New England Conference of Educational Workers 
A Provisional Schematic Study 
of Leading Topics in Physical 
Education 
BY 
EDWARD MUSSEY HARTWELL 
Director of Physical Training, Boston Public Schools COPYRIGHT BY 
EDWARD MUSSRY HARTWELL 
BOSTON, MASS. 
1894  following scheme embodies the results of the 
writer s attempt to arrange the leading topics 
pertaining to "Physical Education in an orderly way, 
and to indicate certain of their relations. The arrange- 
ment offered herein is provisional and tentative. It is 
published in the hope that it may suggest the points of 
view from which Physical Education may be studied 
most profitably. The writer will welcome criticism and 
suggestions, from any source, which shall enable him 
to make this scheme more coherent and complete. 
In what follows "Physical Education is considered 
as: - 
1. An Expression. 
2. A National Institution. 
y A Department of Science. 
4. A Practical Art. I. Physical Education as an Expression. 
A. The term is used in : 
1. A vaguely general, uncritical, and popular sense, 
when it means too much, being made to include 
matters that belong to Personal and School Hygiene ; 
e.g., Bathing, Diet, Dress, Seating of Pupils, Venti- 
lation. 
2. A semi-general sense, signifying exercise for the 
sake of health or recreation or the prevention of 
mischief, when it means too little, though it is 
generally so used by School Boards and " Educators." 
3. A strictly scientific sense, based on a critical 
consideration of demonstrable physiological and 
psychological effects and relations. Its general and 
special scientific significations should be distin- 
guished and determined. 
B. Synonymous Terms; 
e.g.: Physical Training. Bodily Exercise. do-Kiyms. 
regyrj. aOXrjriKT] Tumen. Fnskgymnas- 
tik. 
C. Non-synonymous Terms; 
e.g.: Physical Culture. Movement Cure. Sjuk-gymnastik. 
Society-gymnastics. Delsarte Exercises. 
2. Physical Education as an Institution. 
A. History and Literature enable us to trace the influence 
of Physical Training on national life and development. 
Its forms range from puerile and primitive customs to 
highly organized national institutions. 
a. Primitive forms are found in Children's Games, 
which are characterized by (1) aimless and futile 
activity, or (2) by the spontaneous, dramatic imita- 
tion of the pursuits of their elders, particularly in : Hunting and Warfare ; e.g., Running, Catching, 
and Throwing Games, and playing with weapons. 
Such forms are still found among most children and 
savages, and many mountaineers and islanders. 
b. Derived and Higher forms result from the capabil- 
ity of games to furnish means for Combativeness, 
Rivalry, and Personal Distinction, under Rules, Cap- 
tains, Trainers, and Judges; eg.: 
1. Practice and Preparatory Exercises. 
2. Exhibitions of Prowess and Skill. 
3. Championship Competitions and Contests. 
4. Exercises and Competitions for Educational 
Purposes. 
Under 2 and 3 we may place games and feats, in honor 
of gods and heroes, such as have figured in the cele- 
bration of Worship, Victory, Funerals, and National 
and Religious Festivals. 
The following Higher Forms of Physical Education 
may be distinguished: 
' 1. Ancient; e.g., Greek and Roman Gymnastics and 
Athletics. 
2. Mediaeval; e.g., Popular Sports, Knightly Games, and 
Military Exercises. 
3. Renaissance ; eg., Games and Exercises in Italy and 
France, for Recreative and Educational Purposes. 
4. Modern; e.g., German, British, Swedish, American, 
etc., for Hygienic or Educational ends. 
B. Physical Education may be studied in Literature. 
1. In Historical Writings. 
2. In Epic Poetry, Mythology, and Folk Lore. 
3. In Religious and Semi-religious Rituals. 
4. In Legal and Educational Codes. 
5. In Philosophical and Theological Treatises. 
6. In Medical Treatises. 
7. In Lives and Handbooks of Trainers and Cham- 
pions. 
8. In Works on Art and the History of Art, espe- 
cially Sculpture. 
g. In Periodicals and Bibliography. 3. Physical Education as a Department of 
Science. 
