<f

THE
          REAL NATURE OP THE


ELECTRIC  FLUID
                                  )
EXPLAINED AND ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS FACTS, AND A


 CAUSE ASSIGNEf) FOR THE POLARITY OF THE *MA,GNET.
i NEW EDITION,. IMPROVED.
<fto rojjuh. is anwxtb,
A THEORY OP THE
TIDES AND CURRENTS OF THE OCEAN.
          BY  JAMES  GJ.ENN,




AUTHOR OP A TREATISE "ON THE IMPROVEMENT OF THE DIF-


  FERENT RACES OP ANIMALS." MEMBER OF THE NATIONAL


            INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON.
         NEW YORKi


PRINTED BY B. OWEN, 29 ANN STREET.


           1844.
 
r
1 
THE
        REAL NATURE OP  THE


 ELECTRIC   FLUID;

 EXPLAINED AND ILLUSTRATED BY NUMEROUS FACTS, AND A
  CAUSE ASSIGNED FOR THE POLARITY OF THE MAGNET.


        A. NEW EDITION IMPROVED.


            &o toh/ul) is amtmir,


            A THEORY OF THE

 TIDES AND CURRENTS OF  THE OCEAN.


         BY  JAMES  GLENN,

AUTHOR OP A TREATISE "ON THE IMPROVEMENT OP THE DIF-
 FERENT RACES OF ANIMALS." MEMBER  OF THE NATIONAL
          INSTITUTE, WASHINGTON.
NEW YORKj
PRINTED BY B. OWEN, 29 ANN STREET.
         1844. 
t
    Entered, according to Act of Congress, in the  year 1844, by  James  G/cnn, in
the Clerk's Office of the District Court of the United States, for the Southern Dis-
trict of New York.
\ 
\
P  RE F AC E.
   It is now more than three years since the  Author published the
first edition of this pamphlet, and he has now the  satisfaction of
 saying, that the great majority of persons who have read the trea-
 tise, have concurred entirely in  the Author's views respecting it,
 as being the  most plausible and rational theory, that they have
 ever read or heard of; and they  have expressed themselves so to
 the Author in the most cordial terms.  It  has  indeed met with
 opposition from a few persons, who, from motives of interest, pre-
 conceived notions, and obstinate prejudices, are  opposed to  every
 thing that is new.   This opposition was to be expected, as it has
 been experienced by almost every original writer  or inventor, in
 every age of the world.   This is a trait in  human nature,—it is
 characteristic of the animal—and will probably  always remain
 so, until human nature is changed.

    The theory of the Tides that is here advanced is entirely new
 and original; and we are not aware  that the  cause here sta-
 ted,  has ever been  dreamed of by Philosophers: and this is the
 more remarkable, as the  operation described is very  simple, and
 one  would think  might have  readily occurred to  any ordina-
 rily studious person. 
iv
   It was our intention  to have published a  larger  treatise on
the subject, but the difficulty of  obtaining  correct  information
on some particulars, has induced us to present  it to the public
in the same form, without alteration or  addition, in  which  it
was written, more than  two  years ago.   And it  is  with  no
small degree of pleasure, that we are  now  enabled to lay  be-
fore an  intelligent community, the most satisfactory and ration-
al explanation that has yet been given to  the  world, of two of
the most remarkable phenomena   that  occur  in the operations
of nature. 
ELECTRICITY  AND  MAGNETISM.
  It is a pleasing  feature  of  the  present age, that the road to
science, is  open to all mankind, who have  the means and the
inclination  to pursue it, and no superstitious enactments interpose,
to prevent  the diligent investigations of the laws of Nature.  But
although this is  the case, there are still some people who would
invest several of the operations of Nature with a mystery, which
they say is presumptuous, for any one to attempt to unfold, and
there are others again who would designate some of the laws of
Nature as  a peculiar emanation  from  the  Deity that he never
meant  should  be revealed to mankind.   This mode of reasoning
is certainly very preposterous, as it may be the  means of deter-
ring individuals  from prosecuting researches that might otherwise
have terminated  very successfully.   There are no objects  or
operations  of nature that ought to be considered above the com-
prehension of Alan, he ought rather to be encouraged to proceed,
and to examine  everything that presents itself, however intricate
or awful, and difficulties may at last  give way, and  discoveries
be made of which he had not previously, the least idea.  Such
has been the case with the two subjects, ] am now about to dis-
cuss ; the"qualities of the Electric Fluid, have been denominated
by such individuals, a subject destined to be for ever hid from the
gaze  of man.  And the  Magnet has been termed a direct gift
from the Deity without having any positive cause /or its directive
qualities.
   The first occurrence that directed  my attention to Electricity,
was the well known  circumstance of milk becoming sour during
a thunder-storm, although quite new, and perfectly sweet but a
few minutes previous.  This fact led  me to consider the Electric
Fluid,  as an extremely subtle acid, and  that during a thunder-
storm, it is generated or evolved by the decomposition of a num-
ber of gases  or  vapors, that have exhaled  from  the earth and
have collected in the atmosphere, during warm weather.*  Al-
though I entertained this opinion for a number of years, I did not
reflect much about it until very lately; when reading some ac-
  * It is somewhat singular, that although Chemists were aware that Electricity
was produced during  the decomposition of matter, it never led them to suppose
that it might be evolved by the same, or similar means in the atmosphere, during a
thunderstorm, such as the decomposition of different vapors or gases.  In the case
of a Galvanic Battery, we are induced to think, that the Electric Fluid is produced
in  that operation, by the decomposition of  the Metals, through the action of the.
acid, and Electricity is evolved and conducted  off by the wires.  Should this be
found to be the case, it will be some proof of our theory, that  Lightning may be
produced, by the decomposition of any kind of matter, and that in this operation,
Art but imitates Nature. 
6
count in the newspapers of thunderstorms, and the circumstance
of lightning striking some trees, more  frequently than others, it
attracted my attention, and on making minute enquiry of a great
number of individuals who had witnessed the effects of Lightning
on trees, I learned that it very seldom injured Beach, or Maple,
and that its effects were very fatal  on  Pine and  Hemlock, and
that they are the kind most apt to be struck.  From these facts I
inferred, that as Acids, and Alkalies unite, and form neutral  salts,
and have an affinity for each other, and that as Beach and Ma-
ple contain  Alkaline  salts, or Potash, this was one reason why
the Electric Fluid, having an affinity, for those substances being
an acid did them  but little injury, as it renders  them good Con-
ductors, while the Pine, and Hemlock, being of a resinous nature
and of course bad conductors, or in other words  substances for
which the Lightning has no affinity, or but extremely little,—are
shattered  to pieces, and large fragments of the trunk are  often
thrown to a great distance.   Oak Trees are also  very apt  to  be
struck, and I have found on inquiry that the wood of Oak gives
but very little ashes, although there are some in the bark of con-
siberable strength.  These facts tended strongly  to confirm the
definition I had given of the Electric Fluid, and my belief was
further strengthened by considering other points of resemblance.
Carbonic  Acid  gas, although it exists in  large quantities in Na-
ture uncombined, it is yet produced  by fermentation, whether
acetous or vinous, and who knows but  that the Electric Fluid,
of which we are  speaking, may  be produced by a similar com-
motion of the elements, such as the decomposition of different
gases  in the atmosphere?   The  former operation destroys all
crude indigestible matter, rendering liquids wholesome and bene-
ficial  as a draught;  and  nutritious, nourishing  substances,  as
wheat flour, palatable and of easy digestion ; and  the latter pro-
cess purifies the air, rendering it  cool, refreshing, and invigorat-
ing after sultry  enervating heat.  I  do not give  these last
remarks from a conviction  of their certainty, and indeed  they
may  appear to  some people too fanciful, they have however,
some  appearance  of  probability—and  if it were  the case, it
would develope a beautiful system of nature; that when the at-
mosphere we breathe  gets  so  contaminated  and  corrupted,
by different exhalations arising  from the earth in very warm
weather, it is cooled, and purified by a  process similar to  that
we cause to be performed in the baking of bread, and without
which the most  nourishing substance  in nature, wheat flour,
would not be fit to eat; and although an agent  is exhibited  in
both  cases,  (when it  operates on a  large scale,) that it is  fatal
to life—Carbonic Acid Gas, and  the Electric Fluid—yet the evil
is but partial, while the benefit is universal.
   There  is another analogous circumstance subsisting between
Acids and Electricity; and that is their penetrating  qualities.
Acids are the most insinuating  of any  other substances that I 
7
am aware of;  they will corrode or consume almost every thing
with which they come  in  contact; there is hardly any vessel
that will contain them, excepting those made of  glass,* and the
precious metals, and they act very readily on iron, forming salts.
This similarity between them  and the  Electric Fluid  is very
striking, for glass is a non-conductor, while iron, and all furrug-
neous bodies are the very reverse.  If the term affinity were
applied in treating  on Electricity, instead of the  terms  conduc-
tors and non-conductors, or electrics, and non-electrics, it would
apply equally as well, although for all the difference it would
make, there is  no necessity for changing the terms.   The elec-
trics are those for  which the fluid  has no affinity, and the  non-
electrics are those  for which  it has an affinity.*]*
   The Electric Fluid  appears in different degrees of intensity.
Lightning is its highest or most  accumulated state, with the ex-
ception of the body of the Sun, which I have no doubt is a vast
body of accumulated Electricity in an intense degree; but I will
notice this hereafter,   That  condition of it, excited by  the Gal-
vanic Battery  and Electric  Machine is its next; and  it exists
in  all  furrugneous bodies ;  and  particularly  in the  loadstone,
in  the lowest  state in which its  agency can be exhibited.  In
all these states, I  am  convinced  it is  one and  the same fluid ;
and there can be no doubt that  it exists in  a very latent and dif-
fused state  all over the atmosphere and the earth.  But this I
will explain when  I come to speak of the Magnet.   These at
different states have been termed  the positive, and negative, and
some philosophers suppose that there is a vitrious and resinous
kind of it.   If they mean by this, that there  are two distinct
 fluids,  I must beg  leave to differ from them; for I am inclined
 to think, there is only  one kind of it, and that it is a simple ele-
 mentary substance incapable of change, or being decomposed ;
 but still exhibiting different appearances  of color according to
 the mediums  through  which it passes ; and  assuming various
 conditions, and  performing different operations, according to its
 degree of  intensity.   There are  various  ways  that iMectncity
 may be accumulated.   Firstly  the decomposition  of different
 kinds of substances, whether solids, fluids, gases or vapors.  1 he
 lightning in the atmosphere  may  be taker;  as an instance ol this
 operation, as it is  doubtless produced  by  rfie decomposition of
 different vapors that  have exhaled from the  earth:  and this is
 effected by their qualities being adverse, and  the one  destroys
 the other, in the same manner as  the acid in a  Galvanic Trough

