Vol. 1. Part 8 
FEBRUARY, 1921 
Number 8 
Bulletin 
OF THE 
National Research 
Council 
INTELLECTUAL AND EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE 
MEDICAL PROFESSION AS REPRESENTED 
IN THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
By Margaret V. Cobb and Robert M. Yerkes 
Published by The National Research Council 
of 
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Massachusetts Avenue, Washington, D. C. BULLETIN 
OF THE 
NATIONAL RESEARCH COUNCIL 
Vol. 1, Part 8 
FEBRUARY, 1921 
Number 8 
INTELLECTUAL AND EDUCATIONAL STATUS OF THE 
MEDICAL PROFESSION AS REPRESENTED IN 
THE UNITED STATES ARMY 
By Margaret V. Cobb and Robert M. Yerkes 
CONTENTS 
Summary 458 
Historical statement 462 
Methods and materials 464 
The records 464 
Group examination alpha 466 
The Scott rating scale 468 
Data concerning medical officers 468 
Intelligence of medical officers 469 
Quantitative differences 469 
Psychographs 473 
Age of medical officers 482 
Education of medical officers 487 
Professional experience of medical officers 488 
Geographical facts and relations 491 
Population and intelligence 494 
Earnings of medical officers 496 
Earnings and location 496 
Earnings and population 497 
Earnings and intelligence 497 
Earnings, experience and military rank 501 
Earnings and specialty 503 
Military relations and specialty of medical officers 504 
Military appointment and intelligence 504 
Military assignment, specialty and promotion 505 
Military rank and its relations 505 
Membership of medical officers in medical societies 509 
Data concerning medical schools 509 
Geographical classification 509 
Classification of the medical schools by size 512 
Classification of the medical schools by entrance requirements 517 
Classification according to rating of American Medical Association 522 
Classification by medical sect 525 
Comparison of schools 529 458 
STA TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
SUMMARY 
I. Records 
Records for approximately 2500 medical officers constitute the 
material for the statistical investigation herein reported. 
II. Concerning Medical Officers 
1. Intelligence.—The intelligence rating of medical officers is 
lower than that of other arms of the service with the exception of 
the Dental and Veterinary Corps. It is practically the same as 
that of the Quartermaster Corps. 
When the results of intelligence examination are considered by 
tests instead of for the total' examination, it appears that the 
scores differ widely for the several arms of the service. The psy- 
chograph (curve representing measurements for eight types of test 
which constitute army group-examination) for medical officers differs 
strikingly from that for artillery officers or that for engineers. 
This is still true of the medical group when it is broken into special- 
ties. The psychographs of the several special medical groups have 
a very obvious family resemblance. 
These differences in the relative degree of development or strength 
of intellectual functions for the professions of medicine and en- 
gineering may prove to have vocational or educational values, or 
both. The importance of further research is clearly indicated. 
2. Factors affecting the intelligence status of medical officers.—■ 
Chief among the factors whose responsibility for the relatively 
low standing of medical officers has been suggested are: Age, 
habits of deliberateness and accuracy developed by professional 
training and experience, characteristics of the tests which render 
them easier for engineers than for medical officers, and method of 
military selection. 
It has been shown by statistical analysis that age is significant. 
The military data indicate that median score of medical officers for 
army intelligence examination a diminishes from 277 points at 
25 years to 258 at 30 years, 255 at 40 years and 223 at 50 years. 
Since about half of the group of medical officers in question are over 
35 years of age, and 35% are above 40 years, and since also 
the average age of officers of other arms of the service is from 6 
to 8 years less than that of medical officers, it is obvious that the 
relatively low intelligence rating of the medical group is partly ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB A ND YERKES 
459 
due to more advanced age. The form of the psychograph also 
changes with age. 
Neither professional training and experience nor the charac- 
teristics of the tests importantly influence, so far as analysis in- 
dicates, the intellectual rating of the medical group. 
Method of selection, on the other hand, appears to be responsible 
to at least as great an extent as is age for the unsatisfactory intelli- 
gence of medical officers. Whereas, for most other arms of the 
service candidates for commission were sent to officers’ training 
schools and there subjected to rigorous training and systematic 
examinations which tended to eliminate the intellectually incom- 
petent, appointments to the Medical Corps, because of the im- 
perative need for large numbers of medical officers, were made 
directly on the basis of age, certification by the American Medical 
Association, experience (and sometimes professional examination), 
prior to enrollment in the medical officers’ training camp. This 
difference in procedure undoubtedly worked to the disadvantage 
of the Medical Department, so far as the intelligence of its officers 
is concerned. In the Medical Corps experience and professional 
reputation counted heavily. In the other arms of the service mili- 
tary educability and adaptability under the eye of instructors with 
whom rested the power of recommendation counted most of all. 
Given identical age groups and similar methods of military selec- 
tion, it seems probable that the intellectual status of the Medical 
Corps would differ little from that of the Engineers or Artillery. 
The psychographs for these groups might, however, differ extremely, 
thus indicating either primary differences in intellectual consti- 
tution or differences induced by professional training and ex- 
perience. 
3. Education.—The typical medical officer is a high school 
graduate with about four years’ professional training. He has 
devoted more of his life to schooling than has the officer of any other 
arm of the service. His median length of schooling is 15.8 years, 
whereas that of the Engineer is 15.3 and of the Quartermaster 
12.4. 
4. Experience.—In general the medical officer is more experienced 
than any other type of officer. The medical group studied reported 
11.07 years of experience. This fact gives point to the statement 
made above that experience was an important consideration in 
the appointment of medical as contrasted with other officers. 460 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
5- Geographical relations.—When classified by section of the 
country from which they were graduated or certified, or in which 
they practiced, these medical officers exhibit substantial differences 
in intelligence, earnings and experience. Generally speaking, 
the northeast, the central and the northwest sections of the country 
show superiority over the south and south central sections. 
Intelligence and earnings vary also with the population of the 
community in which the medical officer (as civilian, of course) 
practices. The order of increasing values for intelligence is rural, 
urban, metropolitan; that for earnings, rural, metropolitan, urban. 
6. Earnings.—The annual earnings reported by these medical 
men vary signally with geographical location, population of com- 
munity, professional specialty, experience and medical school. 
The correlation between intelligence and earnings is extremely low. 
7. Military relations— Medical officers of the Regular Army 
Medical Corps and of the National Guard achieved somewhat 
higher intelligence ratings than those of the Medical Reserve 
Corps. 
Intelligence is highly correlated with rank in the Medical Corps. 
This indicates, to the credit of the Medical Department, that su- 
perior intelligence tends to dominate in the rank of major and above. 
Promotion also depends to a significant degree on intellectual 
capacity, as is indicated by the intelligence ratings of promoted 
versus non-promoted officers. 
