m 
NATIONAL LIBRARY OF MEDICINE
        Bethesda, Maryland 
 
 
 
A BODY THOROUGHLY EMBALMED. 
   EMBALMERS'


             GUIDE


 A Practical and Comprehensive Treatise on Embalming, together with
     a Complete Description of the Anatomy of the Human
             Body, Designed to Accompany


THE EMBALMERS' ANATOMICAL AID

                  PREPARED by
              DR. H.  E. LEWIS,
             Late assistant Demonstrator;

                    WITH

                 APPENDIX
                     BY

            PROF. A.  RENOUARD,
    Demonstrator in the United States College of Embalming, New York City;
           D. W. GRAHAM, A. M., M. D.,
                    AND
           J. SUYDAM KNOX, A. M., M. D.
WESTERN  PUBLISHING HOUSE,
            CHICAGO. 
CfiST) 
PUBLISHERS'  PREFACE.
To  the Funeral Directors of America—Greeting:
  The Embalmers'  Guide  has been  prepared at  large
expense and with great care to meet a need which no publi-
cation now extant seems to fill.  Its various portions are
the product of men of national reputation in their  various
departments,  and it is believed that it covers the anatomi-
cal  and practical field of embalming completely.
  Dr. Lewis' work  is most exhaustive, treating fully of
the arteries and veins, giving in simple language informa-
tion which it is essential every operator should possess as
a basis for a proper understanding and appreciation of the
practical directions which follow.  The value of the hints
and suggestions cannot be over-estimated.  They are the
condensed experience of a man whose  opportunities have
been most unusual.  As assistant  demonstrator  at the
U.  S. College of Embalming in New York, Dr. Lewis was
in the way of personally treating or witnessing the treat-
ment by others of every possible case,  and this experience
has been supplemented by a long and busy  career  in the
profession as a practical embalmer  and  funeral director.
Following his article is an appendix by Dr.  Renouard,
demonstrator, of the same college.  (This college needs no
indorsement from us,  but we cannot refrain from saying,
that, from our personal observation, we believe it would pay
every funeral director in the country., to. take a course of
study within its walls.)  The illustrations are believed to be
a most valuable  feature.   They are reproductions from
                          III 
IV
PUBLISHER'S PREFACE.
photographs of the operator in the various positions of
embalming, and show by object teaching, as nothing else
could, the methods, the practical details of the  work.
  In the following pages you will find a complete Key to
the " Embalmers' Anatomical Aid," prepared under  the
supervision of D. W. Graham,  A. M., M. D.;  J. Suydam
Knox, A.  M., M.  D.; men of  extensive reputation, and
who are considered good authority on anatomical ques-
tions by the medical profession  of the country.   This key
will give you the  name of each organ, also  the  names
of its subordinate  parts, throughout the  whole system.
These names accompany the numbers which  correspond
to the numbers on the plates, and you will  find them to be
convenient and valuable to  you in reference.   We have
compiled this Handbook, or  Guide, strictly in  accordance
with the science of Anatomy and Physiology — the terms
and names used being those which have been  adopted by
the professors of these  studies throughout  the  world.
You will  find, also, a great amount of valuable informa-
tion contained herein;  in particular, we refer to the treatise
on  Circulation.   A knowledge of the arterial circulation
is  absolutely  necessary to  the scientific and  practical
embalmer.  It enables him to distinguish readily between
the veins and arteries;  to know where the  fluid goes when
he injects it into the arteries, and to know  precisely which
arteries  to operate on and which to avoid.  We feel that
we  cannot say too much regarding  the importance of a
thorough knowledge of  Anatomy and Physiology to the
Funeral Director.
  The manner of preparing  the body for its  last resting
place is a  subject of great importance.   In cases where
embalming is to  be done, is it not necessary  that  the
embalmer  should  be  thorough in his work?   Is  it  not 
publisher's preface.
v
necessary that the operation shall be scientific, in order to
preserve the body from decomposition?  In order to make
this embalming  operation a scientific piece of work, the
operator  must necessarily be familiar with the arterial cir-
culation,  the  position of the various organs, their func-
tional relation one to the other, the source of the supply
of blood to each, the inflowing and outflowing blood chan-
nels through  each, and their  relative position one to the
other.  It is also  necessary that  the  embalmer should
know where to begin his operations.  In short, a practical
knowledge of these details is absolutely necessary to the
intelligent  and satisfactory  undertaking of cases of this
nature.
  Permit us to refer to a case which came under our own
observation.   A man of  considerable note in  a certain
town, was  suddenly cut down  in the prime of life.   His
friends desired to have the body embalmed for transporta-
tion from one part of the country to another.  A  promi-
nent funeral director — one who professed a knowledge of
the art of embalming — was called in.  The physician in
attendance, having, for  some  reason, little  confidence in
the ability  of this party,  questioned him  regarding his
methods of embalming, and also  as  to why he pursued
such methods.  The funeral director was unable to answer
his questions further than to say that he had been taught
that by his father,  whom he succeeded in business.   He
knew that it  was  right to do so, but why it was right, he
could  not state.   How  many men who  undertake to
embalm  bodies are in exactly the same position?   They
know that it is right to do certain things;  but if any one
should ask  them  why it is right,  in a great many cases
their answer would correspond with that of the gentleman
mentioned.   A  knowledge  of anatomy  and the arterial 
vi
publisher's preface.
circulation will enable an  embalmer to answer any ques-
tion as to the why and wherefore of methods pertaining
to his business.
   To  quote from  the  Code of  Ethics  of the Funeral
Directors'  State  Association: " On entering  the profes-
sion, a  funeral director  incurs an  obligation to exert his
best abilities  to  maintain  its dignity and honor, to exalt
its standing, and to extend the points of its usefulness."
We think that in order to fulfill these various obligations,
the  director should make  it his first duty to thoroughly
post  himself  regarding  his  business.   The custom of
embalming is growing.  It is fast becoming the way of
preparing the dead for burial.   A  knowledge  concerning
the details of anatomy should be considered a paramount
duty.   To quote from J.  S.  Pearce in his remarks at a
recent  convention:   " The  funeral  director  of to-day
should  have  a sufficient anatomical  and  physiological
knowledge to enable  him  to  apply his preparations, not
only properly, but judiciously, in order that the result that
is  most desirable  may be attained, without having to trust
to luck to help him out;" and further, " Authorities are
not  wanting to prove the truth  of this assertion, that
embalming is fast making us of more real value to the
community than we have heretofore been."  The funeral
directors of all parts have expended  a great amount of
money, and have devoted much valuable time to a study
of the  art of embalming, but have paid little  attention
to the study of anatomy,  and the details  of  structure.
How can  an embalmer be  successful, or  perform  a
scientific   embalming  operation   without   being  well
acquainted with the details of anatomy?  A man might
just  as  well attempt to  build  a  steam-engine without a
mechanical education. 
publisher's preface.
vii
  Mr. Samson  at the National Convention held at Pitts-
burg on  October  5,  1887, said:  " I  would recommend
that we have a standard  of qualifications adopted, and a
course of study prepared, for persons engaged in our pro-
fession.  If we do  not, we cannot  get legal enactments
governing the persons who are to prepare  the dead for
burial, and conduct funerals.  If there are not the proper
books on the markets, they must be published.  We have
to go over the same ground that other professionals have
gone over, only we have the knowledge of profiting by
their experience.   We must  look  to the successful in all
professions for our guide.  We must  keep the educational
and elevating influence in front.  Something must be done
to convince the funeral directors of our land that money
spent to improve  the mind, elevate  and refine the taste,
brings a larger return than any other investment they can
make."
   How closely these words apply to the man of this busi-
ness who is progressive and practical; in particular to the
one who  is  searching for knowledge for the purpose of
elevating his profession and placing it in the same position
with the professions of law and medicine.   It is one thing
to purchase books and appliances, and it is another thing
to  use them after  they have been  purchased.  A man
afflicted with rheumatism  may go  into a drug store  and
purchase a bottle of liniment for application; he goes home
and makes one or two applications,  and  sets his bottle of
liniment on the shelf.   The liniment  on the  shelf will not
cure his rheumatism; he must  apply it to  the affected
parts.  Books or appliances on the table, or in the  corner,
will be of no benefit to the funeral director.  He must apply
himself to these " avenues of knowledge " to glean from
them the  desired information.   It is a direct duty, both to 
viii
publisher's preface.
himself and to his customers, that he should acquire all the
knowledge that is possible.   If a person ask him if he can
take care of the dead, or whether he can prepare a body
for shipment and burial, he should be able to answer, " I
can,"—and should give this answer, secure in the knowl-
edge  of his own ability, and of the  means at  hand  to
impart thatknowledge to his patrons if necessary.  Thus, a
great responsibility rests upon the shoulders of the men of
this profession, and they should study to prove themselves
worthy of the confidence of their patrons.   The time, we
think, is fast approaching, when  the funeral director will
be " tried in the balance;" it therefore stands the profes-
sion in  hand  to  prepare themselves for that emergency.
Appearances seem to point to the fact  that the law will
require a thorough anatomical and physiological examina-
tion to be passed by a man before he can practice the pro-
fession of conducting funerals.  The law shelters the pub-
lic from  incompetent people  attempting  the  practice of
medicine.  If a  man attempts  to heal the sick, he  is
required to pass  an examination;  he  receives a diploma
which entitles him  to practice  medicine  throughout the
land.  Now there are many, many people who style them-
selves practical embalmers,  who  do not know the first
rudiments of embalming.   The sooner the profession and
the public are  protected by the same laws that  shield the
lawyer, the physician, and the public to whom these min-
ister, against the professional pretensions  of incompetent
men, the better.  To quote from  J. B. Mclntyre: " Let
us not rest satisfied until we have  raised the standard of
funeral directing, until it is recognized by the laws  of the
land as  one of the regular and legitimate professions."
The art of embalming is a grand and important study.
The embalmers of America are keenly alive to  the neces- 
publisher's preface.
IX
 sity of their possessing a thorough knowledge of this art,
 as it is the coming way of preparing the dead for burial.
 Special schools are being  started all over the country for
 the purpose of engaging lecturers and demonstrators and
 professors to impart all the knowledge that is needed on
 the subject.   The  public will  soon recognize this  as a
 great advance on the part  of the profession, and the day
 will come when their  eyes will be opened  to the impor-
 tance and dignity of this calling.
  The question at present is, what can be done to advance
 the interests of the profession?  This subject has  been
 gone over many times, and the  theory  advanced  that a
 State Registry Law is necessary to accomplish the desired
 result.  Before legislation can be obtained upon this par-
 ticular  subject, schools, where instruction  is given, and
 examinations are  conducted,  by men who  have proved
 themselves masters of the things pertaining to the profes-
 sion, are necessary.
  Much has been said on the subject of  sanitary methods
 of Undertaking.  The fact has been proven that embalm-
 ing, as a means of preparing the dead for burial, is a pos-
 itive preventive against the spread of contagious diseases.
 It has  also been proven  that  the  " ice-box "  of  the past
 days was very  instrumental in carrying diseases from one
 home to another.   Methods have been advanced and the-
 ories given  as  to  the proper  way  of  disinfecting  and
 cleansing, thereby  preventing  the spread of contagious
 diseases, and various Boards  of  Health have demanded
 that certain measures be taken to institute sanitary inspec-
 tions, and enforce  sanitary regulations.   We believe the
 time is not far distant when sanitary funeral directing will
be also demanded by these  Boards of Health in all parts
 of the  country; we also believe that the time is at hand 
x
publisher's preface.
when the law will require on the part of the person propos-
ing to enter this profession, besides a thorough knowledge
of anatomy and physiology, a  knowledge of the " laws of
health" and sanitary principles.  The sooner this is accom-
plished by the profession, and  these laws are put in force,
the better, not only for the embalmer, but for the public
at large.
  In consequence of a demand, on the part of the progres-
sive men  of the profession  in question, for some  means
whereby they can enlighten themselves as to the structure
of the human body, and by which they can impart to their
patrons, confidence  in their  ability and  understanding of
their  profession, we  have prepared  the  " Embalmers'
Guide" and  the  " Embalmers'  Anatomical Aid."  We
trust that  the  men  who   have shown sufficient inter-
est  in  the  progress  of   their  profession   to  equip
themselves with this  work, will not — as did the man
with the liniment—lay it   on  the shelf,  but  will make
themselves familiar with its contents.  At  first sight,  the
embalmers may say, " There is too much of it—too many
details shown — a great  many  things that do not apply to
our business  in particular."   Do not allow this idea  to
take possession of you.  The  time  is  coming when  the
embalmer will be called  on  to  evince knowledge of even
greater detail than we show in the " Embalmers' Anatom-
ical Aid."  We take pleasure  in calling your attention to
the different sections of  the Aid,  as they are prepared
under  the direct supervision of the highest  anatomical
authority of the country, and  the correctness of the vari-
ous plates is guaranteed.
         Sincerely yours,
               WESTERN PUBLISHING HOUSE 
AUTHOR'S PREFACE.
   In the last  decade the art of embalming has not only
 advanced so far beyond former methods as to be scarcely
 identical with them, but increased excellence and accept-
 able results  have so popularized the art that it is fast be-
 coming the mode of preparing the body for its final abode.
 The former method of packing the body in ice — a method
 merely temporary in  its  effects, and  doubtless fruitful  in
 spreading  contagious  diseases — is now almost obsolete,
 and the services of the embalmer  are required in a large
 proportion of the  deaths among the better classes of soci-
 ety.  This recognition of the  perfection  and  dignity of
 the  art — grateful as  it is — brings, however, additional
 responsibilities, and necessitates a wider and more scientific
 intelligence on the part of the embalmer.  To-day it is
 absolutely  essential for him  to be familiar with the plan
 and structure  of   the human  organism—its  anatomy,
 and more  particularly  its angiology.  To quote  from
 Professor Renouard:  " It  is  an irrefutable fact,  that,  if
 the embalmer is thoroughly conversant with the location
 and ramifications  of  those channels through  which the
 blood  circulates during life, he must certainly, according
 to the sequence of undisputable logic, be familiar with
 the progress and distribution of the antiputrid fluid which
is injected  into those  same channels for the  purpose  of
 preservation."   In the following pages  the  author has
endeavored to give, in succinct and practical form, that
                          XI 
xn
author's preface.
knowledge of the construction, function  and structure of
each part of the human frame, essential to an intelligent
following of the embalming profession.   He has  sought
to make a  Handbook, which, while scientifically accu-
rate, is also plain and self-explanatory — which, while in
all essential details complete, is in size convenient for con-
stant carrying and reference.  In the chapters descriptive
of the  different parts  of the human  body, and  in those
which  deal with  the  circulation  of the  blood,  con-
stant reference by section, number,  or letter, is made to
the invaluable plates of the Anatomical Aid.  The points
of injection shown on  the  plates  of Muscles, Nerves,
Veins and Arteries, should be carefully  studied as  each
case demands.  The  chapters dealing with the  general
preparation of the body for interment, the selection and
injection of arteries,  and the cautions  and directions
in particular and unusual cases, are the outcome of a long
and  varied experience  The author hopes, that, in his
desire  to  emphasize the value of certain procedures, he
may not be found repetitious or wearisome.  In conclu-
sion, he feels that he  cannot urge too strongly  the  con-
stant need of a higher standard of qualification in the
embalmer's profession.  To keep abreast in knowledge,
in refinement,  in general  advancement,  with other pro-
fessions, should be the ambition of every funeral director.
To quote from J. B. Mclntyre: " Let us not rest satisfied
until we have raised  the standard of funeral  directing;
until it is recognized by the laws of the land as one of the
regular and legitimate  professions."
  To aid  in bringing  about  such an  advanced state of
knowledge on this  important subject is  the aim  of this
handbook and the great work which  it accompanies. 
CONTENTS.
                  part first.
                                              PACE.
The Blood — Its Formation and Circulation   -   -    9
Description of Arteries......10
Description of Veins......      46
The Brain and  its Membranes                     63
The Pharynx........      65
The (Esophagus........65
The Thorax.........65
The Heart.........66
The Lungs.........67
The Stomach.........68
The Intestines........69
The Abdomen.........71
The Liver.........72
The Pancreas.........74
The Spleen.........74
The Kidneys.........75
The Bladder.........76
The Diaphragm.....---76
Hints  and Suggestions.......78
                       (xiii) 
xiv
CONTENTS.
                                                  PAGE.
Suggestions  and Cautions in the  Selection of Ar-
    teries for Injection.....-   80
How to Locate, Raise and Inject Arteries
      Brachial Artery.......85
      Femoral Artery  --.----87
      Posterior Tibial Artery   -----   89
      Right  Common Carotid  Artery                 90
      Radial Artery.......96
How to Inject Fluid into the  Stomach when the
    Nasal Passages  are Closed   -----   98
How to Remove Discolorations.....98
Precautions  in Embalming......100
Arterial Embalming.......101
Ordinary or Cavity Embalming   -----  109
Embalming for an Indefinite  Period  -    -   -    -  113
Instruction in  Case of Death from Consumption    -  119
      Pneumonia, Etc........121
      Typhoid Fever, and  Low Type Fevers     -    -  122
      Hemorrhage.......-123
      Dropsy -    -    -    -     -    -    -   -     -123
      Child-Birth......         -I25
      Peritonitis........126
      Gun-Shot Wounds......127
      Drowning........127
      Apoplexy........128
      Strangulation, or Broken Neck  -    -   -    -  129
      Throat-Cut........129
Special Instruction for Post-Mortem Cases -   -    -  129
Conducting Funerals  -    -     -    -    -   -    -130 
CONTENTS.
XV
                    PART SECOND.

                     THE SKELETON.
                                                     PAGK.
Index to Plate    -             -                    141
The Skeleton (descriptive)   -    -    -    -    -    -  143


          BLOOD FORMATION AND CIRCULATION.

Index to Plate    --------  i^-j
    Arteries—Veins—Viscera and Lymphatics  -
The Circulation (descriptive) -.....149

                    NERVOUS SYSTEM.

Spinal Nerves                                     -  151
Cranial  Nerves         -    -        -    -    -    -  152
Sympathetic  System         -                      -  153
The Spinal Cord  -                      -    -    -  154
          (Par the Brain see description of the Head.')


              THE BODY AND EXTREMITIES.

Indexes  to Sections     -    -    -    -    -    -    -  158
    Muscles of the Anterior Part of the Body ■■—The Thorax—
      Mediastinum and  Lungs—The  Heart—Interior  of
      Lungs—Abdomen and Abdominal Viscera — Stomach
      and  Intestines — Section of Body, and Shoulder and
      Hip Joints — Upper Extremity — Lower Extremity.

                       THE HEAD.

Skull, Scalp, Etc.  -                               -  i77
The Brain    -    -         -                      -  181
The Eye      -                            -         -  19°
The Ear      -                       -     -         -  192 
XVI
CONTENTS.
                     PART THIRD.

            THE MALE GENERATIVE ORGANS.
                                                     PAGE.
Index to Sections........x97
Male Generative Organs (descriptive) -        -    -   198

           THE FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS.

Index to Sections.......2°3
Female Generative Organs (descriptive)    -    -    -   205
    External Genital Organs — Internal Organs of Generation
      — Blood Vessels of Uterus and Appendages — Devel-
      opment of the Ovum    -    -    -    -    -
 
LIST OF  ILLUSTRATIONS.
                                                                 Page.
Operator in Act of Purging the Body................................  I2


Injecting the Eyes................................................  20


Injecting the Nostrils...............................................  28


Injecting the Mouth................................................  36


Raising the Carotid Artery.........................................  44


Injecting the Carotid Artery.........................................  52


Raising the Femoral Artery........................................  60


Injecting the Femoral Artery........................................  68


Raising the Brachial Artery.........................................  76


Injecting the Brachial Artery.......................................  84


Raising the Posterior Tibial Artery.................................  92


Injecting the Posterior Tibial Artery................................  100


Forcing Gas  from the  Abdominal  Cavity, and Stomach—Large Needle
    Inserted......................................................108 v


Injecting the Pleura in the Thoracic Cavity............................ 124


Injecting Stomach and  Abdomen.................................... 140


Extracting Water from a Dropsy Case with Atmospheric Pump......... 156


Drawing Blood from the Jugular Vein—Needle Introduced in the Axilla,
    and in Position............................................... 172


Removing Discolorations from the Face by Hypodermic Injection........ 188


Body Thoroughly Embalmed and Lying on Embalming Table.....Frontispiece ■


Cleaning and Arranging of Instruments............................... 204

       2                         (xvii) 
 
PART  FIRST
   By DR.  H. E.  LEWIS,

Assistant Demonstrator in United States College
     of Embalming, New York City.
(7) 
 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
                 THE BLOOD.

   In order to comprehend most fully and easily the art
 of embalming, it is essential that one should know some-
 thing of the anatomy of the human body, its organs, and
 the  functions  or duties performed by each.  This neces-
 sitates a brief  examination of each part separately, and, as
 the blood is one of the most important, let us examine its
 work during life and its condition after death.
   Blood is  a thick, opaque fluid, varying in different parts
 of the body from a brilliant scarlet to a dark purple color.
 In its  normal  state, it  forms about  ten per cent, of the
 bodily weight.  Thus, if a man weighs one  hundred and
 fifty pounds,  the weight of  his  blood  would  be about
 fifteen  pounds.
   The  circulation of  the blood  throughout  the  body
 requires only about twenty seconds.  It is carried to the
 lungs by the pulmonary arteries (5, Blood Formation)  as
 venous blood, and is carried from the lungs to the left
 auricle (26) of the heart through the pulmonary  vein (17),
 then carried to the left ventricle (28) of the heart, then  to
 the aorta (4), and thence throughout the entire or general
 system.
  Within a few  hours after death  the  blood becomes
thickened or coagulated on account of its remaining quiet
                         9 
10
EMBALMERS*  GUIDE.
in the veins.   The arteries, as  a  rule, empty themselves
into the veins, capillaries, and tissues of the body.  There-
fore, in preparing to embalm a body, we ordinarily find
them empty, although, in some cases, small quantities of
blood are retained.
  Water  forms about  seventy per cent,  of the human
body, and the remaining thirty per  cent, is distributed
among  the tissues, the  bones and other  organs of  the
human frame.

            DESCRIPTION OF THE ARTERIES.
                   (See plates in the Aid.)
  The  arteries are  cylindrical, tubular  vessels,  which
serve to convey blood from  both ventricles of the heart to
all parts of the body.   They are strong, elastic, and, when
empty,  preserve their cylindrical form, and are composed
of  three distinct coats:  the internal  serous, the middle
fibrous, and the external cellular coat.   The arteries  are
recognized by their pink  color in strong contrast with  the
dark color of the veins, are of various sizes, some of them
being of extremely large, and others of very small, caliber.
  They contain no valves,  so that, when injected,  they
distribute the fluid throughout  the entire  system to  the
remotest corners.  They will hold from two to six quarts
of fluid, and often much more.   During the embalming
process the arteries may  receive daily injections, using a
small quantity at a time.  Care  should be taken that  the
injecting tube is placed in the canal of the artery, and not
between the tunics  or coverings.  The arteries empty
themselves into the capillaries, which  are microscopic ves-
sels, in diameter about one three-thousandth  of an inch,
their size varying in different  parts  of the body.  The
smallest  capillaries are  those of the  brain and of the 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
II
mucous membrane of the intestines. Arteries are, as a rule,
deep seated, in order that they may be  less exposed  to
injury.
  The distribution of the systemic arteries is like a highly
ramified tree, the trunk  formed  by the  aorta  (4, Blood
Formation),  and its  many ramifications  forming the
branches.  The arteries divide  and  subdivide,  running
into  the most distant parts  of the body, the  larger
arteries usually occupying the most protected  situations.
Generally the larger  arterial branches  pursue a perfectly
straight course, but in certain places and situations they
are very tortuous ; thus the facial artery, in its course over
the face, the  internal carotid, and the vertebral  arteries
just before they enter the cavity of the skull, describe a
series of curves which are evidently intended to diminish
the velocity  of the current  of blood  by increasing the
extent of surface  over which it moves.

              THE PULMONARY ARTERY.
            (B, plate of Lungs; also 5, Blood Formation.)
  The pulmonary artery conveys the impure blood from the
right side of the heart to the lungs.  It is a short, wide vessel
about two inches in length, and rises  from  the left side
of the base of the right ventricle (27, Blood Formation) in
front of the aorta.  It ascends upward, backward  and  to
the left side,  and  winds spirally in front of and then to the
left of the ascending part of the arch of the aorta (4, Blood
Formation) as far as the under  surface of the transverse
portion of the arch, where it divides into  two branches of
nearly equal size — the  right and left  pulmonary arteries.
  The right  pulmonary artery (5, Blood Formation)  is
longer and larger than the left,  runs outward behind the 
12
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
ascending aorta and superior vena cava (13, Blood For-
mation) to the root of the right lung, when it divides into
two branches.  The left  pulmonary artery (5,  Blood For-
mation) passes in front of the descending aorta.

                      THE AORTA.
                 (See Blood Formation in Aid.)
  The aorta (4) is the main trunk of a series of vessels,
which, arising from the heart, convey the red  oxygenated
blood to every part  of the body for  its nutrition.  This
vessel commences at the upper part of the left ventricle,
and, after ascending for a short distance, arches backward
and to the left side over the root of the left lung, descends
within the thorax, passes through the aortic opening in the
diaphragm, and enters the abdominal cavity, terminating
opposite the  fourth lumbar vertebra (12, Skeleton plate),
there dividing into the right and left common iliac arteries
(F, back plate Body).
  The portion of the aorta situated in the thorax is called
the thoracic aorta (6, Blood Formation), and, after passing
through the  diaphragm and entering the abdomen, it  is
called the abdominal aorta (10, Blood Formation).  The
aorta, and more especially its arch, is frequently the seat
of disease,  aneurisms often occurring at this point.
  The branches given off from the arch of  the aorta are
five in number, the right  and left coronary, the innominate
(2, Blood Formation), the  left common  carotid (1, Blood
Formation), and the left subclavian (3, Blood Formation).
The coronary arteries (Heart plate) supply the heart, and
arise near the commencement of the aorta, just above the
free margin of the semilunar  valves (Heart plate).  The
right coronary artery, about the size of a quill, rises from 
OPERATOR PURGING  THE BODY
           (See page 105.) 
 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
13
 the  aorta  immediately above the  right semilunar valve,
 between the  pulmonary artery (B, Heart plate) and  the
 right  auricular  appendix  (b,  Heart plate).   It  passes
 through the  right side  in the groove  between the right
 auricle and ventricle, and, curving around the right border
 of the heart, runs along its posterior surface as far as the
 posterior  interventricular groove.  It then divides  into
 two branches, one  of which  continues  in the  groove
 between the  left auricle and ventricle,  and anastomoses
 with the left coronary;  the other descends along the pos-
 terior  interventricular  furrow, and supplies branches to
 both ventricles and  to the  septum.  The left coronary
 artery is larger  than  the  right, rises  immediately above
 the free  edge of the left semilunar valve, a little  higher
 than the  right,  passes  between  the  pulmonary artery
 (B, Lung plate)  and the left appendix auriculae (d, Heart
 plate), and descends toward the anterior interventricular
 groove, where it  divides into two branches.   One branch
 passes  transversely  outward  in  the   left  ventricular
 groove, and winds around the left border of the heart to
 its   posterior surface;   the  other  descends  along   the
 anterior interventricular groove to the apex of the heart,
 where it anastomoses with the descending branches of the
 right coronary artery.  The  left coronary artery supplies
 the left auricle and its appendix, both ventricles, and a
 number of small  branches to the  pulmonary  artery and
 the commencement of the aorta.
  The innominate artery  (2, Blood Formation) is   the
largest branch given off from the arch of the aorta.  It rises
from the commencement of the transverse portion in front
of the left carotid artery (1, Blood Formation), ascends
to  the  upper   border of  the  right  sterno-clavicular
articulation, and  divides into the  right common carotid 
14
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
(i,  Blood Formation) and subclavian arteries (3,  Blood
Formation).    Of  the common  carotid  arteries,   the
right rises from the arteria innominata behind the right
sterno-clavicular articulation; the left, placed more deeply
in the thorax, ascends outward from the arch  of the aorta
to the root of the neck.  In front it is  separated  from the
first piece of the sternum by the sterno-hyoid and the
sterno-thyroid muscles, and the left innominate vein (14,
Blood Formation).   In the neck, the two common carotids
resemble each other so closely that one  description will
answer for both.  Each vessel passes upward from behind
the sterno-clavicular articulation (9, plate of Ribs-Thorax)
to a level with the upper border of the  thyroid  cartilage
(d,  plate of  Muscles), where it divides into the  external
and the internal carotid arteries.
  The  course of the common carotid is  direct from  the
sternal  end  of the  clavicle  (f, Muscles) to  the mastoid
process above;  this point is indicated by  the lower lobe of
the ear.   At  the lower part  of the neck, the  common
carotid artery is very deeply seated, being covered by the
superficial fascia,  platysma,  deep fascia,   the  sterno-
mastoid  (18, Muscles), sterno-hyoid  (19, Muscles)  and
sterno-thyroid  (d, Muscles) muscles.   In the upper part of
its course, near where it terminates, it is quite superficial.
The external  carotid artery (19, Head plate) commences
opposite the upper border of the thyroid cartilage (d, mus-
cles), takes  a slight curved  course, runs upward  and for-
ward, then inclines  backward, and then divides  into  the
temporal  (18,  Head  plate)  and   internal maxillary
arteries (35  and 23,  Head plate).  The  facial artery (20,
Head plate)  arises a little above the lingual, and  runs for-
ward and upward beneath  the lower jaw,  then curves
upward over the body of the jaw, runs forward and upward, 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
15
and crosses the cheek to the angle of the mouth, passes
up  alongside of the nose, and, under the name  of  the
angular artery, terminates at the inner canthus of the eye.
The facial artery, both in the neck and on the face, is very
tortuous and very  superficial; its pulsations may be dis-
tinctly felt by slight compression  against  the bone.   In
its course over the face, it is  covered by  the fat  of  the
cheek  and is accompanied by the facial vein (17, Head
plate) throughout its entire course, though the vein is  not
so tortuous as the artery.  The anastomoses of the artery
are very numerous.
  The occipital artery (3, Head plate) arises from the pos-
terior  part of the  external carotid, opposite the  facial.
At its  origin, it is covered by the posterior belly of  the
digastric and stylo-hyoid muscles,  and part of the parotid
gland; higher up it crosses the internal carotid artery and
the internal jugular vein, then  ascends  to the interval
between the  transverse process of  the atlas, and  the mas-
toid process of the temporal bone, then changes its course
and  passes vertically  upward.  The temporal artery  (7
a, Incision plate)  is  the smaller  of  the  two  terminal
branches of the external carotid artery, and appears, from
its  direction, to  be the continuation of that vessel.   It
divides into two branches, an  anterior and a posterior.
  The anterior temporal  inclines  forward over  the fore-
head and anastomoses with the supraorbital and frontal
arteries;  the  posterior temporal is larger, curves upward
and backward along the side of the head, and inosculates
with its fellow of the  opposite side and with the posterior
auricular and occipital arteries (3, Head plate).
  The internal maxillary (35, Head plate) is the largest of
the terminal branches of the external carotid artery, passes
inward at right angles  from  that vessel to  the inner side 
16
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
 of the neck, and supplies the deep structures of the face.
 The internal carotid artery commences at the bifurcation
 of the common carotid artery, opposite the upper border
 of the thyroid cartilage, and runs perpendicularly upward
 in front of the  transverse processes of the three  upper
 cervical vertebrae, to the carotid foramen  in the petrous
 portion of the temporal bone; after ascending for a short
 distance, it passes forward and inward through the  carotid
 canal and enters the skull.
  The internal  carotid artery supplies the anterior part
 of the  brain, the eye,  and its  appendages, and  sends
 branches to  the forehead and the nose, its  size in the adult
 equaling that of the external carotid.  Its course is curved,
 thus diminishing the  velocity of  the current of blood by
 increasing  the extent  of surface over which it moves.  It
 is divided  into  four  portions, the  cervical, the petrous,
 the cavernous, and the cerebral.
  The  cervical  portion is superficial  at  its  commence-
 ment, being contained in the superior carotid triangle, and
 lying on the  same level as the external carotid; but back
 of that  artery it passes beneath the parotid gland, and is
 crossed  by the  external  carotid  and occipital  arteries.
When the  internal  carotid artery enters the canal in the
petrous  portion of the temporal bone, it first  ascends a
short distance, then curves inward, and again ascends as it
leaves the canal  to enter the skull cavity.   The cavernous
portion  at  first  ascends to the posterior clinoid process,
then passes forward by the side of the body of the sphenoid
 bone.   The  cerebral portion of the artery is on the outer
side of the optic nerve.
  The  ophthalmic artery  rises  from the internal carotid
artery just as that vessel is emerging from the cavernous
sinus on the inner side of the anterior clinoid process, and 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
17
enters the orbit  through the optic foramen.  The frontal
artery (Forehead),  one  of the terminal branches of the
ophthalmic,  passes from the orbit at its inner angle, and,
ascending on the forehead, supplies  the  muscles,  and
anastomoses with the supraorbital artery (Eye).  The nasal
artery, the other terminal branch of the ophthalmic artery,
emerges from the orbit above the tendo oculi, and divides
into two branches,  one of which anastomoses with the
angular  artery;  the  other runs along the dorsum of the
nose, supplies its entire surface, and anastomoses with the
artery of the other side.
  The cerebral  branches of the internal  carotid are, the
anterior cerebral, the middle cerebral, the posterior com-
municating, and the anterior choroid.   The anterior cere-
bral (Head plate) rises from the internal  carotid at the
inner extremity of the fissure of Sylvius, passes forward
between the two anterior lobes of the brain, soon after its
origin being connected with the vessel of the opposite side
by a short anastomosing trunk about one inch in length.
The anterior communicating artery (Head plates) is a short
branch  about one inch in length, but of moderate size,
connecting the two anterior cerebral arteries.   Across the
longitudinal  fissure,  the two arteries join to form a single
front, which  afterward subdivides, or the vessel  may be
wholly or partially  subdivided  into  two portions.  The
middle  cerebral  is  the largest branch  of the  internal
carotid,  passes  outward  along  the  fissure of  Sylvius,
where it divides  into  three branches:  an anterior, which
supplies the pia mater; a posterior, which supplies the mid-
dle lobe; and a median branch, which supplies the small
lobe at the outer extremity of the  Sylvian fissure.  The
posterior communicating artery arises from the back part
of the internal carotid, runs directlv backward and anas-
    9 
i8
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
 tomoses with  the posterior cerebral,  a  branch  of  the
 basilar.  This  artery varies considerably in size, occasion-
 ally being so large that the posterior cerebral may be con-
 sidered as arising from the internal carotid,  rather than
 from the basilar.
   The  anterior  choroid  (Head  plate) is  a  small  but
 constant branch with rises from the back  part of  the in-
 ternal carotid  near  the posterior communicating artery;
 passing backward and  outward, it  enters the descending
 horn of the lateral ventricle, beneath the edge of the middle
 lobe of the brain

         THE  BLOOD-VESSELS  OF THE BRAIN.

