  to the anterior surface of the
  great trochanter, to the outer
  border of the linea  aspera,
  and to the oblique line run-
  ning to the external condyle.
  The fleshy fibres  pass for-
  wards, and are connected at
 b, to the tendon of the cru-
  reeus, and inferiorly, at c, to
  the side of the patella :  part
  of it also ends, at d, in an a-
  poneurosis which passes over
 the side of the knee, is fixed
  to the  head of the tibia, and
 continued to the leg. 
288
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
  2d.  The internal fasciculus, or vastus internus, covers the
inner part of the femur, in the same manner as the preceding
portion does the outer side.   It is attached by aponeurotic
and fleshy fibres,  at/  to  the  fore part of the minor tro-
chanter ;  its fibres are continued along the  inner border of
the linea aspera, and the oblique line  running to the inner
condyle, taking a  direction downwards and forwards ;  they
are then connected, at b, to the tendon of the cruraeus,and
inferiorly  to the side of the patella, c, and to the aponeuro-
sis of the leg.
  3d.  The  middle fasciculus, b, is called  the cruraus vel
cruralis, the  principal  part of  which  is concealed by the
fleshy masses of the  vasti, and is connected intimately with
them.   It is attached superiorly between the trochanters of
the femur and the fore  part of that bone almost to its  infe-
rior extremity.  As  before stated, the sides  are united to
the vasti fasciculi.   The front is covered by the rectus, the
tendon of which,  at g, joins it near the lower part of the
thigh, terminating with it in c, the patella.*
  The anterior  surface of this muscle is connected exter-
nally  and above  with  the tendons of  the gluteus maximus
and minimus, farther down with the fascia lata and its ten-
sor muscles,  and at  its  lowest part with the short portion
of the  biceps.  In the middle it is in connexion with the
external circumflex  vessels ;  internally, the fascia lata, the
crural artery, and the sartorius, are in contact with it.  The
posterior surface is connected with the whole surface of the
shaft of the thigh bone, but it is separated below from  it by
a mass of cellular and adipose tissue.
  The office of the triceps extensor muscle  is to extend the
leg on the thigh, and the latter on the  former.

  * There are frequently found some fasciculi of muscular fibres under the
middle portion, and attached to the capsule of the knee joint, which have
been considered by some anatomists as a separate muscle, under the name
of subcruraus. 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         289
INTERNAL FEMORAL REGION.
PECTINEUS.
This muscle,  d, is situated at  the  superior part of the
                           thigh, and is of a flat, long,
                           and triangular figure.   It is
                           attached superiorly by apon-
                           eurotic adhesions to the brim
                           of  the pelvis ; inferiorly by
                           means of  a  tendon  to  the
                           linea aspera,  immediately
                           below the trochanter minor.
                              The  anterior  surface of
                           the pectineus is connected
                           with the fascia lata and  the
                           crural vessels and nerves; the
                           posterior with the pubis, the
                           articulation of the hip,  the
                           obturator  externus, the  ad-
                           ductor  brevis muscles,  and
                           the obturator vessels   and
                           nerves.  The inner  border
                           is a little covered by the ad-
                           ductor longus ;  the outer is
                           parallel to the psoas magnus.
                              The office of this muscle
                           is to bend the thigh, and to
                           rotate it, as  when we  turn
                           out our toes.  It also bends
                           the pelvis upon the thigh, or
                           preserves  it in  its  upright
                           position.
 
290
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
                        GRACILIS.

   The gracilis, which is situated on  the  inner  side of the
 thigh, is a long, thin, flat muscle.  Superiorly it is attach-
 ed at  a, by an aponeurosis  or  flat, thin tendon, to b, the
 ramus of the os pubis, near the symphysis ;  descending in
 a direct course by the inside of the thigh, it terminates at
 h, in a tendon, which passes behind  the inner condyle of
 the femur, and  is  attached  inferiorly to  the inside of the
 tibia below the tendon of i, the sartorius, and above that of
 k, the semitendinosus.
   The inner surface is  connected  with  the  fascia  lata and
 the sartorius;  the outer with the adductors, and the semi-
 membranosus muscles, and the  internal lateral  ligament of
 the knee joint.
   This muscle, like the sartorius, brings the thigh  inwards
 and forwards ;  it acts also as a flexor of the  leg and thigh.


               ADDUCTORS OF  THE THIGH.

   The adductor muscles of the thigh consist of three dis-
 tinct muscles, though they are  frequently described as one
 under  the name of triceps adductor femoris.


                   ADDUCTOR  LONGUS.

   This muscle, Fig. 167, is placed between  the pectineus
 and gracilis.  It is attached superiorly, by a short and strong
 tendon at b, to the upper and inner  part of the os pubis,
 near its  symphysis ;  the  fibres, a, descend obliquely, and
are inferiorly attached by an aponeurosis at c, to  the middle
of the linea aspera, occupying rather  more than one-third
of its length.
  The anterior surface of the adductor longus is connected 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         291
 with the fascia lata, the sartorius, and the femoral  artery ;
 the posterior furface with the two other  adductor muscles,
 and is almost inseparably united to them below.   The outer
 border is parallel to the pectineus muscle ;  the inner is con-
 cealed by the gracilis.

             i
                   ADDUCTOR  BREVIS.

   This muscle is situated behind the preceding ; it  is of a
 triangular, flat figure, and is attached superiorly, by tendinous
 and fleshy fibres, to the pubes between  the symphysis and
 obturator foramen; inferiorly, to the  upper third  of the
 linea aspera, where its insertion is blended with the adduc-
 tor longus,  the adductor magnus, and the pectineus.
  The anterior surface of the adductor brevis is connected
 with the preceding muscle and the pectineus; the posterior
with the adductor magnus.  Inferiorly it is united  to the
gracilis; and externally to the tendon of the psoas magnus,
the iliacus internus, and to the obturator externus. 
292
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
ADDUCTOR  MAGNUS.
   The  adductor  magnus                fig. 167.
occupies nearly the whole
inner part of the thigh ;  it is
situated  behind and below
the  other  two adductors,
and  separates  the  anterior
and  posterior  parts of the
thigh.   It is attached supe-
riorly, at e, to the inferior
part of the  anterior surface
of the ramus of the pubes  ;
at b, to the anterior surface
of that of the ischium, and
to the  external border of its
tuberosity; the fibres run in-
wards  and downwards, hav-
ing various  degrees of ob-
liquity, and are attached in-
feriorly to the  whole length
of the linea aspera, to  the
oblique ridge above the in-
ternal  condyle of the os fe-
moris,  and by  a long round
tendon to  the upper  part
of the condyle, where  the
tendon is united to the  ad-
ductor longus.  There  is a
perforation in  the tendon of
this muscle at  i, near the bone through which the femoral
artery  passes in its course towards the ham.
  The anterior surface of  this muscle  is connected  with
 
            OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         293

the two preceding, the sartorius, and the femoral artery;
the posterior surface with the semitendinosus, semimembra-
nosus, biceps, gluteus maximus, and the sciatic nerve.  The
inner border is much thicker above than below, and is con-
nected  with the fascia lata and  gracilis.
  The  office of the adductors is—1 st, to  move  the  thigh
and leg inwards ; 2d, to roll it  outwards ;  3d, to bend the
thigh on the pelvis ; and  lastly, to  keep the pelvis firm in
the erect position of the trunk.   The action of the  fibres
vary according to the obliquity  of their attachments. 
294
                POSTERIOR FE

                   BICEPS

  The biceps  femoris is sit-
uated at the back part of the
thigh, and forms the outer
hamstring.  It is divided in-
to two portions, one long an d
the other  short.  The long
portion is attached superior-
ly at a, by a tendon, to the
outer part of the tuberosity
of the ischium, and descend-
ing, forms  a  thick, fleshy
mass ; its short portion, b, is
fixed by tendinous and fleshy
fibres to the linea aspera im-
mediately below the gluteus
maximus, and  to the oblique
ridge passing from the con-
dyle,  where it is  connected
with the fibres of the vastus
externus.   The two  heads
are united at an acute angle
a little above the external
condyle  of the femur, and
terminate in a  strong tendon,
c, which is attached at d, to
the outside of the head of
the fibula.
  The posterior  surface of
this muscle is connected with
  SYSTEM




MORAL REGION.


FEMORIS.
Fig. 168.
 
            OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         295

the gluteus maximus and the fascia lata;  the anterior surface
with the  semitendinosus, triceps, and  adductor magnus
muscles, the sciatic nerve, the femur, and the external late-
ral ligament of the knee.  The long portion is placed over
the short  portion, which is  connected  with the external
superior articular artery and  the external head of the gas-
trocnemius.  The inner border  unites with  the  preceding
muscle to  form the ham.
  The biceps is a powerful flexor of the leg upon the thigh,
or the latter upon the  leg ; its long portion  is capable  of
extending  the thigh upon the pelvis, or of keeping the pel-
vis erect.  It also assists in turning the  leg outwards.
                    SEMITENDINOSUS.

   This muscle, c, is placed between the biceps femoris and
gracilis ;  we may also see it in Fig. 166, c, k; it is attached
superiorly,  in common  with the biceps,  by aponeurotic
fibres to the tuberosity of the  ischium; it has  also some
fleshy fibres fixed to  that projection more outwardly, and is
connected for several inches, at/ with the  commencement
of the biceps.  The  fleshy mass runs down the back of the
thigh, forms a long round tendon, g, which  passing round
the inner side of the knee, becomes flattened, and is reflect-
ed forward  to be inserted into the  inner side of the ridge of
the tibia, a  little below the tubercle, and is connected  with
the under  edge of the tendon  of the gracilis, marked in
this figure,  h.
  The posterior surface of the semitendinosus is connected
with the fascia lata, and a little at its upper  part with the
gluteus maximus ; the anterior surface with the semimem-
branosus and adductor magnus.
  The office of this muscle is to bend  the  leg backwards 
296
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
and a little inwards, and to  assist  in  keeping the  pelvis
erect.

                    SEMIMEMBRANOSUS.

   This muscle, i, is situated behind the preceding muscle,
and with it properly forms the inner  hamstring.   The ten-
dons of the sartorius and gracilis are sometimes enumerated
as part of  the inner hamstring, but they lie more anteriorly.
The upper portion is best displayed  in Fig. 166, and is su-
periorly attached, at d, to the outer part of the tuberosity
of the ischium.  It forms a fleshy mass in the middle and
back part of the thigh ; and inferiorly terminates  obliquely
in a flat tendon, Fig. 168, i, which passing behind the inner
condyle, is spread out  at k, in  an aponeurotic expansion,
which covers and strengthens the  capsule of the knee joint,
and is attached, at /, to the  inner and back part of the head
of the tibia.
   The offices of this muscle  are  the same as those of the
preceding muscle.
  The posterior surface of the  semimembranosus is con-
nected with the biceps, semitendinosus, and fascia  lata;  the
anterior surface with the quadratus femoris, adductor mag-
nus, and internal head of the gastrocnemius, popliteal arte-
ry, and the knee joint.   Its outer  border is connected with
the sciatic  nerve, and concurs with the  biceps to  form the
cavity of the ham ; the inner border is covered by the  gra-
cilis and the cavity of the fascia lata.


                TENSOR VAGINJE FEMORIS.

  This muscle, Fig. 164, a, is situated  at  the upper and
outer part  of  the thigh ; it is  attached externally to  the
anterior and superior iliac spine, between the sartorius  and 
            OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         297

gluteus  medius,  by a very short tendon ;  the fleshy fibres
descend nearly vertically, diverging  as  they proceed, and
about three inches above the great trochanter terminate in
the laminae of the femoral aponeurosis.
  The outer  surface is  connected to a  thin lamina of the
aponeurosis of the thigh; the inner to another aponeurotic
plate, which separates the rectus femoris from  the  triceps
extensor cruris.   It  also covers a  portion of the gluteus
medius and gluteus minimus muscles.
  The principal  action of this  muscle is to stretch  the
aponeurosis which envelopes the muscles of the thigh.  It
also carries the limb outwards, separating it from the other.


              APONEUROSIS OF  THE THIGH.

  The inferior extremities, like the superior, are enveloped
by a strong tendinous web.  In the  thigh it is  frequently
termed the fascia lata femoris; and  is composed of strong
tendinous and ligamentous fibres, which cover all the mus-
cles, and  indeed send septa  or partitions between  them.
On the  outer part, it is very strong and tendinous ; but in
front, and on the inner part, it is thin,  and composed of a
mere condensed  cellular membrane.
   Superiorly and anteriorly the aponeurosis of the thigh is
continuous with  the fibres of the crural arch, and is  fixed
posteriorly to the sacrum and os coccygis; on the outer
side, it is inserted into the crest of the ilium; on the inner
side, it is continuous with the ligaments of the pubis.   In-
feriorly, this aponeurosis is blended round  the knee with
that of  the leg.
   There is a considerable opening beneath the crural arch,
through  which  the crural  vein passes.  This opening is
formed in the following manner:—The  aponeurosis being
composed of two portions, the iliac and pubic, the former
     vol. i.              39 
298
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
is folded in the shape of a sickle at that part where it ceases
to be united to the crural arch.  The concavity of this fold
looks downwards and inwards, and is termed the falciform
process ; the latter, or pubic portion, coming from the pubes,
passes over the pectineus and adductors, and  unites with
the iliac portion beneath  the point where the saphena vein
joins the femoral. 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.
          M U S C L E S  OF   T PI E  LEG.

                AXTERIOIl REGION OF THE LEG.

                   TIBIALIS  ANTICUS.

  This  muscle,  Fig. 169, a, b, is             fi?. k;o
situated quite superficially on the
fibular side of the tibia.   It is at-
tached superiorly to the external
tuberosity and outer  surface of
that bone, and to nearly half of the
interosseous  ligament,  g;  from
these surfaces it continues to ad-
here down two-thirds of the length
of the leg.  Its fibres also are at-
tached to the inner surface of the
aponeurosis of the leg, and to the
intermuscular septa.  The fleshy
mass  descends   obliquely,   and
forming a strong tendon, crosses
from the outside to the fore part
of the tibia, and passing through
a distinct ring of (b) the annular
ligament, near the inner ankle,
and running  over the  astragalus
and os naviculare, it is  inferiorly
inserted, at  c, into  the  os cunei-
fonne internum, and the posterior
extremity of the metatarsal  bone
of the great toe.
  The  anterior surface  of  this
muscle, at its superior part, firmly
adheres to the aponeurosis of the tibia ;  it is also connected
 
300
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
with  the  annular ligament of the tarsus, and the dorsal
aponeurosis of the foot;  on  the  inner side  with the tibia;
on the outer with the extensor communis  digitorum pedis,
extensor proprius pollicis pedis, the anterior tibial vessels
and nerves.  The posterior border is placed upon the inter-
osseous ligament, the  tibia, the articulation of the ankle,
and the upper and inner part  of the tarsus.
  The office of the tibialis anticus is to  bend  the foot up-
wards and inwards.  It is also a flexor of  the leg  on the
foot, and it prevents the limb  from falling backwards in the
standing posture.


                   PERONEUS  TERTIUS.

  The fleshy fibres of this  muscle, d, e, and Fig. 171, c,/
are almost inseparably connected with the long extensor of
the toes, and indeed it may be said to be the outer portion
of it.  It is attached superiorly to the inferior third of the
anterior border of the  fibula, and to the neighboring part of
the internal surface.  It sends  its fleshy fibres forwards to
a tendon which passes under  the annular ligament of the
tarsus in the same groove as those of d, Fig. 171, and is at-
tached inferiorly, at e,  to the posterior part of  the metatar-
sal bone of the little toe.
  The outer surface of the peroneus tertius is connected
with the aponeurosis of the leg ; the inner surface with the
extensor brevis communis digitorum pedis.   In the foot it
passes over the extensor digitorum pedis and the first meta-
tarsal bone :  its posterior border is placed  upon the  fibula
and  interosseous ligament.
  The office of this muscle is to bend the foot upon the
leg, raising its outer edge;  it  also bends the  leg on the foot. 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         301
EXTENSOR LONGUS DIGITORUM  PEDIS.
Fig. 170.
  This muscle, a, is placed
entirely superficially between
a, the  tibialis anticus, Fig.
169, and d, e, the peroneus
tertius, being firmly connect-
ed to them by the intermus-
cular  membranes.   In the
figure before us it is repre-
sented drawn aside by a hook
at a ; superiorly it is attach-
ed by aponeurotic and fleshy
fibres, at b, to the  external
tuberosity of  the tibia; to
the head, and to  almost the
whole  anterior part of the
internal surface of the fibu-
la, to the  interosseous  liga-
ment, and to the  aponeuro-
sis of the leg, and the in-
termuscular  septa.    The
fleshy fibres proceeding from
these   different   directions,
pass obliquely into a tendon
marked d, Fig. 171, which
below the middle  of the leg
is divided into four continu-
ous portions, and pass un-
der c, Fig. 170, the annular ligament, then over the upper
part of the foot, and are distributed to the posterior extrem-
ity of the first phalanx of the  four small toes, by flat ten-
dons, which afterwards expand upon the upper surface of
the toes.
 
302              MUSCULAR SYSTEM

  The anterior border of this  long extensor of the toes is
connected  with the  aponeurosis of the tibia, the annular
ligament of the tarsus, and the integuments ;  the posterior
border with the fibula, the interosseous ligament, the tibia,
the ankle joint, and the extensor brevis digitorum and the
toes.   The inner corresponds to the tibialis anticus and ex-
tensor proprius pollicis pedis.  The outer is intimately uni-
ted above with the peroneus longus, at the  middle with the
peroneus brevis, and  below with the  peroneus tertius : see
Fig. 171.
  The office of this  muscle is  to  extend  all  the joints of
the small toes, and to assist in raising the foot.
          EXTENSOR  PROPRIUS POLLICIS  PEDIS.

  The fleshy fibres of this muscle, d, are  situated between
the long extensor of the toes and the anterior tibial muscle,
and cannot be exhibited until  those muscles are separated
from each other ; but  the  tendon  is superficial, passing be-
tween the tendons of those two  muscles.  It is attached
superiorly to the anterior  part of the middle  third of the
inner surface of the fibula, and to the adjacent part of the
interosseous  ligament; the muscular  fibres terminate in  a
tendon which  passes in a particular groove  under c, the
annular ligament; runs  along the inner  edge of the foot,
and is inserted, at e, into the upper surface of the posterior
extremity of the last phalanx of the great toe.
   The  inner surface of this muscle is connected  with the
tibialis anticus, and anterior  tibial  vessels and nerves; the
outer surface with  the extensoi communis digitorum ; the
anterior border  is concealed  above  between the tibialis
anticus and extensor  digitorum, and is covered  by the
aponeurosis of the tibia and the integuments.   The paste- 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.
303
rior border is placed  on the fibula, the interosseous  liga-
ment, the tibia, the  anterior tibial artery, the articulation
of the tibia and tarsus, and upon the back of the  foot and
great toe.
  The office of this muscle is to extend the great toe; it
also bends the leg on  the foot and the foot on the leg. 
304
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
  PERONEAL


PERONEUS
Fig. 171.
The tendon of the  peroneus
through a channel in  the os cal
obliquely across the sole of th<
 REGION.

LONGUS.

   This muscle, g, and Fig.
 174,  d, is  situated at the
external part  of  the  leg.
Its fleshy  fibres  are  quite
superficial.   It is  attached
superiorly to the outer  side
of the  upper  extremity of
the fibula, at g, and to  one-
third of  its length down-
wards,  to the  crural apon-
eurosis  and  to the aponeu-
rotic  septa  placed  between
the soleus and  flexor longus
 pollicis pedis  on one side,
and  the  extensor  longus
pollicis  pedis on  the other
side ; the fibres run oblique-
ly outwards into a tendon,
which  passes  behind  the
outer ankle through a groove
 which is common to it  with
the peroneus tertius:  thus,
at the lower end of the  fibu-
la, these tendons are bound
 down by a tendinous bridle.
 longus is  then  conducted
;is and os cuboides, extends
; foot, and is attached to the 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.          305
 posterior extremity of the metatarsal bone of the great toe,
 and to the os cuneiforme internum.*
   The outer surface of the peroneus  longus is  connected
 with the aponeurosis of the tibia;  the  inner  surface with
 the fibula, extensor digitorum communis, and peroneus bre-
 vis ; the  posterior surface corresponds to the soleus above
 and below the flexor  longus pollicis.   The several  connex-
 ions of the tendon have already been  noticed.
   The office of this muscle is to turn the foot outward, and
 to assist in extending it.


