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Remittance must be made by check or postal order (or letter at sender’s risk), and be addressed, CHRISTIAN THOUGHT, 4 Winthrop Place, New York. Agents wanted. Terms very liberal. Send THIRTY CENTS for Agent’s outfit. ANTHROPOLOGY. BY DANIEL WILSON, LL.D., AUTHOR OF “ PREHISTORIC MAN,” ETC., WITH AN APPENDIX ON ARCHAEOLOGY, BY E. B. AUTHOR OF 44 PRIMITIVE CULTURE,” ETC. I. SCOPE OF THE SCIENCE. Anthropology (the science of man, avdpcjTros, ?i6yos) denotes the natural history of mankind. In the general classification of knowledge it stands as the highest section of zoology or the science of animals, itself the high- est section of biplogy or the science of living beings. To anthropology contribute various sciences, which hold their own independent places in the field of knowledge. Thus anat- omy and physiology display the struct- ure and functions of the human body, while psychology investigates the operations of the human mind. Phi- lology deals writh the general princi- ples of language, as well as with the relations between the languages of particular races and nations. Ethics or moral science treats of nran’s duty or rules of conduct toward his fellow- men. Lastly, under names of sociology and the science of culture, are considered the origin and devel- opment of arts and sciences, opin- ions, beliefs, customs, laws, and insti- tutions generally among mankind, their course in time being partly marked out by the direct record of history, while beyond the historical limit our information is continued by inferences from relics of early ages and remote districts, to interpret which is the task of prse-historic archaeology and geology. Not only are these various sciences concerned; largely with man, but several among them have in fact suffered by the* almost entire exclusion of other ani-. mals from their scheme. It is u,nr. doubted that comparative anaioajy and physiology, by treating tb.e hu- man species as one member of a long series of related organisms, have gained a higher and more perfect understanding of man himself and his place in the universe tl>an could have been gained by the narrower investiga- tion of his species hy and for itself. It is to be regretted that hitherto certain other sciences—psychology, ethics, and even philology and sociol- Jo; ilttVv- ‘., “ bring the horse ! ” Thus on the whole, the end- less variety in vocabulary and struct- ure among the languages of the world affords important evidence as to the mental diversities of the na- tions speaking those languages. But the unity of the faculty of speech in man stands as the primary fact, while the character of the grammar and dictionary belonging to any one na- tion represents only a secondary fact, such as might be fairly set down as resulting from their particular stage and circumstances of linguistic devel- opment. The principles of the development of a family of languages from a single parent tongue are laid down in special treatises on Language. It has here to be noticed that the evidence on which such linguistic groups may be treated as allied by descent is of various de- grees of fullness and strength. The most perfect available case is that of the Romance languages, comprising Italian, Spanish, French, etc.; inas- much as not only does the classic Latin remain substantially the repre- sentative of their common original, but the very stages of their develop- ment from it are preserved in docu- ments of successive ages. Thus, in comparing the vocabularies of Italian and French, it is, in the first place, seen that they to a great extent corre- spond,—this correspondence extend- ing to words which one language is least likely to borrow from another, viz., pronouns, the lower numerals, and names of the most universal and fa- miliar objects. It is only, however, by etymological analysis that their depth of correspondence comes fully into viewf, it being seen that the ultimate elements or roots are largely common to the two languages, as are also the grammatical affixes by which words are formed from these roots, while general similarity of linguistic struct- ure pervades both tongues. Such intimate correspondence could only result from derivation from a common 1 parent language, which in this case exists in Latin. In other groups of languages the existence of the com- mon parent may be inferred from cor- respondence of this highest order. Thus there must have existed, at some period, what may be called the parent Slavonic, whence descend the Russian, Polish, Bohemian, etc.; and the par- ent Keltic, whence descend Welsh, Gaelic, Breton, etc., while behind the various branches of the whole Aryan family are dimly to be discerned the outlines of a primitive Aryan speech. In like manner, a comparison of the Arabic, Hebrew, Syriac, etc., shows that these must be all derived from a primitive Semitic speech, containing many of the simple root forms, which still exist in its modern descendants, and being already characterized by the principle of internal inflection. Be- yond the limits of these two, the most important linguistic families, various I others have been satisfactorily made out, though hardly with the same completeness of proof. In the Tura- nian or Tatar family are included the Turkish, Mongol, Hungarian, Fin- ! nish, Ostyak, etc.; the Dravidian 1 family takes in the Tamil, Telugu, and various other South Indian dia- lects; the Polynesian family com- prises the languages of the higher race of the South Sea Islands; the Negro-Kafir family consists of the prefixing languages spoken by most African tribes from the equatorial re- gions southward; the Guarani family in South America, the Algonquin and Athapascan families in North Amer- ica, and the Australian family, each includes a number of tribes ranging over a vast extent of territory, and so on. As to smaller divisions, it is common for languages to occur in groups of several connected dialects, though not forming part of one of the , wider linguistic families; thus the Aztec and Nicaraguan are closely re- lated dialects, as are the Quichua and Aymara, while what philologists de- ; scribe as isolated languages, as the Basque appears to be, are rather iso- lated groups of dialects, with no 26 ANTHROPOLOGY. known analogues beyond a limited district. If the present state of the philolog- ical classification of mankind be com- pared with that of half a century ago, it will be seen that much progress has been made in referring groups of languages each to a common ances- tral tongue. At the same time, great- er cogency of proof is now demanded in such classification. The method of comparing a short vocabulary of twenty words or so in two languages is now abandoned, for where an exten- sive connection really exists, this is much better proved by a systematic comparison, while a few imperfect re- semblances in the two lists might be due to accident, or the adoption of words. Nothing short of a similarity in the roots or elements of two lan- guages, as well as in their grammat- ical structure, too strong to be ex- plained by any independent causes, is now admitted as valid proof of com- mon descent. This limitation, how- ever, by no means amounts to a de- nial of the possibility of such descent. Thus it is often argued, on the strength of some similarities between Hebrew and Indo-European roots, that the two so distinct Semitic and Aryan families of language are them- selves sprung from some yet more re- motely ancient tongue. Thus also it has been attempted to connect the Malay and Tatar groups of languages. Either or both of these opinions may be true ; but the general verdict of philologists is, that they are not satisfactorily made out, and therefore cannot be recognized. Under the present standard of evidence in comparing languages and tracing allied groups to a common origin, the crude speculations as to a single primeval language of mankind, which formerly occupied so much at- tention, are acknowledged to be worth- less. Increased knowledge and ac- curacy of method have as yet only left the way open to the most widely diver- gent suppositions. For all that known dialects prove to the contrary, on the other hand, there may have been one primitive language, from which the descendant languages have varied so widely, that neither their words nor their formation now indicate their unity in long past ages, while, on the other hand, the primitive tongues of man- kind may have been numerous, and the extreme unlikeness of such lan- guages as Basque, Chinese, Peruvian, Hottentot, and Sanskrit, may arise from absolute independence of origin. The language spoken by any tribe or nation is not of itself absolute evi- dence as to its race-affinities. This is clearly shown in extreme cases. Thus the Jews in Europe have almost lost the use of Hebrew, but speak as their vernacular the language of their adopted nation, whatever it may be ; even the Jewish-German dialect, though consisting so largely of He- brew words, is philologically German, as any sentence shows : “ Ich hab noc/i hojom lo geachelt',” “ I have not yet eaten to-day.” The mixture of the Israelites in Europe by marriage with other nations is probably much great- er than is acknowledged by them; yet, on the whole, the race has been preserved with extraordinary strict- ness, as its physical characteristics sufficiently show. Language thus here fails conspicuously as a test of race, and even of national history. Not much less conclusive is the case of the predominantly Negro popula- tions of the West India Islands, who, nevertheless, speak as their native tongues dialects of English or French, in which the number of intermingled native African words is very scanty : “ Don hitti netti na ini watra bikasi dem de fisiman” “ They cast a net into the water, because they were fishermen.” (Surinam Negro-Eng.) “ Bef pas ca jamam lasse poter cones li." “ Le bceuf n’est jamais las de porter ses cornes.” (Haytian Negro- Fr.) If it be objected that the lin- guistic conditions of these two races are more artificial than has been usual in the history of the world, less ex- treme cases may be seen in countries where the ordinary results of conquest- colonization have taken place. The ANTHROPOLOGY. 27 Mestizos, who form so large a fraction of the population of modern Mexico, numbering several millions, afford a convenient test in this respect, inas- much as their intermediate complex- ion separates them from both their ancestral races, the Spaniard, and the chocolate-brown indigenous Aztec or other Mexican. The mother-tongue of this mixed race is Spanish, with an infusion of Mexi- can words; and a large proportion cannot speak any native dialect. In most or all nations of mankind, cross- ing or intermarriage of races has thus taken place between the conquering invader and the conquered native, so that the language spoken by the na- tion may represent the results of con- quest as much or more than of ances- try. The supersession of the Keltic Cornish by English, and of the Sla- vonic Old-Prussian by German, are but examples of a process which has for untold ages been supplanting na- tive dialects, whose very names have mostly disappeared. On the other hand, the language of the warlike in- vader or peaceful immigrant may yield, in a few generations, to the tongue of the mass of the population, as the Northman’s was replaced by French, and modern German gives way to English in the United States. Judging, then, by the extirpation and adoption of languages within the range of history, it is obvious that to classify mankind into races, Aryan, Semitic, Turanian, Polynesian, Kafir, etc., on the mere evidence of lan- guage, is an intrinsically unsound method. From the earliest times in which nations have been classified by languages, its unrestricted use has vitiated sound ethnology. Nevertheless, under proper restric- tions, speech affords information as to the affinities of races only second in value to that derived from physical characteristics. As a rule, language at least proves some proportion of ancestry. It could hardly happen that one people should come into so close a relation to another as to sup- plant its language, without strong in- termixture of race in the next genera- tion. This is true in the extreme case of the West Indian colored popula- tion, among whom the majority are now crossed with European blood, so that in each succeeding generation the proportion of absolutely pure Ne- gro families becomes less. Still more fully is it true of colored races in Mexico or Brazil, whose Spanish or Portuguese language represents at least a large European element of ancestry. Thus in India many mil- lions of people, whose blood is pre- dominantly that of the darker indige- nous race, nevertheless speak dia- lects of the languages of the fairer Aryans; but then they are for the most part distinctly mixed races of partly Aryan ancestry. With these facts before us, it is not difficult to determine the principles on which the ethnologist may use language as par- tial evidence of race. In the first place, it strengthens the evidence of bodily characters. Thus in South Africa the Zulu seems by color, feat- ures, shape of skull, etc., to be, if not an absolute Negro of a mixed and modified Negro type. This view of his origin is strengthened by the fact that the Zulu language belongs to the peculiar prefixing family which ex- tends so widely among the Negro na- tions farther north. So the Hotten- tot language, in its evident connection with that of the Bushmen, adds its weight to the physical argument, that these two are decendants more or less mixed and varied from a single race, small, yellow, crisp-haired, and speak- ing an inflectional monosyllabic lan- guage, articulated with clicks. In the second place, language may prove race-connection where bodily charac- teristics, though they do not contradict, do not suffice. Thus, comparing the dark Andalusian with the fair Swede we ask the question, wffiether there is distinguishable common parentage between these two varieties of the white man ? The anatomist might hesitate here. Nor, indeed, is the physical problem nearly solved, but at least a partial solution is involved 28 ANTHROPOLOGY, in the philologist’s proof that the two , peoples speak languages inherited at | some remote period from a common Aryan tongue, and must therefore have had a common element in their ancestry of at least sufficient strength to carry language with it. Thus each linguistic family affords at least par- tial evidence of race, proving, for in- stance, the existence of a common ancestry of the Irishman and the Rus- sian, of the Jew and the Maltese, of the Tahitian and the Malagasy, though in such pairs of races the actual amount of common ancestry may be less than that of the different race-elements with which it has com- bined. As regards political nationality and the history of civilization, the evi- dence of speech is of still greater weight. In many cases of the mixt- ure of nations the language of the dominant civilization prevails, as where Latin dialects superseded the native tongues in Western Europe, and Germanic languages encroached on Turanian in Finland, on Slavonic in Russia, and on Keltic in the Scotch Highlands. In other