   * The Fluoric Acid  corrodes glass only when in a wet state.
   ♦ The word non-conductor, applied to Electricity, is only a relative term, and is
 ««! to be understood  in the strict sense of the terms, for all substances conduct
 El ctricity in a certam £gree.  Imperfect conductors is a more accurate term as
 for instance wax and  glass, conduct less than iron, or  any kind of metals.   If the
 fluiithSy^cumulfted.'it will not pass through the, two former  but w.U shat-
 ter them to meces. there is hardly any accumulation of it that will not pass
 through the latter, although it sometimes fuses them. 
8
acts upon the metals, by decomposing a portion of them.   The
only difference in the operation is  this, that gases  are more
easily decomposed, and their whole volume is destroyed at once.
Second;  by friction of bodies, such as the Electrifying Machine,
and some fish have an internal electric apparatus, that accumu-
lates it.  Philosophers do indeed say, that lightning is produced
by  the friction of the  cloud?, and that the fluid passes from the
one to the other on account of their being  differently charged,
one positive, and the other negative.   We cannot perceive why
vapor of which a cloud is composed, can be said to rub together,
or even water which  is a much denser fluid than  any portion of
a cloud ; it requires a hard, solid substance  to produce Electri-
city by friction.
  I am aware that philosophers have drawn a  distinction be-
tween  Electricity and Magnetism, and ascribed them  to the
agency of two different fluids; but this I am satisfied is a mis-
taken idea,  which I shall have occasion hereafter to explain.
Although the Electric Fluid in  an accumulated  state, such  as
Lightning, or that condition of it acquired by the Galvanic Bat-
tery—has a  powerful heat, so much  so as to fuse metals by
merely passing over them instantly; it is yet in its natural state,
a cold fluid, or to  speak  more  correctly—the same fluid that
imparts heat when highly condensed or accumulated—may be-
come so diffused as to excite  the sensation of coldness:  and as
Electricity is known to enter into the composition of every thing,
and to exist everywhere, in cold bodies and situations, as well as
warm  the assertion  involves no inconsistency, that the same
fluid may be both hot and cold.  It is well known that there
is more Electricity in  the atmosphere in cold countries, such  as
the polar regions,  and in cold winter weather  in  temperate
 climates, than there is in torrid climes, or in warm summer wea-
 ther in mild countries; and it is  easier to accumulate the fluid
 by friction in the former situation and season, than the  latter.
 The above remarks will assist us in explaining this circumstance.
 Electricity is produced in great abundance in warm weather
 and hot climes, by the decomposition  of so  many  substances
 caused by excessive  heat, which is  no doubt the cause  of our
 severe thunder-fetorms, while in the polar regions there are none
 at  all; as there is hothfrig decomposing, nor  no pestilential gases
 generated.   In the fo-rmer situations, the Electric Fluid is always
 combined with other  gases or fluids, and does not exist, or can-
 not be  accumulated  pure, but  with difficulty; as for instance,
 the heat of a fire in a warm room, is always  more or less
 charged with the qualities of the fuel  decomposing or consum-
 ing.   In the  latter situations  it exists in  a purer state, being
 more  free  from gases or vapors, and is therefore more  easily
 condensed  by friction.   A question may be asked here,  why is
 it, that the Electric Fluid does not warm the atmosphere in those
 regions, if there is more of it?   To  this it  may be answered, 
9
that there is more of it pure, only; and that Electricity cannot
be a substance imparting heat so long as it is in motion  and dif-
fused, but the moment it is accumulated and  fixed, as is the case
with  the Sun, or bodies in the act of decomposing as fuel, it im-
parts heat.*   Could  a volume  of Electricity be  collected  and
condensed in the polar regions,  there can be no doubt  but that
the earth would be considerably  ameliorated in  its vicinity.   I
may  remark  here, that the  friction of bodies elicits Electricity,
but" the  fluid is not taken from these bodies, or only in a small
degree—that is if they are Electrics, the  greater part of it is
taken from the atmosphere;  but of this  we  shall  have occasion
to speak hereafter.
   We will now proceed to state the principal part  of our disco-
very, which we think will corroborate a great part of what  we
have already advanced.   In the  summer of 1839, I wrote an
article on the origin of, vapor, or mist, which  was  published;  but
on subsequent  reflection, 1 perceived that it was  egregious folly
in me to write anything about the weather, the results were so
uncertain, and the laws which regulated  the weather, I supposed
were not uniform and of course could not produce uniform  re-
sults, or to speak more correctly, " Although the weather may
be governed by certain  laws,  yet the time requisite for ascer-
taining their true nature  is  so great, that it is far beyond  the
comprehension of a single individual, and cannot be  compre-
hended  during a lifetime."   A severe  storm might  happen at
one time, and  might not occur again at the same place for ten
 or twenty years.   A hurricane might sweep over a devoted vil-
 lage, and such an event might  not again take  place at the spot
 for an  age.   A simple peasant knows  more about the weather;
 in the district of country  in which  he resides, than the most
 acute philosopher could do  that ever lived.   The  generality of
 people know something  about the average  kind of weather, but
 when  there occurs  an  exception, all classes are  at fault  with
 their predictions."   It was from  reasoning in this manner, that I
 concluded to turn my attention to some study that was regular
 in its operations.   It then occurred to me that the Needle, which
 points to the North with so much regularity, must be  governed
   * I have written a Manuscript on philosophical subjects, which treats principally .
 of the real nature of Light and Heat, on which  I have  lectured in different  parts
 of the country..  I think I have clearly shown that Light and Heat is identical with
 Electricity;  this  has been supposed by some philosophers-but I have clearly
 traced the connection, and have clearly shown the real cause of Light and Heat ol
 all kinds.  I have not room for entering into details in  this pamphlet, as it is my
 intention at a convenient season  to publish the  Manuscript; but I may remark
 here that I have given good grounds for believing that  " the Sun, is a  vast volume
 of white, fixed, Electric Fluid, of great intensity, and that the  highly rarined state
 of air in which it is placed, prevents its escaping or dispersing ' I have shown it to
 be identical with the body of Electric Fluid, that it is evolved from the clouds in the
 atmosphere during a storm;  and could  we fix the body  of Electricity  in that posi-
 tion  the moment it w,*s evolved, i; would be a sun in miniature; and it would impart
 both light and beat the same as that luminary.  But we cannot fix it m our dense
 atmosphere, there are bo many substances to allow it to  escape,
                                B 
10
by an uniform and unvarying law, and notwithstanding it had
baffled philosophers for ages, it was yet possible to find it out.
I then resolved to make some experiments  upon it the first lei-
sure  time I had to spare.  Time however passed on, until read-
ing a work of Mullinger Higgins', in  an article on  Magnetism,
Irwas surprised at finding the following remark: " Poles," says he,
of the same name repel  each other, and opposite ones attract,"
and he adds,  " It follows that we have misnamed the Poles, that
which is directed  to the  North Pole of the Earth, is the South
Pole of the Magnet."  This contradiction in terms  amused me,
and after reflecting some time on the habits  of the Magnet, I
imagined what 1  consider to be the real cause of the directive
powers of the Needle, or  Magnetic  influence, and it  is this.
There is an universal current of  Electricity passing  all over the
face  of  the earth,  from the extreme South to the North, and the
Needle  possessing naturally a larger share of the fluid, lays it-
self in  the direction of  the  current, and  the  current passes
through it.    As soon as this idea flashed across my mind, I be-
came convinced that 1 had hit upon a most important idea;  an
idea  that would explain a great many of the  phenomena attend-
ant on the Magnet, and render everything relating to it perfectly
simple and easily  explained ;  subsequent observation and expe-
riments have  fully confirmed me in the correctness of my views.
On examining the work  of Professor Olmstead, of Yale College,
I found that  every experiment  detailed  by  him concerning the
Magnet, completely verified  the idea I had conceived above, a
few of which I will now detail.
  It  is well known that  Poles of the  same  name in a  Magnet
repel, and  opposite ones attract, and the reason  of this will
now  appear  very obvious.   Because the current of Electricity
entering at the South, and passing out at the North end, oppose
each  other, that is, they  are passing in opposite directions.  If
the  North or Boreal point of the one is reversed,  and laid
against  the Boreal point  of the other, the two currents would be
meeting each other from  the habit that the Magnet had acquired
■—and the  one that  was reversed would  very  soon  lose  its
power, or have its poles reversed.  Upon  the same principle
then, take the South pole of the one, and place it  against the
North pole of the other,  or in front of it, arid they  will attract
each other, because the  current  is then  blowing in its natural
direction, that is, it is passing out at the Boreal pointjand enter-
ing the Austral.   If a Magnet is broken into different pieces, each
part will be a a perfect Magnet of itself, having  a South and a
North pole.  This I consider a strong presumption in favor of a
current, if not an actual demonstration  of it; for it is evident
that wherever the  current passes out, is its North point, and
where it enters, its South point;  and this will  be the case where-
ever a fracture is  made.
   The  prevailing opinion seema 1o be that there are two fluids in 
11
 a Magnet, (" The Austral and Boreal,") bufthe fact stated above
 with regard to the breaking of a  Magnet," seems to have  con-
 founded some  philosophers, for it  is natural to suppose accord-
 ing to their doctrine, that breaking a Magnet in the middle, and
 taking away the Austral  half, there would only  be one South
 pole left, or in other words it would be no longer a Magnet, its
 Magnetic influence  being destroyed.   Philosophers  explained
 this circumstance by saying that "the two fluids are in very mi-
 nute divisions;  an explanation that appears to me very unsatis-
 factory.  I have  found it to be an  invariable result, that where
 the fluid or current enters into  a  Magnet, that end is its South
 point, and where it  passes out, its North,  and  this is  the case
 with a great many conducting substances,  and  even round balls
 of iron have a  tendency to Poles, or to direct themselves North
 and South.   We will here add an extract  from Professor Olm-
 stead's work, verifying the remark  made above.  " If the North
 Pole of a Magnetic Bar  be placed  upon the middle  of an iron
 bar, the two ends of the latter will have North Polarity, while
 the part  of the bar immediately  in contact with the Magnet
 receives South Polarity;  and if the same North Pole be placed
 on  the centre of a circular  piece of iron, all parts of the circum-
 ference will  be endued with North Polarity;  while  the plate
 will have a South Pole in the  centre;" see further examples in