                   PERONEUS  BREVIS.

   This muscle is situated between the extensor longus digi-
 torum and peroneus longus; its muscular fibres are con-
 cealed by those of the latter muscle.  It  is attached superi-
 orly to the inferior half  of the  outer surface of the fibula,
 and to the intermuscular aponeurosis, and to the aponeuro-
 sis of the leg.  The fibres run  obliquely  towards a tendon
 which passes in a groove of the fibula at the outer ankle,
 where it is inclosed in the same tendinous ring with  the
 peroneus longus.   It is  continued through a channel on the
 outside of the os calcis, and is attached to the superior part
 of the  posterior extremity of the  metatarsal bone  of the
 little toe : see Fig. 174, g.
   The outer  surface of the peroneus  brevis is  connected
 with the aponeurosis of  the tibia and peroneus longus :  the
 inner surface with the fibula, the extensor digitorum  com-
 munis,  and the peroneus tertius above, and with the flexor
 longus  pollicis below.
  The  office of this muscle is  to turn the  foot outwards,
and somewhat to extend it.

           * This insertion  is distinctly seen in Fig-. 174.
    vol.  i.               40 
306            MUSCULAR SYSTEM
               POSTERIOR REGION OF THE LEG.

        GASTROCNEMIUS EXTERNUS ET  INTERNUS.

  These muscles are extremely large
and strong, and principally form the
calf of the leg.  They are  separated
above into two flat fleshy masses, but
are united below, where they present
the strongest  tendon  of  the whole
body.   The internal muscle is attach-
ed superiorly, at a, to the  back  part
of the inner condyle of the  femur ;
the external muscle is attached in the
same  manner, at b, to  the external
condyle.  Each  of  these muscles
forms  a large fleshy mass, which is
united  below  the ham in a central
fibrous  line near the  middle of the
leg: at c, they become a broad apon-
eurosis, which as  it approaches the
heel, forms with the two  tendons of
the  subsequent  muscles  a  strong
round chord, at d, termed the tendo-
Achillis, which is fixed at e, the pos-
terior extremity of the os calcis.
   The  anterior surface  of the  gas-
trocnemii is connected with the  con-
dyles of the femur, and  the  synovial membrane of  the
articulation of the knee ;  the outer muscle with the popli-
teus ; the inner with  the  semimembranosus, the popliteal
artery,  the plantaris and soleus muscles; in  the  remainder
 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         307
of its extent it is in apposition with the soleus.   The pos-
terior surface is connected with the integuments.
  The separation of the  two muscles, at  6, a, contributes
to form the ham.
  The office of these muscles is to extend the foot.   They
are seen very strongly acting in dancing, running, leaping,
and when we are raising ourselves on the toes.  From their
origin on  the femur, they  also have  the power of bending
the leg on the thigh. 
308
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
SOLEUS.

    rig. 173.
                       This  muscle  is placed under the
                     preceding, but part  of it  appears on
                     each side of those  muscles.  Supe-
                     riorly it is attached, by the external
                     portion  at a, to the  posterior part of
                     the head  of the fibula,  and to  the
                     superior third of the oblique line on
                     the posterior surface of the tibia, and
                     to a portion of the internal border of
                     that bone below / the popliteus, the
                     fleshy  fibres terminating, at b, in  a
                     broad  aponeurosis ;  inferiorly,  this
                     aponeurosis is inseparably united with
                     that of c, the   gastrocnemii, forming
          |          the tendo-Achillis, which is inserted,
          I           at g,  into the os calcis.*
                        The  posterior surface  of the soleus
                     is  connected  with  the  gastrocnemii
          A          and plantaris, and with  the aponeu-
          l          rosis  of the leg; the anterior surface
                     with  the  peroneus  longus, popliteus,
                     flexor longus digitorum, flexor longus
                     pollicis, and tibialis posticus  muscles,
                     a portion of the  back  of the  fibula,
the popliteal, posterior  tibial,  and fibular vessels.
   This muscle assists the gastrocnemii in extending the
foot and in raising the heel in progression.
  * From the circumstance of the three muscles being united into one
tendon, H. Cloquet has described  them  as a single muscle, under the
name of triceps extensor pedis. 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         309
                       PLANTARIS.

  This muscle, which is long, and extremely thin and nar-
row, is situated under the  outer portion of the gastrocne-
mius.  It is attached superiorly, at d, to the posterior part
of the external condyle of the femur, and adheres  to the
capsule of  the knee joint, and to the tendon of the gastroc-
nemius externus.  It forms behind the  joint a  small fleshy
fasciculus,  which passes over the popliteus, / and  sends a
very long and  slender tendon, e, obliquely inwards, which
accompanies c, the tendo-Achillis, to be attached with it, at
g, to the os calcis.
   The posterior surface of the plantaris is connected with
the gastrocnemii and integuments ; the anterior surface with
the ligaments at the posterior  part of the knee joint, the
popliteal vessels, and the popliteus and soleus muscles.
   The  particular use of  this muscle has  been a question
with physiologists; although it is generally classed  with the
extensors of the foot, it is so extremely slender that it can
 have but little power in the motions of the limb.   I am of
opinion, that its  office  is solely to contract  the foldings of
 the  capsule, so as to prevent injury in the flexion of the
 knee joint.


                       POPLITEUS.

   This  is  a  small  muscle, Fig. 174, a, Fig. 173, / of a
 triangular  figure, situated across  the back part of  the knee
joint.  It  is attached  superiorly within the capsule of the
 knee joint, by a round  tendon, to the depression  of the
 external condyle of the femur ;  it adheres to  the posterior
 and outer   surface of  the  semilunar cartilage;  and at the 
310
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
back part of the condyle it perforates the capsular ligament,
and forms a fleshy mass, which, passing  obliquely inwards,
is attached  inferiorly, broad, thin, and fleshy, to  the supe-
perior triangular surface at the back part of the tibia.
  The posterior surface of  the popliteus is connected with
the gastrocnemii and plantaris muscles, the popliteal vessels,
and the posterior tibial nerve ;  the anterior surface with the
articulation of the tibia and fibula, the tibialis posticus mus-
cle, and the tibia.   The outer margin is  united  above by a
thin membrane with the upper part of the fibula and soleus.
  The office of this muscle is to bend  the thigh and  the
leg ; but chiefly, like the preceding, it prevents the capsule
from being compressed in the motions of the knee joint. 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.          31 1
          FLEXOR  LONGUS DIGITORUM  PEDIS.

  This muscle, b, is situated be-
neath the soleus;  it  is attached
superiorly to the posterior surface
of the tibia, and to  the  superior
oblique line, until it arrives within
three  inches of the ankle.  The
fleshy fibres pass obliquely into a
tendon at the posterior edge of the
muscle ;  this tendon runs behind
the inner ankle in a groove of the
tibia, and is secured in this situa-
tion by a  strong ligament, which
is extended from the ankle to the
os calcis, and  having received a
tendinous slip from the flexor lon-
gus pollicis, divides about the mid-
dle of the sole of  the  foot into
four tendons, which pass through
slits in the tendons of the flexor
digitorum brevis, and are  finally
attached to the posterior part of
the inferior surface of  the last
phalanx of the four small toes.
  The posterior  surface of this
muscle is connected with the  so-
leus muscle, the tibial aponeurosis, and  the  posterior tibial
artery ;  the anterior surface with  the tibia  and the tibialis
posticus  muscle.   The outer  border is  united  with  that
muscle,  and with the  flexor proprius pollicis pedis.   In the
foot, the upper surface is  connected with the deep-seated
muscles of the sole, and the  lower surface of  its tendons
 
312
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
with the adductor pollicis, flexor  brevis digitorum, adduc-
tor minimi digiti muscles, and the plantar nerve.
  The office of this muscle is to bend the last joint of the
toes, to extend the  foot; and it is of great use in walking
and standing.

             FLEXOR LONGUS POLLICIS PEDIS.

  This muscle, c, e, Fig. 174,  is placed on the outer side
of the preceding, between that  muscle  and the  peroneus
longus.  It is attached  superiorly by  fleshy  fibres  to the
middle part of the back of the fibula, to the interosseous
ligament, and the aponeurotic septa ;  the muscular fibres, c,
terminate in a tendon at e, which  passes behind the inner
ankle ;  (it is found  further back, that is, nearer the os  calcis,
than the flexor longus digitorum pedis) ; and in the sole of
the foot it crosses  the  tendon  of that  muscle to be ulti-
mately attached at/  the last joint of the great toe.
  The posterior surface of this muscle  is connected with
the soleus and aponeurosis of the tibia; the anterior surface
with the fibula, the tibialis  posticus,  and the flexor longus
communis muscles, the tibia, and the interosseous  ligament.
Its tendon is enveloped by synovial membranes behind the
ankle joint, and under the  great toe, and by the flexor bre-
vis pollicis under the sole of the foot.
  This muscle bends  the great toe, and assists in extending
the foot on the leg. 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.          313
TIBIALIS POSTICUS.
  The flexor longus digitorum pe-             Fig. n
dis, and the flexor longus pollicis
pedis, are here removed to show
the situation of the tibialis posti-
cus ; the muscles which cover the
tendon in the sole of the foot also
are separated to exhibit its inferior
attachment.  Superiorly, the tibi-
alis posticus is attached to the pos-
terior surface of the tibia at c, to
the fibula at/ to the surface of the
interosseous ligament, and to the
aponeurotic septa ; the fibres pass
obliquely, at b, towards a central
tendon, which passes behind the
inner ankle in a channel of the
tibia, and  is  inferiorly inserted
into the  internal and inferior part
of  the os naviculare, sending ten-
dinous filaments  to the adjacent
bones.
   The anterior surface of the tibi-
alis posticus is connected with the
tibia and fibula, a large  extent of
the interosseous  ligament, and  the inferior  part of the os
calcis and scaphoides.  The posterior surface is covered by
the soleus, the flexor longus digitorum, and the flexor  pro-
prius pollicis muscles, and by the fibrous sheath of the inner
malleolus.
   This muscle is an extensor of the foot, and draws it in-
wards.
     vol. i.             41
 
314
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
              MUSCLES OF THE FOOT.
                       DORSAL REGION.
          EXTENSOR  BREVIS  DIGITORUM   PEDIS.
                      This is a broad  flat  muscle, situated
                   on  the upper  part  of  the foot; the
                   tendons of  the long extensor pass over
                   it, but  in this figure they are cut oft'
                   near the toes.  Posteriorly, the  exten-
                   sor brevis, a, is attached, at c,  to  the
                   upper surface of the os  calcis,  the os
                   cuboides,  and the astragalus; its fleshy
                   fibres divide  at b, b, b, b,  into four  por-
                   tions, each of which sends off a slender
                   tendon ;  one of them  is  inserted ante-
                   riorly into the first  phalanx of the great
                   toe, the others  into all the  small toes
                   except the little one, and uniting with
                   the tendons of the extensor longus, they
                   invest the upper surface of the phalan-
                   ges of the toes.
   The upper surface of the  short extensor of the toes is
connected with a  very thin aponeurotic lamina extended
over the  back of  the  foot, and  with the tendons  of the
long extensor of the toes ; the  inferior  surface with the
tarsus, the metatarsus, the interossei dorsales muscles, and
the phalanges.
   The office of this muscle is to assist  in extending the  first
four toes, and it directs them a little outwards.

                   INTEROSSEI EXTEP.NI.

   These  small muscles are similar in form  and arrange-
ment to those of the hand.   They are  seen on the back of
 
             OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.          315

 the  foot at b, b, b, b; being  attached  posteriorly  between
 the  metatarsal bones of all the toes; anteriorly, to the first
 joint of the smaller toes.   They are divided into adductors
 and abductors of the toes.
   The office of these muscles is to separate the toes.


                      PLANTAR REGION.

            FLEXOR BREVIS DIGITORUM PEDIS.

   This muscle,  a,  is  situated in  the
 middle part of the sole  of  the foot.
 Posteriorly it is  attached to  the infe-
 rior surface of d,  the  os calcis, to the
 inner  surface of  the  plantar  aponeu-
 rosis,  and  to   the tendinous  septa
 interposed between  this  muscle and
 the  abductors of the  toes.    It forms
 a thick fleshy mass, and divides  into
 four tendons, which, having  advanced
 beyond  the tarsus, are  split  for  the
 passage  of  the  long  flexor  tendons,
 and  are   ultimately attached  to   the
 inferior surface of  the  second  phalanx
 of the four  lesser  toes.   The tendon
 to the little toe, however, is not always
 found.
   The inferior  surface of the  short flexor of the toes  is
 connected  with the plantar aponeurosis ;  the  superior sur-
face with the lumbricales and accessory muscle of the flexor
 longus, with the plantar vessels and nerves, and  with the
 tendons of the long flexor.   The inner border is united  to
 the adductor pollicis, posteriorly, but is separated from  it
 anteriorly by the tendon of  the flexor longus and a portion
 of the flexor brevis  of  the great toe ;  the outer  border is
Fig.  177.
 
316               MUSCULAR SYSTEM
 contiguous anteriorly to the flexor brevis minimi digiti; pos-
 teriorly it is annexed to the abductor minimi digiti.
   This muscle bends the second joint of the toes.


                ABDUCTOR  POLLICIS  PEDIS.

   This muscle, c, is placed  at the inner edge of the foot.
 It is attached posteriorly to the lower and  inner part of d,
 the os calcis, and plantar aponeurosis ; anteriorly to the in-
 ner sesamoid bone, and base of the first bone of the great toe.
   The inferior surface of the  adductor of  the great toe is
 connected with the  flexor communis digitorum  pedis, the
 flexor accessorius, the lumbricales  muscles, and the plantar
 aponeurosis; on the inner border with the flexor brevis pol-
 licis pedis, the tendon of the peroneus longus, and the outer
 side of the  metatarsal bone; on the  outer  border with the
 interosseous muscles and external plantar artery.
   The office of this muscle  is to  carry the great toe from
 the others.

             ABDUCTOR  MINIMI DIGITI PEDIS.

   This muscle, b, is situated at the outer edge of the sole
 of the foot.  Posteriorly, it is attached to the outer side of
 d, the os calcis, to a ligament which passes  from that bone
 to the metatarsal bone of the  little toe, and  to the plantar
 aponeurosis; anteriorly,  to the outside of the first bone of
the little toe.
   This muscle  carries  the  little  toe  outwards and down-
wards. 
OF THE  INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         317
            FLEXOR  DIGITORUM ACCESSOKIUS.

   This muscle, a, is  situated  at
 the posterior  part of  the  sole  of
 the foot.   It  is attached  on the
 one part by aponeurotic fibres  to
 the inferior and internal  surface
 of c, the  os calcis, from which  it
 proceeds in a horizontal direction ;
 on the other  part it is  inserted
 into the external border of b, the
 tendon of the  flexor  longus digi-
 torum pedis.
   The inferior surface  is  con-
 nected with the adductor pollicis
 pedis, flexor brevis digitorum pe-
 dis, adductor minimi digiti pedis,
 and the plantar vessels and nerves;
 the superior surface with  the  os
 calcis, the superficial  inferior ligament of the os calcis and
 os cuboides, and with  the abductor minimi digiti pedis.
   The office of this muscle  is  to  assist  the  flexor longus
 digitorum pedis.


                  LUMBRICALES PEDIS.

  These muscles, Fig. 178, c, c, c, c, are similar in form and
number to the lumbricales of the hand ; they are an  appa-
ratus of moving powers to  assist  the flexors of the  toes.
The lumbricales pedis are situated at the anterior part of the
foot, and extend from  the tendons of the  flexor  longus dig-
itorum pedis, to the first phalanx of the four  lessentoes.
* Or massa carnea Jacobi Sylvii, 
318
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
   The inferior  surfaces of the lumbricales are connected
 with the plantar  aponeurosis ; their superior surfaces with .
 the abductor pollicis pedis, the transversus  pedis, and with
 the plantar interosseous muscles.
   The office of the lumbricales is to bend the toes, and to
 draw them a little inwards.


             FLEXOR  BREVIS POLLICIS  PEDIS.

   The fleshy part of  this              Flg. I79,
 muscle, a, is connected al-
 most inseparably to the ad-
 ductor and abductor polli-
 cis.  It is attached posteri-
 orly to the fore part of the
 os  calcis,  and to  the  two
 cuneiform bones; extending
 anteriorly to the inferior and
 lateral part of the first  pha-
 lanx of the great toe,  and
 to the  sesamoid bones of the
 articulation.
   The inferior  surface  of
 the short flexor of the great
 toe is  connected with the
 plantar aponeurosis,  flexor
proprius, and adductor  pollicis pedis; the superior surface
with the tendon of the  peroneus longus,  and with the first
metatarsal bone : the  inner edge  is united to the  abductor
pollicis.
  The office of this muscle is to bend the first joint of the
great toe.
 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY          319
                ADDUCTOR  POLLICIS PEDIS.

   This muscle, b, is  placed at the internal part of the sole
 of the foot.   Posteriorly, it is attached by aponeurotic and
 fleshy fibres, at a, b,  in two portions, to a strong ligament,
 which extends from the os  calcis to the os cuboides, and to
 the plantar aponeurosis ; from  these  different  attachments
 it advances to be inserted into the outer sesamoid bone, and
 the base of the first phalanx of the great toe.
   The  inferior surface of this muscle is connected with
 the plantar aponeurosis; the superior surf ace with the flexor
 accessorius,  the flexor brevis  pollicis, the tendons of the
 flexor longus  digitorum pedis, the tibialis anticus and posti-
 cus, and with the  plantar vessels and nerves.
   This muscle carries the great toe outwards, and bends it
 a little.

          FLEXOR  BREVIS  MINIMI DIGITI  PEDIS.

   This muscle, d, is situated  at the outer edge of  the sole
 of the foot.   It is attached  posteriorly to the metatarsal
 bone  of the little toe, and to the ligamentous sheath of the
 tendon of the  peroneus longus;  anteriorly, it  is inserted
 into the first joint of  the little toe.
   The inferior surface is connected with the plantar apon-
 eurosis and abductor  minimi digiti  pedis; the superior sur-
face with the fourth metatarsal bone and last plantar inter-
 osseous muscle.
   The office of this muscle is to assist in the  flexion of the
 little toe.

                   TRANSVERSUS PEDIS.

   This muscle, e, is situated at the anterior part of the sole
of the foot.    It is  attached on the  outer side  to the  Ii<ra- 
320             MUSCULAR SYSTEM
ments of the four last articulations of the phalanges of the
toes with the metatarsus ; on the inner side, to the external
border of the first joint of the great  toe.
  The inferior surface of the tranversus pedis is connected
with the tendons of the long and short flexors of the toes,
the lumbricales, and the collateral vessels and nerves of the
toes;  the superior surface with the interosseous muscles.
  This  muscle  carries the great toe outwards, and  brings
the metatarsal bones nearer to each other.

                  INTEROSSEI INTERNI.

  These muscles, c, are three in number, and are situated
in the sole  of the foot.   They are attached posteriorly be-
tween the  metatarsal bones of  the  four lesser toes ; ante-
riorly by tendons  to the  inside of  the first  joints  of the
three smaller toes.
  The office of these muscles is to move the three smaller
toes towards the greater toe.

                APONEUROSIS OF THE  LEG.

  This  is continuous superiorly with the femoral aponeuro-
sis ; it  adheres  strongly to every projecting point of bone,
as to the head and spine of the tibia, and to the fibula.  At
the inferior part of the  leg it has very strong adhesions  to
the outer and inner ankle: it is continuous also with  the
annular ligament of the instep,  and  is fixed on  the outer
side to the  sheath of the tendons of the peroneal muscles,
and on  the inner side to the internal  annular ligament.

           ANNULAR LIGAMENT  OF THE  INSTEP.