The data of this report justify the statement that the Medical 
Corps obtained the services of the ablest as well as the weakest 
men of the profession. Had the latter been eliminated by a rigorous 
procedure of intelligence tests, combined with professional exami- 
nation, the status of the group would undoubtedly have compared 
favorably with that of any other professional group in the army. 
8. Membership in societies.—The typical medical officer of this 
group claims membership in two or three medical societies, one 
of which is usually the American Medical Association. 
III. Concerning Medical Schools 
i. Classification.—More than 130 medical schools are repre- 
sented by the 2507 medical officers statistically considered. The 
numbers from these schools vary from 1 to 118. Grouping of the 
schools for statistical purposes was necessitated by the small number 
of individuals from most institutions. Five classifications have 
been made: By geographical location, by size (number of stu- STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
461 
dents registered in 1916-1917), by entrance requirements, by 
American Medical Association rating, and by medical sect. 
2. Geographical classification.—The intelligence ratings and earn- 
ings of graduates from schools in different sections of the country 
correspond in general to the same information for the medical 
men resident in those sections. 
j. Classification by size.—The schools represented in the medical 
group were separated according to size into 8 divisions ranging 
from those having less than 50 students in 1916-1917 to those having 
400 or more. The men graduated from the larger institutions 
make, on the whole, a somewhat higher intelligence rating on ex- 
amination alpha than those graduated from the smaller. Earn- 
ings, on the other hand, are not closely correlated with the size of 
the school. 
4. Classification by entrance requirements.—This classification 
was made on the basis of requirements enforced in 1916-1917. 
The intelligence of the medical officer is highly correlated with the 
standard of entrance requirements of the school from which he was 
graduated. The median score, in army examination alpha, of 
graduates from schools requiring but one year of college work in 
addition to high school graduation is 118.7, whereas that of gradu- 
ates from schools requiring more than 3 years of college work is 
154.2, a difference of 35.5 points. The earnings reported by men 
from schools with high entrance requirements are also strikingly 
larger than those from schools with low entrance requirements. 
5. Classification according to rating of the American Medical 
Association.—-The difference in median alpha scores, between 
graduates of schools rated “A” by the American Medical Associa- 
tion and those rated “C,” is 17.3 points, which, though significant, 
is less than half as great as the difference between schools of the 
highest and lowest entrance requirements. The difference in earn- 
ings between classes “A” and “C” is comparatively small. 
6. Classification by medical sect.—In both intelligence scores and 
earnings the graduates from homeopathic schools stand as much 
above the eclectic schools as the class “A” schools are above the 
class “C” schools. Graduates from “regular” schools fall approxi- 
mately half way between the other two. 
7. Comparison of schools.—A detailed comparison (table 43) 
of the graduates of the 18 schools which were represented in the 
medical group by more than 35 students each shows that the 462 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
median intelligence rating is A for seven schools. Median earn- 
ings of $5000 or over are reported by the graduates of eight schools. 
The southern schools on the whole show lower scores, less school- 
ing, lower earnings and fewer promotions than the northern. 
HISTORICAL STATEMENT 
The psychological examination of officers in the United States 
Army very promptly indicated that the intellectual status of medical 
officers was less satisfactory than that of officers of several other 
arms of the military service. Colonel Henry A. Shaw, of the Reg- 
ular Army Medical Corps, invited the attention of the Surgeon 
General to this fact in a report, submitted November 16, 1917, 
which he based upon observation of the psychological service and 
data of examination at Camp Lee, Virginia.1 
Table 1, quoted from Colonel Shaw’s report, indicates the re- 
markable differences in frequency of A and also of A and B grades, 
that is, very superior and superior intelligence, for officers of different 
arms of the service. Thus, for medical officers there are 27% of 
A grades; for engineers, 66%. Colonel Shaw remarks: 
Comment on these figures is unnecessary. They speak for themselves. 
The only question is whether or not they represent a true state of affairs. 
With reference to the comparative efficiency of the officers of the various 
arms of the service I am not in a position to judge. I am of the opinion, 
however, that the order of mentality as shown by the psychological scores 
is fairly close to the truth. It is reasonable to believe that the engineers 
have succeeded in attaching to their corps a larger number of technically 
trained young men than any other branch of the service. It is also prob- 
able that the officers’ training camps have drawn into the commissioned 
grades a larger number of college-trained men than either the Quartermaster 
or the Medical Corps. 
The psychological findings, Colonel Shaw’s comment thereupon 
and his recommendations to the Surgeon General aroused the 
critical interest of the medical profession. It was variously sug- 
gested that differences in age, education, basis of selection, or ap- 
plicability of the intelligence tests might be responsible for the 
relatively unsatisfactory showing of medical officers. Because of 
the general interest in these results and the discussion which they 
provoked, their later correction or confirmation became im- 
portant. 
1 On November 19 Colonel Shaw transmitted to the Surgeon General a special report 
on the psychological ratings of medical officers. This report is quoted entire in “Psy- 
chological Examining in the United States Army’’ (official report), Memoirs of the Na- 
tional Academy of Sciences, 15 (22-23). (In press.) STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
463 
It is proposed to present in this report results which were secured 
during 1917 and 1918 in a large number of army camps and which 
undoubtedly represent fairly the officer personnel of the army with 
respect alike to its medical component and the other arms of the 
service. Colonel Shaw’s report, by contrast, was based upon pre- 
liminary results in only one camp. 
Distribution of intelligence (Letter grades A to D) in different 
arms of the military service1 
Table 1 
Letter 
grades 
All officers 
Percent 
Medical Corps 
Percent 
Engineers 
Percent 
Artillery 
Percent 
Infantry 
Percent 
Quarter- 
master Corps 
Percent 
A 
44 
27 
66 
57 
44 
40 
B 
32 
33 
29 
31 
38 
32 
C 
24 
40 
5 
12 
18 
28 
D 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
Although approximately 43,000 officers were given psychological 
examination, the Division of Psychology of the Surgeon General’s 
Office, because of limited resources, was able to use only about 
15,000 of these records for statistical purposes. Of the 15,000 
about 3000 were the records of medical officers. The intelligence 
measurements available for these men were studied by the aid of 
the Hollerith method and a very brief and general statement on 
the status of medical officers was prepared for the official report 
to the Surgeon General concerning psychological examining in the 
army (see tables 2 and 3 herewith). While this work was in progress 
Dr. Robert H. Halsey of New York suggested to the Chief of the 
Division of Psychology the importance of arranging for a careful 
and thorough-going study of the data on medical officers which were 
available in army records. Following this suggestion, the Division 
of Psychology secured the cooperation of the Division of Medicine 
and Related Sciences of the National Research Council, which 
supplied adequate funds for the work. 
It was promptly arranged that Miss Margaret V. Cobb, under the 
supervision of the Chief of the Division of Psychology of the Sur- 
1 The letter grades are defined on page 467. The data of this table were obtained with 
army group-examination a, which was later revised and designated examination alpha, 
given to 1,166 officers, Camp Lee, Va. Percentages are taken from Table 1, p. 22, 
of the official report cited above. 464 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
geon General’s Office, should conduct this special inquiry for the 
National Research Council and the Surgeon General of the Army. 