cases, where one nation has received elements of civilization from another, language is apt to keep record of the process by adopting foreign words and ideas to- gether. Thus the language of the bar- barian Turks has absorbed masses of Arabic, which itself had in like manner absorbed Persian, when Persia was the fountain-head of early Moslem culture. In the same manner Dravidian lan- guages of South India have been saturated with words and phrases from Sanskrit and its related dialects, so that a page of Tamil literature is of itself the proof of a non-Ayran race having received from an Aryan race a whole system of religion, philosophy and social order. The most extreme cases of such verbal indication of foreign influence are to be found in languages of low races of America and the Pacific, which have adopted from European languages not only terms for imported arts and ideas, but names of such numerals as 6 and 7, pre-1 viously expressed by more clumsy na- tive combinations. Thus the language of any people, though less effect- ive than was once believed as a means of determining its place in the class- ified order of mankind, does, to some extent, indicate its physical, and, to a still greater extent, its intellectual ancestry. VII. DEVELOPMENT OF CIV- ILIZATION. The conditions of man at the low- est and highest known levels of cult- ure are separated by a vast interval; but this interval is so nearly filled by known intermediate stages, that the line of continuity between the lowest savagery and the highest civilization is unbroken at any critical point. The Australians and forest Indians of Brazil may be taken as the lowest modern savages whose thought and life have been investigated with any thoroughness; while other less ac- curately-studied tribes are in some respects inferior even to these. An examination of the details of savage life shows not only that there is an immeasurable difference between the rudest man and the highest lower an- imal, but also that the least cultured savages have themselves advanced far beyond the lowest intellectual and moral state at which human tribes can be conceived as capable of exist- ing, when placed under favorable cir- cumstances of warm climate, abund- ant food, and security from too se- vere destructive influences. In fact, the Australian or Brazilian savage has already attained to rudimentary stages in many of the characteristic functions of civilized life. His lan- guage. expressing thoughts by con- ventional articulate sounds, is the same in essential principle as the most cultivated philosophic dialect, only less exact and copious. His weapons, tools, and other appliances, such as the hammer, hatchet, spear, knife, awl, thread, net, canoe, etc., ANTHROPOLOGY. 29 are the evident rudimentary analogues of what still remains in use among Europeans. His structures, such as the hut, fence, stockade, earthwork, etc., may be poor and clumsy, but they are of the same nature as our own. In the simple arts of broiling and roasting meat, the use of hides and furs for covering, the plaiting of mats and baskets, the devices of hunting, trapping, and fishing, the pleasure taken in personal ornament, the touches of artistic decoration on ob- jects of daily use, the savage differs in degree but not in kind from the civilized man. The domestic and so- cial affections, the kindly care of the young and the old, some acknowledg- ment of marital and parental obliga- tion, the duty of mutual defense in the tribe, the authority of the elders, and general respect to traditional custom as the regulator of life and duty, are more or less well marked in every savage tribe which is not disorganized and falling to pieces. Lastly, there is usually to be discerned among such lower races a belief in unseen powers pervading the universe, this belief shaping itself into an animistic or spiritualistic theology, mostly re- sulting in some kind of worship. If, again, high savage or low barbaric types be selected, as among the North American Indians, Polynesians, and Kafirs of South Africa, the same ele- ments of culture appear, but at a more advanced stage, namely, a more full and accurate language, more knowl- edge of the laws of nature, more serviceable implements, more perfect industrial processes, more definite and fixed social order and frame of gov- ernment, more systematic and phil- osophic schemes of religion, and a more elaborate and ceremonial wor- ship. At intervals new arts and ideas appear, such as agriculture and pas- turage, the manufacture of pottery, the use of metal implements, and the device of record and communication by picture-writing. Along such stages of improvement and invention the bridge is fairly made between savage and barbaric culture ; and this 1 once attained to, the remainder of the series of stages of civilization lies within the range of common knowl- edge. The teaching of history, during the three to four thousand years of which contemporary chronicles have been preserved, is that civilization is grad- ually developed in the course of ages by enlargement and increased precis- ion of knowledge, invention and im- provement of arts, and the progres- sion of social and political habits and institutions toward general well-be- ing. The conditions of such races as the older Jews, Greeks, and Ger- mans, are known to us by ancient chronicles, and by poetry and myth even more valuable than chronicle in the details they unconsciously pre- serve of the state of society at the time whence they have been handed down. Starting from the recorded condition of such barbaric nations, and following the general course of culture into the modern world, all the great processes of mental and social development may be seen at work. Falling back or decay also takes place, but only to a limited ex- tent destroys the results of growth in culture. It is thus matter of actual record, that the ancestors of civilized nations were barbaric tribes, and the inference seems reasonable that the same process of development had gone on during previous ages outside the domain of direct history, so that barbaric culture itself arose out of an earlier and ruder condition of primitive culture, more or less cor- responding with the state of modern savage tribes. The failure of direct record of this passage from savagery upward to barbarism was to be ex- pected from the circumstances of the case. No people civilized enough to preserve history could have watched the age-long process of a savage tribe developing its culture; indeed, expe- rience shows that independent prog- ress could hardly have taken place among an uncivilized in contact with a civilized race. Nor could a bar- baric nation, though it had really and 30 ANTHROPOLOGY, independently risen from savagery within some few thousand years, give any valid account of this gradual ad- vancement, for the very reason of its having taken place while the nation was yet in, or but little removed from, the savage state, one part of the very definition of which is that it has no trustworthy means of preserving the history of events even for a single century, much less for the long pe- riod required for so vast a develop- ment. This view of the low origin and progressive development of civ- ilization was already held in ancient times, as in the well-known specula- tions of the Epicurean school on the condition of the earliest men, who roved like wild animals, seeking their food from the uncultured earth, till arts and social laws arose among them (Lucret., De Rerum Nat., v. 923 ; Horat., Sat., i. 3); or where the like idea has taken in China the form of ancient legend, recording the time when their nation was taught to use skins for clothing, to make fire, and to dwell in houses (Pauthier, Livres Sacrh de VOrient, p. 26.) In opposition to such views of primeval rudeness, traditions of a pristine state of human excellence have long been cherished, such as the “ golden age ” (Hesiod., Op. et Dies, 108). Till of late wide acceptance has been given to arguments, partly based on theological and partly on anthropo- logical grounds, as to man’s incapa- bility of rising from a savage state, and the consequent necessity of a supernatural bestowal of culture on the first men, from whose high level savages are supposed by advocates of this theory to have degenerated. The anthropological evidence ad- duced in support of this doctrine is, however, too weak for citation, and even obviously erroneous arguments have been relied on (see, for exam- ple, Archbishop Whately, Essay on the Origin of Civilization, and remarks on its evidence in Tylor, Early Hist, of Man, p. 163). It has been espe- cially the evidence of prehistoric archaeology which, within the last few years, has given to the natural development-theory of civilization a predominance hardly disputed on anthropological grounds. The stone implements, which form the staple proof of man’s existence at the period of the river-drift, are of extreme rude- ness as compared even with ordinary savage types, so that it is obvious that the most ancient known tribes were, as to the industrial arts, at a low savage level. The remains in the caverns justify this opinion, espe- cially where in central France more precision is given to the idea of pre- historic life by the discovery of bone weapons for hunting and fishing, which suggest a rude condition re- sembling that of the Esquimaux (see the preceding section V., Antiquity of Man). The finding of ancient stone implements buried in the ground in almost every habitable district of. the world, including the seats of the great ancient civilizations, such as Egypt, Assyria, India, China, Greece, etc., may be adduced to show that the inhabitants of these regions had at some time belonged to the stone age. This argument goes far to prove that the ancestors of all na- tions, high and low, were once in that uncultured condition as to knowledge, arts, and manners generally, which within our experience accompanies the use of stone implements and the want of metals. No valid refutation of this reasoning has been offered, and it is corroborated by arguments to be drawn from study of the facts of civilization, of which some will be here mentioned for their bearing on the theory of development. History shows how development of the arts takes place by efforts of skill and insight, as where Phidias rose above the clumsier sculptors of the time before him, or where the earliest gnomon—a mere staff set up in order to have its shadow measured—passed into the graduated sun-dial ; or adap- tations of old contrivances produce new results, as when the ancient Pan’s pipes, blown by a bellows, be- came the organ, when the earlier ANTHROPOLOGY. 31 block-printing led up to the use of movable types, and when the mag- netic-needle was taken out of the mariner’s compass to find a new office on the telegraph-dial; or lastly, more absolutely original inventions arise, the triumphs of the scientific imagina- tion, such as the pendulum and the steam-engine. In the evolution of science the new knowledge ever starts from the old, whether its re- sults be to improve, to shift, or to supersede it. The history of astron- omy extends far enough back to show its barbaric stages, when the earth was regarded as a flat surface, over- arched by a solid dome or firmament; and when not only was the sun con- sidered to move round the earth, but its motions, as well as the moon’s, were referred to the guidance and even the impulse of personal deities. Beginning with this first stage of the science, there lies before us the whole record of the exacter observation and closer reasoning which have gradually replaced these childlike savage conceptions by the most per- fect of physical theories. Thus, again, the history of medicine shows improvement after improvement on the rude surgical appliances and the meager list of efficient drugs which the barbaric leech had at his disposal, while its theory has changed even more absolutely than its practice ; for medical history begins with the an- cient world holding fast to the savage doctrine that madness, epilepsy, fever, and other diseases, are caused by demons possessing the patient—a belief which is still that of half the human race, but which it has been the slow but successful task of scien- tific pathology to supercede in the civilized world. In like manner, the history of judicial and administrative institutions may be appealed to for illustrations of the modes in which old social formations are reshaped to meet new requirements, new regula- tions are made, and new officers are constituted to perform the more com- plex duties of modern society, while from time to time institutions of past ages, which have lost their original purpose, and become obsolete or hurtful, are swept away. That processes of development similar to these had already been effective to raise culture from the savage to the barbaric level, two con- siderations especially tend to prove. First, there are numerous points in the culture even of rude races which are not explicable otherwise than on the theory of development. Thus, though difficult or superfluous arts may easily be lost, it is hard to imag- ine the abandonment of contrivances of practical daily utility, where little skill is required, and materials are easily accessible. Had the Austra- lians or New Zealanders, for instance, ever possessed the potter’s art, they could hardly have forgotten it. The inference that these tribes represent the stage of culture before the in- vention of pottery is confirmed by the absence of buried fragments of pot- tery in the districts they inhabit (Lubbock, in Report of British Asso- ciation, Dundee, 1867, p. 121). The same races who were found making thread by the laborious process of twisting with the hand, would hardly have disused if they had ever pos- sessed it, so simple a labor-saving de- vice as the spindle, which consists merely of a small stick weighted at one end; the spindle may, accord- ingly, be regarded as an instrument invented somewhere between the lowest and highest savage levels (Tylor, Early Hist, of Mankind, p. 193). Again, many devices of civili- zation bear unmistakable marks of derivation from a lower source; thus the ancient Egyptian and Assyrian harps, which differ from ours in hav- ing no front pillar, appear certainly to owe this remarkable defect to hav- ing grown up through intermediate forms from the simple strung bow, the still used type of the most prim- itive stringed instrument (Engel, Music of the most Ancient Nations, pp. 17, 30.) In this way the history of numeral words furnishes actual proof of that independent intellectual prog- 32 ANTHROPOLOGY. ress among savage tribes which some writers have rashly denied. Such words as hand, hands, foot, man, etc., are used as numerals signifying 5, 10, 15, 20, etc., among many savage and barbaric peoples; thus Polyne- sian lima, i.e., “ hand,” means 5; Zulu, tatisitupa, i.e., “taking the thumb,” means 6; Greenlandish, ar- fersanek-pingasut, i.e., “ on the other foot three,” means 18; Tamanac, tevin itoto, i.e., “one man,” means 20, etc., etc. The existence of such expressions demonstrates that the people who use them had originally no spoken names for these numbers, but once merely counted them by gesture