  This  is a transverse band of fibres which binds down the
tendons of the extensors of the  foot and toes ; the anterior 
OF THE INFERIOR EXTREMITY.         321
 part of the annular ligament is attached on the one  side to
 the external part of the os calcis ; on the other  side to the
 anterior part of the inner malleolus.   It embraces the ten-
 dons of  the  extensor longus  pollicis  pedis,  the  extensor
 longus digitorum pedis, the peroneus tertius, and the tibia-
 lis anticus.   The internal annular ligament is broader, ex-
 tending from the internal malleolus to the os calcis ; it forms
 with  that bone a  species  of  canal,  which  contains  the
 sheaths of the tendons  of the  tibialis posticus,  the flexor
 longus digitorum pedis, the flexor longus pollicis  pedis, and
 the plantar vessels and nerves.  See Fig. 170, and  171.*

  "The plantar aponeurosis so much partakes of the nature of a ligament,
that I have thought proper to  arrange and describe it with the ligaments'
See p. 133.                                          S
VOL. I.
>U 
322             MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
      OBSERVATIONS ON THE MUSCLES.

  In describing the offices of muscles I have  confined my
observations to their simple motions, but there are very few
simple motions in the animal  economy : almost every kind
of contraction is the effect of a combined effort of several
of the muscles.   One action produces another:  for this
reason, the two points by which a muscle  is attached  have
an equal tendency  to move ;  if not prevented by the action
of other muscles, both  extremes  would come into motion
when the muscle contracted : thus,  by the contraction of
the extensors of  the leg, the limb would be bent on the foot
equally  with  the foot on the leg, if the foot was not fixed ;
but it can only be so fixed by means of muscles acting in a
reverse, or opposition to the extensors ; therefore, whenever
two points of attachment  are movable, the simple motion
of the one extreme supposes the contraction of a muscular
power to fix the  other.   No muscles  are  enabled  to move
singly without the  aid of other muscles, except those which
are inserted  by one of their extremities into a fixed, and by
the other into a movable point, as those of the eye, and the
greatest part of  the moving powers of the face.  We may
remark, however, that there is always an immovable line or
point from which every ordinary motion originates, and one
extremity is  always more movable than  the  other;  thus,
although the two attachments of the gastrocnemii are mov-
able, yet these muscles act more  effectually upon  the foot
than upon the femur.
   To ascertain the office of a muscle, we must examine its
direction from  the more  fixed,  up to the more  movable
point — the  reverse of that direction is  the line of action.
The tibialis anticus directed downwards and inwards raises 
            OBSERVATIONS ON THE MUSCLES.       323

 the foot and brings it outwards ;  the rectus femoris directed
 from the pelvis towards the patella raises  the  leg without
 the least deviation.  Every other muscle, whatever may be
 its attachments, has the same  disposition:  they always act
 in the reverse of  the  line of  their direction ;  the coraco-
 brachialis, which is directed downwards and outwards from
 the shoulder towards the arm, moves the latter upwards and
 inwards.  By  this  rule, when  we see a muscle we may de-
 cide for what uses  it was intended.
  The whole effort of the contraction in long muscles  is
 usually concentrated on a single point of the  tendon: in
 the greatest part of wide  muscles, on the contrary, the in-
 sertions being  on the sides, and by a number of points, all
 the fibres have not an uniform action.  The different parts
 of the same muscle may be intended for very different, and
 even for opposite uses ;  thus, the anterior fibres of the del-
 toides advance the arm, the posterior draw it backward, and
 the  lower part of the serratus major does  not act like the
 upper; frequently, even different portions of the same mus-
 cle do  not  contract  simultaneously : the upper portion of
 the  trapezius may act independently of the lower;  the same
 may be  observed  of the  muscles of deglutition.  In the
 long muscles, however, every fasciculus concurs to produce
 the  same effect at the same moment.
  If a wide muscle is concentrated in one  common point,
 as the  temporal and deltoid, which is attached to a multi-
 plicity of points on the one part, and on the other is attach-
 ed by a single  tendon, then the average direction  of all its
 fibres is to be taken to  ascertain  its office.   If a muscle is
attached by many points at each  extremity, the line of di-
rection of its fasciculi must be examined to judge of its ac-
tion.  It is  in  this way we understand the  action of the
rhomboideus,  serratus  magnus,  etc.    In those  muscles
which are reflected, as the obliquus superior of the eye, the
circumflexus palati, the peronei, etc., the  action of  the 
324
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
 muscle must be calculated from the point of reflexion only.
 The orbicular muscles, as those situated around the lips, the
 eyes, etc., have in general  no fixed point;  they are intend-
 ed merely to  contract the aperture around which they are
 situated.
   Let it again be observed, that with a very few exceptions,
 the actions of muscles are associated.  A number of mus-
 cles are required, even  to  nod  the head, to maintain  the
 body erect, to put it in motion, or to continue it in progres-
 sion ;  and in very great  bodily efforts, all  the  voluntary
 muscles appear to be in action.
   In early life, the muscular  system  appears to be penetra-
 ted with less blood than  at a later  period, the muscles of
 the infant being of a much  paler color than those of the
 adult; as age  advances they gradually assume  a deeper
 color, they receive a greater supply of blood-vessels, and
 consequently are more  abundantly nourished  than many
 other organs.   During the period of infancy and youth, the
 conformation of the male and female muscles is analogous.
 In  the former, after  growth in  stature is completed, the
 muscles increase in bulk;  to  the slender and rounded form
 of adolescence, alternate projections and depressions mark
 the outline of the more manly  form ; and we may remark
 at this period the  muscular  system  appears (if the organs
 are well exercised)  through the  integuments, the  fleshy
 masses of muscular fibre forming prominences separated by
 distinct grooves.   Painters and sculptors pay great attention
 to the developement of the muscles, making them charac-
 teristic of the figures they represent under different circum-
 stances and modes of life ;  as we may observe in the statues
 of the Farnese Hercules and Pancratiastae, contrasted  with
 those of the Antinous and  Apollo Belvidere.
  As the muscles increase  in thickness, they acquire more
density.   A remarkable difference may  be  observed  in the
 firmness of the muscles, especially in a state of contraction. 
           OBSERVATIONS ON THE MUSCLES.        325

 in the adult and in the infant, and between persons who are
 accustomed to take a great deal of robust exercise and those
 who are less accustomed to exertion ; thus, while the  seden-
 tary and indolent are remarkable for the flaccidity of their
 muscles, the active have them firmly developed.  The gym-
 nastic exercises  are  very much  calculated to produce this
 effect, and to strengthen the moving powers ; but such ex-
 ercises should be taken gradually, and youth should  not be
 urged to exertions beyond those which they can accomplish
 without subsequent painful sensations.
   In the  prime of life, the color of  the  muscles  is a
 deep red;  in the subsequent  stages of life they gradually
 fade; but  there are  other causes  besides advanced  age
 which destroy the brilliancy of their hue, such as ill health,
 and excesses of  any kind, which have a depressing influ-
 ence on the vital powers.
   As age  advances,  the muscles undergo  other changes:
 the fibres  become tough and resistant, and their excess of
 density  seems to prevent their  contraction ; at least, they
 can no longer perform with such rapidity  as formerly, nor
 can  movements  be continued so long, for weariness sooner
 follows.  But though in persons advanced  in life the fibres
 are dense, the general feeling of the muscles is  loose  and
 flaccid, and the  calves of the legs  quiver in walking, as if
 less capable of action.  Old age is  a period  at which .mo-
 tion causes a tremor of the whole muscular system.  Why is
 this ?  Bichat says, it is because the muscles no longer pos-
 sess  a sufficient  degree of contractility, and  that they are
 thus too long for the spaces which they fill.   This appears
 to proceed from the contractility of the tissue being reduced
in the last stage of life.   We are convinced of this fact by
comparing a muscle divided transversely in  a young and in  i
an aged  person :  in the former it contracts much  more than
in the latter.
  By the very great contractility of  the  muscles  of youth, 
326
MUSCULAR SYSTEM
all the fibres arc drawn closer  together  during repose, as
well as in action ; but in  the  progress of age this  effect is
no longer produced:  these organs therefore remain lax and
flaccid, a phenomenon which indicates the low state of con-
tractile power.
  As the blood flows in less quantity to the muscular sys-
tem  of infants, and increases gradually as, persons  become
of an adult age, so  the  quantity  of blood gradually de-
creases as persons become advanced in years;  the vessels
in old subjects become  partially  obliterated, and the parts
being deprived of their former supply of the vital fluid,-are
left  in the state before described, possessed of a reduced
state of vital contractility and sensibility.
  The condition of the  muscular  system after  death  de-
pends  upon  the causes  which  produced it:  in ordinary
cases, after a short  time  the dead  body becomes stiff, and
retains the form it is  placed in,  until decomposition  takes
place; but in  some particular cases, as in  poisoning and
suffocation from the fumes of charcoal, and in several other
instances, the  muscles never  become firm : all contractility
is extinct, and the body continues soft and flexible. 
BURSJE.
327
            BURSjE MUCOSiE, or Mucous Bags.

  The structures we are about  to  describe not only enter
into the composition of joints, but are placed  between the
tendons and bones exposed to much friction, and therefore
may be considered  as  auxiliaries to the moving powers.
The bursa? mucosae are  intended for the  same  purpose as
the synovial membranes, viz., to  produce or secrete a fluid
similar to the synovia, which lubricates contiguous surfaces.
Their structure and anatomical arrangement are nearly the
same, both  being shut sacs.  Dr Monroe discovered and
described 140 of them, and since which several other bursas
have been described by Dr Rosenmuller of Leipsic ; they
perform the office of friction-wheels in machinery, and take
off too severe pressure or friction from the bone or  tendon.
Bursas vary considerably in size, as well  as in form, some
being oval  or  circular, others  elongated, so  as  to form
sheaths which inclose tendons.   Thus, where tendons are
retained in  situ by fibrous sheaths, the contiguous surfaces
are invested by a bursal membrane reflected  over them, as
the different flexor and extensor tendons  in both extremi-
ties ;  and also where a musele has to slide over a bony pro-
minence, as where  the gluteus maximus passes over the
great trochanter, a bursa is interposed ; or where processes
of bone play on fibrous structures, as between the acromion
and  the capsule of the  shoulder  joint.  These instances
will suffice  to point out the operation of the general princi-
ple which determines the  formation of synovial or  mucous
bursas.  The following enumeration is from Mr Bell, and
constitute the principal bursas of the human body.
   In connexion with the  Shoulder Joint :
   1st. A very large bursa under the acromion, and betwixt
it and the head of  the humerus. 
328
MUSCULAR SYSTEM.
   2d. Between the head of the clavicle and the coracoid
 process of the scapula.
   3d. Upon the capsule of the shoulder joint and  under
 the tendon of the subscapularis muscle.
   4th.  Under the deltoid muscle.
   5th.  Under the tendon of the latissimus dorsi.
   The principal bursas around  the Elbow Joint are,
   1st. Between the tendon of  the biceps flexor cubiti and
 the radius.
   2d. Over the round head of  the radius and the extensor
 muscles.
   3d. On the olecranon and under the triceps tendon.

   About the Wrist,
   1st. A large bursa between the flexor  tendons and the
 carpus.
   2d. On the trapezium.
   3d. On the os pisiforme.
   4th. On the back of the carpus  and under the extensor
 carpi  radialis.
   5th. Between the ligament of the wrist and the tendon of
 the extensor carpi ulnaris.
   Besides these sacs or proper bursas, sheaths surround the
 tendons of almost all the muscles of the wrist joint.

   On the Pelvis,
   1st. A large bursa between the gluteus maximus and the
 vastus externus.
   2d. Between the capsule of the hip joint  and the psoas
magnus  and iliacus internus.
   3d. Under the pectinalis.
  4th. A large  one on the surface of the  trochanter major,
under the gluteus minimus.
  5th. On the os ischii and under the  origin  of the biceps.
  (5th. Under the tendons of the rotators of the thigh bone. 
bursa:.
329
  In the Thigh, and around the Knee Joint,
  1st.  Under the tendon of the extensors of the  leg, and
communicating with the knee joint.
  2d. Under the ligament of the patella.
  3d. Between the insertion of the semimembranosus  and
the origin of the gastrocnemius.
  4th.  Over the internal lateral ligament  of the knee joint.
  5th.  Under the popliteus.
  Several irregular bursas are found around those tendons
which are inserted  into the  tibia and fibula.

  Around the Ankle Joint.
  All the principal tendons  which cross  the ankle joint
have bursas  under  or  around  them, as the tendon of the
tibialis anticus,  the  extensor proprius, the extensor digito-
rum, the peroneus longus and brevis.  There is also a pro-
per bursa between  the  tendo-Achillis and the  os calcis;
another  under the flexor longus pollicis, and also under the
flexor longus digitorum and the tibialis posticus.
  It is necessary for the surgeon to know these bursas;  be-
cause, after a sprain and injuries,  effusion  takes place in
them, and they  present a puffy swelling over the joint  not
easily understood  without the  recollection of the natural
anatomical structure.
vol. i.                41) 
ART.  V.
        VASCULAR  SYSTEM.









                CHAP. 1.





            ORGAN'S OF fincri.ATIOH.





THE  H E ART  AND  ITS  ENVELOPES






            THE PERICARDIUM.





                   F'g. 180.
 
THE PERICARDIUM.
331
  The heart is  the central organ of circulation; and the
pericardium, b, b, is a membranous bag which incloses the
heart, a, and the roots of the  arterial and venous trunks
which issue from it.   It is situated in the lower part of the
anterior mediastinum, above the aponeurotic centre of the
diaphragm. It is connected anteriorly with the  pleura, the
thymus gland, the sternum, and the  cartilages of the  sixth
and seventh ribs of the left side ; posteriorly with the bron-
chial tubes, the assophagus, and the descending aorta ; lat-
erally with the pleura, e, the phrenic nerves, and the inner
surface of  the lungs.
  The  pericardium is composed of two  membranes, an
outer fibrous and an inner serous.
  The fibrous membrane is intimately united below with the
aponeurosis of the diaphragm ;  it ascends around the heart,
embraces it as far as the base, and is continued to a certain
distance upon the  trunks of the great  vessels.  The peri-
cardium, therefore,  is not perforated by these vessels, but
its  fibrous  lamina form sheaths  for them.
  The  serous membrane is much  more extended than the
fibrous membrane ;  for after lining the inner surface of the
pericardium, it entirely covers the  heart, and is continued
upon the aorta above its first  curve; to the right, it is re-
flected upon the superior vena cava, to the  left upon the
pulmonary artery before its bifurcation, and upon the right
pulmonary veins immediately  after  their issuing  from the
lungs.  This serous membrane of the pericardium dips into
all  the irregularities of the surface of the  heart, where it is
extremely  thin and transparent, and is not easily demon-
strated ; it also adheres intimately to the fibrous  membrane,
but it has very little attachment to the vessels, and can be
raised from their surface without difficulty.
  The inner surface of this  membrane is  smooth, glisten-
ing, everywhere in contact  with  itself, and is moistened 
332
THE BLOOD.
with a serous fluid, to  prevent ill effect  from the  heart's
motion.
  The arteries of the pericardium are very small, and  are
derived from larger arteries in the immediate vicinity.  The
veins correspond to the arteries, and partly terminate in the
vena azygos.  There have not yet been any nervous fila-
ments traced into its lamina.
                      THE BLOOD.

  I shall premise a few remarks on the blood, before I pro-
ceed to describe the organs which circulate it.

  The general appearance of human blood is too well known
to render it necessary for  me to describe it.   The  blood
circulates in the  heart, arteries, and veins;  the  estimated
quantity is about twentyeight  pounds in an adult.   In the
veins it is of so  deep a  color that  it is generally termed
black blood; in the arteries it is of a  bright vermilion color.
  In order to render the difference  between venous and
arterial blood more distinct, Majendie  has given the fol-
lowing table of them : —
	Venous Blood.	Arterial Blood.
Color,	Black red,	Vermilion red.
Odour,	Weak,	Strong.
Temperature,	- 101 • 75° F.	Near 104'F.
Capacity for caloric,	852*	839.
Specific gravity,	- 10511	1049.
Coagulation, -	Less rapid,	More rapid.
Serum,	More abundant,	Less abundant.
* Water being one thousand.—Dr J. Davy's Philosophical Trans. 1815.
t Water b»ing one thousand. 
THE BLOOD.
333
  The blood is the most important  fluid of the  body, and
most essential to the support of its functions.  Many able
anatomists and  physiologists have considered it as a living
fluid ; and the arguments of those who maintain its vitality
are very strong : I consider, stronger  than those who take
an opposite view of the question.  While hot and in motion
in its vessels, the blood remains constantly fluid; when it
cools and is at rest,  it coagulates and becomes a gelatinous
mass, which  gradually separates into two parts: the one,
the crassamentum or  the more solid part, the  other,  the
serum or fluid.
   The respective relations in the quantity of serum to the
crassamentum, and those of the  coloring matter to the fibrin,
are variable, according to the circurnstances of age and the
state of the health.
   The crassamentum forms more than half of  the blood ;
it is plastic, thick, and in consistence like a strong glutinous
jelly, which soon putrifies in the air; but dried by a gentle
heat, becomes  a dark brittle  mass.   The surface  of the
coagulum, after being exposed  in a vessel to atmospheric
air, becomes of a florid red color; but the lower surface
contiguous to the vessel is of a deep black ;  the  change of
color on the surface is supposed to be owing to the oxygen
of the atmosphere uniting with  the blood.  The crassamen-
tum is composed of— 1st, red  globules ;  2d, fibrin.   The
red globules are obtained by agitating the crassamentum of
 the blood in the serum ; when  the globules, on examination
 with a powerful microscope, will be found floating in  that
 fluid.   According  to the observations of Captain  Kater
and Dr Young, who measured  the red globules of the blood
with a micrometer, and  thus agree that the size of them is
between TTJY>o- and so-W 0I* an  incn  in  diameter, or,  taking
 the medium, -^Vyo- °f nn inch.*
* See also S>ir E. Home'* paper, Philosophical Transactions. 181'.' 
334
THE BLOOD.
   The red matter of the blood is soluble in water;  when
dried and calcined,  it yields a charcoal, which furnishes
during its  combustion ammonial  gas, and  gives the hun-
dredth part of its weight of ashes, composed of
  Oxide of iron,.........550
  Phosphate of lime, with phosphate of magnesia,  -    -   -  8.5
  Pure lime,..........17.5
  Carbonic acid, -.........li.O
   The fibrin, separated from the coloring matter, is whitish,
insipid, and inodorous ; elastic when moist, but brittle when
dry.  In distillation it gives out a great  quantity of carbo-
nate of ammonia and carbon, the ashes of  which contain
phosphate of lime, a little phosphate of magnesia, carbonate
of lime, and carbonate of soda.   A hundred parts of fibrin
are composed of
  Carbon,..........53.360
  Oxygen,..........19.685
  Hydrogen,.........7.021
  Azote,..........19.934
   The serum  is a  transparent liquid,  slightly yellow;  its
odour and taste resemble the odour and  taste of the blood.
According to Mr Brand, the serum is almost pure albumen,
united to soda, which holds it in a liquid state.   At a tem-
perature of 158° F. it becomes a solid mass, like the white
of an egg, and forms on coagulating  numerous  small cells,
which contain a matter very analogous to mucus. 
THE BLOOD.
335
  According to Dr Marcet, one thousand grains of the
serum of human blood contain,*
  Water,.......
  Albumen,......
  Muco-extractive matter,  -
  Muriate of Soda, with some muriate of Potash,
  Subcarbonate of Soda,   -
  Sulphate of Potash,.....
  Phosphates of Lime, Iron, and Magnesia. -
                                                  1000.00
  From different analyses of blood, and as the processes of
investigation are perfected, we discover in the blood all the
principles, all  the  elements of  the  various  organs of the
body.   We are able with confidence to point out its fibrin
as the same matter with  the muscular fibre ;  the albumen,
that which forms cartilages, and so great a number of mem-
branes and tissues;  the  adipose  matter, when  combined
with osmazome and albumen, constitutes the nervous mass ;
the  phosphates of  lime  and  magnesia, which constitute a
great portion  of  the  bones; the  elements of the most re-
markable excrementitious substances, as urea  and the yel-
low matter of the  bile, the urine, and that  which by ab-
sorption extends  itself into the cellular tissues around con-
tusions.f
   The blood,  therefore, is the common source  from which
every tissue of the body borrows and chooses its materials
according to its degree of sensibility,  and appropriates them
to  itself,  and  subsequently retains or rejects them.  The
body derives  its  nourishment  from  the blood, which sup-
plies the waste  that  is continually  going on in the animal
frame ; and the  reproduction of any part which may  have
been destroyed, equally depends upon it.  The blood, im-

  * Philosophical Transnctions  for 1819.  These results very nearly coin-
cide with an analysis of Bfkzelius.
  t See Majpndie's Compendium of Physiology, Art. Blood
900.00
 86.80
  4.00
  6 60
  1.65
  0.35
  0.60 
336
THE Hi:ART
pelled  by the  heart, is transmitted by the arteries to the
most  minute  part of the body,  building  up  the several
structures, and keeping  them  in a state of repair.  The
superabundant quantity  is returned to  the  heart by the
several veins ;  but as a  large portion  of it is expended in
preserving the healthy state of the body, it is necessary that
a constant supply should be provided, and this is formed in
abundance from both animal and  vegetable food.
THE HEAKT.