METHODS AND MATERIALS 
The statistical study of medical officers reported below was con- 
ducted in accordance with the following general plan and with the 
data which are hereafter enumerated. From the 3000 records of 
medical officers which were immediately available for use in the 
office of the Surgeon General, selection was made on the basis of 
completeness of information. This selectional process reduced 
the group to about 2500. There is every reason to believe that this 
group fairly represents the medical profession as it existed in the 
United States Army during the war, and it is probable that it also 
fairly represents the medical profession of the United States of 
America. 
The following important items of information concerning each 
Sample Record 
Name NG RA (RC) NA USA Rank Lt. Col. 
Residence Pop. of community 475,367 Age 44 
High sch. 0 1 (2) 3 4 Col. 0 1 2 (3) 4 5 Med. col. 0 1 2 3 (4) 5 6 
Jefferson Medical College, Philadelphia, Pa. Yr. grad. 1899 
Years of education: 17 Pre-med. 13 Med. 4 
Training: Hospital Clinical 
Alpha 
Scott ratings 
Certification, Indiana ’01 
Test 
Score 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 
Years experience, 19 
Societies, Los Angeles Co. 
1 
8 
12 
10 
9 
Med. Soc.; California State 
2 
8 
15 
12 
12 
Med. Soc.; Clin, and Pathol. 
3 
12 
15 
12 
12 
Med. Soc.; Am. Acad. Med. 
4 
34 
15 
12 
12 
Sciences; Am. Med. Ass. 
5 
18 
40 
32 
30 
6 
12 
Specialty, Internal medicine 
7 
8 
13 
35 
Assignment, Permanent Staff 
Total 
140 
97 
78 
75 
Promotions, Maj. to Lt.-Col. 
Rating 
A 
Professional examination, 
Qualified 
Annual earnings, $42,500.00 
Station, Camp Lewis STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
465 
individual were available in the files of the Surgeon General’s 
office: name, residence, age, rank, promotions and military 
assignment, pre-medical education, medical education, medical 
school, hospital experience, intelligence grade, Scott rating, place 
of certification, years of medical experience, membership in medical 
societies, specialty and annual earnings. 
These several items were assembled for statistical purposes on 
a single record card, such as appears in the accompanying sample 
records of four medical officers. These samples are presented to 
indicate the nature and arrangement of the information which was 
available and the contrast among medical officers. 
Sample Record 
Name NG RA (RC) NA USA Rank Captain 
Residence Pop. of community 745,988 Age 39 
High sch. 0 1 2 (3) 4 Col. 0 1 2 3 4 5 Med. col. 0 1 2 3 (4) 5 6 
Baltimore Medical College, Baltimore, Md. Yr. grad. 190G 
Years of education: 15 Pre-med. 11 Med. 4 
Training: Hospital, Yes Clinical 
Alpha 
Scott ratings 
Certification, 
Indiana, ’06 
Test 
Score 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 
Michigan, ’07 
Years experience, 12 
1 
10 
12 
12 
Societies, St. Louis Med. Soc.; 
2 
12 
12 
12 
Acad, of O., L. and O.; Ind. 
3 
9 
9 
12 
State Med. Soc.; Mo. State 
4 
23 
12 
12 
Med. Soc. 
5 
12 
24 
30 
6 
7 
Specialty, Ear, nose and throat 
7 
24 
Assignment, Eye, ear, nose and 
8 
Total 
Rating 
30 
127 
B 
69 
78 
throat 
Promotions, 0 
Professional examination, 
Qualified 
Annual earnings, $4000.00 
Station, Camp Sherman 
Of the items of information available those of primary importance 
in this study are: Intelligence, pre-medical education, medical 
education, medical school attended, experience, geographical loca- 
tion, population of community and earnings. 466 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Sample Record 
Name NG RA (RC) NA USA Rank Lieutenant 
Residence Pop. of community 200 Age 42 
High sch. 0 1 2 3 (4) Col. 0 1 2 3 (4) 5 Med. col. 0 1 2 3 (4) 5 6 
Marquette University, Milwaukee, Wisconsin Yr. grad. 1910 
Years of education: 20 Pre-med. 16 Med. 4 
Training: Hospital, None Clinical 
Alpha 
Scott ratings 
Certification, Wisconsin, '10; 
Minnesota, ’ 11 
Test 
Score 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 
Years experience, 8 
1 
K 
a 
Q 
o 
7 
Q 
Societies, Red River Valley 
o 
o 
o 
£7 
Med. Ass.; Minn. Med. Ass.; 
2 
6 
6 
6 
10 
10 
7 
A. M. A. 
3 
3 
6 
6 
9 
7 
10 
4 
10 
6 
9 
8 
10 
6 
Specialty, General Practice 
5 
1 
24 
16 
22 
24 
23 
6 
7 
Assignment, Field Service 
7 
5 
8 
11 
Promotions, 0 
Total 
48 
48 
46 
57 
58 
55 
Professional examination, 
Barely satisfactory 
Rating 
C 
Annual earnings, $700 
(country practice) 
Station, Camp Lewis 
An attempt will be made to exhibit the principal facts with re- 
spect to these various data concerning medical officers, the relations 
of these facts among themselves, and their significance for medical 
education and professional activity. 
For the benefit of readers who are not familiar with the army 
method of psychological examining or the Scott rating scale, a 
brief explanation of each will be given at this point. 
Group Examination Alpha 
The psychological examination given to the officers whose ratings 
are used in this report is known as examination alpha.1 It was 
used for the examination of soldiers by groups and consisted of 
eight separate tests, the time limit on which was so short that 
1 Complete description of methods of psychological examining used in the army may 
be found in “Army Mental Tests,” Henry Holt and Company, New York, 1920; or in 
“Psychological Examining in the United States Army” Memoirs of the National Acad- 
emy of Sciences, 15. (In press). STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
467 
Sample Record 
Name NG RA (RC) NA USA Rank Captain 
Residence Pop. of community 5,468 Age 51 
High sch. (0) 1 2 3 4 Col. (0) 1 2 3 4 5 Med. Col. 0 1 2 (3) 4 5 6 
Kentucky School of Medicine, Louisville, Ky. Yr. grad. 1892 
Years of education: Pre-med. Med. 3 
Training: Hospital Clinical 
Alpha 
Scott ratings 
Certification, Ohio, ’96 
Years experience, 26 
Test 
Score 
1st 
2nd 
3rd 
4th 
5th 
Societies, Jackson Co. Med. 
Soc.; Ohio State Med. Soc. 