on their fingers and toes in low savage fashion, till they ob- tained higher numerals by the in- ventive process of describing in words these counting-gestures (Tvlor, in Journal Royal Inst., March 15, 1867 ; Primitive Culture, chap. vii.). Second, the process of “ survival in culture ” has caused the preservation in each stage of society of phenom- ena belonging to an earlier period, but kept up by force of custom into the later, thus supplying evidence of the modern condition being derived from the ancient. Thus the mitre over an English bishop’s coat-of-arms is a survival which indicates him as the successor of bishops who actually wore mitres, while armorial bearings themselves, and the whole craft of heraldry, are survivals bearing record of a state of warfare and social or- der whence our present state was by vast modification evolved. Evidence of this class, proving the derivation of modern civilization, not only from ancient barbarism, but beyond this, from primeval savagery, is im- mensely plentiful, especially in rites and ceremonies, where the survival of ancient habits is peculiarly fa- vored. Thus the modern Hindu, though using civilized means for lighting his household fire, retains the savage “ fire-drill ” for obtaining fire by friction of wood when what he considers pure or sacred fire has to be produced for sacrificial purposes; while in Europe into modern times the same primitive process has been kept up in producing the sacred and magical “need-fire,” which was light- ed to deliver cattle from a murrain. Again, the funeral offerings of food, clothing, weapons, etc., to the dead are absolutely intelligible and pur- poseful among savage races, who be- lieve that the souls of the departed are ethereal beings, capable of con- suming food, and of receiving and using the souls or phantoms of any objects sacrificed for their use. The primitive philosophy to which these conceptions belong has to a great de- gree been discredited by modern science; yet the clear survivals of such ancient and savage rites may still be seen in Europe, where the Bretons leave the remains of the All Souls’ supper on the table for the ghosts of the dead kinsfolk to par- take of, and Russian peasants set out cakes for the ancestral manes on the ledge which supports the holy pict- ures, and make dough ladders to as- sist the ghosts of the dead to ascend out of their graves and start on their journey for the future world ; while other provision for the same spiritual journey is made when the coin is still put in the hand of the corpse at an Irish wake. In like manner magic still exists in the civilized world as a Survival from the savage and barbaric times to which it originally belongs, and in which is found the natural source and proper home of utterly savage practices still carried on by ignorant peasants in our own coun- try, such as taking omens from the cries of animals, or bewitching an enemy by sticking full of pins and hanging up to shrivel in the smoke an image or other object, that similar destruction may fall on the hated per- son represented by the symbol (Tylor, Primitive Culture, chap, i., iii., iv., xi., xii.; Early Hist, of Man, chap. vi.). To conclude, the comparative sci- ence of civilization thus not only gen- eralizes the data of history, but sup- plements its information by laying down the lines of development along ANTHROPOLOGY. 33 which the lowest prehistoric culture has gradually risen to the highest modern level. Among the most clearly marked of these lines is that which follows the succession of the stone, bronze, and iron ages. The stone age represents the early condi- tion of mankind in general, and has remained in savage districts up to modern times, while the introduction of metals need not at once supersede the use of the old stone hatchets and arrows, which have often long con- tinued in dwindling survival by the side of the new bronze and even iron ones. The bronze age had its most important place among ancient na- tions of Asia and Europe, and among them was only succeeded after many centuries by the iron age; while in other districts, such as Polynesia and Central and South Africa, and Amer- ica (except Mexico and Peru), the native tribes were moved directly from the stone to the iron age with- out passing through the bronze age at all. Although the three divisions of savage, barbaric, and civilized man do not correspond at all perfectly with the stone, bronze, and iron ages, the classification of civilization thus introduced by Nilsson and Thomsen has proved a guide of extraordinary value in arranging in their proper order of culture the nations of the Old World. Another great line of progress has been followed by tribes passing from the primitive state of the wild hunter, fisher, and fruit-gatherer, to that of the settled tiller of the soil, for to this change of habit may be plainly in great part traced the ex- pansion of industrial arts and the creation of higher social and political institutions. These, again, have fol- lowed their proper lines along the course of time. Among such are the immense legal development by which the primitive law of personal venge- ance passed gradually away, leav- ing but a few surviving relics in the modern civilized world, and being re- placed by the higher doctrine that crime is an offense against society, to be repressed for the public good. Another vast social change has been that from the patriarchal condition, in which the unit is the family under the despotic rule of its head, to the systems in which individuals make up a society whose government is centralized in a chief or king. In the growth of systematic civilization, the art of writing has had an influence so intense, that of all tests to distin- guish the barbaric from the civilized state, none is so generally effective as this, whether they have but the failing link with the past which mere memory furnishes, or can have re- course to written records of past his- tory and written constitutions of pres- ent order. Lastly, still following the main lines of human culture, the primitive germs of religious institu- tions have to be traced in the childish faith and rude rites of savage life, and thence followed in their expan- sion into the vast systems adminis- tered by patriarchs and priests, hence- forth taking under their charge the precepts of morality and enforcing them under divine sanction, while also exercising in political life, aa authority beside or above the civil law. These illustrations may suffice- to make it clear that although the science of culture is still but rudi- mentary and imperfect, it indicates the one sound and indispensable method for the study of human arts; and institutions, that of placing each at its proper stage in a line of evolu- tion, and explaining it by the action of new conditions upon the previous, stage whence it was derived. ARCHEOLOGY E. B. TYLOR, AUTHOR OF 44 THE EARLY HISTORY OF MANKIND,” ETC. The term Arc/uzology, like that of Antiquities, has been employed, until a very recent period, in a sense so restricted and arbitrary as strikingly to contrast with the latitude admissi- ble according to the original deriva- tion of the word. Literally it signi- fies the study of antiquity or ancient things; but its precise significance has been determined from time to time by the range of study and re- search most in favor. To some ex- tent it has always been recognized as embracing whatever pertained to the early history of any nation, but in its details it was applied almost exclu- sively to the study of Greek and Ro- man art, or of classical antiquities generally. The progress of geology, and the application of sound princi- ples of induction to the study of prim- itive antiquities, have wrought a great revolution, and few studies now rival archaeology in comprehensive interest. In looking at the succession of strata of the earth’s crust it was as- sumed till recently that the student of man and his remains is limited to the latest superficial formation of post-tertiary strata. To the palaeon- tologist was assigned all ancient ani- mal life of the fossiliferous strata, while the archaeologist treated of man and his works as things essentially distinct. The diverse functions of the two sciences are still clearly recog- nized ; but the archaeologist is no longer supposed to be excluded either from quaternary or tertiary strata in his search not only for the remains of human art, but for the osteological evidences of man’s presence contem- poraneous with the fauna of such geological periods. One class of ar- chaeologists, accordingly, confidently anticipate the recovery not only of works of art, but of the fossil remains of man himself, in the pliocene, or even the miocene strata. So far, however, as any reliable evidence can guide opinion, it scarcely admits of question that neither has hitherto been found in older deposits than the later tertiary, or quaternary. The actual remains of man, the specific form of his osseous structure, and above all of his skull, now re- ceive the minutest attention ; and the department of anthropology to which such investigations are specially as- signed has latterly acquired a fresh interest from the inquiries suggested by novel theories as to the possible evolution of man from lower animal organizations. Nevertheless, the re- searches of the palaeontologist and of the archaeologist are based on essen- tially distinct evidence. The life of geological periods is investigated by means of the fossil bones and teeth which alone -survive. Or if to these have to be added such illustrations of habits, food, and structure as are fur- nished by means of footprints, copro- lites, and the like subsidiary evidence, still all are traceable, directly or indi- rectly, to the living organism. Man, on the contrary, in times altogether preceding history, is chiefly studied by means of his works. Archaeology thus forms the intermediate link be- tween geology and history, though the ARCHEOLOGY, 35 reaction, at the revival of learning in the 16th century, which tended for a time to subordinate arts and science alike to classical authority, reduced it within greatly narrower limits. Nev- ertheless, the fitness of the term for the most comprehensive definition in relation to all which pertains to the past could not be entirely overlooked, and it is even employed repeatedly by Dr. Prichard as nearly synonymous with palaeontology. In this, however, he has not been followed, and the name is now universally adopted to designate the science which deduces the history of man from, the relics of the past. The innate cravings of the human mind for an insight into the future have shaped themselves into many forms of divination and astrology. But this desire is not more universal than that which prompts man to aim at a recovery of the secrets of the past. The question Whence 1 even more than that of Whither ? is found to give shape to the mythic legends of the rude barbarian, and to constitute an important element in the poetry and mythology of every nation’s oral and written history. With the prog- ress of society such indices of the past are subjected anew to critical an- alyses ; and we accordingly find abund- ant traces of an archaeological spirit in the literature of every civilized na- tion. The influence of the same crav- ing for a mastery of the past is seen adapting itself to the spirit of the age at every epoch of great progress. The revival of art and letters in the 14th and 15th centuries was signalized by a renewed appreciation of Greek and Roman models; and while the progress of opinion in the 16th cent- ury was accompanied by an abandon- ment of mediaeval for classic art, the tendency of Europe in our own day, amid many elements of progress, has been singularly consentaneous in the return not merely to mediaeval art, but to mediaeval inodes and standards of thought, and in the attempt to at- tain to higher excellence than has been yet achieved by a more perfect development of the ideal of the mid- dle ages. The alliance of archaeology with geology, and the direction of geolog- ical research to the evidences of the antiquity of man, have largely contrib- uted to its expansion, until in its comprehensive unity it embraces the entire range of human progress from the infantile stage of primeval arts to the earliest periods of written records. It has thus been developed into a sys- tematic science, by which the intelli- gent investigator is enabled to pursue his researches with the aid of evidence older than all written chronicles, and to recover chapters of national in- fancy and youth heretofore deemed beyond recall. The geologist, with no aid from written records, follows out his inquiries through successive periods of the earth’s history, and re- veals the changes it has undergone, and the character of the living beings which animated epochs of the globe ages befote man was called into be- ing. Beginning with the traces of life iri the primary fossiliferous strata, he passes on from system to system, disclosing a vast succession of long extinct life, until in the latest diluvial formations he points to the remains of animals identical with existing species, and even to traces of human art—the evidence of the close of geo- logical and the beginning of archaeo- logical periods. Here archaelogical science ought to be ready to take up the narrative, and with a more com- prehensive minuteness of detail and greater certainty as to the conclusions arrived at. Such, however, until very recently, has not been the case. The geologist himself long confused the records of the transitional period by his mistaken reference of all diluvial traces to the Noachian deluge ; and when, pausing, as he thus believed, at the dawn of the historic period, he turned to the archaeologist for the sub- sequent chapters of the history of life on our globe, it was only to receive a record of Roman traces at best but meagerly supplementing the minuter details of the historian. Nearly the 36 ARCHEOLOGY. same was the case with all historic antiquity, with the single exception of the wonderful monuments of Egypt, which preserve to us the records of a civilization in which we can recognize the origin of arts, letters, and all else to which the culture of the oldest his- torical nations may be traced. Nevertheless, the evidences of the primitive arts, and the traces of a na- tive civilization originating among the prehistoric races of Europe, had been long familiar to the antiquary, though he failed to form any intelligent con- ception of their significance as his- torical records. Their interpretation on an intelligent and systematic prin- ciple is mainly due to the archaeolo- gists and ethnologists of Denmark and Sweden, who from their very geo- graphical position were happily freed from the confusing element of classi- cal prejudices, and were compelled to seek in other than Roman sources an origin for the abundant traces of met- allurgic art. Zealous British coad jutors speedily caught the hint, and freed themselves from the trammels which had so long narrowed their aim; the remains of primitive qrt were referred to true sources, or at least arranged under an intelligent system of chronological sequence ; and thus the desultory