   Fig. 181.
  The henrt is a hollow muscular organ : its form is annex-
ed.   It is  inclined  forwards,  downwards, and outwards,
and  from right to left; its  general  connexions  have been
pointed out in describing  the  pericardium.   The position
of the heart somewhat changes as it follows  the motions of 
THE HEART.
337
 the diaphragm in breathing, and its  weight draws it in dif-
 ferent directions according to the inclination of the body.
   The anterior surface is turned a little upwards, and pre-
 sents  in  its middle a groove  passing from  left to right
 obliquely downwards, and in which  is lodged the anterior
 coronary artery and vein  in the  midst of  a  considerable
 quantity of adipose tissue.   The posterior surface is nearly
 horizontal, and rests upon  the aponeurotic centre of the
 diaphragm :  it is traversed almost vertically by a channel
 which receives the  posterior coronary  artery  and  vein.
 The base of  the heart is situated beliind and to the right,
 and is separated from the vertebral  column by the aorta
 and the oesophagus.  There is observed on it an  oblique
 groove, which  indicates the junction of the  auricles and
 ventricles.   The apex is inclined forwards and to the  left,
 and in the living body is felt beating  in the  interval of the
 cartilages of  the fifth and  sixth  ribs.
   The heart contains  four cavities, which are termed its
 auricles and  ventricles.   An auricle and a  ventricle is  pla-
 ced to the right, and to the left  the same  disposition is ob-
 served.   On  each  side  the auricle communicates with the
 corresponding ventricle.   In the right cavities there is found
 black  blood, which has been received from  all  parts of  the
 body, and which must be submitted incessantly to the ac-
 tion of the air in the lungs ;  in the left cavities we  find  red
blood, which has  been  received  from the  lungs,  having
already undergone  a certain  change from  the  atmosphere,
for the purpose  of again circulating through the  whole body.
vol.  i.
11 
338
THE HEART.
RIGHT  SIDE  OF   T H E  HEART.


           THE RIGHT AURICLE.

                  Fig. 182.
   The right auricle is  also  called  the  anterior auricle; its
 situation is obvious in the figurq  before us.*  On the right
 side it has a  loose  appendage with  denticulated  borders,
 which bearing some resemblance to a  dog's ear, the  whole
 cavity has obtained the name of auricle.   The^arietes of
 this cavity, Fig. 181, n, are  so  thin as  to be &mitranspa-
 rent; but in the inner surface  at  c, Fig.  182, its muscular
 fasciculi are  disposed  somewhat  like the teeth of a  comb,
 therefore have been named musculi pectinati.   Its posterior
part b, presents the orifice if the superior vena cava, incli-
ning forwards and downwards ; this is separated from a, d,
the orifice  of the inferior vena cava, by  a  projection formed
by a thickening of the muscular coatvthe .tuberculum Loweri.

  * The venae cava), Iht;  auricle, and its  opening into the ventricle, arc
here laid open. 
THE HEART.
339
 The septum of the auricle is seen separating the right from
 the left; it is thin, and presents, at  e, an  oval  depression
 named fossa ovalis, at the circumference of which the  fibres
 are thicker, forming an elevated ring, called the annulus ovalis.
 The space occupied in the adult by the fossa ovalis, is  in the
 foetus, an aperture named the foramen  ovale, which some-
 times  remains open through life, the use of which, before
 the period of birth, is to transmit  the blood of the  inferior
 vena cava  directly into the left auricle.  The orifice of  the
 inferior vena cava is furnished with a duplicature of the in-
 ner membrane, which advances  into the cavity of the auri-
 cle, and is  named the Eustachian  valve, marked  h,f; its
 dimensions are more  considerable  in children, and it be-
 comes gradually obliterated with age.
   The auricle is a reservoir in which the blood is collected
 during the contraction of the ventricle.


                 THE RIGHT  VENTRICLE.

   The ventricles are the most essential  parts of the heart;
 they constitute the forcing machine of the blood, and there-
 fore merit the most particular notice.
   The right ventricle has a triangular pyramidical form, the
 base of which is turned upwards and backwards, being in-
 sensibly lost in the corresponding auricle.   Anteriorly and
 outwardly, the muscular parietes, marked I, are thin and
 concave; the posterior and  inner is  formed by a partition,
 which equally belongs  to the left ventricle.   The thickness
 of the  parietes of the right ventricle  is  unequal in the dif-
 ferent parts of their extent: the inner surface presenting a
great number of  muscular fasciculi, as g, commonly de-
signated by the name of  carnea  columna, which  vary  very
much in size, length and  direction.   Their disposition is
irregular, some taking a vertical course from the apex to the 
340
THE HEART
base, while the others cross them in  all sorts of directions,
and form with them a confused net work.
  Some of these fleshy columns are much  larger than the
others, and their number also varies  from three or four to
eight or nine.  These are attached  to some  points of the
parietes of the ventricle, and  extending from the apex to
the base  they terminate  abruptly,  each by  several small
white tendinous strings, called  corda  tendina which are
fixed  into  the points of k, k, the  tricuspid valve ;  in  one
part  diverging from, at another part  uniting  with,  each
other.   There are other muscular fasciculi attached to the
parietes  in  the manner  of  pilasters;  they  follow every
variety of direction, and are interlaced with each other, so
as to represent network, leaving between them depressions
of different dimensions.
  The entrance from the right auricle  to the right ventricle
is termed the auriculo-ventricular orifice, which is furnished
with membranous folds, k, k, termed the tricuspid valve, on
account of its being divided into three triangular  portions,
the form of two of which we  see in  the figure.  One of
the surfaces of the valve is turned towards the parietes of
the ventricle, the  other towards the cavity of the auricle.
One of its borders is attached to the circumference of the
orifice, the other is  divided  into  three floating  portions,
which  are held in situ by the cordqe  tendinae, or tendons
of the carnene  columns.   This valve  is thin and transpa-
rent in its whole  extent,  but becomes thicker at its free
edge, for the attachment of the small tendons which I  have
before described.
  There is another aperture of a smaller size than the pre-
ceding, and leads to the pulmonary artery. 
THE HEART,
341
COMMENCEMENT  OF THE PULMONARY/ ARTERY.

                 Fig. 183.
                    a,    £
  The office of  this artery is to carry the  blood into the
lungs to be  submitted to the  action  of  the air in  respira-
tion.  The  pulmonary artery arises  from  the left part of
the right ventricle ; its  orifice  is surrounded by a callous
ring, which indicates  the  limits of the  muscular fibres of
the heart; this orifice is moreover furnished internally with
three membranous folds, c, c, c, which are  named  sigmoid
or semilunar valves : their semicircular form is seen in this
figure.  They are adherent to the  artery by  their  convex
and inferior border, and present in the middle of the  loose
margin  a  small tubercle of a  fibro-cartilaginous  texture,
termed the  corpus  Arantii*.  These are  thin  and  trans-
parent ; they are in contact at their extremities, and when
let down  they completely  close  the artery, and thus pre-
vent the blood  which  it contains from again entering the
ventricle.
  The pulmonary artery  passes obliquely upwards  and to
* So named from Arantius, who first described them. 
342
THE HEART.
the left side,  crossing  the course  of the  aorta,  beneath
which it passes, and to  which it  is united by  cellular and
adipose tissue.  After a course of about two inches,  it di-
vides near the second  dorsal  vertebra into two branches,
one for each lung.   Between these branches we observe a
round ligament passing from the  pulmonary artery to  the
arch of the aorta: this  apparent ligament is the remains of
a tube which is named  the ductus  arteriosus,  and  which,
in the foetus, as the lungs were impervious, transmitted the
blood to the Tight ventricle.*

       THE  LEFT  SIDE   OF  THE  HEART.
THE LEFT  AURICLE.

       Fig. 184.
  This figure represents  a section of the  left auricle and
ventricle.   The left auricle is situated at the posterior and
left side of the heart; its extent  is narrower and  longer

  " The distribution of the pulmonary artery will  be noticed in a subse-
quent section. 
THE HEART.
343
 than the right.  It presents at its superior  and inner  part,
 at a, -'n auricular  appendage, similar  to  that of the  right
 auricle, but smaller.   The  interior surface, or the  cavity «
 of this  auricular appendix, contains much fewer musculi
 pectinati than  that of the right  appendage.   Below is the
 left auriculo-ventricular orifice, leading to the left ventricle.
 The right side is smooth, and formed by the auricular sep-
 tum.   We may observe  that the fossa  ovalis is here less
 distinct than on the right side.   The left side is perforated
at b, d, by two corresponding pulmonary veins ; the orifices
are  very near each other.  Like the right  pulmonary  at/,
 c, they are destitute of valves.
THE LEFT  VENTRICLE.


        Fig. 185.
  This  ventricle is placed at the posterior  part of the  left
side of  the heart.  Observe at b, and at i, Fig. 184,  the
great thickness of the muscular parietes.  The interior is 
344
THE HEART.
furnished with  a great number of fleshy  columns, termed
carnea  columna, similar  to those of  the right  ventricle,
though   less numerous,  and  more  irregularly  disposed.
There are several larger than others, as aX g, directed from
the apex of the heart to the base, fixed by one of their
extremities  to  the  sides of the ventricle, and terminating
in a multitude  of  very  slender diverging tendons, which
frequently  cross each other,  and  are attached to the loose
edge of e, h, the mitral valve.
  At the base of  the left ventricle the  opening into  the
auricle is marked by a whitish zone, to which is connected
a fold of membrane, e, h, called  the mitral  valve, from its
shape being compared to  a bishop's mitre.  It is divided
into two portions,  to  which the  tendons  of the  carneae
column® are  attached.  There is another opening on the
right side, which leads into the aorta, Fig. 185, a, which is
furnished at c, c, c,  with  three semilunar  valves, similar to
those at  the entrance of  the pulmonary artery.  Above the
loose edge of the semilunar valves we  observe the orifices
of the two coronary arteries of the heart.


             ORGANIZATION  OF THE  HEART.
  The tissue of the heart  is  formed of muscular  fibres in
close apposition with each  other,  taking  somewhat of an
irregular spiral course from the base to the apex, and there,
as it were, dipping in and forming the carneae columnar
The parietes of the auricles are much thinner than those
of the ventricles.   In  the right auricle the muscular tissue
constitutes  a stratum  of longitudinal  fibres towards the
point of  union of the two venas cavae, whese it is separated
from the serous lamina of the pericardium by a considera-
ble  quantity of fat.  In the left auricle the  muscular stra-
tum is much thicker and more uniform than in the right; 
THE HEART.                   345
the muscular fibres extend  from the  pulmonary  veins  to
the auricle, where  they form a transverse  plane;  but more
deeply they cross each other in a very irregular manner.
  The exact arrangement  of the muscular fibres of the
heart is extremely  difficult to determine ;  they  intermingle
with each other  without any apparent  cellular  tissue being
interposed ; Cowper, and subsequently J. Cloqjuet, rep-
resent them as  disposed in a spiral  direction ; but I have
frequently examined their fibres, which seem to commence
at all points, and extend in all directions ; indeed, Majen-
die confesses that  he found it impossible to unravel them.
   The septum auriculorum  forms  a thicker and more uni-
form layer;  the  muscular fibres of the right  ventricle are
interwoven at acute angles  with  those of the  left; with a
degree of patience, however, they may be separated, so  as
to divide the heart into two portions, the one the right, the
other the left.
   The membrane of the  cavities of the heart  is evidently
continuous with  the membranes  which line the vessels des-
tined for the  circulation of  the blood.  On  the right side
the inner coat of the vense cavae is extended to the auricle,
upon the muscular fasciculi, and in their intervals upon the
serous  tissue which covers the heart.  Beneath the inferior
vena cava it is folded  upon itself, to form the Eustachian
valve.   Again, at the circumference of the auriculo-ventric-
ular orifice, it is  separated  from  the muscular tissue by a
thin layer of fat,  which constitutes  the white circle we have
before  mentioned.  There  also it is folded, as it were, on
itself, leaving the parietes  of the heart to form the tricuspid
valve ;  after which we may trace it through the whole ven-
tricle and into the  pulmonary artery, forming by its folding
the three  semilunar valves,  and continued to the most mi-
nute ramifications of that vessel.
VOL. I.
45 
346
THE HEART.
  The  membrane  of the  left cavities of the heart forms
part of  the inner tunic of the vessels that carry red blood;
it extends from the extremities of the pulmonary veins to
the whole cavity of  the auricle, and  penetrates into the
ventricle.   At the  entrance of the latter its thickness in-
creases, and it is so prolonged and doubled  on itself as to
form the mitral  valve ; we may then  view this membrane,
if we examine the aorta, forming the semilunar valves, and
extending itself into it, and constituting a lining to all the
vessels of the arterial system.


              THE  VESSELS OF THE  HEART.

  There are two arteries which rise  immediately from the
aorta, and  are  called  coronary;  these terminate in veins
which have the same name, discharging themselves into the
right  auricle ; its lymphatics are  very numerous, and pass
before the aorta and left bronchus.  The nerves also which
come from the cardiac ganglion are very thickly distributed
upon the heart.   We must consider a portion of the peri-
cardium likewise as  contributing to  the structure of the
heart, for its whole  exterior is invested with it. 
THE HEART.
347
Fig. 186.
GENEUAL  OBSERVATIONS ON  THE HEART.
  The office of the heart is to force the blood, through the
vessels which are connected with it, to the  remotest parts
of the body, and the  same force returns it to the heart  by
means of the veins ; thus the blood  is  incessantly flowing
from  the  heart,  and  again  proceeding  to it, through the
whole period of life, in one circuitous, continual, and inter-
minable stream,  hence called  the  circulation.    Having
studied the heart, we are now prepared to understand its
duplex structure and functions, i. e. there is an auricle and
a ventricle on the right side, and similar  cavities on the left
side: the  right performs the  less, or pulmonic circulation;
the left, the great, or systematic circulation.   But to give a

  * The weight of this organ is about ten ounces in an adult, or. as com-
pared to the body, as 1 to 200. 
348
THE HEART.
more detailed account of the process:  1st, the  descending
vena cava, q, conveys the blood from the head  and  upper
extremities ;  the ascending vena cava,*  o,  collects  all the
blood from the lower part of the body ;  they meet and form
the right auricle, n.   We may term this the first cavity of
the heart; its contractions carries the blood into  the right
ventricle, b,  which  stimulated  by the quantity and quality
of the blood, contracts, and  forces  the  blood through the
lungs  by means of the pulmonary artery, k, which divides
into right and left, to convey the blood by the branches /, /,
which are distributed  through all the cells of  the lungs, to
render it fit for the general circulation.
  2d.  The  veins of the  lungs, m, m, are sometimes three,
at other times four in number :  they return the blood, which
has been purified in the lungs,  to  the left  auricle, r;  this
cavity contracts and  fills the left ventricle, a, and the mus-
cular action of this  ventricle at each beat propels all the
blood of the body, communicating its vibrations to the ex-
tremest vessels.   The blood thus  distributed by the large
trunks, namely, the aorta, c, e,f the arteria innominata, g,
the subclavian artery, h, and the left carotid artery, i, to the
smaller branches, is brought back  by the veins  which are
continued from their extremities;  this is a fact  proved by
the veins being filled  when a fluid is injected into the arte-
ries.  The circulation of  the blood also may be seen in the
pellucid parts of animals by the aid of a microscope.
*p, Veins from the liver, spleen, and bowels. 
TABLE  OF  THE  ARTERIES.
                     I. PULMONARY  ARTERY.


                             II.  AORTA.



ARTERIES FURNISHED  BY THE  AORTA  AT  ITS  ORIGIN.



                I. ANTERIOR AND POSTERIOR  CORONARY.

        II. ARTERIES FORNISHED  BY THE  ARCH  OF THE  AORTA.
Primitive carotid.
External carotid.
7. Temporal artery.
Divided into external and internal carotids.

      Furnishes.
I. Superior  thyroid.
2. Lingual, which
f gives the dorsal and
\   two sublingual.
 [ 1. The inferior pala-
2. submental.
 3. External maxillary, J „
    or facial, furnishes  ) „'
                       | 6. coronary  arteries
|                       ^  of the lips.
 ..-....,   , .  ,     f gives the posterior
 4. Occipital, which   (%nastoid.]
 5. Posterior auricular, f.,    , i  „  .  •,
     ■ .  ,  c   . ,      'J the stvlo mastoid.
    which turnishes    \     J
 6. Inferior  pharyngeal.
 The external carotid terminates in dividing
    into  the temporal and internal maxillary.

          Furnishes,
 I. The transverse artery of the face.
 2. The anterior auricular.
 3. The middle temporal.
                           C Furnishes thirteen branches,
                             ]. Middle meningeal.
                             2. Inferior dental.
                             3. Deep posterior temporal.
                             4. Masseteric.
                             5. Pterygoidean.
                           ;  6. Buccal.
8. Internal maxillary artery. «j  -, Anterior dee|) temporal.
                             d. Alveolar.
                             U. Infra-orbital.
                            10. Vidian.
                            11. Superior pharyngeal.
                            12. Superior palatine.
                           ^13. Spheno-palatine. 
350
TABLE OF THE ARTERIES.
Internal carotid.
Subclavian artery.
Axillary artery.
Brachial artery.
  Furnishes,
1. Opthalmic,
  which gives
                 f 1. The lachrymal.
                   2. Central  artery of the
                      retina.
                   3. Supra-orbital.
                   4  Posterior ciliary.
                   5. Long ciliary.
                   (.i. Superior and  inferior
                      muscular.
                   7. Posterior and anterior
                      ethmoidal.
                   8. Superior and  inferior
                      palpebral.
                   9  Nasal.
                  10  Frontal.
 2. The communicating artery of Willis.
 3. Choroid urtery.
j 4. Anterior cerebral.
1^5. Middle cerebral.
f  Furnishes,  fl.The  anteri-
 1. Theverie-    or and poste-
   bral, which    rior spinal.
   irives      -i 2. Inferior ccr- f 1. The su-
                  ebellic.         prriorce-
                3. The basilar,]   rebellic.
                  divided into | 2. The pos-
                               |   terior ce-
                               |_   rebral.
 2. Inferior thyroid, which gives the ascend-
      ing cervical.
                           fl. The  anterior
                               mediastinal.
                            2. Superior dia-
                               phragmatic.
3.  Internal mammary,
    which gives
 4. Superior intercostal.
 5. Transverse cervical.
 6. Superior scapular.
 7. Deep cervical.  Continuing its course, the
    subclavian takes the name of axillary.

               Furnishes,
 1. Acromial.
 2. Superior  thoracic.
 3. Inferior thoracic, or external mammary.
 4. Inferior scapular.
i 5. Posterior circumflex.
| 6. Anterior  circumflex.
l^In continuing, it takes the name of brachial.

                 Furnishes,
f 1. Deep humeral or external collateral.
^ 2.  Internal collateral.
^ It divides afterwards into the radial and ulnar. 
TABLE OF THE  ARTERIES.              351
1.  Radial artery.
Ulnar artery.
             Furnishes,
 f 1. The radial recurrent.
 I 2. Dorsal artery of the carpus.
■{ 3. Dorsal artery of the metacarpus.
 | 4. Dorsal artery of the thumb, and terminates
 ^    in forming the deep palmar arch.

             Furnishes,
 ' 1. The anterior and posterior ulnar recurrent.
  2. The anterior and posterior interosseous,
     which furnishes the posterior radial recur-
~)    rent.   It terminates in forming the super-
 |    ficial  palmar arch,which gives the collat-
 [_    eral arteries of the fingers.
        ARTERIES  FURNISHED BY  THE AORTA IN THE  THORAX.