1 
1 
7 
2 
3 
9 
Specialty, X-ray, rheumatism, 
3 
4 
7 
skin and blood diseases 
4 
1 
10 
Assignment, General Service 
5 
1 
15 
6 
1 
Promotions, 0 
7 
3 
8 
5 
Professional examination, 
—• 
— 
Qualified 
Total 
19 
45 
Annual earnings, $900 
Rating 
D 
Station, Camp Greenleaf 
very few men could finish a given test. These several tests are 
describable by title as: Test i, oral directions; test 2, arithmetic; 
test 3, practical judgment; test 4, opposites; test 5, disarranged 
sentences; test 6, number series completion; test 7, analogies; 
test 8, information. The examination required approximately 
fifty minutes. Papers were scored by the use of stencil-keys and 
the ratings were wholly objective. Although a numerical score was 
assigned to each man, for convenience of classification letter grades 
were also used in the army. The maximum score for the exam- 
ination was 212 points and the letter grades used were as follows: 
Intelligence grade 
Meaning of grade 
Range of score 
A 
Very superior intelligence 
135-212 points 
B 
Superior intelligence 
105-134 points 
c+ 
High average intelligence 
75-104 points 
c 
Average intelligence 
45-74 points 
c— 
Low average intelligence 
points 
D 
Inferior intelligence 
15-24 points 
D— 
Very inferior intelligence 
0-14 points 468 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
The Scott rating scale1 is a plan for the rating of officers by their 
superiors. Each individual is rated, in accordance with definite 
directions, on five groups of characteristics, namely: physical 
qualities, intelligence, leadership, personal qualities, general value 
to the service. The total number of points allowed for these five 
categories is ioo, distributed as follows: 15 for each of the first 
four groups, 40 for the last. 
Comparison of the Scott ratings of medical officers, made during 
the assembling of the data for this report, indicated surprising 
inconsistencies between the ratings given to the same officer at 
different times. It was at first proposed to obtain an exact ex- 
pression of this seeming unreliability of the ratings in order that safe 
decision might be reached concerning the value of these data. 
But before statistical analysis could be made an unpublished 
report on the Scott ratings prepared by H. O. Rugg became avail- 
able.2 The statements of this report clearly indicated the unde- 
sirability of using the Scott ratings for comparison with the other 
data of this report. They appear on the sample record cards on 
pages 464-467, but no statistical use has been made of them. 
The results of professional medical examination in the army were 
not available when this work was undertaken. They would un- 
doubtedly have value and it is regretted that they could not be 
included with the other materials. 
The Scott Rating Scale 
DATA CONCERNING MEDICAL OFFICERS 
Analysis of the records of approximately 2500 medical officers 
supplies data for the following general description of the group 
1 Detailed description of the Scott rating system and its results in the army is available 
in “The Personnel System of the United States Army: Vol. I, History of the Per- 
sonnel System; Vol. II, The Personnel Manual.” War Department, Washington, 1919. 
2 Dr. Rugg finds, after checking the ratings as to agreement of successive ratings 
with one another and as to their agreement with psychological and other objective tests 
and other measures supported by accepted practice in the army, that “prior to October 
the validity of ratings which were recorded on officers’ qualification cards may be seri- 
ously called in question,” and later adds “the probability is not great that the October 
ratings which were studied are much more valid as measures of officers’ ability in the 
army than wrere the July ratings.” There were average differences between the first 
and second quarterly ratings, even when made by the same officer, of nine points on 
the scale (this is at least one-sixth of the usual range of the scale); when different officers 
made the ratings average differences were from nine to seventeen points. Even among 
especially careful ratings he finds the variability of judgment to be “so very great that 
the probability is very remote that a single rating located an officer in his proper group” 
(i. e., proper fifth of the range of the scale). This was true also under standardized 
experimental conditions. STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
469 
in terms of age, geographical origin, intelligence, education, pro- 
fessional experience, earnings, membership in medical societies 
and specialty. 
The average medical officer of the group studied is a man 37 years 
of age, practicing somewhere in the United States in a town of ap- 
proximately 12,000 population, whose intelligence as measured by 
army examination alpha is of grade B (alpha score 129 points). 
Following a high school education, he was graduated, after a five- 
year medical course, in 1907, from a college of 250 students. His 
annual earnings are reported as $4318.00. He is a member of two 
or three medical societies, the chances being even that one of these 
is the American Medical Association. There is also an even chance 
that he claims no specialty other than his general or surgical prac- 
tice and that he was not promoted during his service in the army. 
Intelligence of Medical Officers 
Quantitative differences.—It would have surprised no one had the 
medical officers of the United States Army, during the war, ranked 
with the best of the arms of the service in intellectual ability; their 
failure to make a relatively good showing naturally evoked com- 
ment both within and without the profession and aroused specula- 
tion as to the reasons. The principal facts concerning the in- 
tellectual status of military officers are summarily presented in 
tables 2, 3 and 4 of this report. For more detailed information 
Percentage distribution of psychological grades for examination 
alpha of officers of different arms of the service.1 
Table 2 
Arm 
D 
C— 
c + 
C 
B 
A 
A and B 
No. of 
cases 
Engineers 
0.3 
2 4 
13 8 
83 0 
96 8 
1026 
F. Artillery 
1 1 
5 9 
23 0 
70 0 
93 0 
1523 
Sanitary Corps 
2.0 
8 2 
31 6 
58 2 
89 8 
98 
Field Sig. Bn 
0.3 
0.3 
2.2 
9.0 
24.1 
64.1 
88.2 
357 
Mach. Gun Bn 
0.4 
2.2 
10.7 
30 1 
56 5 
86 6 
495 
Infantry 
0 3 
3 0 
12 2 
28 5 
56 0 
84 5 
6942 
Quartermaster 
0.9 
5.2 
15 7 
30 2 
48 0 
78 2 
Medical 
0 6 
5 2 
17 6 
32 9 
43 6 
76 5 
3180 
Dental 
0.2 
0.2 
4.0 
20.4 
41.1 
34.1 
75.2 
423 
Veterinary 
0.4 
7.9 
30.8 
38.7 
22.1 
60.8 
98 
1 Official report, table 397, p. 852. 470 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
and discussion reference should be made to the official report on 
psychological examining cited on page 462. 
The proportions of the several letter grades for the chief army 
corps or arms of the service appear in table 2. They are arranged 
in order of diminishing number of A and B grades. The remarkable 
difference in the frequency of superior and very superior intelligence 
in the Medical Corps as compared with the Engineer Corps demands 
explanation. Over twice as many of the officers of the latter 
]ENGINEER5 
ARTILLERY 
INFANTRY 
Q. M. 
MEDICAL 
DENTAL 
VETERINARY 
BELOW 
OR 
Fig. 1. Comparison of officers by arms, showing percentages in each letter grade. 
Combined data from Camps Devens, Dix, Lee and Taylor. Engineers, 336; Artillery, 680 
Infantry, 2,050; Quartermaster Corps, 470; Medical, 639; Dental, 116; Veterinary, 54. 