A. The essential, universal, necessary factor in all forms of 
Physical Training is Neuro-Muscular Exercise. It 
should be critically considered in respect to : 
a. Its Nature and Effects. 
i. Bodily. 2. Mental. 
b. Its Aims, which may be : 
i. Recreative. 2. Hygienic. 3. Educative. 4. Reme- 
dial. 
c. Its Vehicle, which may be : 
1. Sports and Games. 2. Gymnastics. 3. Techni- 
cal drill. 
d. Its Methods, which may be : 
1. Informal and persuasive. 2. Rudely formal. 
. 3. Scientifically systematic. 
e. Its Results, which are: 
1. Anatomical. 2. Physiological. 3. Mental. 
4. Moral. 
Methods for testing, measuring, and setting forth 
the results of Physical Training belong to what 
promises to become a distinct branch of science. 
B. As a Branch of Hygiene. Physical Training serves 
to promote the normal growth and development of: 
1. The Master Tissues and Organs ; 
i.e., Muscles, Nerves, and Brain. 
The Law of the Evolution of the Nervous System de- 
serves special consideration under this head, 
since it constitutes a serviceable criterion of the 
worth and efficacy of the various forms of 
Physical Training. The natural order and rate 
of growth and development of the fundamental 
and accessory neuro-muscular mechanisms, and 
the characteristics of central and peripheral 
movements should be carefully studied in this 
connection. 2. The Purveyor Tissues and Organs ; 
i.e., the Digestive and Assimilative organs, and the 
Arterial side of the Circulatory and Respiratory 
systems of organs. 
3. The Scavenger Tissues and Organs ; 
the Cutaneous, Intestinal, and Renal organs, 
and the Venous side of the Circulatory and Res- 
piratory organs. 
The scope and limitations of muscular exercise as a 
factor in promoting health, and in modifying the 
growth- and death-rates of children and youth, is 
deserving of special study. 
C. As a Pedagogic Discipline. Physical Training helps to 
develop Will and Intelligence ; i.e., the power to know, do, 
endure, and forbear. 
a. Its rudimentary forms are found in the Training of 
Animals ; e.g., Trick-animals, Hunting-dogs, Race 
and Cavalry horses. 
b. It lies at the basis of Mental and Moral Training; 
hence its place should be defined and its value 
determined in relation to the ends and needs of: 
1. Somatic or General Bodily Training; 
e.g., in the matter of Carriage, Walking, Run- 
ning, Dancing. 
2. Language Training; 
e.g., Singing, Gesture, Speaking, for general and 
special ends. 
3. Manual Training; 
e.g., Writing, Drawing, and the Use of Tools for 
educational purposes. 
4. Industrial Training. 
For the professional training of skilled workmen. 
5 Military Training; 
e.g., of Boys playing at Soldiers, of Militia, 
Soldiers and Sailors. 
6. Normal Training. 
General and Special, in each of the chief depart- 
ments of Education; viz., in Elementary, Sec- 
ondary, Superior, and Technical Education. Physical Education as a Practical Art 
depends, as regards its standing and success, upon the character, 
capability, and training of its exponents and practitioners, who 
should have a clear understanding of the nature and scope of 
Physical Education as a science, and be sufficiently familiar with 
well-approved methods to select and use such methods as experience 
has shown to be best adapted to the general or special ends of the 
department in which they find themselves engaged. 
As an Art, Physical Training includes the Departments of : 
1. Training and Instruction. 
2. Construction. 
3. Administration. 
4. Finance. 
I. Department of Training and Instruction. 
This includes measures looking to the development of apti- 
tude and skill : 
A. For Athletic purposes, by : 
a. Instructors of individuals. 
b. Trainers of individuals. 
c. Captains of teams, crews, etc. 
d. Coaches of teams, crews, etc. 
a, b, c, d, are usually selected on empirical grounds, 
and their training is usually narrow and special. 
B. For Gymnastic purposes, by : 
a. Leaders in " School-games." 
b. Vorturner and Turnlehrer in Turn-Vereine. 
c. Directors and Assistants in Departments of Gym- 
nastics, public or corporate. 
d. Normal and Special Schools for the Training of 
Teachers and Experts in Educational Gymnastics. 
A comparative study of European and American 
usage as to the education, remuneration, standing 
and duties of persons engaged in the athletic and 
gymnastic forms of Physical Education would be 
illuminating and instructive. 2. Department of Construction relates to: 
1. Buildings for: 
a. Athletic Clubs, general. 
b. Fives, Racket, and Tennis Courts. i . , 
t Special. 
c. Boat-houses, Cricket Pavilions, etc. ) 
d. Public Gymnasia, city or State. 
e. College Gymnasia. 
f. Club and Y. M. C. A. Gymnasia. 