I. The right and left bronchial.

2. Oesophageal, (four, five, or six in number.)

3. Posterior mediastinal.

4.  Inferior intercostals, (eight, nine, or ten in number.)
ARTERIES FURNISHED BY THE  AORTA  IN THE ABDOMEN.
1.  Inferior right and left diaphragmatic arteries.
                           f Divided into three
                               branches.
                            1. Coronary of the
                               stomach.
2.  Cceliac artery.
2. The Hepatic,
   which gives

3. The Splenic,
   which gives
3.  Superior  mesenteric  ar-J Furnishes from its^
   tery.                    \    concavity,
 1.  The pyloric.
 2.  The  gastro-epiploica
    dextra.
(^3.  The  cystic.
"1.  The  gastro-epiploica
    sinistra.
 2.  The  vasa brevia.

 1. The superior, middle,
    and  inferior right co-
    lic.
 2. From fifteen to twenty
    intestinal branches.
                                        Furnishes,
                           f 1. The superior.
4.  Inferior mesenteric arte-j 2. The middle.
   ry.                      ] 3. The left colic; and divides into the su-
                           (_    perior hcemorroidal arteries.

fj.  The middle capsular arteries (two on either side.)

6.  Renal or emulgent.

7.  Spermatic.
8.  Lumbar (four of five on either side.) 
352
TABLE OF THE ARTERIES.
ARTERIES RESULTING  FROM  THE
                               AORTA.
BIFURCATION OF  THE
The aorta furnishes a little_
   before its bifurcation,
Internal iliac artery.
External iliac artery.
Femoral artery.
Popliteal artery.
   1. The middle sacral, and
      divides into the primi- f 1.  The internal.
      tive  iliacs, which are^ 2.  The external
      divided into           (^   iliac artery.

           Furnishes
    1. The ilio-lumbar.
    2. Lateral sacral.
    3. Gluteal.
    4. Umbilical.
    5. Vesical.
    6. Obturator.
    7. Middle heemorroidal.
    8. Uterine.         f 1.  Inferior heemofroi-
    9. Vaginal.             dal.
   10. Ischiatic.         2.  Artery of  the sep-
   11. Internal   pudic,      turn scroti.
 [_    which gives     ^ 3.  Transversus peri-
                           nei.
                           Artery of  the cor-
                           pus cavernosum.
                           Dorsalis penis.

           Furnishes
  1. The epigastric.
  2. Circumflexa ilii, and continues downwards
     under the name of the femoral artery.

 r         Furnishes
  1. External  epigastric.
  2. External superficial and deeply  seated
     pudics.
^ 3. Profunda, which f 1. The  external  and
     ives             j    internal circumflex.
      continuing  its^  2. The superior mid-
    course it takes tlie j    die and inferior per-
    name of popliteal. 1^   forating arteries.

f          Furnishes
  1.  The superior middle, external and inter-
    nal articular arteries.
  2.  The interior internal and external arterie?.
  3.  The anterior tibial; fl. Tarsal.
    its continuation is  2. Metatarsal.
    called the dorsal ar-^ 3. Interosseous.
    tery  of  the  foot,  4. Dorsal arteries
    which  furnishes,    ^  of the great toe.
  The popliteal is divided
    into the peroneal and
    posterior tibial  arte-
    ries.
In 
TABLE OF THE ARTERIES
353
1.  Peroneal  artery.
2.  Posterior tibial artery.
{Divided  into the  anterior  and  posterior
  fibular.

Divided into internal  and external  plan-
  tar.  It  forms, in anastomosing with the
  continuation of the  anterior tibial, the
  plantar  arch,  from which  the  superior,
  posterior, inferior, and anterior  branches
  are given off.
VOL.  I.
46 
354
Till". ARTERIES.
             OF  THE  ARTEUIKS IN GEN Kit A!,.

   The arteries are those  tubes by which the  blood is dis-
tributed  to  every part of the body.   During life they may
be distinguished by their pulsation, and if wounded, by the
florid color of  the blood, and by its escaping per saltum,  or
by jets ;  after  death they may be distinguished  by  their
thick whitish coats,  which  are elastic, for  if  cut  through
they preserve a circular orifice ; and  lastly, by  their having
no valves except at their union with the heart.
   We have taken a review of  the heart, which represents
a root, the arteries forming, as it were, two highly ramified
trees, of which the principal  trunk is the aorta, commenc-
ing at the left ventricle of the heart, branching  out through
all parts  of the system, and terminating in  minute twigs  at
the circumference of the body, limbs, and internal organs.
The other arterial trunk arises from the right ventricle, and
is  extended through the lungs.
   The arteries  very frequently  communicate  with   each
other, so that the blood  can  pass from one to the other;
sometimes such communication takes place between trunks
of an equal  size, as in the  vertebral arteries, which unite  to
form  the basilar ; more  frequently  a small  twig joins a
more voluminous  trunk, or a transverse branch unites two
separate  trunks,  as in  the anterior  cerebral arteries; or,
lastly, two trunks by  their  union form an arch, as we ob-
serve in the mesenteric arteries.*
   As the arteries are further removed from the heart, their
communications  are more  numerous.  In the  ultimate
branches  their union is  so exceedingly  multiplied as  to
form an intricate network, ramifying  ad infinitum, and  from
which the veins and exhalents seem to originate.

  * The communication of arteries with each other is termed inosculation
or anastomoses. 
TIIE ARTERIES.
355
                 STRUCTURE  OK ARTERIES.

   The arteries arc composed of three membranes  or coats,
 embracing  each other ; the inner membrane is  similar and
 contiguous with  that  which  lines  the heart,  being  very
 smooth, thin, and  transparent, and  so fine  as  to have no
 traces of fibres.  The  outer membrane is dense and com-
 pact,  and  seems to be continuous  with the surrounding
 cellular  tissue, and  which  is formed  of its  compressed
 laminae ; it is culled  the cellular coat.   Between these two
 coats is a third membrane, which chiefly  forms the artery ;
 it is of a firm, close texture, and strong in proportion to
 the  calibre of the  vessel, of a  yellowish  or gray color,
 composed  of distinct fibres  adherent to each  other,  and
 disposed  in concentric  layers, intimately united to the
 external or  cellular coat, but  being very  little adherent to
 the inner membrane.   This  tissue  many  anatomists have
 denominated  the muscular coat;  but it differs very materi-
 ally  from  muscular structure.  It is of a  peculiar  nature,
 very dense, possessing little  extensibility, although it is
 elastic and  contractile.
   The  arteries receive minute  arteries  (vasa vasoruni),
 which  enter into  the coats  of the  artery, and form very
 complicated meshes  on the  surface, and  which pass into
 venules,  terminating  in  the trunks  of  the neighboring
 veins.*   No lymphatics have been traced into them;  but
 their nerves are  very apparent,  and are  supplied  chiefly
 from the system of the ganglia.

  * The blood  which flows through the  artery is incapable of supplying
nourishment to it; these small vessels support its vitality, and are not
supplied by the a ti'iy which they nourish, but by others in the vicinity. 
356
VASCULAR SYSTEM
                       THE  AORTA.

   The  aorta  commences  at  the  left ventricle;  it is con-
nected with the heart by a continuation of the lining mem-
brane of that cavity, prolonged into its interior, and there
forming three semilunar valves : see Fig. 185.
   At its origin, the aorta is  concealed  by the pulmonary
artery, but which at a short distance leaves it, as the aorta
immediately  is  directed  upwards and  to  the right, and
crossing before the vertebral  column, forms a curve called
the arch of the aorta, see  Fig. 180, c: opposite the  third
or fourth  vetrebra it  emerges from the  pericardium, and
occupies the  middle of the  vertebral column;  it  is then
directed a little backwards and  to the  left; from this situ-
ation the aorta becomes vertical, and descends  in the pos-
terior mediastinum upon  the anterior and left  part of the
dorsal  vertebras; it arrives at the  diaphragm, see  Fig. 130,
n, and  passes along with the  thoracic duct between its two
pillars,/, e, d, c, and terminates in the abdomen by dividing
at the fourth or fifth lumbar vertebra.*   From its origin to
its  curve  it is termed the ascending aorta, and  from the
arch to its division it is called the descending aorta, which
is again distinguished  into  the thoracic  aorta and  the ab-
dominal aorta.
   The aorta in the pericardium,  see  Fig.  181,  e, is em-
braced by  the pulmonary  artery, k, on  the  right,  and  by
the vena cava, q, on  the left; anteriorly, the mediastinum
separates it  from the sternum.  Its arch  lies at first on the
trachea, a little before the division of the latter, and after-
wards on the  bodies of the second and third dorsal verte-
brae.  In the  posterior mediastinum it  lies  on the  left of
the  vertebral  column,  the  oesophagus,  the  thoracic duct,
and  the vena azygos.
* See Fig. 201. 
OF THE ARTERIES.
357
THE  ARTERIES  WHICH  THE AORTA  GIVES OFF  AT ITS
                        ORIGIN.

             THE  RIGHT CORONARY  ARTERY.

  This artery commences from the aorta immediately above
the loose edge of the semilunar  valves ; and is seen in the
groove which separates  the right  auricle from the corres-
ponding ventricle.   It winds round  the  channel upon the
posterior surface of the heart, where it divides into two
branches, which are distributed over the heart and extended
to the apex.
  At its commencement the right  coronary artery  gives
off very small ramifications to the aorta and right auricle ;
others  extend over the  venae cavae  and the interarticular
septum ; other branches descend upon the  right ventricle,
and communicate with the left coronary artery.

              THE LEFT CORONARY  ARTERY.

  The left coronary  artery  is  smaller than  the  right;  it
arises like it  from  the commencement of the aorta, to the
left of the pulmonary artery.  It then directs itself down-
wards between the pulmonary  artery and  the left  auricle,
and enters the groove of the anterior  surface of the  heart
(see  Fig.  181, s), and runs along its  whole extent to the
apex.  It sends  branches to  the aorta and  the pulmonary
artery, and to the  auricle and ventricle ; and dividing into
very  numerous twigs it communicates with  the branches of
the preceding artery.

      THE  ARTERIES  OF THE ARCH  OF THE AORTA.

  There are  three arterial trunks arising from the arch of
the aorta, destined for the head and the  superior extremi- 
,jO?>              VASCULAR SYSTEM

ties ;  they are shown in Fig.  1 ■-•(;, and designated the arte-
ria innominata, g; the left carotid, h;  and the left subcla-
vian artery, i.

                  ARTERIA INNOMINATA.

  This  artery ascends  obliquely to the  right, on the side
of the trachea, and after the course of an inch divides into
two trunks, of which the one is the right  carotid, the other
the right subclavian artery.
PRIMITIVE  CAROTID ARTERIES.

            Fi«. 1*7.
 
                    OF THE ARTERIES.               359

   It has been  already  mentioned,  that the  right carotid
 artery  arises from  the  arteria innominata, while the left
 takes its  origin from  the aorta.  But their volume is pre-
 cisely the same ; they ascend obliquely on each side of the
 neck,  a,  to the upper part of the larynx,  b, where they
 divide  into  two branches, the external and  the internal
 carotid artery.
   The  interval  between  these two arteries is occupied by
 the larynx, the  trachea, and the oesophagus.
   Anteriorly, the left carotid is  connected with the left
 subclavian vein, the thymus gland, and the clavicle.   Pos-
 teriorly, the common  carotids are situated  upon the verte-
 bral  column,  and  more  immediately  upon  the inferior
 thyroid arteries, the longi colli, and  the recti capitis antici
 majores muscles.   Internally,  they correspond to the tra-
 chea,  the  thyroid  gland, the  larynx, and the  pharynx.
 Externally, they are connected  with the internal jugular
 vein, the pneumo-gastric  nerves, and  the  communicating
 cords of the middle and superior cervical ganglia.

               EXTERNAL  CAROTID ARTERY.
   This artery extends from the upper part of the larynx to
 the neck  of the  condyle of the  lower jaw, and is particularly
 destined  for the face and the exterior of the  skull.  It
 passes behind the posterior portion of the digastric and the
 stylo-hyoid  muscles, where it crosses its direction, winding
 outwards  and backwards, between the zygomatic process of
 the temporal bone and  the angle of the under jaw ;  then
 divides  into two branches, which  are named  the temporal
 and internal maxillary arteries.
   On  the  outer  side, inferiorly,  the  external  carotid is
 connected with the  platysma myoides and integuments,
 afterwards with  the hypo-glossal nerve, the digastricus, and
the stylo-hyoid muscles ;  und  lastly, it is covered by the 
360
VASCULAR fcYSTE.M
 parotid gland.   On the inner side, and from below upwards,
 it is connected with the internal carotid artery, the stylo-
 pharyngeus, and the stylo-glossus  muscles, and the styloid
 process of the  temporal bone.
   The branches which  this artery  furnishes are—1st, an-
 teriorly, the superior thyroid,  the  external  maxillary, and
 the  lingual;  2d, posteriorly, the occipital and auricular;
 3d, on the  inner side, the inferior pharyngeal, and those
 by which it  terminates;  the temporal and  the  internal
 maxillary arteries.

 ANTERIOR  BRANCHES  OF THE EXTERNAL CAROTID  ARTERY.

             I.   SUPERIOR  THYROID  ARTERY.

   This artery is situated at the fore and upper part of the
 neck ;  it extends from  the external  carotid, a, to the  la-
 rynx, b, and to the  thyroid gland, p, where it divides into
 three branches,  which are distributed by  a great  number
 of divisions in the parenchyma of this organ.
   On the  outer side it is connected  with  the  platysma
 mvoides.  the  omo-hyoides,  and the  thyroid cartilage, to
 which  it gives  small  ramifications,  namely, the laryngeal,
which is directed towards the  upper part of  the larynx,
passing  between  the  os hyoides and the thyroid  cartilage
into the larynx, to supply  the  epiglottis, the  muscles, and
the mucous membrane  of that  organ.   The crico-thyroid
branch is smaller than the preceding, and descends  oblique-
ly over the thyroid-cartilage, furnishing ramifications to the
adjacent parts.

           II.   EXTEKNAL  MAXILLARY ARTERY.*
   This artery commences at the anterior part of the exter-
                              0
                    Facial or labial artery 
OF THE ARTERIES.
361
 nal carotid above  the lingual, e;  it proceeds transversely
 inwards and forwards, and after describing several curves,
 gains the internal part of the angle of the lower jaw ;  passes
 between the submaxillary gland and the base of the jaw;
 then  ascends towards  the angle of the lips; enters under
 the union of the levator anguli oris and triangularis muscles,
 and terminates upon the side of the nose as far as the inner
 angle of the eye, communicating freely  with the nasal twig
 of the ophthalmic and the infra-orbitar arteries.

    BRANCHES  OF THE  EXTERNAL  MAXILLARY ARTERY.

   There is beneath the inferior maxilla,  1st, the inferior
palatine, which, after arising near the origin of  the inferior
 maxillary  artery, supplies  the  superior  and lateral part of
 the pharynx, passes between the  pillars of the velum  palati,
and is distributed  to the pharynx, the tonsils, and the Eus-
tachian tube, communicating  with the  superior palatine.
2d, the submental, which supplies  the mylo-hyoideus and
the digastricus, and ramifying above the chin, sends branch-
es to the muscles  of  the superior hyoid region,  the sub-
maxillary gland, the  internal  pterygoid muscle, and the
mucous membrane of  the  mouth.  On the face the  exter-
nal maxillary artery furnishes external and internal branches,
which  are  distributed to  this  region.  3d,  the coronary
arteries of the lips, which proceed in a serpentine direction
on the border of the lips, and communicate with each other
at the angles of  the  mouth.  4th, the dorsal  artery of the
nose, which supplies  the muscles,  cartilages, and integu-
ments of this part, and is in general the  termination of the
maxillary artery.

              III.   THE LINGUAL ARTERY.

  This vessel commences  at the anterior part of the ex-
    vol. i.         49 
362
VASCULAR SYSTEM
ternal carotid  between the two preceding arteries, passing
inwards and forwards;  it is directed  a little  upwards, and
enters  between  the  hyo-glossus and  the genio-glossus as
far as the root of the tongue, proceeding  horizontally along
its base under the name of the ranine artery.   The lingual
artery sends branches beneath the  hyo-glossus muscle, and
to the  middle constrictor of the  pharynx, the  thyro-hyoi-
deus, and the digastricus.  From the same point the dorsal
artery of the tongue  arises, ramifying in the back of the
tongue, the tonsils, and the velum palati.   Several twigs
from the lingual artery penetrate the genio-glossus muscle ;
and one considerable branch, named the  sublingual artery,
passes  forwards above the sublingual gland,  furnishing
branches to  those  parts, to the mucous  membrane of the
mouth, and  to  the adjacent  muscles.  Lastly, the lingual
artery  supplies many branches  under the tongue, which
ramify in the substance of this organ ;  at the tip, and above
the  frenum  of the  tongue, the two  lingual, which  have
gained the  name of the ranine arteries, anastomose  with
each other.


POSTERIOR BRANCHES OF THE EXTERNAL  CAROTID ARTERY.

                IV.   OCCIPITAL ARTERY.

  This artery, /, commences at the  posterior  part of the
external carotid under the  parotid  gland; passes obliquely
backwards, beneath the posterior portion of the digastricus;
ascends between the transverse process of the atlas  and
the  mastoid  process of the temporal bone, and finally ter-
minates in a tortuous manner upon the back  part of the
head.  The  occipital artery  furnishes superior,  posterior,
and  inferior branches, which supply the muscles in  that
region.   One of them, which is larger than the others, is 
OF THE ARTERIES.
363
named the posterior  mastoid artery, from  traversing the
mastoid foramen,  and  is subsequently lost on  the dura
mater ; others descend  in the substance of  the muscles on
the lateral part of the  neck.   The  extreme branches are
more superficial, and lose themselves  in the muscles of the
posterior region of the neck.
        V.  THE POSTERIOR AURICULAR ARTERY.

  This*is one  of the  smallest branches of the  external
carotid; it passes between the auditory canal and the mas-
toid process, and gaining the inferior  part of the external
ear, divides into two branches, which are distributed to the
posterior auricular and  temporal muscles, and the integu-
ments.  But before  its  division, it furnishes  the stylo-mas-
loid artery, which enters the foramen of the same name,
passes through the aqueduct of Fallopius, and supplies the
mucous membrane  of  the  tympanum, the  semicircular
canals, etc.
VI.   INTERNAL BRANCH  OF THE  EXTERNAL CAROTID AR-
        TERY, OR INFERIOR PHARYNGEAL ARTERY.

  This artery passes vertically along the lateral and poste-
rior part of the pharynx, between the external and internal
carotids, and divides into  two branches,  namely, the pha-
ryngeal, which is distributed to the  constrictor muscles of
the pharynx,  and the meningeal branch, which passes be-
tween the internal carotid  artery  and  the internal  jugular
vein, and entering the foramen laceruin posticus,  is distrib-
uted to the dura  mater. 
364
VASCULAR SYSTEM
BRANCHES  WHICH  TERMINATE  THE   EXTERNAL  CAROTID
                        ARTERY.

                 VII. TEMPORAL ARTERY.

   The temporal artery, k, separates from the internal max-
illary artery opposite the neck of the condyle of  the jaw,
and passes obliquely upwards beneath the parotid gland ; it
passes over the zygomatic  arch, and glides in  a tortuous
manner under the anterior and  the superior muscles of the
ear and becomes subcutaneous, dividing into three branches,
namely, the transverse artery of the face, I, which ramifies
on Steno's duct and the muscles about this region.  The
anterior auricular artery, which supplies the external ear.
The middle temporal, which pierces the temporal aponeuro-
sis near the zygomatic arch, and is lost in the temporal mus-
cle.  Ultimately, the temporal artery divides  into the anterior
and posterior branches, which diffuse themselves over the
occipito-frontalis muscle and the pericranium. 
OF THE ARTERIES.
365
VIII. INTERNAL MAXILLARY ARTERY.

              Fig. 188.
  This artery is larger than the temporal; it commences at
the external carotid about the same point, and is remarka-
ble for  the  great  number  of important branches which it
supplies to the deep parts  of the face.  In this figure  the
temporal zygoma and the ramus of the jaw is  removed, to
shew its course between the pterygoid muscles to the floor
of the orbit, and spheno-maxillary fossa. 
366
VASCULAR SYSTEM
  BRANCHES OF THE  INTERNAL MAXILLARY ARTERY BEHIND
         THE  NECK 0"F THE CONDYLE OF  THE  JAW.