   The arteries  of the brain are  derived  from the internal
 carotid and the vertebral arteries.   On the left side, these
 vessels rise at such an angle that the blood current is much
 more direct than on  the  right ; thus accounting for the
 larger size and  development of  the  left  hemisphere.  At
 the base of the brain, these four vessels form the circle of
 Willis.   This circle consists of two sets  of  vessels, the
anterior or carotid set, from which arise the anterior and
middle cerebral arteries (Head plate), and the posterior or
vertebral set, consisting of the basilar and  posterior cere-
bral arteries.  Each set has a free anastomosis from side
to side.
         ARTERIES OF  THE UPPER  EXTREMITY.
                     (See plates in Aid.)
   The artery which supplies the upper extremity continues
as a single  trunk from its commencement down  to the
 elbow ; but different portions of it have received different
 names according to  the region  through which it passes.
That part of the vessel which  extends from  its origin to 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
19
 the lower border of the first rib is termed the subclavian
 artery (3,  Blood Formation).   Beyond this  point to the
 lower border of the axilla it is termed the axillary artery
 (A, plate 4, Upper Extremity), and from the lower margin
 of the axillary space to the bend of the elbow it is termed
 the brachial artery (A, plate 2, Upper Extremity).  At this
 point the  single trunk terminates by dividing into two
 branches, the radial (B, plate 2, Upper Extremity), and the
 ulnar (G, plate 2, Upper Extremity), an arrangement pre-
 cisely similar to that  occurring in the lower limb.
  The  subclavian  artery (3, Blood Formation)  on  the
 right side arises from the arteria innominata (2, Blood For-
 mation) opposite the rightsterno-clavicular articulation, and
 on the left from the arch of the aorta (4, Blood  Formation);
 therefore these two vessels in the first part of their course
 differ in their  length, their direction,  and their relation
 with neighboring parts.  The  right subclavian  artery (3,
 plate, Blood Formation) (4a, Incision  plate)  arises from
 the arteria innominata (1, Blood Formation) opposite the
 right sterno-clavicular articulation, passes upward  across
 the root of the neck,  and terminates at the inner margin
 of the scalenus anticus muscle, and in this part  of its course
 ascends a little above  the clavicle (5,  Rib plate), the extent
 to which  it does so varying in different cases.   It is
 crossed  by the internal jugular (16, Blood Formation) and
 vertebral veins.   The left subclavian artery (3, Blood For-
 mation)  arises  from  the end of the transverse portion  of
 the arch of the aorta (4, Blood Formation), ascends to the
 inner margin  of the  first rib,  is  longer  than the right,
situated more  deeply  in  the  cavity of the chest, and
directed almost vertically upward, instead of arching out-
ward like the vessel of the opposite side.
  The vertebral artery (Blood  Formation) is  the first and 
20
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
largest branch of the subclavian, rises from the upper and
back part of that vessel, passes  upward and enters the
foramen in the transverse process  of the sixth cervical ver-
tebra.   It ascends through the foramina in the transverse
processes of all the vertebrae above the sixth, and above
the upper border  of  the  axis it  inclines  upward to the
foramen  in the transverse process of the atlas, through
which it passes.  It enters the skull through the foramen
magnum, then passes upward to the front of the medulla
oblongata (45, Head plate), and unites with the vessel of
the opposite side at the lower border of the pons Varolii
to form  the basilar artery.   Within the  skull it  winds
around the medulla oblongata.  The basilar artery (Head
plate), so named from its position at the base of the skull,
is a single trunk formed by the two vertebral arteries.  It
extends from the posterior to the  anterior border of the
pons Varolii, and has several branches ; namely, the trans-
verse, the anterior inferior cerebellar, superior cerebellar,
and the posterior cerebral.   The transverse branches sup-
ply the pons Varolii and adjacent  parts of the brain ; the
superior cerebellar (Head  plate) rises near the termination
of the basilar, and, on arriving at  the upper  circle of the
cerebellum, they divide into branches which ramify in the
pia mater and  anastomose with the inferior cerebellar; the
posterior cerebral, the two terminal branches of the basi-
lar, are larger than  the preceding, anastomose with the
anterior and middle cerebral artery, and near their origin
receive  the. posterior  communicating  arteries  from the
internal  carotid, and give off numerous  branches which
enter the posterior perforated space.   The remarkable
anastomoses which exist between the branches of the inter-
nal carotid and vertebral  arteries at the base of the brain,
constitute the circle of Willis.  This  circle  is formed in 
OPERATOR INJECTING THE EVES.
          (See page 106.) 
 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
21
front by the anterior cerebral arteries, and branches of the
internal carotid, which are connected together by the ante-
rior  communicating artery ;  behind by the two posterior
cerebral branches of the basilar, which are connected through
the internal carotid by the posterior communicating artery.
It is by this anastomosis that the cerebral circulation is
equalized and provision made for effectually carrying it on
if any of the branches should be damaged or obliterated.
The  internal  mammary artery  (Breast) arises  from the
under surface of the first portion of the subclavian artery,
descends behind the clavicle to the inner surface of the
chest, rests against the costal cartilages a short distance
from the  margin  of  the  sternum, and divides into two
branches.
  The  axillary artery (A, plate  4,  Upper Extremity), the
continuation of the subclavian, commences at the lower
border of the first rib, and terminates at the lower border
of the  tendon of the teres major muscle, where it takes the
name of the brachial (B, plate 4, Upper Extremity).   Its
direction varies  with the position of the limb, as, when the
arm  lies by the side of the chest, the vessel forms a gentle
curve,  the convexity  being  upward;  when  the limb  is
directed  at right angles  with the  trunk, the  vessel  is
nearly straight; when elevated, it describes a curve.   At
its commencement, the artery is very deeply situated, but
near its  termination is quite superficial, being covered
only by the skin and fascia.  The subscapular (plate  4,
Upper  Extremity) is  the largest  branch  of the  axillary
artery, arises opposite the lower border of the subscapu-
lars muscle,  and passes  downward.  The posterior and
anterior circumflex arteries wind around the  neck of the
humerus; the posterior circumflex (1,  plate 4, Upper Ex-
tremity) is the larger of the two, rises from the back part
     3 
32
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
of the axilla, and, passing backward with the circumflex
veins, anastomoses with the anterior circumflex (A, plate
4, Upper Extremity) and thoracic arteries, and  with the
superior profunda branch (L, plate 4, Upper Extremity) of
the brachial artery; the anterior  (H, plate 4,  Upper Ex-
tremity) arises just below  that vessel from the outer side
of the axillary artery.
  The  brachial artery (B, plate 4,  Upper  Extremity)
commences at the lower margin of the tendon  of the teres
major, and, passing down the inner and  anterior aspect of
the arm, terminates about  one-half inch below the elbow,
where it divides into the radial (B, plate 2, Upper Extrem-
ity) and ulnar arteries (G, plate 2, Upper Extremity).  Like
the axillary, the direction of the brachial artery varies
with the position and  situation of the arm; if  the arm be
directed downward  by the side  of the  body, the artery
takes a spiral course, and  is much deeper seated; but, if
the arm is held in  a horizontal position or directly out-
ward  with  the palmar suface  of the hand upward, its
course is almost on  a straight line and nearer the surface,
making it more superficial,  and decidedly easier for the
operator to reach.   When  about to take  up the brachial
artery for an injective  point, turn the hand with  the palm
upward, as this will bring the artery to the desired posi-
tion.  In the upper part  of the arm, the artery lies inter-
nal to the bone; but  below it is in front, lying between
the border of the biceps and triceps muscles, which make
a good landmark; it is always accompanied by two com-
panion veins, the venae comites (5,plate 2, Upper Extrem-
ity), and the nerve of the arm.  These are sometimes found
in one sheath, and can be separated very easily.  For the
purpose of  injecting,  the  brachial artery is  universally
used by embalmers, as it is easily found, and  affords the 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
23
operator a chance to hide or cover up his work, which in
some cases  is  very important.   In embalming a  child,
however, the brachial artery would practically be useless,
as its caliber is so small.  With children it is advisable to
use the carotid or the femoral artery, preferably the  latter,
as there is no danger of injury or of discoloration.   Give
the tubing a downward course, and naturally the fluids dis-
tribute to the lower extremity first, the upper extremities
receiving the injection more slowly, as  the branches take
off the recurring current.  In raising the brachial artery for
embalming purposes, it is well to make incision about two
inches below the  axilla, as in that position the  small
branches  can be avoided and considerable leakage be pre-
vented.   The radial artery (B, plate 2,  Upper Extremity),
though smaller, appears from  its direction to  be the con-
tinuation of the brachial artery.   It commences  at the
bifurcation  of the  brachial,  just below the bend  of the
elbow, and  passes  along the radial side of the forearm to
the  wrist, then winds backward around the outer  side of
the  wrist beneath the extensor tendons of the  thumb, and
finally passes  forward between  the two heads of the first
dorsal interosseous muscle  into  the  palm of  the  hand,
where it  crosses the metacarpal bones to the ulnar  border
of the hand to form  the deep palmar arch  (G, plate 2,
Upper Extremity).   At its termination it inosculates with
the deep branch of the ulnar artery.
   The radial artery is accompanied by the radial nerve (1,
last plate,  Upper  Extremity), lying on the radial  side of
the radial  artery,  and by its two companion  veins, the
venae comites.  If occasion should  require,  the  radial
artery may be used for injecting purposes, sometimes with
very good results ; but, as it is smaller than the ulnar, and
 exposed to view at the wrist, where it is quite superficial, 
24
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
this  is not advisable where a larger and more convenient
artery is  available.   The  operation, also,  would  neces-
sarily be very slow.
  The ulnar artery  (G, plate 2, Upper Extremity), the
larger of the two subdivisions of the brachial, commences
a little below the bend of the elbow, and crosses the inner
side  of the forearm obliquely inward to the commencement
of its lower half; it then runs along its ulnar border to the
wrist, crosses the  annular  ligament on the radial side of
the pisiform bone, and  passes across the palm of the hand,
forming the  superficial palmar arch.   This arch describes
a curve with its convexity to the fingers and to the space
between the ball of the thumb and the index finger, where
it anastomoses with a branch from the radialis indicis, thus
completing  the  arch.   If the  thumb be  placed at right
angles to the hand, its position will be indicated by a line
drawn along the lower margin of the thumb, across the
palm.  It is covered by the palmar fascia, the palmaris
brevis and integument.   The deep palmar arch is situated
about one finger's  breadth nearer the carpus.  The ulnar
nerve (K, plate 3, Upper Extremity)  accompanies the
artery (E, plate  3,  Upper  Extremity) a short part of its
course.   The ulnar artery gives off ten branches, of which
those in the forearm are called the anterior ulnar recurrent
(G, lower part plate 4, Upper  Extremity),  the posterior
ulnar recurrent, the interosseous (H, lower part plate 4,
Upper Extremity), the anterior interosseous, the posterior
interosseous, and the muscular ; those in the  wrist are the
anterior carpaland the posterior carpal; those in the hand
are the deep or communicating branch and the digital.
  The anterior  ulnar recurrent branch rises immediately
below the elbow joint, passes  inward, and supplies the
brachialis anticus  and  pronator  radii teres  muscles; the 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
25
 posterior ulnar recurrent branch is much larger, and, rising
 a little lower, passes backward and inward  beneath the
 flexor sublimis, and  ascends behind the  inner  condyle of
 the humerus, supplying the neighboring joints and muscles,
 and anastomosing with the inferior profunda and interos-
 seous recurrent arteries.  The interosseous artery (H, lower
 part  Upper Extremity, plate  4)  is  a  short  trunk  about
 one inch in length, and  of considerable size.   It  rises
 immediately below the tuberosity of the radius, and divides
 into two branches, the anterior and posterior interosseous.
 The anterior interosseous  artery passes down the forearm
 on the anterior surface  of  the interosseous  membrane,
 accompanied by  the interosseous branch of the median
 nerve, then down behind the pronator  quadratus, and
 anastomoses with the posterior interosseous artery.  The
 posterior interosseous artery passes backward through the
 interval  between  the  oblique  ligament  and the upper
 border of the interosseous membrane;  descending to the
 wrist, it anastomoses with the  termination of the anterior
 interosseous, and with the posterior carpal branches of the
 radial and  ulnar arteries.  Near its origin it gives off the
 interosseous recurrent branch.   The muscular branches are
 distributed  through the muscles along the ulnar side of the
 forearm.  The carpal branches (1, plate 4,Upper Extremity)
 supply the wrist joint.   Of these, the anterior carpal is a
 small vessel which crosses the front of the carpus and inos-
 culates with a corresponding branch of the radial artery;
 the posterior carpal arises immediately above the pisiform
 bone, and winds backward beneath the tendon of the flexor
 carpi  ulnaris.   It  anastomoses  with a corresponding
 branch of the radial artery, and, forming the  posterior
carpal arch  immediately after its origin, it gives off a small
branch which runs along the ulnar side of  the metacarpal 
26
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
bone  of the  little finger, forming one of the metacarpal
arteries and supplying the ulnar side of the dorsal surface
of the little finger.  The deep or communicating branch
arises at the commencement  of  the  palmar arch,  anas-
tomoses with the termination of the radial  artery, and
thus completes the  deep  palmar  arch.   The  digital
branches (lower part plate 5,  Upper Extremity) are four
in number,  and  are given off  from the convexity  of
the superficial palmar  arch.   They supply the  ulnar
side of the little finger, and the adjoining sides of the four
fingers, the  radial side  of the index finger  and  thumb
being supplied from the radial artery.   The digital arteries
are at first superficial; but, as  they pass forward to the
clefts  between the fingers, they lie between them, and are
there  joined by the interosseous  branches from the deep
palmar arch.   The digital arteries  on the  sides  of the
fingers  lie  beneath  the digital  nerves, and,  about  the
middle  of the  last phalanx,  the two branches for  each
finger form an arch.
   The descending aorta (4, Blood Formation) is divided
into two portions, the thoracic (6, Blood Formation) and
the abdominal aorta (a, back plate Body), in correspond-
ence with the two great cavities of the trunk, in which it is
situated.  The thoracic aorta (6,  Blood Formation) com-
mences  at the lower  border of the fifth dorsal vertebra
on the left side, and terminates at the aortic opening in
the diaphragm, in front of the last  dorsal vertebra.   At
its commencement, it is  situated  on  the left  side of the
spine,  approaches the median line  as it descends, and at
its termination lies directly in  front of the column.   As its
branches are small, the diminution in the size  of the ves-
sel is inconsiderable.   In front it is in relation from above
downward with the left pulmonary artery (5, Blood Forma- 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
27
tion), behind with the  vertebral column and  the vena
azygos minor, on the right side with the vena azygos major
and the thoracic duct (29,  Blood Formation), on the  left
side with the pleura and lung.
  The branches of the thoracic aorta (6, Blood Forma-
tion) are the pericardiac, the bronchial, the esophageal,
the posterior mediastinal, and the intercostal.   The peri-
cardiac arteries are a few small vessels irregular in their
origin and distributed to the pericardium.  The bronchial
arteries are the nutrient vessels of the lungs, and vary in
number, size and  origin; that of the right side rises from
the first aortic  intercostal,  or by a common trunk with the
left bronchial,  from the front of the thoracic aorta; those of
the left side, usually two in number, rise from the thoracic
aorta, one a little lower than the other.  The oesophageal
arteries, usually five in number, rise from the front of the
aorta, and pass downward to the oesophagus, anastomosing
with the oesophageal branches of the inferior thyroid arteries
above, and with ascending branches from the phrenic and
gastric arteries below.   The posterior mediastinal arteries
are many but  small vessels which  supply the glands and
loose areolar tissue in the  mediastinum.  The intercostal
arteries, of which  there are usually ten pairs, rise from
the back  part  of  the  aorta, and lie on each side of the
superior intercostal space.   The right arteries are longer
than the left, and, on account of the position of the aorta
on the left side of the spine, they pass outward  across the
bodies of the  vertebrae to the intercostal spaces,  being
covered by the pleura, the oesophagus, the  thoracic duct
and vena azygos  major.  The left pass beneath the supe-
rior  intercostal vein,  the  azygos vein, the vena azygos
minor and sympathetic.   In the intercostal spaces, each
artery divides into two branches, an anterior and a poste- 
28               EMBALMERS' GUIDE.

rior branch.  The anterior branch  passes outward, then
between the two layers of intercostal muscles, and, having
ascended to the lower border of the rib above, divides near
the angle of that bone into two branches.   Of these, the
larger runs  in the groove on the lower border of the rib
above; the smaller, along the upper border of the rib below.
As they pass forward, they supply the intercostal muscles,
and anastomose with the anterior intercostal branches of
the internal mammary and with the thoracic branches of
the axillary artery.   The first aortic  intercostal artery
anastomoses with the superior  intercostal,  and the last
three pass  between  the abdominal  muscles,  inosculating
with the epigastric in front, and with the lumbar arteries.
Each intercostal artery is accompanied by a vein  and
nerve, the  former above, the  latter below,  and are pro-
tected from pressure during the action  of the intercostal
muscles by fibrous arches thrown  across and  attached by
each extremity  to  the  bone.   The posterior  branch of
each intercostal artery passes  backward to the  inner side
of the anterior costo-transverse ligament, and divides into
a spinal branch, which  supplies  the vertebrae, the spinal
cord and its membranes.
  The abdominal aorta (A, last plate Body) commences at
the aortic opening of the diaphragm in front of the body
of the last  dorsal vertebra, and, descending a little to the
left side of the vertebral column,  terminates  on the body
of the fourth lumbar vertebra, generally to the left of the
median line, where it divides  into the  two  common iliac
arteries  (F, last plate Body).  It diminishes in size very
rapidly  in consequence of the many large branches which
it gives  off.   It is covered in front by the stomach, behind
which are the branches of the cceliac axis and the solar
plexus,  and below  these  by  the  splenic vein (21,  Blood 
OPERATOR INJECTING THE NOSTRILS.
             (See page  106.) 
 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
29
Formation),  the pancreas (19, last plate Body),  the  left
renal vein (W, last plate Body), the transverse portion of
the duodenum, the mesentery and the aortic plexus.   Be-
hind, it is separated from the lumbar vertebra by the left
lumbar veins (A, last plate Body) and thoracic duct (29,
Blood Formation).   On the right side it  is in relation
with  the  inferior vena  cava (E, last plate Body); on the
left with the sympathetic nerve and  left semilunar gan-
glion. The single branches of the abdominal aorta (A,  last
plate Body) are the cceliac axis  (7, Blood Formation), the
superior mesenteric and  the inferior mesenteric (Y,  last
plate Body).
  The cceliac axis (see Blood Formation) is a short, thick
trunk about one-half inch  in length, which arises from
the aorta opposite the margin of the diaphragm, and, pass-
ing horizontally forward, divides into three large arteries —
the gastric (7), the hepatic (8),  and the  splenic  (9),  and
occasionally  giving off one of the phrenic arteries.   It is
covered by the  lesser  omentum  on the right side, is in
relation with the right semilunar ganglion and the lobus
Spigelii;  on the left side with the left semilunar  ganglion
and cardiac  end  of the stomach, and below rests on the
upper border  of the pancreas.  The gastric artery (7,
Blood Formation), the  smallest of the three branches of
the cceliac axis, passes up and to the left side to the  car-
diac orifice of the stomach, distributing  branches to  the
oesophagus, which anastomose with the aortic oesophageal
arteries, and  others  which supply the cardiac end of the
stomach, inosculating with branches of the splenic artery.
It then passes from left to right  along the lesser curvature
of the stomach to the pylorus, and at its  termination anas-
tomoses with the pyloric  branch of the hepatic artery.
The hepatic  artery (8, Blood Formation) is intermediate 
30
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
in size between the gastric and splenic arteries.   It is first
directed forward and to the right, to the upper margin of
the  pyloric orifice of the stomach,  forming the lower
boundary of the  foramen of Winslow, then passes upward
between  the layers of the lesser omentum and  in front
of the foramen of Winslow to the transverse fissure of the
liver,  where it divides into two branches — right and left —
which supply  the  corresponding  lobes of  that  organ.
This  artery, in its  course along the right  border of the
lesser omentum,  is in relation with the portal veins.   The
cystic artery,  a  branch  of the  hepatic, passes  upward
along the neck of the gall-bladder, and divides into two
branches, one  of which ramifies on  its  free  surface,  the
other between it  and the substance of the liver.   The
splenic artery (9,  Blood Formation) is the largest of the
three branches of the cceliac axis, and is very tortuous in
its course.   Accompanied by the splenic vein, which lies
below, it passes  along the left side of the upper border of
the pancreas, and, on arriving near the spleen, divides into
branches, some of which are  distributed to the great end
of the stomach,  and others,  the pancreatic,  to  the  pan-
creas.
  The superior  mesenteric artery (11, Blood Formation)
supplies, with  the  exception of  the  first  part of the
duodenum, the whole  length of the  small intestine, the
caecum, and ascending and transverse colon.   It is a very
large  vessel arising from the  fore part of the aorta about
one-fourth  inch below the cceliac axis, being covered at its
origin by the splenic vein  (21, Blood Formation)  and
pancreas.  It passes forward between the transverse por-
tion  of the pancreas and duodenum, crosses in front of
this  portion of  the intestine, and  descends  between the
layers of the  mesentery to  the right iliac fossa, where, 
embalmers'  guide.
31
diminished  in size, it  terminates.  In  its course it forms
an arch, is  accompanied  by the superior mesenteric vein
and has five branches.   The inferior pancreatico-duodenal
branch is given off behind the pancreas, and anastomoses
with the  superior pancreatico-duodenal artery;  the  ileo-
colic is the lowest branch given off from the concavity of
the artery; the colica dextra branch arises from about the
middle of the concavity of the artery, and, passing beneath
the peritoneum  to the middle  of the  ascending  colon,
divides into two branches, one descending and one ascend-
ing; the colica media  branch arises from the  upper part
of the concavity of the artery, and, passing forward between
the layers of the transverse meso-colon, divides  into two
branches — the one on the  right  side  inosculating  with
the colica  dextra, and that  on the left  with  the  colica
sinistra, a branch of the inferior mesenteric.
  The inferior mesenteric artery (Y, last plate Body)  sup-
plies the descending and sigmoid flexure of  the colon (14,
Stomach plate) and the greater part of the rectum.    It is
smaller  than the  superior mesenteric,  and arises from  the
left side of the aorta between one- and  two  inches  above
its division into  the common iliacs, passes downward to
the left iliac fossa, and  then descends, under the name of
the superior haemorrhoidal arteries, between the layers of
the meso-rectum into the pelvis.  It lies  at first in close
relation with the left side of the aorta, and then passes, as
the superior haemorrhoidal artery, in front of the left com-
mon iliac artery,  dividing into the  colica sinistra, sigmoid
and superior hemorrhoidal branches. Of these the colica
sinistra  passes behind the peritoneum in  front  of the left
kidney to reach the descending colon, and divides into an
ascending and descending branch; the sigmoid  artery runs
downward across the psoas muscle to the sigmoid flexure 
32
embalmers' guide.
of the colon, and divides into branches which supply that
part of the intestine, anastomosing above with  the  colica
sinistra,  and  below with  the  superior   haemorrhoidal
branches;  the  superior haemorrhoidal  ascends into the
pelvis, crossing in its course  the  ureter  and left common
iliac vessels, dividing, opposite the middle of the sacrum,
into two branches, which descend one on each side of the
rectum, where they divide into several small branches, which
are distributed  between the  mucous and muscular  coats
of that tube nearly as  far as its lower end, anastomosing
with each other,  with  the  middle haemorrhoidal artery,
and branches of the internal iliac  artery.
  The supra-renal arteries are two small vessels rising one
on each side of the aorta, opposite the superior mesenteric
artery, and passing  upward  to the under surface of the
supra-renal capsules, to which they are distributed.  They
anastomose with  capsular branches from the phrenic and
renal arteries, and in the adult are of small size.
  The renal  arteries (V, last plate Body)  are  two  large
trunks which rise from the sides of the aorta immediately
below the superior mesenteric artery, each directed out-
ward so  as to  form nearly a right angle with that vessel.
Previous to entering the kidney, each artery divides into
four or  five  branches which are  distributed to its  sub-
stance.
  The spermatic  arteries (X, last plate Body) distributed
to the testes in  the male, and the  ovaria  in the female, are
two slender vessels of considerable length which arise from
the front of the aorta just  below the  renal arteries.   On
reaching the margin of the pelvis (22, last plate Body) each
vessel passes in front of the corresponding iliac artery, in
the male being directed outward to the internal abdominal
ring, and accompanying the other constituents of the sper- 
embalmers' guide.
33
maticcord (i8,Male Genital Organs), along the spermatic
canal to the testes  (20, Male Genital  Organs), where it
divides  into  several branches. ' In the female,  the sper-
matic arteries (X, last plate Body) are shorter than in the
male, and do not pass out of the abdominal cavity, but, on
arriving at the margin of the  pelvis (22, last plate Body),
each artery passes inward between the two laminae of the
broad ligament of the  uterus  (U, Female Genital Organs)
to be distributed to the ovary (O, Female Genital Organs),
one or two small branches supplying  the  Fallopian tube
(F, T, Female Genital Organs), another passing  on to the
side of the uterus  and anastomosing  with the uterine
arteries.
  The phrenic arteries are two small vessels which present
a great  deal  of variety in their origin.  They may arise
separately from  the  front of the aorta immediately above
the cceliac axis, or by a common trunk  which may spring
from the aorta or from the cceliac axis, or sometimes  one
is derived from the aorta and the other from one of the
renal arteries.   They diverge from one another across the
crura of the diaphragm, and then pass  obliquely upward
and  outward  upon  its under surface,  the left  passing
behind the oesophagus, and running forward on the left side
of the oesophageal opening, the right passing behind the
interior vena cava, and ascending along the right  side of
the aperture for transmitting that vein.
  Near  the  back  part of the  central tendon each vessel
divides into two branches, the internal branch running for-
ward to the front of the thorax, supplying the diaphragm,
and anastomosing with its fellow  of the opposite side and
with the musculo-phrenic branches of the internal mam-
mary (Breast), the external branch passing the side of the
thorax and inosculating with the intercostal arteries.   The 
34
embalmers'  guide.
 internal branch of the right phrenic gives off a few vessels
 to the inferior vena cava, the left, some branches to the
 oesophagus, and each vessel sends capsular branches to the
 supra-renal capsule of its own side, the spleen and the liver.
   The  lumbar arteries  (V, last plate Body),  usually four
 pairs, are analogous to the intercostal, and  rise from the
 back of the aorta nearly at right  angles with  that vessel.
 They pass out and back around the sides of the body of
 the lumbar vertebrae, those on the right being covered by
 the  inferior vena cava (E, last plate Body),  and the two
 upper ones on each side by the crura of the  diaphragm.
 In the interval between  the  transverse  processes of the
 vertebrae, each artery divides into a dorsal and abdominal
 branch.   The dorsal branch gives off, immediately after
 its origin, a spinal branch, which  enters the spinal canal,
 continues on its course backward between the transverse
 processes, and is distributed  to the  muscles and integu-
 ment of the back, anastomosing with the similar branches
 of the adjacent  lumbar arteries and  with the intercostal
 branches.  It also divides into twobranches, one of which
 ascends on the posterior surface of  the body of the vertebrae
 above, and the other descends on the posterior surface of
 the vertebrae  below.  The inosculations of these  vessels
 on each side throughout the whole  length of the spine,
 form a  series of arterial arches behind the  bodies of the
 vertebrae, which are connected with each  other  and with
 a median longitudinal vessel.  The  abdominal branches
 pass outward behind the quadratus lumborum, the lowest
 branch occasionally in front of that vessel, and, being con-
 tinued between the abdominal muscles,  anastomose with
 branches of the epigastric  and internal mammary in front,
the intercostals above, and those of the ilio-lumbar and cir-
cumflex iliac below. 
embalmers' guide.
35
  The middle sacral  artery is a small vessel  about  the
size of a common quiil, which arises from the back of the
aorta just at its bifurcation, descends at the last lumbar
vertebra and along the  middle line of the  front  of the
sacrum to the upper  part of the coccyx,  where it anas-
tomoses  with the lateral sacral arteries,  and  terminates
in a  middle branch,  which runs  down to that portion
of  the  body   described  as  Luschka's gland.   Other
branches are given off  on each side which anastomose
with  the  lateral sacral  arteries.   Luschka's  gland  lies
near  the  tip of the  coccyx,  just  above the  coccygeal
attachment of the sphincter, and consists of a congeries of
small arteries derived from the middle sacral and freely
communicating with each other.
  The abdominal aorta divides into the two common iliac
arteries ( G, last plate body ), the bifurcations usually tak-
ing place on the left side of the body of the fourth lumbar
vertebra, a point corresponding to  the  left side  of the
umbilicus (white spot, last plate of Body), and on a  level
with a line drawn from the highest point of one iliac  crest
to the other.  The common iliac arteries are  about two
inches in  length,  diverge from the  termination  of the
aorta, pass downward and outward to the margin of the
pelvis, and divide, opposite the  intervertebral substance
between the  last lumbar vertebra  and the  sacrum,  into
two branches, the external and the internal  iliac arteries,
the former supplying the lower extremity, the latter the
viscera, and parietes  of the pelvis.   The right common
iliac is somewhat  larger than  the  left, and  passes more
obliquely across the body of the last lumbar vertebra; in
front of it are the   peritoneum,  the  ilium,   branches
of  the  sympathetic  nerve,   and  at   its   point  of
division, the ureter;  while  behind it is separated  from 
36
embalmers'  guide.
the last lumbar vertebra  by the two common iliac veins,
and on its outer side it is in relation with the interior vena
cava, the  right common iliac vein  above, and the  psoas
magnus muscle below.  The left common iliac is in relation
in front with  the peritoneum, branches  of the  sympa-
thetic nerve, and the superior  haemorrhoidal artery, and
is crossed at its point of bifurcation by the  ureter (24,
last plate Body).   The common iliac arteries give off small
branches to the  peritoneum, psoas magnus, ureters, and
the surrounding cellular tissue, and occasionally give ori-
gin to the renal arteries.   The internal iliac artery sup-
plies the walls  and viscera of the  pelvis (22, back  plate
Body), the generative organs, and  the inner part of  the
thigh.   It  is a  short, thick vessel, about an  inch  and a
half in  length, rising at the point of bifurcation of  the
common iliac, passing downward to the  upper margin of
the  great  sacro-sciatic foramen, and dividing into two
•arge trunks.   The  internal iliac has  twelve branches, a
few of which it  is necessary to mention.   These are the
uterine  artery, or the  artery of the womb, the vaginal
artery, and a few arteries  common to both sexes.   The
uterine artery passes  downward from the anterior trunk of
the internal iliac to the neck of the uterus, ascending in a
tortuous course  on the side of the viscera; between the
layers of the broad ligament it distributes branches to its
substance, anastomosing near its termination with a branch
from the ovarian artery, and branches from this vessel are
also distributed to the  bladder  and ureter.   The vaginal
artery is analogous to the inferior vesical  in  the  male,
descends upon the vagina, supplying its mucous membrane,
and sends branches to the neck of the bladder and contig-
uous parts of the rectum.
   The obturator artery (last plate Body)  usually  arises 
 
 
embalmers'  guide
37
from the anterior trunk of the internal iliac, passes forward
below  the brim of the pelvis  to  the  canal  in the upper
border of the obturator foramen,  and, escaping from the
pelvic cavity through this aperture, divides into an internal
and  an external branch.  In the pelvic cavity this vessel
lies upon the pelvic fascia, beneath the peritoneum, and a
little below the obturator nerve, and, while passing through
the obturator foramen, is contained in a canal formed by
the horizontal branch of the pubes above, and the border
of the obturator membrane below.  Within the pelvis, the
obturator artery gives off a  branch of the iliac to the
iliac fossa, which anastomoses with the ilio-lumbar artery,
a vesical  branch, which supplies  the bladder, and pubic
branch, which is  given off before  it  leaves the  pelvic
cavity.  External  to  the pelvis, the  obturator  artery
divides into an external and an internal branch, which are
both deeply seated beneath the obturator externus muscle,
and which anastomose  at the lower part of this aperture
with each other, and with  branches of the internal circum-
flex artery.   The internal branch  curves downward along
the inner margin  of the obturator foramen, distributes
branches to  three or four muscles, and anastomoses with
the external branch and  internal circumflex artery; the
external branch curves around the outer  margin of the
foramen obturator  to the  space  between  the  gemellus
inferior and quadratus femoris, where it anastomoses with
the sciatic artery, as it passes backward with the internal
circumflex;  it also sends a branch to the hip joint.
  The  internal pudic is the smallest of the two terminal
branches of the  anterior trunk  of the  internal  iliac, and
supplies the external  organs of  generation;  it  divides
finally  into two terminal branches, the  dorsal artery of the
penis and the artery  of  the corpus  cavernosum.   It  is
     4 
38
embalmers'  guide.
accompanied by the pudic veins and  nerve.   The  dorsal
artery of the penis  ascends between  the  crus  and pubic
symphysis, runs forward on the  dorsum  of the  penis to
the glans, where it divides into two branches which sup-
ply the glans and prepuce.  On the dorsum of the penis
it lies immediately beneath the  integument  parallel with
the dorsal vein and  the corresponding artery of the oppo-
site side.
  The sciatic  artery, the larger of  the  two  terminal
branches of the anterior  trunk of the internal iliac, is dis-
tributed to the muscles on the back  of the  pelvis, passes
down to the  lower  parts  of the great sacro-sciatic fora-
men, behind  the internal pudic, then  descends  in  the
interval between the trochanter  major and the  tuberosity
of the ischium.
  The gluteal  artery (B,  last  plate Body) is the largest
branch of the internal iliac, and appears to be the contin-
uation of the posterior  division of that  vessel.    It is a
short, thick trunk which  passes out of the  pelvis above
the upper border of the  pyriformis muscle,  and  immedi-
ately divides into  a superficial  and  deep  branch ;  just
before it  leaves the  cavity of the pelvis it gives off a
nutrient  artery which enters the ilium.  The  superficial
branch passes beneath the gluteus maximus and divides
into many branches.  The deep branch runs between the
gluteus medius and  minimus,  and  subdivides  into  the
superior and inferior division; the former  continues  the
original course of  the vessel, and  anastomoses  with  the
cimcumflex iliac and  ascending  branches of the  external
circumflex artery ;  the latter crosses the  gluteus minimus
obliquely to the  trochanter major, and  inosculates  with
the circumflex artery.
   The external iliac artery is the chief vessel which sup- 
embalmers'  guide.
39
plies the lower limb.   It is larger than the internal  iliac,
and passes downward and outward along the inner border
of the psoas muscle from the bifurcation of  the common
iliac to  Poupart's ligament (31,  Muscle plate), where it
enters the thigh and becomes the femoral artery.  At its
origin it is crossed by the ureter, and numerous lymphatic
vessels are found lying on its front and inner side.  Besides
several  small  branches,  the  external iliac gives off two
branches of considerable size, the deep epigastric and deep
circumflex iliac.
  The deep epigastric artery arises from the external iliac
a few lines above Poupart's ligament, at first descends to
reach this ligament, then ascends along the inner margin
of the internal abdominal ring,  and finally divides into
numerous branches  which anastomose above the umbilicus
with the terminal branches of the internal mammary and
inferior intercostal arteries.  The deep circumflex artery
rises from  the outer side of the  external  iliac, nearly
opposite the epigastric  artery, ascends obliquely upward
behind Poupart's ligament, runs along the inner surface of
the crest of the ilium to about its middle, where it pierces
the transversalis, and runs backward between that muscle
and the internal oblique to anastomose with the iliac, lumbar
and gluteal arteries. Opposite the anterior superior  spine
of the ilium it gives off a large  branch,  which ascends
between the internal oblique and transversalis muscle, sup-
plying them, anastomosing with the lumbar and epigastric
arteries.
  The femoral artery (A, plate 3, Lower Extremity),  the
continuation of the external iliac, commences immediately
behind Poupart's ligament, midway between the anterior
superior spine of the ilium, and the symphysis pubis, and,
passing down  the fore  part and inner  side of the  thigh, 
40
embalmers' guide.
 terminates at the opening in the  adductor magnus at the
 junction of the middle with the lower third of the thigh,
 where it becomes  the popliteal artery.   The  upper two-
 thirds of a line drawn from a point midway between the
 anterior superior spine of the ilium and  the spine of the
 pubis to the inner side of the inner condyle of the femur,
 with the thigh abducted and rotated so that the  foot stands
 outward, will indicate the course of this artery.
   In the upper third of the  thigh, the femoral artery is
 very superficial,  and is contained in a triangular space
 called Scarpa's triangle, which corresponds to the  depres-
 sion seen immediately below the groin fold.  The  apex of
 the  triangle  is directed downward,  the  sides  formed
 externally by the sartorius muscle,  internally  by the
 adductor longus, and above by Poupart's ligament.  The
 floor of this space is formed by the  iliacus, psoas,pectineus,
 adductor longus, and a small part of the adductor brevis
 muscle.  It is divided into two nearly  equal parts by the
 femoral vessels, which extend from  the middle of its base to
 its apex.   The artery in this situation gives off its cutaneous
 and  profunda branches.  The branches  of the femoral
 artery are the superficial epigastric, superficial circumflex
 iliac, superficial external pudic, the deep external pudic,
 and the several profunda branches — namely the external
 circumflex, internal circumflex, and three perforating.
  The superior epigastric rises  from the femoral about
 one-half  an inch below Poupart's  ligament,  and, passing
 through the saphenous opening in  the fascia lata, ascends
 to the abdomen and  anastomoses with  branches of the
 deep epigastric and internal mammary arteries; the super-
ficial circumflex iliac (D, back plate Body), the smallest
of the cutaneous branches, rises close to the preceding
branch, runs outward parallel with  Poupart's ligament  as 
embalmers' guide.
41
 far as  the  crest  of the  ilium, and  there  divides  into
 branches, supplying the fascia  and the inguinal  glands,
 and anastomosing with the circumflex iliac (B, back plate
 Body) and with the gluteal and external circumflex artery;
 the superficial external pudic rises from the inner side of
 the femoral artery close to the preceding vessels, and, after
 passing through the saphenous opening, courses inward
 across the spermatic cord, to be distributed to the integu-
 ment on the lower part of the  abdomen,  the penis and
 scrotum in the male, and  the  labium in the  female,
 anastomosing  with  the branches of the  internal pudic;
 the deep external  pudic passes  inward on the  pectineus
 muscle, and, covered by the fascia lata, its branches  are
 distributed in  the male to the integument of  the scrotum
 and perineum,  and  in  the female to the labium,  anas-
 tomosing with branches of the superficial perineal artery.
 The profunda  femoris (B, plate 3, Lower Extremity) nearly
 equal  in  size  to the superficial femoral, rises  from the
 outer and back part  of the femoral artery, a little below
 Poupart's ligament.    Lying on  the outer  side  of the
 superficial  femoral, and then passing behind it and the
 femoral vein to the inner side of the thigh bone,  it termi-
 nates in a small branch  in  the lower third of the thigh.
 The external circumflex artery (L, back plate Body) sup-
 plies the muscles  on the  front  of the thigh, and,  rising
 from the outer side of the  profunda,  passes outward in a
 horizontal direction, and divides into three sets ofbranches —
 ascending, transverse, and  descending.  The  internal cir-
 cumflex artery (F, back plate Body) rises from the inner
 and back part of the profunda, and winds around the inner
 side of the femur.   On reaching the upper border of the
 adductor brevis, it gives off two branches, one  of which
passes inward,  anastomosing  with  the obturator  artery; 
42
embalmers' guide.
the other descends and passes beneath the adductor brevis
to supply it and the  great  adductor, while the continua-
tion of the vessel passes backward between the quadratus
femoris and upper border of the adductor magnus, anasto-
mosing with the sciatic external circumflex, and superior
perforating  arteries.   The perforating  arteries, usually
three in number, are so called from their  perforating ten-
dons of the adductor brevis and magnus muscle.
  The  popliteal artery (F, plate 6, Upper Extremity) com-
mences at the termination of the femoral,  at the opening
in the adductor magnus, and, passing downward  and out-
ward behind the knee joint  to the lower border of the
popliteal muscle, divides into  the  anterior and posterior
tibial arteries (G, lower part plate  5,  Lower Extremity),
and through the whole of its extent lies  in the  popliteal
space.
  The  popliteal space (H, plate 5, Lower Extremity) occu-
pies the lower third of the thigh and the upper fifth of the
leg, extending  from the aperture in the adductor magnus
to  the lower part of the  popliteal muscle ; it  is shaped
like  a  lozenge, being widest at  the  back part of  the
knee  joint,  and  deepest  above  the articular  end  of
the  femur.   Its  floor  is  formed by  the  lower  part
of the  posterior surface of the shaft  of the femur,  the
posterior ligament of the  knee joint, the upper end of
the tibia, and the fascia covering the popliteal muscle ; the
space is  covered in  by the fascia lata.   It contains  the
popliteal vessels and their branches, the termination of the
external saphenous vein, the internal and  external popli-
teal nerves  and their branches, the small  sciatic  nerve,  a
few small lymphatic glands and a quantity of tissue.
  There  are many branches  given off  by the popliteal
artery, of which we will mention but three; the  cutaneous 
embalmers'  guide.
43
brandies (f, plate 6, Lower Extremity), the superior articu-
lar arteries and the inferior articular arteries.   The cuta-
neous branches descend on each side, and in the middle of
the limb rise  separately from the popliteal artery and sup-
ply the integument of the calf of the leg.  The  superior
articular arteries (plate 4, Lower Extremity) are  two in
number, and rise one on each side of the popliteal, and
wind around the femur, immediately above its condyles, to
the front of the knee joint; the superficial branch supplies
the vastus  externus,  and anastomoses with a descending
branch  of the external circumflex  artery.  The inferior
articular arteries (plate 4,  Lower Extremity) are also  two
in number, and rise from the popliteal beneath the gastroc-
nemius, and wind  around the head of the tibia (i, lower
part plate 5, Lower Extremity) below the joint, the inter-
nal branch passes below the inner tuberosity, beneath the
internal lateral ligament, at the anterior border of which
it ascends to  the front and inner side of the joint to sup-
ply the head of the tibia and the articulation of the knee;
the external branch passes outward above the head of the
fibula to the  front  of the knee  joint,  and divides  into
branches which anastomose with the inferior internal artic-
ular artery, the superior articular arteries, and the recur-
rent branch of the anterior tibial.
  The anterior tibial artery (Q, plate 5, Lower Extremity)
commences at the bifurcation of the popliteal at the lower
border of the popliteus muscle, passes forward between the
two heads of the tibialis posticus,  and through the aperture
left between the bones at the upper part of the interosseous
membrane to the deep part of the front of the leg ; it then
descends on  the anterior  surface of the tibia  to the bend
of the ankle  joint, where  it lies  more  superficially  and
becomes the dorsalis pedis.  A line drawn from the inner 
44
embalmers'  guide.
 side of the head of the fibula to midway between  the two
 malleoli will mark the course of the artery, the point where
 it comes in front of the interosseous membrane  being in
 this line one and a quarter inches below the level of the
 head of the fibula.  Or, if the foot is turned so as to loosen
 the muscles, the artery is then exposed deeply seated.
   The branches of the anterior tibial artery are the recur-
 rent tibial (B, lower part plate 5, Lower Extremity), mus-
 cular, internal malleolar, and external malleolar.   The
 recurrent branch rises from the anterior  tibial as soon  as
 that vessel has passed through the interosseous space, and
 anastomoses with  the articular branches of the popliteal
 artery; the muscular branches are many, and are  distrib-
 uted to the muscles which lie on either side of the vessel,
 many of them anastomosing with the branches  of  the
 posterior tibial and peroneal arteries (H, lower part plate
 5, Lower Extremity) ; the malleolar  branches supply the
 ankle joint, the internal rising about two inches above the
 articulation,  and  passing  beneath  the tendons  of  the
 extensor proprius pollicis and tibialis anticus, to the inner
 ankle, upon which it ramifies, anastomosing with branches
 of the posterior tibial and internal  plantar arteries (L,
lower part plate 5, Lower Extremity); the external passes
beneath the tendons of the extensor longus digitorumand
peroneus tertius, and  supplies the outer ankle, anastomos-
ing with the anterior peroneal arteries.
  The dorsalis pedis artery (A, lower part  plate 5, Lower
Extremity), the continuation of the anterior tibial, passes
forward from the bend of  the ankle, along the foot to the
back of the first interosseous space, where it divides in two
branches.  This vessel in its course forward rests upon the
astragalus, scaphoid and internal cuneiform bones, and is
covered by the fascia; on its fibular side is the termination 
OPERATOR RAISING THE CAROTID ARTERY.
                  (See page 90.) 
 
EMBALMERS' guide.
45
 of the anterior tibial nerve, and it is accompanied by two
 veins.  The branches of the dorsalis pedis artery are the
 tarsal (D, lower part plate 5, Lower Extremity), the meta-
 tarsal (E, lower part plate 5, Lower Extremity), the inter-
 osseous,  the dorsalis hallucis,  and  the communicating.
 The tarsal artery rises from the dorsalis pedis, as that vessel
 crosses  the scaphoid bone, passes in an arched direction
 outward, and, lying upon the tarsal bone, it anastomoses
 with branches from the metatarsal, external malleolar and
 external plantar arteries; the metatarsal rises a little in front
 of the preceding, passes outward to the outer part of the
 foot over the bases of the metatarsal bones, and anastomo-
 ses with the tarsal and external plantar arteries (M, lower
 partplate 5, Lower Extremity). The outermost interosseous
 artery gives off a branch which supplies the outer side of
 the little toe.  The  dorsalis hallucis (F, lower  plate 5,
 Lower Extremity) runs forward along the outer border of
the first metatarsal bone, at  the cleft between the first and
second  toes  divides into  two branches,  one of which
passes inward and is distributed to the inner border of
 the great toe, the other branch  bifurcates to supply the
 adjoining sides of the great and second toes; the commu-
 nicating artery dips down  into the sole of the foot  and
inosculates with  the termination of  the external plantar
 artery to complete the plantar arch; it here gives off  two
digital branches, one running along the  inner side of the
great toe on its plantar surface, the other passing forward
along the first metatarsal space, where it bifurcates to sup-
ply the adjacent sides of the great and second toes.
  The posterior tibial artery (G, lower part plate 5, Lower
Extremity) is of large size,  and extends obliquely down-
ward from  the  lower  border of the popliteus  muscle,
 along the tibial side of the leg,  to  the inner  ankle  and 
46
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
 heel, where it divides beneath  the origin of the abductor
 pollicis into the internal and external plantar arteries.  At
 its origin  it lies opposite the interval  between the tibia
 (i, plate 5) and fibula (4, plate 5), and,  as it descends, ap-
 proaches the  inner side of the leg, lying behind the tibia.
 In the lower part of its  course, it is situated midway
 between the inner malleolus (3, plate 5) and the os calcis.
 It is more  superficial at  its lower third, being covered by
 the integument and fascia only, and runs parallel with the
 tendo Achillis.   It is accompanied by two veins  and  by
 the tibial  nerve, which in the greater part of its course is
 situated on its outer side.

                         VEINS.
                   (Plate, Blood Formation.)
   The veins  are the vessels  which serve to convey the
 blood from the  capillaries of the different parts of the
 body to the heart,  and, like the arteries, they are found in
 nearly all  the tissues of the body.  They commence by
 minute plexuses which receive the blood from the capil-
 laries, communicate freely  with  each  other, and in form
 are not cylindrical, as are the arteries, their walls being
 thinner, and collapsed when they are empty.   They are
 larger and  more numerous than the arteries, and, with the
 exception  of  the pulmonary veins (17), which  do not
 in capacity exceed the pulmonary arteries (5), the entire
 capacity of the venous  system  is decidedly greater than
 the arterial.
  Like the arteries, the veins consist of two separate and
 distinct systems, the pulmonary  and  systemic.   The pul-
 monary veins, unlike other  vessels of this kind, contain
 arterial blood, which they return from  the lungs to the
left auricle  (26) of the heart.   The systemic veins are con- 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
47
cerned in the general  circulation, and return the venous
blood from the body to the right auricle (25) of the heart.
The portal vein (23), an appendage to the systemic venous
system,  is confined to the  abdominal  cavity, returning
venous  blood from the viscera of digestion, and carrying
it to the liver (32)  by a single  trunk of extra  size, the
vena porta (23).   This vessel ramifies in the substance of
the liver, and breaks  up into a minute network  of capil-
laries, which then reunite to form the hepatic veins (19),
by  which  the blood  is  conveyed  to the  inferior vena
cava (18).
     The systemic  veins are subdivided  into  three sets,
i.e., the superficial or subcutaneous veins, the deep veins
and the sinuses.   The superficial veins are found imme-
diately beneath the integument, between the layers of the
superficial fascia, and communicate with the deep veins by
perforating the deep fascia.  The deep veins have thinner
coats, always accompany the arteries, and are usually in
the same sheath.  The  larger  arteries  have usually  but
one accompanying vein;  but in  the smaller arteries they
exist in pairs, lying on each side of the  artery, and are
called the  venae  comites.   Sinuses  are  venous  channels
which differ entirely from  the veins.  In the lower limbs
the veins are much thicker than in the upper.