 Professor Olmstead's work.  In these cases here stated, where the
 current enters,  is its South point, and  where it  passes  out
 (although at the  two ends of a bar, or  through the whole cir-
 cumference of a circle or star,) its North part.
  Lightning is said to affect the Needle, and when struck by it,
 it sometimes destroys it and at other times it reverses its Polarity.
 It  also very frequently Magnetizes pieces of iron, and  the same
 power that destroys a Needle can  also restore  it.  This seem-
 ing contradiction is of easy explanation upon the principle of a
 current that we have advanced.    The cause of its destroying
 the powers of a Needle, is doubtless owing to the Lightning ab-
 sorbing in its passage, all  the natural share  of the fluid residing
 in the Needle,  and the reason of its reversing  the direction is
 very probably  caused by  the Lightning passing in an opposite
 course to the current.  But these occurrences are by no means
 common, as Lightning sometimes strikes without doing  the Nee-
 dle any injury, and  when it is discharged, as I have  already
 observed, the  same  power  can restore it,  for it has been fre-
 quently known to  Magnetize bars  of iron.   In  these  cases it
 will always be found, (reasoning from analogy,) that at the point
 where the Electric Fluid entered will be its South end, and where
 itjpassed out its  North end.  And we surmise that this would be
 the  case, whether the fluid entered in  a  contrary direction to
 the  natural  current,  or  whether  it passed in a perpendicular
course.  The bar on  being poised  by the middle, would direct
its  end  to the  North where the  Lightning made its exit; or if 
12
the body were a  small Needle, it would direct itself on the wa-
ter, as this element is a good conductor ;  and it proves that the
current is stronger in water than in the air, when it has force
enough to overcome the resistance of the Needle on the surface
of the water.   All these statements go to prove, that Lightning,
Electricity, and Magnetism are the same Fluid, only differing in
degree or intensity, and in the quality or substances  of bodies
by which they are acted upon.
  The Polarity of the Magnet, as it is called, or the Magnetic
influence, has  always been  considered as constituting it a dis-
tinct fluid from the rest, but this is entirely owing to the habit or
nature of iron or  loadstone being a good conductor, and at the
same time inheriting a considerable  natural share of the fluid,
which it has doubtless received from the current passing  in the
earth—as it is possible it passes under as well as over the sur-
face of the globe; but we have not so  many  facts to support
the former assertion  as the latter.   This then, is a peculiar pro-
perty that iron possesses,  and not  any distinct  quality  of the
fluid.  We have  often been surprised that  the circumstance of
Lightning magnetizing iron bars, or  a  shock'  from  an electric
machine, or a  discharge from a Leyden Jar, was not considered
by philosophers as a sufficient evidence of the identity of the
fluid.  It would appear from these examples that Magnetizing is
neither more nor less than the passage of the Electric Fluid in an
accumulated state through the iron;  (this alludes only to the cir-
cumstance of Lightning or Electricity Magnetizing.) and that the
current of Electricity being in a more diffused  simple state, fol-
lows in the track that  had been prepared for it.   Lightning
always darts straight forward, except when meeting with a non-
conductor, when it shatters  it to pieces, or  takes a different di-
rection—but never retraces its  track.  In order  to  make our-
selves perfectly understood on this point, we shall suppose that
the  Electric Fluid or Lightning, magnetizes a bar  of iron, by
passing through or over it from North to South.  If this  bar is
taken and poised  by the middle, it  would reverse its position;
the  friction  of the earth rendering the current unable to do this
before.  But supposing  the bar to be left for some time in the
same state in which it was magnetized, it would  either lose
its  properties  as   a  magnet, or  have its poles reversed,  and
this would be effected  by the natural current, forcing its way
through the bar  in  a contrary direction to the passage of the
Lightning.  It would seem then that magnetizing is merely the
passage of the fluid in a slightly accumulated state through the
iron, making a path  as it were  for  the  fluid in its more simple
and diffused state  to pass, and this  is probably effected by giv-
ing  the grain  of the  metal  a slight tendency  that  way.   But
these remarks only refer to magnetizing by  Lightning, or Elec-
trifying apparatus.   One Magnet it is  well known,  will also
 impart the property' to another, or  even a  hundred, or to  any 
13
conceivable number, without  any diminution of its  properties.
Philosophers could never  explain this, as it differed from their
theories of communication; and  they considered this  principle
as constituting Magnetism a distinct principle from Electricity.
But the  cause of this will now appear perfectly obvious.   The
Magnet, as we have already stated, possesses a natural share of
the fluid, in a higher accumulated state than the  simple current,
though not so much as that produced by an Electrifying Ma-
chine, and  when  an unmagnetized piece of iron is brought near
it, the natural current is diverted from its direction, and both the
Magnet and the iron attract each other until they come in  con-
tact ;  while  thus adhering  or placed alongside  each other, the
natural current is passing through the Magnet, entering the iron
at the other end,  which constitutes the South, passing out at the
other end,  and re-entering the Magnet, which causes the North
end of the iron.   It thus requires an accumulation of the  fluid
that the Magnet  possessed, and  also its directive qualities ; and
on being taken apart, it will reverse its position according to the
principles I have already given.  The Magnet in this case does
not part with any quantity of its  properties, if it does, it is in-
stantly supplied from the current, in the same way it originally
received it, and  of coarse  it  may impart the quality to  a hun-
dred, or any definite  number, when it has the power to  renew
itself, and some philosophers even assert that it is even stronger
than before the operation; this however may be doubted, habit
and use increase  the  capacity of animals, but not of inanimate
objects.
   This example explains two other experiments with the'Magnet
that have puzzled philosophers.   If a magnet  is placed  in an un-
natural position, its Boreal  point towards the South, it will soon
lose its directive  qualities.   But if two Magnets are laid along-
side each other, with their dissimilar  ends united, they will re-
tain their  properties;  this  is  in  consequence  of the current
passing through both Magnets—first into one, and then into the
other, as if it were a circle as I  have hinted above.   Philoso-
phers explained these two examples, by saying that the single
Magnet lost its power by lying contrary  to the magnetism  of
the earth, and the two Magnets being together, neutralized  each
other's properties and prevented the  loss  of power.   I am in-
clined  to believe that the  principle illustrated  above  with the
two Magnets—the fluid passing  out of the one  into the other,
and being retained in that  manner some time, and still receiving
a supply from the natural current—explains the great  secret of
the amazing power  of the Horse  Shoe  Magnet.   The  fluid
being  retained in it, and  also retained in the  great quantities of
wire by which it is surrounded, * and being still capable of ab-
  * I have never seen any reason assigned for the circumstance of people wrapping
aHorse S-hoe Ma«net round with wire, and that wire, being also wound round with
linen thread painted, and varnished.  I will endavour to assign a cause for this
mode of acting, and  the inference I shall draw from it, may be of some use 
14
 sorbing more from the natural current, constitutes a current or
 circle of Electricity that renders the Magnet difficult  to be pul-
 led away from it without considerable force.  In  this respect it
 may be compared  to a piece of wood floating in an eddy, it re-
 requires  considerable force  to  draw it from  the  vortex.  It
 may be objected  here by  some that this peculiarity in the cur-
 rent passing through the two Magnets, does not accord with a
 remark that has  been made  about Lightning, which it was as-
 serted never retraced its course, although this  is  contrary to its
 nature, yet it is very probable it may run round a circle, or what
 is the same thing, it may pass through one bar of iron into  ano-
 ther that  may be  laying alongside of it.  But the existence of
 Lightning in this highly accumulated state  is only momentary,
 for it soon disperses and quickly returns to a diffused state.
   We shall now explain a remark that has  been already made,
 that Electricity does not reside in Electrics, but that it is is taken
 from the atmosphere by  friction.   In all probability  this is  ac-
 complished by  the  substances rubbed arresting the current of
 Electricity until they become enveloped in it, as is found to be the
 case  with any Electrical  Machine.  It remains in this state
 some time, or until  a conducting substance, such  as iron is  ap-
 plied to it, when  it passes  off.   Chemists  and natural philoso-
 phers  have considered  this circumstance as establishing a  dif-
 ference between Electricity and Magnetism.   But in fact as we
 have already observed, the  difference is  only in  the  bodies  and
 in the condition of the fluid, the latter being  in  a higher accu-
 mulated state.   There can be no doubt that the natural current
 of Electricity which I have supposed to exist, constantly pass-
 ing from  South to North, passes  through all objects, Electrics
 and Non-electrics, in this rare diffused state.  But  when  two
 bodies  are violently rubbed,  the current is concentrated and
 accumulated around the object, such  as the glass cylinder of a
 machine ; and this being an  imperfect conductor, it cannot pass
through it in this state, but remains in it only a short time, when
 it passes off of its own accord, unless a conducting substance is
 applied to it.   Non conducting substances, then they do not re-
 tain a natural, or accumulated share of the fluid, while  magne-
 tized  substances do; and this  constitutes  the real  difference  be-
 tween the two kinds of bodies.
to those mechanics who make Magnets. The design of wrapping the wire round
with linen thread painted or varnished, I apprehend is this. TheTinen  thread is a
 non-conductor, and after being painted is more so; and after the wire is charged or
magnetized by the ends that are left bare, the fluid cannot escape so readily, being
surrounded   with  non-conductors, and the wire being wrapped round  the
Horse  Shoe  Magnet,  increases its power  to support  weights, as  it  contains a
greater amount of Electricity.  We apprehend that this is the reason why the
wires of an Electric Telegraph are wound round with  tarred Hemp thread or
some  other  non-conducting  substance,  in order that the Electric charge may
pass through to the extremity of  the wire without escaping.   It would seem
that in a long wire or  rod of iron, the Electric charge passes from the rod and
re-enters again several times before reaching the extreroety, and sometimes passes
from the rod altogether.   This is the reason why mechanics cannot  make a long
Magnet, the fluid escapes before it reaches the end, and forms several sets of Poles. 
15
  These remarks will further illustrate  the case of the Magnet
and the Electric Fluid.   The latent current in  passing through
the Magnet it is natural to suppose, will have a  tendency rather
to  increase  its power  than  diminish it, and  it  is  equally