              I.  MIDDLE  MENINGEAL ARTERY.

    This is  the largest branch, a, of the  internal maxillary
 artery; it mounts almost vertically between the two ptery-
 goid muscles, and passes into  the cranium  by  the foramen
 spinosum of the  sphenoid  bone.  It furnishes branches  to
 the dura mater, the fifth pair of  nerves, and to the aque-
 duct of Fallopius, and then divides  into the anterior and
 posterior branches; the former is found in a deep groove
 of the parietal bone, and supplies the exterior  surface  of
 the dura mater ;  the latter  is  distributed  to  the posterior
 part of that membrane.
   The ultimate ramifications of  the meningeal artery com-
 municate with those of the opposite side of the dura mater.


  II. INFERIOR DENTAL, OR  INFERIOR MAXILLARY ARTERY.

   This vessel  descends anteriorly along the inner surface of
the ramus of the   lower jaw, at  the outer side of the pte-
rygoideus internus, enters the. inferior  dental canal, and
emerges by the  mental  foramen.   Before  entering  the
dental canal it supplies the pterygoid  muscle; in  the  canal
it furnishes the teeth with  branches, which pass through
the foramina at their roots.  One of its branches  passes
out of the mental foramen, is distributed to the triangularis
and quadratus muscles, at b, and  communicates with  the
facial artery ; another branch  continues its course to  the
chin, and gives twigs to the  canine and incisor teeth. 
OF THE ARTERIES.              367
 BRANCHES OF  THE INTERNAL MAXILLARY BETWEEN  THE
                  PTERYGOID MUSCLES.

         I. POSTERIOR DEEP  TEMPORAL BRANCH.

  This artery, c, ascends between  the  temporal and  exter-
nal pterygoid muscles, and is distributed to the  temporal
muscle and periosteum in the temporal fossa.


                II. MASSETERIC ARTERY.

  This branch  passes  between  the  temporal  muscle and
the neck of the condyle of the lower jaw, and ramifies in
the masseter muscle, communicating  with the  transverse
artery of the face.

                III. PTERYGOID  ARTERIES.

  These arteries, d, are distributed to the pterygoid  mus-
cles.

BRANCHES  OF THE  INTERNAL MAXILLARY ARTERY IN THE
                   ZYGOMATIC  FOSSA.

                   I. BUCCAL ARTERY.

   This artery,  i, descends, then  advances between the in-
ternal pterygoid muscle  and  ramus of the inferior maxilla,
supplying the buccinator and  the  zygomaticus major mus-
cles, and the mucous  membrane of the mouth.

          II. ANTERIOR DEEP TEMPORAL  ARTERY.

   This artery,  f, ascends into the  anterior part of the tem-
poral fossa, and is lost in the temporal muscle. 
368
VASCULAR SYSTEM
                 III. ALVEOLAR  ARTERY.
  This  artery descends on  the  maxillary tuberosity, and
sends branches into the superior and  posterior dental ca-
nals, to  supply the  molar teeth and  the membrane of the
maxillary sinuses.

               IV.  INFRA-ORBITAR  ARTERY.

  This artery, e, commences from the maxillary at  the an-
terior superior part of the zygomatic fossa, enters the infra-
orbitar canal, and emerging  from it,  communicates  freely
with the facial, alveolar, buccal, and ophthalmic arteries.
BRANCHES  OF  THE INTERNAL  MAXILLARY ARTERY IN THE
                SPHENO-MAXILLARY FOSSA.

            I.  VIDIAN OR PTERYGOID  ARTERY.

  This is a  very slender artery penetrating  the pterygoid
canal, and passing out is distributed to the Eustachian tube.


            II.  SUPERIOR PHARYNGEAL ARTERY.

  This artery passes obliquely backwards, and entering the
pterygo-palatine canal, terminates at the pharynx.


             III. SUPERIOR  PALATINE  ARTERY.

  This artery is larger than the  two last mentioned, and
proceeds vertically into the  pterygo-maxillary fissure, after-
wards into the posterior palatine canal, and  passing out  is
reflected forwards to  supply the mucous  membrane of the
palatine arch. 
OF THE ARTERIES.
369
              IV.  SPHENO-PALAT1NE ARTERY.

   This may be considered as the ultimate distribution of
 the internal maxillary artery, which passing into the spheno-
 palatine foramen,  supplies the nasal fossa, the maxillary, the
 sphenoidal, and the frontal sinuses.


               INTERNAL CAROTID ARTERY.

   The internal carotid  separates  from  the external behind
 the digastric muscle, mounts between the anterior and lat-
 teral part of the vertebrae of the neck and the pharynx, and
 then enters the  carotid canal.   After  emerging from this
 canal it passes upwards and forwards, penetrates the cavern-
 ous sinus of the dura  mater, and makiug two inflections,
 like the curves of  a Roman  S, arrives beneath the anterior
clinoid process ;  here it ascends obliquely backwards, pierces
the dura  mater, and  terminates in very many branches.
While  the  internal  carotid  is in  the  cavernous sinus, it
sends two  or three twigs to the  dura mater, the pituitary
body, the  membrane of the  sphenoidal sinus, and  to the
nerves  of the orbit.
vol. I.
48 
370              VASCULAR SYSTEM
OPHTHALMIC ARTERY.
  This artery enters the orbit, traversing the optic foramen
with the nerve/, of the  same  name, on the outer side of
which it is situated ; afterwards it  crosses  above  it, being
covered by the rectus superior of the eye, g, and proceeds
horizontally along  the internal  wall of the orbit as far as
the internal canthus, where it terminates in sending off'  the
following branches:


               I. THE LACHl'.YMAL ARTEKY.

  This artery arises from the opthalmic immediately after
its entry into the orbit, passes outwards between the exter-
nal side of this cavity  and external rectus muscle, as far as
the lachrymal gland, c, where it ramifies, and  supplies  the
muscles in this region, as also the muscles  of  the  superior
and inferior eyelid.


       I!.  Til!'.  CENTRAL  AP.TERY  OF TIIL RETINA.

  This  artery  is exceedingly slender;  it obliquely peifo- 
OF THE ARTERIES.                371
rates the coverings of the  optic  nerve, reaches its  centre,
and passes into the eye, where it sends a  great  number of
branches  to  the inner  surface of  the  retina, as far as the
corpus ciliare ; one of its branches penetrates the vitreous
humour, and may be traced, when  injected  with  mercury,
to the posterior part of the capsule of the crystaline lens.


ARTERIES SENT OFF BY  THE OPTHALMIC ABOVE THE OPTIC
                         NERVE.

             III.  THE  SUPRA-ORBITAll  ARTERY.

   This artery passes forwards along the superior wall of the
orbit,  and  makes its  exit  by the supra-orbitary foramen,
where it divides into an internal and an external branch, the
former supplying the muscles in  that region, the latter ex-
tending to the integuments of  the forehead.


          IV.  THE  POSTERIOR  CILIARY  ARTEHIF.S.

   These arteries  are  very numerous,  generally thirty or
 forty ;  they communicate with each other round the optic
 nerve,  and traverse  the sclerotica.   The greater  number
 however of these arteries, pass between  the  sclerotic and
 choroid coats, and are distributed to the external surface of
 the latter, forming a very delicate network.


              V.  THE  LONG  CILIARY  ARTERIES.

   These arteries are two in number, one  on  the inner side,
 the other on the outer ; they penetrate the  sclerotica, pass
 forwards between this coat  and the  choroid, and  arriving
 at the  ciliary circle, form by  their anastomoses a  network
 on  the great circumference of the iris.   From the inner 
372
VASCULAR SYSTEM
part of  this arterial circle other smaller branches  proceed,
and form a second circle within the former ;  and these again
form a third circle of vessels of greater tenuity, which im-
mediately surrounds the pupil.


  VI.  THE  SUPERIOR  AND INFERIOR MUSCULAR  ARTERIES.

   These arteries are distributed to the superior and inferior
muscles of the eye, to  the  periosteum of the  orbit, and to
the lachrymal sac.


ARTERIES SENT  OFF  BY THE  OPHTHALMIC IN  ITS  COURSE
         ALONG  THE  INSIDE OF THE OPTIC NERVE.

VII. THE  POSTERIOR AND  ANTERIOR ETHMOIDAL  ARTERIES.

   These arteries are directed towards  the  internal  part of
the orbit, traverse the posterior internal  orbitar canal, and
are lost on the dura mater within the cranium.

  VIII. THE  SUPERIOR AND  INTERIOR PALPEBRAL ARTERIES.

   These arteries supply the anterior parts of the orbit, the
caruncula lachrymalis, the lachrymal  sac, and the eyelids,
and communicates with the lachrymal  artery.

  BRANCHES WHICH TERMINATE THE OPHTHALMIC  ARTERY.

                  IX. THE  NASAL ARTERY.

    This artery issues from the orbit above the  tendon of the
 orbicularis palpebrarum, passes to the root of the nose, and
 unites  with the terminating branches of  the external maxil-
 lary artery. 
OF THE ARTERIES.
373
                X. THE  FRONTAL ARTERY.

   This artery passes out of the orbit, and ascends on  the
forehead, where it is entirely distributed.   After the internal
carotid has given off the ophthalmic artery, it furnishes the
following branches:

       I.  THE  COMMUNICATING ARTERY OF WILLTS.

   This artery commences from the internal carotid after the
ophthalmic, passes  backwards  and a little  inwards on the
side of the pituitary body and  mammillary eminences,  and
communicates with the posterior cerebral artery, which  is
furnished by the basilar.

        II. THE  ARTERY  OF THE CHOROID PLEXUS.

   This artery commences  above  the  preceding; it passes
outwards and backwards near  the  crus  cerebri,  penetrates
into the lateral ventricle, and is distributed to the choroid
plexus.

          III. THE ANTERIOR CEREBRAL  ARTERY.

   This artery passes under the anterior lobe of  the brain,
j,  Fig. 193, where it approaches that of  the opposite side,
and Anastomoses with the communicating artery  of Willis.
It  sends off branches to the fornix, the anterior commissure,
and the septum lucidum.   Afterwards the cerebral artery is
directed forwards, turns round  the anterior part of the cor-
pus callosum, and takes the name of that part, terminating
on its posterior surface.

             IV.  MIDDLE  CEREBRAL ARTERY.

   This artery passes  outwards and backwards,  and  dips 
374
VASCULAR SYSTEM
into  the fissure of the anterior  and  middle lobes of the
brain, where it divides into two branches, one for the ante-
rior, the other for the middle lobe of the brain.


                  SUBCLAVIAN AHTI'KY.

                         Fig. 190.
  This  artery, a, is so named from its situation under the
clavicle  ; it is situated at the superior part of the chest, and
extending from the arch of the aorta ; it proceeds under the
clavicle, b, g, and over the middle of the first rib, passing
between the anterior and middle scaleni muscles, then runs
under the arch of the pectoralis minor, /,  and enters the
axilla, where it  assumes  the name of  the axillary artery.
The right subclavian arises from the arteria  innominata, the
left  separates from the aorta at the termination of its arch.
These arteries give branches directly upwards, and directly
downwards  to the neck,  throat, and chest. 
OF THE ARTERIES.               375
BRANCHES  OF THE SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY.
   This artery is the largest  branch of the  subclavian, and
extends to the brain.   It arises from  the upper and back
part of the subclavian, o, ascends behind the inferior thy-
roid artery on the vertebral column, enters  the  foramen at
the  base of the transverse processes of the  sixth  cervical
vertebra, and takes its course through  the canal  formed by
the union of the foramina of  the transverse processes, c, c, c,
c,  c, of the other vertebrae of the neck.   At the dentata,or
second  vertebra,  it  leaves  this canal, curving upwardss
backwards, and outwards, and  perforates  the  transverse
process of the atla--. or first vertebra ; it then passes between 
376
VASCULAR SYSTEM
 this vertebra and  the occiput, forming  a second  curve ;
 lastly, it enters the skull at the great occipital foramen by
 the side of the spinal marrow, and, penetrating  the dura
 mater, mounts upwards and forwards between the corpora
 olivaria and pyramidalia, as seen  in Fig. 193, b, b, uniting
 with the corresponding vertebral artery to form c, the ba-
 silar artery.
   The vertebral artery sends off the following branches :
   1. The posterior spinal artery, which arises near the cor-
 pora pyramidalia, proceeds downwards and inwards behind
 the spinal marrow, and is  distributed on its  posterior sur-
 face as far as the second lumbar vertebra.
   2. The anterior spinal artery, which commences near the
 termination of the  vertebral  artery, and descends on the*
 anterior surface of the spinal marrow.  On a level with the
 occipital foramen it  unites with the artery of the opposite
side to form a common trunk, which descends as far as the
lower extremity of the spinal cord, distributing branches on
either side of it, and  finally communicating with the middle
sacral artery.
  3. The  inferior ccrebelli: artery, which commences at
the termination of the vertebral, or sometimes at  the  basi-
lar, and proceeds in a serpentine course, distributing numer-
ous branches to the eighth and ninth pair of nerves, to the
pia mater, and to the fourth ventricle, and  to g, the whole
inferior surface of the cerebellum. 
OF THE ARTERIES
II. BASILAR  ARTERY.

     Fig. 193.
  The basilar artery,  c, is  formed by the union of the two
vertebral arteries, b, b ; it extends along the central groove
of the pons Varolii, and divides into the following branches :
  The superior cerebellic artery,  which proceeds outwards
and  backwards, and  descends on the upper surface  of the
cerebellum,  where  it spreads out into numerous ramifica-
tions.
  The posterior cerebral  artery,  which  proceeds  down-
wards to the posterior part of the lobes of the  brain, di-
vides into very  many  branches to supply the different parts
of this region, and receives the communicating branch of
Willis,  which  is  given off by the internal carotid  artery. 
378
VASCULAR SYSTEM
             III.  INFERIOR THYROID  ARTERY.

  This  vessel,  Fig. 1S7, p,  commences  at the superior
part of  the  subclavian artery, o:  it  extends vertically on
the anterior scalenus as far as the fifth vertebra, where it
turns inwards  towards the thyroid gland, and  sends off
internal and external branches to the trachea, oesophagus,
longus colli, and  other  muscles in this region;  a branch,
called the  ascending cervical, extends upwards as far as
the rectus anticus major, and  is distributed to the scalenus
anticus,  the longus colli,  and the splenius muscles ; the
inferior  thyroid  artery, at  the  lower  part of the  gland,
divides into numerous branches, which supply this organ,
and anastomose with those of the  opposite side,  and  with
those of the superior thyroid artery.
    INFERIOR  BRANCHES OF THE SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY.

             L INTERNAL MAMMARY ARTERY.

  This artery, Fig. 197, e, arises from the subclavian, op-
posite the  inferior thyroid, passes inwards and downwards
in front of  the scalenus anticus  muscle,  enters the thorax,
descends along the sterno-costal cartilages, between these
and the pleura costalis, and divides into two branches near
the ensiform  cartilage.  It furnishes  several branches  to
adjacent muscles, and afterwards  sends off the following
branches:
  The anterior mediastinal artery,  which descends in the
superior separation of the anterior mediastinum and divides
into branches, which supply the thyroid and thymus glands,
the pleura,  and the cellular tissue of the mediastinum.
  The superior diaphragmatic  artery,  which  accompanies 
OF THE ARTERIES.
379
the nerve of the same name, supplies the fibrous membrane
of  the pericardium, the thymus gland, and  the  medias-
tinum, and at length is  lost in the fleshy fibres of  the dia-
phragm.   It also  furnishes external and internal branches:
the external supplying the intercostal muscles, the  internal
passing through them,  and  supplying  the  muscles of the
thorax and abdomen.


           II.  SUPERIOR INTERCOSTAL  ARTERY.

  This artery, Fig.  196, g, commences at the lower and
back part of the subclavian, and descends under the pleura
in front of the neck of the first and second ribs, where it
generally terminates.  In front of these ribs it sends off a
posterior and an external branch:  the former is distributed
to  the muscles of the  back, the latter to the intercostal
muscles, the  periosteum of the vetebrae,  the oesophagus,
and the bronchi.   In the second  intercostal space  it fur-
nishes external and internal branches,  which  follow  pre-
cisely the same course as the preceding, and are distributed
to  the muscles or communicate with  the  first intercostal
artery arising from the aorta.


    EXTERNAL BRANCHES OF THE  SUBCLAVIAN ARTERY.

I. TRANSVERSE CERVICAL OR POSTERIOR SCAPULAR ARTERY.

  This artery, o,  is  directed transversely outwards, wind-
in<* along the  scaleni muscles above the nerves which form
the  brachial plexus; then  curving  obliquely  under  the
trapezius, the levator anguli scapulae, and the rhomboideus,
it  terminates  at the  posterior  border of the  scapula, and
may be  traced to  its inferior angle.   Near its origin this
artery  gives  off several  branches, which ascend, and lose
themselves in the muscles at the side of the neck. 
380
VASCULAR SYSTEM
             II. SUPERIOR SCAPULAR ARTERY.

   This artery commences often at the preceding or at the
 superior  tnyroid,  takes a tortuous course behind and be-
 neath the clavicle, and arrives at the superior border of the
 scapula ;  it afterwards passes above the coracoid ligament,
 sending branches  to the trapezius, and ultimately descends
 into  the  infra-spinatus  fossa, between the bone and the
 infra-spinatus muscle.


        III.  POSTERIOR OR DEEP CERVICAL ARTERY.

   This artery commences at the  posterior part of the sub-
 clavian, behind the anterior scalenus;  it passes  between
 the  transverse processes of the two  last vertebrae of  the
 neck, and extends to the great complexus muscle.


                    AXILLARY ARTERY.

   This artery is the direct continuation of the  subclavian ;
 it is situated at the superior and lateral part of  the thorax ;
 and in the axilla it extends from the first rib, in the interval
 of the two  scaleni muscles, as far as  the inferior  margin
 of the tendon of the latissimus dorsi.   The  axillary artery
 is seen in  Fig.  190,  proceeding  under  the  clavicle,  b, g,
 and under the arch  formed by  the pectoralis  minor, h, I.
 In the axilla it is surrounded by branches of nerves of the
brachial plexus, which  form a sort of sheath for the artery.
The corresponding vein is always placed before the artery,
and it is further protected by a quantity of cellular  tissue
and lymphatic glands.   When it  has  passed  the  anterior
edge of the pectoralis  major, it assumes  the name of the
brachial artery.                              ^gr" 
OF THE ARTERIES.               381
          BRANCHES  OF THE  AXILLARY ARTERY.

                  I.  ACROMIAL ARTERY.

  This  artery h, commences  at the anterior  part of the
axillary; it descends  obliquely towards the deltoid muscle,
and in the narrow space which  separates this  muscle from
the great pectoral; it then divides into a superior and infe-
rior branch :  the former ramifies on the shoulder  joint, the
latter is distributed to  the deltoid and  the great pectoral
muscles.

             II.  SUPERIOR THORACIC  ARTERY.

  This artery, /, generally arises with the former artery, and
descends between the two pectoral muscles, to which it is
distributed.

   III.  LONG  THORACIC  OR EXTERNAL  MAMMARY ARTERY.

   This artery,  i, commences a little lower  down than the
preceding ;  it descends from behind forwards, on  the upper
and lateral part of the chest, along the  inferior  margin of
the  pectoralis  major, supplying  this  muscle,  the serratus
magnus, the intercostals, the lymphatic ganglia of the axilla,
the integuments, and the mamma.

                 IV.  INFERIOR  SCAPULAR.*

   This artery, k, arises from the  inferior part of the  axil-
lary, opposite the inferior border of the tendon of the sub-
scapularis muscle ; it descends along the  lower  border of
this muscle and gives off an inferior and superior branch ;
^Frequently termed the subscapular artery. 
382
VASCULAR SYSTEM
the former supplies the serratus magnus, the latissimus dorsi,
the teres major, and the integuments ; the latter is distribu-
ted to the various muscles of the scapula, and to the articu-
lation of the shoulder.