                THE PULMONARY VEINS.
                 (See Plate, Blood Formation.)
     There are four pulmonary veins (17), each lung nav-
ing two, and their office  is to convey the arterial blood
from the lungs to the  left auricle (26) of the  heart.   They
differ from other veins in  many respects; first, they carry
arterial  instead of  venous blood ; second,  they  have no
valves;  third, they are  only slightly larger than the arteries, 
48
EMBALMERS' guide.
which  they accompany ;  fourth they accompany those
arteries singly.   They commence in the capillary network
upon the walls of the air-cells, where they are continuous
with the ramifications  of the pulmonary artery (5), and,
uniting together, they form a single trunk for each lobule.
Within the lung, the pulmonary artery  (5) branches  are
in front, the veins  behind, and the bronchi  between the
two ; at the root of the lung,  the  veins are  in front, the
artery in the middle, and the bronchi behind.

                 THE SYSTEMIC VEINS.
  The  systemic veins may be arranged into three groups:
First, those of the head,  neck, upper  extremities, and
thorax; second, those of the lower extremities, pelvis, and
abdomen, which terminate in the inferior vena cava (18);
third, the cardiac veins, which  open directly into the right
auricle (25) of the heart.
  The  veins of the head and neck  (see Head plate) may
be subdivided into three groups: first, those of the exte-
rior of the head; second, those of the neck; third, those
of the diploe and interior of the cranium.
  The  veins  of the exterior of the head are the facial,
(17, Head plate), the temporal (18),  the internal maxillary
(35), the temporo-maxillary, the posterior-auricular, and
the occipital.  The  facial vein  (17) crosses  obliquely  the
side of the face, is  on the outer side of the facial artery
(20), and is not  so tortuous as that vessel.   The  frontal
vein commences on the anterior portion of the skull by a
venous plexus, and communicates with the anterior tribu-
taries of the temporal vein (18); occasionally the  frontal
veins join to  form a single trunk, which bifurcates or
branches  at the root of the nose  into  the two  angular
veins.   The temporal vein commences by a minute plexus 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE
49
on the side of the skull, and communicates with the frontal
vein in front.   The internal maxillary vein is quite large,
and receives branches which correspond with branches of
the internal maxillary artery;  it receives  several  small
veins, together forming a plexus of large size, which com-
municates very  freely with the facial vein  (17).   The
temporo-maxillary vein is  formed by  the  union of the
temporal  (18)  and  internal maxillary  vein  (35).   It
descends  in the  substance  of the parotid gland, on  the
outer surface  of the external carotid  artery  (1,  Blood
Formation), between the jawand the sterno-mastoid muscle,
and  divides into two branches; one passes inward and
joins  the facial vein (17), the other is joined by the pos-
terior auricular vein and becomes the external jugular (16,
Blood Formation).   The posterior auricular  vein  com-
mences  on  the side of the head by a plexus, which  com-
municates with the tributaries of the temporal and  occi-
pital  veins; it descends behind the ear, and joins  the
temporo-maxillary vein, thus forming the external jugular
vein.   The occipital  veins  are  three in number.  They
commence at  the back part of the  skull  by a plexus,
follow the course of the occipital artery, and usually ter-
minate  in the  internal jugular  vein, though  sometimes
their termination is found in the external jugular vein.
  The veins of the neck, which  return the blood from the
head  and face, are the external jugular (16, Head plate),
the anterior jugular, the posterior external jugular,  the
internal jugular  and the vertebral vein.   The  external
jugular vein receives the greaterpart of the blood from the
exterior of the  cranium and deep parts of the face.   It
commences in the substance of the  parotid gland, on a
level with the angle of the lower jaw,  and runs perpendic-
ularly down the neck in the  direction  of a line drawn from 
50
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
 the angle of the jaw to the middle of the clavicle (13, Skele-
 ton plate).  It then crosses the sterno-mastoid muscle, and
 runs parallel with its posterior border as far as its attach-
 ment to the clavicle, where it perforates  the deep fascia
 and terminates in the  subclavian vein  (15, Blood Forma-
 tion).   The external jugular vein  varies  in size,  and is
 sometimes found double.   It has two pairs  of valves, the
 lower situated at its entrance into the subclavian vein, the
 upper about one  or two inches above the clavicle.  These
 valves do not prevent the regurgitation of the blood or the
 passage of an injection from below upward.   The poste-
 rior external jugular vein returns the blood from the integu-
 ment and superficial muscles in the upper and back  part
 of the neck; it runs down  the  back  part of the neck, and
 opens into the external jugular vein just below the middle
 of its course.   The anterior  jugular  vein,  or  veins, for
 most frequently there are  two, commence near the  hyoid
 bone (19, Body plate), and pass down between the median
 line and the  anterior border  of  the sterno-mastoid  (18,
 Body plate).  These  veins  vary extremely  in  size, and
 communicate with the jugular veins. They have no valves,
 and consequently can be  injected.  The internal jugular
vein collects the blood  from  the  interior of  the cranium,
 from the  superficial parts of the face, and also from the
 neck.   It commences just externally to the  jugular fora-
men, in the  base of the skull, runs down the side of the
 neck in  a vertical direction, lying at  first on the outer side
of the internal carotid,  and then on the outer side of the
common carotid arteries (19, Head plate).   At the root of
the neck it unites with the  subclavian  vein  to form the
vena innominata (14, Blood Formation); this vein is some-
times quite large, and is provided with  one pair of valves,
 which  usually are  at its termination, though sometimes 
EMBALMERS' guide.
51
they are placed a little above.   The  vertebral vein com-
mences in the occipital region  by numerous small tribu-
taries from the deep muscles at the upper and back part of
the neck, passes  outward  and  enters the foramen in the
transverse process of the atlas;  descends by the side of the
vertebral artery in the  canal formed by the transverse pro-
cesses of the  cervical vertebrae, emerges from the foramen
in the transverse processes of the six cervical vertebrae, and
terminates at the root  of the neck in  the back part of the
innominate vein (14, Blood Formation).  Near its origin its
mouth is guarded by one pair of valves.  On the rightside
it crosses the first part of the subclavian artery (3, Blood
Formation).

 THE SUPERFICIAL  VEINS  OF  THE UPPER  EXTREMITY.
             (See plate, Upper and Lower Extremities.)
  The superficial veins are placed immediately beneath
the integument between  the  two layers of  superficial
fascia, and commence in the hand, chiefly  on  its dorsal
aspect, where they  form a more  or  less complete  arch.
They are,  namely,  the anterior ulnar, posterior ulnar,
radial,  median, median basilic, median cephalic  basilic,
and cephalic.
  The anterior ulnar vein commences on the anterior sur-
face of the ulnar side of the hand and wrist, and continues
its course along  the inner or ulnar side of the forearm to
the bend of the  elbow, where it joins with  the posterior
ulnar vein to form the basilic; occasionally, it opens in the
median basilic vein.   The posterior ulnar vein commences
on the posterior surface of the  ulnar side of the hand, and
from the vein of the little finger (the vena salvatella), it runs
on the posterior surface on  the ulnar side of the forearm,
and, just  below the  elbow, unites with the anterior ulnar 
52
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
vein to form the basilic vein. Sometimes it joins the median
basilic (5) to form the basilic vein, (II.) and it also communi-
cates by a branch with the deep veins of the palm.   The
common ulnar vein is a short trunk which is not constant;
when it does  exist, it is formed  by the junction of the
two  preceding  veins.  The radial  vein (III.) commences
from the dorsal  surface  of the thumb, index finger, and
radial side of the hand,  communicates with the vena sal-
vatella and with the deep veins  of the palm by a branch
which passes through the  first interosseous  space; at the
bend of the elbow  it unites with the  median  cephalic
to form  the cephalic vein,  (III.)  The median vein  (IV.)
collects  the  blood from  the  superficial  structures on
the palmar surface   of  the  hand and  median  line  of
the  forearm,  and,  communicating  with  the  anterior
radial and  ulnar  veins  at the bend of  the elbow,  it
receives  a  branch of communication from the deep  veins
accompanying  the brachial artery (A),  and divides into
two  branches,  which diverge from each  other  as  they
ascend.   The median basilic  vein (V.) passes inward  in
the groove  of  the biceps  muscle,  and joins the common
ulnar to form  the basilic vein;  it passes in front of the
brachial artery, and is separated  from it by the bicipital
fascia. The basilica vein (II.) is very large, and, formed by
the common ulnar vein with the median basilic, it passes
upward  along  the line of the biceps muscle on the  inner
side,  and ascends in the  course of  the brachial artery
(A).  The cephalic vein (III.) courses along the outer bor-
der of the biceps muscle to the upper third of the arm; it then
passes in the interval between the pectoralis major and del-
toid muscles, and terminates  in the axillary vein just below
the clavicle; this  vein is sometimes connected with the 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
53
 external jugular or subclavian by a branch which passes
 from it upward in front of the clavicle.

      THE DEEP VEINS  OF THE UPPER EXTREMITY.
                        (Same plate.)
   The  deep  veins of  the upper extremities follow the
 course of the arteries, forming their venae comites.  These
 are two in number, one  lying on  each side of the corre-
 sponding artery, and are connected by  short transverse
 branches a little distance apart.   There  are  two digital
 veins accompanying each  artery along the sides of the
 fingers, and there, uniting at their base, they pass along the
 spaces into the palm of the hand,  and terminate in the two
 venae comites,  which accompany the superficial  palmar
 arch.   The deep ulnar veins, as they pass in front of the
 wrist, communicate with the interosseus and superficial
 veins, and at the elbow unite  with the deep radial veins,
 to  form  the venae comites of the brachial artery  (A).
 The interosseous veins accompany the anterior and  pos-
 terior interosseous arteries; the  anterior interosseous veins
 commence in the front of the wrist, where they communi-
 cate with the deep radial and ulnar veins, and terminate
 in the  venae  comites of the ulnar  artery  (G,  Sec. 4).
 The deep palmar veins accompany the deep palmar arch,
 communicate with the superficial palmar veins at the inner
 side of the hand, and on the outer side terminate in the
 venae comites of the radial artery (B,  section 2).   At the
 wrist they receive  branches  which  unite with the deep
 radial  vein, as  they are  in company  with  the radial
 artery, and terminate in the venae  comites of the  brachial
 artery (A, section 2).  The brachial  veins (V, section 2)
are situated one on either side of the brachial artery.   At
the lower margin of the axilla they unite with  the  basilic 
54
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
to form the axillary vein.   All the deep veins have many
anastomoses, not only with each other, but with many of
the superficial veins.

         VEINS OF THE SHOULDER AND CHEST.
  The axillary vein is  of  large size, and is formed by the
junction of the venae comites  of  the brachial artery  with
the basilic vein.    It begins at the lower part of the axil-
lary space, increases  in  size as  it ascends  by receiving
tributaries corresponding with the branches of the axillary
artery, and terminates immediately beneath the clavicle,
at the outer margin of the first rib, where it becomes the
subclavian vein.  Near  its termination it  receives  the
cephalic vein. The subclavian vein (5, Blood Formation)
is the continuation of the axillary.   It extends from the
outer margin of the first rib to  the inner end of the sterno-
clavicular articulation, where  it unites with the internal
jugular to form the innominate veins (14, Blood Formation).
It occasionally rises in the neck to a level with the third
part of the subclavian artery (3, Blood Formation).   The
innominate veins are two large trunks (14, Right and Left),
laid one on each side of the root of the neck, and formed
by the union of  the internal jugular and subclavian veins
of the corresponding side.  There is  but one innominate
artery (3, Blood Formation).   The  right innominate vein
is short,  about one and  one-half inches in length, com-
mences at the inner end of the clavicle, and, passing down-
ward, joins the  left vena innominata just below the  first
rib, near the right border of the sternum,  forming the
superior  vena cava (13, Blood Formation).  It is super-
ficial and external to  the arteria  innominata.   The  left
innominate vein  is about three inches in length, and larger
than the right.   It passes from  left to right across the 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
55
 chest, inclines downward  to unite with its fellow of the
 opposite side, thus forming the superior vena cava.   The
 internal mammary veins are two in number to each artery,
 and follow  the  course  of  the  artery of the same name.
 The superior intercostal veins  return the blood from the
 upper intercostal spaces.   The right vein is much smaller
 than  the  left, and  corresponds with the superior inter-
 costal artery.   The left superior  intercostal vein varies
 in  size,  being  smaller when the left upper azygos  vein
 is  large,  and  vice  versa.    The  superior  vena   cava
 (13, Blood   Formation)  receives the  blood  which  is
 conveyed  to the heart from  the whole  of  the upper
 half  of  the  body,  and  also  the  contents  of   the
 right lymphatic  (37,  Blood Formation) and thoracic ducts
 (29, Blood  Formation).   It is a short, valveless trunk,
 varying from two inches  and  a half to  three  inches in
 length, and is  formed by  the  junction of the two venae
 innominatae.  It enters  the  pericardium about one  inch
 and a half above the heart,  and terminates in  the upper
 part of the right auricle.  Just before it enters the peri-
 cardium it receives the vena azygos major (13, Blood For-
 mation).  The  azygos  veins connect the  superior  and
 inferior venae cavae,  supplying the place of those vessels in
 the part of the  chest  which is  occupied by the heart.
 The right, or larger azygos vein — azygos major — (1,  rear
 section of Body plate) begins opposite the first or second
 lumbar vertebra by a branch from the right lumbar veins,
 and sometimes by a branch from the  inferior vena cava.
 It enters the thorax through  the  aortic opening in  the
 diaphragm,  passes  along the right side of  the  vertebral
column, and terminates  in the superior  vena cava,  just
before that vessel enters the pericardium.  In the  thorax,
it lies upon the intercostal arteries on the right side of the 
56               embalmers' guide.

aorta.   The left or smaller  azygos vein  (azygos minor)
begins in the lumbar region by a branch from one of the
lumbar veins, passes into the thorax through the left crus
of the diaphragm, ascends on the left side of the spine as
high as the sixth or seventh dorsal vertebra, and terminates
in the right azygos vein.   The bronchial veins return the
blood from the substance of the lungs, the right vein open-
ing into  the vena  azygos major,  the  left into  the  left
superior intercostal vein.

                  THE SPINAL VEINS.
  The spinal veins  are arranged in four  sets:  the dor si-
spinal veins, or those situated on the exterior of the spinal
column; the  meningo-rachidian veins,  or  those  situated
in the interior of the spinal  canal;  the  vena bases verte-
brarum, or the veins of the bodies  of the vertebrae ; the
medulli-spinal, or the veins of the spinal cord.
  The dorsi-spinal veins commence by small  branches
which receive their blood from the back of the  spine  and
from the muscles in  the vertebral  grooves.   They form a
network which surrounds the spinous process, the laminae,
and the transverse and articular processes of all the verte-
brae.  They terminate by joining the vertebral veins in the
neck, the intercostal veins in the thorax, and the lumbar
and sacral veins in the loins and pelvis.
  The meningo-rachidian  veins, the principal veins con-
tained in the spinal canal, are situated between the theca
vertebralis and the vertebrae, and  are two in number, the
anterior longitudinal spinal vein, and the posterior longi-
tudinal spinal vein.   The anterior longitudinal spinal vein
consists of two large tortuous venous canals which extend
along the whole length of the vertebral column from  the
foramen magnum to the base of the coccyx (26,  Skeleton 
                  embalmers' guide.               57

 plate); the posterior longitudinal spinal veins  are smaller
 than the anterior, and are situated  one on  either side
 between the inner surfaces of the laminae and the theca
 vertebralis.  Like the  anterior veins, they  communicate
 opposite each vertebra by transverse trunks.
   The veins of the bodies of the vertebrae emerge from the
 foramina on their posterior surface, and join the transverse
 trunk connecting the anterior longitudinal  spinal veins.
 In advanced age they become  greatly developed.
   The veins of the spinal cord are valveless, and consist
 of a tortuous venous plexus which covers the entire sur-
 face of the cord, and is situated between the pia mater and
 arachnoid.  Near the base of the skull these veins unite
 and form  several small trunks, which communicate with
 the  vertebral veins, and there terminate  in the interior
 cerebellar veins.   There are no valves in the spinal veins,
 and, as a consequence,  they get thoroughly injected with
 the fluid.

   THE SUPERFICIAL VEINS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY.
             (See plate, Upper and Lower Extremity.)
   The veins of the lower  extremity are more fully sup-
 plied with valves than those of the upper, and are divided
 into two sets, superficial and deep.  The superficial veins
 are placed  beneath the  integument between the two lay-
 ers of superficial  fascia ; and are  subdivided into the  in-
 ternal or long saphenous, and the external or short saphe-
 nous veins.   The internal or long saphenous vein (i, Sec. I)
 is very easily seen.   It commences at the inner side of
the arch on the dorsum  of the foot, ascends in front of the
inner malleolus  and along the inner side of the leg ; at
the knee it passes backward behind the inner condyle of
the femur, or thigh bone (i, Sec.  4), then ascends  along 
58
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
the inside of the thigh, and terminates in the femoral vein
(I, plate 2 and 3, Leg) about one inch and a half below
Poupart's ligament.  This vein (1, Sec. i,Leg) communi-
cates in the foot with the internal plantar vein, in the leg
with the posterior tibial veins, at the knee with the articu-
lar veins, and in the thigh with the femoral vein.   It pos-
sesses from two to six valves, more numerous in the thigh
than in the leg.  The  external or short  saphenous  vein
commences at the outer side of the arch on the dorsum of
the foot, ascends behind the  outer  malleolus, and along
the outer border of the tendo Achilles, passes directly
upward, and terminates  in the popliteal vein.   Before it
perforates  the deep  fascia, it gives  off a communicating
branch, which passes upward to join the internal saphenous
vein.   It  also has a number of valves, one of which is
always found at  its termination in the popliteal vein.

    THE  DEEP  VEINS OF THE LOWER EXTREMITY.
             (See plate, Upper and Lower Extremity.)
  The deep veins of the lower extremity accompany the
arteries and their branches,  and are called  the  venae
comites of these vessels.  They  are more fully  supplied
with valves than the superficial veins, and are largely sub-
divided.  The external and  internal  plantar veins (F,
plate  5, Leg and Foot) unite to form the posterior tibial
veins, which accompany the posterior tibial artery, and
are joined by the peroneal  veins.   The anterior  tibial
veins  are formed by a continuation  upward of the venae
comites  of the dorsalis pedis artery (A,  plate Leg).
They  pass between the bones of the leg, tibia and fibula,
and form, by their junction with the  posterior tibial (plate
5, Lower Extremity), the popliteal vein (plate  5, Lower
Extremity). 
EMBALMERS' guide.
59
  The popliteal vein is formed  by the junction of the
venae comites of the  anterior and posterior tibial vessels,
ascends through the popliteal space, and becomes the
femoral vein (plate 5, Lower Extremity).   In  this vein
there are usually four valves, and in the lower part of its
course it is placed internal to the  artery.
  The femoral  vein  possesses four or five valves,  and
accompanies the femoral artery through the upper two-
thirds of the thigh, in its lower course lying on the outside,
and  higher  up back of  the artery.  Near its termination
it is joined by the profunda femoris vein, and again, about
one and one-half inches below Poupart's ligament, by the
internal saphenous vein.

                  ABDOMINAL VEINS.
  The external iliac vein (F, back plate Body) commences
at the termination of  the femoral vein, beneath the crural
arch, passes  upward and terminates opposite the sacro-iliac
symphysis by uniting with the internal iliac (F, back plate
Body) to form the common iliac vein (G, back plate Body).
The  internal iliac  vein (F, back plate Body) is formed by
the venae comites of the branches of the internal iliac
artery (F, back plate Body),  and  lies at first on the inner
side  and then behind the internal iliac artery.   It termi-
nates opposite the sacro-iliac articulation by uniting with
the external iliac to form the common iliac vein.  This
vessel has no valves.  The dorsal vein of the penis (plate,
Male Genital Organs)  is a  vessel of  large size, which
returns the blood from the body of that organ.  The com-
mon iliac veins (G, back plate Body) are  formed by the
union of the external and internal iliac veins in front of
the sacro-vertebral articulation.   Passing  upward toward
the right side, they terminate upon the intervertebral sub- 
6o
embalmers' guide.
stance between the fourth and  fifth lumbar vertebrae (12,
Skeleton plate), where the veins of the two sides unite at
an acute angle to form the inferior vena cava (E, back plate
Body).   The right common iliac vein is shorter than the
left, and ascends behind and  then to the outer side of its
corresponding artery.  The  left common iliac vein (G, back
plate Body) is more oblique in its course, and is situated
at first on the inner side of its  corresponding artery, and
then behind the right common iliac artery.  No valves are
found in  these veins.
  The inferior vena cava (E, back plate Body) returns to
the heart the blood from all the  parts  below the  dia-
phragm.   It is formed by the junction of the two common
iliac veins (G, back plate Body), passes upward along the
front of the spine on  the right  side of the aorta (A, back
plate Body), then  through a groove under the liver, and,
perforating the tendinous center of the diaphragm, enters
the pericardium, and  terminates in the lower part of  the
right  auricle  of the heart.  At its  termination  in  the
auricle, it is provided with a valve called the Eustachian
valve.
  The renal veins (W, back plate Body) are  of large size,
and are placed in front of the renal artery (V, back plate
Body).   The left is longer than  the  right, and, passing in
front  of  the aorta,  just  below the origin of the superior
mesenteric artery (Y,  back  plate Body),  it opens a little
above the right into the vena cava (E, back  plate Body).
The supra-renal veins terminate on the right side  in  the
vena cava, and on  the left side in the left renal or phrenic
vein.   The phrenic veins, two superior and  two inferior,
follow the course  of  the  phrenic arteries.   The  hepatic
veins  (19, Blood Formation), three in number, commence
in the substance  of the liver, in the capillary  terminations 
OPERATOR RAISING THE FEMORAL ARTERY
                 (See page 87.) 
 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
6l
 of the portal vein (23, Blood Formation).  They run singly,
 and have no valves.

             THE PORTAL VENOUS SYSTEM.
   The  portal venous system is composed of four  large
 veins which collect the venous blood from the viscera of
 digestion.  The trunk formed by their union — the  vena
 porta (23, Blood Formation) — enters the  liver,  ramifies
 throughout its  substance  and its branches, and  emerges
 from that organ as the hepatic veins (19, Blood Formation),
 which terminate in the inferior vena cava (18, Blood Form-
 ation).
   The branches of  these veins are in all cases  single, and
 destitute  of valves.   The veins forming the portal system
 are the  inferior mesenteric (22, Blood Formation), the  supe-
 rior mesenteric (22, Blood  Formation), the splenic  (21,
 Blood Formation), and the gastric (20, Blood Formation).
 The inferior mesenteric vein returns  the blood from the
 rectum,  sigmoid  flexure  (14, Intestine plate),  and the
 descending colon  (14, Intestine plate).  The superior mesen-
 teric vein returns the blood from the small  intestines, the
 caecum, and ascending and transverse portions of the colon,
 corresponding with the distribution  of the branches of the
 superior mesenteric artery.
   The splenic vein  (21, Blood Formation) commences by
 five or six large branches  which return the blood from the
 substance  of the spleen; these  unite and  form  a single
 vessel,  which passes from left to right behind the upper
 border  of the pancreas (19, back plate Body) below the
 artery,  and terminates at its  greater end by uniting at a
 right angle with the superior mesenteric vein to form the
vena porta.   The splenic  vein is large, and not tortuous
like the  artery.   The gastric veins (20, Blood Formation) 
62               EMBALMERS' GUIDE.

are two in number: one, a small vein, corresponds to the
pyloric branch of the hepatic artery (8, Blood Formation);
the other, much larger, corresponds to the gastric artery
(7, Blood Formation).  The former, pyloric, runs along the
lesser  curvature  of the  stomach  toward  the  pyloric,
receives branches from the pylorus (4, Stomach) and duode-
num (5, Stomach), and ends in the vena porta.  The latter,
coronary, begins near the pylorus, runs along the lesser
curvature of the stomach, and then curves downward be-
tween the folds of the lesser omentum to end in  the  vena
portae (23, Blood Formation).  The portal vein is formed
by  the junction of the superior  mesenteric  and  splenic
veins,  their union taking place in  front of the vena cava
(18, Blood Formation), and behind the upper border of the
great end of the pancreas.  The portal vein is about four
inches in length, and lies behind  the hepatic duct and
artery—the former to the right, the  latter  to  the left.
Within the liver the portal vein receives the  blood  from
the branches of the hepatic artery.

                 THE CARDIAC VEINS.

  The cardiac veins  are the veins which return the blood
from the substance of the heart, and are, namely, the great
cardiac vein, the middle cardiac vein, the posterior cardiac
vein, the anterior cardiac veins, the right or small cardiac
vein, and the vena Thebesii. The great cardiac vein (Heart)
— coronary — is a vessel of considerable size which  com-
mences at the apex of the heart, and ascends along the
anterior interventricular groove to  the base of the ventri-
cles (Heart).   The middle cardiac vein commences by  small
tributaries at the apex of the heart,  ascends along the pos-
terior interventricular groove to the base of the heart, and 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
63
terminates in  the  coronary sinus.   Its orifice is guarded
by a valve.
  The posterior cardiac veins are four small vessels which
collect the blood  from  the  posterior surface of the left
ventricle (Heart),  and open  into the lower border of the
coronary  sinus.  The anterior cardiac veins  (Heart) are
three small vessels  which  collect  the  blood from the
anterior surface of the right ventricle (Heart), and open
separately in  the  lower part of the right auricle (Heart).
The right or  small coronary vein (Heart) runs along the
groove between the  right auricle (Heart) and  ventricle
(Heart) to open into the right extremity of the coronary
sinus.   It receives blood from the  back part of the right
auricle (Heart) and ventricle (Heart).  The venae Thebesii
are many minute veins which  return  the  blood directly
from the muscular substance without entering the venous
current.   They open  by minute  orifices on the inner
surface of the right auricle (Heart).   The coronary sinus
is that portion of the great  cardiac vein which is situated
in the posterior part of the left auriculo- ventricular groove.
It is about one inch in length, presents considerable dilata-
tion,  and  receives  the veins enumerated above.  The
coronary  sinus terminates in the  right auricle (Heart), its
orifice being  guarded by the coronary valve.  All these
vessels are provided with valves.  The description given
here of the veins will  serve our purpose  in the art of
embalming, and it is  unnecessary for us to go  into further
details.
           THE BRAIN AND ITS MEMBRANES.
                  (See Head section in Aid.)
  The brain is that portion of the cerebro-spinal axis con-
tained in the cranial cavity.  It is divided into four princi- 
64
embalmers' guide.
pal parts,  named the medulla oblongata  (30), the pons
Varolii, the cerebellum (28), and the cerebrum (27).   The
medulla oblongata extends from  the lower border of the
pons to the upper part of the spinal cord, with which it is
continuous.  The pons is that part of the brain which
rests upon the upper  portion of the basilar process (58)
and body  of  the sphenoid bone.   The cerebellum, the
little or after brain, is situated in the inferior pair of occipital
fossae.   It  consists both of gray and white matter, and its
outer surface has a foliated appearance, due to its subdi-
vision  by  numerous  fissures.  The cerebrum forms the
largest portion of the  brain, and  lies above both the pons
and cerebellum.   It is composed both of gray and white
matter, is ovoid in shape,  is subdivided into hemispheres,
and its surface presents a series of convolutions, separated
from each  other by fissures.   Of these, the five principal
fissures are the great  longitudinal  fissure, separating the
hemispheres,  and the fissure of  Sylvius, the  fissure of
Rolando, and the parieto-occipital fissure, which separates
the lobes of the brain.  The membranes of the brain are
the dura mater, the  arachnoid, and the pia mater.   The
dura mater is a thick, inelastic fibrous membrane, which
lines the  interior of the skull, its numerous arteries being
distributed to the bone.  The arachnoid — so named from
its resemblance to a spider's web—is a delicate, trans-
parent membrane, which  loosely envelopes the brain, its
structure  consisting  of  bundles  of white, fibrous  and
elastic tissue  intimately blended.   It  lies between the
dura and pia mater.   The pia mater is a vascular mem-
brane closely  investing the  whole outer  surface of the
brain and dipping into the fissures. 
EMBALMERS' guide.
65
                    THE  PHARYNX.
  The pharynx (50, Head plate) is that part of the alimen-
tary canal which  is situated behind the nose, mouth and
larynx (56, Head Plate).
  It is conical in form, its base upward and apex down-
ward, is about four and a half inches in length, and broader
in its transverse than in  its antero-posterior  diameter.
Below, it is continuous  with the oesophagus (57).  The
pharynx is composed of three coats, mucous, fibrous and
muscular; the fibrous coat, situated between the mucous
and muscular layers, is called the pharyngeal aponeurosis.

                   THE  OESOPHAGUS.
                 (See 57, Head plate in Aid.)
  The oesophagus, or gullet (57), is a muscular canal about
nine inches  in length, extending from the  pharynx (50)
to the stomach.
  Itpasses through the diaphragm, and, entering the abdo-
men, terminates at the cardiac orifice of the stomach (3,
plate of stomach),  opposite  the ninth dorsal vertebra.
The oesophagus has three coats, an external or muscular,
a middle or areolar, and an internal or mucous coat.

                    THE THORAX.
  The thorax is  a conical framework, made up  partly of
bones, and partly of soft tissues  connecting them.  It is
narrow above, broad below, flattened  before and behind ;
is bounded in  front by the sternum, the six upper costal
cartilages, the ribs and intercostal muscles ; at  the sides
by the ribs and the intercostal muscles, and behind by the
dorsal vertebra column.   The superior opening of the
thorax is bounded on each side by the first rib, in front
by the upper part of the  sternum (6), and behind by the 
66
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
first dorsal vertebra.   It is broader from side to side than
from before backward,  its direction  being forward and
upward.  The lower opening or base is bounded in front
by the cusiform cartilage, behind by the last dorsal verte-
bra, and on each side by the last rib, the diaphragm filling
in  the  intervening  space.  Passing  through  the upper
opening of the  thorax are the  sterno-hyoid  and sterno-
thyroid muscles, the  trachea (24,  Head), the oesophagus
(57), the thoracic  duct  (29, Blood Formation), and the
longus colli muscles of each side ; at the sides the arteria
innominata (2, Blood Formation), the left common carotid
(1, Blood Formation), left  subclavian arteries  (3, Blood
Formation), and many other smaller parts.   The  apex of
each lung, covered  by the pleura, also  projects through
this aperture  a little  above the margin of the first rib.
The viscera contained in the thorax are the heart, inclosed
in the pericardium; and the lungs, invested by the pleura.

                      THE HEART.
            (Body Section of Aid, also Blood Formation.)
   The heart is a hollow muscular organ of a conical form,
placed between the lungs, and inclosed in the cavity of the
pericardium.  The pericardium  is a conical membranous
sac, which, with the inclosed heart and  the commencement
of the great vessels, lies behind the sternum (6, Body plate),
its apex upward, its base  attached to  the central tendon.
Externally, the pericardium is a strong fibrous membrane.
The position of the heart in the chest is oblique, its base
directed upward and to the right, its apex directed down-
ward, forward, and a little to the left.   It is placed behind
the lower two-thirds of the sternum,  and projects farther
into the left cavity of the  chest  than  into the right.  Its
anterior surface is round and convex, its posterior flattened 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
67
 and resting upon the diaphragm;  the  right border is thin
 and sharp, the left border  short, but thick and  round.
 In the adult, the heart  measures five inches  in  length,
 three and one-half inches in  breadth at broadest part, and
 two and one-half inches in thickness;  its average weight
 in the male is ten ounces, in  the female about eight ounces.
 The heart is subdivided, by a  longitudinal muscular septum,
 into lateral halves, which are named, from their position,
 the right and the left.  A transverse  constriction  divides
 each half of the organ into two cavities, the upper cavities
 on each side being called the auricles, and the lower cav-
 ities the ventricles.  The right auricle (25, Blood  Forma-
 tion) receives the blood from all parts of  the body by the
 ascending (18, Blood Formation) and descending (13, Blood
 Formation) venae cavae, and forces it through the auriculo-
 ventricular orifice (8, Body Section) into the ventricles for
 its entrance into the pulmonary artery (5, Blood  Forma-
 tion), so that in its passage  through  the  lungs  the blood
 becomes oxidized or aerated before  its entrance into the
 left side of the  heart for  its  final distribution throughout
 the general system.   The right auricle (25, Blood Forma-
 tion) is a trifle larger than the left, its walls being thinner,
 and  its cavity capable of holding about two  ounces  of
 blood.  The auriculo-ventricular  orifice  is a large oval
 aperture, about one  inch  in diameter, between the  auricle
 and  ventricle.   The  heart  contains  valves which open
 when the  auricle  contracts,  and  close when the  auricle
 dilates,  thus preventing regurgitation.

                      THE LUNGS.
                   (See Body plate in Aid.)
  The lungs are two large, spongy masses situated in the
cavity of the  chest, and extending from the first rib to the 
68
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
 diaphragm.  They receive the blood from the pulmonary
 artery and oxidize or aerate it, sending it  purified to the
 left side of the heart to be distributed to its general circu-
 lation.   In  shape the lungs are conical,  and  present an
 apex, a base, two borders and  two  surfaces.   The apex
 extends into  the  root  of the neck about one inch above
 the level of the  first  rib.  The base is broad, and rests
 upon the convex surface of the diaphragm; the posterior
 border is round and broad, and is received  in the deep
 concavity on either  side the spinal column;  the  interior
 border is thin and sharp  and laps over the front of the
 pericardium.   The two lungs are in contact in the middle
 line, the  pleura  only  being interposed.  Each  lung is
 divided into two  lobes.   The pleura, which invests each
 lung on its external surface, is  an exceedingly  delicate
 sac-shaped membrane, and incloses the lung as far as its
 root.   The  interspace  or cavity  between the layers is
 called the cavity of the pleura.

                    THE STOMACH.
              (See  plate of Stomach in body of Aid.)
  The stomach is the principal organ of digestion.  It is
 placed immediately behind the anterior wall of the abdomen,
 above the transverse colon (12), below the  liver (1-2) and
 the diaphragm.  Its  size varies  in different individuals,
 but when moderately full its transverse diameter is usually
 about twelve inches, its vertical diameter four inches, its
 weight five ounces.  It has two orifices, two extremities,
 two borders, and two  surfaces.  Its left extremity, called
 the greater or splenic end, is the largest part of the stom-
 ach, and extends two or three  inches to  the left  of the
point of entrance  of the oesophagus (1); the  pyloric  end
 (4) is much  smaller.   The oesophageal or  cardiac orifice 
OPERATOR INJECTLN'O THE FEMORAL ARTERY.
                   (See page 88.) 
 
EMBALMERS' guide.
69
(2) communicates with the oesophagus, is the highest part
of the  stomach,  and  is somewhat  funnel shaped; the
pyloric orifice(4) communicates with the duodenum (5), the
aperture being guarded by a valve — the pylorus (4). The
structure of the stomach consists of four coats.   The arte-
ries supplying the stomach are the gastric (7, Blood Forma-
tion), the pyloric  and right gastro-epiploic branches  of
the hepatic (8, Blood Formation), the  left gastro-epiploic
and vasa brevia from the splenic (9, Blood Formation).

                   THE INTESTINES.
               (See Intestine plate in body of Aid.)
  The small intestine is that  part of the  alimentary canal
in which the chyme is mixed with the bile, the pancreatic
juice and the secretions of the  various  glands  imbedded
in the mucous membrane of the intestine, and also  where
the separation of  the  chyle, the nutritive principle of the
food, is effected.  It is a convoluted  tube about twenty
feet in length, gradually diminishing in size from its com-
mencement to its termination, and contained in the cen-
tral and lower parts  of the abdominal cavity, surrounded
above and at its sides  by the large intestine.   The small
intestine is divided into three portions, the duodenum (5,
Body), the jejunum (7), and the  ileum (7).  The duode-
num is about  ten inches in length, and is the shortest, the
widest and the most fixed part  of the small intestine.  It
has no mesentery, and is only partly covered by the peri-
toneum (A 2); its curve is similar to a horse-shoe in form,
the convexity directed to the right, the concavity  to the
left, and, embracing the head of the pancreas (19, Body), it
terminates in the jejunum on the left side of the second
lumbar vertebra.  The jejunum,  so  called because it is
usually found empty after death,  includes the upper two-
    6 
70
embalmers'  guide.
fifths of the small intestine.   It commences at the duode-
num and terminates in the ileum, and, though wider and
possessing coats thicker and of a deeper color than those
of the ileum, it is very difficult to distinguish the line of
demarkation of the two vessels.   The ileum (7), so called
from its numerous coils or convolutions,  includes the
remaining three-fifths of the small intestine, and terminates
in the right iliac  fossa by opening into the inner side of
the commencement of the large intestine.  The  ileum is
narrower, its coats thinner, and less vascular than those of
the jejunum.
  The large intestine commences at the ileum, and termi-
nates at the  anus.   It is about five feet in length, being
one-fifth of  the whole extent of the intestinal  canal, is
largest at its commencement, and gradually diminishes as
far as the rectum, where there is a dilatation  of consider-
able size just above the  anus.  It differs  from the small
intestine in its greater size,  its more fixed position,  and
its sacculated form.  Commencing in the right  side  (the
caecum) (9), it  ascends to  the under part of the liver,
travels  across the abdomen  through the  epigastric  and
umbilical regions  to the  left  hypochondriac   region,
descends to  the left iliac fossa, where it forms the sigmoid
flexure, then descends through the pelvis to  the  anus, in
its course having  described an arch surrounding the  con-
volution of the small intestine.   The large intestine is
divided into three sections or divisions, called the caecum
(9), the colon (14), and the  rectum.   The  caecum,  that
part or sac in which the large intestine commences, is two
and one quarter inches in length, in breadth  three inches.
The colon (14)  is divided into four parts,  the ascending,
the descending, the transverse and  the sigmoid flexure
(last plate  Female Genital  Organs).   The  ascending 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
71
colon  (10)  is  smaller than  the caecum; the  transverse
colon (12) is the longest part of the large intestine, and
passes transversely across the abdomen from right to left,
in its course describing an  arch ;  the  descending colon
passes almost vertically downward  to the left iliac fossa,
where it terminates; the sigmoid flexure, the narrowest
part of the colon, is situated in  the  left  iliac fossa, com-
mencing where the descending colon terminates, and end-
ing in the rectum; the rectum is the terminal  part of the
large intestine, and extends from the sigmoid flexure to
the anus, and is from six to eight inches  in length.  The
large intestine has four coats, the  serous, the muscular,
the cellular, and the  mucous.  Both the large and small
intestine  are supplied  with  blood by the superior  and
inferior mesenteric arteries (11, Blood Formation), as well as
from  many  of the  abdominal  branches,  which  are  all
branches from the aorta (4, Blood Formation).