plausible to suppose that the passage of the fluid in a highly ac-
cumulated state through it, would deprive*it of all its qualities,
by  oxydizing or partially  decomposing it;  and it also  follows
from  both these conclusions, that the passage of the fluid in a
slightly accumulated state through the iron, would also  magne-
tize it.
  I have  been sometimes asked the following questions, which
I will endeavor to answer in their order:—
  First:  "What authority is there for  supposing  that the cur-
rent of Electricity is always passing  to the North?  Is it not
just as likely that it may be passing from North to South?"
  1 answer:—" This question has been already answered, for it
is evident from the habit of the Needle itself reversing its poles,
when the North end is  turned  to the South, which evidently
shows that the  current is passing towards the North, or it would
not reverse its poles.   If a piece  of iron is  magnetized  by an
Electrifying  Machine, or Leyden  Jar, or  any others means, it
will uniformly  be found that  where the  fluid  entered is its
South end, and where it passed out its North, another  conclu-
sive evidence of the statement made above."
  Second Objection:—'' If the Needle is held in  one direction by
an universal current of Electricity,  what is the  cause of the
Needle being deflected when  placed under a  current  passing
from a Galvanic Battery ?  One would  suppose that it ought to
run parralell with it, or that the Needle  ought to point in the di-
rection of the current."
  Answer:—If the Needle is placed in the circuit of the current,
it will point in the same direction;  this fact is well known—from
this it may be inferred that the  cause of its being  deflected is
owing to a superior, and stronger artificial current passing above
or below it, (as the case may be) than the natural one, and being
outside or on the margin as it were,  of the current, it causes it
to deflect, just as small light objects may be impelled from a cur-
rent of wind towards its margin, instead of being carried along
with it."
   Third Objection:—"But how came this current to pass always
in one direction, and how is it supplied ?"
  Answer:—" There are a great many of the laws of nature
that we cannot account for  in any  other way than by saying
that they were established so by the Almighty;  there are some
indeed that may be discovered  and their true causes explained,
but we always arrive at a  point that is inexplicable; with re-
gard  to the  supply  of the current it may be remarked, ' that
nature is constant and perpetual in her operations, suffering no
waste, and requiring no supply;  there is nothing new created, 
16
nor nothing lost.'   There is probably not one particle less Elec-
tric Fluid in the universe since  the creation.   There is indeed
more of one kind of matter existing at one  time and place  than
there is at another, but upon the whole  there is nothing  lost or
gained."
  It may also  be a snbject of enquiry  by some  persons, what
becomes  of the Electricity that is constantly  passing over the
face of the earth towards the  North ?   This may also be a dif-
ficult question to solve ;  it may  return  through the crust of the
earth at a great depth to the  South thus  again to continue its
perpetual round, or it may be converted  by some operation of
nature into another element, and return  in the same way to  be
resolved  again into its  former  fluid.  These  last remarks  are
only given as mere conjectures,  which any  person is at  liberty
to reject or accept as may best accord with his own judgment.
There is always some ultimate cause that we  can  hardly hope
to explain.  The dip of the Needle towards the  North would
seem to indicate that the current has a tendency  downwards,
and its getting almost vertical there, gives a strong coloring to
the above supposition;  while towards  the  extreme South the
Needle rises in proportion as it is depressed  towards the North,
which  would  seem to indicate  that  the current there rises.
These are all the arguments I have to support the above suppo-
sition.  However this may be the case, there are good  reasons
for  believing that  Electricity is  much more  abundant in the
Northern  Regions than any  where  else, and  that the  Aurora
Borealis is nothing else than Electricity having accumulated
there in great abundance, in consequence of the current  setting
in that direction.
  Another question will naturally arise in the minds of many—
why is it, that the Thunder is  not  caused in consequence of the
great accumulation of fluid in  that region?  This is a  question
that we hope to be able satisfactorily to answer;  and we consi-
der it of some importance, as it will tend strongly to confirm the
statement we have twice already made, viz:—that Lightning is
generated or evolved, and that in temperate or warm countries,
and in mild and hot weather;  and that  no part of the Electri-
city in the atmosphere is taken to form it; we have never heard
or read of a single instance of a thunder-storm occurring in what
is called the Polar Regions; and if such a circumstance never
occurs where there is such an abundance  of Electricity  in the
atmosphere, then it is conclusive evidence that the  amount of it
in the atmosphere  does not go to form the thunder-storm, but
that it is produced  by the collection and consequent decomposi-
tion of various kinds of vapors or gases  in  the  atmosphere.   A
thunder-storm most generally  occurs in  warm weather ;   and it
is well known that  the atmosphere contains more pestilential va-
pors at these seasons  than  at any  other; Earthquakes  and
Volcanoes are attended by thunder and  sometimes only by light- 
17
 ning.   But in most  cases, a low,  dense  black  cloud appears
 above the spot where the action is taking  place, from which
 proceed vivid flashes  of lightning.  Now  is  it not likely that
 this cloud  is  a  collection of  gases  or vapors, proceeding
 from the crater of the Volcano, or is emitted  invisibly from the
 earth,  previous to  an Earthquake,  or  during its continuance ?
 We all know the strange and powerful effects produced chemi-
 cally by the  union of oxygen and  hydrogen gases, and what
 may not be expected from a cloud, formed by the union of all
 kinds  of noxious gases,  and  sulphureous emissions  from the
 bowels of the earth?
   Some people may enquire the reason why the  Electric Fluid
 is not more abundant in warm countries in consequence of mat-
 ter decomposing, than there is in cold ones, which is well known
 is not  the case,  for  the magnetic influence   is much stronger
 towards the North than any where else.   But the reason of this
 is very obvious;  the  air is so impregnated with noxious vapors,
 that the Electricity existing there  is combined with  them, and
 less of it exists in a simple state, while in severe and cold coun-
 tries it approaches  nearer a simple state, and is not contamin-
 ated by  noxious  vapors, and  hence  it may be  more  easily
 collected by an Electrifying machine.  It is probably owing to this
 very circumstance why an Electric shock, or an accumulation of
 Electricity passes  through us,  or  through  any substance  with
 such facility.   It is then we think, quite reasonable to suppose,
 that as Electricity is very scarce in hot weather, a thunder-storm
 is an effort of nature to supply the deficiency; that as in these
 seasons of extreme heat, more noxious vapors are produced, it is
 from this source that it is  principally supplied; and that nature
 in thus acting  accomplishes two  very beneficial purposes, by
 destroying pestilential exhalations, and by imparting a cooling
 and refreshing influence to the air we breathe.
   Some people who are not conversant  with the principles of
 Electricity, will hardly conceive it possible that  there exists in
 nature a fluid  so subtle as to be capable of passing through all
 objects in existence when  in its simplest state, and to be incapa-
 ble of  being dissipated or impaired by wind, rain, hail, snow, or
 any agent in nature  with which we are acquainted:  and  it is
 equal in velocity to light, and equally  rare—and perhaps it is
 the most subtle fluid in nature.  Such  people  may have their
 doubts  lessened on  this subject, by considering  that a shock
 from an  Electrical Machine  has been known to pass through
 very many objects the distance of four miles, without any per-
 ceptible interval of time;  and in  all probability  it  might pass
 through the earth  from end to the other in one second of time.
 The Aurora Borealis  may be taken as an instance  of its motions,
 which  is doubtless the fluid in an accumulated state. The rarity
of Electricity will not surprise Chemists, for they get acquainted
with invisible  substances.   Hydrogen  Gas is invisible,  and is
                             c 
18
fourteen times lighter than common air.   There are even some
liquids that are invisible;  Muriatic Acid, if pure, cannot be per-
ceived by the naked eye,  and although its  density  may be sen-
sibly felt by the hand when  contained in a glass vessel, yet it
may be poured from  one  bottle  to another without  being  per-
ceived by the naked eye.   From a consideration of  these facts,
the rarity of the Electric  Fluid  will cease to be an object  of
wonder; but it is probable, that  its velocity is not so  great in its
simple natural state, as when it is accumulated, for the rapidity
of its motions may be owing to  its haste to return to its natural
state, as we find that all  acids, and some other  substances, are
more quick  in their motions when  concentrated,  and more diffi-
cult to be retained, than when reduced and simplified.
   Although I have endeavoured  to prove that the Electric Fluid
is a subtle acid, yet it is only in its accumulated state that its
properties  can be traced.  It could not be expected, that in its
simple and diffused state, its acid properties  would be percepti-
ble to our  gross  senses.    It would be a strange  anamoly  in
nature were we surrounded by an atmosphere, tainted by a pe-
culiarity, that were constantly present to our  senses.  Chemists
have considered Oxygen as the principal agent in supplying aci-
dity, but we think it may  with greater propriety be assigned  to
Electricity;  and that all acid fruits are assisted in their produc-
tion by this  agent.   We  shall  now conclude this part  of the
subject by repeating the principles  that we think we have esta-
blished.
   First—We have  made the following  subjects appear very
probable by acknowledged facts, viz:—"That the Electric Fluid
is a very subtle acid, that  it is generated  or evolved  in  the at-
mosphere during a thunder-storm.   That  the friction of  bodies
does not generate Electricity; that it is merely the Electric cur-
rent arrested by that mechanical operation; that  Electricity and
Magnetism are owing to the same cause, the only  difference con-
sisting in the nature of the bodies by which  the fluid is acted
upon."
   Secondly—We think we have fully established [the follow-
ing principles, at least as far as  this can be done  by any  means
short of actual demonstration, viz:—" That there  is a latent cur-
rent of Electricity constantly passing over the whole face of the
earth, from South to North,  and that the Needle, or  Loadstone,
possessing a natural share of this fluid in a more accumulated
state,  lays  itself in  the direction  of the  current, which  is the
cause of its directive qualities;  and  that its poles  or ends are
owing to the entering and passing  out of the fluid—that  end
where  it enters, being  invariably  its South  end, and where'it
passes out, its North."  It follows  from this, that the theory  of
the earth being a Magnet with  poles at each  end, is a mere chi-
mera  of the imagination, and  has  no foundation in reality__a
subject on which we will make a few remarks in the next chapter. 
19
          TERRESTRIAL  MAGNETISM.