This is fig. 22, p. 518, Official report on psychological examining. 
group as of the former achieved the highest letter rating, A. Figure 
i presents graphically these data summarized for purposes of rough 
comparison. 
Table 3 renders available to anyone who may wish to study the 
data the distribution of scores in psychological examination alpha 
for more than 15,000 army officers. The median scores for these 
several distributions are of special interest and importance in 
this report. Except that Field Artillery and Sanitary Corps are STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
471 
Median 
No. cases.. . 
200-212 
190-199 
180-189 
170-179 
160-169 
150-159 
140-149 
130-139 
120-129 
110-119 
100-110 
90-99 
80-89 
70-79 
60-69 
50-59 
40-49 
30-39 
20-29 
10-19 
0-9 
Score 
CO 
CO 
bo 
6942 
to 
• • • OOOhmW^OiOOOWMMO'O^OO 
• • • tOCO<ICO©CO^JOi©CntOtO—ICO00 00 to 
Infantry 
£ 
CO 
C71 
1523 
00 Oi 00 05 h-‘ 05 CO -4 CO oo 00 Cn CO Cn 4>- 
F. Artillery 
4^ 
O 
o> 
496 
O' • O • OHHWUOiOWCOHHCOtn^tSO 
to- - 4*- • © O 00 4* 4* Oi CD -4 Cn 05 CO 00 OS tO 
Machine Gun 
Bn. 
162.1 
1026 
• • • • OO- ©O^tOOO^MtOCOOOCntNS©*-1 
.... i_* h-> • co 4* 4- 05 oi to co to oo m >—1 © o to 
Engineers 
148.9 
357 
• • OOOO^HWOJCnCiOCHOCitOOOMOSM 
• • CO 00 CO CO 4 4 4* I— C5 O 4“. to 05 t—‘ t—i *4 00 *4 4 
Field Signal 
Bn. 
t—‘ 
CO 
CO 
05 
756 
• • H M H H 
• • oooHMCoaioicociHMtooooMbOHO 
• • CO © CO H* CO to 4 1—© © Oi 4 4 H-* © <1 © 1— 
Quartermaster 
Corps 
129.3 
3180 
• • ©©©i-‘tOCO4©00>—‘i—‘i—‘©©*4©CO©- 
■ • i—* CO *4 4-. to © CO 05 © O 05 05 -4 O 03 05 I—1 bo ■ 
Medical Corps 
122.9 
423 
• OO- © © I-1 to © -4 to CO to © I—1 © © to © • • 
• to to • *41 © © 4 © 00 CO 00 © © © <1 © *4 • ' 
Dental Corps 
116.5 
253 
. . . . h-1 ‘ h-L • 
• • • • O to CO Ox CO CO oo CO 05 CD CD 05 fcO O O • • 
• ■ • • 00 4 to to ►— 4*. CO 45- to I—1 1—1 O 4 00 00 • • 
Veterin ary 
Corps 
4*> 
© 
00 
Sanitary Corps 
156.3 
co 
4^ 
to to H-* to © © 00 CO © © © © 1—1 
to H-* I—‘ to CO © *4 © 00 -4 © *4 4- t— 
Chaplains and 
School for 
Chaplains 
139.6 
• • © © O O H-1 to CO 4 © 00 O 1— 1— H- © *4101 to © 
• • h-‘ to 4 © 4 O © © *4 © CO 00 © © 4 © O ►-* CO 
Total 
15148 
H*t0C0©*4Ot0©*40000©tO<lC0 
I-‘CO>-‘004©4©©|—‘CO^J4©©©^i—‘*4000 
Total numbers 
Percentage distribution of alpha scores of officers in different arms of the service (from 16 camps)1 
Table 3 
1 Data obtained from Official Report, tables 392-397, pp. 848-852. 472 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
reversed, their order of increasing magnitude is identical with the 
order of increasing A and B grades in the arms of the service. 
The distribution of alpha scores for the group of 2507 medical 
officers whose records constitute the material of this special report, 
as presented in table 4, agrees closely with that for the somewhat 
larger group of medical officers in table 3. The median scores of 
the two groups, it will be noted, differ by one-tenth point. 
In connection with these distributions and median scores, the 
attention of the reader is invited to the very considerable differ- 
ences in the intellectual status of the several corps (medical, dental, 
veterinary, sanitary), which are included in the Medical Depart- 
ment of the United States Army. The relation of these differences 
to the data for other arms of the service is significant, and in the 
following pages an attempt will be made to indicate what appear 
to be the chief reasons for the wide variations in intelligence among 
the principal corps. 
Table 4 
Alpha distribution of 2507 medical officers 
Alpha score 
Number 
Percentage 
200-204 
3 
0.1 
190-199 
22 
0.9 
180-189 
77 
3.0 
170-179 
131 
5.3 
160-169 
195 
7.8 
150-159 
250 
10.0 
140-149 
267 
10.6 
130-139 
287 
11.4 
120-129 
276 
11.0 
110-119 
285 
11.4 
100-109 
227 
9.1 
90-99 
171 
6.8 
80-89 
121 
4.9 
/ 0—/ 9 
76 
3.1 
60-69 
53 
2.1 
50-59 
37 
1.5 
40-49 
19 
0.8 
30-39 
7 
0.2 
20-29 
2 
0.1 
10-19 
i 
0.0 
Total 
2507 
Median 
129.2 ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
473 
The quantitative differences in intelligence of groups of army 
officers indicated by total scores in examination alpha are undoubt- 
edly important, but they are by no means so interesting either 
professionally or educationally as are the contrasts which appear 
when the results for examination alpha are presented by tests 
instead of by total scores. In the following section the data of 
examination are presented by tests, in order to indicate charac- 
teristic intellectual differences in the principal arms of the service. 
Psycho graphs.—Examination alpha consists of eight separate 
tests (see page 467) which measure several types of intellectual 
function. The maximum score for the entire examination is 212 
points distributed as follows among the tests: Test 1, 12 points; 
test 2, 20 points; test 3, 16 points; test 4, 40 points; test 5, 24 points; 
test 6, 20 points; test 7, 40 points; test 8, 40 points. The records 
of a group of approximately 15,000 officers of all arms of the ser- 
vice and of a group of approximately 3000 medical officers have been 
analyzed by tests in order that comparison might be made of the 
performance of medical officers on the several types of test with 
that of officers in general. The data for this comparison appear in 
tables 5, 6 and 7. Of these, table 5a gives the percentage distri- 
bution of scores for each alpha test of officers of all arms of the ser- 
vice, and table 5b the percentage of individuals achieving not more 
than the indicated score. This table serves as a standard with which 
the data for special groups may be compared. Table 6 similarly gives 
the percentage distribution of scores on each alpha test for medical 
officers. At the bottom of each table the median score for each 
test is entered. 
The data by tests for the principal arms of the service are con- 
veniently arranged in table 7, which gives the median score (50th 
percentile) on each test of examination alpha for seven special 
groups of officers as contrasted with the total officer group. 