                    THE ABDOMEN.
                  (See Body Section of Aid.)
  The abdomen  is the largest  cavity in the body.  It is
oval in form, and is bounded in front and at the sides by
the lower ribs and the abdominal muscle, behind by the
vertebral colnmn, above by the  diaphragm, and below by
the brim of the  pelvis.   The abdomen contains the greater
part of the  alimentary canal, and some of the accessory
organs to digestion;  viz., the liver, pancreas,  and spleen,
and the  kidneys and  supra-renal capsules.   For con-
venience of  description, the abdomen is divided into nine
separate regions ; the right upper region is called the
right hypochondriac, the left upper region the left hypo-
chondriac, the upper center region the epigastric, the right
center region the right lumbar, the central region the 
72
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
umbilical,  the  left central  region the left  lumbar, the
right lower region the  right inguinal, the central  lower
region  the hypogastric, and the left lower region the left
inguinal.
  The  right hypochondriac region  contains  the  right
lobe of the liver, the gall-bladder, part  of the colon, and
part of the right kidney.  The right  lumber region con-
tains the ascending colon, part of the  right kidney, and a
small portion of the small intestines.   The right inguinal
region  contains the caecum (9, Stomach plate), the ureter
(24, Back plate),  and spermatic  vessels.  The epigastric
region  contains  the middle and pyloric end of the  stomach,
the left lobe of the liver, the pancreas (19), the duodenum,
parts of the kidneys, the supra-renal  capsules, the aorta,
and branches of the vena cava and thoracic duct.  The
umbilical region contains the transverse colon, part of the
great   omentum and  mesentery,  part of the duodenum
(5,  Stomach Plate), some portions of the jejunum (7), and
ileum  (7),  also part of both kidneys.  The hypogastric
region  contains the convolutions of the small intestines,
the bladder if distended, and the uterus during pregnancy.
The left hypochondriac region contains  the splenic end of
the stomach, the  spleen  and extremity of the pancreas,
the splenic flexure of the colon and part of the left kidney.
The left lumber  region contains the descending colon,
part of the omentum, part of  the left kidney and  some
parts  of the small intestines.  The  left inguinal region
contains the sigmoid flexure  of the colon, the ureter, and
spermatic vessels.
                     THE LIVER.
                  (See Body Section of Aid.)
   The liver is a glandular organ  of very large size, which
secretes the bile, and effects changes in the blood  in its 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
73
passage through the gland.   It is situated  on the right
side, in what is known as the right hypochondriac and epi-
gastric  regions, and is  the largest  gland in the body,
weighing from  three  and one-half  to four pounds; its
measurements  transversely  being  from ten to  twelve
inches, six to seven  inches in thickness, and about three
inches at the back of the right lobe (i), that being the
thickest  part.   Its  upper  surface  is convex,  smooth
and covered by peritoneum;  its  under surface  concave,
directed downward and backward.   Five fissures are seen
upon the under  surface of the liver,  named the longitudi-
nal fissure, the  fissure of the ductus venoses, the trans-
verse fissure, the fissure  for the gall-bladder (3), and the
fissure  for the  inferior vena cava.   The  longitudinal
fissure is a deep groove, which separates the right lobe of
the liver from  the left; the fissure of the ductus venoses
is the back part of the longitudinal fissure, and is shorter
and  more  shallow than the  anterior portion; the trans-
verse, or portal  fissure, is short but  deep, and years  ago
was supposed to be a gateway of the liver, therefore the
large vein which enters at this point was called the portal
vein (4); the fissure  for  the  gall-bladder is shallow and
oblong, and, placed on the under surface of the right lobe,
it extends  from  the anterior free  margin of the liver; the
fissure of the  interior vena cava  (5) is short and deep,
almost a complete canal, and extends  upward from be-
hind the right extremity of the transverse fissure to the
posterior border of the liver, where  it joins the fissure for
the ductus venoses.   The right lobe of the liver is larger
than the left, in  proportion about six to one, occupies the
right side almost exclusively, and is separated  from the
left lobe on its upper surface by the longitudinal ligament.
The left lobe is more flattened than the right, its upper 
74
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
surface convex, its under surface concave, is situated in the
epigastric region, and rests upon the front of the stomach.
The vessels connected with the liver, five in number, are
the hepatic artery (between 7 and 4), the portal vein (4),
the hepatic vein  (smaller 5), the hepatic duct (7), and the
lymphatic.  The substance of  the  liver is  composed of
lobules held together by an extremely fine areolar tissue,
the lobules forming the chief of the hepatic substance.
                 THE GALL-BLADDER.
                 (3.  See Plate of Liver in Aid.)
  The gall-bladder, the  reservoir  for the bile, is  pear-
shaped, and lies on the under surface of the right lobe of
the liver.   It  is  about four inches in length, one inch in
breadth, and holds about one ounce.
                    THE  PANCREAS.
                 (See Last Plate of Body in Aid.)
  The pancreas  (19), which is a compound gland, anal-
ogous in its structure to  the salivary glands, is situated
across the posterior wall of the  abdomen.  In shape it is
transversely oblong and flat, in length about seven inches,
one inch and a half in breadth, and  about three-quarters
of an inch in thickness.   Its weight is from three to four
ounces.  The arteries of the  pancreas are derived from
the splenic (U) and pancreatico-duodenal branches of the
hepatic (8, Blood Formation) and the superior mesenteric;
its veins  open into the splenic (21, Blood Formation) and
superior mesenteric veins (22, Blood Formation).
                     THE SPLEEN.
                (See Last Plate of Body in Aid.)
  The spleen (18)  is an oblong, flattened form, soft, of
very brittle consistence, of a dark-blue color, and situated
in the left hypochondriac region.  Its external surface is 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
75
convex, smooth, and in relation with the under surface of
the diaphragm, which separates it from the ninth, tenth,
and eleventh ribs on the left side.  The internal surface is
slightly concave, and, divided by a fissure, is in relation in
front with the great end of the stomach, below with the
tail of the pancreas.   The  upper end is thick and round,
the lower end is pointed.   The spleen  is held in position
by two folds  of peritoneum, one connecting  it with the
stomach, the  other, the  suspensory ligament,  with the
under surface  of the diaphragm.  Though varying in size,
the spleen is  usually found to be about  five inches in
length, from  three to  four inches in breadth, about one
and one-half  inches in  thickness, its weight being about
seven ounces.
                    THE KIDNEYS.
                 (Back Plate of Body in Aid.)
    The kidneys (20) are situated in the back part of the
abdomen, in   the loins, one on each side of the vertebral
column, resting upon the lower part of the diaphragm, and
are surrounded by a  large quantity of fat and loose tissue.
Sometimes the kidney, becoming loosened from this vast
quantity of fat, is only held by the blood-vessels and ureter
(24), and it is then called a " floater."   The right kidney
is usually lower than  the left, and is covered in front by the
right  lobe  of the liver,  the  descending portion of the
duodenum, and the ascending colon; the  left, a  trifle
longer than  the  right, has  in front  the  fundus of the
stomach, the  tail  of the  pancreas,  and the  descending
colon.    In  shape  the  kidney  is  convex  outside or
posteriorly, and concave on its internal border; it also pre-
sents a pelvis (22) for examination.   Each kidney is about
four inches in length,  about  two and a  half inches in 
76
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
 breadth, and a trifle more  than  one inch  in thickness; its
 weight varies in the adult male from five to six ounces, in
 the adult female it is about five ounces.  The ureters (24),
 two in number, are tubes which conduct the urine from the
 kidneys into the bladder.  They are from sixteen to eight-
 een inches in length, and in diameter about the size of an
 ordinary goose-quill, and  extend from the pelvis (22) of
 the kidney to the  bladder.   They possess three  coats,
 muscular,  mucous and fibrous.
                    THE BLADDER.
                 (See Body  Section of Aid.)
   The bladder is a reservoir which contains the urine.  It
 is a muscular, membranous sac or pouch, in the  male
 situated in the pelvis (22), behind the os pubes and in front
 of the rectum;  in the female, between the  rectum, the
 uterus and the vagina.   It  is capable of very great disten-
 sion, but in its usual condition measures about five inches
 in length,  three inches across,  and ordinarily it contains
 about one pint.  The structure of the bladder is made up
 of four coats, a serous, a muscular, a sub-mucous  and  a
 mucous coat.  The arteries supplying the bladder are the
 superior, middle, and  inferior  vesical  in the male, the
 female having additional branches  from  the  uterus and
 vagina.  The  male urethra extends from  the neck of the
 bladder to  the meatus urinarius, its  length varying  from
 eight to nine inches, its caliber about three-eighths of an
 inch.   It is composed of one continuous mucous  mem-
brane,  and is  supplied with blood  from  the branches of
the inferior vesical, the internal iliac, and the dorsal artery.
                  THE  DIAPHRAGM.
   The  diaphragm is a thin,  muscular, fibrous  septum,
separating the thorax from the abdomen, forming the floor 
OPERATOR RAISING THE BRACHIAL ARTERY
                 (See page 85.) 
 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
77
of the thoracic  cavity  and the roof of the abdominal
cavity.   It is nearly fan-shaped, has three large openings
and several smaller openings, the former for the passage
of the aorta, the oesophagus  and  the  vena cava.  It is
arched, being convex toward the  chest and concave to
the abdomen, and  is supplied with blood by the phrenic
artery.   The diaphragm is constantly  called into action,
as it is the principal muscle of respiration. 
HINTS  AND  SUGGESTIONS.
   We wish to call your attention to the practical appli-
cation of the  Embalmers' Anatomical Aid to your  daily
business.  The Aid  is not only a valuable appliance for
reference and demonstration on the part of the funeral
director, but  enables him at all times to see exactly what
he is doing.   We take pleasure in calling your attention
to the skin plate lying directly over the muscles in  the
body section  of the Aid.   This being  made transparent,
and arranged so as to place over any or all  of the vital
organs of the body, affords  many advantages, as it enables
you to see their true  relation to the skin surface, which is
quite  important when introducing the needle or trochar.
The organs as represented in the Aid correspond with the
size of this body; so, to find any particular  spot on  the
body  on which you are operating, simply take the length
and breadth of the trunk (or body)  and allow for the  dif-
ference in size.   You can thus locate exactly the organ or
spot required, and  avoid penetrating arteries.
  The skin plate is  also valuable in showing the course of
the trochar or needle, and just what arteries and veins, if
any, are punctured.  For instance (for cavity embalming),
take for the point of injection about two inches above the
umbilicus (navel), draw a line with lead pencil on the skin
plate  in the  direct course  you wish the needle to go (of
course allowing for difference  in size of bodies), raise up
the skin plate, remove the muscles, and dropping  skin
plate  over each organ, will  show exactly the course taken
by the needle.
                          78 
EMBALMERS' guide
79
   Notice the manner in which the Aid is put up.  You
see  it is folded in  a thin portfolio, and covered with a
strong canvas case which enables it to be kept, if desira-
ble, in the embalming board  or table.

                 PRELIMINARY HINTS.
   The object of embalming the dead is obvious.  It is the
only means of keeping the body for an indefinite time, and
of knowing that it  will retain its life-likeness.   It further
prevents all obnoxious odors and gases from arising, ren-
dering the body  wholesome and  beautiful in the  eyes
of relatives and friends.  And, as the embalming liquids
contain  antiseptic  properties,  a great health-preserving
service is at the same time rendered the public.  The com-
petent  embalmer  benefits  himself by his knowledge.
Embalming  seems  to the  ordinary  mind a mysterious
application of a difficult science.   A  thoroughly  skilled
embalmer, with his intimate knowledge of the human body,
properly steps into a higher place than the ordinary under-
taker.  You enter  the house of the  dead like a physician
with your little cabinet of instruments, and proceed to do
your beneficent  work.  On arrival, after  a few words
of general conversation, you should ask to be shown the
room in which the body is lying, and at once proceed with
your assistant to make examination.   In a few brief ques-
tions ascertain the cause of death, how long the dead was
sick, in what room the body is to remain  until the funeral.
Quietly request some water, either warm or cold, remem-
bering that at such  a time little duties and cares become a
relief to  the friends.   Further,  it  begets  a confidence
in your abilities, for human nature dearly loves  to be con-
sulted at all times.   A little later, ask for soap, a towel, an
old sheet to be torn up and made use of  in various ways. 
8o
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
  Should any  of the friends have a desire to remain in
the room, which is not likely, do not offer objections, as
this would tend to awaken suspicion.  Always permit it,
and especially if the body be that of a child  or a female.
You cannot gain the people's confidence in  any easier or
gentler way.   The chances are it will be a help to you, as,
after they have asked your permission to  remain, they
could hardly refuse to render you assistance  if needed.
First remove the body from the bed to your  embalming
table or  cooling board,  never  for  an  instant forgetting
that you are in the chamber of death.  Allow no unneces-
sary conversation.   Your work  should go on  as quietly
as possible.   Proceed with all the haste you can command,
consistent with  care  and thoroughness, for the friends
will be anxiously awaiting developments.  Answer ques-
tions  as  to the length of  time  during which the body
can be kept, as indefinitely as possible, as there is always
a possibility of mistake.   But if your work  be well done
there should be  no  difficulty   in  satisfying  the  most
exacting.

SUGGESTIONS  AND  CAUTIONS  IN  THE  SELECTION  OF
               ARTERIES FOR  INJECTION.

  Never work too hurriedly, and always watch the subject,
for  in  some cases  damage may occur by  rupturing  an
artery.   Although this happens rarely, as the arteries  are
very tough and elastic, yet it is extremely advisable never
to force the pump too fast.  Give  it gradual and steady
motion, and no difficulty will be experienced.   At least
one and a half to two hours should be devoted to embalm-
ing a body, the time given depending upon its  condition,
size, weight, how  long  dead, and  the  length  of time to
elapse before interment.  Too much fluid can be used, as 
EMBALMERS'  guide.
Si
well as too little.  Your own good judgment must come in
at this point, as each case shows variation.   Another point
of importance  is to carefully watch the body for the first
twenty-four hours, and, if there should be a change, imme-
diately find the cause and make repairs at once.  After the
first twenty-four hours, if everything is in good order, you
need have no further apprehension.
  The Posterior Tibial Artery is of considerable size, and
is not very difficult to find.   Make an incision about three
inches in length along the lower third of the leg in a direct
line. This incision must be very carefully made, as the artery
lies in a very superficial position about two inches above the
internal ankle joint and about a half-inch below it.  Direct
down with the handle of the  scalpel, or knife, and, as a rule,
it is easily and rapidly  brought to view.   It is sufficiently
large for embalming purposes, and can frequently be used.
Indeed, it is the handiest and most superficial artery we have
for  embalming purposes, and is now being  used by many
embalmers with great satisfaction.   One advantage it pos-
sesses is that the operator can have perfect control of the
part without the aid of an assistant, as he will have nothing
to hold during the operation but the knife and aneurism
needle or embalming hook.   No obstruction will be found,
except, perhaps, a clot of blood  which may have settled in
the  artery, but that will soon be distributed, as the embalm-
ing fluid will break it up.  The  circulation in this artery is
most  complete, as  the fluid readily ascends into  all its
branches, and  regurgitates  to the foot.  At the same time
that the fluid is ascending through  the body through the
femoral artery  and  common  iliac, the recurrent branches
are catching it  up and  distributing it to the muscles and
tissues of the leg, thus completing the embalming of that
member.  By  the time the  body has been thoroughly in- 
82                embalmers' guide.
jected, the course of the flood or circulation is constantly
ascending and descending  through  the arteries and  their
branches, the aorta taking the  fluid from the common
iliac arteries and sending it in  and about all its numerous
branches through the abdominal cavity, into all the viscera
and blood-vessels, to the integuments, and, in fact, to the
most remote  part of the  body.  The aorta carries the
flood into the thoracic aorta, and then distributes it to the
heart and lungs, through the coronary and the pulmonary
arteries and veins, which  give off many branches  to all
the parts contained  in the  cavity of the thorax; it then
ascends into the  arch of the aorta, follows to the  innomi-
nate arteries, and there  distributes  the  flood to the sub-
clavian, which supply the  upper extremities of the body,
passing at the same time  into the common carotids, the
vertebrals, the mammary  branches, the  circumflex,  the
posterior  and anterior arteries, the  axilla,  and then into
the brachial, following its course to  the  radial, ulnar and
interosseous arteries, giving off, as they are  filled with the
fluid, very many  branches to all sections of the arms, thus
supplying the muscles and  fascia  with fluid after death, in
the same  way that they are supplied with blood during
life.   The hands  and fingers take their  supply from  the
termination of the radial and ulnar arteries into the palmar
arch, that supplying the digital  branches to the  ends of
the fingers, in the same way as the plantar arch (N, lower
part plate 5, Lower Extremity) supplies the foot through
the dorsalis pedis, dorsalis  hallucis,  and  digital branches
to the toes.   At the  time  the fluid enters  the   sub-
clavian artery from  the arteria innominata,  to  pursue
its course to the  arm, it enters the  head by the common
carotids and vertebral arteries, and  is thus  distributed to
the facial arteries,  the  temporals,  the  maxillaries, the 
                   EMBALMERS' GUIDE.                83

 frontals, the basilar, the cerebrals, and all their branches.
 The head  and face receive their supply at a very moderate
 pressure, the force being largely spent, thus avoiding  the
 danger of blackening or discoloring the face.
   To  professional embalmers one of the most important
 arteries is the Right Common Carotid (1, Blood Formation).
 Its advantages are that it is large enough to admit almost
 any size tube; it is very easily found or located; it receives
 the  fluid  injected rapidly, as it passes  directly  into  the
 large  arteries, joining  the  recurrent  branches, which  are
 very  small.   This allows the gradual embalming of  the
 head and face, the main or large trunks carrying the fluid,
 and distributing it quickly to the lower and upper extremi-
 ties at the same time, thus acting from  the common carotid
 artery as from the  posterior  tibial,  only completing  its
 circulation more rapidly.   This saving of time is in some
 instances a very important point.   The Femoral Artery is
 very large, and can be  used  in children as well as in the
 adult; a large-sized tubing can be introduced into its canal
 in the latter  case, and  a smaller size in the  child.   On
 account of its location in the thigh, and because, as a rule,
 the body  is  dressed, this artery  is not  frequently used.
 Yet, in most  cases, it is a good  artery to  inject, and at
 certain times, which will be mentioned in the chapters on
 embalming, it should be used, notwithstanding objections.
  The last but not the least important artery for embalming
purposes is the Brachial Artery, situated in the arm, of good
size, and capable of receiving a large-sized tube in its canal.
This artery is universally used in many cases of embalming
with the best success, its location  admitting of its use at
any time in female as well as  in male subjects.  It is  easy
to find on account of its landmarks,  the borders of the
biceps and triceps muscles ; it is more  superficial than any 
84
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
of the others that are used, excepting, perhaps, the posterior
tibial artery, and it receives the fluid easily and readily.
The arm being directed outward in a horizontal direction
gives the course of the brachial almost straight to the arch
of the aorta, through the axillary and subclavian  arteries,
the vertebral and common carotid receiving the fluid on its
course, and carrying it to the face, head and brain, passing
around the  circle of Willis, and  supplying the numerous
branches which are  given  off in  their  locations, thus
embalming the upper and lower extremities at one and the
same time.   It is evident that embalming  through the
brachial artery has great advantages,  yet we  run a larger
risk of discoloring the face with this artery than with any
other, on account of the head and face being so  near the
first force of the  current of fluid.  A clot of blood may
be  distributed to the face by way of the facial arteries
more readily  on account of the common  carotid  artery
being in a direct course and receiving the fluid from the
artery in its course through  the aorta.  Yet if the pump
is used slowly, this seldom happens  and the discolorations
are easily removed.  The  superior and inferior profunda
of the  brachial carry the  fluid to  the lower extremities,
thus distributing it through the  entire system.   Especial
care should be exercised in embalming the abdomen, and
it is essential to have thoroughly in mind the nine regions
into which it  is divided, and the contents and capacity of
each.  In the right hypochondriac  region very little fluid
can be injected, as the liver occupies nearly all of its space.
Though  the contents of the umbilical region are many, a
large quantity of fluid may be used because of its large size
and position.   The right lumbar, right inguinal, hypogas-
tric and left  inguinal regions are all  capable of taking a
good quantity of the fluid, while  the epigastric, the left 
OPERATOR INJECTING THE BRACHIAL ARTERY.
                  (See page 86.) 
 
EMBALMERS'  guide.
85
hypochondriac, and the left lumbar regions are much more
limited in capacity.  Careful study of these tracts in their
relation to each other will be  assisted by marking them
with chalk on the abdomen of the dead subject.

HOW TO   LOCATE, RAISE, AND  INJECT  THE  BRACHIAL
                       ARTERY.
                 (Illustrated, pages 60 and 68.)
  We  now pass on to the brachial  artery, which is  one
of the smaller arteries, yet can be  substituted  for either
one of the others and used  to great advantage by most
embalmers, on  account of  its position  (being easy to
locate  and handle), in four-fifths of the adult  cases, but
seldom in the case of children, on account of its small size.
  The  Brachial  Artery (B, plate 4, Upper Extremity) is
the continuation of the Axillary Artery, and commences
at the  entrance  into the arm from the axilla, or arm-pit.
It continues, in a more or less spiral course, to the bend of
the elbow, where it gives off two branches, which are called
the radial  and ulnar arteries.   If the arm is directed out-
ward in a straight line from the body, with the palmar sur-
face of the hand  upward, the  artery  pursues  an  almost
straight  course.  For  this  reason  it  is advisable to
extend  the  arm  outward  before  making an incision,
then  you  can  make  your  cut  in  a straight course,
and with exactness.  The artery lies near the  Humerus
(the bone of the arm), and between the two great muscles,
the biceps and  triceps,  the biceps being on  the  upper
side, and the triceps  on the lower side, of the artery.  It
lies along  their edges or interior  borders, and  is  hidden
from view until the muscles are separated.  That work is
accomplished  easily  by the use of the handle  of one of
your instruments,  but the fingers are  the better  instru- 
86
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
ments for this purpose, as you can in this manner feel your
way.   Make the incision about two or three inches below
the arm-pit and in the  middle of the arm between the
muscles.  Make it from  two to three inches in length.
Cut through  the skin and fascia  on a straight line  with
the bone of the arm.
  Then separate very carefully the fat  and muscles,  and
hold the muscles apart, thus exposing  to view a number
of vessels, cords, nerves, etc.   You are seeking the artery,
and must make your selection by the sense of touch, by
its pink or bright color, and from the fact that it is distended
to a certain  extent.   When found, separate it  from its
fellows, which in some cases adhere to it,  making the opera-
tion an awkward and stubborn one.  They are, as a rule,
however,  easily and  readily separated  from  each other.
The artery should be raised to the surface, and two strings
passed under it.  Then raise the vein, and proceed in the
same way as for the artery.  You can  open this vein in
the arm to relieve the discolorations in the face, if neces-
sary.   This  sometimes acts very nicely, and performs its
work as well as the Jugular, but ordinarily, where there is
discoloration in the face, it is advisable to use the Carotid
Artery and the Jugular Vein.   But always remember to
insert the  nozzle of your instrument into the artery before
opening the  vein — the work will thus be better done.
After  bringing the artery to the surface,  and after the
strings  are placed, tap it by inserting the point of your
scalpel into it, the  artery being stretched across the handle
of an  instrument or over  your fingers.   Then insert the
nozzle  into the opening you have made, pointing it toward
the  head,  then make the nozzle fast by ligatures already
prepared,  and start your pump, using the greatest care in
this case, as you are forcing the fluid direct to the branches 
                  EMBALMERS' GUIDE.                87

 that  carry  it to the face and head.   Great care should
 always be  observed in using the brachial artery on this
 account, as you might, by quick or rough work, force the
 blood into the face,  thus causing discoloration.  You need
 not do this, however, if due care is used.  Injection can be
 very  readily made into the brachial artery, and it is advis-
 able to use  it whenever the conditions  are  right, as the
 fluid  gets a complete  circulation, and  you can cover up
 your  work more easily  in this than in  either of the other
 arteries  used, which  is  a valuable point to be  gained.
 When you have completed the injection according to  your
 own judgment,  tie  a  ligature in front of the nozzle and
 withdraw it,  after cutting it loose.  This tying of a  liga-
 ture in front of the  artery is a good point, and should be
 impressed upon the mind of the operator.   After with-
 drawing the nozzle, sew up, and stop all leakage.

 HOW   TO  LOCATE,  RAISE AND  INJECT  THE  FEMORAL
                       ARTERY.
                 (Illustrated, pages 76 and 84.)
  The next  artery of importance, on account of its size and
 the frequency of its use in different causes of death, is the
 Femoral.
  The Profunda is a branch lying directly alongside of it,
 and is often used in place of  it.   There is but little differ-
 ence between them,  and one is used as often as the other.
 Use either, just as you  happen to strike it.
  The Femoral Artery is the continuation of the external
 iliac artery  (F, back plate Body),  and enters  the thigh
 from its continuation after passing over the crest of the
 ilium  (39, back plate Body) and under Poupart's ligament
 (31, Muscle Plate).  Immediately  upon its entrance  into
the thigh it  becomes the Femoral Artery.  It pursues a 
88
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
spiral course, and continues down to the lower third of the
thigh,  when it becomes the  popliteal artery (H, plate 5,
Lower Extremity).
  About one and one-half inches below Poupart's ligament,
it gives off a branch as large  as  itself, which supplies  the
lower tissues  and circulations with  its many branches.
  The Femoral Artery can be located about the middle of
the thigh and between its great muscles, about two inches
below Poupart's ligament.   In making your incision, there-
fore, you  mark  out your course from  about two inches
below the center of Poupart's ligament, near the middle of
the thigh, and dissect  perhaps an inch or an inch and a half
down through the soft tissues that you come in contact
with.   Divide and cut until you come to the large muscles
of the thigh, then separate and place  them on either side,
after which you will discover the Femoral and Profunda
lying side by side and accompanied by the Femoral Vein,
the venae comites, two in number, and the great nerves of
the lower extremities.  Your greatest difficulty will lie in
separating these one from another, but care will accomplish
it.   After separating  the  Femoral from the  Profunda, if
you have struck it accurately, you can raise either one to
the surface and pass your ligatures around it, as explained
in the case of the Common Carotid  Artery, one  on each
end, and allow them to hang loose until you need them.
If it seems wise to tap the vein in this instance, it can be done
provided the nozzle is first inserted in the canal of the artery.
Otherwise, the blood flowing from the vein will obliterate
your work to some extent.  But, the  nozzle being in posi-
tion, then, if you see fit, make the incision, first, however,
having raised the vein to the surface.  Attach the pump to
the nozzle that  is  placed in the canal of the artery, and pump
slowly at first, but with a quicker motion as you  proceed, 
EMBALMERS'  guide.
89
thoughnever hurriedly.  After the fluid runsoutof the vein,
tie it up and make it fast, place it in its position, and watch
the back end  of the artery you are  injecting.  Keep  a
sharp lookout for any leakage, and also examine the upper
part or extremity of the  body, and see  if your fluid  has
found its way into the temporals and facial arteries, and if
they are bulged at all.  If you find they are, stop at once.
Never work rapidly.  Be moderate and careful.  As soon
as any leakage presents itself, tie up the back end of the
artery and  complete your work.  You will have now but
one thing  to look  to, and that is the body.   Keep your
wits about  you.  Do not trust too much to your assistant
unless he is practically versed in the profession and trust-
worthy.  When, according to  your own judgment, you
have injected the required amount, tie or ligate the artery
in front of the nozzle ; tie it firmly, and cut the thread that
holds the nozzle, and withdraw it.   Look out for leakage.
If any appears,  gather up the  surroundings,  and  pass  a
ligature through and around the whole mass, using your
aneurism needle in these  cases, as it is much more con-
venient and decidedly easier to handle. All leakage being
stopped, sew up the wound as already explained  in case
of the Carotid Artery, and cover with flesh-colored court
plaster.   It is not advisable to use the Femoral Artery in
all cases, as in females, for instance, on account of its
location;  yet it should be  used  when necessary.

HOW  TO LOCATE,  RAISE AND INJECT  THE  POSTERIOR
                   TIBIAL ARTERY.
  The Posterior Tibial Artery is very seldom used, yet  it
will rank among the  first in the future  by reason of its
location and its being superficial and very easy to locate
and raise.   This artery (lower part of plate 5, Lower Ext.) 
90
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
is a continuation of the popliteal (plate 5, Upper Ext.) and
descends on the inside  of the tibia bone.  At its begin-
ning it is quite deeply seated, but  becomes superficial as
it descends  toward the  internal ankle.  It then passes into
the foot and travels its  internal  edge, crosses over under
the sole of the foot, and communicates with the  plantar
artery and  the internal tibial artery.  At the point of
incision, the posterior, while superficial, is quite small, and
yet is frequently as large as the  brachial in the arm.  The
incision must be made about two inches above the internal
ankle, and about one inch below it in a direct line.  The
point of incision should be midway between the internal
ankle, and the tendon of Achilles (No. 19,  plate showing
points of injection), which is the large tendon running up
from the back part of the heel to the  large muscle  at the
back  of the leg.   The  location is plain, and the injection
easy.   The  artery is readily reached by dissecting  down.
It is available for use  in most cases. This artery is treated
just as  are  the others.  Point  the nozzle upward  toward
the body, injecting very slowly at first.
  At  the completion proceed as  ordinarily.   Never use
this artery in severe cases.   In cases of consumption or of
old age, and more especially in emaciated cases, it  can be
used  with entire satisfaction.  The artery in the right leg
is generally used.

HOW  TO LOCATE,  RAISE AND  INJECT THE RIGHT COM-
                MON CAROTID  ARTERY.
             (1, Blood Formation, and 19, Head plate.)
  First as to its  location.   It is a branch  of the  arteria
innominata (2, Blood Formation),  and arises from behind
the right sterno-clavicular  articulation, and  proceeds in  a
direct line to the  upper border of the thyroid cartilage, 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
91
when it  divides into the external and internal  carotids.
The direct course, then, of the Right Common Carotid
Artery is from the sternal end of the clavicle (5, Rib Plate)
to  the mastoid process, a  point  indicated by the  lower
lobe of the ear.
  To raise it for embalming purposes, mark out a line as
indicated, and choose for the point of incision its lowest
part, as near the clavicle (collar bone) as  possible.   Then
make an incision directly on a line with the clavicle, com-
mencing at the  sterno-clavicular articulation (the head of
breast bone),  and extending along the edge of the clavicle
for the distance of about two and one-half or three inches.
Then  make another  incision at right  angles  with  the
former one, about one and  a half to two inches in length,
extending in a direct line with the lower lobe of the ear.
Care should  be taken, however, in making these two
incisions, that they be made no deeper than the skin.
  The incisions  should resemble a large letter L; thus, |_.
When  completed, proceed  to dissect the  skin very  care-
fully from the fascia which  is  fastened to  it, for the whole
distance of  your incision.   After dissecting the  fat from
the skin,  turn the  flap of skin over,  care being  taken to
see that no holes  have  been made in the skin during its
separation from the  fat.   Then dissect  down through the
fasciae, being  constantly careful all this time not to rup-
ture any of the vessels you  may come in contact with, for
you must remember  that you are now working near or
next to  the  windpipe  and  the  sterno-cleido  mastoid
muscle, and you are separating the tissues between  these
important parts in order to expose the arteries  and the
veins which lie directly beneath. These you will  discover
on  pressing the opening apart with the  handle  of your
instrument or your fingers.   Lying in its position  open 
92
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
to your view will be found the Common Carotid Artery —
the one you are looking for — with its accompanying veins.
Next separate  the artery from its adhesion to the vein,
using great care in the  process.   Select the  artery and
raise it to the surface, guarding carefully against injuring
it in any manner.  After you have raised it to the surface,
be sure of your selection, feeling of it thoroughly,  as that
is the best method of testing its identity.   When positive
that you have the coveted artery, pass two pieces of silk or
string under it  as it lies  in position for making your incis-
ion with an instrument handle placed under it, one piece
at the lower, the other at the upper end, leaving them in
that united  position for the time being.   Then again enter
the cavity out of which you have brought the artery, and
proceed  to  locate the vein which you have  left behind.
When found, bring the vein to the surface, using the same
means as you did for the artery, exercising great care in the
operation.   Pass two pieces of silk or string under the vein,
as in the case of the  artery.   A  ligature  needle is good
for this purpose, threading it with silk or string, and pass-
ing it under artery or  vein.  The needle is handier, and
more deft than the fingers, and more scientific.  In fact, it
is best to use the ligature needle for all purposes of ligat-
ing.   After you have  raised the vein to  the surface and
passed the ligatures or threads under it, let it rest and pro-
ceed again with  the artery.   Make each end of each liga-
ture into one loose knot, and allow the ends to hang down
over the  skin  of the neck.   Make an incision into the
artery about its middle, sufficient in size for the insertion of
your tube or nozzle.   This puncture or incision is to be
made for this one purpose, i. e.,  the introduction  of the
nozzle in question, and should be made with special refer-
ence to its  size.   The easiest, quickest, and surest  way of 
OPERATOR RAISING THE  POSTERIOR TII'.IAL ARTERY.
                     (See page 89.) 
 
                  EMBALMERS' GUIDE.                93

 making this incision is to raise the  artery over the  index
 finger of one hand, using the  point of the  scapel with the
 other, although  some danger  attaches to  this method.
 Nevertheless, it is preferable to the  use of an instrument
 handle;  the  latter is, however, a fair substitute for the
 finger, the only trouble being that you cannot be positive
 that you have cut through the  three  coats into the  canal
 until perhaps you  have  cut  directly through the  whole
 artery, thus severing it in twain.  Such an accident makes
 bad work, as the elasticity of the artery carries the sev-
 ered ends out of sight at once, and you are forced to seek
 them with much  painstaking—the one part far up in the
 neck,  and the other part in an opposite direction.
   Too much care cannot be used in this simple little oper-
 ation of the  incision.   The finger process is,  all  things
 considered, the most advisable. Be sure the incision pen-
 etrates the canal of the artery, as  it happens  occasionally
 that the cut only reaches through the first or second coat or
 tunic.   In such a case there is trouble again, for the oper-
 ator is no better  off with the  first or second  coat  pene-
 trated than as if no incision had been made.   Another
 test which I invariably use is by means of the stiletto, an
 instrument made of wire and  having a blunt  end.   This
 instrument is used as a protection  against the sharp  point
 of the embalming needle, and should always accompany it,
 and always on the inside  of the needle.   It is about six
 inches in length.  Place the stiletto in the canal, and allow
 it to enter as  far as possible.   Usually, on withdrawing it,
 a few drops of blood will follow, thus affording a  sure,
 easy test.  After you are positive you have  made a true
 incision,  introduce your tubing into  the artery, then tie
your silk or string around it, drawing it tight and making
it perfectly secure.  Make two double knots to be entirely 
94
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
sure that the  tubing is secure in its  position.   If blood
begins to flow, let it flow.  It is all the better, as it is a
proof of your success.
  When the tube is properly in the canal, securely fast-
ened and all in readiness  for your injection, tap the vein
in the same  way as you tapped  the artery, and about
in the middle,  the object of this being to  allow  the
flow of blood from  the  upper  parts or  from whatever
source it  will come.   After allowing  the blood to escape
from the vein for a few  moments, should  it not flow as
fast as you think it ought, assist it by passing your hand
over the face and forcing it downward, rubbing each side
carefully.  Frequently, when there is any discoloration, you
will remove it at once in  this way and very satisfactorily.
It is a method  long used, and is  very  effectual,  as  by
removing the blood, which is the cause, you strike at the
root of the trouble.   When the blood has ceased entirely,
or to  such an extent as to permit, begin  your injection
by attaching the pump to the nozzle already introduced
into the canal of the artery.  You will notice, after a few
motions  of  the  plunger  or piston,  that the blood will
commence  to flow again  from the vein.   Allow it to
flow until you see, that, instead of blood, you are  getting
fluid,  which  may be detected by  the change  in color.
Then  stop injecting, and  ligate or tie up the vein  at both
ends,  using  the  ligatures  or  strings you  have  already
placed there for that purpose.   Be sure to tie them securely
so that the fluid cannot leak out.  You will not stop the cir-
culation by doing this, as the branches take it up and distrib-
ute it just the same as though your ligature was not there.
Sink the ends of these  ligatures into the cavity, or cut
them off out of your way, so that they may not become
entangled with the strings you have placed on the arteries, 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
95
 and proceed with your injection as before.  You now have
 need  only of good judgment.  Inject carefully and very
 slowly  for  a few minutes, and then allow your pump to
 rest  on the body or  some  convenient place  while you
 make careful examination.   Look closely at the  super-
 ficial  arteries,  such as the temporal and facial arteries.
 You  will frequently see them raise out or bulge under the
 strain; but do not mind that, as they will all sink to their
 natural  positions  again  very shortly.  After   a  few
 moments, perhaps five, go on with your injection until
 you have filled  in about two or three quarts.  There is no
 rule laid down  for the exact amount, yet three quarts will
 be  ample in the average case;  still,  I have injected, and
 have  seen others inject, a much larger quantity; but ordi-
 narily, where but a few days' preservation only is desired,
 the above amount will be sufficient.   Still, the  operator's
judgment must be the  arbiter throughout.  When the
 injection is  complete,  tie up the back part of the  artery
 (if  not compelled to do it before on account of  fluid flow-
 ing out).  The rule is to tie as soon  as the fluid flows out;
 but sometimes  it does  not flow; then the ligatures are left
 untied until the injection is complete.   Usually the fluid
 will ooze out of the opposite end  of the  artery, and run
quite  fast from it, if the body has  received a  sufficient
amount of the  fluid to reach the  entire circulation, thus
proving  your work.  Still, this cannot  be relied on in all
cases.  Tie  firmly, cut off the ends  of  the ligature, then
proceed  to the  opposite end where the  nozzle is.  Mean-
while, take  a short recess; then, if  by  examination you
find that the arteries  that  were bulged  in  the temples
and about the face  have  receded,  try to inject a small
quantity more of the fluid ; but if, after the pump has been
*n hand a few minutes,  these arteries bulge again, stop at 
96
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
once.  Then tie up the nozzle end of the artery, thus com-
pleting the ligatures.   The mode of procedure in tying up
the  last  or nozzle  end, is to draw out the nozzle to the
point where the first ligature was securely made, then pass
a string in front of the small end, and directly around the
artery and tie  it very securely with  two or three knots.
Then take the point  of the knife or scalpel, and  cut the
string that holds the nozzle in its position.   As soon as it
is cut away, the nozzle will come out easily, and your work
will be done.   You must, however, now look for leakages;
these may have come from some little  cut inadvertently
made with your knife.  If any be found, gather  it up with
the tissues around it  and  tie in like manner.  Next, wipe
out with a sponge, and watch for any further leakage, then
place a  small wad of cotton in the cavity on  top  of the
artery, and vein, which you will have allowed to fall back
into  position.   After packing in snugly sew up the wound
with  close stitches over and  under (as a baseball cover is
sewn), and draw each stitch tight.  Silk should be used for
this  purpose.   Next proceed to the cavities, which are
very important, and  of course must be looked after with as
much concern as the arterial system.  For there  will be
many cavities into which the fluid has not entered, as it
is absorbed in the arteries, veins, muscles, tissues and fat
of the body.   Therefore  follows what is  termed cavity
work, which will be fully explained in its proper  place.

HOW TO  LOCATE,  RAISE,  AND INJECT  THE RADIAL
                       ARTERY.
  The Radial Artery is very seldom used, on account of
the difficulty in obliterating the traces of incision.   Other
points are far superior to  it in this respect, so that it has
lost nearly all of the popularity it once  had.  This artery 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
97
(B, plate 4, Upper Extremity) is a branch of the brachial
(A, plate 4, Upper Extremity), and begins its  course at
about the elbow joint, and extends  along  the forearm to
the wrist, where it runs into the hand and anastomoses
with its arteries.   It is  by this artery that physicians feel
the pulse at the wrist.  By means of its being  very near
the surface at  this point, its course can be readily located
and traced.  For the purpose  of embalming,  it can  be
raised  just at the beginning of  the wrist and at the end of
the ball of the thumb.  It can be easily located in the
hand or wrist by holding the hand with the palmar surface
upward, and feeling  along the wrist  on  a line with the
thumb.  You can frequently see  its pulsations.  Having
located its track, make your incision through the skin, and
separate the fascia with a dull or blunt instrument.   How-
ever, your fingers  are best, as with them no injury will be
done to the vessels with which you will come in contact.
Select  the artery, and raise it to the surface, also the vein,
which  treat in the same manner as in the case of the other
arteries.  Ligate the vein if you  are going to  tap  it;  if
not, do not raise the vein out of its  bed,  as  the artery
will suffice  for  your  work.  Raise  the  artery,  pass
your  ligatures  under it,  leave them hanging loose,
tap  it   with the  point of your  scalpel,  and  introduce
your nozzle into the canal.  Ligate the nozzle, and be sure
the ligation is firm, as the Radial Artery is small, and
will not bear the passage of much fluid through it at one
time.  For this reason there will  be a strain on the pump
and nozzle all the time you are  at work.  Still, with  care,
a body can  be embalmed through the Radial Artery just
as surely  as through  the  larger  arteries.  After  your
injection has been  completed, proceed in the same  man-
ner as  with other arteries, except  that more  care and 
98
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
 attention must be paid to the closing of the wound at the
 wrist, as it is important to hide all evidences of your work.
 The neatest  and best way is by means of a very  fine
 needle with fine  sewing silk to sew up the  wound, using
 great care, taking  very small stitches, and  drawing the
 lips of the  wound firmly together.  Never allow them to
 overlap each  other.   When  your sutures  are finished,
 place a very  small piece  of  flesh-colored  court plaster
 over them, and sprinkle flesh powder over the whole sur-
 face, making  the part  look  as much like the rest of the
 arm as possible.

 HOW TO INJECT FLUID INTO THE STOMACH AND INTES-
   TINES  WHEN  NASAL PASSAGES  AND  MOUTH  ARE
   CLOSED.
   Raise the body to nearly a perpendicular position, draw
 the skin under the chin very tightly, make your incision (a
 little downward) directly above the top of the breast bone,
 at the point indicated  on the Head plate by No. 24, and
 you will have a  clear,  direct and unobstructed  passage
 through the oesophagus to the stomach and intestines.

 DIRECTIONS FOR  REMOVING  DISCOLORATIONS FROM THE
               FACE, EARS, AND EYES.

   If the face is discolored and your  mode of opening the vein
 at the artery does  not succeed, raise the arm to an upright
 position and direct your sharp-pointed needle into and
 through the axilla (or arm-pit).   Direct the  point well up
 so as to penetrate  the large jugular vein, that is situated in
the neck; penetrate  it slowly, guiding the needle with the
fingers of the left hand, and enter at a point in the neck
about three inches above the clavicle (collar bone).  You 
EMBALMERS' guide.
99
can in this way drain the discoloration from the face with-
out trouble, as the bood remains fluid, and will enter and
flow through  the duct thus  made.   Use  your hands to
facilitate the movement;  i.e., pass your  palms over the
face very gently, yet firmly enough to force the blood
to the vein  and out into  the needle, and  thence  into a
vessel prepared for its reception.  The discolorations gen-
erally yield to  this treatment, so that you may successfully
remove them  all.   Usually the eyes, the spaces under
them, and the ears yield at  the same time.   If they do
not, and if there should be any spots left on the face,
they would be near or at  the sides of the nose.   In such
case, use a hypodermic syringe, passing it up the nostrils
on the inside, and  penetrate  the outside tissues;  or, you
can pass the needle  directly  under  the  skin and  remove
the blood that is settled there, and then force a very small
quantity of fluid through  the needle into the opening,
which will  bulge out the  surface, but can be  smoothed
down by passing the fingers gently  over  the  part,  thus
spreading the  fluid to a large area and removing all dis-
colorations at  once.   If, however, the discolorations still
remain, remove your needle  and  force  the fluid out with
your fingers by rubbing them toward  the point where the
needle entered, and  then introduce more fluid.  Repeat
the operation  in the ears  and eyes,  passing  the  needle
behind the ear, and enter the point where the discoloration
exists.  You will find  this  method effectual.   In treating
the eyes, use  the lower lids; pull  them down, and  pass
your needle on the  inside  and to the point of discolor-
ation.  This treatment may be applied with equal success
to any part of  the body. 
IOO
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
          USE OF HOT, DRY WOOLEN CLOTHS.
  Frequent use should be made of hot, dry woolen cloths
to assist in permanently  and quickly removing discolora-
tions, particularly from the nose, ear and chin.
  If the discoloration is  of the ear, apply the cloths (which
should be hot, perfectly  dry and made of wool) to the dis-
colored part.  This will restore the  natural temperature,
and will also loosen or limber up the blood and draw it to
the surface.   Then  lance the lobe of the ear from behind,
and squeeze out the blood through the aperture made by
the lance, by the  use of the fingers.  Then, when thor-
oughly removed, cover the wound of the lance with court
plaster.  The  same  operation can be  used for removing
discolorations from the nose.   In this case raise the upper
lip, and make about three  small cuts on  its under side.
Apply pressure with the fingers as on the ear.  By mak-
ing the cuts on the  inside of the lower lip, discoloration
can also be removed from the  chin.   In  this case rub
upward with the fingers.
  In  all cases apply the hot, dry  woolen cloths freely
before using the lance.