   V.  POSTERIOR AND ANTERIOR  CIRCUMFLEX ARTERIES.

   The former of these arteries, m, arises from the posterior
part of the  axillary, passes backwards, turns round the up-
per part of the humerus, and is lost  in the deltoid muscle ;
the latter, n, is generally furnished by the preceding, and
proceeds under the coraco-brachialis and short  head of the
biceps ; it turns also round the humerus, and is distributed
to the deltoid muscle. 
OF the arteries.
383
 
 384              vascular  system

   This artery, a, is a continuation of the axillary; it is sit-
 uated at the inner and  fore  part of the arm, and  passes
 along the inferior edge of the coraco-brachialis.   About
 the middle of the os brachii it crosses over the tendinous
 attachment of that muscle, being  situated between  the
 fleshy mass of the biceps and  the  upper fibres of  the  bra-
 chialis externus.   This artery then proceeds behind the in-
 ner  edge of the  biceps, descending between  that muscle
 and  the fibres of the brachialis internus ; in  approaching
 the lower extremity of the os brachii, it is inclined forwards
 towards the bend of the  arm, and  lies  at  i, beneath  the
 aponeurosis, which is continued  from the tendon  of   the
 biceps flexor cubiti.   The brachial artery sends off nume-
 rous branches to the different  muscles of the  arm, two of
 which are more considerable than the others, and are term-
 ed muscular branches.


   I.  SUPERIOR MUSCULAR BRANCH,  OR DEEP  HUMERAL.
                           ■
  This artery, b, commences at the  inner side of  the bra-
 chial artery, immediately after it has left the axilla, passes
 between the triceps and the humerus, accompanied by the
 muscular spiral nerve, and proceeds  between the brachialis
 externus and the short portion of the triceps, then divides
into branches, which supply the triceps near the olecranon
 and the super-adjacent integuments.


          II.  THE  INFERIOR MUSCULAR ARTERY.

  This artery, c, is  sent off from the  brachial about two
inches lower than the preceding; it descends  among  the
muscles of the inside of the arm, and is lost about the  in-
ner condyle, k. 
OF THE ARTERIES               385
         III.  THE  RAMUS  ANASTOMATICLS MAGNUS.

   This artery, e, commences about, two  or  three  inches
above  the inner condyle of the os brachii; it is distributed
about  the elbow, and its  principal branches  communicate
with the recurrent branches of the arteries  of  the fore-arm.


IV. THE EXTERNAL BRANCHES OF THE BRACHIAL ARTERY.

   These arteries, /, are small, and supply the coraco-bra-
chialis, the brachialis internus, the biceps,  and the  integu-
ments.
   The anterior and posterior branches of the brachial artery
are short and slender, their  number  is  very indeterminate,
and they penetrate the muscles of the front or back part of
the arm.
VOL. I.
50 
386
VASCULAR SYSTEM
BRANCHES  BY WHICH THE BRACHIAL ARTERY TERMINATES.





                          Fig. I'J.i.
The brachial artery, a, divides at k into  three  branches : 
OF THE ARTERIES.
387
 J st, the radial, n, o; 2d, the ulnar, /; and 3d, the interos-
 seous  artery, m; the last  two, however, generally arise by
 one trunk, as at /, in this figure.*


                   THE  RADIAL ARTERY.

   This artery is situated at the anterior and front of the
 fore-arm: it follows the direction  of the brachial artery, a,
 and at the bend of the arm, k, separates at an acute  angle
 from the ulnar.  The radial artery extends from the upper
 extremity of the radius, k, as far as the  articulation of the
 carpus, o, here it turns  outward,  passes between  the two
 first metacarpal bones into the palm of the hand, where it
 forms  the deep palmar  arch, p.  But it  is important more
 particularly to  understand its relative  connexions.   Above,
 it lies between the pronator teres and the supinator longus,
 and about the middle of the fore-arm passes over the lower
 attachment of  the  pronator teres, continuing its course be-
 tween  the supinator longus and the flexor carpi radialis, ac-
 companied  by a branch of the musculo-spiral nerve.  At
 the lower extremity of the radius it divides into two branches,
 which  are distributed to the hand.
   The branches of the radial artery,  in its course along the
 fore-arm are as follow :
   1. The radial recurrent, which  passes outwards and up-
 wards  near the elbow, and is  distributed  to the  outer con-
 dyle, where it anastomoses  with branches of the brachial.
 See Fig. 194.
   2. The internal  branches, which are very numerous, are
 distributed to  the  muscles  of the  anterior and  superficial
 layer of  the fore-arm.

  * The  division of the brachial artery is not always at the same point.  I
 have not unfrequently observed it about the middle of the arm, and some-
times as high as the axilla. 
388
VASCULAR SYSTEM
   3.  The  superficiales  vola, Fig. 194, //, which  descend
upon the anterior annular ligament of the wrist, distributing
a number of twigs to the muscles and integuments of the
palmar region.
   4.  The radial artery  at the back  of  the  wrist is  only
covered by the  tendons  of the abductor pollicis longus, the
extensores pollicis, and  the integuments, and  ramifying  on
the back of the hand, is  named  the  dorsal  artery of the
wrist.
   5.  The  dorsal artery of the metacarpus passes imme-
diately over the second  metacarpal bone,  descends on the
back  of the hand, and is sometimes prolonged to the  fore-
finger.
   6.  Small vessels supply  the back  part of the thumb,
termed the dorsal arteries of the thumb.
   On entering into the palm of the hand, the radial artery
divides into two branches :
   7.  The  artery of the thumb, which supplies a  branch
to the outer edge of the fore-finger.
   8.  The deep palmar  arch,  p,  which is  obvious  in the
preceding figure, passes transversely from  the thumb  over
the metacarpal  bones, and terminates by anastomosing with
a branch of the ulnar artery.  The deep  palmar arch fur-
nishes twigs to  the interosseous muscles,  and to the deep-
seated parts of  the palm of the hand.


                  THE  ULNAR ARTERY.

   This artery, /, is larger than the radial; it  is situated at
the anterior and inner part  of the fore-arm, and  extends
from the bend of the arm as far as the palm  of the hand.
It  takes its course  under  the pronator  teres, the flexor
carpi  radialis, the palmaris longus, and the flexor  sublimis
perforatus, but  passes over the flexor profundus perforatus. 
OF THE ARTERIES.               389
It descends between the  two last-mentioned muscles, and
is found on the ulnar edge of the arm, at the outer edge of
the flexor carpi ulnaris; it then proceeds over the annular
ligament of the wrist, and  under the palmar  aponeurosis,
until it arrives at  the metacarpal bone of the  little finger,
where it forms the superficial palmar  arch, seen in Fig.
194, g.
   The branches given off by the ulnar artery in its course
along the fore-arm  and wrist, are the following:
   I. The  anterior  and posterior recurrent arteries  arise
from the ulnar artery, immediately below the elbow.   The
anterior is  distributed to the  fore  part  of  the inner  con-
dyle, the posterior to the back part  of the same  process of
bone.   These arteries communicate with branches of the
brachial.
   2. The ulnar artery furnishes numerous branches to the
muscles of the fore-arm.
   3.  The  anterior and  posterior interosseous  arteries:
the former, Fig. 194, at I, descends  in  front of the  inter-
osseous ligament, between  the  flexor longus pollicis and
flexor profundus perforans, and arriving at the edge of the
pronator quadratus, m, passes between the "radius and ulna
to the  back  part  of the  arm, and spreads its  extreme
branches on the wrist and back of  the hand.   The  latter,
or posterior interosseous artery, after traversing the  inter-
osseous ligament beneath the anconeus,  sends off the  inter-
osseous recurrent, which ramifies  on the back  part of the
elbow joint, and extends between the supinator brevis and
abductor longus  pollicis manus, and afterwards  between
the two layers of the posterior muscles of the fore-arm as
far as the wrist.
   4. The superficial palmar arch, Fig.  194, g, is a  con-
tinuation of the ulnar artery, and is situated above the ten-
dons of the flexor sublimis perforatus, immediately beneath
the palmar  aponeurosis; it commences at  the inner side 
390
VASCULAR SYSTEM
of the hand, crosses the metacarpus, and terminates at the
root of the thumb by branches which unite with  the radial
artery.  The convexity of the arch  is  turned towards the
fingers, and furnishes the collateral branches of the fingers,
namely —
  1. A branch to the muscles and inner edge of the little
finger.
  2. The first digital artery, which furnishes two branches,
one to  the outer side of the little finger, the  other  to the
inner side of the ring finger.
  3. The second digital artery, which  in a similar manner
furnishes branches to the outer edge of the  ring finger, and
to the inner side of  the middle finger.
  4. The third digital artery, which is distributed  to the
outer edge of the middle  finger, and to the inner edge of
the  fore finger.
  5. The ramus pollicis ulnaris, or last  branch of  the ulnar
artery,  which supplies the muscles of the thumb. 
OF THE ARTERIES.
391
ARTERIES FURNISHED  lit THE THORACIC AORTA.
BRONCHIAL  ARTFTIFS.
  There are generally two  bronchial  arteries, a, b, one on
the right side, the other on the left; they are distributed  to
the bronchi, and ramify in the pulmonary tissue. 
392
VASCULAR SYSTEM
                 (ESOPHAGEAL  ARTERIES.

  These arteries  vary in  number from  two  to  five  or
six, and curving to the  right and  left ramify on the oeso-
phagus.
           POSTERIOR MEDIASTINAL ARTERIES.

  These arteries are very numerous,  and  ramify  in  the
posterior mediastinum and on the aorta.
            INFERIOR INTERCOSTAL  ARTERIES.

  There are  nine  or ten  inferior intercostal  arteries on
each side ;  these commence at the posterior lateral part of
the aorta;  they pass over the bodies of the dorsal vertebrae
to the posterior extremity  of the ribs, and entering the
intercostal  spaces each artery divides  into two  branches,
a dorsal and an intercostal; the former penetrates the ver-
tebral canal by the  intervertebral  foramen, and  ramifying
on the spinal marrow, passes out between the  transverse
processes to  the dorsal  and lumbar muscles ;  the latter,
which  is the largest branch, proceeds  in  the   intercostal
space beneath the pleura, and divides into an inferior  and
a superior branch.  The  inferior intercostal artery  pro-
ceeds along the superior edge of the rib which  is  beneath
it;  the superior  intercostal  passes along  a  groove in the
inferior edge of  the rib above it;  but  towards the  sternal
end of the  rib it is situated in the middle of the intercostal
space.   The intercostal arteries terminate  in  front  of the
thorax by communicating with the internal mammary. 
Or THE ARTERIES.
393
   ARTERIES  FURNISHED BY  THE  ABDOMINAL AORTA.

     THE RIGHT INFERIOR  DIAPHRAGMATIC ARTERY.
  This  artery generally arises from the aorta by  itself,
sometimes with the left,  and occasionally from  the  cceliac
artery.  It ascends on the outer side  of the right  pillar  of
the diaphragm, and divides into two  branches,  which pass
between the liver and diaphragm, supplying the right part
of the diaphragm, and giving  two or  three branches to the
surrenal capsule.
        LEFT  INFERIOR  DIAPHRAGMATIC  ARTERY.

  This artery, which  arises with the preceding, furnishes
branches to the left pillar of the diaphragm, the oesophagus,
the surrenal capsule,  and  finally ramifies on  the  phrenic
centre of the diaphragm, Fig. 201, a.
                    CffiLTAC ARTERY.
   This artery is large and short, and  is situated between
the small lobe of the liver (the  lobulus  spigelii) and  the
small  curvature  of the stomach ; it  proceeds at a right
annle from the abdominal aorta, between the pillars of  the
diaphragm ; opposite the last dorsal vertebra it passes hori-
zontallv forwards and divides into three branches, namely,
the coronary artery of the  stomach,  the hepatic and  the
splenic arteries.   The cceliac artery is seen  in Fig. 201, e.
vol. i.
51 
394
VASCULAR SYSTEM
I.  CORONARY  AKTF.UY OF  THE STOMACH.

                Fi.2. l.:>7.
  This artery, h, follows the small curvature of the stomach
as far as the pylorus, where it communicates with the pylo-
ric artery.   It furnishes —
  The a'sophageal  branches, which  arise near the  cardia,
and ascend upon the oesophagus. 
                    OF THE ARTERIES.              31)5

  rI he gastric branches,  c,  which originate  at  the small
curvature of the stomach, and pass over the  surface of a,
this organ.
  Frequently the  coronary  artery sends  a very consider-
able branch to the liver.


                  II. HEPATIC ARTERY.

  This artery, I, is much larger  than  the  preceding, and
directs itself transversely- to the right and under  the lobu-
lus Spigelii as far as the neck of the  gall-bladder; it fur-
nishes the following branches :
  The pyloric artery, which  is found on the  right side  of
the pylorus, c; passing from right to left  along  the small
curvature of the  stomach,  communicating with the sto-
machic coronary branch, and ramifying on the surface  of
the stomach and pylorus.
  The right gastro-epiploic  artery,  e,  e,  which arises on
the right  beneath  the pylorus, and descending vertically
behind the stomach, it  passes from right to left along its
greater curvature in the anterior  lamina of the great omen-
tum, i, i, i, and unites with the left gastro-epiploic  artery:
in Fig. 198, it is seen giving branches  to  the stomach,  %,
the duodenum, c, and pancreas, d.
  After furnishing these branches, the hepatic artery pro-
ceeds towards the right side in front of the vena porta, be-
hind the hepatic duct, to the right side of  the lobule of the
liver,  where it divides into two branches.
  The  right  branch furnishes  the cystic artery, which
supplies  the parietes of the  gall bladder,  d, dips into  the
fissure of the liver, and ramifies in the right lobe.
  The left branch  penetrates by the  same fissure  of the
liver,  and is distributed to the left  lobe and the lobulus
Spigelii,  accompanying the divisions of the vena porta. 
VASCULAR SYSTEM
III. SPLENIC ARTERY.

       Fig- 198.
  In this figure the stomach and liver are turned up to shew
the pancreas and spleen.  The splenic artery, e, at its com-
mencement proceeds from the right to the left, forming sev-
eral inflexions along the upper part of  the  pancreas, d, as
far  as the fissure of the spleen,/.   In  this  course  it fur-
nishes —
  The pancreatic branches, which supply the pancreas, d.
  The left gastro-epiploic branch, which ascends a little to
the left towards the  great  extremity of the stomach, and
then descends along the great curvature, at  the  middle of
which, at g, it communicates with the corresponding artery
of  the right side.
  At a little distance from  the spleen,/, the splenic artery
divides into five or six branches, which  penetrate this organ
after furnishing —
  The vasa brevia, which are short  branches passing from
the divisions of the splenic artery, and are distributed to the
large extremity of the stomach. 
OF THE ARTERIES.
397
SUPERIOR  MESENTERIC  ARTERY.
  This artery, a, commences at  the anterior right part of
the aorta a little below the cceliac, and passing downwards
behind the  pancreas  and before a  portion of the duode-
num, it gains the upper  part of the  mesentery,  between
the two folds of which it enters, and passing from left to
right forms a  curve, the convexity  of which is turned  to
the left and  forwards.   It terminates  at the end of g, the 
398
VASCULAR SYSTEM
ilium, communicating with d, the inferior right colic artery.
It furnishes the following branches:
   1st. The superior right  colic  artery, b,  which supplies
the arch, and left side of the colon,/ where that  intestine
begins to run over the kidney.
   2d. The middle  right  colic  artery: this   branch,  h,
proceeds to the right, and a little upwards in  the  meso-
colon divides, and on the right side communicates with the
superior right colic artery, and on the lower side furnishes
fifteen or twenty branches, which, after frequently com-
municating in the form of arches, proceed to the right side
of the colon.
   The inferior right  colic, d,  or ilio-colic artery,  which
passes downwards to supply the  caput coli, and the last
portion of the  ilium.   Its  branches  communicate   with
the descending  branch of the  middle right  colic  artery
and with the  extremity of the superior mesenteric  artery
itself.*
  BRANCHES WHICH  ARE  FURNISHED ON THE  LEFT SIDE
         OF THE  SUPERIOR MESENTERIC ARTERY.

   The convexity of this artery sends off fifteen or  twenty
branches, c, c, which proceed obliquely downwards,  divide
into small twigs  there, and unite with  each other  very
frequently in the form of  arches.  From these primary
arches smaller twigs commence, which divide in  the  same
manner, and constitute secondary arches by communicating
similar to the first.  These secondary arches in like  man-
ner produce twigs in a third series of arches ; from  these
again a fourth and fifth series of  minuter arterial arches

  * Although this artery is generally named as a branch immediately  is-
suing from the superior mesenteric, yet it more commonly  proceeds from
the superior right colic ; it is therefore represented as such in this figure. 
OF THE ARTERIES.
399
may be traced to the border of the intestine, where they
appear as a network, which finally ramify and subdivide to
infinity over the surface of the  small  intestines, g, g, and
supply the muscular and mucous  coats.  The distribution
of this artery on the valvules conniventes is very apparent
when these vessels are  filled with fine injection.
  The distribution of the  several  branches of the superior
mesenteric artery is seen also in Fig. 200, a, b,f h, i,k. 
400
VASCULAR SYSTEM
THE  INFERIOR MESENTERIC  ARTF.IlV.
Fi;\ 200.
  This artery commences at the anterior part of the aorta,
c, it descends a little to the left, enters the  iliac mesocolon,
and is extended to the  rectum as far ns the anus.   It fur-
nishes the following branches :
  1st. The superior l< ft colic artery, c, which  extends to 
OF THE ARTERIES.
401
the left side of the colon, and communicates  with the left
branch of the right colic artery, /
  2d.  The middle left colic  artery, o, which  is generally a
branch of the preceding; its distribution to the colon, p, p,
is obvious in the figure.
  3d.  The  inferior  left  colic artery, which proceeds to-
wards the sigmoid flexure of the colon,  and divides into
two branches, d, g.
  The left colic arteries are arranged precisely the same as
those of the right side;  namely, after forming arches and
areolae, they supply the coats of the intestine.
  When the inferior mesenteric artery arrives at the poste-
rior part of the  rectum, it divides into the  superior ha-
morrhoidal arteries, which descend along the posterior sur-
face of this intestine, and  communicate  with the middle
and inferior haemorrhoidal arteries.
ARTERIES   WHICH  ARE  FURNISHED  LATERALLY   BY  THE
                   ABDOMINAL AORTA.

                   SURRENAL  ARTERIES.

  There is one of these arteries on each side ; they arise a
little above the renal, pass transversely across the  vertebral
column, and are distributed to the surrenal capsules, marked
c, in Fig. 201.
VOL. I.
52 
402              VASCULAR SYSTEM
RENAL OR  EMULGENT ARTERIES.

            Fiji. MI.
  These arteries are of a large size, and very short; there
is one  on each  side;  they pass off from  the  aorta  at/
transversely across  the vertebral column,  and  ariving at 
OF THE ARTERIES.
403
the kidney,  d,  divide  into two, three, or four branches,
which enter between the pelvis of the  ureter and the renal
vein.

                  SPERMATIC  AR.TERIKS.

  These arteries, g, are two  in number, very slender, and
of considerable length ; they commence at  the anterior or
lateral  parts of the aorta, and  sometimes from  the  renal;
they descend on the sides of  the vertebral column, in front
of the  psoas muscles, and ureters, n, and  accompany the
spermatic veins.  In the male,—they pass out by the  ingui-
nal rino", and sending  some branches to the spermatic cord,
they terminate in the epididymis and the testis.  In the fe-
male,—they pass to the ovary, to the  Fallopian tubes, the
round ligament, and the sides of the uterus.

                   LUMBAR  ARTERIES.

   There are commonly four or five of these arteries on each
side, which commence  at the  back part of the aorta, and
are distributed  to the  spinal canal, the peritoneum, the mus-
cles of the loins, and to the sides of the abdomen and  pelvis. 
404              VASCULAR SYSTEM


  THE  ARTERIES WHICH  TERMINATE THE AORTA BELOW.
MIDDLE SACRAL  ARTERY.

         Fig. 2;.2.
  At the fourth lumbar vertebra the aorta divides, Fig. 201,
at i, into the primitive iliacs ; and the middle sacral artery,
o, commences at the back part of this division, and descends
along the anterior surface of the  sacrum, and terminates
near the summit of the os coccygis : in the annexed  figure
this vessel is marked a.

                    PRIMITIVE  ILIACS.

  These vessels, b, c, are formed by the bifurcation of the 
OF THE ARTERIES.
405
aorta.   Separating from each other at an acute angle, they
descend along the edge of the psoas muscle  as far  as the
sacro-iliac articulation, where they divide each  into the ex-
ternal and internal iliac arteries.   The course of these ves-
sels is very obvious in the figure preceding.


        INTERNAL ILIAC OR HYPOGASTRIC ARTERY.