  It is a remarkable circumstance, that although philosophers
have entertained the  opinion for several hundred years that the
earth is a Magnet with two poles, yet they could never form a
consistent hypothesis concerning it, and very often contradicted
themselves in the very terms that they used—that is when  it
was proposed, as explaining the directive powers of the Mag-
net. We will take the liberty in this place, of indulging in a few
remarks concerning  their various conjectures  on  this subject.
As  it will be some gratification to us for  the  torrents of abuse
with which (when very young,) we were assailed for what was
termed our hardihood in presuming to oppose  the systems  of
learned philosophers—as  we were always very skeptical on
these subjects.
  We are not certain, but we believe it was Gilbert, an English
philosopher with whom the idea originated, " that the earth is a
Magnet, and that the Polarity of the Needle was due to the mag-
netism  of the earth ;"  the word due is rather a vague way  of
accounting for the connection between the earth and the Nee-
dle ; for the latter is elevated above the  former, and some con-
nection ought to have been made  to appear.  But there was
another incongruity  which the  philosopher was aware  of, and
which he endeavoured to  explain, viz :—" Poles  of the same
name repel each other, and opposite ones attract," and of course
the end that points to the North, could  not be attracted by the
North pole of the  earth.   The philosopher explained this con-
tradiction by substituting another—" The pole of the Magnet,
(he says,) that points  to the North pole, is its  South pole, and
the one that points to the South is its North pole."  This is not
giving names to things significant of their  natures, but entirely
the reverse.    But  notwithstanding all these incongruities, this
supposition  has been adhered to until the present day.   And a
late author, Mullinger Higgins, Professor of Natural Philosophy
in  Guy's Hospital,  England, who  wrote in 1837, feelingly la-
ments that justice had not been done to the name of Gilbert, for
that among other things, he had accurately designated the names
 of the Poles.
    But the location of the Poles  at  the ends of the earth, soon
 became an object of learned disquisition.   One philosophic per-
 son would display great talent  and profound erudition, in locat-
 ing the pole at one place, while another would soon afterwards
exhibit great tact and ingenuity in displacing it, and at the same 
20
  time, give clear and cogent  reasons for  locating it  somewhere
  else.   Others again  imagined  that  the  Poles  were under  the
  earth, whilst others believed them to be  above;  and in this
  way  some  wise head  would rob  another of his halo of glory;
  yet they all contrived to come in for a share  of immortality—
  the only reward which many of them received  for their trouble;
  but amidst all these conflicting opinions, a great philosopher  M.
  Biot comes to the solution of the difficulty.  Professor Kraft of
  St. Petersburgh, also  undertakes  the  same examination—and
  while  the whole philosophical world was on tiptoe  to hear the
  result of their profound deliberations, out they  come with  their
  conclusions !  which were, " that they both had arrived at the
  same law, proving the inaccuracy of the first supposition."—Not
 that  they had discovered the  true  situation of the Poles, but
 that it was inaccurate to suppose that they were on,  or near to
 the surface of the  earth;  and for  aught that  they  knew, the
 Poles might  be  dancing about  in the atmosphere along  with
 the Aurora Borealis.
   The variation of the Needle was another difficult subject to
 account for with  learned  men;  and after various  conjectures
 concerning the cause, they at last  agieed that  it was owing to
 there being four Poles in the earth,—two at each end, and that
 the variation was owing to the Needle being attracted first by
 one Pole, and then by the other, alternately.  Several extensive
 journies were made for the  very  purpose of locating these Poles;
 and sometimes one  wise man, regardless  of  what another  had
 done, would establish  his Pole, until  sometimes  they  had half a
 dozen.   Professor Hansteen, of Christiana, undertook a journey
 into Siberia for the purpose of ascertaining the true situation of
 the Magnetic Poles.  It was  not to be expected that  the  pro-
 fessor would undertake so long a journey without coming to any
 result; and accordingly he established a Magnetic Pole to the
 North  of Siberia; thus  acquiring for himself great celebrity for
 for his profound learning, and establishing for his master a cha-
 racter of great liberality and devotion to the sciences.  It is very
 remarkable, that while philosophers were  establishing so many
 Poles, they paid no  regard  to reason, analogy, or consistency in
 accounting for them, for they  still adhered to  their former sup-
 position that the earth is a Magnet.   If then  it  was difficult to
 account for several  circumstances  and incongruities that  oc-
 curred with two poles, what must it be when there were four;
 and when in fact all resemblance to  a natural Magnet was  en-
 tirely  lost; for there could not possibly be four poles to one
 Magnet.*  There are indeed  frequently in a long Magnet seve-
  * It would appear that in a long Magnet, the fluid is apt to pass out and re-en-
ter again, before passing out at the end. It is propahly owing to this circumstance
that the Dutch people paint their Magnets in the middle, leaxing the two ends bare;
and that Electricians wind the wires of an Electric Telegraph with tarred thread,
or some other non-conducting substances, to prevent the escape of the fluid, until
it passes to the end. 
21
  ral sets of poles, or consecutive poles, but that there should be
  two at each end, is  quite ridiculous, and at any rate it  does not
  account for the variation  of the  Needle.    The  Magnet, it  is
  said, in different places in the world declines a little to the west,
  and after a while returns  to its former position, and declines to
  the east   Now if  this  were owing to  two poles  near  the
  end of the earth,the one a little to the west, and the other to the
  east, how could the Needle return after it was attracted by one
  pole ?   It would certainly  always remain towards the  nearest,
  because the other would have less influence over  it,  if distance
  diminishes the attraction as is found to be the  case in all natural
  magnets.   But  there is so much incongruity apparent  in these
  suppositions, that we wonder how any sane person  could for a
  moment sustain them.*
    There is a theory assumed by Aumpere, that a Magnet con-
  sists of  an  infinite  number of circular currents of Electricity;
  and which after a long and tedious explanation, he gives as the
  cause of the polarity of the Magnet.   We candidly confess that
  we have never  been  able  to understand  the principles he  as-
  sumes, nor the reason of the results that he  arrives at in conse-
 quence  of his  assumptions, a diagram of which is given  in
  Lewis Beck's  work on Chemistry.  We are aware  of  the  re-
 mark, that ignorant  people  condemn  what they do  not under-
 stand.   But we  beg pardon  for  saying, that when  a man  as-
 assumes a theory that requires a  great, deal  of learned expla-
 nation to make it  appear correct, the  presumption  is that
 something is wrong about it;  but  people  believe  it,  because it
 may have some resemblance to  truth, and  because they are
 unwilling  to have it presumed that they  are ignorant.   Tak-
 ing  our   leave  of Philosophers, we  will  add  a few remarks
 relative  to our   own system.   This  great  mystery that  at-
 taches to  the  ends  of the  earth, and deranges the directive
 powers of the  Needle, causing it to dip and to become  almost
 vertical, is in  our opinion, nothing  more  than a  turn  or shift
 that the  current of Electricity takes there.  The dip of the Nee-
   * Captain Ross who has lately arrived in  England from a voyage  of discovery
 to the South Polar Seas, has, it seems, discovered that philosophers were mistaken
 in supposing that there existed two Magnetic Poles at the South;  for at the place
 supposed by Professor Gaus to contain one, he could not discover any, after having
 arrived at the very spot designated; and he concludes that there is only one South
 Magnetic Pole.  But he does not inform us whether he ever arrived at the spot
 necessary to determine by  actual observation, even  the  existence  of this; and he
 will  probably ultimately arrive at  the conclusion, that  there are no Magnetic
 Poles in the earth at all; and that the Magnetic influence is owing, as we have
 stated in this pamphlet, to an universal current of Electricity.  The following
 passage that I have extracted from the New  York  Sunday Bulletin  of Dec. 24,
 1843, tends strongly to confirm our theory of an universal Current of Electricity. *
  General motion of the M>\—"ft has been decided  from observations made with
 Whewel's Anemometer, that there is on the average, a general motion of the air,
 from South to JNorth, two Maxima, and two Minima, have been shown in the force
 of wind during every twenty four hours, the force increases as the Barometer falls,
«nd decreases as it rises. 
22
die, and the circumstance of its getting almost vertical at the
extreme North, would seem to give some grounds for the  hy-
pothesis, that the current goes downwards into the »earth to a
great depth  there at a particular point, and  returns  through
the centre of the globe to the South, where it causes the Nee-
dle to rise in proportion as it is depressed to the the North.
These two  facts,  the  depression and rise of the Magnet,  are
strong evidences in  support  of the supposition, that  the cur-
rent descends and returns through the crust  of  the  earth to
the South, and  thus continuing a perpetual current.   Electri-
city is  the rarest fluid yet  known;  and  this has  been  one
great cause of its  real nature remaining so long undiscovered;
in  the  manuscript that we  hope  soon to publish,  we will
clearly  show that Electricity when visible, is nothing else than
an  accumulation of light, or  light condensed and concentrated
by  mechanical  or  chemical means, such as friction, compres-
sion, or decomposition of any kind of matter.
        ON THE TIDES OF THE OCEAN.