      PRECAUTIONS TO BE USED IN EMBALMING.
  The first thing requisite in embalming the dead body is
that it should be properly elevated on the embalming
table, not less than fifteen inches above the surface.  As-
certain the condition of the body, and, if all right, proceed
to inject it at whatever point has been  determined upon.
See that the fluid is entering the body, and not running
down on the floor or cooling board.   Do not hurry, as the
injection is necessarily a slow process.  Always draw off
the blood, or as much of it as you can get, out of the large 
OPERATOR INJECTING THE POSTERIOR TIBIAL ARTERY
                      (See page 90.) 
 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
IOI
       vein  accompanying the artery.  In all cases where there
       is  the  least  sign  of discoloration, use the methods  for
       removal already described.  Withdrawal is not necessary
       in cases of thin blood with no discoloration.   When inject-
       ing an artery, be sure that the nozzle is properly inserted
       into  its canal, and not between its coats or tunics.  This
       sometimes  happens, with a  result  disastrous  to  the
       embalmer's comfort.  Be sure that your ligatures are prop-
       erly passed under and around the arteries and  veins, one
       at each end, making four in all, and also that the ends of
       the ligatures are in a position to be grasped when needed
       for tying purposes.
          Great  care should be taken that the cavities are  not
       disturbed previous to the arterial injection.   There is dan-
       ger  that one of the arteries  may be punctured in  this
       operation, and the fluid allowed to escape.   If the bowels
       are badly distended and  the skin  drawn tightly over  the
       abdomen, make a light  puncture through the skin,  and
       use a blunt needle for extracting the surplus gases,  but
       this should be done with great care, as there is imminent
       danger of serious damage.  Never dress the body until all
       animal heat has deserted it. As soon as this has gone  and
       the body has assumed a  rigid condition, there need be no
       fear or hesitation, provided that  the body has received
       proper attention with full quota of fluid.  When so pre-
       pared, dress and  place  it in the  casket provided for its
       reception, and  keep in a darkened room, care  being exer-
       cised to have plenty of ventilation.

                  TO  EMBALM A BODY ARTERIALLY.
•          To embalm a body there are certain rules  to be observed.
       They are simple in the extreme, and, once  knowing them,
       you will never  forget them. 
102
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
  In the first place,  you are supposed to know pretty
nearly what  was the  cause of death.  Make selection of
the artery to be used accordingly.   Place your instruments
in such position that  you can reach any of them at will.
See  that everything  you may require is in  its proper
position, even to the most minute articles.   Meantime be
deciding on  your artery, for, while you are selecting and
placing your instrument, you  will  have  time to think.
Your selections being made, take a seat convenient to the
selected artery, and, with a deliberate and steady hand,
mark the outline of yourincisionby cutting lightly through
the  skin.  Having traced  your work, force  your way
through the  superficial fascia (or surface fat), taking care
not to  cut through the many little branches that are rami-
fying through it.   When you have dissected down through
the superficial fascia,  you will come to the deep fascia.
These  fasciae are a protection to  the arteries during life.
Dissect  through this, using the  handle of your scalpel
where  you think there may be danger of cutting into
any of the branches.   After passing through the  skin,
the superficial fascia and the deep fascia, you come directly
upon the muscles of  the parts  which  are  placed in their
positions as  safeguards to the artery.  The artery being
in most cases very deep seated, you will need  to exercise
great care  in selecting your point of incision.  You must
locate  the two  edges of the muscles through which the
artery passes, and separate them either with the handle of
the scalpel or with the  fingers, which are  by far the best
instruments for this purpose.   You will find these muscles
massed together, as  it were, and running parallel with
each other, perhaps half  a dozen or more.   Make  your
selection out of the bunch, using the fingers  of one hand,
and pressing down with them a few  inches distance  from 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
103
the point which you  have selected for raising the artery,
thus forcing the blood  in the veins and in the artery to
the point of selection, where you can see it flow through
the opening.   You can then easily distinguish it  by its
lighter red  or  pink color, the veins showing a very dark
brown, black,  or  perhaps a deep-blue  color.   Arterial
blood  is aerated by the lungs, and oxidized by the oxygen
of the body, giving it a light pink tinge, so that mistakes
can be made only through carelessness.
   After you have made selection and separated the  artery
partially from its surrounding  of fat, tissues, and accom-
panying  veins, with  perhaps a nerve or two,  place an
instrument of some  kind, it is immaterial which one, under
the artery, and, using gentle force and due caution, sepa-
rate it entirely.  Then,  while  your instrument remains
under  the artery, run your fingers across it, feel  of it, and
thus make sure you have made no mistake.  You will soon
become accustomed to the feeling of the artery, and, after
a little experience,  can select it by the touch alone.  Next
raise it to the surface, due care  and  caution being used
here lest you rupture  some little branch or vessel, causing
the blood to ooze out, making the operation very tedious
and troublesome.   Care  only is necessary to prevent such
accidents.   After you have brought the artery to the sur-
face, make  another examination,  for you cannot be too
sure.    Place the handle of an  instrument  underneath,
then make your incision, exercising care not to cut all the
way and sever the artery entirely, when each end, by rea-
son of its elasticity, would withdraw out of sight.   The
surest  method  is to take your  index finger, and pass it
under  the artery,  removing  the handle of the instru-
ment  previously placed there, and holding  the  artery in
an extended position on the end of finger. Take the point 
104
embalmers' guide.
of your  scalpel, and prick the artery well up  in the
direction  opposite  from that in which you  are about
to  point your  tube,  so   as  to  leave you plenty  of
room in which to work.   Prick the  artery gently at first,
remembering all the time that your finger is on the oppo-
site side, and sure to get the benefit of a cut if you are too
ambitious or nervous.   These cuts are dangerous affairs,
the wounds  being  poisonous at times, and very  serious.
Then extend the " nick " a little, until you have penetrated
through  the three coverings or coats, which are  exceed-
ingly tough.  Work your way gently, and you will eventu-
ally penetrate the true canal.  As soon as you do so, in all
probability you will see  a drop of arterial, or light-colored
blood, ooze out, and a small clot extending inside for about
an inch or so.  Remove this with your forceps, and let the
handle of the instrument replace your finger.  This com-
pletes the work of raising the artery.   Your  next step is  to
prepare the tubing,  selected according  to the size of the
artery chosen, and insert it in the opening.  Insert the tube
well into the artery, pointing toward the head if one of the
lower arteries, and  toward the feet if it be the  carotid.
Then pass a ligature or thread around it, and tie perfectly
tight.  Have no fear of cutting the artery with the thread
if you use no more than ordinary exertion.  Then pass a
ligature or piece of thread around the other end of the artery
well up, and leave the ends of the strings in such a  position
that  you can  pick  them up  at  a moment's  notice.
But you should never  tie  this upper end  until  you are
satisfied  that the embalming fluid is leaking, which it will
do after a short time, thus  proving to you  that the lower
part of the limb or the upper part of the  head has received
its proper quantity.  However, as soon as you  see the
fluid escaping from this  point, tie it fast and put the ends 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
105
 of the string out of your way, cut them off or place them
 inside the wound.  Now, all preparations being made, you
 are prepared to inject the body.  Let us suppose that the
 back part of the artery has not as yet been ligated,  but
 everything in readiness for the second step in the opera-
 tion of embalming, the first step, i. e., that of raising the
 artery, being completed.  Should there be leakage of blood
 from the artery, let it flow, and assist it if possible by occa-
 sionally passing the hand or fingers over the surface of the
 arm, leg or neck.   After the contents, clot and all, have
 been forced or drawn out, take  your pump  or  injecting
 apparatus, and attach it to the tubing already placed in the
 canal of the  artery.   When all is in order, take a small
 piece of string  (a strip of old muslin is  better), and tie
 around the arm or leg, as the case may be.

 ARTERIAL EMBALMING COMPLETE, OR HOW  TO EMBALM
                A BODY THOROUGHLY.
   The first duty to be performed is to remove the body
 from the bed to the embalming table, which should stand
 perfectly  level.   Remove  all clothing  at once, except
 that over the loins a sheet should be laid  in order to pre-
 vent  exposure.  Turn the head  well over to one side.
 Lend all possible assistance to the purging of the body,
 emptying the  stomach  of its contents,  if possible, by
 pressing  on the lower ribs over  the stomach with both
 hands, bringing the ribs together and pressing downward
 at the same time.   Wash  the body thoroughly, using a
 small quantity   of fluid  with  the water  (hot or cold).
When this is completed, and the body thoroughly cleansed,
raise the board  to an  incline of about twelve  or fifteen
inches, the head elevated, the feet lowered, the object
being to promote gravitation.  Then, beginning with the 
io6
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
eyes, using your hypodermic  syringe, inject under  each
eyelid and around the ball  of  the  eye, closing them
entirely when the operation is completed.  Place a small
bit of paper extending from the  upper to the lower  lid,
and close the lid over it.  Next inject the nose  through
the nostril by means  of a  nasal  tube  or large  catheter,
passing it well into the nostril,  and injecting  a small
quantity into the  lungs  by  this  channel.  Then pass
the  same   instrument  into   the  mouth,  and inject
about one pint into the oesophagus.   If  you  get a quart
into  the  stomach by  this means,  it  is all the  better.
If, however, you cannot force  the fluid into the stomach
readily, create an artificial deglutition, or act of swallowing,
by passing one hand under the neck and raising the neck
and head, allowing the back of head to hang a little lower
down, then  with the  other  hand seize the epiglottis, or
Adam's apple,  and work it  upward and downward until
the fluid passes.  Success generally follows.  Next with-
draw the tube, and detach it from the pump.  Now select
an artery for injection.   The artery should be selected after
the cause of death has been learned.  Having chosen with
which artery to operate, dissect down until it is exposed to
view; then raise both the  artery and the vein together,
after which  separate them,  fingers taking the  place of
instruments.   Having separated the artery from the vein,
pass a ligature under each  end of the artery and vein,
allowing the ends of the ligature to hang over the wound,
each on its  own side.  Then  raise the  artery over  the
handle of an instrument, or, what is better, over the finger,
and " nick "  it with the knife  point, making a puncture
sufficiently large  to  receive  the  tube which has been
selected.  Introduce the tube  into the canal of the artery,
and tie one of the  ligatures around over its head, tying it 
embalmers'  guide.
107
 very  tight to this  end,  using two or three hard knots.
 Then " nick " the vein accompanying the artery, and allow
 the blood to escape as fast as possible, generally assisting it
 by passing the hand over the surface of the skin above
 the vein.  Attach  the pump to the nozzle, or tube, and
 inject some of the fluid,  very slowly at first, thus increas-
 ing the flow  of blood from the vein.   As soon as the fluid
 begins to issue from the vein, or the blood becomes lighter
 in color, cease pumping, and tie up both ends of the vein,
 and allow it  to sink into  its  original position.  Then pro-
 ceed  with your arterial injection until the fluid flows from
 the back end of the artery.  Then  stop pumping again,
 and tie that end (back end) firmly with a hard knot.  Now,
 go on with  the injecting again, but very slowly, as you
 must by this time have forced considerable fluid into the
 arteries.  You must  now  be on your guard.  Watch
 closely the face and head, that it may not become bloated.
 This  is most important,  and such a  result is to  be sedu-
 lously  guarded  against.  Care  will  prevent  it.   The
 operator's  judgment must decide when to  stop.   If it
 does  not,  he will  soon be  enlightened,  although he
 should not  be startled  should the body mottle all  over.
 That is a good sign, and should always be welcomed as a
 sure evidence that the body is  thoroughly injected.  We
 now proceed a step further, and either tie up the artery or
put a stopper in the tube.  If but a few days' preservation
 only  is  desired,  tie  the  artery.   If  a longer period is
 sought, plug the  tube so that it may be  used again the
following day, when another quart or two of the liquid
 should be injected into the artery.  Leave the plug in the
artery should there be any doubt,  and leave the artery in
such a condition as that it can be used often in cases where
the body is to be  long preserved.   If, however, the body 
io8
embalmers' guide
is to be kept  for a few days  only, tie  the  artery firmly,
cut the tube loose and draw it out, letting the artery sink
into its original bed.   Should there be any leakage from
any of the parts, tie  them securely.   Do not, however,
sew the wound up as yet.   There are other duties to be
performed and of greater  importance.   Now introduce
your hollow perforated needle  into the  abdomen  about
two inches above the umbilicus, or navel,  and, keeping its
point  near the surface,  penetrate  the thoracic  cavity
through the diaphragm, following the point of  the needle
with  the   disengaged  hand.   Direct  the point toward
the  nipple of the left breast,  then force out whatever
gases  you may  find  there  by  pressing down on  the
part with  your free  hand.  Repeat  the operation  on
the  other side (the  right  breast),   withdrawing  the
needle outside  the  line  of the diaphragm, but  not
withdrawing  it altogether,  the one  entrance into  the
abdomen serving all purposes.  Having finished this opera-
tion on the right side, attach your pump to the needle,
and inject about one quart  of fluid   into  each  cavity
separately, as they are partitioned off by a septum, and
hence require separate treatment.  This will complete the
upper cavity  work.   Now withdraw  your needle from
the  upper cavities, but not  out  of  the  abdomen, hav-
ing first detached it from the pump, and turn your atten-
tion to the abdominal cavity.  Entrance to the  stomach is
gained through the puncture already made in the abdomen.
Point your needle to the left and toward the under part of
the last (lowest) ribs; you will thus reach the stomach.  A
strong odor  will immediately escape  from  that  organ.
Give the gases free egress.  Propel the point of the needle
into all sections of the abdominal cavity, puncturing holes
in the organs  and intestines, right and  left.   Do not fear 
OPERATOR  FORCING GAS FROM THE AIlDOMINAL CUTTY AND STOMACH—I ARC-K
                                NEEDLE  INSERTED.
                                   (See page 110.) 
 
embalmers' guide.
109
 to do harm, but persevere until you are sure that all the
 gases within reach of your needle have escaped.  The
 abdomen will now be very soft and flabby.   Next attach
 your pump to the needle, and continue injecting the  fluid
 until the abdomen assumes a tight, drum-head appearance.
 Detach the pump,when more gases will escape, having been
 driven to the surface by the  fluid.  Assist its passage in
 every way. A small quantity of fluid may escape at the same
 time.  Send the needle once more into every corner of the
 same territory, and introduce more fluid. Finally withdraw
 the  needle  entirely  after having detached it from  the
 pump, leaving the aperture open.  Now return to the
 artery, and sew up the wound, after which wet some pieces
 of old muslin, and place them over the abdomen for disin-
 fecting purposes; also cover the face and hands with the
 same material.   Raise the hands  onto  the  breast.  The
 fluid applied to the face and hands should be  diluted,
 making the mixture half water  and half fluid.  You can
 now rest assured that your work has been  well done.
 Re-arrange the  room, making it quite  dark, but allowing
 plenty of ventilation.   Cover the body with your canopy,
 and  return home.  Look over  your instruments, clean,
 and  arrange  them in their  respective places, fill your
 bottle with fluid, and you will be prepared for your next
 case.

  DIRECTIONS FOR ORDINARY OR  CAVITY EMBALMING.
  If  the weather be ordinary, warm summer weather, and
you  have a case of consumption, or where the body is
very much emaciated from  a lingering illness, common
cavity embalming will  suffice if the body is to be kept for
two or three days only.   Your mode of procedure should
be as follows: First place the body on a cooling board, 
IIO
embalmers'  guide.
and promote purging from the mouth by using considera-
ble pressure on the ends  of the ribs at the  lower  point of
the thorax over the  region of the  stomach,  turning  the
head to one side, and having the body on a level.  After
this operation is complete, cleanse the mouth and raise the
body  to a half-sitting position, or, say, from twelve  to
fifteen inches.   Wash it thoroughly, using  one-half water
and one-half fluid for this purpose, then extract the gases
from the thoracic and abdominal cavities by means of the
long,  blunt, perforated embalming  needle  ; the upper or
thoracic cavities being emptied of  their gases first, later
the abdominal.   To do  this properly, puncture  a hole
about two inches above the umbilicus (or navel), and direct
your  needle to the right  nipple of  the  breast.  Then
manipulate it, i. e., move it about in the cavity, and the
gases  will escape.   Press slightly on the breast to  expe-
dite matters.   Withdraw your instrument, and direct it
this time toward the  left nipple, and  repeat the manipula-
tion.  Never, however, draw the needle entirely out between
the two  manipulations, as the one puncture  should answer
all purposes; but be sure to keep your needle as  near the
surface  as possible, as you can then feel and direct it with
your free hand.  Care should always  be exercised here,
as, should the needle enter the cavity too  low down, the
fluid would escape from the upper  into the lower cavity,
and thus  ruin all  your work.  It does not require great
skill to  perform this operation, but does  demand care.
Let your needle remain until you have  injected  the last
cavity.   A quart  in each  of the upper cavities, making
two quarts in  all for the thorax, will ordinarily be suffi-
cient.   There is a septum, a division, separating these two
cavities, making two injections necessary.   Now withdraw
your  needle from the upper  cavities, as  you will have 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
Ill
flooded the parts, thus preserving them as well as if they
were inclosed in a vessel or bottle.
  On withdrawing  the needle from  the  upper cavities,
direct it into  the stomach, and extract the gases from that
organ;  and so on  throughout the whole cavity of the
abdomen,  pointing and  puncturing  in  every direction.
Be sure to puncture the intestines thoroughly, both the
large and smaller ones, so as to be sure of unloading the
gases from all the parts.    While puncturing  with one
hand, pass the other over  the  parts where the needle
is being  driven, and  press  down   on  them until  the
abdomen becomes  soft and  flabby.   This condition will
serve as your evidence that your work is  properly done.
Refer to the plates of the Aid  for  the  location of the
stomach if you are uncertain.  It is  located on the left
side, under the lower ribs.   Next inject the fluid, causing
your assistant to do the pumping while  you direct the
needle.   Point it straight into the stomach, and force, per-
haps, a  half-pint of fluid into that organ.   Then withdraw
from the stomach, and continue your course all around the
abdominal cavity.  The punctures made into the intes-
tines will admit the fluid, and you will thus completely sat-
urate the entire cavity, filling it  to  its capacity.   When
you have injected a quart, or a  quart and a pint, detach
your needle from the pump, and allow the gases that have
been  driven  to the surface to escape.   Assist them by
passing the hand gently over the whole surface.   After
completing this operation a second time, inject more fluid  ;
possibly a quart can be injected into the space made vacant
by the passing off of the surface gases.
  Now  transfer your operations, and  inject a small quan-
tity of the fluid down the throat and through the nostrils.
To do this, introduce a nasal tube or  good-sized catheter 
112
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
down the nostrils into the passage, then  attach the pump
and inject a limited amount, say a half-pint.  If the  fluid
will not pass down readily, seize the Adam's apple, move
it down and up, and, placing the other  hand under the
back of the neck, raise it, when the fluid will at once dis-
appear  down the  passage into the lungs, and  into the
oesophagus, which is  the canal by which the stomach is
reached.  Having now thoroughly embalmed the cavities,
you may feel pretty sure of success, but it is always well
to obtain some old pieces of muslin from the family, an
old sheet for instance, the older the better ; saturate  with
the fluid, and lay over the abdomen, covering from the
lowest part to the highest; then lay a dry piece  over the
whole  to prevent soiling or  dampening  the clothing.
This will also act as a  disinfectant, and guard  against
odors that  might arise  from gases accumulating in the
cavity,   Leave  the  puncture  open, that  the  gases  may
escape into this first outer piece  of saturated muslin.  It
will absorb and  destroy them, and  also bleach the body
to a certain extent.  In any event, it is a good plan to fol-
low,  and causes  no inconvenience, even should it remain
under  the clothing  with  which the  body is  dressed.
I have used it successfully, and can recommend it to all as
a valuable addition to temporary embalming.  Next  pass
to the bleaching of the face and hands.  For this purpose
use the  same fluid,  but reduce to  about  one-half of
its ordinary strength, i.e., about one pint of fluid to a  pint
of water.   Place in   a  bowl under the cooling board.
Saturate a small  piece of muslin  (though a cotton mask is
far superior, as it conforms to the features better), place it
on the face, and  spread all over it; but be sure the tip of
the nose is not flattened, and see that it is thoroughly  wet.
Lay it very smoothly, so there may be no wrinkles.  Next 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
H3
wrap the hands in the same manner (muslin  answers  this
purpose better than cotton), then place them on the breast
to prevent discoloration by the blood which is gravitating
downward.  Leave the bowl  of fluid mixture under the
board.  Cover the body, leave it on  the  same incline,
darken the room, and see that there is ample circulation
of air.  Return  the next day, and look over your work.
Saturate your pieces of muslin and cotton again, and pre-
pare the body for the casket ready  for its  interment.
These directions are positive, and, if carried out, will, under
ordinary circumstances, prove effectual.  Yet this method
of cavity embalming is not  recommended  by practical
embalmers, as failures are frequent, and it requires about
the same time to accomplish  as does arterial embalming.
Arterial embalming is recommended even in the simplest
cases.   Do  not assume, however, that cavity embalming
is of  no value.   It is often of great importance, and  is
successfully employed  by many embalmers in cases  of
urgent haste.
               LONG TIME EMBALMING.
   To embalm a body so that  it will not change in appear-
ance for an indefinite period,  requires an experienced
hand, an adept in  the profession, and he  is required  to
have  good  judgment, steady nerve, and  a head full  of
strong common sense.   But,  if the following directions be
followed to  the letter, there need be no hesitancy on the
part of the embalmer.   In the first place, then, the body,
having been removed from the death-bed to an embalming
table  prepared for its reception (which should be  on a
perfect level), should be disrobed of all its clothing so  as
to be wholly nude.   Wash thoroughly with a solution  of
embalming fluid  and water (warm or cold), after which 
U4
embalmers' guide.
throw a light sheet over the loins and extremities.   The
eyes should then be injected by means of the hypodermic
syringe, and then carefully closed, using eye-caps or strips
of paper, extending from the upper to the lower lids, with
the lids closed over them,  care being taken that no  folds
or wrinkles are in the paper.
  Then a nasal tube should be passed into the nostrils, and
fluid injected through them into the windpipe, so that it may
reach the lungs.  One pint of fluid will suffice.  Then the
tube is to be withdrawn and placed in the mouth, that the
oesophagus, or gullet, maybe reached. A pint of fluid will
probably be sufficient for this, but the operator's judgment
must guide here,as there can be no inflexible rules laid down
as to quantities, because of the variations in the size of the
human body. The fluid introduced into the mouth will enter
the  alimentary canal, and pass down into the stomach,
embalming the passages in  its course.  If, however, the
fluid does not flow down  easily and  of its own accord,
create  an artificial deglutition (act of swallowing) by pass-
ing one hand under the  back part of  the neck and raising
neck and  head about two inches  from the level of the
board, using the other hand to work the epiglottis  up
and down.   In this way the passage will be opened, and the
fluid slip down.  Having completed this operation, which, by
the way, is a very  important one, elevate the body on the
table to a height of about  fifteen inches, and proceed to
raise the right common carotid artery and the large jugu-
lar vein, bringing them  both to the  surface.  Separate
them from each other  and  their other adherents, permit-
ting all the  extraneous matter to drop back into the cavity
you have just made, but keep  the  artery and the vein at
the surface.   Pass  a string (or ligature) under each vessel.
Drop either end of the  string, and  permit them to  hang 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
H5
whe. * they will be in reach.   Place  the  tube in the canal
of the artery with its  smaller end  directed  downward.
Make  that end of the  ligature (or string) fast, that is, at
the end of the tube, tying it securely in two or three hard
knots, thereby securing the tube in the canal.   After this
tap the large jugular vein directly in its middle, and pro-
mote the flow of  the  blood from the head, face and neck
by pressing your  hands over the cheeks and along the side
of  the neck.  Then  attach  the  pump  to  the  tube,
and proceed  to  inject very slowly at first.  The fluid,
entering the  carotid artery, distributes  itself  through
all   the   arteries and  their branches  at   once,  and
prompts the flow of blood from the jugular vein, which is
just what is desired.   Keep up the motion of the pump,
working it slowly and still more slowly for a short time,
yet making sure,  by  watching the course of the arteries,
that they are receiving the fluid, keeping an  eye mean-
while on the jugular vein.  When the fluid begins to  flow
out of the vein, tie at both ends,  and  dispense with  it at
once, letting it drop into its  cavity.  Now proceed with
the arterial injection,  progressing very slowly, as the fluid
must be given opportunity to enter the minute capillaries
and veins.   As they  receive the  fluid they become  dis-
tended, but the process is  slow  and tedious.   Plenty of
time and patience is required.  About every five minutes
stop the pump entirely and make a thorough examination.
See if the superficial  veins are at all distended.   If so,
give the pump a few minutes' rest, but continue your vigi-
lance.  If all parts of the body appear to be  right,  start
the pump again, but gently— no sudden motion must be
allowed, your object being to reach all parts of the body
through the arteries, capillaries, and veins, with as much
smoothness as possible.  Continue to pump until you have 
n6
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
injected an amount of fluid which, according to your judg-
ment, is sufficient for the time being.
  Then detach the  pump from the tube, and place a cap
or stopper over the tube-end to prevent the escape of the
fluid.   Leaving the artery for a time, proceed to embalm
the upper and lower cavities of the abdomen, extracting
all the gases which they contain before  injecting the fluid.
To extract  all these gases, it is necessary to puncture all
the internal  organs.   Enter the  right  thoracic  cavity
through the diaphragm by making an incision two inches
above the  umbilicus  (or  navel),  and  direct  the  needle
toward the right nipple.  By pushing and withdrawing the
needle an  inch  or  two alternately (thus puncturing the
surrounding parts), you will extract the gases through the
hollow of the needle.  Now withdraw the needle from the
right upper cavity (but not from the abdomen), and direct
it  toward the left nipple.  Remember never to draw the
needle out of the puncture you have made above the navel;
but, when  you have treated the  left upper cavity, then
withdraw the needle from this upper region (but not out of
the entrance aperture), and direct  it toward the stomach
(on the left side).  Puncture its walls, and allow all its gases
to escape through the needle, holding a  sponge partly
wet with the fluid over the  end so as to neutralize the odors
that arise from the organs as they are penetrated.   Skir-
mish  with  your needle in every  direction.  When  you
have punctured all the parts, intestines included, and have
returned with the instrument to your starting point, do
not withdraw it, but re-enter the right thoracic cavity, and
inject as much fluid as it will conveniently contain.   Do
the same with the left cavity.  Next draw the  instrument
out of the left cavity, and direct it in a  straight course
under the sternum (breast bone), and  puncture the heart. 
                  EMBALMERS' GUIDE.               uj

If any blood issue out of the needle, allow it to run  its
course into some vessel or empty bottle.
   Let me repeat, keep  your needle as near the surface as
possible, so as to avoid any leakage from  the upper into
the lower cavity through the holes you have made into the
diaphragm.  Now pump fluid into the  heart and its sur-
rounding cavities,  and duplicate your work by so doing in
the upper cavities.   Withdraw  your needle again  from
the diaphragm, and direct  it  into  the  stomach,  straight
through its walls, and  inject fluid  into its cavity.   Con-
tinue this operation all around, as  you did when punctur-
ing the organs and  intestines for gases.  Use  your own
judgment as to the amount  of fluid to be passed  into the
cavities, as you did in the case of the arteries.   Ordi-
narily you should  use, altogether, about six quarts on the
first day.   You next withdraw your needle part way, and
permit  the surface gases to escape.   Probably they will
pass off in large quantities.   Then take some old muslin
or towels, and saturate them thoroughly  with the fluid, and
lay them over the whole abdominal surface next the skin.
Now  wrap the hands in two  or three thicknesses of muslin
saturated with the solution  made for facial applications.
It should be one-half fluid and one-half water.   Dip the
cloths in this  solution, which  should be kept in a  bowl
under the embalming table.  Make a mask of cotton, and
saturate with the solution.   Place  it over the face, fitting
it to the parts  by pressing it in and around the nose, and
down upon the eyes, extending it from the top of the fore-
head to the chin, and  down the neck, and from the back
of one ear to the back of the other.   Tie or pin the hands
to the night-dress  above the breast.   Do  not allow them
to lie  by the side of  the body.   Leave  the room  in good
order, and the body in the same  position.   Shade the
    9 
u8
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
windows until the  room  is dark, and see that there is a
full circulation of air.   Assure  the family that all is right,
and state that nothing must  be disturbed, and under no
circumstances can the removal of the  mask be permitted.
Never remove it until you call the next day, as it is better
to keep  the air from  the face and  hands for the first
twenty-four hours.
  On your return the next  morning remove the mask,
and see that all is right about the face  and hands: saturate
it again: make thorough examination of the body: see
that the tube you left in the  artery is  in position, and
that there  is no leakage anywhere.  Call again  in  the
evening, and make another thorough examination, and wet
the mask again and leave it for  the night.   Call again the
second morning, and bring with you  more fluid and your
instruments ; inject the artery  again  with perhaps one or
two quarts, as  the case  may be.   Look to  the cavities,
introduce  your blunt needle,  and manipulate  it  in  all
directions.   Extract whatever gases have accumulated in
the meantime ; be sure of a thorough and complete exam-
ination,  slighting  nothing, even to the  minutest detail.
Withdraw  the  fluid from the  cavity by means of your
pump (as in dropsy), and introduce a fresh quantity, per-
haps one to two quarts, thus  destroying  the possibility
of more gases accumulating.   Replace  the saturated towels,
and see that the tubing  in the  artery is  all right, well
plugged with a piece  of muslin around it, and leave  it
until the following day.   See again to darkening the room,
and continue the circulation of air, leave all in good order,
and  call the  next  day.  By this  time, all  arrange-
ments having been made for the funeral,  you will be noti-
fied to that effect.  Govern yourself accordingly.  If there
be no particular haste about dressing the body, leave every- 
EMBALMERS'  guide.
119
thing as it is until you are ready to dress it for the casket.
Then make your  final  examination, and, if any repairs are
to be made, make  them now, as  this will be your " last
opportunity."  Just before dressing the body, saturate the
towels  that are  on  the  abdomen, and leave them there.
Put  clothing on  over them;  sprinkle a little fluid  around
the bottom of the casket, among its linings, or place some
within at the foot, or do both.  You  might  use  the mask
for face again if there is no  glass to keep the air out.  This
is quite an important duty, as air will cause a change in
some cases; therefore it is well to  be on the safe side, and
preserve the mask for use at any  chance opportunity that
may  come to  you as at night time, removing it  in the
morning.   If everything is in order, as it should be, pro-
ceed  with your  final  preparations, and assure the family
that all is well.    The body can now be kept almost indefi-
nitely, and may  lie  in state,  be transported from place to
place, or be shipped across  the ocean  and back.  It should
be in a perfect  state of preservation, and will not change in
any way, if the face be kept from the air.  Keep  a glass
over the upper portion of the coffin.

       HOW TO EMBALM A  CASE OF CONSUMPTION.
   First inject the brachial  artery, after having performed
the usual  preliminaries, such as assisting the body in its
purging, elevating it on the  board,  etc., which are the
preparatory necessities in  all cases of embalming.  Let
the blood escape  from the vein at  the same time, as that
will relieve the heaviness frequently seen about  the neck
or face — an appearance  like bloating.  Usually the arte-
ries of one dead from consumption will absorb a full sup-
ply of fluid, because  of the thinness and scarcity of the
blood.  Care should  be  exercised,  as in many cases of 
120
embalmers'  guide.
consumption the lungs have become decayed.  Such cases
require prompt attention.   Then, there  are  the variations
of the disease — consumption of the bowels, lingering con-
sumption,  hasty consumption — all these cases require
special care.  The contents of these emaciated  frames  is
generally a mass of decomposing material, forming gases
and  threatening the  whole body with premature  decay.
Such cases  are  desperate  ones, and require prompt  and
heroic  treatment.   The  brachial artery is preferable for
this  class of work, as the fluid is easily forced from  it
throughout  the entire system.   Follow the injection of
the artery  with the customary treatment of the thoracic
cavities,  perforating the  diaphragm from the point over
the navel as usual, and inject at least a quart of  fluid into
each  cavity, or more if you  can do so without swelling
the chest walls.  Then do with the abdomen as directed in
case of regular embalming.   Extract the gases, and inject
with fluid.  If properly  embalmed, a consumptive body
may be  preserved for a week or ten days  as readily as
for two or three days.  The embalming process in cases
of consumption improves  the appearance  of the dead.
Arterial  embalming  should   be  employed   in  all cases
where  decomposition  has  set in.   Ordinary  or  cavity
embalming  may be used  on occasions of  great   haste;
but, whenever  the  bowels are the seat  of trouble, heroic
treatment is required.  This is also true in advanced stages
of decomposition.  Here the abdominal cavity should be
treated  first, as gases form very rapidly.  It is more than
likely that, on  your arrival  at  the house, you will find the
body purging, the abdomen very much distended, the sub-
ject, in fact, decomposing rapidly.   Assist  the purging
already begun.  Reach the stomach at once, using all means
at your command to assist the escape of  the  gases, after 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.              121
which the purging will cease, the body will assume a more
composed appearance, and everything move as ordinarily.
Embalm through the  brachial or femoral artery in all such
cases.   In fact, whenever the  subject is in bad condition.
the greatest safety lies in arterial work.   A collateral ben-
efit arises from raising an artery in consumptive cases.   It
is this: that, as there is usually only a small depth of tissue
or  fat to  penetrate, the artery  is  easily  and  quickly
reached, and a certain familiarity and  expertness in the
work gained at small expenditure  of risk or effort.  In such
cases practice feeling of,  and familiarizing yourself  with,
the artery.  It will be good drill for you.

    HOW TO TREAT A CASE  DYING FROM PNEUMONIA.

  To embalm  in cases of  pneumonia, follow about the
same methods as in consumption.  Pneumonia is an inflam-
mation of the substance of the lung.   The  lungs, there-
fore, are the seat of the disease,  and are the parts to be
treated.   Use the brachial artery, and inject as you would
in any other case.  The  upper cavities should receive the
greatest consideration.  Inject toward right and left breasts
or lungs through the diaphragm, using the long perforated
blunt  needle if you can force  it  through, or  make an
entrance for it with a pointed instrument.  Then do  as
previously directed in other cases.
  Pleurisy can be treated in the same way, as it is closely
allied to lung  diseases, and oftentimes, in fact, pneumonia
develops into pleurisy.   In such cases there is a pleuro-
pneumonia, which may be treated in the same manner.
  To embalm a  body dead from  either Heart  Disease,
Alcoholism,  Paralysis, Poisoning or Sunstroke, proceed
as in Pneumonia. 
122
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
HOW TO  EMBALM  A BODY DEAD  FROM TYPHOID FEVER,
               AND LOW TYPE FEVERS.

  While  on our guard at all times, in  low type fevers we
should be especially so, as they are difficult cases to han-
dle.   Heroic treatment from the beginning is required.
Disinfect the room upon entrance with any one of the vari-
ous disinfectants.  Sprinkle spray all over the body, bed-
ding, furniture, and carpets; in fact, scatter your disinfect-
ant indiscriminately.   A body dead from typhoid  fever
generally emits a discharge from the anus, which should be
immediately disinfected, as  it  is in this that the deadly
contagion lurks.  Remove at once, and pack something in
the anus.   Cotton saturated with a disinfectant, and forced
into the rectum through the anus, is a practicable method
of dealing with disagreeable discharges.  But, if that does
not suffice, ligate the anus.  First having drawn  it out
with your sharp-pointed embalming hook, pass  a string
around it, tie it in double hard knots,  and let go.  You
will not be troubled further from this source.  Wash and
inject the body as in any other case through the carotid
artery, but tap the jugular vein as a means of escape
for whatever blood will run out.   Disinfect it as it runs
into a basin by using full-strength fluid, occasionally  pour-
ing in a little.  If on the following day you should see any
change for the worse about the  body, remove  the fluid
from the abdominal cavity and inject a new quantity.  To
draw the fluid from the cavity,  introduce the long per-
forated blunt needle into the old opening, and reverse your
tubing on the opposite side of your pump.  Use the pump
in the same way as for injecting.   In typhoid fever, there
 is  but one thing  really contagious, namely, the stool, or
 discharge from the rectum.   Therefore be sure to use pre- 
embalmers'  guide.
123
cautions as described.   Follow this method in all low type
fevers, as they vary little.

  HOW TO TREAT A CASE DYING FROM A HEMORRHAGE.
  To embalm the body of a person who has died from a
hemorrhage of the lungs, involves the same treatment as
in consumptive cases. The body is more easily preserved,
however.   You are not compelled to withdraw the blood,
as this has been already done  for you.  Simple, ordinary
methods answer all purposes, substantial treatment of the
cavities being all that is really necessary.   But in cases of
Internal Hemorrhage, you have to apply all the means at
your command, for the blood has escaped into the cavi-
ties  of the body, and  prompt  and  heroic treatment is
needed.   Draw  the blood and water from the  cavities
where it has settled, if possible, and in all cases, before
injecting the fluid.

      TO EMBALM A BODY DEAD FROM  DROPSY.
  These are the most exacting  of all cases, and  require
skill and nerve.  First, elevate the body on the embalm-
ing table as high  as possible without  causing it to  sit
upright.    Inject the eyes with your hypodermic syringe,
then  inject the  nostrils, and  let the body remain in its
elevated position a few moments so as to get all the water
(the  dropsical  fluid) into the abdominal  cavity.  Take the
point of your knife and cut through to the skin, or use
your  dropsical  trocar   instead, the  only disadvantage
attached to that instrument being its sharp point.   But, if
the case is a bad one, the long, blunt perforated needle is
the best instrument by far,  and should always be used,
because with it there is no fear of rupturing  the  arteries
and  spoiling the arterial  injection.    Pass it hither and 
124
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
 thither, anywhere and  everywhere, its great length per-
 mitting you to penetrate the abdomen from top to bottom
 and from side to side.  You will extract the gases at the
 same time  that  you are extracting  the dropsical fluid.
 Attach the pump to the head of the needle,  rigging the
 pump on the opposite side.  It will require perhaps an hour
 forthe removalof the dropsical fluid, the abdomen diminish-
 ing in size as the water leaves its cavities. When the dropsi-
 cal fluid is all withdrawn the abdomen will lap or hangover
 your embalming board, a very sure  sign  that you have
 succeeded in extracting the fluid.  Now, raise an artery—
 the brachial answers very well, or the carotid.   If there
 should be any discoloration about the face, neck, shoulders,
 use the carotid without fail, and open the jugular vein at
 its  side,  tap and let the blood run  its course.   In fact,
 while the water is leaving the abdomen, once well  started,
 let it attend to itself and look for the artery, thus saving
 time, though  the  operation  will be  long and tedious at
 best; yet you should omit  nothing.   Prepare your liga-
 tures around the vein and artery, and open the vein in the
 center as you would in any other case; but here you will
 be  obliged  to stop,  as it is not advisable to inject the
 arteries while so much dropsical fluid remains in the body.
 Do not hurry in cases of dropsy, but  allow them to take
 their course.  When the abdominal cavity  shows  signs of
 becoming empty of water, begin  to inject the arteries,
 still  allowing the long needle to remain in the cavity.  In-
ject as slowly as possible at first, increasing your speed as
 you  advance.   Inject perhaps from three to four quarts of
 fluid into the arteries.  Care must be taken that the jugular
 vein is tied as soon as the fluid oozes out. Then care for the
 case as in any other case of embalming.  Should there be no
 change next day, leave everything alone;  but, should there 
OPERATOR INIECTING THE PLEURA IN THE THORACIC CAVITY
                         (See page 116.) 
 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
125
be much water  in  the  legs, scarify (cut)  the flesh just
between the ankle and the heel.   Cut a deep gash in each
foot, and the water will run down through the tissues of the
leg, and escape  into a  proper  receptacle, or  a rubber
blanket which has been  placed under the body.  It is an
excellent idea to fold up the edges of this rubber sheeting,
and empty it in the morning.  Make several scarifications
(cuts) along the inside of the legs, for the probabilities are
that water blisters  will  form, in which case it  is better to
open them with your scalpel, and let the water escape into
the rubber sheeting.  When the water is out, bind up the
legs, commencing at the feet, and winding closely a piece
of muslin bandage rolled for the occasion.   Make your
bandage about four or five inches wide.  Place cotton on
the inside, and wind the bandage over it.  Use plenty of
fluid, even up to  two gallons, for inward  and outward ap-
plication.   Of course the amount should be gauged accord-
ing to the size of the body and by its condition.