For convenience of comparison the median score of “all arms” of 
the service is taken as the 50th percentile, and the results for the 
several special groups are expressed in terms of the percentile dis- 
tribution of “all arms.” For example, the median score for medical 
officers on test 1 (8.7) falls at the 29.5 percentile on the distribution 
of scores of officers of all arms; the median for test 2 falls at the 
36th percentile, etc., as indicated in table 7, and also in figure 2. 
The surprising differences in performance for the several arms 
of the service on the separate tests of examination alpha are 474 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Table 5a 
Percentage distribution of scores on each alpha test of 
approximately 15,000 officers of all arms 
Score 
Test number 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
S 
40 
2.4 
1 
0 
0.7 
39 
0.3 
1 
5 
2.4 
38 
3.6 
1 
8 
3.8 
37 
0.9 
2 
3 
5.4 
36 
3.7 
2 
6 
6.5 
35 
2.1 
2 
5 
7.0 
34 
3.9 
2 
9 
7.4 
33 
2.9 
3 
0 
7.6 
32 
4.5 
3 
0 
7.1 
31 
3.8 
3 
2 
6.5 
30 
5.0 
3 
1 
6.3 
29 
4.4 
3 
2 
5.4 
28 
5.3 
3 
7 
4.8 
27 
4.7 
3 
6 
4.3 
26 
5.4 
3 
9 
3.4 
25 
4.7 
3 
6 
3.2 
24 
5.0 
7 
0 
3 
7 
2.5 
23 
4.2 
1 
4 
3 
4 
2.1 
22 
4.5 
8 
8 
3 
2 
2.0 
21 
3.8 
3 
5 
2 
9 
1 .8 
20 
0 
0 
3.4 
9 
0 
0 
4 
2 
7 
1.5 
19 
1 
3 
2.8 
5 
1 
0 
2 
2 
3 
1 .6 
18 
2 
6 
3.0 
9 
0 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1.1 
17 
5 
4 
2.1 
5 
9 
2 
8 
2 
3 
0.9 
16 
6 
8 
4 
6 
2.1 
7 
9 
4 
2 
2 
2 
1.0 
15 
8 
6 
7 
5 
1 .8 
5 
7 
5 
9 
2 
0 
0.8 
14 
10 
9 
8 
8 
1.6 
7 
0 
6 
6 
2 
3 
0.7 
13 
12 
8 
11 
6 
1.3 
5 
3 
8 
6 
2 
3 
0.6 
12 
9 
5 
14 
2 
12 
6 
1.1 
5 
5 
12 
0 
2 
5 
0.4 
11 
18 
6 
13 
0 
12 
3 
0.9 
4 
1 
13 
4 
2 
3 
0.4 
10 
20 
6 
9 
9 
12 
6 
0.8 
3 
8 
13 
2 
2 
5 
0.2 
' 9 
17 
9 
5 
2 
11 
3 
0.6 
2 
6 
10 
4 
2 
5 
0.2 
8 
13 
0 
4 
5 
9 
0 
0.6 
2 
0 
7 
0 
2 
4 
0.1 
7 
8 
7 
1 
8 
5 
4 
0.3 
1 
4 
4 
9 
2 
4 
0.1 
6 
6 
0 
1 
4 
2 
4 
0.4 
1 
0 
3 
0 
2 
0 
0.0 
5 
3 
0 
0 
8 
0 
8 
0.3 
1 
0 
1 
6 
2 
0 
0.0 
4 
1 
5 
0 
4 
0 
4 
0.3 
0 
7 
1 
0 
1 
7 
0.0 
3 
0 
8 
0 
_2 
0 
0.2 
0 
5 
0 
6 
1 
3 
0.0 
2 
0 
3 
0 
1 
0 
1 
0.2 
0 
5 
0 
6 
1 
0 
0.0 
I 
0 
1 
0 
0 
0 
1 
0.1 
0 
2 
0 
7 
0 
6 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
0 
2 
1.2 
1 
1 
0 
8 
0 
6 
0.1 
Median 
9 
9 
12 
9 
11 
6 
26.5 
17 
0 
11 
5 
23 
6 
31.7 
Maxi- 
mum 
12 
20 
16 
40 
24 
20 
40 
40 ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB A ND YERKES 
475 
Table 5b 
Percentile distribution of scores on each alpha test of 
approximately 15,000 officers of all arms 
Score 
Test number 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
40 
100.2 
100.1 
99.9 
39 
97.8 
99.1 
99.2 
38 
97.5 
97.6 
96.8 
37 
93.9 
95.8 
93.0 
36 
93.0 
93.5 
87 .6 
35 
89.3 
90.9 
81.1 
34 
87.2 
88.4 
74.1 
33 
83.3 
85.5 
66.7 
32 
80.4 
82.5 
59.1 
31 
75.9 
79.5 
52.0 
30 
72.1 
29 
67.1 
73.2 
39.2 
28 
62.-7 
70.0 
33 .8 
27 
57.4 
66.3 
29.0 
26 
52.7 
62.7 
24.7 
25 
47.3 
58.8 
21 .3 
24 
42.6 
100.0 
55.2 
18.1 
23 
37.6 
93.0 
51 .5 
15.6 
22 
33.4 
91.6 
48.1 
13.5 
21 
28.9 
82.8 
44.9 
11.5 
20 
00.0 
25.1 
79.3 
100.1 
42.0 
9.7 
19 
69.9 
21 .7 
70.3 
99.7 
39.3 
8.2 
18 
98.6 
18.9 
65.2 
99 5 
37.0 
6.6 
17 
96.0 
15.9 
56.2 
97.3 
34.9 
5.5 
16 
90.6 
99.9 
13.8 
50.3 
94.5 
32.6 
4.6 
15 
83.8 
95.3 
11.7 
42.4 
90.3 
30.4 
3.6 
14 
75.2 
87.8 
9 .9 
36.7 
84.4 
28.4 
2.8 
13 
64.3 
79.0 
8.3 
29.7 
77.8 
26.1 
2.1 
12 
100.0 
51.5 
67.4 
7.0 
24 4 
69.2 
23.8 
1.5 
11 
90.5 
37.3 
54.8 
5.9 
18.9 
57.2 
21 .3 
1.1 
10 
71 .9 
24.3 
42.5 
5.0 
14.8 
43.8 
19.0 
0.7 
9 
51 .3 
14.4 
29.9 
4 .2 
11.0 
30.6 
16.5 
0.5 
8 
33.4 
9.2 
18.6 
3.6 
8.4 
20.2 
14.0 
0.3 
7 
20.4 
4.7 
9.6 
3.0 
6.4 
13.2 
11.6 
0.2 
6 
11.7 
2.9 
4.2 
2.7 
5.0 
8.3 
9.2 
0.1 
5 
5.7 
1 .5 
1 .8 
2.3 
4.0 
5.3 
7.2 
0.1 
4 
2.7 
0.7 
1.0 
2.0 
3.0 
3.7 
5.2 
0.1 
3 
l .2 
0.3 
0.6 
1 .7 
2.3 
2.7 
3.5 
0.1 
2 
0.4 
0.1 
0.4 
1.5 
1 .8 
2.1 
2.2 
0.1 
1 
0.1 
0.0 
0.3 
1.3 
1 .3 
1 .5 
1 .2' 
0.1 
0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.2 
1 .2 
1.1 
0.8 
0.6 
0.1 
Median 
9.9 
12.9 
11 .6 
26.5 
17.0 
11 .5 
23.6 
31*7 
Maxi- 
mum 
12 
20 
16 
40 
24 
20 
40 
40 476 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Table 6 
Percentage distribution of scores on each alpha test of 
approximately 3,000 medical officers 
Score 