and ofted mis- directed labors of the antiquary have given place to researches character- ized by scientific accuracy. The system of primitive archaeology thus introduced has since been mod- ified and carried out into ampler de- tails, as the fruit of more extended discoveries, chiefly effected in France and England ; but the three primary divisions, the Stone, the Bronze end the Iron Periods, are still retained. The arrangement is warranted alike by evidence and by its practical con- venience, though later research has given to the stone period a compre- hensiveness undreamt of before, and so led to its subdivision into two ages of prolonged duration, with distinct- ive characteristics of primitive art. (1.) The Stone Period, as the name implies, is that in which the rude ab- original arts, which the commonest necessities of man call into operation, are assumed to have been employed entirely on such available materials as stone, horn, bone, etc. (2.) The Bronze Period may in like manner admit of subdivision, though the term is conveniently employed, in its most comprehensive sense, for that era of progress in which the metallurgic arts appear to have been introduced and slowly developed—first, by the simple use of native copper, followed by the application of fire, the construction of molds, and the discovery of such chemical processes as the alloying of copper and tin, and the consequent production of the beautiful and useful alloy which gives name to this the earlier metallurgic era. (3.) The Iron Period marks the era of matured metallurgic arts, and the accompany- ing progress consequent on the degree of civilization which is the inevitable concomitant of such a state of things. While, however, those divisions hold good in their general application, they must not in every case be applied too rigidly. The archaeologist is con- stantly recalled to the distinction be- tween the researches of the paleon- tologist, as dealing with the traces of organic life, and his own study of the works of a rational being marked by all the diversities traceable to the reasoning and volition of the individ- ual workman. Local facilities have also modified the arts of primitive man in various ways. In some local- ities, as in North America, pure na- tive copper abounds; while on the other hand, in certain districts of Af- rica iron occurs in such a condition thof if n o rn fry rrV> f by the primitive metallurgist from very remote times. All those periods embrace eras con- cerning which no contemporary writ- ten records exist; and in relation to most of them nearly as little is known directly as of the older periods with which the geologist exclusively deals. It need not therefore excite surprise that the process of induction estab- lished on this basis has been chal- ARCHEOLOGY. 37 lenged by historical writers of high I standing, but whose exclusive labors on the records of periods admitting of documentary evidence and charter proof render them little disposed to sympathize with a course of reasoning relative to the history of man, such as has, in the hands of the geologist, re- vealed so much in relation to more ancient life. The further, however, that research is pursued, alike into the habits of living races of savages, and into the characteristics of the oldest traces of primitive art, the more clearly does such a process of devel- opment, from the first rude working in stone to the highest arts of the skilled metallurgist, become mani- fest. The Australians, the Maories of New Zealand, and the whole widely- scattered races of the Polynesian Isl- ands, the Caribs and other natives of the American archipelago, with all the nomade tribes of the New World, from Patagonia to the Arctic circle, were, when first discovered, without any knowledge of the metals as such, and supplied their wants by means of implements and weapons of stone, shell, bone, or wood. The civilized Mexicans and Peruvians, on the con- trary, when first visited by the Span- iards in the 16th century, were famil- iar with the working of copper as well as gold,—though totally ignorant of iron, and also retaining for common purposes many of the primitive stone weapons and implements, only sub- stituting the abundant obsidian of their volcanic region for flint. Greece passed from its bronze to its iron age within the period embraced in its lit- erary history ; and the mastery of the art of working the intractable iron ore is traceable with tolerable clear- ness in the early history of Rome, not very long before it came in contact with the trans-Alpine barbarians. Among most of the Germanic and Celtic tribes iron appears to have been already known when they first came in contact with the aggressive civili- zation of the south ; and from one of them, the Norici (in whose country, in the Austrian valleys of the Danube, this metal is still wrought with the highest skill,) there is reason to be- lieve that the Romans acquired the art of making steel. If history is only to begin, as that of Britain has been made to do, with the date of the first collision with in- vading Rome, then, no doubt, stone and bronze periods are as meaning- less as are eocene and miocene peri- ods to the geologist who assigns the Mosaic deluge as the source of the earliest phenomena of his science. To those, however, who are willing to follow inductive reasoning to its legiti- mate conclusions it must be apparent that it is no visionary theory, but a system founded in well-established truth, which arranges the archaeolog- ical records of primitive history and the remains of human art into stone, bronze, and iron periods. Even here, however, an important distinction in the employment of such materials as a basis of inductive reasoning indi- cates the greatness of the revolution involved in the introduction among the living creatures inhabiting this earth of a being endowed with intelli- gence, and supplementing the natural resources of animal life by arts even of the most primitive kind. It must indeed be born in remembrance that geological and historical chronology are very different things, and that the idea implied in the contemporaneous- ness of strata bears a very slight ap- proximation to the coincidence of con- temporaneous events and productions of an historical era. The doctrine of geological continuity is indeed chal- lenged in certain respects ; but on the whole, the geological formations, with their included organic remains, may be assumed to obey a natural and un- varying order; and so, within the compass of geological periods, to be | of contemporaneous origin. But, ! notwithstanding certain extreme as- | sumptions, based on the theory of ev- l olution, and involving the consequent ■ existence of man in remote geological I eras, so far as all actual evidence can I yet guide us, it is correct to say that, 38 ARCHAEOLOGY. geologically speaking, the entire his- tory of man is embraced in one peri- od. But in the works of art, which form the bases of archaeological in- duction, a new element—that of mind, or the reasoning faculty, along with the imitative and social arts—is intro- duced, and greatly complicates its subdivisions. The stone period of Britain or Denmark is analogous to that of the Polynesian Islands. So closely do their tools and weapons re- semble each other that it requires a practiced eye to distinguish the stone axe or flint lance-head found in an ancient British barrow from imple- ments brought by some recent voy- ager from the islands of the Southern Ocean. Nor could the most experi- enced archaeologist undertake in every case to discriminate between the flint arrow-head dug from some primitive barrow of undated centuries before the Christian era, and the cor- responding weapon brought by some recent traveler from Tierra del Fuego or regions beyond the Rocky Moun- tains. The inference is therefore legitimate, that in those Polynesians, Fuegians, or Indians of the North- West, we have examples of tribes in the same primitive stage as were the aborigines of Europe during its stone period. Chronologically, however, the stone period of Europe and that of the Pacific islands or the American continent are separated by thousands of years. In like manner, the bronze age of Mexico was undisturbed by all later elements when first brought into contact with the matured civilization of Europe in the 16th century, while the close of that of Britain preceded the ist century of our era. The same rule is applicable to the primitive archaeology of all countries; and a fertile source of error and misconcep- tion has already had its rise in the as- sumption that because Greece and Italy, Germany, Gaul, Scandinavia, and Britain, have all had their primi- tive stone and bronze periods, there- fore the whole must have been con- temporaneous. It cannot therefore be too strongly enforced as one of the most essential points of variance in the reasoning of the geologist and the archaeologist, that the periods of the latter, though synonymous, are not necessarily synchronous; but that, on the contrary, nearly all the phenom- ena which pertain to the ziatural his- tory of man, and to the historic devel- opment of the race, may be witnessed in their various stages in contempo- rary races of our own day—from ru- dimentary barbarism, and the absence of all arts essential to the first dawn of civilization to a state of greatest advancement in the knowledge and employment of such arts. Some progress has already been made in an approximation to certain chronological data of much import- ance relative to such primitive peri- ods of the history of nations. But the archaeologist, as well as the geolo- gist, is learning to deal with periods of time which cannot always be measured either by years or centuries, but rather must be gauged by those chronological stages in the history of our planet in which epochs and peri- ods take the place of definite subdi- visions of solar time. Nevertheless, geological evidence of changes which are known to have occurred within the historic period supplies an im- portant key to the approximate dura- tion of certain eras characterized by traces of human art; and while by the intelligent observation of such re- mains in the superficial strata, ming- ling with the fossil evidences of ex- tinct and familiar species of animal life, the link is supplied by which man takes his place in an unbroken chain of creative existence, sweeping back into so remote a past, the evi- dences of matured art pertaining to periods unrecorded by history supply later links of the same chain, and reunite the present with all former ages. The system of primitive archaeology which is found applicable to British antiquities so closely corresponds in all its essential features to that of Europe prior to the era of authentic history, that the purpose of such an ARCHEOLOGY. 39 abstract as this will be most conven- iently accomplished by presenting its leading points as examples of the whole, illustrating these in passing by the analogous remains discovered in other countries. The apparent simplicity of a primitive stone period has been considerably modified by recent research; and the careful study of the remains of ancient art, in their relation to accompanying geological phenomena, or of the evi- dences of artificial deposition in caves, barrows, chambered cromlechs, cairns, or other sepulchral structures, sug- gests the subdivision of prehistoric archaeology into a succession of epochs included within the period of nonmetallurgic arts. But before defining the archaeolog- ical subdivisions of time it is indis- pensable to glance at the palaeonto- logical elements of the question, and the evidences they supply in relation to comparative chronology. One of the most remarkable phenomena af- fecting the conditions of life in Eu- rope in recent geological epochs is the existence of a period, of long duration throughout the northern hemisphere, of a temperature resem- bling that of the Arctic regions at the present time. After a period more nearly approximating in its conditions the heat of the tropics at the present day, though otherwise under varying states toward the end of the tertiary epoch the temperature of the whole northern hemisphere gradually dimin- ished, until the mountainous regions of Scotland and Wales—then prob- ably of a much higher elevation— resembled Greenland at the present time; and this Arctic temperature gradually extended southward to the Alps and the Pyrenees. The glaciers formed under the influence of perpet- ual frost and snow descended from those and other mountains into the valleys and plains over the greater portion of central Europe and north- ern Asia ; and this condition of things, pertaining to what is known as the glacial period, was one of greatly pro- longed duration. After some partial modifications of this low temperature, and a conse- quent advance and retrocession of the glacial influences in France and else- where, along what was then the bor- der lines of a north temperate zone, the glacial period drew to a close; a gradual but persistent rise of temper- ature carried the lines of ice and per- petual snow further and further north- ward, excepting in regions of great elevation, as in the Swiss Alps. This was necessarily accompanied by the melting of the vast glaciers accumu- lated in the mountain valleys through- out the protracted period of cold. The broken rocks and soil of the highlands were swept into the valleys by torrents of melted ice and snow; the lower valleys were hollowed out and re-formed under this novel agent; and the landscape received its present outlines of valley, estuary, and river- beds from the changes wrought in this diluvian epoch. The enormous power of the torrents thus acting con- tinuously throughout a period of pro- longed duration, and the vast deposits of sand, gravel, and clay, with the embedded remains of contempora- neous animal and vegetable life with which they everywhere covered the plains, were viewed till recently solely in relation to the Mosaic narrative of a universal deluge, and were referred implicitly to that source. But recent though the epoch is when compared with older geological periods, its an- tiquity is enormous in relation to his- toric chronology; and instead of be- ing the product of a sudden cataclysm of brief duration, it represents phe- nomena which required a period of long protracted centuries for their evolution. Within this late tertiary, or quater- nary, period are found the remains of animal life contemporary with prime- val man and his earliest arts. The very characteristics of some of the fossil mammals of the period, so di- verse from all that we have been ac- customed to associate with man, help to suggest ideas of even an exagger- ated antiquity for the era to which. 