    TO  EMBALM  A  BODY DEAD FROM CHILDBIRTH.
  These are difficult subjects to  handle.   Ordinarily you
will need an able female assistant, as there is much delicate
work to be done.   Immediate attention is required.   The
arteries should always  be used.   On no account trust to
cavity work alone.  Should there be discoloration, remove
it by tapping the vein accompanying the artery.  Invaria-
bly use the  carotid or  femoral arteries in these cases, as
they are large, and the  removal of blood a simple matter.
Care  should  be exercised that there  be  no leakage from
the uterus (womb).  If there  should  be, require your
female  assistant to fill  with cotton and  close as tight as
possible,  placing a napkin about  the  genital organs.
Should the leakage continue stubbornly, sew up the geni- 
126
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
tals, making a very small stitch, and draw your sutures
tight.  This  will control the leakage effectually and per-
manently.  After injecting the arteries thoroughly, proceed
to the abdominal cavity, where you must be very particu-
lar, and equally so with the thoracic cavity,  as  both are
involved in the disease.   The upper includes the breasts,
which are full of glands and veins containing milk,  which
requires immediate attention,  as  the gases will form very
rapidly.   Always  gravitate  the body, raising it high up,
and keep it in that position until ready  to be placed in
the casket.
  In  case  the child remains in the womb after the death
of the mother, it need  not  be removed,  as  it will be
embalmed at the same time and through the same arteries
as the mother.

          TO EMBALM A CASE OF  PERITONITIS.
  In  cases of  this nature, use  either one of  the  most
important arteries, and proceed as in ordinary cases.  The
seat of this disease is the bowels or intestines, and  with-
out doubt they will be badly distended  with gases and
need immediate  attention, as the  skin is becoming dis-
colored, and it will readily appear that decomposition has
set in and must  at once be  arrested.  First, then, open
the cavity and extract the gases,  which will come out with
a great rush, and  be very offensive; therefore, have your
disinfectants  ready, and  destroy all odors  as they  are
expelled   from the body.   These gases  are in   some
instances extremely poisonous, and always disagreeable,
therefore neutralize them  at once.   Inject all the  fluid
possible into this cavity, and cover  with the pieces of mus-
lin thoroughly saturated with fluid.  It will  probably be
necessary to extract  the fluid on  the following day, and 
                  EMBALMERS' GUIDE.               127

 replace it  with a  fresh supply.   Do not  trust to cavity
 work alone in bad cases, no matter what the cause of death
 may have  been, even though  the body is  to be  interred
 the following day.

 HOW  TO  EMBALM A BODY  DEAD  FROM  GUN-SHOT
                       WOUNDS.
   Locate the wound, and probe for the ball if it has not
 been already extracted.  Ascertain  whether there  has
 been much hemorrhage,  and also if  any of the arteries
 have been severed.  You  will know  what course  the
 arteries  take by a reference  to  the plates of the Aid.
 Ascertain  also if any of the viscera, and what part, have
 been penetrated.   Inject fluid  into the wound, and  let it
 run out, or, if it remains in the wound, you will know that
 the bullet has entered and lodged in one of the cavities of
 the body, and left a canal to its bed.  Then place a wad
 of cotton in the wound, and take a  stitch or two in the
 opening, thus closing it, and  imprisoning the fluid you
 have injected.  If the ball has entered the head, use the
 carotid artery (19, Head section, Aid).  By all means tap
 the jugular (16, Head section, Aid), and force out all the
 blood possible, and then embalm the body as you would
 in any other case, and follow  the  directions  given for
 embalming through the carotid artery.   These are not diffi-
 cult cases,  as hemorrhage has saved time that otherwise
 you would have to expend.

     TO  EMBALM A BODY DEAD FROM DROWNING.
  First empty the body of the water that has passed into
it during its period of immersion.  In cases of drowning,
the blood remains  fluid, and decomposition begins at the
head and works its way downward.  Make an incision in 
128
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
the side of the abdomen to let the water and gases escape,
cutting through the skin only with the knife.   Use the
long, blunt needle for extracting purposes.  Force all the
water out of the body, then proceed as in any case of arterial
embalming.   Use the carotid artery so  as to utilize the
jugular vein  for  removing  the  blood.   Puncture the
stomach and bowels  in the lower cavities, and the pleura
in the upper, then  inject with perfect freedom.   Cover
with saturated muslin, as usual, and place the body in its
casket.   Keep cloths on  the face  until a few hours before
the service.  Dress the body of a drowned person as soon
as it is embalmed, as it will not be  necessary to disturb it.
Where the skin is falling off, as sometimes occurs when
the body has been  long  in shallow water, prepare it for
burial quickly as it will be impossible to make the body
presentable.

TO  EMBALM  A BODY  DEAD FROM APOPLEXY OR  FROM
                    SUFFOCATION.

  In all cases of suffocation the body will be highly dis-
colored, and  especially at the  upper extremities.  There-
fore, after  raising  the  carotid  artery, introduce the tube,
and, making it fast, open the jugular vein at the neck with
the point of  the knife.  A good-sized slit  being made,
allow the  blood, which remains fluid  in these cases for a
very long  time, to  escape into a  basin.  When it runs
slowly, assist it by passing the palm of the hands  over the
head, face and neck toward  the  opening in  the  neck.
Begin your injection, and so force the blood to some extent.
Then proceed with your work, following the rules already
laid  down.  The arteries  are always to be used  in these
cases, no matter if the body is to be kept but one day. 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
129
IN CASES OF  DEATH  BY STRANGULATION  OR  FROM A
                    BROKEN NECK,
the same process should be followed.  These subjects are
always discolored in the  face and upper parts, but  the
blood remains fluid, and will gravitate  toward the feet if
the body is left on an incline.   Suffocation,  hanging and
strangulation can be treated alike.  Sunstroke and apo-
plexy  are in about the same category.  Use the same
method in all.   Remove  the discoloration, and use  the
same artery and vein.

TO EMBALM A BODY WHERE THE THROAT HAS BEEN CUT.
   If the common carotid artery has not been severed, cut
down to it, and use it as in any other case.  If this artery
has been severed, then tie the upper end,  and insert your
tube in the lower end, and inject the fluid downward.

TO EMBALM BODIES DEAD FROM ANY DISEASE WHERE POST
               MORTEM HAS BEEN HELD.
   As a rule the doctors increase the embalmer's difficulties.
In cutting the dead body open, and in examining the  vis-
cera, a great number of the arteries and their  branches
are cut and  destroyed.  Yet the gases will  have  been
extracted during the post-mortem operation, and should the
arteries be in sight, ligate (or tie)  the ends,  and thus get a
circulation.   But this is a tedious operation, and requires
skill and patience.   The easiest method  is to raise the
brachial artery  (A, Upper  Extremity plate  in Aid)  and
inject about one quart of fluid, which will mostly enter the
head and upper extremities.  Then open  the  posterior
Tibial (G, plate 5, in Lower Extremity in Aid) and inject up-
ward.   Thus the arteries will be filled.  Of course some of 
130
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
 the fluid will enter the cavities, but not all, as the  arteries
 should not be crowded.   If it  does flow out, it will be a
 very slow process, and not enough escape to  endanger the
 chances of success.  Then saturate the cavities, and, if any
 leakage takes place out of the genitals, sew them  up, and
 retain the fluid in the body, which will insure its keeping
 all right.   The body in these cases should not be on much
 of an incline (not more than six inches), as not much grav-
 itation is required.   Do  not  fear failure; let  the post-
 mortem go on, only be sure to fill the cavities.

               CONDUCTING FUNERALS.
  About one hour before  the  time  set  for the funeral,
 repair to  the house with  your assistants, and explain to
 each the duties which you expect him to perform; viz.,
 attending the door, directing the relatives to one  part  of
 the house and friends to another, watching that there  be
 no confusion in opening and  closing camp-chairs,  placing
 them in position in the  rooms set apart for that purpose,
 never allowing any to remain open in the hallways, receiv-
 ing flowers at the  door,  and placing them according  to
 directions.   See that services are begun promptly — delay
 at such times  is a cruelty.   One assistant should  be sta-
 tioned outside, to attend  to the order of the carriages.
 There should be no  loud  talking  in  front of the house.
 When everything  is in readiness, there should be a  man  at
 the door to direct the relatives and friends to the carriages
 assigned them; another at the  line of carriages, to assist
the family and friends to their seats.  When  all are filled
 a motion  of the  hand should  be given  to the  one in
charge
  When  the cortege  moves  away, the man left  at  the
house should set the home in order before the return of 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
131
the family, removing all evidence of the funeral, carrying
his paraphernalia to his office, and laying it aside carefully
and well cleaned  for  future use.   One assistant  should
return from the cemetery, and see to it that the family are
assisted out of their coaches.  Courtesy, gentleness, unob-
trusiveness, thoughtfulness, sympathy — all  are requisite
to a proper discharge of Life's  saddest ceremony. 
 
        APPENDIX


 By PROFESSOR A. RENOUARD,

Demonstrator United States College of Embalming,
           New York City.


               133 
 
                   APPENDIX.
   THE study of Anatomy, as pursued by the physician,
 extends over  the broad field of  all branches of  that
 science; but for the undertaker  it is more  particularly
 confined to Angiology, and the histology of those vessels
 through which the sanguinary circulation  is conveyed to
 all points of the human organism.
   Hence, in order to enhance the value of this companion
 to the Anatomical Aid, for  the  use  of undertakers, and
 with a view to aid them in their comprehensive apprehen-
 sion of the embalming process, we here add a few obser-
 vations of immense practical  worth  to the student of the
 Handbook and  Anatomical  Aid.  It is  an  irrefutable
 fact, that, if the embalmer is thoroughly conversant with
 the location and ramifications of those channels through
 which the blood circulates during life, he must, certainly,
 according to the sequence of indisputable logic, be familiar
 with the progress and distribution of the antiputrid  fluid
 which  is injected into those same channels  for the purpose
 of preservation.
  This invaluable information can be obtained by a care-
 ful study of the inimitable plates in the Anatomical Aid;
 but we shall  also  supplement this  by the addition  of a
 short description of the physiological aspect of these same
vessels.
  Arteries are tubes which convey the blood from  the
heart  to  all parts of the  body.  They are elastic  and
strong; have no  valves except the three semilunar valves
                         135 
136
EMBALMERS  GUIDE.
at their emergence from  the heart, and  are said  not to
contain any blood after death.  They are formed of three
coats or tunics superimposed over one another, and known
as the internal, middle, and  external.
  What deductions can we derive from these statements ?
  i. The arteries convey the blood from the heart to all
parts of the body.  If this be the unquestionable case
during life, is  it not also true that after  death,  liquid
injected into these same arteries must  also  penetrate to
every part of the body ?
  2. Arteries are elastic and  strong.  During life they
distend under the amount of blood thrown into them by
the muscular action of the heart, and also after death they
are distended by a precipitate injection of preserving fluid
into them.  The results of an unguarded manner of inject-
ing fluid may be easily understood, especially if the state-
ments following be taken into consideration.
  3. All medical works agree in the statement that arteries
contain no blood after death.  This must be accepted, but
not without a qualification, as it is well known to all under-
takers that the insertion of a  sharp  instrument into the
internal  coat of an artery is  followed by the appearance of
blood.   Hence this  is  a certain indication of our pene-
trating the internal coat and the  entrance  of the  tube of
the injector into the vessel, thus preventing that fatal error
of  introducing the injector between  some of the  external
coats.
  4.  Arteries have no valves except the three semilunar
valves of the aorta where it leaves the  heart.  Therefore
the whole arterial system is  open to the free circulation of
the fluid.
   Notwithstanding the foregoing statements, let us remem-
 ber that in some cases the arteries contain a large amount 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.              137
of blood, and the knowledge of this fact must be  remem-
bered by the careful embalmer.
  Veins  are tubes which return to the heart the blood
conveyed to all parts of the body by the arteries.
  Veins are neither as strong nor as  elastic as the arteries,
as they are not, except at a very few points, submitted to the
strain of the pulsating action of the heart.   They contain
many valves, especially in the extremities, to counteract the
possible effects of centrifugal force in the motion of the legs
and  arms.   They  are always full  of blood in the dead
subject; they  present a greater possibility of coagulation
of the blood  which  they  contain  in their  larger trunks
than of that in the smaller ones.  They are divided into
two  classes, perfectly  exemplified in the Aid.   First, the
deep-seated veins, which always accompany the  arteries,
either single or double, and the subcutaneous veins, which
pass over the muscles, under the skin, and which  commu-
nicate freely with the deep-seated  veins.  The points of
injection shown on Plate of Muscles, Nerves, Veins and
Arteries, are  intended to be  used as the requirements of
the case demand.
   It is beyond the scope of this work to enter  into details
pertaining  more to the teachings of an embalming school
than to anatomical knowledge; but the intelligent embalmer,
taking advantage of the preceding remarks, and applying
them to practical  use,  in conjunction with  theoretical
instruction to be gathered from that peerless work " The
Embalmer's Anatomical Aid,"must become convinced of
the unequaled  merits of this atlas.
                        A. RENOUARD,
    Demonstrator United States College of Embalming. 
 
          PART  SECOND




     By D. W. GRAHAM, A. M., M. D.,


Professor Surgery Woman's Medical College of Chicago; Surgeon
     Cook County Hospital and Presbyterian Hospital.



                    139 
 
OPERATOR INJECTING THE STOMACH AND ABDOMEN,
                    (See page n I.) 
 
THE   SKELETON.
   Letters and figures inclosed in parentheses, in this Handbook, refer t» parts or
organs similarly lettered or numbered on sections or plates.
INDEX  TO  PLATE.
(I)	Frontal.
(2)	Parietal.
(3)	Temporal.
(4)	Mastoid part of Temporal
(5)	Nasal.
(6)	Malar.
(7)	Superior Maxillary.
(8)	Teeth.
(9)	Inferior Maxillary.
(IO)	Cervical Vertebrae.
(»)	Dorsal Vertebrae.
(12)	Lumbar Vertebrae.
(13)	Clavicle.
(14)	Scapula.
(15)	Sternum.
	(A) Manubrium.
	(B) Gladiolus.
	(C) Ensiform Appendix.
(16)	True Ribs.
(17)	False Ribs.
(18)	Floating Ribs.
(19)	Humerus.
(20)	Radius.
(21)	Ulna.
 
142
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
(22)	Carpus.
	(A) Scaphoid.
	(B) Semilunar.
	(C) Cuneiform.
	(D) Pisiform.
	(E) Trapezium.
	(F) Trapezoid.
	(G) Os Magnum.
	(H) Unciform.
(23)	Metacarpus.
(24)	Phalanges.
(25:	Sacrum.
(26)	Coccyx.
(27	1 Ilium.
(28	1 Ischium.
(29/	1 Pubes.
(30	1 Head of Femur.
(31:	Neck of Femur.
(32	1 Shaft of Femur.
(331	| Patella.
(34	1 Tibia.
(35]	Fibula.
(36;	1 Tarsus.
	(A) Os Calcis.
	(B) Astragalus.
	(C) Scaphoid.
	(D) Head of Astragalus.
	(E) Internal Cuneiform.
	(F) Middle Cuneiform.
	(G) External Cuneiform
	(H) Cuboid.
(37)  Metatarsus.
(38)  Phalanges. 
embalmers' guide.
143
                   THE SKELETON.
  The skeleton consists of two hundred bones, excluding
those of the ear and the smaller  sesamoid bones.  The
sacrum  and coccyx, together, have the elements of nine
vertebrae, but are counted as two bones.   The bones give
outline  to the body, and support to the soft  parts, form
cavities for the protection of the important organs, and
serve as levers and points  of attachment  for muscles in
locomotion, and motion of individual parts.
  As to their form, bones are classed as long, short, flat,
and irregular.
  Long bones have three sources of arterial supply: the
periosteal vessels for the compact tissue of the shaft; the
nutrient or medullary artery for  the  marrow  and deeper
parts of the shaft; the articular arteries for the cancellous
tissue and red marrow of the extremities.  These sets of
vessels  communicate freely with each other.
  In  structure, bone tissue is either dense or porous.  The
former is compact tissue, and is found in the shaft of the
long  bones and the surfaces of  all  bones; the latter  is
cancellous tissue, and forms the expanded ends of the long
bones,  and the central part of  other  bones.  Compact
tissue is disposed in concentric layers (lamellce).  Cancellous
tissue is made by these layers separating, diverging and
interlacing, the fibers being disposed in the forms of arches,
which  give elasticity and  strength.  These  arches are
always  arranged with  reference to points of pressure and
traction.
  Except where covered with  cartilage,  bones are  sur-
rounded by  a dense  fibrous membrane, the periosteum,
which serves as a nidus for the subdivision and  distribution
of arteries to the  bone  beneath.  It sends a  sheath with 
144
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
each vessel.  By its under layer, which is  gelatinous and
contains  the osteoblasts, it  contributes to  the  growth,
nutrition, and repair of bones.
  Histologically, bone consists of bone spaces with their
contents, and the bone tissue proper.   The spaces are the
medullary cavities, the Haversian canals, the lacunce, and
the canaliculi.   The medullary cavities are the canals of
long bones which contain yellow marrow (ninety-eight per
cent, fat), and the medullary cavities of  the  cancellous
tissue, which contain red marrow, which substance con-
tributes  to the  formation of  the  red  blood corpuscles.
The medullary membrane (endosteum)  lines  these canals
and spaces.
  The  Haversian  canals  average I -500th  of an  inch in
diameter.  The larger ones contain marrow, and all convey
one or more blood-vessels.  The lacunae are characteristic
of true bone, as distinguished from calcareous deposits.
They are insect-like cavities between the lamellae, arranged
in circles around the Haversian  canals, oval-shaped, and
in size  1-2000th by  1-6000th of an  inch.   Each one
contains  a  soft, nucleated  substance  called  a " bone
corpuscle."  The canaliculi are the channels by which the
lacunae   communicate   with  each other  and  with the
Haversian canals.   Diameter 1-14000th of  an  inch and
less.  They contain,  each, a minute process of the " bone
corpuscle " of the lacunae.  This process imbibes nutrient
fluid from the blood  in the Haversian  canals, and passes
it on from  one  lacuna or " bone corpuscle  " to  another
—thus supplying the bone tissue with nutrient material.
  Bone tissue proper, occupies all  the space between the
lacunae and canaliculi.  It is one-third organic and two-
thirds  earthy matter.   The organic matter makes the 
embalmers' guide.
145
outline  and forms  a  bed in which  the  earthy matter is
laid down as minute osseous granules.
  The embryonic skeleton consists, at first, entirely of this
animal matrix, for  the most part in the form of hyaline
cartilage.
  Ossification begins by  a deposit of bone granules in  the
matrix, at certain  points.    Each point  is a  " center of
ossification."  These centers are  definite  in number and
in their order of succession for each bone, but  vary in
different bones.
  The skeleton begins  to  ossify in the clavicle, by a
center which appears the middle of the second month of
fcetal life.
  The primary center in a long  bone  is for the shaft
(diaphysis).   After the shaft  is well advanced in  ossifica-
tion,  secondary centers (epiphyses) appear in the articular
ends  of the bone.   Still later, other centers  appear  for
the processes, tuberosities, etc.
  The first epiphysis to  appear, and  the only one present
at birth, is that of the lower  end of the femur.  This fact
is available in determining certain medico-legal questions
about premature birth.  Soon the diaphysis is separated
from  its epiphyses,  only  by  a  thin  disc  of cartilage
(epiphyseal  cartilage).   Eventually,  they  unite  and
become continuous by ossification of the disc, when  the
individual has attained full stature.   This process is com-
pleted in all long bones by the twenty-fifth year.
  Of the epiphyses, that one which  appears first unites
last.   The  nutrient artery  runs  toward  that  epiphysis
which unites first.   The  nutrient arteries run toward  the
elbow in the upper extremity, but from  the knee in  the
lower limb.
  Bones derive their growth in length from the epiphyseal
  TO 
146
embalmers' guide.
cartilages, but not  in equal  degree from the upper and
lower.   That epiphysis which appears first — being the one
from which the nutrient artery runs — contributes most to
the growth in length.  Hence, in  the  upper extremity,
the growth in length is derived mostly from the epiphyses
at the shoulder and wrist, while in the lower limb those at
the knee contribute most.
   Growth in length is arrested if an epiphyseal cartilage
is destroyed by  suppuration, or prematurely ossified by
inflammation.  The amount of the  permanent shortening
of the limb resulting, will  depend  on which cartilage is
involved, and whether its destruction has been complete
or partial; and if partial, whether  on the epiphyseal or
diaphyseal faces  of the cartilage; for that surface of the
cartilage toward the diaphysis  contributes about  fifteen
times more to the growth in length than does the epiphy-
seal face.
   The epiphyseal cartilage, to a certain extent,  serves as
a barrier to the extension of inflammation and  suppura-
tion from one part to the other.
   The  expanded part of the shaft, between the end of
the medullary canal and the epiphyseal cartilage, is called
the juxta-epiphyseal portion (Oilier), and from  a patho-
logical and surgical standpoint is the most important part
of the  bone.   It is the seat of the greatest physiological
activity and prolification, and is the zone of election for
all pathological  processes.   Also  on account of its close
relation to a joint,  and exposed position, it is most liable
to overstrain, local fatigue,  and other slight traumatisms.
Whence the  explanation of the fact that the juxta-epi-
physeal portion of long bones, and to some extent the cor-
responding part  of other bones, is much the most frequent
point of departure for inflammations and development of 
embalmers' guide.
i47
neoplasms  during the period of growth.  Also at this
period, that end of the bone which contributes most to its
growth in length, is the seat of election for neoplasm and
inflammatory lesions.  Hence, the more frequent appear-
ance of benign and malignant growths in the epiphyses at
the shoulder, wrist and knee, than in  those at the elbow,
hip and ankle.   So with  all the  inflammatory processes,
tubercular, or other  kind.   Though, on account of cer-
tain joints being more exposed to traumatisms, the rule is
not as invariable for inflammatory processes as for neo-
plasms.

    BLOOD  FORMATION  AND  CIRCULATION.
                   (Semi-diagrammatic.)
                  INDEX TO PLATE.
                      ARTERIES.
         (i) Carotid Arteries, which, with the vertebral,
              supply the head.
         (2) Innominate Artery.
         (3) Subclavian.
(4)  (4)  (4) Arch of  the Aorta—ascending, transverse
              and descending portion.
    (5)  (5) Pulmonary Arteries, right and  left, contain-
               ing venous blood.
         (6) Thoracic Aorta.
(7)  (8)  (9) Gastric, Hepatic and Splenic—branches of
              the Cceliac Axis,  which is a branch of
       (10) Abdominal Aorta.
       (11) Superior Mesenteric — to small intestines and
              part of large.
       (12) Renal. 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
                    VEINS.
    (13)  Vena Cava Superior.
(14) (14)  Innominate — right and left.
    (15)  Subclavian.
    (16)  Jugular.
    (17)  Pulmonary — containing arterial blood.
    (18)  Vena Cava Inferior.
    (19)  Hepatic.
    (20)  Gastric.
    (21)  Splenic.
    (22)  Mesenteric.
    (23)  Vena Portae.
    (24)  Renal (emulgent).
    (25)  Right Auricle.
    (26)  Left Auricle.
    (27)  Right Ventricle.
    (28)  Left Ventricle.
    (29)  Thoracic Duct.
          VISCERA AND LYMPHATICS.
    (30)  Stomach.
    (31)  Spleen.
    (32)  Liver.
    (33)  Kidney.
    (34)  Duodenum.
   (35)  Ascending Colon.
   (36)  Descending Colon.
   (37) Lymphatics of the  Intestines — the vessels
          being called Lacteals;the glands, the Mes-
          enteric Glands. 
embalmers'  guide.
149
                  THE CIRCULATION.
   The  greater  or  Systemic  Circulation  includes  the
 course of the blood from the left auricle (26), through the
 left ventricle (28), arch of the aorta (4),  the arteries to the
 upper extremities (3), those to the head (1), thoracic aorta
 (6) and its branches, abdominal aorta (10) with its branches,
 and  its continuation and  subdivisions  for  the  lower
 extremities; together with the capillaries and veins corre-
 sponding to the areas of distribution of  the arteries — the
 veins from the head and upper extremities joining to form
 the superior vena cava (13), which opens into the right
 auricle — those from the lower extremities and the pelvic
 and abdominal viscera join to form the inferior vena cava
 (18), which also opens into the right auricle.
   The  blood  from the  intestines and  digestive  organs
 passes through a  second  set of capillaries, in the liver,
 before joining the general current in the vena cava.
   The Portal Circulation — a part of the Systemic — in-
 cludes the  course of the venous blood from all the  organs
 of digestion, through the  superior and inferior mesenteric
 veins and the splenic and  gastric veins, which four trunks
join to form the portal vein (23).  This vein is about four
 inches long, and extends from behind the head of the pan-
 creas to the transverse fissure of the liver, where it sub-
 divides, and the blood, after passing through a second set
 of capillaries  in the liver, leaves it through the hepatic
veins, and empties into the vena cava inferior.  The portal
system of veins has no valves.
  The lesser ox Pulmonic Circulation includes the course
of the blood from  the right auricle (25) through the right
ventricle (27), through the  pulmonary arteries (5, 5), to
the lungs, and its return through the pulmonary veins (17), 
i5o
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
with a fresh  supply of oxygen, to be  again distributed
throughout the system.
  The Lymphatic System is an appendix of the Vascular
System.    Lymphatic vessels begin  in the  tissues as
" lymph  spaces " in connective tissue, as  " perivascular
spaces,"  and  as blind tubules within  the villi of mucous
membrane.   These spaces, or canals, unite to form tubes
which unite again and converge to form the thoracic duct
and the right lymphatic duct.  In their course they pass
through  (rather  empty into  and begin anew) numerous
lymphatic glands, which  are  a collection  of lymph folli-
cles, and are of the size of a  pin head and  larger.   In
structure these vessels resemble veins and have  many
valves.   The functions of the  lymphatic  system are, to
serve as nutrient channels in those tissues devoid of blood-
vessels ;  as a drainage apparatus to collect and return to
the blood fluids which have  oozed through the capillaries
to irrigate the tissues ;  and as absorbents  and carriers of
both waste products and  food products.   The lymphatics
from the intestines are the lacteals, and during digestion,
their contents are called  chyme.  The lymph current is
from the periphery to the center only.
  The blood  is the medium  of exchange  between  the
outer world  and the  tissues of the  body.    It conveys
tissue  building materials from without — food products
from  the digestive tract, and oxygen from the  lungs.
The food products are in  the form of solutions and emul-
sions,  and are absorbed  by  the veins and lymphatics.
Their evolution into blood and tissue  pabulum is carried
on while circulating in the vessels and passing through
the various organs, as the spleen,  liver,  red marrow of
bones, etc.   The capillaries serve as the ultimate distrib-
uters of the renovated blood  to the tissues, which assimi- 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
151
late the new and give up the old.  From the intercellu-
lar and lymph spaces, this blood fluid, charged with waste
products, is then  taken up by the veins and lymphatics
and passed  to  and  through various  excretory organs,
as the lungs, skin, kidneys, liver, etc., which separate the
effete materials to be cast off.
   The blood makes a complete circuit of the body, on an
average, in thirty-two  or  thirty-three seconds, or during
twenty-seven heart-beats.
   In the adult, the blood constitutes one-thirteenth part
of the weight of the body;  in the new-born infant, one-
nineteenth.
   Life is endangered by hemorrhage, in proportion to the
amount and rapidity of the  bleeding.   In adults, when
one-half the total  blood is lost suddenly, death is  liable
to take place, and in  newly born  children,  when  a few
ounces are lost.  The old, the young, and the adipose bear
the loss of blood badly.


             NERVOUS  SYSTEM.
                   SPINAL NERVES.
(A)  Cervical  Plexus, consisting  of  first  four cervical
       nerves (1), (2), (3), (4).
(B) Brachial Plexus, consisting of (5) fifth cervical, (6)
       sixth cervical, (7) seventh cervical, (8) eighth cer-
       vical, and (9) first dorsal nerves.
       (10) Second dorsal.   (11) Third dorsal.
(C) Lumbar Plexus, consisting  of (12) the  first lumbar,
       (13) second lumbar, (14) third lumbar, (15) fourth
       lumbar, and the dorsi-lumbar cord. 
152
EMBALMERS' guide.
(D) Sacral  Plexus,  consisting of (16) the fifth lumbar,
       (17)  first  sacral,  (18) second  sacral,  (19)  third
       sacral, and (20) part of fourth sacral.
       (21) Fifth sacral.   (22)  Coccygeal.
         (a) Phrenic — internal respiratory.
         (b)  Long thoracic — external respiratory.
         (c) Spinal Cord.
         (d) Brain.
(E) Method of  communication of  Spinal Nerves  with
       Sympathetic,  by  a twig  which is  composed of
       white matter  from the  cord to the ganglion  and
       gray matter from the ganglion to the cord.
                  CRANIAL NERVES.
(F) Olfactory.
(G) Optic.
(H) Motor Oculi.
(I) Patheticus.
(J) Tri-facial.   (a)  Ophthalmic  division.   (b)   Supe-
      rior  maxillary  division.   (c)  Inferior maxillary
      division,   (e, h)  Dental  branches,   (f)  Branch
      to palate,   (g) Lingual — special nerve of taste to
      tongue.   (j) Supraorbital  branch  of ophthalmic
      division.
(K) Abducens.
(L) Portio  dura — facial nerve — nerve  of  expression.
      (The Portio-mollis not shown.)
(M)  Eighth   nerve.   (m)   Glosso-Pharyngeal  branch.
      (n)  Pneumogastric  branch.   (p)   Spinal  Acces-
      sory branch.
(N) Hypoglossal nerve. 
embalmers' guide.
153
                 SYMPATHETIC system.
   (I) Cervical portion:  (1)  Superior, (2)  Middle, (3)
        Inferior Cervical Ganglia.
  (II) Thoracic portion.
  (Ill) Lumbar portion.
  (IV) Sacral portion.
  (V) Ganglion impar.
   The Cephalic portion consists of four pairs of ganglia,
  namely,  the  ophthalmic,  the spheno-palatine,  the  optic
  and  the  submaxillary —all  in  connection  with the fifth
  cranial nerve, but communicating freely with  the  other
  cranial nerves.
   The  Sympathetic System has  a double chain of ganglia,
  placed  on each side of the bodies of the vertebrae.   In the
  thorax they  lie in front  of the heads of the ribs.   The
 ganglia correspond mostly with the vertebrae,  and the
 divisions of the latter into regions.   Each has a branch of
 communication with the spinal nerves — and all  with each
 other—composed of white and  gray matter.
   These ganglia are the lateral or vertebral.  They give off
 branches  which go, chiefly,  to  the thoracic,  abdominal,
 and pelvic cavities, forming the collateral or  pre-vertebral
 ganglia, or centers, named  the cardiac, the solar, and the
 hypogastric plexuses.   From these gangliated plexuses,
 branches  are again given off to form the terminal ganglia,
 or  plexuses,   which surround  and  accompany all  the
 arteries of the viscera.
  The sympathetic has independent functions, due to its
 own gray   matter, such  as are  found  in the automatic
ganglia  of the heart, the mesenteric  plexus  of the intes-
tines,  and  those for the uterus, ureters, and walls of blood-
vessels. 
154
embalmers' guide.
  The dependent functions of the sympathetic are those
which  inhibit,  augment,  or  modify impulses  from  the
cerebro-spinal centers.
                  THE SPINAL CORD.
  The spinal cord is that part of the central nervous sys-
tem  contained in the spinal  canal, extending from  the
foramen magnum to the junction of  the first and second
lumbar vertebrae.  It is fifteen to eighteen inches in length,
and has a cervical and a lumbar enlargement.   A median
fissure, before and  behind, divides  it into symmetrical
halves connected by a  commissure.  The  gray matter is
in the center, in the form of two crescents, placed with
their  convexities together,  giving an  anterior  and a
posterior  horn for  each lateral half.   Around the gray
matter, the white conducting matter is disposed as  tracts
or columns, between or through  which the anterior and
posterior  roots of the spinal  nerves pass to or from  the
horns of the gray matter.
  The spinal cord is, first, a conducting medium;  second,
a center, or centers, for reflex action; third, for automatic
impulses.  It conducts outgoing  impulses as motor to
muscles, vaso-motor to blood-vessels, secretory to glands,
trophic to the tissues.  The paths for the outgoing  im-
pulses are, chiefly,  the motor tracts from the brain — the
direct  pyramidal in the  anterior  median  part, and  the
crossed pyramidal  in the posterior  part of the  lateral
columns.  Fibers from these tracts pass to and through the
cells of the anterior  horn of each segment to the  anterior
roots of the spinal nerve.  Hence the motor tracts diminish
in size from above downward.   It also conducts in-going
impulses, causing^tf^nz/sensations — cutaneous, articular, 
embalmers' guide.
155
muscular, visual; special sensations — tactile, pain, heat,
exciting reflex  and automatic centers.   These in-going
impulses come from the periphery — through  the poste-
rior roots of the spinal nerves, to and through the cells
in the posterior horns of the gray matter, and thence up-
ward through the sensory tracts — the posterior median
and  the posterior lateral  columns.   The sensory  tracts
increase in  size from below  upward.  Impulses are also
conducted,  from one  segment  to another, through the
" association tracts " — the anterio-lateral column — which
are of uniform size throughout the cord.
   A center for a spinal reflex is that part of the gray mat-
ter which transfers a stimulus from the in-going fiber of
the posterior  root to  the out-going fibers of the anterior
root, constituting the middle part of the reflex arc.
   The spinal reflexes are the superficial or cutaneous, the
deep or tendon  reflexes and the organic.   The cutaneous
reflexes are the plantar, the cremasteric, the gluteal, the
abdominal,  the  epigastric  and the  interscapular.  The
deep reflexes are the knee-jerk, the jaw-jerk, the ankle
clonus,  and  the  abdominal reflex.  The  organic reflexes
are concerned in the acts of respiration, circulation, secre-
tion, micturition, defecation, etc.
   The  automatic centers of the cord are those  which
retain  their  activity  after  being  separated  from  the
medulla, but,  normally, are subject to the control  of the
higher centers of the medulla and cerebrum, and are sub-
ordinates to these.   Examples are the cilio-spinal center
for dilating  the pupil (opposite the lower cervical and the
upper two dorsal vertebrae); the  ano-spinal center in the
lower lumbar  segments;  the  vesico-spinal   about the
fourth or fifth lumbar;  the vaso-motor centers; the sweat
centers. 
i56
EMBALMERS'  guide.
   A  segment  of  the  spinal  cord is  that portion of its
entire thickness which corresponds to the origin of a pair
of spinal nerves.   There are, hence, thirty-one segments,
each  of which has  its own special functions as a nerve cen-
ter,  and also functions  for transmitting and  modifying
impulses from other segments  and distant centers.
   Each of the  thirty-one pairs of spinal nerves has two
roots of origin from the cord — a posterior, afferent or sen-
sory root, with a ganglion of gray matter, and an anterior,
efferent, or motor  root.  The two roots  join at the inter-
vertebral foramen, forming a compound nerve, which then
separates into an anterior and a posterior division, or ven-
tral and dorsal, each of which has special relations — the
dorsal supplying the structures about the spinal column.
They are smaller than the ventral, except those of the first
and second — the  sub-occipital and the  great occipital —
which supply the back part of the scalp.
   The ventral divisions supply all the anterior parts of the
body.  Those  for the limbs join and intermingle so as to
form plexuses.   The ventral plexus  for the upper limb is
derived from five spinal nerves, while the lumbo-sacral
plexus for the lower limb is derived from nine.
   As a general rule,  a  particular nerve trunk supplies
those parts  which are  associated  in function — as the
muscles which move a joint (muscular branch), the  joint
itself (articular branch), the skin about the joint and inser-
tion of the muscles (cutaneous branch).
  The roots  of the   first cervical nerve  pass slightly
upward in the canal to  reach the foramen of exit.  Those
of the second pass horizontally, while all others pass down-
ward  in the canal to reach the  foramen of exit, the spinal
canal being much larger than the cord.
  The origins of the nerves in the spinal cord have thefol- 
OPERATOR EXTRACTING WATER IN A  CASE OF  DROPSY
                       (See page 124.) 
 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
157
lowing relations to the spinous processes of the vertebrae:
  First cervical—level of foramen magnum.
  Second cervical — a little below occipital bone.
  Third cervical—middle of space between occipital bone
and spinous process of axis.
  Fourth cervical — spine of axis.
  Fifth cervical — spine of third vertebra.
  Sixth cervical — between third and fourth spines.
  Seventh cervical — from spine of fourth to spine of fifth.
  Eighth cervical — below spine of fifth vertebra.
  First dorsal — spine of seventh cervical vertebra.
  Second dorsal— seventh cervical to first dorsal vertebra.
  Third dorsal — first  dorsal vertebra and below.
  Fourth dorsal nerve—second dorsal vertebra.
  Fifth dorsal — third dorsal vertebra.
  Sixth dorsal — fourth dorsal vertebra.
  Seventh dorsal — fifth  dorsal vertebra and above.
  Eighth dorsal — from fifth to sixth dorsal vertebra.
  Ninth dorsal — from sixth to seventh dorsal vertebra.
  Tenth dorsal — from seventh to eighth dorsal vertebra.
  Eleventh dorsal — from eighth to  ninth dorsal vertebra.
  Twelfth dorsal — from ninth to eleventh dorsal vertebra.
  The five  lumbar nerves  arise from between spines of
eleventh and twelfth dorsal vertebrae.  The five sacral and
the coccygeal arise from level of the spine of twelfth dorsal
to first lumbar.   The  cord  terminates at lower border of
first lumbar vertebra.
  Hence  any lesion which paralyzes the neck and upper
limbs  must  be above the fifth  cervical  vertebra.  The
phrenic nerve — a part of the third and fourth — is affected
only when  the lesion is at or above the axis.   A lesion at
the  sixth or seventh  cervical paralyzes all the intercostal
muscles; at the third dorsal, all spaces below the third  are 
158
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
affected;  at  the fifth dorsal, the abdominal walls;  at the
eleventh dorsal, the lumbar  and sacral plexuses become
involved; at the  twelfth  dorsal,  the sacral plexus  is
paralyzed.
              (For the Brain, see description of the Head.)

     THE  BODY  AND EXTREMITIES.

                INDEXES  TO SECTIONS.
     MUSCLES OF THE ANTERIOR PART OF THE BODY.
  (d) Isthmus of the Thyroid gland, covering the upper
       part of the Trachea.
  (i) Clavicle.
  (g) Manubrium of Sternum.
  (h) Central part of Sternum (Gladiolus).
  (i) Coracoid process of Scapula.
  (k) Acromion process.
  (1) First rib.   (m)  Second rib.   (n) Third rib.
  (o) Fourth rib.   (p) Fifth rib.
  (r) Head of Humerus (greater tuberosity).
  (s) Interclavicular ligament.
  (t) Rhomboid ligament.
  (u) Aponeurosis of External Intercostals.
  (v) Acromioclavicular ligament.
 (w) Coraco-acromial ligament.
(17) Platysma-Myoides—a cutaneous muscle, the upper
       end of which is one  of the  muscles of expression.
(18) Sterno-mastoid (sternal portion).
(19) Sterno-hyoid.
(20) Scalenus Anticus.
(21) Pectoralis Major. 
                   EMBALMERS' GUIDE.               159

 (22) Pectoralis Minor.
 (23) Subclavius.
 (24) Serratus Magnus — interdigitating with (25) External
        Oblique of the abdomen.
 (26) Linea Alba.
 (27) Rectus.  (28)  Its transverse  aponeuroses  (Linea
        Transversae).
 (29) Pyramidalis.
 (30) Internal Oblique.
 (31) Poupart's Ligament,  or  Crural Arch,  composed  of
        the thickened lower border of the aponeurosis of
        external oblique.   Below  it, is the Saphenous
        opening — the outer end of  the Femoral  canal,
        through which comes Femoral Hernia.
 (32) External  boundary (Pillar) and (33) internal bound-
        ary (Pillar) of (34)  external abdominal ring, which
        is an  opening  in   the  aponeurosis of  external
        oblique, caused  by divergence of its fibers.  The
        lower boundary  of the  ring is  the  crest of the
        Pubes.
 (35)  Internal abdominal ring, the opening in transversalis
       fascia, situated  a half-inch  above Poupart's  liga-
       ment, and midway between spines of the Pubes and
       Ilium.
 (36) Inguinal canal for the spermatic cord, and through
       which oblique inguinal hernia makes its way.  Its
       roof  is  the conjoined lower  border of  internal
       oblique  and transversalis muscles; its floor, Pou-
       part's  ligament; its  outer wall, the aponeurosis of
       external  oblique;  its inner wall, the transversalis
       fascia, upon which the number 36  is placed.
(37)  Border of  Deltoid muscle. 
i6o
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
(38
(39
Coraco-Brachialis.
Short head, and (40) long head, of biceps.
                     THE THORAX.
 (5)  Clavicle.
 (6)  Sternum.       (6) Manubrium.      (6') Gladiolus.
       (6") Ensiform Cartilage.
 (7)  Ribs.
 (8)  Costal Cartilages — those of the false  ribs — eighth,
       ninth and tenth—join that of the seventh.
 (9)  Sterno-Clavicular  joint  with  ligaments,  and  (9',
       without.
(10)  Costo-Sternal joint with ligament.
(11)  Inter-clavicular notch.
(12)  Internal and (12') External Intercostal  muscles—the
       analogues of the oblique muscles of  the abdomen.
       The external are aponeurotic from the sternum to
       the  ends of  the costal  cartilages,  and both  are
       aponeurotic from the angles  of ribs to spine.  Be-
       tween  these  two  muscular  planes,  in an osteo-
       fibrous canal on the under border of each rib, are
       the intercostal muscles and nerves.
(J3)  (l3 ) Costal (Parietal) Pleurae.

               MEDIASTINUM  AND LUNGS.