Test number 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
40 
1.7 
0.4 
0.8 
39 
0.4 
0.9 
2.3 
38 
3.5 
0.6 
4.2 
37 
1.0 
1.3 
5.7 
36 
4.0 
1.9 
7.2 
35 
2.4 
1.5 
6.6 
34 
3.5 
1.7 
7.2 
33 
3.3 
1.9 
7.1 
32 
4.9 
2.0 
6.3 
31 
3.7 
2.0 
5.9 
30 
3.9 
2.1 
5.9 
29 
4.4 
2.4 
4.7 
28 
5.1 
2.3 
4.7 
27 
4.7 
2.7 
3.8 
26 
4.6 
3.2 
3.6 
25 
5.0 
2.5 
3.2 
24 
5.3 
4.4 
3.4 
2.3 
23 
4.4 
1.5 
3.2 
2.2 
22 
4.2 
7.0 
3.2 
1.9 
21 
4.2 
3.4 
2.7 
2.0 
20 
0.1 
3.1 
6.9 
0.2 
2.5 
1.9 
19 
0.5 
2.6 
5.6 
0.3 
2.5 
1.9 
18 
1.1 
2.6 
9.0 
0.6 
2.3 
1.1 
17 
2.3 
2.3 
6.3 
1.0 
2.5 
1.0 
16 
4.0 
2.5 
2.0 
8.1 
2.0 
2.5 
1.3 
15 
5.6 
5.2 
1.5 
6.2 
2.9 
2.3 
1.2 
14 
8.3 
7.4 
1.6 
7.1 
4.3 
3.3 
0.9 
13 
11.9 
9.6 
1.2 
5.8 
5.7 
3.3 
0.9 
12 
3.6 
14.7 
11.7 
1.1 
5.7 
10.2 
3.3 
0.3 
11 
8.5 
13.3 
11.0 
0.9 
4.4 
13.6 
2.8 
0.4 
10 
15.1 
13.6 
13.2 
0.9 
4.2 
15.7 
3.5 
0.3 
9 
18.2 
9.5 
13.1 
0.6 
3.4 
12.7 
3.3 
0.3 
8 
17.2 
6.0 
11.6 
0.6 
2.4 
10.4 
2.7 
0.1 
7 
13.8 
4.3 
7.8 
0.5 
1.7 
7.2 
3.8 
0.2 
6 
11.0 
2.4 
3.6 
0.4 
1.3 
4.6 
3.3 
0.1 
5 
6.3 
1.2 
1.4 
0.3 
1.3 
2.4 
3.4 
0.1 
4 
3.6 
0.7 
0.7 
0.3 
0.9 
1.3 
3.3 
0.1 
1.9 
0.2 
0.4 
0.3 
0.7 
1.0 
2.5 
0.0 
2 
0.6 
0.2 
0.2 
0.1 
0.8 
1.2 
2.1 
0.0 
1 
0.3 
0.1 
0.1 
0.2 
0.2 
1.2 
1.5 
0.0 
0 
0.0 
0.0 
0.3 
2.4 
1.7 
1.7 
1.2 
0.1 
Median. . . . 
8.7 
11.9 
10.8 
26.3 
16.3 
10.4 
17.7 
31.6 
Maximum.... 
12 
20 
16 
40 
24 
20 
40 
40 STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
477 
Fig. 2. Psychographs for representative groups of military officers. 
Recruits --- / 
Veterinary Corps 
Dental Corps \ 
Medical Corps 
Chaplains — 
Fiftieth Percentile 
Infantry 
Artillery 
Engineers 
1. Oral 
directions 
5. Disarranged 
sentences 
6. Number series 
completion 
8. Information 
2.' Arithmetic 
3. Practical 
judgment 
4. Opposites 
7. Analogies 
Test 478 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Table 7 
Median (50th percentile) score on alpha tests of officers in 
different arms of the service, compared with standard 
group of officers of all arms. 
Arm of the service 
Test 1 
Test 2 
Test 3 
Test 4 
Test 5 
Test 6 
Test 7 
Test 8 
Total 
Medical officers 
(Percentile reached) 
8.7 
(29.5) 
11.9 
(36.0) 
10.8 
(40.0) 
26.3 
(49.0) 
16.3 
(44.5) 
10.4 
(36.0) 
17.7 
(34.0) 
31.6 
(49.0) 
129.3 
Infantry 
(Percentile reached) 
10.1 
(53.0) 
12.9 
(50.0) 
11.8 
(52.0) 
26.0 
(47.5) 
17.0 
(50.0) 
11.6 
(52.0) 
24.2 
(52.5) 
31.2 
(47.0) 
139.8 
Artillery 
(Percentile reached) 
10.7 
(66.0) 
13.9 
(63.0) 
12.3 
(59.0) 
28.6 
(60.0) 
17.0 
(50.0) 
12.5 
(64.0) 
26.2 
(59.5) 
33.0 
(59.5) 
149.5 
Engineers 
(Percentile reached) 
11.0 
(?2.0) 
15.1 
(76.5) 
12.7 
(64.0) 
29.1 
(62.5) 
19.9 
(70.0) 
13.9 
(77.0) 
31.0 
(76.5) 
34.2 
(67.5) 
162.1 
Dental 
(Percentile reached) 
8.9 
(32.0) 
11.4 
(29.5) 
10.7 
(39.0) 
23.7 
(36.5) 
15.2 
(38.0) 
10.0 
(30.5) 
18.3 
(35.5) 
28.7 
(32.5) 
122.9 
Veterinary 
(Percentile reached) 
8.8 
(30.5) 
11.4 
(29.5) 
9.8 
(27.0) 
20.5 
(23.0) 
13.8 
(29.0) 
9.9 
(29.5) 
16.6 
(32.0) 
23.8 
(15.0) 
116.5 
Chaplains 
(Percentile reached) 
9.8 
(47.5) 
12.1 
(39.0) 
11.7 
(51.0) 
33.0 
(80.0) 
18.0 
(56.5) 
10.7 
(39.5) 
25.3 
(56.5) 
34.0 
(67.0) 
156.3 
All arms 
(Percentile reached) 
9.9 
(50.0) 
12.9 
(50.0) 
11.6 
(50.0) 
26.5 
(50.0) 
17.0 
(50.0) 
11.5 
(50.0) 
23.6 
(50.0) 
31.7 
(50.0) 
139.6 
(.50.0) 
Maximum score for test 
12 
20 
16 
40 
24 
20 
40 
40 
212 
visualized in figure 2, which indicates, among other things, that the 
score of medical officers is in no case as high as the median score 
of all arms of the service which is represented in the figure by the 
heavy 50th percentile line. The curves of figure 2 are known as 
psychographs. It is peculiarly interesting to note that the psycho- 
graph of medical officers is very nearly the inverse of that for en- 
gineers. In other words, where the engineer tests particularly well 
the medical officer tests poorly, and conversely. The psychograph 
for the infantry corresponds most nearly to the standard. This is 
partly because it is by far the largest special group in the total and 
therefore affects the standard most markedly. The chaplains’ 
psychograph is notable because of the extreme variation in scores; 
thus on test 4 (opposites) the chaplains achieve a median score which 
is much higher than that of any other group, whereas on tests 2 
(arithmetic) and 6 (number series completion) they fall considerably 