  It has been the  practice with some  authors in every age of
the world, when  in proposing a theory, or  in maintaining an
argument—to base  their  systems, and to  draw  their conclu-
sions from false assumptions—assumptions that have never been
thoroughly investigated or admitted  as correct, by the general
consent of mankind.  In the  theory  we are about to propose,
we shall endeavour to avoid this  error, and we  shall assume
nothing but what has been long considered as well established
by  the  great body of modern writers, and  what in  our judg-
ment is highly probable.
  The diurnal motion  of  the earth, or more  properly  speak-
ing, the revolution  of the earth  on its axis, (although only a
theory) has never  been called in question  that I am  aware of,
as  to its  correctness,  and it has  been long received as  the
most satisfactory way of accounting for the alternation of day
and night.  But although we are  bound  to respect a theory,
that has for a very long period  obtained  general  belief, (at
least until  a more plausible one is proposed,) yet  it  does  not
follow,  that because the principal part of  a  supposition is very
probable,  that the  whole  of  the details must be  correct;  and
an  individual may very justly entertain  doubts  and surmises
about some of these, and may so  express himself, although he
has nothing better  to propose in their stead. 
23
  The revolution  of the earth on its  axis, is a very common
mode of expression with philosophers, by  which they  would
designate  the  motion of the earth;  but they have left  us en-
tirely in the dark  as to what kind  of an axis it is—whether
it is like the axle of a chariot wheel—or  whether it remains
stationary, and supported at each end.  If the  latter  supposi-
tion be  the one admitted by learned men, the  question  natu-
rally arises, what becomes of the  supports, and what mate-
rial is the axle composed of?  It must be of a different material
from the calcareous fragile substance of the earth, as  is it has
to undergo a  great deal of friction; and the part of the earth
in contact with it must be of the same material.
  These considerations, together with the sound that might be
supposed  to be produced oy  friction, and some other matters
philosophers have  said  nothing at all about.   It would appear
that this part  of their  subject they  were  afraid to touch, and
have accordingly passed it over entirely unnoticed, at  least no-
thing of the kind has come under our observation.   This  ope-
ration appears as difficult a matter to account for as the  motion
of thefplanets;  and indeed it appears  to  us far too  unnatural
and artificial, and  constantly reminds us of the workshops of the
mechanic and factories—instead of the simple and efficient ope-
ration of nature.   We  cannot perceive why it is not just as pro-
bable a supposition to suppose  that  the earth has no axis, and
that it is all the time falling into space, revolving as it descends,
and that  the whole of the planetary  system is descending in like
manner;  but that each  by a nice adjustment in density and the
action of its own atmosphere, preserves its relative position.  I do
not propose this theory as free from inconsistencies, although I
think it  is just  as plausible as the one at present  established.  It
would however, be as  difficult to account for the regular  motion
of the earth one way as the other, and  in fact the cause  of mo-
tion is in my judgment very difficult  to  explain, except we refer
it to the direct agency of divine power!  In tracing the relation
of one thing to another, we always arrive at a point with  regard
to motion, that is very difficult to comprehend, and are compel-
led to acknowledge  the existence of  a supernatural power, that
actually (to use a mechanical phrase,)  ," puts his shoulder to the
wheel."   The cause of Motion then, we consider as a very strik-
ing and forcible proof of the existence of a  Deity, and leaves the
arguments of atheists perfectly untenable.
  But we do not intend in this place  to  enter  into a discussion
concerning the cause of Motion.  That the earth is a spherical
body, and performs one  revolution every  twenty four hours, is
all that  is necessary for our purpose  on this subject, and this we
presume no one will dispute.  There is only one subject more
to which  we would call the attention of our readers before pro-
ceeding with the details of our theory,  and that is the density of
the atmosphere.  It is  now we believe, a  doctrine very gene- 
24
rally acquiesced in, that it is the pressure of the air on the sur-
face of the earth, that prevents every thing from being detached.
And were it  not  for this action, all substances  not  adhering,
would fall  or bound off, such as stones and animals, streams ot
water, and even the ocean itself.  It is the force of the circum.
ambient air, that is known to  be equal in weight to a column ot
water thirty three feet high, that confines all objects to the sur-
face of this globe, and hence, in obedience to this law, water is
compelled to find its own level, and instead of rising upwards, or
falling downwards as the case may be, it moves along the surface
from the impetus it receives.
  Having  made these remarks, we  will proceed to detail a the^
ory, accounting for the tides and currents of the ocean, and that
on a different principle from the one which now obtains.   The
spherical figure of the earth, its diurnal revolution, the compres-
sion of the atmosphere,  are the subjects on which we found our
theory;  and these we consider highly probable, and  have ob-
tained the general consent of mankind for a long period of time.
The last mentioned subject, the weight  of the  air we consider
as completely  demonstrated.
  Before proceeding with our details, we will  make  a few re-
marks designed to shew the improbability of the present theory of
the tides, and these will be confined  to one particular, the supposed
influence of the Moon.   The coincidence between the  Moon and
the Tides, was observed we believe  long before Sir Isaac New-
ton's time but it was he who first pointed out the mode in  which
that planet was supposed to act on the great body of the .ocean.
After the best consideration that we are capable of giving the sub-
ject, we do not  perceive any relation established between the
Moon and the Tides, and that the whole subject has been inferred
from mere coincidence only.  This mode of reasoning is to our
minds far from being satisfactory, without its being taken in con-
junction with some analogous  circumstances—which are entirely
wanting in the present case.  It is inferred that because the  Tides
are higher at the  full,  than the wane of the  Moon, and  other
coincidences, that she must exert an influence on them; and then
the manner in which this is done is particularly described.   This
mode of reasoning has been a fruitful source  of error in  every
age of the world, and the foundation of a  great  amount  of su-
perstition.
  If we  were to reason from mere coincidence alone, a  great
many other operations of nature, besides the flux and re-flux of
the waters of the  ocean,  might be attributed to  the influence
of the Moon, with as much probability as the said theory.   Ani-
mals are sometimes much agitated during full  Moon.   Chancel-
lor  Bacon,  (it is recorded,) was subject to Syncope during the
full Moon.  Hoffman reports a young girl that labored under a
painful swelling  of the leg, beginning and ending with the in-
crease and decrease of the Moon.   These occurrences, together 
25
with others that are unnecessary  to  mention, might  with afl
much propriety be ascribed to the influence of the  Moon as the
Tides.  Yet there are but few learned men who believe in such
influences, and still fewer who can trace or point out any  con-
nection ; and the bare isolated fact  of the coincidence only, is
all that remains  to propound  a theory upon.   It is not  denied
but that the Moon  may  exert  some power  on this earth; her
light  may accelerate the  ripening  of grain,  and  promote the
growth of plants, as some agriculturists uniformly affirm, but
that she could exercise such a powerful attraction, as to  lift the
 waters of the great deep to such an extent as is imagined in the
 case  of the Tides,—is in our judgment extremely improbable,
 without its being  felt equally on the earth as well as the ocean.
 All substances  not  permanently fixed to the  surface would  be
 immediately detached, and attracted towards that planet, and this
 would be effected much easier than with water, for in the latter
 case the additional circumstance of resistance, a natural tenden-
 cy to find its own  level would have  to be  overcome.   This
 part  of the theory  we consider as the most improbable of the
 whole system.
   The following is our hypothesis, which we offer as being more
 rational, and liable to fewer exceptions than any other.   Philo-
 sophers  have  asserted that there are seven tenths of  the whole
 earth covered  with water, and the remaining three tenths only
 are dry land.  Although this statement may be  perfectly cor-
 rect, in the sense in which they understand it, yet  there cannot
 be a doubt but that there is more land  than water;  for  the  .
 ocean itself, and  all large bodies of water whatever, have land
 for their base,  or rest upon land.   I think  it very probable how-
 ever, that  there are exceptions to this remark, and these excep-
  tions I consider as  the real cause  of  the rising and subsiding of
  the  waters of  the ocean:  in other words, I  presume  that there
  are  two vast  openings at the bottom of the sea through the
  whole diameter of the earth, (crossing each other at right an-
  gles, and  acting independent, or meeting in the centre as  the
   case may be,) by which the waters are connected, and that du-
  ring the revolution of this globe, which is  performed once in
  twenty four hours; each end of the opening will be uppermost
   alternately every  six hours, and the waters of the  uppermost
   end will press or sink towards the lower, causing a flow at the
   higher, and  a  full tide also  at the  lower;  and of course there
   would be a flux and re-flux  at the same place  every  twelve
   hours  If this  supposition were  correct, we should of  course
   have double the number of  tides as days during the  year;   but
   a great many circumstances interfere to prevent this regularity,
   and it would  only  be in some situations  where a perfect unifor-
   mity could  take place.   The parts of the  earth at a distance
   from the opening, would have the tides  less frequent during a
   vear than those situated near it, and the  inequalities at the bot-
   tom of the  ocean, would  cause considerable irregularity m the
   motion of the  tides.  Mariners assert,  that it is very difficuli 
26
amongst islands to ascertain which way  the  tides flow; and
this is doubtless  caused by the uneven  bottom obstructing  the
passage of the current.   Where the bed of the ocean is smooth
or nearly so, the tides  would  be more uniform and regular.
This may account in some measure, for  the irregularity of  the
tides in  different parts of the world.  But there is  another cir-
cumstance to be considered which would also tend to this result.
In all likelihood, there are a number of these openings in differ-
ent parts of the ocean  remote from  each other, in a  different
parallel of latitude,  and of course, there would be a difference in
the time of the rise and depression of their waters, owing to  the
motion of the earth, and where their tides meet, there would be
a confused agitation of the sea.    We have been informed  by
seafaring  men, that there are  different places in  the  ocean,
where the waters have a rough boisterous appearance without
any storm or wind'—may it not be owing to this circumstance,
as much as to the action  of the wind impelling a greater body
of water in that direction.
   In order to convey as clear and distinct an idea as possible of
these great  hydraulic communications, we will  endeavour to il-
lustrate  the operation in a very simple manner, so that it may be
understood by persons of almost any capacity.
   If two  funnels were soldered  together at the  small ends, then
held in a perpendicular position, and filled at the upper end with
water, it would immediately pass through, without spreading out
at the  funnel or flange below;  because in  this instance, the
weight of the atmosphere presses everything  towards the sur-
face of the earth; and the gravity of the water itself, without
the air,  would effect this;  but supposing that the  soldered fun-
nels were  an isolated object, and were placed in the  actual posi-
tion of the earth itself, and encompassed like it by the pressure
of the air equally on all sides,—it is evident then, that the gravity
of the  water of the upper funnel,  independently of any other
circumstance, would force the water to spread  out towards  the
flange or  edge of the  lower  funnel, instead of dropping from
it; for in  this  instance,  the  atmosphere would prevent it; and
this obpet as it gradually revolved round, would cause a  flow
and an  ebb at  the  same place  alternately, during  one revolu-
tion.  If we now take a second pair of funnels and proceed with
them in the same manner, placing them  at  right angles  to the
former,  we shall have a complete example of the mode of ope-
ration that is intended to  be conveyed.   This we imagine, is the
mode of operation of these great  water  communications at the
bottom of the sea, and we can perceive nothing in it at variance
with the strictest principles of sound philosophy.
   It would be very  foolish in  us  to attempt to state the dimen-
sions  of these openings;  but if  there  is only one location of
them, it must be very large, if there are  a number of them, the
dimensions will  of course  be less;  still they must all be large ac-
cording  to our conceptions of objects; since their length through
the whole diameter  of the earth is very great, being generally 
27
stated at seven thousand miles.  Were I to hazard a conjecture
about their  locality, I  should  say that there may be one, and
that  probably the  largest at  the equator.  We  have been in-
formed by a gentleman acquainted with nautical affairs, that the
tides commence first at the equator, and proceed in every direc-
tion,  as if from a common centre.   1  do not consider this  gen-
tleman very good authority, but I am not aware of any circum-
stance that  militates against this observation..
   It  has been long a common remark  with mankind, that the
sea  had no  bottom;  this idea doubtless  originated  in  conse-