40 ARCHAEOLOGY, they are assignable, and to relegate it to the remotest conceivable antiq- uity consistent with all other evidence of the oldest traces of man or his arts seemingly contemporaneous with them. Of those now wdtolly extinct, the mammoth or Elephasprunigenius, the Elephas antiquus, the Rhinoceros tichorinus, the Hippopotamus major, and such great cave carnivora as the Ursus spelceus and the Eelis spelcea, are most noticeable for their great size, and in some cases for their enormous destructive powers, in striking con- trast to the seemingly helpless condi- tion of primitive man. Yet even some of those formidable mammalia probably owed their extinction fully as much to the presence of man as to any change in temperature and con- sequent alteration in the required conditions of climate and habitat. We are accustomed to regard the lion, tiger, leopard, panther, and others of the great Eclidce as pertain- ing exclusively to tropical countries. They are in reality limited to tropical jungles and uncultivated regions of great extent, where the abundance of wild vegetable-feeding animals sup- plies their food. The existence of neither is compatible with the pres- ence of man in any great numbers; but in his absence those beasts of prey greatly extend their range. The Indian tiger not only follows the ante- lope and deer in the Plimalayan chain to the verge of perpetual snow, but the tiger, leopard, panther, and chee- tah hunt their prey beyond that mountain range, even into Siberia. The influence of man in the extir- pation of the wild fauna is illustrated by another class of extinct animals of many historical regions, which yet survive in more favorable localities. The discovery of abundant evidence of a period in the history of central and southern France when the rein- deer (Cervus tarandus) formed one of the chief sources both for the food of man and for the materials from which his w-eapons and implements were made, seems to carry us back to an era inconceivably remote, when cen-, tral France was in the condition of Lapland in mediaeval or still earlier centuries. But the climate of North Britain is not even now incompatible with the existence of the reindeer, and its favorite moss abounds in many parts of the Highlands. It need not therefore surprise us to learn that traces of the reindeer are by no means rare in Scotland; and numer- ous examples of its horns have re- cently been recovered in more than one Caithness locality, with the marks of sawing and cutting for artificial use, and lying among other remains in stone-built structures of a primitive population of North Britain. How- old they are may not be strictly de- terminable, but they help us to the acceptance of a very modern date for the presence of the reindeer there ; for Torfaeus states that so recently as the twelfth century the Jarls of Ork- ney were wont to cross the Pentland Firth to chase the roe and the rein- deer in the wilds of Caithness. At the same date also we find the skin of the beaver rated for customs duties amongst articles of Scottish export specified in an Act of the reign of David I. Another very characteristic animal pertaining to the prehistoric era of European man is the Mcgaceros IJiber- nicus, or gigantic Irish elk. Its bones occurred with those of the Elephas primigenius, the Rhinoceros tichorinus, the Ursus spelceus, and other extinct mammals, alongside of human re- mains and works of art, in the famous Aurignac cave of the Pyrenees; and in the recently-explored Brixham cave, on the Devonshire coast, similar re- mains of the fossil rhinoceros, horse, and reindeer, as well as of several ex- tinct carnivora, lay embedded in the same breccia with flint knives. And not only have the horns and bones of the Mcgaceros Hibernicus been recov- ered from Irish bogs and marl-pits, with marks of artificial cutting, but a rude Irish lyre, found in the moat of Desmond Castle, Adare, has been pro- nounced by Professor Owen to be made from the bone of this extinct deer. ARCHEOLOGY. 41 So is it with the ancient Bovidiz, not only adapted for the chase, but suitable for domestication; such as the Bos primigenius, the Bos lotigi- frons, and the Bison priscus. Their remains have been found in submarine forests, or mingling in the drift or cave deposits with the Elephas prim- igcnius, the Pel is spelcca, and others of the most gigantic fossil mammals; while abundant traces reveal their existence not merely contemporaneous with man, but within definite histori- cal periods. The great alluvial valley of the river Forth has yielded another class of relics connecting the gigantic fossil mammalia of a prehistoric epoch with man. The disclosures of the Carse of Falkirk have repeatedly included remains of the Elephas primigenius: and in at least one case its tusks were found in such perfect condition as to be available for the ivorv-turner, though lying embedded at a depth of 20 feet in the boulder clay. But in the neighboring valley of the Forth the fossil whale (BaUmoptera) has not only been repeatedly found far in- land, buried in the alluvial soil, at levels varying from 20 to 25 feet above high-water mark, but in at least two instances the rude lance or harpoon of deer’s horn lay alongside of the skeletons; and near another of them were found pieces of stag’s horn, artificially cut, and one of them per- forated with a hole about an inch in diameter. Flint implements, an oak- en quern, and other ingenious traces of primitive art, recovered from the same alluvial soil, all tell of a time when the British savage hunted the whale in the shallows of a tide at the base of the Ochil hills, now between 20 and 30 feet above the highest tides and 7 miles distant from the sea. There is no doubt that the disap- pearance of the whale from the British shores, like the reindeer from its northern valleys, is due far more to the presence of man than to any change of temperature so greatly affecting the conditions of life as to involve their extinction. Neverthe- less it is convenient to recognize in the disappearance of such emigrant species from the historic areas the close of the palaeontological age. The Urus, the Aurochs, the Bos longifrons, or native ox of the Roman period, and others of that important class of animals which man first be- gan to turn to account for domestica- tion, have also ceased to exist among European fauna ; but this is clearly traceable to the destructive presence of man. Within three or four cent- uries the Urus (Bosprimigenius) was still known in Germany ; the Aurochs (Bos prisons) is even now preserved under special protection in Lithuania ; and herds of British wild cattle in Cadzow forest, Lanarkshire, and at Chillingham Park, Northumberland, perpetuate varieties otherwise extinct. Reverting, then, to the classifica- tion which prehistoric archaeology ad- mits of, in the light of its most recent disclosures, it appears to be divisible into four distinct epochs, of which the first two embrace successive stages of the age of stone implements. i. The Paleolithic Period is that which has also been designated the Drift Period. The troglodytes, or cave-dwellers, of this primitive era were to all appearance contempora- neous with the mammoth, the woolly- haired rhinoceros, and the great cave carnivora already named. In Eng- land, France, Belgium, and other countries of Europe, numerous caves have been explored which were un- doubtedly the habitations and work- shops of the men of this period. These caverns vary in character and dimensions according to the geolog- ical features of the localities where they occur ; but all alike involve the simple feature of recesses, more or less ample, affording comparatively dry and commodious shelter, and so being resorted to as places of habita- tion alike by wild animals and by man himself. But the most valuable for the purposes of the archaeologist are a class of caverns which occur in limestone districts, and which, from the combined mechanical action of 42 ARCHEOLOGY. the water operating on a rock easily eroded, and its chemical action when charged with a certain amount of carbonic acid in dissolving the cal- careous rock, are found expanded into long galleries and chambers of large dimensions. There the same chemical agents, acting under other circumstances, have dissolved the limestone rock, and sealed up the ancient flooring at successive inter- vals, thereby furnishing a test of the duration of long periods of alternate action and repose, and yielding evi- dence of the most indisputable kind as to the order of succession of the various deposits and their included bones and implements. In Belgium, at Dordogne, and in some parts of the south of France, the caves and rock-recesses are of a much simpler character. Yet there also favoring circumstances have pre- served contemporary deposits of the ancient cave-dwellers, their works of art, the remains of their food, and even their cooking hearths. The caves of the drift period ac- cordingly present peculiarly favorable conditions for the study of the post- pliocene period. Some of these cav- erns were evidently first occupied by the extinct carnivora of that period, as in the case of the famous Kent’s Hole Cave of Devonshire, of which the lowest deposit is a breccia of water-worn rock and red clay, inter- spersed with numerous bones of the Ursus spelceus, or great cave-bear. Over this a stalagmitic flooring had been formed, in some places to a depth of several feet, by the long- protracted deposition of carbonate of lime held in solution in the drippings from the roof. Above this ancient flooring, itself a work of centuries, later floods had superimposed a thick layer of “cave-earth,” in some cases even entirely filling up extensive gal- leries with a deposit of drift-mud and stones, within which are embedded the evidences of contemporaneous life—bones and teeth of the fossil elephant, rhinoceros, horse, cave-bear, hyaena, reindeer, and Irish elk ; and along with these, numerous weapons and implements of chipped flint, horn, and bone—the unmistakable proofs of the presence of man. These, again, have been sealed down, in another prolonged period of rest, by a new flooring of stalagmite; and thus the peculiar circumstances of those cave deposits render them spe- cially favorable for the preservation of a coherent record of the period. Here are the evidences of the animal life contemporaneous with the men of the caves during the drift period ; here also are many of their smaller flint implements—the flint-cores and the chips and flint-flakes, showing where their actual manufacture was carried on ; and the lances, bodkins, and needles of bone, which could only have been preserved under such favoring circumstances. But besides the actual deposits in the caves, the river gravels of the same period have their distinct dis- closures. The spear-heads, discs, scrapers, and other large implements of chipped flint are of rare occurrence in the cave breccia. Their size was sufficient to prevent their being readily dropt and buried beyond reach of recovery in the muddy floor- ing of the old cave dwelling ; and the same cause preserved them from de- struction when exposed to the violence involved in the accumulation of the old river drifts. In the north of France, and in England from Bed- fordshire southward to the English Channel, in beds of ancient gravel, sand, and clay of the river valleys, numerous discoveries of large flint implements have been made—from the year 1797, when the first noted flint implements of the drift were discovered in the same stratified gravel of Hoxne, in Suffolk, in which lay bones of the fossil elephants and other extinct mammalia. The char- acteristics of the river-drift imple- ments, as well as of the whole art of the stone age, have been minutely described and illustrated in various works, but especially in Evans’s An- cient Stone Impleme?its, Weapons, and ARCHEOLOGY. 43 Ornaments of Great Britain. It is sufficient, therefore, to refer to such authorities for details. But besides the numerous speci- mens of the manufactures in flint, horn, and bone, illustrative of the mechanical ingenuity of this primitive era, special attention is due to the actual evidences of imitative and artistic skill of the sculptors and draughtsmen of the same period. Different attempts have been made, especially by French savans, to sub- divide the palaeontologic age of man into a succession of periods, based chiefly on the character of the mamma- lian remains accompanying primitive works of art; and the two great sub- divisions of the elephantine or mam- moth age and the reindeer age have been specially favored. Among the works of art of the cave-men of Peri- gord, in central France, contempo- rary with the reindeer, various draw- ings of animals, including the rein- deer itself, have been found incised on bone and stone, apparently with a pointed implement of Hint. But the most remarkable of all is the portrait of a mammoth, seemingly executed from the life, outlined on a plate of ivory found in the Madelaine Cave, on the river Vezere, by M. Lartet, when in company with M. Verneuil and Dr. Falconer. If genuine—and the circumstances of the discovery, no less than the character of the explorers, seem to place it above sus- picion—this most ancient work of art is of extreme value. The skulls and other remains of five individuals have been found to illustrate the men of this period. The cerebral develop- ment is good, and alike in features and form of head they compare favor- ably with later savage races. Their drawings embrace animals, single and in groups, including the mammoth, reindeer, horse, ox, fish of different kinds, flowers, ornamental patterns, and also ruder attempts at the human form. They also carved in bone and ivory. Some of the delineations are as rude as any recent specimens of savage art, others exhibit consider- able skill; but the most remarkable of all is the representation of the mammoth. It has been repeatedly engraved, and as, to all appearance, a genuine contemporary effort at the portraiture of that remarkable animal, its worth is considerable. But this sinks into insignificance in compari- son with its value as a gauge of the intellectual capacity of the men of that remote age. It represents the extinct elephant, sketched with great freedom of hand, and with an artistic boldness in striking contrast to the labored efforts of an untutored draughtsman. Whatever other infer- ence be deduced from it, this is obvious, that in intellectual aptitude the palaeolithic men of the reindeer period of central France were in no degree inferior to the average French- man of the 19th century. 