Cf. Greek yvp.vdcri.ov, iraXaidTpa, Roman arena and 
gymnasium, German Turn-halle, Swedish Gym- 
nastiksal, American Athletic Club House. 
g. Swimming Baths and Schools. 
2. Grounds and Enclosures : 
a. Town and City Play-grounds maintained at public 
expense. 
b. School and College Play-grounds for general pur- 
poses. 
c. School, College, and Club-grounds of a special 
nature ; 
e.g., for Cricket, Ball, and Running Games. 
d. Out-of-door Gymnasia ; 
e.g., German Turnplatz, American uncovered gym- 
nasia, Greek ardSiov. 
3. Machines and Appliances for: 
a. Athletic purposes ; 
e.g., Bowling Alleys, Ball-cages, Rowing-tanks, Tack- 
ling-bags, etc. 
b. Gymnastic purposes. 
1. Hand apparatus. 2. Heavy machines. 3. Zan- 
der and Sargent machines. 4. Military ob- 
stacle-gymnastics. 
c. Instruments for Scientific purposes. 
1. Physical Diagnosis. 2. Anthropometry. 3. 
Psycho-physical tests. Physical Education as a Practical Art. 
3. Department of Administration relates to the selection, 
organization, and control of personnel for: 
A. Maintenance and management of : 
a. Contests, Exhibitions, and Festivals of an ath- 
letic or gymnastic character. 
b. Training and Management of Teams and 
Crews by managers, trainers, and coaches. 
c. Superintendence and Care of Buildings, 
Grounds, etc., e.g., Janitors and care-takers, 
ground-men, bath-attendants, rubbers, clerical 
and special assistants, etc. 
B. Instruction in : 
a. Athletic Specialties-eg., Running, Boxing, and 
Fencing - by professionals. 
b. Special Schools by directors and teachers; eg., 
Normal Schools, Military Gymnastic In- 
stitutions. 
c. By Turner-Warter, Lehrer, and Vorturner in 
Turn-Vereine. 
d. School Gymnastics and Games by directors, 
teachers, and leaders of squads and classes. 
e. School Sports ; eg., Cricket, Rowing, Ball-games, 
Hare and Hounds, etc., ruled and managed by 
boys and "old boys." 
The most approved and successful methods which ob- 
tain in Europe and America should be contrasted 
and compared, in order to prevent the adoption 
of obsolete, discredited, and ignorant methods 
of procedure. 
4. Finance. 
The relative and proper cost of Instruction, Construc- 
tion, and Maintenance in the various branches of Athletics 
and Gymnastics should be determined. The economics 
of athletics and gymnastics have not been accorded due 
attention. Study of such topics as follow is demanded: 
1. Resources, funds raised by : 
a. Taxation, for schools that are public. b. Subscriptions, oy participants ) jn case of 
and their friends. I schools, clubs, 
c. Gate-money, entrance-fees, dues, j etc., private 
d. Entertainments. J and corporate. 
2. Expenditures, which include : 
a. Cost of Grounds. 
Cost of Buildings. 
Cost of Salaries and Wages. , °r ath' 
Cost of Appliances. > letIC pur' 
j Travelling. poses. 
Cost of Teams. 1 . . 
/ 1 raining. 
b. Cost of Prizes. 
Cost of Grounds. I B. For 
Cost of Buildings. | gymnas- 
Cost of Salaries. tic pur- 
Cost of Apparatus, etc. poses. 
Cost of Repairs and Maintenance. 
3. Experience shows that the raising and expenditure of 
money, especially for athletic purposes, should be 
controlled by Advisory or Graduate Committees in 
the case of school and college athletic organizations. 
The expenses entailed by the support of athletic 
and gymnastic institutions of a public nature are met 
and regulated by State and City officers, in many 
instances, at home and abroad. What constitutes 
parsimony, and what extravagance, in this depart- 
ment, is open to discussion from several points of 
view. It is eminently desirable that the Hygienic and 
Educational results obtainable from a given sum ex- 
pended for Athletics should be ascertained, and set 
forth in comparison with similar results obtainable 
from a like sum spent for Gymnastics. 
Note.- Persons wishing copies of this paper - which maybe reprinted, but 
not offered for sale - should apply, enclosing stamps for postage, to the Secretary 
of the N. E. Conference of Educational Workers, Mr. J. O. Norris, Melrose, Mass.