(14)  Mediastinum — the space  from  before  backward,
       from sternum to spine, bounded laterally by the
       Pleurae.  Nothing  but the cellulo-adipose tissue is
       shown.  The space  is divided  into the  anterior
       (from the sternum to pericardium), which contains
       the  remains  of the Thymus gland, Triangularis
       Sterni muscle, left Brachio-Cephalic vein  (crossing
       behind first  part of sternum), Lymphatic glands 
embalmers' guide.
161
      and  left internal Mammary  artery and  vein;  the
      middle, which contains  the  heart with its  large
      vessels and Phrenic nerves ;  and the posterior, con-
      taining the  CEsophagus, Pneumogastric  nerves,
      Aorta, Thoracic  Duct, Azygos vein, Trachea and
      Lymphatic glands.
(15)  (15) Upper and lower lobes of left lung.
(16)  (16) (16) Upper,  middle  and  lower lobes of right
      lung.
                 INTERIOR OF LUNGS.
(17)  Trachea.
 (A)  Arch  of Aorta.
 (B)  Pulmonary artery,  which begins in  front  of root of
      aorta and bifurcates  under its arch, giving a branch
      to each lung.  It conveys venous blood from  the
      right ventricle to the lungs.
 (C)  Superior Vena Cava,  emptying into right auricle.
 (D)  One of Left  Pulmonary veins, there being two  on
      each side which convey the purified blood from the
      lungs to the left  auricle, by four openings.

                      THE HEART.
  (a) Right Auricle.
  (b) Right Auricular appendage.
  (c)  Left Auricle.
  (d)  Left Auricular appendage.
  (e)  Mitral (Left Auriculo-Ventricular) valve.
  (f)  Tricuspid (Right Auriculo-Ventricular) valve.
  (g)  Musculi Papillares, with  the  free ends of which the
      flaps of the valves are connected by (h) the Chordae
      Tendinae.
  (i)  Ventricular Septum. 
162
embalmers'  guide.
         abdomen and abdominal viscera.
(14)  Loop  of large intestine (Sigmoid Flexure of Colon).
(15)  Bladder.
(16, to the left.)   Great Omentum with Omental vessels,
      branches of the Gastric.
(16, to the right.)  Transversalis fascia and subperitoneal
      fat, in which are imbedded (C) the deep epigastric
      vessels — the artery, a branch of the external iliac,
      passing upward and inward to reach the sheath of the
      rectus muscle, in which it passes upward to anasto-
      mose  with the superior  epigastric,  the  terminal
      branch of the internal mammary.   In obstruction of
      the abdominal  or thoracic aorta, collateral circula-
      tion is carried on largely by this circuit.  The veins
      (the  inner one the larger)  passing down, join the
      external iliac.
(17)  Fold of Peritoneum — Median Vesical ligament.  (a2)
      Parietal  Peritoneum.
(X) Spermatic artery and vein.
                     THE LIVER.
 (1) Right lobe — lower surface.
 (2) Left lobe.
 (3) Gall-bladder distended, which normally projects from
      under the ninth costal cartilage.  When distended,
      and  the liver is   enlarged,  it  approaches  the
      umbilicus.
 (4) Portal vein subdividing.
 (5) Hepatic veins uniting to join the vena cava  as it lies
      in its groove on posterior  border of liver.
 (6) Common  bile duct, between  which and  the  Portal
      vein,  is the Hepatic artery —a branch of the Cceliac
      axis. 
EMBALMERS' guide.
163
 (7)  Hepatic duct, joining (8) the Cystic duct, to make the
      common duct.
 (9)  Neck of gall-bladder.
(10)  Cystic artery.
(11)  The  Round  ligament — the remains of the umbilical
      artery, lying in the longitudinal fissure between the
      double fold of peritoneum (12), called the Falciform
      or Suspensory ligament.

              STOMACH AND INTESTINES.
  (1') (^Esophageal opening of stomach.
  (3) Cardiac end of stomach and interior wall.
 (3') Rugae of mucous membrane.
  (4) Pylorus.
  (5) Beginning of Duodenum.
  (7) Jejunum and Ileum.
  (8) Vermiform Appendix.
  (9) Caecum (Caput Coli).
 (10) Ascending Colon.
 (11) Hepatic Flexure.
 (12) Transverse Colon.
 (13) Splenic Flexure.
 (14) Descending Colon,  terminating  in  the Sigmoid
      Flexure.
 (15) Bladder distended.

  SECTION OF BODY, AND  SHOULDER AND  HIP JOINTS.
  (1) Superior Constrictor muscle of Pharynx.
  (2) Middle.
  (3) Inferior.
  (4) Mucous membrane of Pharynx.
  (5) Clavicle.
  (6) Acromio-Clavicular ligament. 
164
EMBALMERS' guide.
 (7) Ribs.
 (8) Acromion process of Scapula.
 (9) Coraco-acromial ligament.
(10) Tendon of long head of Biceps.
(11) Capsular ligament.
(12) Anterior  or  inner surface  of external  Intercostal
      muscles.
(12') Internal surface of internal Intercostals.
(13) Scapula.
(14) Head of Humerus, the  lesser tuberosity of  which
      looks directly forward.
(15') Surgical neck  of  Humerus, which  extends  from
      tuberosities to lower border of axilla.
(16) Coracoid process of Scapula.
(17) Articular  Cartilages  of  head of   Humerus  and
      Glenoid Fossa.
(18) Spleen.
(19) Pancreas.
(20) Right kidney.
(20') Pyramidal substance of kidney.
(21) Supra-renal Capsule.
(22) Pelvis.
(22') Calyces.
 (23) Cortical substance.
 (24) Ureter.
 (25) Transversalis muscle.
 (26)  Psoas.
 (27) Iliacus Internus.
 (28)  Pyriformis, the anterior border being continuous with
       the Coccygeus, forming the floor of the Pelvis.
 (29) Sacrum.
 (30) Sacro-iliac ligament. 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
I65
(31) Capsular ligament of hip joint.   It is re-enforced, on
      the anterior  surface,  by (32)  the inverted " Y " or
      Ilio-Femoral ligament, whicharises from the anterior-
      inferior spine of Ilium, and is inserted into (33) the
      intertrochanteric line of Femur.
(34) Outer surface Great Trochanter.
(35) Tuberosity of Ischium.
(36) Anterior pubic ligament.
(37) Obturator membrane.
(38) Pectineal eminence.
(39) Crest of Ilium, ending below in the anterior superior
      spine.
(40) Section of rim of Acetabulum, and articular cartilage.
(41) Synovial sac of hip joint.
(42) Lesser Trochanter.
(A)  Aorta.
(E)  Inferior Vena Cava.
(F)  Right and left  common Iliac arteries.
(F') Internal  Iliac.
(F") External Iliac.
(G)  Left common Iliac vein.
(G') Left external Iliac vein.
(H)  Common Femoral artery.
(H') Superficial Femoral.
(H")Deep Femoral.
 (1) Right Azygos  vein, which takes the  place of the
      vena cava within the chest, receiving all the right
      intercostal veins, and, after arching over the  right
      bronchus, empties into the superior vena cava.  It
      communicates with the inferior cava at its beginning,
      either directly or indirectly.   It is joined by the left
      azygos about the middle of the chest.
     12 
166
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
(k) Subclavian  artery, terminating at the lower border
      of the first rib, in the axillary, which terminates in
      (i) the brachial,  at the lower border of the teres
      major muscle.
(m) Acrominal Thoracic.
(n, n') Short and Long Thoracic.
 (o
 (P
 (r
 (s
 (t
 (u
 (v
 (V
 (w
 (*
 (y
 (a
 (*>'
(b2
 (C
 (d'
 (e1
 (f
 (g
Subscapular — giving off dorsalis scapulae.
Anterior and (q) Posterior Circumflex.
Superior Profunda.
Branches of Transversalis Colli.
Intercostal arteries and veins.
Splenic artery.
Renal artery.
Lumbar artery.
Renal vein.
Spermatic artery and vein.
Inferior Mesenteric.
Lumbar artery and vein.
Superior Gluteal.
Ilio-lumbar.
Deep Epigastric.
Circumflex Iliac.
Sciatic and Internal Pudic.
External Circumflex.
Obturator.
             UPPER EXTREMITY.
                   PLATE 1.
  Arm. — (i) Acromion process.  (12) Fascia of pectoralis
muscle.  (13)  Deep fascia of arm.   (18) Deltoid muscle
covered with fascia.   (19) Pectoralis  major muscle.   No
arteries except small muscular (B) or cutaneous branches
are shown.  (I) Subcutaneous veins.   (II) Basilic  vein. 
EMBALMERS' guide.
167
(III) Cephalic  vein.   (IV)  Median and median cephalic
veins,   (a) Supraclavicular nerve,   (b) Posterior cutane-
ous, from the circumflex,   (c) Branches from the anterior
thoracic,  (d)  Internal cutaneous,   (e)  Lesser internal
cutaneous,   (h) Musculo-cutaneous.
  Fore-arm and Hand. —(9) Deep fascia.   (10) Bicipital
fascia.   (11)  Palmar  fascia.  (11')  Transverse  palmar
ligament.  (12) Anterior annular ligament.   (14) Panic-
ulus adiposus of the fingers.   (29) Palmaris brevis muscle.
(Ill) Cephalic or  radial vein.   (IV) Median  vein.   (V)
Median Basilic  vein,   (a) Branches of internal cutaneous
nerve,   (b)  Same,   (c) Branches of musculo-cutaneous
nerve,   (i) Palmar branch of ulnar nerve,   (m) External
cutaneous branch from musculo-spinal nerve.

                       PLATE 2.

  Arm. — (1) Acromial end of clavicle.  (2) Coracoid pro-
cess of  scapula.  (3)  Greater  tuberosity  of  head of
humerus.   (4) Lesser.  (5)  Bicipital groove.   (8) Coraco-
clavicular ligament.   (9) Coraco-acromial ligament.   (10)
Capsular ligament.   (15)  Bicipital fascia.   (16) Pectoralis
major  tendon.   (17) Triceps muscle.  (19)  Pectoralis
major.   (20) Biceps.   (20')  Short head of biceps.  (20")
Long head  of  biceps.  (21) Coraco-brachialis  muscle.
(22) Brachialis anticus muscle.   (23) Triceps muscle.  (A)
Brachial artery.   (D) Inferior profunda.   (Ill) Cephalic
vein.   (IV)  Median  Cephalic.  (V)  Venae comites —
brachial.  (VI)  Beginning of Cephalic.
  Fore-arm and Hand. —(1) Internal condyle of humerus.
(9)  Deep fascia.  (10) Aponeurosis  of  biceps  muscle.
(11) Palmar fascia.   (12) Anterior annular ligament.   (13)
Sheaths of flexor tendons — circular  and oblique fibers.
(1 5) Biceps muscle.   (15)  Inferior bicipital tendon.   (16) 
168
embalmers' guide.
Brachialis anticus muscle.   (17) Triceps.   (18) Supinator
longus.  (22) Flexor carpi radialis.   (23) Palmaris longus.
(24) Flexor sublimis digitorum.   (27) Flexor carpi ulnaris.
(28) Pronator quadratus.   (29)  Palmaris  brevis.   (30;
Abductor  pollicis.    (31)   Opponens   pollicis.    (32)
Flexor brevis pollicis.   (33)  Adductor  pollicis.   (34)
Abductor  minimi  digiti.   (35)  Flexor   brevis  minimi
digiti.  (36)  Lumbricales.   (B) Radial artery.   (G) Ulnar
artery, forming the superficial palmar arch.   (K) Digital
branches.  (N)  Superficial  radial  nerve.    (N")   Dorsal
branch.
                        PLATE 3.
  Arm. — (1) Acromio-clavicular joint. (2) Coracoid pro-
cess.  (3) Greater tuberosity of head of humerus. (4) Lesser.
(n) Sheath of biceps tendon.  (16) Insertion of pectoralis
major muscle.   (17) Insertion of deltoid.   (18) Deltoid.
(20')  Long  head of  biceps. (20")  Short  head.   (21)
Coraco-brachialis.   (22) Brachialis anticus.  (23) Triceps.
(A)   Brachial  artery.   (B)  Muscular  branches.   (C)
Superior profunda.   (D) Inferior profunda,   (d)  Internal
cutaneous nerve,   (f) Median  nerve,   (g) Ulnar,  (h)
Musculo-cutaneous.
   Fore-arm  and Hand.— (1) Internal condyle.  (2) Radius.
(3) Ulnar.   (4)  Pisiform bone.   (5) Unciform bone.  (6)
First phalanges.  (7) Second.  (8) Third phalanges.  (15)
Biceps tendon.   (16)  Brachialis anticus.   (19) Extensor
carpi radialis brevior.  (20) Supinator brevis.  (24) Flexor
sublimis  digitorum.  (26)  Flexor   longus pollicis.   (28)
Pronator quadratus.  (31) Opponens pollicis.  (32) Flexor
brevis pollicis.   (33) Adductor pollicis.   (34) Abductor
 minimi digiti.   (35)  Flexor brevis  minimi  digiti.   (37)
 Interossei.   (A)  Brachial artery.   (B)  Radial.   (C)
 Superficial volar branch.   (D) Dorsal branch.  (E) Ulnar 
embalmers'  guide.
169
artery.   (F)  Interosseous.   (G)  Superficial branch  for
superficial  palmar arch.   (K)  Digital  branches.   (V)
Venae comites.  (d) Median nerve, (d') Muscular branch.
(e)  Internal  interosseous.   (g)  Digital  branches,   (k)
Ulnar nerve,   (k, k') Digital and muscular branches.  (1)
Radial nerve,  (n) Superficial radial,  (n) Anterior,  (n")
Posterior branches.
                        PLATE 4.

  Arm.—(2)  Acromion process.   (2')  Coracoid process.
(3)  Clavicle.   (4)   Greater tuberosity.   (11)   Capsular
ligament.  (12)  Sheath  of biceps tendon.   (20)  Long
head  of biceps.  (24) Internal head of triceps muscle.
(24'')  External head of triceps.   (24'") Middle or scapu-
lar head of triceps.   (A) Axillary artery.   (B) Brachial
artery.   (C)  Acromial  branch  of  transverse  scapular
artery.   (D)  Thoracic  branch of brachial artery.   (E)
Acromial thoracic.  (F)  Long  thoracic branch.  (G, G')
Subscapular  artery and  branches.  (H) Anterior circum-
flex.   (I) Posterior  circumflex.  (K) Muscular branches.
(L) Superior profunda.   (M) Inferior profunda.
  Fore-arm  and Hand.—(16) Anterior ligament, elbow
joint.   (18)   External lateral ligament.   (18')  Part of
orbicular ligament.    (20)   Interosseous ligament.   (5)
Styloid process of ulna.  (7) Styloid process  of radius.
(8) Pisiform bone.   (9) Unciform bone.   (10) Trapezium.
(11) Carpo-metacarpal joint of  thumb.   (12)  Metacar-
pal.  (13)   First  phalanges.   (14)  Second  phalanges.
(15) Third phalanges.   (16, 18, 18')  Ligaments of elbow
joint.   (31)  Pronator radii teres.   (32) Supinator brevis
muscle.    (33)  Flexor   carpi radialis.   (34)   Pulmonis
longus.  (35)  Flexor sublimis digitorum.   (36)  Flexor
profundis digitorum.  (37)  Flexor longus  pollicis.   (38) 
170
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
 Pronator quadratus.  (39) Adductor pollicis.   (40) Ab-
 ductor minimi  digiti.   (41) Palmar interosseous.   (B)
 Radial artery.  (D) Dorsalis pollicis.   (G) Ulnar.  (G')
 Ulnar  recurrent.    (H)  Interosseous.   (I)  Metacarpal
 branch.  (K) Termination of ulnar, which is continued as
 the superficial palmar arch.
                        PLATE 5.

     Arm.— (2) Acromion.  (3) Clavicle.   (22)  Coracoid
 process.  (4) Greater tuberosity of the head of humerus.
 (12)  Sheath of biceps tendon. (19) Insertion of pectoralis
 major.   (20)  Biceps  tendon,  long  head.  (21) Short
 head.   (22) Coraco-brachialis.   (23) Brachialis  anticus.
 (24) Triceps muscle.  (A) Axillary artery.   (B) Brachial.
 (F) Long thoracic.  (G, G) Subscapular and its branches.
 (H)  Anterior circumflex.   (I) Posterior circumflex.  (K)
 Muscular branches.   (L)  Superior profunda.    (M) In-
 ferior profunda.   (N) Anastomotica magna.
  Fore-arm and Hand.— (2) External condyle of humerus.
 (4)  Ulna,   (6)  Radius.    (7) Styloid process of radius.
 (8) Pisiform bone.    (9) Unciform.   (10) Trapezium.   (11)
 Trapezoid.   (12)  Metacarpal.   (13,  14)  Phalanges  of
 thumb.  (16) Anterior ligaments.   (20) Interosseous liga-
 ments of elbow joint.   (22, 23, 24) Ligaments of wrist
joint.   (30) Tendon of biceps — insertion.   (31) Pronator
 radii teres.   (32)  Supinator brevis.  (36') Tendons  of
 flexor   sublimis  digitorum.   (38)  Pronator  quadratus.
 (41) Interosseous.    (A) Brachial artery, lower end.  (B)
 Radial artery.  (C) Superficialis  volae.   (D) Dorsal branch
 of radial.   (D', D") Dorsal branches to thumb.   (E) First
 digital branch.  (E', E")  Branches to ulnar  and radial
 sides of thumb  (princeps  pollicis).   (F)  Deep palmar
 branch.   (G) Ulnar artery.  (G') Ulnar recurrent interos- 
embalmers'  guide.
171
seous.  (H') Anterior interosseous.   (I) Dorsal branch.
(K)  Ulnar, dividing  into deep and superficial branches;
the  superficial joining (C)  to form  (K)  the  superficial
palmar arch — the deep branch joining  from the radial
to form (L') the deep palmar arch.   (M) Digital branch
to little finger.  (N) Common digital branches. (O) Interos-
seous arteries.   (P) Digital.

                        PLATE 6.
   Arm.— (2) Coracoid process.  (3) Clavicle.  (4) Greater
tuberosity of humerus.   (9)  Coraco-clavicular ligament.
(10) Coraco-acromial.   (11)   Capsular  ligament.    (12)
Sheath of biceps tendon.  (16) Anterior ligament of elbow
joint.  (17, 18) Lateral ligaments.  (20) Long tendon of
biceps.  (18') Orbicular ligament.  (A) Position of axil-
lary artery.  (D') Long thoracic.  (E) Anterior thoracic.
(F)  Subscapular.   (G)  Internal cutaneous of arm   (G')
Posterior  branch.   (H) Middle cutaneous.   (H') Ulnar
cutaneous branch.   (I)  Musculo-cutaneous nerve.   (K)
Circumflex.  (L) Posterior cutaneous of arm.  (M) Median
nerve.  (N) Ulnar nerve.    (O)  Muscular spiral.   (O')
External cutaneous branch.
   Fore-arm and Hand.— (1) Internal condyle of humerus.
(2) External.   (3) Internal part  of trochlear  surface of
humerus.   (4)  Ulna.   (5) Styloid process.  (6) Radius.
(6')  Neck of radius.   (6'') Bicipital tuberosity.  (7) Sty-
loid  process of radius.   (8) Pisiform bone.  (9) Unciform
bone.   (10) Scaphoid.   (11) Trapezium.   (12)  Meta-
carpus.  (13, 14, 15)  Phalanges.  (19) Oblique ligament.
(20)   Interosseous  membrane.    (21, 24)  Straight  and
oblique volar ligaments.   (22, 23)  Lateral  ligaments.
(25,  26)  Anterior carpal ligaments.   (27,  28, 29,  30)
Carpal, metacarpal and transverse ligaments,   (a) Lesser 
172              embalmers' guide.
 internal cutaneous nerve,  (b') Palmar branch,  (b") Ulnar
 cutaneous branches,  (c) Musculo cutaneous,   (d) Median
 nerve,   (d') Muscular branches,   (e) Interosseous branch.
 (f) Long palmar,   (g) Digital branches,  (h)  Ulnar nerve.
 (i)  Dorsal branch.   (k) Palmar branch,  (k') Superficial
 palmar branch,   (k") Digital branches,   (k"') Deep ulnar
 branch.   (1)  Radial.    (1')  External cutaneous  branch.
 (m) Posterior branch,   (n) Anterior,  (n') Dorsal branch
 of thumb.
                  LOWER  EXTREMITY.
                        PLATE 1.
   Thigh.— (i) Patella.   (5) Fascia lata.  (6) Crural fascia.
 (8) Bursa patellae.   (I) Internal saphenous  vein.   (II)
 Subcutaneous veins,  (a) External cutaneous  nerve,   (b)
 Branch of genito-crural nerve,  (c) Branch  of inguinal.
 (e) Internal  cutaneous nerve,   (f) Middle cutaneous.
  Leg.— (2) Internal malleolus.  (4) External malleolus.
 (6) Deep fascia of the leg.   (7) Anterior annular liga-
 ment.   (8)  Dorsal fascia of  the  foot.  (I) Subcutaneous
veins.   (II) Long saphenous vein,  (a)  Long saphenous
nerve,   (b)  Musculo-cutaneous.   (c) Cutaneous branches
of external popliteal,  (d)  Internal cutaneous of the dor-
sum of  foot,  (e) Middle  cutaneous  of dorsum.    (g)
Digital  nerves.
                        PLATE 3.
   Thigh.— (1) Patella.  (2)  Internal condyle  of femur,
 (3)  of tibia.    (9) Sartorius muscle.   (10) Rectus muscle.
 (11) Vastus internus.  (12)  Vastus  externus.   (14) Pec-
 tineus  muscle.   (15) Adductor longus.  (17)  Gracilis.
 (I)  Long saphenous vein.  (II)  Subcutaneous veins,  (e)
 Branches of internal cutaneous nerve. 
OPERATOR  DRAWING BLOOD FROM  THE  JUGULAR  VEIN—THE NEEDLE  INTRODUCED IN
                             THE AXILLA ANT) IN POSITION,
                                       (See page 98.) 
 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
173
  Leg.— (1) Tibia.   (2)  Internal malleolus.   (3) Fibula.
(4)  External  malleolus.   (5)  Metatarsal.   (7)  Anterior
annular  ligament.   (9) Tibialis  anticus.   (10)  Extensor
digitorum  longus.   (10')  Peroneus  tertius.   (11) Exten-
sor  brevis  digitorum.    (14)  Extensor  hallucis longus.
(13) Peroneus longus.  (14) Peroneus brevis.  (15)  Gas-
trocnemius.   (16) Soleus.  (17) Abductor hallucis.   (18)
Interosseous.    (A) Anterior  tibial artery.   (A')   Dor-
salis pedis  artery.  (Ill)  Deep veins of leg.
                        PLATE 3.

   Thigh.— (1) Patella.   (2)  Internal  condyle of femur.
(3)  Of  tibia.    (5) Deep fascia.    (9) Sartorius muscle.
(10)  Rectus   muscle.    (11)  Vastus  internus.   (12)
Vastus  externus.   (13)  Psoas  and  internal iliac   mus-
cles.  (14) Pectineus.  (1 5) Adductor longus.   (16) Ad-
ductor  magnus.    (17)  Gracilis.   (A) Femoral artery.
(B) Deep femoral.   (C) Muscular branches.   (I) Internal
saphenous vein,   (c) Branch of ilio-inguinal  nerve,  (e)
Branches of internal cutaneous,  (f)  Middle cutaneous.
(g)  Saphenous branches.   (h)  Muscular branches  of
crural nerve,   (i) Musculo-cutaneous branches  of crural
nerve.
  Leg.— (1) Tibia.   (2)  Internal malleolus.   (4) Externa
malleolus.   (5) Metatarsal bones.  (6) Fascia.   (7) An-
terior  annular  ligament.  (9) Tibialis  anticus tendon.
(10) Extensor longus  digitorum.  (11) Extensor brevis
digitorum.   (12) Extensor hallucis longus.   (13)  Pero-
neus longus.   (14) Peroneus brevis.  (15) Gastrocnemius.
(16) Soleus.   (17)  Abductor hallucis.   (18) Interosseous.
(b) Musculo-cutaneous nerves.   (d) Dorsal cutaneous of
foot,   (e)  Middle dorsal  cutaneous,  (f) Terminal branch
of  external saphenous,  (g) Digital branches,   (h) An- 
174
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
terior  tibial,  (h')  Internal.    (h")  Internal  branches of
same.
                       PLATE 4.
   Thigh.— (i)  Femur.   (2)  Internal   Condyle.    (3)
External  Condyle.   (4)  Patella.   (13)  Gracilis  mus-
cle.    (14)   Adductor  longus  muscle.    (15)  Ad-
ductor brevis.  (16) Adductor magnus.   (17) Insertion of
pectineus muscle.   (A) Femoral artery.   (B) Deep femo-
ral.  (D')First perforating artery.  (F) Muscular branches.
(5) Tuberosity of tibia.  (7) Ligamentum patellae (middle
part).   (8) Internal lateral part.   (9) Internal lateral liga-
ment.   (10) External  lateral  ligament  (anterior  part).
(io') Posterior part.  (11) Synovial capsule.
    Leg and Foot.— (1)  Tibia.   (2)  Internal malleolus.
(3) Fibula.   (4)  External  malleolus.   (5) Tarsus.   (6)
Metatarsus.   (7) First phalanges.   (8) Second phalanges.
(9) Anterior annular ligament.   (10) Interosseous  mem-
brane.   (10') Tibio-fibular ligament.   (10") Superior ex-
ternal malleolar ligament.  (11) Internal lateral or deltoid
ligament.  (13)  External  lateral  ligament (anterior part).
(14) Transverse  metatarsal ligaments.   (15) Capsular and
lateral ligaments.   (16) Peroneus  longus  and bxevis mus-
cles.   (17) Tendons of extensor longus digitorum muscle,
(18)  of extensor longus  pollicis, (19) of tibialis anticus.
(20)  Dorsal interosseous muscle.   (A)  Anterior  tibial.
(A') Dorsalis pedis.
                      PLATE 5.
     Thigh.— (1)  Femur.  (2) Internal condyle.   (3) Ex-
ternal condyle.   (4) Patella.  (7) Ligamentum patellae.
(8) Lateral ligament of patella.   (9) Internal lateral liga-
ment   of knee  joint.  (10)  External  lateral  ligament
(anterior part).  (10') Posterior part.   (11) Synovial cap-
sule.   (16)  Adductor magnus.   (17) Insertion  of pecti- 
embalmers' guide.
175
neus muscle.  (A) Femoral artery.  (B) Profunda femoris.
(C)  Descending branch of external  circumflex  artery.
(D') First perforating.   (D") Second perforating.   (D'")
Third  perforating.   (E) Nutrient artery of femur.  (F)
Muscular  branches.    (G) Anastomotica  magna.   (H)
Popliteal.   (I) Muscular branches.  (K) Superior  exter-
nal auricular.  (L) Superior internal auricular.   (M) Mid-
dle articular.  (N) Sural branches.   (O) Inferior  exter-
nal articular.   (P)  Inferior internal articular branches.
(Q) Anterior tibial.
     Leg and Foot.—(1) Tibia.   (2) Internal.  (3) Exter-
nal malleolus.   (4) Fibula.  (5) Tarsus.   (6) Metatarsus.
(7) First phalanges.   (8) Second phalanges.  (10) Inter-
osseous  membrane.   (10') Tibio-fibular ligament.   (10")
Superior external malleolar ligament.   (11) Internal lat-
eral or deltoid ligament.  (12) Astragalo-scaphoid.  (13)
Anterior  external  lateral.  (13') Middle external lateral.
(14) Transverse metatarsal.   (15)  Capsular  ligaments.
(A) Anterior tibial artery.  (A') Dorsalis pedis.   (B) Re-
current tibial.   (C)  External malleolar.  (C)  Internal.
(D) External tarsal.  (D') Internal tarsal.  (D") Anterior
tarsal.  (E) Metatarsal.   (F)  Dorsal  interosseous.   (F')
Dorsalis hallucis.  (F'') Deep  plantar branch  of same.
(G) Posterior tibial.   (H) Peroneal.   (H') Anterior per-
oneal.  (K) Posterior internal  malleolar.  (K') Posterior
external.    (L) Internal  plantar.  (L') Internal superficial
branch.   (M)  External  plantar.    (N) Superior  plantar
arch.  (O) Sural branch.
                         PLATE 6.

   Thigh.— (1)  Femur.   (2,3) Internal and external con-
dyles.   (4) Patella.  (5') Tuberosity of tibia.   (6) Head
of fibula.   (7)  Ligamentum patellae.   (8) Internal lateral 
176
embalmers' guide.
part.   (9)  Internal lateral  ligament of knee.  (10, io')
External lateral ligament.  (11)  Synovial capsule,  (a)
Anterior obturator nerve,  (b) Internal cutaneous,  (c)
Anterior internal cutaneous,  (d) Long  saphenous,  (e)
Great  sciatic,  (f)  External popliteal or peroneal,   (f)
Posterior cutaneous branches of leg.  (i) Internal popli-
teal  nerve,   (k)  Sural  or  long  cutaneous  nerve.  (1)
Anterior external cutaneous.
  Leg and Foot.—(Figures  refer to same as in preceding
plate). — (a)  Long  saphenous nerve,  (b) Musculocuta-
neous or  superficial  peroneal,   (c)  Anterior cutaneous
branches,  (d) Internal cutaneous  branch of foot,  (e)
Middle  cutaneous branch,  (f)   Posterior external cuta-
neous of leg.   (g) Digital branches,  (h) Anterior tibial.
(h')  Internal branch,   (h'') External branch,  (i)  Pos-
terior  tibial.   (k)   External  saphenous branch.   (k')
External cutaneous  branch.  (1)  Internal  plantar,  (m)
External plantar,  (n) Digital plantar. 
THE  HEAD.
               THE SKULL, SCALP, ETC.
  The skull, the bony part  of the  head,  consists of the
cranium and the face.   Eight bones compose the former,
and  fourteen the latter.  The  immovable joints  of  the
skull are called sutures  (5),  of which those of the vertex
are  the most important.  These sutures  are best named
anatomically, as the  fronto-parietal  {coronal), the inter-
parietal  {sagittal),   occipito-parietal  {lambdoid).   The
average thickness of the flat bones  of the  cranium is one-
fifth of an inch.   The thickest parts are the occipital pro-
tuberance  and  at the  parietal  and frontal  eminences.
The temporal region is the thinnest.  These flat bones
have some  peculiarities.  The  outer layer of " compact
tissue" (external table) is  thick and tough; the inner
(internal table), thin and  brittle.  The cancellous tissue
{diploe), most marked in middle life, is " intermediate like
a soft leather  cushion," and is channeled for numerous
large veins with thin walls.  The frontal,  and  part of the
temporal groups of the diploic  veins, discharge into the
external veins  of the head, while  the occipital, and part
of the  temporal, discharge into  the  sinuses of the dura-
mater; thus affording collateral  relief for obstructed cir-
culation of the brain by  the intercommunication of the
internal  and  external  venous   systems.   This  relation
explains the  serious brain symptoms which are  liable to
follow even a slight  septic inflammation of the scalp and
lesions of the  cranial bones.  Great vascularity charac-
terizes the  bones  of the cranium and face, as well as all
                          177 
i78
EMBALMERS'  guide.
the soft parts connected with them;  hence the relatively
quicker and more certain repair of injuries, or wounds.
  There  are three kinds  of sinuses: Those  of the  dura
mater for the return of the venous blood from the brain;
the cerebral sinuses,  which are interspaces  between its
lateral halves  or other parts;  and those  in the bone, as
the frontal, sphenoidal, etc., which  contain air and com-
municate with the air passages.
  There are five distinct  strata  of  tissues covering the
cranium;  i.  The  skin.  2.  Dense   fibro-adipose tissue,
in which are the hair bulbs and the cutaneous vessels and
nerves.  The  arteries, adhering to and firmly embedded
in this tissue, when cut, do  not  contract or retract, and
are with difficulty seized  and  drawn out with  forceps;
hence  the  free  hemorrhage  in  scalp  wounds and  the
trouble in arresting it.  3. The occipito-frontalis muscle,
with its aponeurosis, which gives power to move the scalp,
and which  is, like the facial  muscles, supplied by the
facial nerve, and is classed  as  one  of the muscles of ex-
pression.   These three structures constitute the scalp, as
the term is  commonly used.   4. Loose  areolar tissue,
without  fat,  which allows  " scalp "  to  glide  freely  on
5.  The  pericranium (external  periosteum).
  The  remarkable vitality of the flaps in extensive wounds
of the  scalp is due not more to the free arterial supply
and anastomosis  than  to  the  fact that  the  arteries are
carried with the  flap entering it from its base.
  Cephalaematoma is  a blood tumor between  the  peri-
cranium and the bone,  and is limited to one bone.   The
ordinary effusion of blood (haematoma), as from a bruise,
is in the loose areolar tissue between the aponeurosis and
the pericranium.   It is liable to be diffuse, but is not often
large, because the vessels in this tissue are small.   Wounds 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
179
of the scalp are not more prone to erysipelatous inflamma-
tion than  other  wounds.   But  phlegmonous inflamma-
tion (erroneously called erysipelas) does often  occur if
the wound is  not properly treated.   The loose  areolar
tissue is  a favorable  nidus  for  sepsis.  The skin heals
rapidly  and confines  septic  secretions  beneath, which
diffuse  rapidly.  Drainage,  keeping  the angles of  the
wound  open, and  compression  are most important in
scalp wounds.
      (1) Frontal bone
      (2) Parietal.
      (3) Occipital.
      (4) Squamous portion of Temporal.
   (5, 5) Fronto-parietal (Coronal) and  Occipito-parietal
          (Lambdoid^ sutures
      (6) Malar.
      (7) External Auditory Meatus.
      (8) Orbicularis Palpebrarum muscle.
   (9, 9) Zygomatici Major and Minor.
     (10) Masseter muscle.
     (n) Orbicularis Oris.
     (12) Levator Menti.
     (13) Sterno-mastoid.
     (14) Levator Anguli Scapulae.
     (15) Omo-hyoid — anterior part
     (16) Internal Jugular vein.
     (17) Facial vein.
     (18) Temporal vein.
     (19) Common Carotid artery.
     (20) Facial artery.
     (21) Superficial Cervical nerves.
     (22) Facial nerve.
     (23) Supra-maxillary division. 
i8o
embalmers' guide.
(48)
(49)
(50)
(51)
Trachea.
Scalp.
Skull.
Cerebrum.
Cerebellum.
Spinal cord.
Medulla Oblongata.
Eyeball.
Internal Rectus muscle.
Optic nerve.
Internal surface of Malar bone.
Inferior Maxillary.
Anterior Naris.
Inferior Dental artery, and
Nerve.
Cortex  of Cerebrum, showing convolutions of
 gray matter.
Corpus Callosum.
Corpus Striatum.
Optic Thalamus.
Section of Cerebellum.
Medulla Oblongata.
Outer wall of nasal cavity, showing the three
 turbinated bones and the meatuses — superior,
 middle and inferior—and the distribution of
 the olfactory nerve,
The Hard palate — formed in front by the superior
 maxillary, and behind by the palate.
Pharyngeal opening of Eustachian tube.
Pharynx.
Soft palate. 
EMBALMERS'  guide.
181
 (52) Lateral portion of roof of mouth.
 (53) Tongue.
 (54) Sublingual gland.
 (55) Epiglottis.
 (56) Larynx.
 (57) Junction  of  pharynx and oesophagus.  This
      point is opposite the  body of the fifth  cervical
      vertebra  (its lower border) and corresponds
      with junction of larynx and trachea.
 (58) Body of fifth  cervical vertebra.
(58') Spinal process of vertebra.
                      THE BRAIN.
  The gray matter of  the  brain is disposed as a layer on
the outer  surface — the cortex with its convolutions; as
circumscribed convolutions in the basal ganglia — corpus
striatum, optic  thalamus,  corpora quadrigemina; or, as
the central gray tube continued up from the spinal chord
through the medulla and pons around the iter to the tuber
cinereum.   The white matter connects these parts in vari-
ous ways — either longitudinally or  transversely — the
corona radiata (1), (2), (3),  (4), connecting the cortex
with the basal ganglia; the commissural fibers (c, c) con-
necting corresponding parts  of the two hemispheres; the
association fibers (a, a)  connecting different  areas of the
same part; the longitudinal bundle of fibers, as pyramids,
tracts, etc., connecting the gray matter of the spinal cord
with all the brain centers.
  The ventricles of the brain are  the  spaces  between the
different ganglia or parts. 
182
EMBALMERS' GUIDE
DIAGRAM  OF THE RELATIONS OF  THE CENTRAL GANGLIA
  OF  GRAY  MATTER  TO  EACH  OTHER AND  TO  THE
  SPINAL  CORD.

  (C, C) Cortical gray matter of the cerebrum.
  (C, S) Corpus striatum.
  (N, L) Lenticular  nucleus — the extra-ventricular part
           of former.
   (T, o) Optic  thalamus.
     (V) Corpora  quadrigemina.
      (P) Peduncle of cerebrum.
     (H) Tegmentum — the upper part of the peduncle.
      (P) Crusta—under part of peduncle.
   (i, i) Corona radiata of corpus striatum.
   (2,2) Corona radiata of lenticular nucleus.
   (3, 3) Corona radiata of the optic thalamus.
   (4, 4) Corona radiata of the corpora quadrigemina.
      (5) Direct fibers to cortex.
   (6, 6) Fibers from corpora quadrigemina to tegmentum.
      (7) Fibers of the optic thalamus.
    (m) Same fibers continued.
   (8, 8) Fibers from corpus  striatum  and nucleus  to
           crusta.
    (M) Same continued in cord.
  (S, S) Course of sensory fibers.
   (a, a) Association system of fibers.
   (c, c) Commissural fibers.
    (R) Transverse section of spinal cord.
 (v, W) Anterior root.
 (h, W) Posterior root. 
embalmers' guide.
183
LEFT SIDE OF THE BRAIN, SHOWING THE  FISSURES, CON-
  VOLUTIONS AND MOTOR AREAS, AND THEIR RELATION
  TO THE SKULL BONES AND THEIR SUTURES.
  The outer surface of the cerebral hemispheres is divided
into four lobes by the  fissure  of Sylvius, the fissure of
Rolando, and. the parieto-occipital fissure.   These, from
their depth, regularity, and early development, are called
primary fissures.  The frontal lobe is that partanteriorto the
fissure of Rolando.   The parietal lobe is between the fis-
sure of Rolando and the parieto-occipital fissure.  The
occipital lobe consists of that part of the hemisphere below
the parieto-occipital fissure.  The temporo-sphenoidal lobe
is that part which occupies the middle fosse of the skull,
and is bounded before and above by the fissure of Sylvius
and joins the occipital behind.  The Island of Reil, or
central lobe — the fifth primary lobe — lies deep in the fis-
sure of Sylvius, but does not show on the surface.  Each
of  these primary lobes is subdivided, by secondary fis-
sures,  of  more  or less  regularity, into secondary lobules
called  convolutions.
  (Ki) Bregma.
  (K2) Parieto-frontal suture, crossing temporal ridge —
the dotted semicircular  line.
  (K3) Anterior  inferior angle  of parietal,  joining  the
sphenoid and frontal bones, and where the suture begins.
  (M)  Point on squamous suture  crossed by a perpen-
dicular line from depression in front of the meatus to the
bregma.
  (Li,L2) Parieto-occipital fissure.
  The numbers  (1) to (14) and the letters (a),  (b), (c), (d),
refer to cortical centers, and are the same as in description
of following diagram. 
184
embalmers' guide.
  (S) Main part  of fissure of Sylvius,  separating  the
frontal from the temporo-sphenoidal lobes. It divides into
an  ascending,  or perpendicular,  and a horizontal ramus.
The latter is bisected at the point (M).
  (C) Fissure of Rolando, or central sulcus.
  (A)  Ascending frontal convolution.
  (B) Ascending parietal convolution.
  (f i) First or  superior frontal fissure, corresponding to
a curved line drawn parallel to the  longitudinal fissure
beginning at the supraorbital notch.
  (f 2) Second or inferior frontal fissure, a little below,
but nearly corresponding to the temporal ridge.
  (f 3) Pre-central fissure — sometimes called an extension
of the ascending ramus of the fissure of Sylvius.  It cor-
responds to the parieto-frontal suture, and is frequently
joined at right angles by (f 1) the first, (f 2) second, and
(f 3) third frontal convolutions.
  (i, p) Inter-parietal  suture  separating  (Pi)  superior
parietal lobule or  convolution from (P 2) inferior parietal
lobule o- convolution.   The upper part of (P 2)  is the
supra-marginal convolution  or gyrus, and  the lower and
posterior part is the angular convolution or gyrus.
  (c, m) End of calloso-marginal fissure.
  (P, o)  Parieto-occipital fissure — the division  between
the  parietal and occipital lobes—and nearly correspond-
ing  to the beginning of the occipito-parietal suture.
  (Li, L2)  Points on the parieto-occipital suture.
  (o)  Transverse occipital fissure.
  (o 2)  Inferior or longitudinal occipital fissure.
  (Oi, O2,  O3)  First and  third occipital  convolutions.
  (t 1) First temporo-sphenoidal fissure—nearly parallel
with horizontal  branch of  fissure of Sylvius,  and nearly
midway between it and 
embalmers'  guide.
185
  (t2)  Second temporo-sphenoidal fissure.
  (Ti, T2, T3)  First, second and  third  temporo-sphe-
noidal convolutions.