quence of their  unavailing  efforts to fathom it, but it will be a
singular circumstance, if this observation should prove correct.
   If  we examine an  American  Almanac  of 1841, containing
calculations for the United States, and  beginning with the month
of January, we shall find the high water quoted for Boston, at 4
hours 14 minutes, and for New-York at 1 hour 14 minutes;  here
is a difference of 3  hours, and so on with other places;  and in
looking over the  whole month, we  find the  returning full tide
1^ hours later each time, and sometimes only half an hour, or va-
rying from half an  hour, to one  hour  and  fifty  minutes.  We
have ascribed this difference to the distance the waters have to
travel,—the inequalities at the bottom  of the sea, and peculiar
position of  places.  But there is still  another  circumstance to
be accounted for, that is, the frequent  occurrence of very  high
tides, and very low, or neap tides.
   In  the present received theory, the Moon is held insufficient to
account  for that circumstance,  and the aid of the  Sun  was
called in.   It is well known that  the wind is a powerful agent
in forcing the waters  of the  ocean in the direction in which  it
blows, and  very  high  tides are sometimes the  consequence of
this;  a storm of wind will also retard the flow of the  tide when
opposed to each other.  Examples of both these statements are
of very frequent occurrence, and sometimes they produce disas-
trous results.  It  would seem to  be  the intention of nature,
and no doubt a very provident law  in  her economy—that there
should be a body of water  continually in  motion, adapted for
different operations in that great element,—and where there is  a
surplus at one place, there is a deficiency at another, and  in fact,
this must of necessity be the case, according to the strictest logi-
cal principles; for if there is a certain  quantity of water  on this
earth, the removal  of  any portion from  one place to another,
must cause a flow at the one and an ebb at  the other.    It can-
not be supposed that the Deity creates water at one place, and
annihilates it at another.  It is a much more reasonable conclu-
sion, deducibletoo from well established  principles, that there is not
one drop more or less of water in the world since the creation;
and the removal  and replacing of it, causes that pleasing vari-
ety that is so striking a trait in the works of nature.  But  it may
be objected here, that these very high and very low tides, have
an uniform  character,  occur every month, and of course must
have  a regular  cause.  We  have  already stated, that  stropg 
28
 winds blowing  for a length of time in one direction, might be
 one cause in producing the above effect.  In confirmation of this,
 we will here state a simple case or two.  It is evident that were
 a powerful  wind blowing in the direction of North, a superabun-
 dance of the waters of the ocean would be driven in that direc-
 tion ; and if this should  happen to be at a  distance from any
 opening, of course there would less descend through, the wind
 preventing  in a  great degree its return to the  great gulph, as
 it  may be called, until one end had passed in revolving.   If the
 wind continued long enough, the next high tide would also be very
 high at the same place, causing a succession of high tides, while
 at another situation, there wold be a succession of low^tides.
   In describing  the revolution of the two openings, we have re-
 marked that there would be a flux and re-flux at the same place
 every 12 hours,  or in other words, that there would  be an ebb
 in 6 hours, and a flow in 6  hours more—alternately.   This re-
 quires some explanation which  we will proceed to give, as  it is
 our intention to consider it fully in all its bearings.   These  two
 openings we have stated to pass through the whole diameter  of
 the earth, crossing  each other  at  right angles, and acting inde-
 pendent of each  other; or they may be supposed to meet in the
 centre, which circumstance would make no difference as  to the
 operation, as the waters would pass  through the  one only, that
 was perpendicular, in preference to taking any of the two pas-
 sages at the sides.  These two passages would constitute four
 openings, or one  at each side, supposing the circumference of the
 globe were divided into  four  parts, or if divided by  time,  it
 would leave 6 hours for each to  change its location.   There
 must then be an ebb and a  flow alternately, which we  suppose
 to be effected in this manner.   While one opening is uppermost,
 there must of course  be one directly under, the waters of the
 ocean will flow into the upper, and  pass  through to the lower,
 causing a flow at both places, or a full tide at  the same time
 both with us and  our antipodes.  The openings at each side
 would have  an ebb at the same time, causing a  re-flux at  the
 same instant both with us and our antipodes.  Some people
 may nor conceive how the waters could flow from the  sides to
the upper cavity, as in that case they would  have to  rise from
their  level.  To  this objection it may be remarked, that the  sea
 would flow towards the place where it had found  an opening,
 and a current would be  created, tending to that situation; and
and besides,  the spherical figure of the earth is so little at' short
distances, that it has never been considered as opposing  any ob-
stacle to the passage of the waters either way.  And indeed if
we allow for the sake of argument that it does offer resistance
we must also admit that there  would be great facilities for its'
descent, and the whole of the waters of the  ocean  where they
encompassed the globe, would subside  towards the lowest part
with a vengeance, at every revolution of the earth.  In the pre-
sent received theory, and  in  that  part of it  that relates to the
influence  of the tides,—it is affirmed that that planet raises the 
29
waters of the ocean at the  same instant of time with us, as it
does with our antipodes; and the arguments that they adduce to
enforce this supposition, are in our judgment much  more appli-
cable to  our theory than to the one just stated.
   At a first consideration, it would  seem that these great hy-
draulic  communications  could  exist  only where  the  ocean
encompasses the globe from east to west, or any other direction;
but this  is  not  necessary  in  the fullest sense of the term, for
large spaces of  dry land might intervene between the cavities,
provided there were a small opening for the egress and ingress
of  the waters,  and a narrow space of two or three  hundred
miles could afford passage for a vast body  of waters.   All  the
great seas  are found to be connected with each other.
   We consider  that these explanations will  afford a sufficiently
clear idea of our theory to a common reader, without exhibiting
a drawing; for  he has only to conceive the  upper cavity, (which
he  may  call >»o. 1 if he chooses,) being filled to  overflowing, in
consequence of the rush of waters  from both sides, and in the
places of the earth adjacent to these sides  or openings, there
would be  an ebb of the waters ; while at  the places  of the
earth contiguous to No. 1, there would be a  flow; as the earth
revolved round in  6  hours,  No.  1   would  be at the  side
where it would  have an ebb.  In the third  place, in  6 hours
more, it  would  be  right under where it would have a flow in
consequence of  the descent  of the waters; in another 6 hours,
it would be at the opposite side, where it would ebb; and in the
last 6 hours, it would again  arrive at the upper situation, having
completed  the circumference of the globe.
   It does not seem to have occurred to philosophers, that there
might exist vast chasms extending through the whole diameter of
the earth.   The circumstance however, in our judgment, is very
probable ;   and  independently of its  being a very plausible  me-
thod of accounting for the  cause of  the motions of the waters,
it is the most simple and rational [theory that we have as  yet
seen proposed.  There are no other operations in  nature  that
we are acquainted with, that has any resemblance to this, from
which we might trace  some analogy; "but there are some colla-
teral  circumstances that may be considered  as having  a  ten-
dency that way.  We  have read of  the  existence of vast
chasms in the earth, on dry land—and there is one  mentioned
by  Goldsmith in his Natural History, of which he says,  " the in-
habitants of the place where it is  situated, have been in the
habit of paying it a kind of adoration; they believed  it had no
bottom;  and for a great length of time, they had been  in the
practice  (at stated  intervals,) of turning into the chasm, large
droves of cattle  and sheep by way of propitiatory sacrifice."
  We are also informed by  the  same author, and by other na-
tural  historians,  " that there are fresh water lakes in different
places of the world, that are subject to  a  flux and re-flux."
May not this so  happen in consequence of these waters commu-
nicatino*  through the whole diameter of the earth, to  another 
30
  body of water, immediately under, or opposite;  and as the earth
  revolved, the uppermost  would press towards  the lower, caus-
  ing an ebb  at  the one, and a flow at the other; for in this in-
  stance, there would be no water  to flow from  the sides, owing
  to the  small area of the lake; and of course, there would only
  be a flow and  an ebb every 24 hours ; whether such is  the fact
  or not, I have  not been able to learn.
    A writer in the New-York Mail, gives the  following account
  of a remarkable pond  in Sussex Co. State of New-York.
    " White  Lake is situated about one mile west of the Paleres
  Rill, in the  town of Stillwater.  It is nearly circular, and  about
  one third of a mile in diameter; it has no visible inlet, but its
  outlet is a never failing stream of considerable magnitude.  From
  the centre,  or dark portion of the lake at stated seasons, innume-
 rable  quantities of shells are thrown up, of various sizes and
 forms,  but all perfectly white, these float to  the  shore, and are
 thrown out  upon the beach, or sink into shallow water;  the soil
 around the  lake is formed of them.  In  the  centre of the lake,
 bottom has  never been found; although it has  been sounded to
 the depth of several hundred feet."
   The inference that may be deduced from  the  above extract,
 is this.   That this pond may have a communication through the
 whole diameter of the earth, to another body of water contain-
 ing  large quantities of these  shells;  and the  circumstance of
 their being  thrown up in the pond, in greater quantities  at one
 time than another, might be owing  to the body of water oppo-
 site, being carried by the  action of the  wind,*in  that direction
 more so at  one time than another, and  of course would carry
 into the openings a larger quantity of shells.  The following is
 extracted from  a New-York Newspaper.  Tide Wells.—" Seve-
 ral wells  in Morris Co. New Jersey,  regularly ebb and  flow
 about six feet twice in twenty four hours, one of which is on the
 farm of Stephen Dickerson, near Whippany, the highest  land
 in the vicinity.   The water is said to be  cool and refreshing."
   I have seen a statement going the rounds of the newspapers
 purporting to be related by a sea captain of truth and veracity^
 that " he had known a vessel lost and sunk in one sea, and was
 found floating in another."   Any of these statements  taken se-
 parately, may not be considered very conclusive  evidence in
 favor of our theory;  but taken altogether  they afford  good
 ground  for believing that the waters communicate through  the
 whole diameter of the earth.
   There is  one circumstance to which  we will  advert before
taking our leave of the tides.    It raav not appear  clear to some
readers, notwithstanding what we  have  alreadv remarked in
what manner the waters of the ocean can rise  from each  side
of the earth, and cause  a flow at the top.   To  this we would
remark, that the waters near the cavity would be absorbed first
but the rush  from the sides  to supply their place  would cause an
overflow;  and it must  be remembered that the  earth is a sphe-
rical body, and  whatever  way  the waters  came, they would 
31
have to come from the sides; that is if they had to come from
a great distance; and of course there  would  be an ebb at the
place from which the waters receded.    This  idea involves  no
greater inconsistency than the current of rivers, which  flow  up
or down as  the case may  be, owing  to the revolutions of the
earth;  for  all streams of water flowing west or east, must be in
that situation once in 24 hours.   A river  having its course  di-
rected to  the west, the part of the earth where it is situated,
must be descending'at one time, and rising  at another.  I confess
that this doctrine may appear very singular to some people, who
have not bestowed much attention on these subjects, and it may
seem so to some people who have, as they are apt to conclude,
that because water will fall off from a ball, or circle of any kind,
instead of running round with it,—that it ought to do so with the
earth; I explained  this circumstance before, but I may remark
again  here, that the circle or ball alluded to, in order to be  sub-
ject to the same laws as the earth, would require to be placed in
 some sphere by itself; endowed with a rotary motion, and hav-
 ing an atmosphere of its own pressing against, and surrounding
 it on every side.
   We will here conclude our description  of the tides, by  reca-
 pitulating the principles that we think we have discovered.   1st.
 That  there  are two vast openings penetrating through the whole
 diameter  of the earth, and crossing each other  at right angles;
 and these openings, including their commencement and termina-
 tion, make  four  cavities, situated at regular intervals in the cir-
 cumference of the globe, at the bottom of the sea;  and are the
 cause of the tides of the ocean.   2d.—The circumstance of each
 returning tide being later than its predecessor, we have ascribed
 to  the  distance  the  tide has to travel from its opening.-   3rd.
 The  difference in time of the  tides  visiting  different situations
 that might  be supposed equal in distance, is owing  to  inequali-
 ties at the bottom of the sea, and the peculiar disposition ot pla-
  ces not being favorable to  the advance of the waters.   Lastly ;
   .1  will here elucilte this sta-enl,nt hy^ Iitt.e farthe.^^^J^^^ZTJ^Si
 est  spot on the  earth's.urfag, to t^ ^T^J^'^ m{leB . tbe third, 2000, and the