2. This first, or palaeolithic period, with its characteristic implements of chipped flint, belonging to an epoch in which man occupied central Eu- rope contemporaneously with the mammoth, the cave-bear, and other long-extinct mammals, was followed by the second or Neolithic Period, or, as it has been sometimes called, the Surface-Stone Period, in contradic- tion to the Drift Period, character- ized by weapons of polished flint and stone. The discovery and explora- tion of the ancient Pfahlbauten or lake villages of Switzerland and other countries, including the crannoges of Ireland and Scotland, and of the kjokken-mbddings or refuse-heaps of Denmark, Scotland, and elsewhere, have greatly extended the illustra- tions of this period, and given defi- niteness to the evidences of its an- tiquity. But while it thus includes works of a very remote epoch, it also embraces those of later regular sepul- ture, with the sepulchral pottery of rudest type, the personal ornaments and other remains of the prehistoric races of Europe, onward to the dawn of history. It even includes the first traces of the use of the metals, in the employment of gold for personal adornment, though with no intelligent 44 ARCHAEOLOGY. recognition of its distinction from the flint and stone in which the work- men of this neolithic period chiefly wrought. The nearly indestructible nature of the materials in which the manufact- urers alike of the palaeolithic and the neolithic period chiefly wrought, helps to account for the immense number of weapons and implements of the two prolonged ages of stone-working which have been recovered. The specimens now accumulated in the famous collection of the Christians- borg Palace at Copenhagen amount to several thousands. The Royal Irish Academy, the Society of Anti- quaries of Scotland, the British Mu- seum, and other collections, in like manner include many hundreds of specimens, ranging from the remotest periods of the cave and drift men of western Europe to the dawn of defi- nite history within the same Euro- pean area. They include hatchets, adzes, gouges, chisels, scrapers, disks, and other tools in considerable va- riety ; axes, lances, spear and arrow heads, mauls, hammers, and other weapons and implements of war and the chase ; besides a variety of uten- sils, implements, and ornaments, with regard to which we can but vaguely guess the design of their construc- tion. Many of these are merely chip- ped into shape, sometimes with much ingenuity, in other cases as rudely as the most barbarous and massive im- plements of the palceolithic period. But from their association, in graves or other clearly-recognized deposits of the later period, with ground and polished implements, and even occa- sionally with the first traces of a time when the metals were coming into use, there is no room to question their later origin. In part they may be legitimately recognized, like the whole elements of archaeological clas- sification, to mark different degrees of rudeness in successive steps to- ward civilization ; in part they indi- cate, as in manufactures of our own day, the economy of labor in roughly- fashioned implements designed only for the rudest work, or for missiles the use of which involved their loss. To the same primitive period of rude savage life must be assigned the rudiments of architectural skill per- taining to the Mega lit hie Age. Every- where we find traces, alike through- out the seats of oldest civilization and in earliest written records, in- cluding the historical books of the Old Testament Scriptures, of the erection of the simple monolith, or unhewn pillar of stone, as a record of events, a monumental memorial, or a landmark. There is the Tanist Stone, or kingly memorial, like that set up in Shechem when Abimelech was made king ; the Hoar Stone, or boundary-stone, like “ the stone of Bohan, the son of Reuben,” and other ancient landmarks of Bible story ; the Cat Stone, or battle-stone, a memorial of some great victory; and the stone set up as the evidence of some special treaty or agreement, like Laban and Jacob’s pillar of wit- ness at Galeed. To the same primi- tive stage of architecture belong the cromlech, the cairn, the chambered barrow', and other sepulchral struct- ures of unhewn stone ; as well as the weems, or megalithic subterranean dwellings common in Scotland and elsew'here, until, with the introduction of metals and the gradual mastery of metallurgic art, we reach the period of partially hewm and sym- metrical structures, of which the great temple of Stonehenge is the most remarkable example. But it is in Egypt that megalithic architecture is seen in its most matured stage, with all the massiveness w'hich so aptly symbolizes barbarian power, but also w’ith a grandeur, due to artistic taste and refinement, in which the pon- derous solidity of vast megalithic structures is relieved by the graces of colossal sculpture and of aa inex- haustible variety of architectural de- tail. There appears to be a stage in the development of the human mind in its progress toward civilization when an unconscious aim at the ex- pression of abstract power tends to ARCHEOLOGY. 45 beget an era of megalithic art. The huge cromlechs, monoliths, and cir- cles still abounding in many centers of European civilization perpetuate the evidence of such a transitional stage among its prehistoric races. But it was in Egypt that an isolation, begot by the peculiar conditions of its unique physical geography, though also perhaps ascribable in part to cer- tain ethnical characteristics of its people, permitted this megalithic art to mature into the highest perfection of which it is capable. There the rude unhewn monolith became the graceful obelisk, the cairn was trans- formed into the symmetrical pyramid, and the stone circles of Avebury and Stonehenge, or the megalithic laby- rinths of Carnac in Brittany, de- veloped into colonnaded avenues and temples, like those of Denderah and Edfu, or the colossal sphinx avenue of Luxor. Elaborately-finished axes, hammer- heads, cups, and vases of the late neolithic era serve to illustrate the high stage to which the arts of a purely stone period could be ad- vanced, in the absence of any process of arrestment or change. But long before such a tendency to develop- ment into ornamental detail and sym- metrical regularity of construction could be brought to bear on the megalithic architecture of the same era, the metallurgic sources of all later civilization had begun to super- sede its rude arts. To such remote eras we 're in vain to apply any definite chronology. At best we work our way backward from the modern or known into the mysterious darkness remotest antiquity, where it links itself to unmeasured ages of geological time. But by sucfh means science has been able to add a curious chapter to the beginnings of British and of European story, involv- ing questions of mysterious interest in relation to the earliest stages in the history of man. The very char- acteristics which distinguish him in his rudest stage from all other ani- mals have helped from remotest times to perpetuate the record of his prog- ress. The evidences of the various ac- quirements and degrees of civiliza- tion of the prehistoric races of Britain are derived not only from weapons, implements, pottery, and personal ornaments found deposited in ancient dwellings and sepulchres; but from still older traces supplied by chance discoveries of the agriculturist, miner, and builder, such as the implements of the ancient whalers of the Forth, or the monoxylous oaken canoes dug up from time to time in the valley of the Clyde, or even beneath some of the most ancient civic foundations of Glasgow. Both alike pertain to areas of well-defined historical antiquity, from the very dawn of written history, or of literate chronicles in any form ; and both also have their geological records, preserving the evidence of changes of level in unrecorded cent- uries subsequent to the advent of man, when the whales of the Forth and the canoes of the Clyde were embedded in the alluvium of those river-valleys, and elevated above the ancient tide-marks of their estuaries. Another change of level, possibly in uninterrupted continuance of the an- cient upheaval, has been in progress since the Roman invaders constructed their military roads, and built their wall between the Forth and the Clyde, in the ist and 2d centuries of the Christian era. By evidence such as this a starting- point is gained whence we may con- fidently deduce the colonization of the British Islands, and of the north of Europe, at periods separated by many centuries from that in which our island first figures in history. The researches of the ethnologist add to our knowledge of this unrecorded era, by disclosing some of the phys- ical characteristics of the aboriginal races, derived from human remains recovered in cave-drifts, ancient min- ing shafts, bogs, and marl-pits, or found in the most ancient sepulchres, accompanied by rudest evidences of art; and the researches of Nilsson, 46 ARCHAEOLOGY. Eschricht, Gosse, Rathke, Broca, and other Continental ethnologists, along with those which have been carried on with minute care in the British Islands, disclose characteristic cra- nial types indicating a succession of prehistoric races different from the predominant types belonging to the historical period of Europe; and some of them probably contempora- neous with the changes indicated in the periods of archaeological time. The very latest stage of archaeolog- ical antiquity, when it seems to come in contact with the dawn of historic time, was unquestionably one of com- plete barbarism, as is sufficiently ap- parent from its correspondence to that which the intercourse with European voyagers :'s bringing to a close among the islands of the Pacific. The an- cient Scottish subterranean dwellings termed weems (Gaelic uamhah, a cave), or “ Piets’ houses,” have been frequently found, apparently in the state in which they must have been abandoned by their original occu- pants; and from those we learn that their principal aliment must have been shell-fish and Crustacea, derived from the neighboring sea-beach, along with the chance products of the chase. The large accumulations of the com- mon shell-fish of our coasts found in some of those subterranean dwell- ings is remarkable; though along with such remains the stone quern or hand-mill, as well as the ruder corn- crusher or pestle and mortar, repeat- edly occur; supplying the important evidence that the primitive nomade had not been altogether ignorant of the value of the cereal grains. The source of change in Britain, and throughout Europe, from this rude state of barbarism, is clearly traceable to the introduction of metals and the discovery of the art of smelt- ing ores. Gold was probably the earliest metal wrought both from its attractive appearance, and from its superficial deposits, and the condition in which it is frequently found, rend- ering its working an easy process. Tin also, in the south of Britain, was wrought at the very dawn of history: and, with the copper which abounds in the same district of country, sup- plied the elements of the new and im- portant compound metal, bronze. 3. This accordingly indicates the transition from the later stone age to the third or Bronze Period, which, be- ginning apparently with the recogni- tion of the native copper as a mallea- ble metal, and then as a material capable of being melted and molded into form by the application of heat, was followed up by the art of smelt- ing the crude ores so as to extract the metal, and that of mixing metals in diverse proportions so as to prepare an alloy of requisite ductility or hard- ness, according to the special aims of the artificer. Along with the full mastery of the working in copper and bronze the skill of the goldsmith was correspond- ingly developed ; and the ornaments of this period, including torques, arm- lets, beads, and other personal deco- rations and insignia of office, wrought in gold, are numerous, and often of great beauty. The pottery of the same period exhibits corresponding improvement in material, form, and ornamentation; though considering the mimetic and artistic skill shown in the drawings and carvings of the remotest periods, it is remarkable that the primitive pottery of Europe is limited, alike in shape and decoration, to purely arbitrary forms. This in its crudest conventionalism consists al- most exclusively of varieties of zigzag patterns scratched or indented on the soft clay. This primitive or- namentation seems so natural, as the first aesthetic promptings of the hu- man mind, that it is difficult, if not in some cases impossible, to distinguish between the simple pottery of com- paratively recent origin, recovered on the sites of old American Indian vil- lages, and primitive pottery obtained from British barrows pertaining to centuries long prior to the Christian era. But the fictile ware exhibits an improvement in some degree corre- sponding to that of the metallurgic art, ARCHAEOLOGY. 47 which everywhere throughout Europe furnishes weapons, implements, and personal ornaments of the bronze pe- riod, characterized by much grace and delicacy in form, and by an ornamen- tation peculiar in style, but not un- worthy of the novel forms and mate- rial. It was long assumed, alike by histo- rians and antiquaries, that the beauti- ful bronze swords, spear-heads, shields, torques, armillae, etc., so frequently discovered, were mere relics of for- eign conquest or barter, and they were variously assigned to Egyptian, Phoe- nician, Roman, or Danish origin. But this gratuitous assumption has been disproved by the repeated dis- covery of the molds for making them, as well as of the refuse castings, and even of beds of charcoal, scoriae, and other indications of metallurgy, on the sites where they have been found. It has not escaped notice, however, that the transition appears to be an abrupt one from stone to bronze, an alloy re- quiring skill and experience for its use; and that few examples are re- corded of the discovery of copper tools or weapons, though copper is a metal so easily wrought as to have been in use among the Red Indians of America. The inference from this fact is one which all elements of probability tend to confirm, viz., that the metallurgic arts of the north of Europe are derived from a foreign source, whether by conquest or traffic ; and that in the beautiful bronze relics so abundant, especially in the British Islands and in Denmark, we see the fruits of that experience which the more ancient civilization of Egypt and Phoenicia had diffused. The direct intercourse between the countries on the Mediterranean and the Cassiter- ides, or Tin Islands,—as the only known parts of the British Islands are called in the earliest allusions which are made to them by Herodotus, Aris- totle, and Polybius,—abundantly ac- counts for the introduction of such knowledge to the native Britons at a very remote period. Phoenician and Carthaginian merchant ships traded to Cornwall centuries before the white cliffs of Albion were first seen from the Roman war-galleys. Greece also, not improbably, proved a mediator in this all-important transfer. It is at least to be noted that the forms of weapons, and especially of the beauti- ful “ leaf-shaped sword,” as figured on the most ancient painted Greek vases, closely correspond to the most characteristic relics of the bronze pe- riod in the north of Europe and the British Isles. In reviewing the characteristics of this bronze period, the disclosures of native art on the American continent supply some singularly interesting and suggestive illustrations. There, throughout the whole northern re- gions of the North American conti- nent and in the ruder areas of South America, as well as in the West In- dian archipelago, a population was found consisting exclusively of rude nomad hunters, in a pure stone period of primitive savage art. Nor does it at all conflict with this that they were to a certain extent familiar with the resources of the rich copper regions of Lake Superior, where that metal is found in enormous masses in a malle- able state. This they procured, and not only themselves employed it in the manufacture of weapons, imple- ments, and personal ornaments, but distributed it by barter far down