      DIAGRAM  OF UPPER SURFACE OF THE BRAIN.
  This plate shows three of the primary lobes: the frontal,
with its  four subdivisions — the first, second, third,  and
ascending frontal convolutions ;  the parietal, with its four
subdivisions — the ascending,  superior, supra-marginal,
and  angular convolutions ;  the occipital,  with its three
convolutions — only the first and second appearing.
  The figured and lettered  circles are the  cortical areas,
mapped  out on the surface,  corresponding to various cen-
ters  which have been located  by the experiments  and
observations of  Farrier and others.
  The motor areas in general are in close relation to the
fissure of  Rolando, especially  in  the  ascending  frontal
and parietal convolutions.
  (1) On superior parietal  lobule: centers  for advancing
opposite leg and foot, as in walking.
  (2, 3,  4) Around  upper end of fissure  of  Rolando:
centers for complex movements of arms,  legs and trunk
combined, as in climbing and swimming.
  (a, b, c, d) On the ascending  parietal convolutions:
the centers for fingers and wrist — prehensible.
  (5) Posterior  end of first frontal convolution: for reach-
ing out the arm and hand.
  (6) On the ascending  frontal: for flexing and  supin-
ating forearm and hand — especially for the  biceps.
  (7, 8) Middle of same convolution:  for  elevation and
depression of the angle of the mouth.
  (9, 10) Broca's convolution — the aphasiac region: for
movements of lip and tongue. 
186
EMBALMERS' guide.
  (ii) Between (10)  and  lower end  of the ascending
parietal:  retraction of angle of mouth—the platysma.
  (12) Posterior parts of first and  second frontal convo-
lutions: for lateral movements of head and eyes, elevation
of eyelids and dilatation of pupil.
  (13, 13') Supra-marginal  and angular convolutions:
centers of vision, with which the occipital lobe is also con-
cerned.
  (14) On  superior  temporo-sphenoidal:  for center of
hearing.
  The center  for smell is in the hippocampal lobule, not
shown on the surface.  Near by  is the center of taste.
  The center  for sense of touch is in  the  hippocampal
region and gyrus for nicatus.

CRANIO-CEREBRAL   TOPOGRAPHY — LANDMARKS   AND
    RULES FOR LOCATING, ON THE SKULL OF THE LIV-
    ING  SUBJECT, THE POSITION OF THE LOBES, PRIN-
    CIPAL  BLOOD-VESSELS, FISSURES  AND CONVOLU-
    TIONS OF THE BRAIN.

  (L) Lower border of orbit.
  (E) External angular process.
  (T) Beginning of temporal ridge.
  (S) Supra-orbital notch.
  (G) Glabella — prominence just above root of nose.
  (B) Bregma—junction of  inter-parietal and  fronto-
parietal sutures.
  ( + ) Center of parietal protuberance.
  (O) Occipital protuberance.
  (M) Posterior  border of mastoid.
  (D) Depression in front of external auditory meatus.
  (H  L)  Horizontal basp line  from lower border of orbit 
embalmers'  guide.
187
through  middle of meatus  to  the occiput.   Plain  lines
indicate position of primary fissures.  Dotted lines, the
secondary fissures or sulci.
  (a, b) Imaginary lines which arbitrarily mark the divis-
ion between the parieto-occipital  and temporo-sphenoidal
lobes.
  The longitudinal fissure corresponds to the curved line
 (G O), and separates the hemispheres of the cerebrum.
  The transverse fissure (0 D) is represented by  a line
from the occipital protuberance to the meatus, and  corre-
sponds to the superior curved line of the occipital bone,
marking the  separation  of the  occipital  lobe from the
cerebellum by the tentorium.
   The fissure of Sylvius  is indicated by a line starting
one and one-fourth inches behind the external angular pro-
cess of the frontal bone (E), and ending three-fourths of an
inch below the center of the  parietal protuberance ( + ).
The first three-fourths of an inch  is the main fissure, at the
 end of which it divides into the ascending branch, which
extends upward an inch from the horizontal branch just
 given.   The division is beneath the anterior inferior angle
 of the parietal bone.   The motor speech center is just  in
 front of the vertical branch of this fissure.
   The fissure of Rolando.   Draw the lines from (D) to the
 bregma (B) and from  (M)  to (F),  perpendicular  to the
 base line (H L).  (F) can also be located by taking fifty-
 five and seven-tenths per cent,  of the  distance from (G)
 to (O).  The fissure is represented by a line from (F)  to
 the  intersection of the fissure  of Sylvius with the perpen-
 dicular line (DB).
   The parieto-occipital fissure is  an inch long and at right
 angles to the longitudinal fissure.  It is one-fourth of  an
 inch in front of the junction of the lambdoidal and inter- 
188
embalmers' guide.
parietal sutures, and js about twenty-three per cent, of thv
distance from (O) to  (G).  Also, if a line corresponding
to the horizontal branch of the fissure of Sylvius were  ex-
tended  to  the  longitudinal fissure,  the last  inch  would
represent the parieto-occipital fissure.
  These primary fissures  divide the outer surface of the
hemisphere into its four principal lobes, as follows.  The
frontal lobe,  which  is limited behind by the fissure of
Rolando, and occupies the anterior fossae of the bones of
the skull.  It has on its surface three  secondary fissures
or sulci.  The first frontal fissure  is  parallel with   the
longitudinal fissure, and midway between it and the tem-
poral ridge beginning at the supraorbital notch (S). The
second frontal fissure is approximately represented by  the
temporal ridge on the frontal  bone.   The precentral fis-
sure begins just above the upper end of  the vertical branch
of the fissure of Sylvius, and extends  halfway to the longi-
tudinal fissure.   It lies beneath the fronto-parietal suture,
or just behind it.  The frontal convolutions are found be-
tween these various fissures.
  The parietal  lobe is limited, in part, by the fissure of
Rolando in front, and the  parieto-occipital fissure behind.
Of its four convolutions, the ascending parietal'lies behind,
and  parallel  with,  the  fissure of Rolando ;  the supra-
marginal, around the upper end of the  horizontal branch
of the fissure of Sylvius;  beneath the parietal eminence,
and a little  below it, the perpendicular line (M F) separates
it from the angular convolution.
  The inter-parietal fissure is nearly indicated by a line
starting  on the  fissure of  Sylvius three-fourths of an inch
behind  the fissure of Rolando, running parallel with  the
longitudinal fissure,  passing within  one-half inch of  the
other end of  the parieto-occipital fissure. 
OPERATOR REMOVING DISCOLORATIONS FROM THE FACE BY HYrERDERMIC INJECTION.
                                      (See page 99.) 
 
embalmers' guide.
189
  The occipital lobe is limited above by the parieto-occipital
fissure extended as  the curved line (a) to the end of the
fissure of Sylvius.  It is arbitrarily limited in front by the
line (C) (b).
  The temporo-sphenoidal  lobe lies in the middle fossae of
the skull, and is bounded above by the fissure of Sylvius,
its  lower  border corresponding to the zygoma,  and a
line  continuing  ft to the  superior  curved  line of the
occipital bone.  Its anterior limit is the posterior superior
border of the malar bone.  It is about one and five-eighths
inches wide at the meatus.
  The first  temporo-sphenoidal fissure is parallel with the
fissure of Sylvius, and an inch below it.
  The second temporo-sphenoidal fissure is three-fourths
of an inch below, and parallel with, the first.
  The posterior  limit of the  optic  thalamus  corresponds
to the perpendicular line (M F).
  The anterior  limit of the corpus striatum is a little in
front of a vertical line from the beginning of the fissure of
Sylvius.
  Of the fifteen  cerebral venous sinuses only two are in
such relations to the skull as to be of practical importance
in trephining for traumatic or  pathological conditions.
  One is the longitudinal sinus, which corresponds to the
curved line (G) (O), but it is slightly to  the left of the
median line, and  increases in width from before backward.
The other is the lateral sinus, which is indicated by the
line  from (O) to the  auditory  meatus, and  corresponds to
the superior curved line of the occipital bone.   It marks
the inner surface of the tip of the  posterior-inferior angle
of the parietal bone.   Hemorrhage from these sinuses is a
serious complication of wounds, either operative or acci-
dental, but,  on account of the  low blood-pressure in them, 
190
embalmers' guide.
is easily arrested  by light pressure or fine cat-gut suture
— the latter being difficult to  apply in the midst of a free
bleeding.
  The middle Meningeal artery  is  the chief  supply
of the skull and dura mater, and is the only artery to be
avoided in operations on the  skull.   The  only part of it
likely to be  wounded is  its  main branch, which corre-
sponds to the middle of the anterior-inferior angle of the
parietal bone, ascending behind but nearly parallel with
the fronto-parietal suture.   The next large branch is hor-
izontal, and corresponds nearly with the second temporo-
sphenoidal fissure (which  see).  Hemorrhage from these
branches is annoying, but  usually not  serious, as  it can
generally be arrested by the usual means — forci-pressure
is often the best means.   Still, they are to be avoided in
operations, when possible.
                       THE EYE.
  The organ of vision consists of the Globe and its pro-
tective organs, as the Eyelids and the Lachrymal Appa-
ratus.
  The eyelids are two elliptical structures consisting  of
strata of different tissues.  The  strata are :
  I.    The skin.
  II.   The  orbicularis muscle (4), which closes the lids,
is of thin, pale fibers, and supplied by the facial nerve  as
one of the muscles of expression.   A thicker part of this
muscle surrounds the borders of the orbit.
  III.  The  tarsal cartilage, which is a rigid plate of con-
nective tissue held in place by the  tarsal ligaments, which
extend from their outer border  to the periosteum  of the 
embalmers' guide.
191
 orbit, and which prevent pus, in suppuration of the lid,
 from passing back into the orbit.
   IV. The expanded  tendon  of the levator fialpebrce
 (upper lid only).
   V. Meibomian {sebaceous) glands, (2) whose ducts open
 on the free margins of the lid, (3) the fatty secretion of
 which prevents the overflow of tears.
   VI. Mucous membrane  {conjunctiva),  which  secretes
 some mucus, and forms the posterior layer of the eyelid.
   The eyelids contain  no fat, but the  different strata are
 held together by delicate areolar  tissue.   The upper lid
 is the larger and more movable.   The interval between
 the two lids is  the palpebral fissure.  The junction of the
 lids, at the  ends of the fissure, makes  the inner canthus
 and the outer canthus.   Near the inner canthus each lid
 has a papilla, in which is a small opening to receive tears,
 thepunctum lachrymale (5).
   The tear apparatus consists of the lachrymal gland (1),
 situated below  the external angular process of the frontal
 bone, and whose excretory ducts (eight to ten) perforate
 the conjunctiva on  the under surface  of  the  upper lid ;
 thepuncta (5),  which are the outer openings of the cana-
 liculi (6) (upper and lower), which join to  form the lach-
 rymal sac,  from which passes downward  (7)  the  nasal
 duct,  opening into the inferior meatus of the nose, toward
 the front.   The upper  canaliculus  first ascends vertically,
 dilates into a small pouch, and then runs, a quarter of an
inch, transversely.   The lower descends vertically at first,
and is shorter and thicker.  The nasal duct is three-fourths
of an inch in length, and is directed downward, backward
and slightly outward.
  The globe is held in its  place  in the  orbit chiefly by
the four recti muscles (8), which, with the two oblique, 
•192
embalmers'  guide.
 move it on its posterior cushion of fat, as a ball and socket
 joint.
   (9) Junction of cornea with (10)  sclerotic, which  pos-
 teriorly is continuous with the fibrous covering of  the
 optic nerve derived from the dura mater.
   (n) Iris,  which  contains  two muscles — the  circular
 {sphincter), which surrounds the pupil, lying near the pos-
 terior surface, and is supplied by the third nerve; and the
 radiating  muscle {dilator), which is chiefly supplied by
 the  sympathetic.  The  iris  is  suspended   in  the fluid
 {aqueous humor) which fills the space between the cornea
 and the lens.   The space  in front, the anterior chamber,
 connects through the pupil with the posterior chamber.
  (12) Ciliary processes,  radiating folds of the choroid
 (13),  sixty or  seventy in number.   The ciliary muscle
 (muscle of accommodation) is a ring of unstriped fibers
placed at junction of iris and choroid between the ciliary
processes and the sclerotic.
  (14) The  retina,  the  expansion   of  (15)  the  optic
nerve.
                      THE  EAR.
  The organ of hearing consists of the outer cartilaginous
part, the Pinna; the External Auditory Meatus; the Tym-
panum or Middle Ear; and the Labyrinth or Internal Ear,
comprising  the  Vestibule,  Cochlea, and Semicircular
Canals.   The pinna is composed of yellow fibro-cartilage,
and has  a tubular prolongation inward  to form a part of
the meatus.
  (1)  A  sectional view of the bony part of the external
auditory meatus.  The whole canal is  one inch and a
quarter in length, the cartilaginous portion forming a little 
embalmers' guide.
193
less than one-third.  The narrowest part of the canal is
about its middle.  Hence the difficulty of extracting for-
eign  bodies which  get beyond this constriction.   The
direction  of the  canal  is,  at first, inward, forward, and
upward; then it  curves slightly downward.  The floor is
a little longer than the roof, owing to the tympanic mem-
brane being placed obliquely.
   (2) The membrana tympani, a thin, semi-transparent,
membranous disc, slightly  oval in shape, forming a com-
plete partition between the external  auditory canal and
the middle ear.   It has a thin layer of true skin on its
outer  surface.    Its  inner  surface  is  lined  with  the
mucous membrane of the tympanum.   It is supplied with
sensation, in connection with the auditory canal, by a branch
from  the  auriculo-temporal of the third division of the
trifacial.
   (3) Inner  surface  of membrana  tympani,  against the
upper half  of which lies,  vertically,  the handle  of the
malleus (4).
   (5) The incus or anvil bone.
   (6) The stapes, or stirrup bone, the base of which  is
attached to  the membrane of the fenestra ovalis on the
inner wall of the cavity of the tympanum.   From the
anterior wall of this cavity the Eustachian  tube  leads
downward,  forward and inward to the  pharynx.  On the
posterior wall are three  or four openings which convey air
to the mastoid cells.
  The internal ear consists of (7) the three semicircular
canals behind;   in front, (8) the cochlea; and the vesti-
bule,  a small cavity placed  between (7) and (8).
  (9) Termination of the auditory nerve in  the cochlea.
  The cochlea is in  the form of a snail shell.   Its base,
one-fourth of an inch in diameter, corresponds to the bot-
    12 
194
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
torn of the  internal auditory  meatus—the apex  being
directed outward and forward.
  The auditory nerve, the portio mollis of the seventh
pair,  after passing down through the  internal auditory
meatus, divides  into  two sets  of branches,  the anterior
being distributed  in  the cochlea, the  posterior in the
vestibule.
£• 
                  PART  THIRD



   THE MALE AND FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS
             -THE FQ2TAL CIRCULATION.


     By  J.  SUYDAM  KNOX, A.M., M.D.,

Professor of Obstetrics and Diseases of Children, Rush Medical Col-
  lege; Consulting Obstetrician, Presbyterian Hospital, Chicago.
195 
 
THE MALE GENERATIVE ORGANS.
INDEX TO SECTIONS.
(I)	Peritoneum.	
(2)	Bladder, Exterior (2') Mucous Coat, Coat.	(2") Muscular
(3)	Symphysis Pubis.	
(4)	Prostate Gland, (4') Section of.	
(5)	Vesiculae Seminales and Vas Deferens.	
(6)	Rectum, External Coat.	
(7)	Glans Penis.	
(8)	Penis, (8') Section of.	
(9)	Corpus Cavernosum.	
io)	Corpus Cavernosum, Section of.	
u)	Membranous portion Urethra.	
12)	Bulb of Urethra.	
r3)	Cowper's Gland.	
14)	Spermatic Vein.	
J5)	Spermatic Artery.	
16)	Vas Deferens.	
l7)	Ureter.	
18)	Spermatic Cord.	
J9)	Vertebra.	
20)	Testicle.	
2l)	Epididymis.	
22)	Spermatic Artery.	
23)	Spermatic Vein.	
24)	Major globe of Epididymis.	
25)	Internal texture of Testis.	
26)	Structure of Corpus Cavernosum.	
 
198	EMBALMERS' GUI
(27)	Artery of Corpus Cavernosum.
(28)	Dorsal Artery of Penis.
(29]	Orifice of Ureter.
(30)	Vas Deferens.
(30	Epididymis.
(32)	Rete Testis.
(33;	Globus Major Epididymis.
(34]	Seminal lobules of Testis.
(35)	Fossa Navicularis Urethrae.
(36)	Corpus Spongiosum.
(37)	Corpus Spongiosum.
(38)	Membranous Urethra.
(391	Prostatic Urethra.
             MALE GENERATIVE ORGANS.
  These  consist of penis and testes and their appendages.
The penis (8) is the organ of copulation.   It consists of a
body (8) 2.no\ glans (7).
  The body  at its base  is firmly connected to the rami
pubis by fibrous crura, and to the symphysis pubis (3) by
a suspensory ligament.
  The glans penis (7) is cone-shaped.  A vertical fissure,
at its summit, is the orifice of the urethra, called meatus
urinarius.   The  base of the  glans  is  a rounded ridge
{corona glandis)  and behind this ridge a deep depression
{cervix).  Buried in this depression are numerous sebaceous
glands, secreting an odorous matter.   Want of cleanliness
causes an accumulation of this secretion, with irritation.
The mucous membrane covering the  glans penis contains
no sebaceous glands,  but has on its surface  a  number of
sensitive papillae.
  The body of the penis, when  flaccid, is cylindrical; when 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
199
erectea, triangular.  It is composed of a mass of erectile
tissue (26) inclosed in three cylindrical fibrous compart-
ments.  Two of these,  the  corpora cavernosa (9), lying
side by side, form the upper part of the penis.  The third,
the corpus spongiosum (36), incloses the urethra, and forms
the under portion of the penis.
  The corpora cavernosa consist  of a very firm, highly
elastic fibrous envelope, which contains meshes of fibrous
and erectile tissue (10).  The union of the corpora forms a
groove above, in which run the dorsal vessels (28)  of the
penis, and a deeper groove below, in which lies the corpus
spongiosum, inclosing  the  urethra.   The arteries of the
corpora cavernosa (27) are derived from the pudic.  They
terminate in curling, dilated extremities  {helicine), which
allow them to accommodate  themselves to the erection of
the organ without stretching.
  The corpus spongiosum receives its  arterial suppiy from
the internal pudic.   The upper portion of the penis can
thus be erected without the lower.
   The penis  is supplied with lymphatics.  Its nerves are
derived from the internal pudic and hypogastric plexus.
  The cutaneous covering of the penis  is extremely elastic,
like that of the scrotum.  It is finer and of  darker color
than that of the surrounding parts.   It is attached loosely
to the penis by a connective tissue which contains no fat,
and therefore allows of great motion.
  It is possible, in performing circumcision,  to draw the
foreskin  so far   forward as  to cut  off the whole skin
covering the penis.   It is therefore  necessary to mark
the line  of incision  before  drawing forward the fore-
skin.
  The urethra (36, 38, 39) is the canal for the discharge
of the urine and the  semen.  It is  eight  or nine  inches 
200
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
long, and extends from the bladder (2) to the fissure of the
glans penis (7).  From the latter its direction is practically
straight until  it reaches  the  membranous portion (38),
when it begins to curve upward and forward  to enter the
bladder.  Inflexible catheters  and  sounds are made  to
imitate  and accommodate this curve.
  Anatomically, the canal of the urethra is divided into
three portions, the spongy (36  the membranous (38), and
the prostatic (39).
  Gonorrheal inflammation, at times, invades the glandu-
lar structures of the prostate, establishing a most intract-
able  disease.
  The  testicle (20) is the organ of seminal secretion.   It
lies in a special cavity called the scrotum, suspended by a
collection of structures called the spermatic cord (18).
  The scrotum consists of three layers, namely, the skin,
the tunica fibrosa, and the tunica vaginalis.  The scrotum
contains two cavities — a right and a left — each containing
a testicle, and each communicating  with the abdominal
cavity through the  inguinal canal (18).   The nerves and
blood-vessels of the testicle pass  through this canal and
constitute the spermatic cord.  The cavity of the scrotum,
which is a serous cavity, maybe filled and distended with
fluid, as the  result of inflammation, causing hydrocele.
Through the inguinal canal also  a loop of intestine may
descend, producing inguinal hernia.
  The testicles (20) are two  in  number, a  right and left.
The  left hangs lower than the right to prevent  injury when
the thighs are brought together.   During fcetal life the tes-
ticles lie just below  the kidneys, and gradually descend  to
the inguinal canal  as pregnancy advances to term.  At
birth, the testicles should be found in the scrotum.  At
times, one, and more rarely both, remain in the abdominal 
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE.
201
cavity.   Where  both  are retained,  sterility  generally
exists.   Absence  of  the testicles  {anorchus)  occurs
rarely, and produces impotence.   The testicles often be-
come diseased, requiring  removal.   This operation  is
called castration, and when performed on  both sides un-
sexes the patient and causes  impotence.   The testicle  is
covered  with  a fibrous capsule (20) {tunica  albuginea),
and  contains  a glandular  secreting  substance (34)  and
vessels (25) and nerves.
  The fibrous  capsule of the testicle is covered  by the
tunica vaginalis, which is adherent to it, and  also invests
and  binds to  the testicle  the epididymis. Beneath the
tunica albuginea is a fine network of blood-vessels {tunica
vasculoso), which supplies  the secreting substance.
  Prolongations inward of the tunica  albuginea,  called
septa,  divide  the substance of the  testes into lobules.
These lobules, 200  or  300 in number,  consist of two or
three convoluted seminal tubes of a diameter of 1-200 of
an inch.  Each lobule  is inclosed in a delicate plexus  of
blood-vessels.   At the  apices  of  the lobules  the seminal
tubes  become straight, and pass upward, freely anasto-
mosing, finally terminating in 15 or 20 ducts (32).  These
ducts  perforate  the tunica albuginea,  carrying seminal
fluid from the testes to  the  epididymis (33).   Here they
enlarge and become very much  convoluted  (33).  They
then descend  downward (31) to the  base of the testicle,
where, by union, they become one tube, the  vas deferens
(3o).
  Inflammation 01 the  epididymis leads to temporary or
permanent obliteration  of the  vas deferens, causing tem-
porary or permanent sterility.   The  vas deferens is  thus
the final outlet of  the secretion of the testes.  Commen-
cing at the lower part of the epididymis, it ascends along 
202
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
its posterior side (30) and along the back part of the sper-
matic  cord, until it  reaches the  inguinal  canal  (16).
Entering  the pelvic cavity, it descends along the side of
the bladder (2), passing downward and backward toward
its base.  At the base of the  bladder, it lies between that
organ and the rectum.  (6).  In this  position it  becomes
enlarged and sacculated (5) until it reaches the base of the
prostate (4), where it narrows and unites with the vesicula
seminalis (5) to form the ejaculatory  duct.   These ducts
run forward through the prostate to discharge the semen
into the urethra (38).
  The seminal  vesicles (5)  are two sacculated  pouches
lying on each side of the base of the bladder, just outside
of the  vasa deferentia.  They act as seminal reservoirs.
They may be felt by examination through the rectum.
  The blood-vessels of the spermatic  cord are the sper-
matic  (22), deferential and cremasteric arteries, and  the
spermatic veins (23).  The spermatic veins form a plexus
of vessels, and  make the chief mass of the cord.   They
often become varicosed, forming what is called varicocele.
  The semen  is a complex fluid, consisting of secretions
from the  testes, prostate, seminal  vesicles and Cowper's
gland.  Examined under the microscope, it  is found to
contain numerous filaments possessing rapid undulatory
movements.   These are  called spermatozoa.  They  are
the impregnating agents of the semen.  Absence of  them
in the seminal fluid indicates sterility.
  Acids arrest the movements of the spermatozoa.  Alka-
line solutions stimulate their motion.   Acrid vaginal dis-
charges may thus be  a  cause of barrenness.   Menstrual
blood and alkaline  mucus  discharges  from  the womb
prolong their  vitality.   For  this reason  they have been
found in motion a week after coitus. 
THE  FEMALE GENERATIVE  ORGANS.
               INDEX  TO SECTIONS.
  (A)  Meatus Urinarius.
  (B)  Labia Minora.
  (C)  Vagina.
  (D)  Venous Plexus of Bulb.
  (E)  Glands of Deverney.
  (F)  Anus.
  (G)  Clitoris.
  (K)  Fimbria attached to Ovary.
  (L)  Fimbriae of Fallopian Tube.
  (M)  Hymen.
  (N)  Ligament of Ovary.
  (0) Ovary, (O') — Section of.
  (P)  Peritoneum.
  (Q) Ascending  Colon.
  (R) Rectum.
  (S)  Sigmoid Flexure.
  (T)  Descending Colon.
  (U)  Uterus.
  (V)  Pampiniform Plexus.
  (W)  Venous Plexus of Uterus.
  (X)  Parovarium.
  (Y)  Internal Os Uteri.
  (Z)  Arbor Vitae of Cervix.
  (A') Urethra.
  (Bl) Bladder.
(F T) Fallopian Tube.
(F T) Fallopian Tube.
                        203 
204
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
(U') Cavity of Uterus.
 (a) Decidua Vera.
 (b) Decidua Reflexa.
 (c) Chorion.
 (d) Amnion.
 (e) Foetus.
 (f) Umbilical Cord.
 (g) Placenta.
 (h) Uterine Sinuses.
 (i) Mesentery.
 (k) Ileum.
 (1) Ileo-Caecal Valve.
(m) Ascending Colon.
 (n) Caecum.
 (o) Orifice Vermiform Appendix.
 (p) Vermiform Appendix.
 (i) Dorsal Vein of Clitoris.
 (2) Veins of communication.
 (3) Isthmus of Bulb and Veins.
 (4) Bulb of Vagina and Veins.
 (5) Superficial Perineal Vein.
 (6) Pudic Veins.
 (7) Pudic Veins.
 (8) Pudic Veins.
 (9) Pudic Artery.
(10) Transversus Perinei Artery.
(11) Artery of Bulb.
(12) Profunda Artery of Clitoris.
(13) Profunda Artery of Clitoris.
(14) Pudic Nerve.
(15) Pudic Nerve.
(16) Pudic Nerve.
(17) Crus Clitoris. 
THE CORRECT METHOD OF CLEANING AND ARRANCING INSTRUMENTS. 
 
EMBALMERS' GUIDE.
(18) Muscles of Crura.
(19) Transversus Perinei Muscle.
(20) Superficial Sphincter Ani.
(21) Bulbo Cavernosus Muscle.
(22) Perineal Fascia.
(23) Tuberosity of Ischium.
(24) Symphysis Pubis.
(25) Poupart's  Ligament.
(26) Superior Spine of Ilium.
(27) Obturator Membrane.
            FEMALE GENERATIVE ORGANS.
  The female generative organs  are divided into two
groups: the external and the internal.
  The external  generative organs are called the pudenda
(pudere — to  be  ashamed),  and  comprise:   the  mons
veneris, labia majora, labia minora (B), clitoris (G), and
hymen  (M).   These  form  the  vulva, or orifice  of  the
vagina.
  The internal  organs  comprise:  the vagina  (C), uterus
(U), Fallopian tubes  (F T) and ovaries (0).

             EXTERNAL GENITAL ORGANS.
  The mons veneris  is  a fatty cushion covered with hair
after puberty,containing sebaceous glands, resting upon the
symphysis pubis.  It is the base of the external abdomen
and the upper and anterior junction of the labia majora.
  The labia majora (N) are  two longitudinal tegumentary
folds,  rounded  and  slightly curved.    They  bound  the
orifice of the vagina on each side, and  act as a sort of
valve closing it—whence the term vulva.  Their super-
ficial surface is true skin sparsely covered with hair.   Their 
206
embalmers' guide.
 inner surface is mucous membrane, but contains sebaceous
 instead of mucous glands.
   The shape and size of the labia  majora vary with age.
 In the  young virgin they  are  rounded and firm, com-
 pletely  closing the  vaginal orifice.  In married  women
 who have borne children, they are  less rounded  and gape
 apart.   In old age  they are  shrunken and wasted.
   The labia  minora (B) are two  membranous folds of a
 shell pink color, situated between the labia majora.   Their
 outer surface is continuous with the labia majora, and their
 inner surface  with the  mucous  membrane of the vagina
 (C).  They are also called nymphce  (goddesses  of the
 fountain), because they were supposed to direct the stream
 of urine.
   Superiorly, each labium  splits  into two  folds, one of
 which  passes over,  the  other under,  the clitoris (G) to
 unite with the corresponding folds of the opposite side.
 Thus are formed the prapuce and frenulum of the clitoris.
 Below, the labia  minora pass around  the orifice  of  the
 vagina,  and unite to  form the frenulum vulva,  or four-
 chette.
   The clitoris (G) is  a small, elongated, spongy body,
 lying below the  upper junction of the labia majora (N).
 It is hung from the symphysis pubis (24) by a suspensory
 ligament,  and protrudes from the folds  of the labia minora
 (B). It resembles the penis in possessing crura, corpus and
 glans, lacking, however, corpus spongiosum and urethra.
   The crura (17)  are long,  slender processes, of spindle
 shape, attached to the rami  of the pubes (24), uniting to
 form the corpus or body.  The extremity of the body is
 the glans  (G), of a pale red  color,   and covered with
papillae.  These contain nerve endings of extreme sensi-
tiveness. 
embalmers' guide.
207
  In a state of erection, the clitoris measures less than an
inch in length.   This  erection of the clitoris occurs from
emotional or mechanical excitement, and is due to the fill-
ing of its spongy body with blood from its appropriate
vessels (1), (12), (13).
  The meatus urethra (A) is situated about three-quar-
ters of an inch vertically below the clitoris (G).   It is the
lower boundary of  the  vestibulum,  which is a space
bounded by the  clitoris  (G)  above, the  labia minora (B)
at the sides, and the vaginal orifice below(C).  The meatus
is surrounded by a sphincter muscle, which  puckers the
mucous membrane, and serves as a guide  for the introduc-
tion of a catheter.  The  urethra  is  larger and shorter  in
women   than in  men, and can easily be dilated for the
introduction of the finger into the bladder.
  The Hymen (M). —In virgins the anterior extremity of
the vagina is closed by a double fold of mucous membrane
called the hymen.  The inner surface is  a continuation of
the mucous lining of the vagina (C); the outer, that  of
the  labia  minora (B); between  these layers of mucous
membrane are some connective tissue, muscular fibers and
blood-vessels.   The hymen is usually crescentic in shape,
its  concave border looking upward.  There are, however,
other forms, viz.:
   1.  Hymen   cribriformis,  with a  number  of  small
openings.
   2.  Hymen annularis, where it is like a ring, with the
opening in the center.
   3.  Hymen imperforatus,  when there  is no opening at
all, and menstrual blood is retained after puberty, requiring
surgical interference.
   4.  Hymen fimbriatus, where  it  looks as if the virgin
had been deflowered, and the hymen torn.  At times there 
208
embalmers'  guide.
 is no hymen at all; and, again, the hymen may be so dis-
 tensible that coitus can take place, and it be not ruptured.
 Absence of hymen is therefore no positive sign of coitus,
 and its presence  no sure proof  of chastity;  while  the
 hymen fimbriatus  resembles, but is no proof of, laceration
 from intercourse.

          INTERNAL ORGANS OF GENERATION.
   The vagina (C)  is the canal which connects the uterus
 with the external genital organs.   Its walls are  composed
 of mucous  membrane, connective,  elastic and muscular
 tissue, and in its upper portion, posteriorly, peritoneum.
 Unless artificially  distended, its  anterior and posterior
 walls lie in contact.   The anterior wall is nearly an inch
 shorter than the posterior one, whose length is about three
 and a  half inches.   The vagina  lies  between the  bladder
 (Bl) and the rectum (R), and is closely united to them,
 forming the recto-vaginal and vesico-vaginal septa.  The
 upper fifth of the posterior wall is separated from the rectum
 by a fold of peritoneum, called Douglas' cul-de-sac.  This
 is the only point where the abdominal cavity can be entered
 from the vagina.  This is often taken advantage of to drain
 the abdominal cavity after laparotomies.  The upper part
 of the vagina  encircling the cervix uteri, and attached to
 it, is called the fornix.
   The  mucous  lining  of the  fornix  is  comparatively
smooth.  As the canal, however, is descended, the walls
thicken, particularly on the anterior and posterior aspects,
throwing the mucous membrane into folds, and forming
the anterior and posterior vaginal columns.   The  mucous
membrane  of the  vagina is  also  covered with  vascular
papillae, and contains scattered mucous  follicles, which
keep its surface constantly moist with an acid mucus. 
embalmers' guide.
209
  The vagina receives its blood supply from the hypogastric,
the vesical, the uterine, and  the pudendal arteries,  and
returns the blood through the corresponding veins, which
form  a  close plexus  around it.  As these veins have no
valves,  and anastomose freely with  the  veins  of other
pelvic organs, it can readily be seen that  any disturbance
of return circulation will impart a  purplish color to the
vagina, and it will be congested by the congestion of any
other pelvic organ.  Thus, when pregnancy causes descent
of the womb,  and disturbance  of  its return  circulation,
the vagina also becomes congested, and its purplish color
becomes one of the signs of pregnancy.  In the same  way
congestion of the rectum, causing  piles, will also congest
the vagina, and cause excessive mucous secretion, termed
leucorrhcea, or whites.
  The uterus (U) is the organ that contains, nourishes,
and  finally expels the foetus.  In the  virgin it resembles
an inverted wide-necked flask.  It is about two and one-
half inches in length, and is divided  by a well marked con-
traction  into two nearly equal parts.  The upper  half is
called the body, the lower the  cervix.   The body is egg-
shaped, but flattened  in front.  The cervix is  cylindrical,
with a rounded lower extremity.   This is surrounded by,
and protrudes into, the  vagina.  It possesses an oval aper-
ture,  leading to the cavity of the womb.   This opening is
called the external os, or ostincce, from its supposed resem-
blance to the mouth of the Tench.
  Maternity changes  permanently the  uterus.  The body
becomes  rounder  and  larger, proportionately,  than the
cervix.   The cervix becomes broader  and less firm at its
apex, and the external  os, on account of laceration of its
border during labor, becomes a ragged slit.
  On making a lateral section  of the uterus, its cavity (U')
    13 
210
embalmers'  guide.
is opened.   This is found to be triangular in shape, with
convex sides.
  The base of the  triangle is the fundus.
  At the two angles of the base are found the fine open-
ings (the size of a bristle) leading into the Fallopian tubes
(F T').  The apex of the triangle  is the internal os, a
round orifice sufficiently large to admit a  uterine sound.
  The canal of the  cervix (Z), which lies between the in-
ternal and external os, is spindle shaped.   Its inner  sur-
face, like the vagina,  possesses an anterior  and posterior
ridge, called arbor vita (Z),  from its  resemblance to the
leaves of that tree.
  The position of the uterus in the pelvis, and its  attach-
ments, allow it great freedom of motion.
  Its lower extremity projects into  the vagina, its ante-
rior surface is attached to the bladder (Bl). The fundus is
covered by the peritoneum (P), which descends over  the
body of the uterus  front and rear.   These folds of  perito-
neum meet at the sides, covering the Fallopian tubes (F T),
ovaries  (O), blood-vessels and nerves,  and are  called
the broad ligaments.  They  divide the cavity of the  pel-
vis  into two nearly equal halves.   In operations for the
removal of the uterus, these  ligaments must be carefully
ligated before section.
  Two other folds of peritoneum,  carrying with them
muscular fibers  from  the uterus, pass backward on each
side of the rectum  to the sacrum, and form the sacro-uter-
ine ligaments.  Two  more peritoneal folds, also carrying
muscular uterine fibers,  pass forward on each side of the
bladder to the inguinal  canals, and are called the round
ligaments of the uterus.   Cutting  down on the inguinal
canal, and  drawing out and  shortening these round liga- 
embalmers'  guide.
211
 ments, is  called Alexander's operation.   This operation
 corrects retroversion of the uterus.
   The six ligaments thus  holding the uterus  in position
 allow of much extension;  so that for surgical  procedures
 the  cervix can  be drawn almost to the  mouth  of  the
 vagina.
   Relaxation of these ligaments  causes  the various dis-
 placements of the womb.
   The  muscular tissue of the womb, which  consists  of
 three layers, is of the unstriped  variety, and, therefore,
 involuntary in its action.
   The mucous membrane of the body of the uterus is soft
 and smooth.   It is filled  with  glands which  secrete an
 alkaline  mucus.  Between  these  glands  is an abundant
 capillary network of blood-vessels, which  is the source of
 the menstrual hemorrhage
   The mucous  lining of  the cervix  is yellowish-red  in
 color, firm and ridged, and can readily be distinguished
 from the smooth red lining of the body.  Its glands secrete
 an abundant glairy white  mucus—like the white of an
 egg.  This mucus, in chronic catarrhal inflammation  of
 the membrane, often causes sterility by closing the cervi-
 cal canal to the spermatozoa.
   The Fallopian tubes (F T) are practically continuations
 of the uterus.   Their cavity (F T') communicates directly
 with the uterine cavity, and their mucous lining and mus-
 cular tissue proceed from the  latter organ.  These tubes
 are from three  to  four inches  long.   As  they proceed
 from the uterus, their  canal is straight and narrow, but it
soon becomes sinuous and enlarged, and terminates in a
fringed (fimbriated) extremity  (L).   One fimbria, longer
than the others, is  attached to the outer border of the
ovary (K).  During  ovulation the fimbriae apply them- 
212
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE
selves  to  the  ovary, and  establish  a continuous canal to
the uterus for the conveyance of the spermatozoa and the
passage of the ovum.
  The  muscular walls of the tubes arc of involuntary fiber,
and have a peristaltic movement.
  The  ovaries (O), two in number, are the analogues of
the testes  of the male.  They lie in the broad ligaments,
directly below the  Fallopian  tubes  (F  T).   They are
ovoid in shape, about one inch long, three-fourths of an
inch wide, and a half inch thick.   Each ovary is attached
to the  uterus by a ligament (N) about  an  inch long,  and
at its opposite extremity to one of the  fimbriae of the Fal-
lopian  tube (K).  On section, the ovary (O') is found to
contain within its tunic a  central  red  medullary  sub-
stance, and  a  surrounding gray cortical substance.  The
granular appearance of this cortical  substance is due to a
vast number of vesicles called Graafian, after their dis-
coverer.  Each vesicle contains an ovum which is suscep-
tible,  on  maturity,  of  impregnation and  of  subsequent
development,  in the uterus into a foetus

   BLOOD-VESSELS OF UTERUS AND ITS APPENDAGES.
   Arteries:  I.  Arteria  uterina  hypogastrica.—This
arises  from the hypogastric.   It descends downward to
reach the  vagina, then bends upward between the folds of
the  broad ligament, and  pursues a tortuous course along
the sides  of the uterus.
   2. Arteria  uterina aortica.—This artery springs from
the aorta  about two and  a half inches above its bifurca-
tion.  It  descends to the pelvis with many a spiral curve,
and then  ascends between the folds  of the broad  liga-
ment to supply the fundus  of the uterus, Fallopian tubes
and ovaries. 
embalmers' guide.
213
  These two arteries communicate freely.
  The circumflex branch, uniting the arteries of each side,
and placed around the location of the  internal os, is of
surgical interest, as it may be  wounded in lacerations of
the cervix, or in operations therefor.   The blood flows
from two plexuses of veins, viz.:
       1. Plexus uterinus (W).
      2. Plexus pampiniformis (V).
  These form a close network  of veins about the  uterus,
Fallopian tubes and ovaries.   The first  empties into the
hypogastric, and the second the spermatic vein.
  The uterus also contains an abundant supply of lym-
phatics and of nerves of sympathetic origin

            DEVELOPMENT OF THE OVUM.
  The fecundation of the ovum takes place at the surface
of the ovary (O), or in the Fallopian tube (FT).   It con-
sumes a week in reaching the cavity of the  womb (U').
During this time the uterine mucous membrane has be-
come congested  and  thrown into folds  (a), within one of
which the impregnated  ovum  is  soon entangled  and
attached.  As soon as the ovum has thus secured a lodg-
ment, the uterine mucous  membrane begins to inclose it,
forming a  complete envelope  about it, called decidua
reflex a (b).  The ovum enters the uterine cavity inclosed
in its vitelline membrane, and the blastodermic membrane,
resulting from   fecundation ;   subsequently the allantois
spreads itself over the whole interior of the globe of the
ovum, carrying with  it the blood-vessels of the growing
foetus.  At this  stage of development, the  embryo (e) is
inclosed  in  the  decidua (b),  derived from the mucous
lining of the womb, and the chorion (c), (made up of the
vitelline membrane, the blastodermic membrane and the
     15 
214
EMBALMERS'  GUIDE
allantois).  Simultaneously a third membrane is developed
called the amnion (d), which  directly envelops the em-
bryo, floating in a fluid called amniotic.
  As was said before, the allantois (part of the chorion)
carries with  it the blood-vessels  of the  embryo.  These
penetrate the chorion and  enter the decidua,  coming in
contact with, but not mingling  with, the maternal blood.
This development of blood-vessels  on  the surface of the
chorion makes it shaggy (c) in  appearance.  As  the de-
velopment of the embryo  progresses, these blood-vessels
disappear from  the chorion, except at the  point where
the decidua  lies upon the uterine tissue (c).  This becomes
the site for the future development  of  the placenta (g).
  The placenta  (g) is the organ  of respiration, nutrition
and  excretion  of the foetus.   After  the  allantois  has
spread over  the  entire inner surface of the  ovum, it ex-
tends its villi into the decidua, so that nutrition is absorbed
by the  embryo  from the whole  surface  of the chorion.
With the enlargement, however, of the ovum, the decidua
reflexa becomes thinned, with  an obliteration of its ves-
sels and  a corresponding disappearance of the villi of the
chorion.  Thus the whole  process  of  exchange between
mother  and  fcetus becomes concentrated in the  decidua
serotina  (h).  This is the site and origin  of the placenta.
The villi of the chorion here  wonderfully multiply  and,
branch out,  each villosity being followed and surrounded
by  a corresponding  development  of maternal  vessels.
The placenta (g) may then be  defined as a mass of con-
nective  and  vascular tissues representing the site  of con-
tact of the maternal and fcetal circulations.
  The  pedicle  of  the  allantois becomes  the umbilical
cord if).  It consists  of two arteries  (16)  and one vein 
EMBALMERS  GUIDE               215
(18), embedded in a gelatinous substance and inclosed in
the amnion.
  During the ninth month of gestation, the tissue con-
necting the placenta with the uterine wall undergoes fatty
degeneration, so that,  at term, it is easily separated.
  On separation, the uterine muscular tissue  is laid bare
and its blood-vessels torn. 
 
 
 
 
 
 
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