 fourth place had only begun to flow.  ™™*>^*™^n    n't this place two full  tides in
 would approach the nearest spot in 12 hours or nearly so,. ™al""=  ll \ l £d    th  next tide
 M hours, or double the ^*«*™*ZZZZ^^it°^^£  M the third*tt
  might be i of an hour later ^"^.^^^yi^XrMiy little ebb or flow, for the
  might be 4 an hour later= ^"J^J^^        begun to ebb. According to this
  returning f^^^^fSSXthi number of tides are about equal t» the
  calculaiion, there are some qarterslot »ew0"u W,V ig about j 0f an hour later than us prede-
  Jays and nights: at «her parte. e«h ^urmng tide is mo■ j»    ^ ^ ^     rf
 cessor.  At others again, it would be 4 Mnouriaier.      b  »      produce 8tatcments in
  globe where the ebb and flow is bard,' P«f «P*W£ JJJ '*&f«a« being equal to the number of
  £r0of of all these assertions, «W.^^o^fSa Ion has not yet enabled us to ascer-
  days and night, m the year  our lmnedmemis ot n              each retuming t,de 13
  tain whether such is the fact M.^ .^^L^L^S Winter Island, in the year 1821, '22, re-
  aboutjan hour later.  Accotding to crt«ervauin. £ ™'rnetBrnl  t'ide was about 20  minutes
  corded  in Capt.  Parry's Voyage, the average time^o  eaont      0       Jf then there w
  „ter; and at the Mediterranean ^J™*^£ %X%&?miV\f it some places  there .
  difference of time of ^to'Sj^^^Jtlm* parts of the earth, the tides will returi
  scarcely any tide at all, it is but.f«r tointe , wai i  canJ.here possib.y be a full tide at, lea
scarcely any tide at all it is but.to* to into; ™l"J°™n^rr pcSrbly be a full tide at, less
at regular intervals of 12 hours only, whUe at no place cd.v    H distances from the centre, to
Ume^han 12 hours  In the «W»>»™ ^'^ miteT W?  »«» !"• supposition I do not
^&^™*1^™<$ « a»umPtion,for the purpose of elucidatm*
our ideas 
32
  The spring and neap tides are owing to  the action of the wind
  retarding or accelerating the  advance of the waters, either at
  places very remote or very near.
    I may remark here, with" regard to the currents of the ocean,
  that the most plausible idea is, that these currents are rivers, flow-
  ing at the bottom of the sea; and have formed to themselves chan-
  nels, and that they preserve their course in these channels, and
  keep the great body of water at each side at abeyance—just as
  a river flowing through a lake will form a current in the middle,
  while the waters at each side will be perfectly still.   It may be
  thought singular why the large body of waters does not rush in-
  to the current, and mix with it.  But the  fact is, the current has
  received its impetus, and always maintains its  position; and the
  still waters on each side  can  no more prevent it, than a gentle
 breeze of wind can  prevent a hurricane; the same result  un-
 doubtedly obtains at the bottom of the sea.   These currents, or
 rivers, occupy their channels, and are urged on in their  course
 by the impetus they have received;  the great  body of sea wa-
 ter presenting but little obstacle.  We  may here  introduce  a
 fact to support this conclusion.  It is asserted by mariners, that
 the course of some rivers may be perceived in the sea for some
 hundreds of miles.  We will set this subject  in  a clear light, by
 asking and answering a question.  What would be the result
 with regard to rivers, supposing the whole earth were overflow-
 ed with  water—is  it not very probable that all  the  greater
 would  maintain  their  course, and  flow  as they  at  present
 do, they have formed to themselves channels, and would still di-
 rect their course in them, notwithstanding  the great body of wa-
 ters with which they might be surrounded?   It is true the wa-
 ters would mix in some  degree, but  the  current would still be
 preserved,   There cannot be a doubt but that the bottom of the
 present ocean was once dry land, and that the same aspect and
 general appearance  with regard to rivers and inequalities exist
 there as on our earth-we think there can be no doubt of this,
 and therefore conclude that we  have good  grounds for believing
 that the currents existing in the sea are nothing but rivers   If
 we take for an example the river St. Lawrence, that  forms' the
 boundary line in some places between  Canada  and  the  United
 states—we shall perceive but very little current in  the  waters
 at the outlet of Lake Ontario, on commencement of the  river •
 but it is sensibly known to sailors who make  the passage  much
 quicker down than up.   Now  supposing  the river wire aug-
 mented to six times its present quantity of  water, so as to have
 superadded a depth of 100  fathoms, and  encompassed by still
water to a great depth; is it not  very  probable that with all
theae additions to its bulk, it would still maintain its current with
considerable force   We have not the least doubt, but that this
would be the case, but where the stream is  very  rapid  it would
 be more apparent   No  superincumbent mass of waters  could

rXr^itextremeagitated state °f the river at ^