the Ohio and Mississippi valleys, and eastward to the great lakes, to the St. Lawrence valley, and to the Hudson river. Silver and lead are also found in the same rich mineral region in metallic crystals, and were not un- known to the native tribes. But every- where those metals were cold-wrought, as a mere malleable stone capable of being hammered into any desired shape, but in total ignorance of the influence of fire or the use of alloys. But wholly distinct from its rude Indian tribes, North America had its semi-civilized Mexicans and South America its more highly civilized Peru- vians, who had learned to mine and smelt the ores of the Andes, and make metallic alloys wherewith to fashion for 48 ARCHEOLOGY. themselves bronze tools of requisite i hardness for quarrying and hewing the I solid rock. With these they sculptured J the statues of their gods, and reared ■ palaces, temples, and pyramids, graven with elaborate sculptures and hiero- glyphics by a people wholly ignorant of iron, which have not unjustly suggested many striking analogies with the meg- alithic art of ancient Egypt. The hua- cas, or tombs of the Incas of Peru, and also their royal depositories of treas- ure, have disclosed many remarkable specimens of elaborate metallurgic skill,—bracelets, collars, and other personal ornaments of gold ; vases of the same abundant precious metal, and also of silver; mirrors of bur- nished silver, as well as of obsidian ; finely-adjusted silver balances; bells both of silver and bronze; and nu- merous common articles and tools of copper, or of the more efficient alloy! of copper and tin,—all illustrative of the arts and civilization of a purely bronze age. 4. The fourth or Iron Period is that in which the art of smelting the ores J of the most abundant metal had at length been mastered; and so iron superseded bronze for arms, sword- blades, spear-heads, axes, daggers, knives, etc. Bronze, however, con- tinued to be applied to many purposes of personal ornament, horse furniture, j the handles of swords and other weapons; nor must it be overlooked that flint and stone were still em- ployed for lance and arrow-heads, sling-stones, and other common pur- poses of warfare or the chase, not only throughout the whole bronze pe- riod, but far into the age of iron. The discovery of numerous arrow- heads, or flakes of black flint, on the plain of Marathon, has been assumed with good reason to point to the use of such rude weapons by the barbarian host of Darius; and the inference is confirmed by the facts which Herodo- tus records, that Ethiopian auxiliaries of the army of Xerxes, ten years later, were armed with arrows tipped with stone. The essential change resulting from the maturing of the iron period lies in the unlimited supply of the new metal. Had bronze been obtainable in suffi- cient quantity to admit of its applica- tion to the endless purposes for which iron has since been employed, the mere change of metal would have been of slight significance. But the opposite was the case. The beauti- ful alloy was scarce and costly; and hence the arts of the neolithic period continued to be practiced throughout the whole duration of the age of bronze. But iron, though so abund- ant in its ores, requires great labor and intense heat to fuse it; and it needed the prolonged schooling of the previous metallurgic era to pre- pare the way for the discovery of the properties of the ironstone, and the processes requisite to turn it to ac- count. Iron, moreover, though so abundant, and relatively of compara- tively recent introduction, is at the same time the most perishable of met- als. It rapidly oxidizes unless pro- tected from air and moisture, and ! hence few relics of this metal belong- ! ing to the prehistoric period have been preserved in such a state as to illustrate the skill and artistic taste of the fabricators of that last pagan era, in the way that the implements of the I three previous periods reveal to us ! the habits and intellectual status of those older times. But the iron is the symbol of a pe- riod in which pottery, personal orna- ments of the precious metals, works I in bronze, in stone, and other durable 1 materials, supply ample means of 1 gauging the civilization of the era, and 1 recognizing the progress of man in i the arts, until we come at length to | connect their practice with definite I historifcal localities and nations, and ; the names of Egypt and Phoenicia, of Gadir, Massilia, the Cassiterides, and Noricum, illuminate the old dark- ness, and we catch the first streak of dawn on a definite historical horizon. Thus, with the mastery of the metal- lurgic arts is seen the gradual devel- opment of those elements of progress whereby the triumphs of civilization ARCH/EOLOGY. 49 have been finally achieved, and man i has advanced toward that stage in which the inductive reasonings of the archaeologist are displaced by records more definite, though not always more trustworthy, as the historian begins his researches with the aid of monu- mental records, inscriptions, poems, and national chronicles. Within the later iron period, ac- cordingly, we reach the era of authen- tic history. There is no room for doubt that, whatever impetus the Roman invasion may have given to the working of the metals in Britain, iron was known there prior to the landing of Julius Caesar. Within this archaeological period, however, the ex- amples of Roman art and the influences of Roman civilization begin to play a prominent part. To this period suc- ceed the Saxon and Scandinavian eras of invasion, with no less characteristic peculiarities of art workmanship, as well as of sepulchral rites and social usages. In these later periods definite history comes to the aid of archaiolog- ical induction, while those intermediate elements of historical re-edification, the inscriptions on stone and metal, and the numismatic series of chrono- logical records, all unite to complete a picture of the past replete with im- portant elements for the historian. The connection between archeol- ogy and geology has been indicated, but that between archeology and eth- nology is of much more essential sig- nificance, and is every day being brought into clearer view. By the in- vestigation of the tombs of ancient races, and the elucidation of their sepulchral rites, remarkable traces of unsuspected national affinities are brought to light; while a still more obvious correspondence of arts in cer- tain stages of society, among races separated alike by time and by space, reveals a uniformity in the operation of certain human instincts, when de- veloped under nearly similar circum- stances, such as goes far to supply a new argument in proof of the unity of the human race. The self-evident truths confirmatory of the principles upon which this sys- tem of primitive archaeology is based, may be thus briefly summed up:— Man, in a savage state, is to a great extent an isolated being; co-operation for mutual and remote advantage, ex- cept in war and the chase, is scarcely possible; and hence experience at best but slowly adds to the common stock of knowledge. In this primi- tive stage of society the implements and weapons which necessity renders indispensable are invariably supplied from the sources at hand; and the element of time being of little mo- ment, the rude workman fashions his stone axe or hammer, or his lance of flint, with an expenditure of labor such as, with the appliances of civili- zation, would suffice for the manufact- ure of hundreds of such implements. The discovery of the metallurgic arts, by diminishing labor and supply- ing a material more susceptible of varied forms as well as of ornamenta- tion, and also one originating co- operation by means of the new wants it calls into being, inevitably begets social progress. The new material, moreover, being limited in supply, and found only in a few localities, soon leads to barter, and thence to regular trade ; and thus the first steps toward a division of labor and mutual co- operation are made. So long, how- ever, as the metal is copper or bronze, the limited supply must greatly re* strict this social progress, while the facilities for working it admit of that isolation so natural to man in a rude state; and these, added to the fre- quent discovery of copper, in its nat- ural condition much more nearly resembling a ductile metal than the ironstone, abundantly account for its use having preceded that of the more abundant metal. Great experience must have been acquired in earlier metallurgy be- fore the iron ore was attempted to be wrought. In this, co-operation was indispensable; but that once secured, and the first difficulties overcome, the other results appear inevitable. The supply is inexhaust- 50 ARCHAEOLOGY. ancient, but strictly historical, period. At a further depth of upward of 6 feet, broken pottery, implements of bronze, and charred wood and ashes, showed the traces of an older settle- ment which had perished by fire. But the artificial character of the debris encouraged further research ; and when the excavations had been carried to about double the depth, Dr. Schliemann came upon a deposit rich in what may be styled neolithic remains : axes, hammers, spear-heads, and other implements of polished diorite or other stone, weights of granite, querns of lava, and knives and saws of flint abounded, associat- ed with plain, well-executed pot- tery, but with only two pins of cop- per or bronze to indicate any knowledge of metal. Continued ex- cavations brought to light additional stone implements and weapons ; un- til at a depth of some 33 feet, well- wrought implements and weapons of bronze, and pottery of fine quality and execution, revealed the traces of an earlier civilization on the same ancient site. In all this, while there is much to interest, there is nothing to surprise us. Here, near the shores of the Hellespont, at a point accessible to the oldest known centers of civiliza- tion,—to Egypt, Phoenicia, Assyria, Greece, Carthage, and Rome,—a civilized community, familiar with the arts of the bronze period of the Mediterranean shores, appears to have yielded to vicissitudes familiar enough to the student of ancient history. After a time the desolated locality tempted the settlement of some barbarian Asiatic horde, such as the steppes of that continent could furnish even now. They were ignorant of metallurgic arts ; though probably, like the savage tribes of the New World at the present time, not wholly unaware of the manufact- ure of implements and weapons of bronze or other metals. Such a local alternation of bronze and stone pe- riods in a region lying in close prox- imity alike to vast areas of Asiatic ,ible, widely diffused, and procurable I without excessive labor. The mate- rial elements of civilization were thereby rendered available, and all succeeding progress might be said to depend on the capacity of the race. The simplicity which characterizes the archaeological disclosures of Scandinavia, Germany, Ireland, and other regions of trans-Alpine Europe lying outside of the range of an- cient Greek or Roman influences, has contributed some important aids to the study of prehistoric arts; but the full significance of their teachings has yet to be tested by comparison with the primitive arts pertaining to Egypt, Greece, Asia Minor, and other ancient centers of earliest civilization. To this certain singu- larly interesting disclosures of very recent date, which some have regard- ed as at variance with the foregoing classification of archaeological epochs, help to furnish the desired materials. The researches of Dr. Heinrich Schlie- mann on one of the most memorable sites which epic poetry has selected for the mythic beginnings of history, have brought to light what he believes to be actual remains of the Troy of the Iliad. Dr. Schliemann began his systematic explorations in 1871, and pursued them, during the available seasons, till the month of June, 1873. With patient assiduity the accumulat- ed debris on the scene of ancient civic settlement was sifted and opened up by regular excavations, till the nat- ural rock was exposed at a depth of up- ward of 50 feet. Throughout the whole of this, abundant traces of former occupation were brought to light; and so great an accumulation of de- bris and rubbish upon an elevated site affords undoubted evidence of the vicissitudes of a long-settled cen- ter of population. To this specific evidence lent additional confirmation. The foundations of a temple, sup- posed to be that of the Ilian Athena of the time of Alexander, along with coins, inscriptions, and numerous remains of architecture and sculpt- ure, combined to fix the era of an ARCH/EOLCGY. 51 barbarism, and to the most important centers of ancient civilization, in no degree conflicts with a general system of succession of archaeological periods. Mexico and Peru, while in a purely bronze age, were overthrown by Spanish invaders. Large portions of their ancient territories were aban- doned to utter barbarism, and even now are in the occupation of savage tribes. But the ancient city of Monte- zuma has been made the capital of a civilized state ; the beds of its canals have been filled up, burying therein obsidian, stone, and bronze imple- ments, pottery, sculptures, and much else pertaining to its ante-Columbian era ; and it only requires such a fate as its modern history renders conceiv- able enough, to leave for future ages the buried strata of a civic site re- vealing similar evidences of the alternation of semi-civilized, barba- rian, and civilized ages, on the same long-inhabited site of Toltecans and Aztecs, Indian savages, and modern Mexicans and Spaniards. That man has everywhere preceded history is a self-evident truth. So long as no scientific evidence seemed to conflict with a long-accepted chronology in reference to the antiq- uity assigned to the human race, it remained unchallenged, though the like computation had been universally rejected in reference to the earth as the theater of his history, and we were content to regard the prehistoric era of man as no more than a brief infancy of the race. But the inves- tigations and disclosures of recent years in reference to the whole prehis- toric period have involved of neces- sity a reconsideration of the grounds on which a definite antiquity of com- paratively brief duration has been as- signed to man ; and the tendency at present is rather to exaggerate than to diminish the apparent antiquity of the race. The nature and extent of the evidence which has thus far re- warded intelligent research have been sufficiently indicated above ; and as it is still far from complete, the stu- dent of archaeology will act wisely in pushing forward his researches, and accumulating and comparing all avail- able evidence, without hastily pro- nouncing any absolute verdict on this question. But, without attempting to connect with any historic chro- nology the men of the English drift, or the troglodytes of the mammoth or reindeer periods of France, it may be useful, in con- cluding this summary of primitive archaeology, to glance at the origin of civilization, and the evidences of the antiquity of what appear to constitute its essential elements. Everywhere man seems to have passed through