   This artery dives almost vertically into the pelvis, in front
of the sacro-iliac articulation; and after a short course di-
vides into a great number of branches.


       BRANCHES OF  THE INTERNAL  ILIAC  ARTERY.

                 1. ILIO-LUMBAR  ARTERY.

   This  artery proceeds from the internal iliac, opposite the
base of the sacrum ;  it varies much in  size, and ascends
outwards  and backwards, under the psoas  muscle, then
divides  into  an  ascending and a  transverse branch, which
are distributed to the lumbar muscles.


            II. THE LATERAL  SACRAL ARTERY.

   Sometimes there are two of these arteries on  either side ;
these vessels  descend in front of the anterior  sacral fora-
mina, as far as the os coccygis.   They furnish external and
internal branches:  the former enter the  sacral canal, and
ramifying on the membrane  which lines it, they  pass out,
and are lost  on the  muscles at  the posterior  part  of  the
sacrum  ; the latter, ramify  in  the sacral  nerves  and gan-
glia, and in the  pyramidalis muscle. 
406             VASCULAR SYSTEM
III. GLUTEAL OR POSTERIOR ILIAC ARTERY.

                  Fig. 2M.
  This  is the largest  branch of the  internal iliac ; it  de-
scends outwards and backwards, and  passes out of the pel-
vis through the sacro-sciatic  notch,  above the pyriformis
muscle ; it then proceeds to the posterior part of the pelvis,
covered by the  gluteus  maximus,  and divides  into two
branches:  the superficial  branch, c,  is distributed  to  the
gluteus maximus and  medius and the  sacro-sciatic liga-
ment : the deep-seated branch a, b,  ascends  between  the 
OF THE ARTERIES.
407
gluteus  medius  and minimus, and is distributed to  the
muscles of this region, and to the capsule of the hip-joint.


                 IV.  UMBILICAL ARTERY.

  This artery passes obliquely forwards and inwards, as
far as the superior lateral part of the bladder, from  whence
it ascends behind the anterior  parietes  of the abdomen to
the umbilicus.   In the adult, this artery is  almost oblite-
rated ; but in the  foetus, it appears to be a continuation of
the internal iliac, and passes out by the umbjlij>fcus to form
a part of the umbilical cord.


                  V.  VESICAL  ARTERIES.

  These arteries  present many variations in number  and
origin ; they arise from the umbilical, middle haemorrhoidal,
internal pudic,  and obturator arteries.   The  internal iliac
furnishes a considerable branch, which  supplies the fundus
of the  bladder, commencement of the  urethra,   prostate
gland, the vesiculse  seminales, and  vas deferens; the ulti-
mate ramifications reach to  the rectum.


                 VI.  OBTURATOR ARTERY.

   This artery  generally  commences at  the  internal iliac,
or the gluteal, and sometimes  from the  epigastric ;  it pro-
ceeds to the* obturator muscle, and advances as far as the
obturator foramen, the superior part of which it traverses ;
it issues from the  pelvis through  the space left  by the
obturator membrane, and divides  into hvo branches,  which
are distributed to the  hip-joint, and to the muscles  on the
inside of the thigh. 
408
VASCULAR  SYSTEM
          VII.  MIDDLE HEMORRHOIDAL ARTERY.

   This artery  descends  obliquely on the  anterior part of
the rectum;  it supplies the tunics of this intestine, and com-
municates with the superior and inferior haemorrhoidals.


                 VIII. UTERINE  ARTERY.

  The size of this artery is  always in relation to the devel-
opement of the uterus ; arising from  the internal iliac, or
internal pudic,  it passes upon  the  broad ligament, and is
distributed to the lateral and inferior parts of the uterus.


                  IX.  VAGINAL ARTERY.

  This vessel is not constant in its origin, for it commences
at the internal  pudic, the middle  hsemorrhoidal, or the
umbilical  artery;  it  proceeds  to the  vagina and  external
parts of generation.


                  X.  ISCHIATIC ARTERY.

   This vessel appears to  be a continuation of the internal
iliac  artery;  after supplying  the rectum  and bladder, it
descends  in front of the pyramidalis  muscle, it  proceeds
through  the great  sciatic notch, and  at its exit from  the
pelvis divides into numerous  branches, which supply  the
gluteus maximus, the levator  ani, the  sciatic nerve,  and
the muscles of the posterior crural region.


              XI.  INTERNAL PUDIC  ARTERY.

  This artery is smaller than the ischiatic, and  is frequently
furnished  by it.  It descends before the sciatic plexus  and 
OF THE ARTERIES.
409
the pyriformis  muscle, and issues  from the pelvis  by the
lower parts of the sciatic notch, between the  pyriformis
and posterior border of the levator ani; it afterwards pro-
ceeds between the two  sacro-sciatic ligaments, to the in-
ternal surface of the ischium, as far as the common attach-
ment of the ischio-cavernosus and transversus perinaei, and
here divides into  two  branches,  which  take  a different
course in the male and in the female, and of which one is
inferior, the other1 superior.
   1st.   The inferior branch, or perineal artery, proceeds
between  the integuments and transversus perinaei, as  far
as the lower part of the  scrotum, and is  distributed to the
muscles of  the perinasum;  some branches pass  towards
the  rectum,  termed  the inferior  hemorrhoidal  arteries.
The inferior branch  afterwards  penetrates  the   septum
scroti, and supplies the integuments of the genitals.
  2d. The superior branch ascends  above  the transversus
perinaei, along the  ascending branch of the ischium, and
the ramus of the pubis to the symphysis of this latter bone,
where it divides into  two  branches, the  dorsal artery of
the penis, and the artery of the corpus cavernosum.
  3d.  The transverse  artery of the perinaum is furnished
by the superior branch of the  internal pudic, near  the ori-
gin of the latter ; it  passes above the transversus  perinai
muscle, and supplies the bulb of the urethra.
  4th. The artery of  the corpus cavernosum  passes into
the cavernous  body,  and divides into a  great number of
branches to  supply its tissue.
  5th. The dorsal artery of the penis,  Fig.  204, / sup-
plies the fibrous membrane of the corpus  cavernosum, and
terminates in the glans penis.
   In the female, the inferior  branch of the internal pudic
artery terminates in the  external labia; the superior is dis-
tributed to the  clitoris and orifice of  the vagina.
     vol.  i.                53 
410
VASCULAR SYSTEM
                EXTERNAL ILIAC ARTERY.

  This  vessel, b,  d, is  formed  by the bifurcation  of the
primitive iliac artery; it extends  to  the crural arch, where
it takes the name of femoral artery.   The external iliac de-
scends obliquely outwards, along the inner and fore part of
the psoas muscle, having on its inner side the external iliac
vein.  It furnishes the following branches:—


               I. THE  EPIGASTRIC  ARTERY.

  This  artery proceeds  from  the inner  side of the external
iliac, at e, about an inch before it passes  into the thigh; it
extends inwards and a little forwards, behind the spermatic
cord, the direction of which it crosses towards the external
border of the rectus abdominis muscle.   About two inches
above the pubis it is situated on the posterior surface of this
muscle, and  terminates by several  twigs at the umbilicus.
Its distribution may be seen in Fig. 201, /.


              II. CIRCUMFLEX  ILIAC  ARTERY.

  This  vessel, Fig. 202,/ commences  at the outer part of
of the iliac artery, and ascends obliquely outwards along
the external border of the  iliacus  muscle, as far as  the an-
terior superior spinous process of the ilium ; it then passes
backwards, and divides into two branches; its external
branch supplies the transversalis and the internal oblique
muscles; its internal branch  follows the line of the crista
ilii, and  terminates  in the same muscles.   In the subsequent
figure it is  marked b. 
OF THE ARTERIES.
411
FEMORAL  ARTERY.




      Fig. 204.
 
412
VASCULAR SYSTEM
    Immediately the external iliac artery has  emerged  from
 under the crural arch at c,  it assumes the name of femoral:
 it commences at the middle of the space which separates
 the anterior superior spine of the ilium  from  the  pubis;
 it descends on the anterior and internal part  of the  psoas
 muscle, and upon the external femoral vein; towards the
 lower part of the thigh it enters the aponeurotic sheath of
 the triceps adductor  magnus,  m, on its exit from  which  it
 takes the name of popliteal artery.  To  the surgeon, an
 acquaintance with the femoral artery is  of so much im-
 portance that its relative situation claims further notice.
   Anteriorly,  the femoral  artery is connected with the
 crural aponeurosis, the integuments, and the inguinal lym-
 phatic glands; it is situated in a triangular space, bounded
 above by the crural arch, on the outer side by the sartorius,
 and on the inner side by the middle adductor and the  vas-
 tus internus.   Farther down it is  covered by the  sartorius
 muscle, which crosses its direction.  Posteriorly, it  is  situ-
 ated upon the pectineus and the middle adductor muscles.
   On the outer side  it is connected at first  to  the crural
 nerve ; then to the tendon of  the psoas and the iliac  mus-
 cles ; and lastly, it is placed upon the inner portion of the
 triceps, which separates it from the shaft of the femur.
   On its inner side, it is in  contact  with  the  femoral  vein
 and the pectineus  muscle, and  at  the lower part of the
 thigh it is concealed  by the sartorius muscle.


      INTERNAL BRANCHES  OF  THE FEMORAL ARTERY.

              I. EXTERNAL  PUDIC ARTERY.

  These vessels are  two  in number: one superficial, c,
which commences  near the crural  arch,   proceeds  trans-
versely inwards, and divides  into branches,  which are  lost
in the integuments of the inferior part of the abdomen, the 
OF THE ARTERIES.
413
 penis,/ and the labia in the female ;  the other is  a deep-
 seated branch, distributed under the crural aponeurosis.


     EXTERNAL  BRANCHES  OF THE FEMORAL ARTERY.

           II.  SUPERFICIAL MUSCULAR ARTERY.

   This artery commences nearly on a level  with  the  pro-
 funda ; it passes transversely outwards between  the sarto-
 rius and rectus, and divides into ascending and descending
 branches, which  supply  the muscles  and integuments of
 the upper part of the thigh.  See  Fig. 203, o.

     ANTERIOR  BRANCHES OF THE  FEMORAL ARTERY.

   ABDOMINAL SUBCUTANEOUS, OR  EXTERNAL  EPIGASTRIC
                       ARTERY.

   This is a very small artery ;  it commences  immediately
 above the crural arch, and ascends between the abdominal
 aponeurosis and the integuments,  as far as the level of the
 umbilicus.
   The other anterior branches of the femoral artery are
 very small, and are  distributed to the cellular tissue  and
 integuments.

    POSTERIOR BRANCHES  OF THE FEMORAL ARTERY.

 ARTERIA PROFUNDA FEMORIS, OR DEEP MUSCULAR ARTERY.
  This vessel, h, is nearly as large as the femoral artery
itself;  it commences  about two  inches  below the crural
arch ; it descends backwards between the adductor mus-
cles and internal portion  of  the triceps, as far as the middle
of the  thigh.   It then diminishes  in  size, passes  through
the aponeurosis of the adductor longus to the back part of 
414
VASCULAR SYSTEM
the limb, and terminates in two branches, which enter into
the short portion of the biceps femoris and  the semimem-
branosus.   The deep muscular artery, which we  have just
described, furnishes the following branches :
   1. The external circumjlex artery,  n,  which commences
at the outer side, passes outwards behind the sartorius and
rectus femoris, and divides into  two  branches; the one  is
distributed to the parts about the hip joint,  the other  de-
scends in  the fore part  of the thigh between the triceps
extensor and the rectus femoris, in which it ramifies.
   2. The internal circumjlex artery,  which is  larger  than
the preceding,  passes backwards  between  the  pectineus
and the tendons of the psoas and the iliac  muscles,  then
divides into two branches, one of which supplies the mus-
cles at the neck of the  femur, the other is  distributed  to
the flexors of the leg.
   3. The superior perforating artery.
   4. The middle perforating artery.
   5. The inferior perforating  artery.*
   These vessels comprehend all the great muscular branch-
es of the   profunda ; except the two  circumflex  arteries,
they vary  in  number, and are  proportioned in  size to the
bulk of the limb.   These arteries perforate  the  adductors
and proceed  to  the back part  of the  thigh.   A  particular
knowledge of the distribution and branches of the perfo-
rating arteries  is really  unattainable, for they  ramify  in
every direction, supply  all  the large mass  of muscles  on
the back part of the thigh,  and  communicate freely  with
the sciatic,  the gluteal, and the  obturator  arteries.   A
branch  of the middle perforating artery penetrates into the
femur by  the nutritious  canal  which we  observe on  the
linea aspera of that bone.

   These arteries  are irregular in place, size, and number; they are fre-
quently named  numerically, as the 1st, 2d, 3d, and sometimes branches
are termed the 4th and 5;h perforating arteries. 
OF THE ARTERIES.
415
POPLITEAL ARTERY.

      Fig. 205.
  This  vessel, a, is a direct continuation of the  femoral
artery, the latter merely  changing its name after it has per- 
416              VASCULAR SYSTEM
forated the adductor magnus ; it descends into the ham be-
tween  the condyles of the femur, and extends  from the
commencement of the inferior third of the thigh to the su-
perior fourth of the leg.  On the  back part it is connected
with  the sciatic nerve, the popliteal  vein, and the  semi-
membranosus ; afterwards, and more inferiorly,  with  the
gastrocnemius, the soleus, and the plantaris ;  it is separated
above from the femur by a quantity of adipose tissue;  far-
ther down it  rests  upon  the back of the knee joint; and
below upon the popliteus and the tibialis posticus  muscles.
The  popliteal  artery, after giving  off a number of small
branches to the neighboring parts, divides into three prin-
cipal  branches to supply the leg.


         BRANCHES OF  THE POPLITEAL ARTERY.

  There are three superior articular arteries arising from the
popliteal in the ham.
  1.  The internal superior articular  arteries, e,f:  there
are  generally two or three of these vessels, which vary much ;
they descend inwards, pass under  the  tendon of the long
adductor, proceed on the internal part  of the  femur  above
the  condyle, and are distributed into the triceps muscle and
the  articulation of the knee.
  2.  The external superior articular artery, b, passes  out-
wards, turns  on the external part of  the femur above the
condyle, and  divides  into  two  branches,  the superior  of
which is lost in the  triceps ; the  inferior  descends on  the
external condyle of the femur.
  3.  The middle superior articular artery proceeds from the
anterior part of the popliteal  to supply the cellular and adi-
pose tissue posterior to  the crucial ligaments  of the articu-
lation of the  knee.
  These and  the following branches  are given off by the
popliteal to the upper  part of the leg.  The arteries  just 
                    OF THE ARTERIES.               417

named are distributed to the posterior surface, and dive in-
to the substance of the gastrocnemii  muscles, terminating
in the soleus, the popliteus, and plantaris.
   There are two inferior articular arteries, which arise from
the popliteal at the superior part of the leg, namely,
   1. The internal inferior articular artery, g, which de-
scends immediately behind  the  internal tuberosity of the
tibia, to the internal part of the ligamentum patella?, rami-
fying on  the articulation of the knee and the periosteum of
the tibia.
   2. The external inferior articular artery, c, which de-
scends between the popliteus and gastrocnemius, then passes
under the tendon  of the biceps  and external lateral  liga-
ment, and is distributed to the articulation of the  knee, the
ligamentum patellae, and parts in this region.
  The  popliteal  artery having given off these arteries, de-
scends behind the popliteal  muscle, and divides into the
anterior tibial, the peroneal, and the posterior tibial arteries.
VOL. I.
54 
418
VASCULAR SYSTEM
ANTERIOR  TIBIAL  ARTERY.





         Fie 20C.
The anterior  tibial artery, b, at  its commencement is 
OF THE ARTERIES.               419
 directed horizontally forwards ; it passes from the ham be-
 tween the inferior edge of the popliteus and  the  superior
 fibres of the  soleus, then proceeding  through the  upper
 extremity of the tibialis posticus and  a perforation in  the
 interosseous ligament to arrive at the  fore part of the  leg ;
 the artery afterwards passes downwards upon the  interos-
 seous ligament, between the tiabilis anticus and  the exten-
 sor proprius pollicis, c; below the middle of  the leg it
 advances more forward, crosses under the  tendon of  the
 extensor proprius  pollicis, and  is situated between that
 tendon and  the tendon of the extensor longus  digitorum,
 e; at the ankle it is extended over the  front of the tibia;
 then having passed under the  anterior  annular  ligament of
 the instep at d, it assumes  the name of the dorsal artery of
 the foot.  The posterior tibial artery  furnishes the  follow-
 ing branches:
   1. The recurrent  artery  of the knee, which passes up-
 wards and  inwards, supplies the upper extremity  of the
 tibialis anticus, and  is lost in the  articulation of  the knee,
 a, and the integuments.
  2. Numerous small branches to the muscles on  the fore
 part of the leg.
  3. The internal malleolar  artery, which  ramifies  over
 the inner ankle.
  4. The  external malleolar artery, which ramifies over
 the outer ankle.


              DORSAL ARTERY OF THE FOOT.

  This artery, d, is  the direct continuation of  the anterior
tibial, and extends over the upper surface of  the  foot  to
the posterior extremity of  the first metatarsal bone, where
it descends into the sole of  the  foot, by  passing through
the abductor of the second  toe.  It  distributes numerous
but very slender external and internal branches,  to  supply 
420
VASCULAR SYSTEM
the  adjacent  parts of the foot.   Two of  these  branches
have been named the tarsal and  metatarsal arteries ; these
cross the tarsal and metatarsal bones, and  pass obliquely to
the outer edge of the foot.
   The interosseal arteries come off from the tarsal or meta-
tarsal, and supply the interosseous spaces and superior sur-
face of  the toes.
   A considerable branch proceeds from the dorsal artery of
the foot, along the  space between the two first metatarsal
bones, and divides into,
   The dorsal artery of the great toe, and an artery which is
extended on the inner edge of the toe next to the great toe.


                   PERONEAL ARTERY.

   This artery, h, Fig. 207, is smaller than the anterior tibial,
and situated  at the  posterior and deep part of the  leg; it
descends upon the inner  side of the fibula, giving numer-
ous branches to the peroneal muscles at i, and the flexor of
the great toe.   At the lower part it divides  into the poste-
rior fibular artery, which, properly speaking, is  the termi-
nation of the peroneal, descending behind the inferior articu-
lation of the fibula, at k, to the posterior part of the  foot,
and is distributed to  the heel and the ankle. 
OF THE ARTERIES.
421
POSTERIOR TIBIAL ARTERY.
                      This  vessel,  e,  is  the continued
                    trunk of the popliteal, a ; it descends
                    under the superior attachment of the
                    soleus, between that muscle and  the
                    more  deeply seated  flexors  of  the
                    toes ;  it  does not lie, however, in im-
                    mediate  contact with  the  muscular
                    fibres, but  like  the femoral  artery is
                    invested  by  a  strong  sheath of con-
                    densed cellular membrane.    In  its
                    course the posterior tibial artery fur-
                    nishes  a number of small branches,
                    which  are  chiefly distributed  to  the
                    tibialis posticus and the  flexor mus-
                    cles, the skin, and  the periosteum of
                    the  tibia ;   one of  these branches,
                    termed the nutritious  artery of  the
                    tibia,  descends upon   the  posterior
                    surface of  this  bone, and penetrates
                    into the medullary canal.  As this ar-
                    tery descends it gradually  advances
                    more forwards, follows  the  course of
                    the  flexor  tendons, passing  behind
                    the inner ankle, / and  upon this bone
                    its pulsation may be felt; then sink-
ing under  the  abductor  pollicis,   it  divides  into  two
branches—
   1st.  The  internal plantar artery, which supplies  the
muscles situated on the inner edge of the sole of the foot,
Fig. 293, b. 
422              VASCULAR SYSTEM.
  2d. The external plantar  artery, a, which crosses ob-
liquely the three  middle metatarsal bones, and forms the
Fig. 20a
plantar arch, c, the convexity of which furnishes numerous
branches to supply the lumbricales  muscles ; and taking a
similar course to the branches of the palmar arch, each an-
terior branch supplies the  corresponding sides of the toes,
in the same manner as the  collateral arteries are distributed
to the fingers.
l/Lcv*-&-\ 
 
*nvv
/\
/
V
^ 'V ./
OLA/
 
 
LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
NLM  Q3S0b7Sb 7
NLM032067567