the same progressive stages : First, that of the savage or purely hunter state; a condition of precarious instability, in which man is most nearly in the state of a mere animal subsisting on its prey. It is the condition of nomad life, in- compatible with a numerous or settled population; exhausting the resources of national being in the mere strug- gle for existence, and therefore inim- ical to all accumulation of the knowl- edge and experience on which hu- man progress depends. In this primi- tive state, man is disclosed to us by the evidence with which the archaeol- ogist now deals. He appears every- where in this first stage as the savage occupant of a thinly-peopled continent, warring w'ith seemingly inadequate means against gigantic carnivora, the contemporary existence of which is known to us only by the disclosures of geological strata or ossiferous caves, where also the re- mains of still more gigantic herbivora confirm the idea of man’s exhaustive struggle for existence. The nearest analogy to such a state of life is that of the modern Esquimaux, war- ring with the monstrous polar bear, and making a prey of the gigantic cetacece of Arctic seas. Through how many ages this unhistoric night of European man may have preceded the dawn of civilization it is at pres- ent vain to speculate. But this is noticeable, that there is no inherent 52 ARCHEOLOGY element of progress in a people in the condition of the Esquimaux. To all appearance, if uninfluenced by external impulse, or unaffected by any great amelioration of climate, they are likely to prolong the mere struggle for existence through unnum- bered centuries, armed, as now, with weapons and implements ingen- iously wrought of bone, ivory, and stone, the product of the neolithic arts of this 19th century. To this succeeds the second or pastoral state, with its flocks and herds, its domesticated animals, and its ideas of personal property, includ- ing in its earlier stages that of prop- erty in man himself. It pertains to the open regions and warmer cli- mates of the temperate zone, and to the elevated steppes and valleys of semi-tropical countries, where the changing seasons involve of neces- sity the wandering life of the shep- herd. This accordingly prevents the development of the arts of settled life, especially those of architecture ; and precludes all idea of personal prop- erty in the soil. But the conditions of pastoral life are by no means in- compatible with frequent leisure, re- flection, and consequent intellectual progress. Astronomy has its origin assigned to the ancient shepherds of Asia; and the contemplative pastoral life of the patriarchs Job and Abra- ham has had its counterpart in many an Arab chief of later times. The third or agricultural stage is that of the tillers of the soil, the Aryans, the ploughers and lords of the earth, among whom are developed the elements of settled social life in- volved in the personal homestead and all the ideas of individual property in land. The process was gradual. The ancient Germans, according to the description of Tacitus, led the life of agricultural nomads ; and such was the state of the Visigoths and Ostro- goths of later centuries. But this was in part due to the physical conditions of trans-Alpine Europe in those ear- lier centuries. Long ages before that, as the ancient Sanscrit language proves, the great Aryan family, of which those are offshoots, had passed from the condition of agricultural nomads to that of lords of the soil among a settled agricultural people. They had followed up the art of plowing the soil with that of ship- building and “ plowing ” the waves. They were skilled in sewing, in weav- ing, in the potter’s art, and in ma- sonry. Their use of numbers was carried as high at least as a hundred before they settled down from their nomad life. They had domesticated the cow, the sheep, the horse, and the dog ; and their pasu or feeders already constituted their pccus, their wealth, before the pecunia assumed its later forms of currency. They had also passed through their bronze and into their iron period ; for their language shows that they were al- ready acquainted with the most use- ful metals as well as with the most valuable grains. The whole evidence of history points to the seats of earliest civiliza- tion in warm climates, on the banks of the Nile, the Euphrates, the Tigris, the Indus, and the Ganges. The shores of the Mediterranean succeeded in later centuries to their inheritance, and were the seats of long-enduring em- pires, whose intellectual bequests are the life of all later civilization. But trans-Alpine Europe, which is now yielding up to us the records of its prehistoric ages, is entirely of modern growth so far as its historic civilization is concerned, and wher- ever it extends toward the northern verge of the temperate zone it is even now in its infancy. Here, then, we trace our way back to the first progressive efforts of reason, and find man primeval, in a state of nat- ure, in the midst of the abundance pertaining to a genial and fertile climate, which rather stimulates his aesthetic faculty than enforces him by any rigorous necessity to cultivate the arts for the purposes of clothing and building. Thus employing his intellectual leisure, he begins that progressive elevation which is as ARCHEOLOGY. 53 consistent with his natural endow- ments as a rational being as it is foreign to the instincts of all other animals. He increases and multi- plies, spreads abroad over the face of the earth, clears its forests, drains its swamps, makes its rivers and seas his highways, and its valleys and plains his fertile fields and pasture- grounds. Cities rise, with all the fostering influences of accumulated wealth and settlecf leisure, and with all the stimulating influences of ac- quired tastes and luxurious desires. The rude pictorial art—not ruder on the graven ivory of the troglodytes of the Madelaine cave than on many a hieroglyphic drawing of the cata- combs and temples of Egypt—em- ployed in picture-writing, passes by a natural and inevitable transition from the literal representations of objects to the symbolic suggestion of ideas, to a word-alphabet, and then to pure phonetic signs. The whole process is manifest from the very in- fancy of Egyptian picture-writing, as crude as that with which the Indian savage still records his deeds of arms on his buffalo-robe, or carves the honors of the buried warrior on his grave-post. Letters lie at the foundation of all high and enduring civilization, yet we can thus trace them back to their infantile origin ; and so onward in their slow trans- formations, as in the mingled pic- torial and phonetic writing of the Rosetta stone hieroglyphics of the age of the Ptolemies. Through Phoenician, Greek, and Roman mod- ifications, they have come down to us as the arbitrary symbols of sounds which the voice combines into articu- late speech. And as it is with letters so it is with man’s arts,—his drawing, carv- ing, sculpture, architecture, weaving, pottery, metallurgy ; and so with his science,—his astrology, astronomy, geometry, alchemy, and all else. The beginnings of all of them lie within our reach. We can trace back the measurements of solar time to the crudest beginnings of more than one ancient nation, with a year of 360 days. This, corrected to the definite approximation to the true solar year of a period of 365 days, became the vague year of the Egyp- tians, with the great Sothiac cycle of 1460 years, clearly pointing to a sys- tem of chronology which could not have been perpetuated through many centuries without conflicting with the most obvious astronomical phenomena as well as with the recurring seasons of the year. Man is, after all, according to the boldest speculations of the geologist, among the most modern of living creatures. If indeed the theory of evolution from lower forms of animal life is accepted as the true history of his origin, time may well be prolonged through unnumbered ages to admit of the process which is to develop the irrational brute into man. But re- garding him still as a being called into existence as the lord of creation endowed with reason, the demonstra- tion of a prolonged existence of the race, with all its known varieties, its diversities of language, and its wide geographical distribution under con- ditions so diverse, tends to remove greater difficulties than it creates. No essential doctrine, or principle in morals, is involved in the acceptance or rejection of any term of duration for the human race ; and the idea of its unity, which for a time was scornfully rejected from the creed of the ethnologist, is now advocated by the evolutionist as alone consistent with the physical, mental, and moral characteristics common to savage and civilized man, whether we study him amid the traces of palaeolithic osteology and arts or among the most diverse races of living men. The process of research and induc- tive reasoning thus applied by the archaeologist to the traces of primitive art and the dawn of civilization, is no less applicable to all periods. The songs and legends of the peasantry, the half-obliterated traces of ancient manners, the fragments of older lan- guages, the relics of obsolete art, are 54 ARCHAEOLOGY. all parts of what has been fitly styled “ unwritten history,” and furnish the means of recovering many records of past periods which must remain for- ever a blank to those who will recog- nize none but written or monumental evidence. Proceeding to the investigation of this later, and in most of the higher requirements of history, this more im- portant branch of historical evidence, the archaeologist has still his own special departments of investigation. Tracing the various alphabets in their gradual development through Phoeni- cian, Greek, Roman and other sources, and the changing forms which fol- lowed under the influences of Byzan- tine and mediaeval art, a complete system of palaeography has been de- duced, calculated to prove an impor- tant auxiliary in the investigation of monumental and written records. Palaeography has its own rules of criticism, supplying an element of chronological classification altogether independent of style in works of art, or of internal evidence in graven or written inscriptions, and a test of genuineness often invaluable to the historian. Architecture, sculpture, and pottery have each their historical value, their periods of pure and mixed art, their successions of style, and their traces of borrowed forms and ornamentation, suggestive of Indian, Assyrian, Egyp- tian, Phoenician, Punic, Greek, Etrus- can, Roman, Arabian, Byzantine, Nor- man or Renaissance influences. Sub- ordinate to those are the pictorial arts combined with sculpture and pottery, from earliest Egyptian, Greek, or Etruscan art to the frescoes and paint- ings of mediaeval centuries; and the rise of the art of the engraver, trace- able through ancient chasing on metals, mediaeval niello-work, graven sepulchral brasses, and so on to the wood blocks, whence at length the art of printing with movable types originated. And as in the Old World, so in the New, the progress of man is traceable from rudest arts of stone and copper to the bronze period of Mexico and Peru, where also archi- tecture, sculpture, and pottery pre- serve for us invaluable materials for the elucidation of that prehistoric time which only came to an end there in the year 1492 a.d. Heraldry is another element by means of which archeology provides trustworthy canons of criticism in re- lation to written and unwritten medi- eval records. The seals and ma- trices, sepulchral sculptures, and en- graved brasses, along with an exten- sive class of the decorations of ecclesiastical and domestic architect- ure, all supply evidence whereby names and dates, with confirmatory collateral evidence of various kinds, are frequently recoverable. From the same sources also the changing cos- tume of successive periods can be traced, and thus a new light be thrown on the manners and customs of past ages. The enthusiastic devotee is in- deed apt at times to attach an undue importance to such auxiliary branches of study; but it is a still greater ex- cess to pronounce them valueless, and to reject the useful aids they are capable of affording. No less important are the illustra- tions of history, and the guides in the right course of research, which numis- matics supplies, both in relation to early and mediaeval times. On many of those points the historian and the archaeologist necessarily occupy the same field; and indeed, when that primitive period wherein archaeology deals with the whole elements of our knowledge regarding it as a branch of inductive science, and not of criti- cal history, is past, the student of an- tiquities becomes to a great extent the pioneer of the historian. He deals with the raw materials: the charters, deeds, wills, grants of land, of privileges or immunities, the royal, monastic and baronial accounts of ex- penditure, and like trustworthy docu- ments ; by means of their palaeogra- phy, seals, illuminations, and other evidence, he fixes their dates, traces out the genealogical relationships of their authors, and in various ways ARCHEOLOGY. 55 prepares and sifts the evidence which is to be employed anew by the histo- rian in revivifying the past. Arch- itecture and all departments of the fine arts, in like manner, supply much evidence which, when investigated and systematized by a similar process, adds valuable materials to the stock of the historian, and furnishes new sources for the illumination of past ages. Such is a sketch of the com- prehensive investigations embraced under the name of archaeology, which, carried on by many independent la- borers, and in widely varied fields of research have contributed important chapters of human history, and revivi- fied ages long buried in oblivion, or at best but dimly seen through dis- torting media of myth and fable. CONTENTS. CHAP. PAGE. I. Scope of the Science i II. Man’s Place in Nature 2 III. Origin of Man 8 IV. Races of Mankind 9 V. Antiquity of Man 17 VI. Language 22 VII. Development of Civilization 28 ARCHEOLOGY 34 TWO WORKS ON POLITICAL ECONOMY BY HENRY GEORGE. T. PROGRESS AND POVERTY. II. SOCIAL PROBLEMS. This work is universally admitted to be the most original and most forcible discussion of the facts and principles of politico-economic science produced in our time. It has been translated into all the languages of Conti- nental Europe, and it is producing a revolu- tion in the domain of Sociology and Gov- ernment. From the Authors Preface:—“My on deavor has been to present the momentoui social problems of our time; unincumbered b) technicalities, and without that abstract rea soning which some of the principles of Politi. cal Economy (or perhaps, rather, false teach- ings in regard to them) require for thorough comprehension.” Price, post free, 24 cents. Price, post free, 50 cents. As I do not supply these books to the Trade, orders shou!4 be addressed direct to J. FITZGERALD, New York. Remittances may be made in One-cent or 1 wo-ctnt Postage-stamps. THE ELECTRICIAN AND ELECTRICAL ENGINEER An Illustrated Monthly Review of Theoretical and Applied Science. 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