below the median for all officers. It is worthy of note that for 
only three groups, namely, the medical, dental and veterinary, do 
the psychographs as a whole fall below the standard for comparison. STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
479 
In order to discover whether the psychograph for medical officers 
presented in figure 2 is really characteristic of the professional 
group, the group was subdivided according to the principal special- 
ties represented, of which there are nine, as listed in table 8. Of 
these, seven are represented in figure 3. This figure shows a strik- 
ing resemblance among the psychographs of the special medical 
groups and justifies the statement that the medical psychograph 
is characteristic of the professional group. The fact that the 
Test 
Oral „ 
directions'' 
Arithmetic _ 
Practical judgment 
Opposites 
Geni to-urinary,- 
.Eye, ear, nose, and. throat, 
Surgery, 
Roentgenology, 
Gynooology and obstetrics,- 
H 
Internal medicine, 
I 
Mental and nervous, 
I 
All medical officers, 
Disarranged sentences 
Number series- 
completion 
Analogies — 
Information - 
Fig. 3. Psychographs for medical specialists. 480 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
“mental and nervous” group stands well above the others is ex- 
plainable on the basis of difference in the method of selection for 
appointment to the military service. It happens that the neuro- 
psychiatric specialists were carefully selected and recommended 
to the Medical Department by a special committee which operated 
under the auspices of the National Committee for Mental Hy- 
giene. The presumption is that the efforts of this committee 
eliminated a large proportion of intellectually low grade and pro- 
fessionally incompetent men. 
On the chance that the psychograph for the medical profession 
Test 
1. Oral 
directions 
2. Arithmetic 
Older medical 
All medical 
Younger medical 
3. Practical 
judgment 
4. Opposites 
5. Disarranged 
sentences 
6. Number series 
completion 
7. Analogies 
8. Information 
Fig. 4. Psychographs for age-groups of medical officers. STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
481 
might vary significantly with age, the data for two small groups of 
medical officers were assembled for comparison. The one of these 
groups consisted of 140 individuals aged 26 years or less, the other 
of 144 individuals aged 50 years or more. The psychographs of 
Median (50th percentile) scores on alpha tests of specialists 
within the medical profession, compared with standard 
group of officers of all arms 
Table 8 
Median score 
on alpha tests 
Specialty 
No. 
Total 
cases 
1 
2 
3 
4 
5 
6 
7 
8 
alpha 
Anesthesia 
35 
9.1 
11.1 
10.1 
26.8 
15.6 
11.1 
13.5 
31.6 
130.8 
(Percentile reached) 
(35.0) 
(25.5) 
(31.0) 
(51.5) 
(40.0) 
(45.5) 
(25.0) 
(49.0) 
Eye 
46 
9.1 
12.0 
11.3 
27.8 
16.6 
10.8 
19.0 
34.3 
140.0 
(Percentile reached) 
Eye, ear, nose and 
(35.0) 
(37.5) 
(46.5) 
(56.5) 
(47.0) 
(41.0) 
(37.0) 
(68.5) 
throat 
175 
8.5 
11.5 
10.6 
26.5 
16.3 
10.1 
14.9 
32.1 
128.3 
(Percentile reached) 
Genito-urinary dis- 
(27.0) 
(30.5) 
(37.5) 
(50.0) 
(44.5) 
(31.5) 
(28.5) 
(53.0) 
eases 
77 
8.4 
11.8 
11.1 
24.2 
16.4 
9.8 
16.3 
31.7 
124.4 
(Percentile reached) 
Gynecology and 
(25.0) 
(35.0) 
(44.0) 
(38.5) 
(45.5) 
(28.0) 
(31.0) 
(50.5) 
obstetrics 
88 
9.1 
11.9 
10.7 
26.7 
16.2 
10.4 
15.8 
31.7 
128.1 
(Percentile reached) 
(35.0) 
(36.0) 
(39.0) 
(51.0) 
(44.0) 
(36.0) 
(30.0) 
(50.5) 
Internal medicine 
178 
9.2 
12.5 
11.7 
28.8 
17.8 
10.8 
22.8 
33.2 
143.6 
(Percentile reached) 
Mental and ner- 
(37.0) 
(44.5) 
(51.0) 
(61.0) 
(55.0) 
(41.0) 
(47.0) 
(61.0) 
vous diseases 
54 
9.8 
13.2 
12.4 
29.0 
17.9 
11.7 
24.6 
33.1 
143.0 
(Percentile reached) 
(47.5) 
(54.0) 
(60.0) 
(62.0) 
(56.0) 
(54.0) 
(53.5) 
(60.0) 
Roentgenology 
54 
8.8 
12.0 
11.0 
26.3 
18.2 
11.0 
20.0 
33.3 
136.0 
(Percentile reached) 
(30.5) 
(37.5) 
(42.5) 
(49.0) 
(58.0) 
(44.0) 
(39.5) 
(62.0) 
Surgery 
640 
8.7 
11.8 
10.8 
25.8 
16.2 
10.3 
18.0 
31.2 
127.4 
(Percentile reached) 
(29.5) 
(35.0) 
(40.0) 
(46.5) 
(44.0) 
(33.5) 
(35.0) 
(47.0) 
All medical officers 
3165 
8.7 
11.9 
10.8 
26.3 
16.3 
10.4 
17.7 
31.6 
129.3 
(Percentile reached) 
(29.5) 
(36.0) 
(40.0) 
(49.0) 
(44.5) 
(36.0) 
(34.0) 
(49.0) 
Eye, ear, nose and 
throat, promoted 
35 
9.6 
11.7 
10.9 
29.5 
18.2 
10.7 
16.6 
33.1 
(Percentile reached) 
Eye, ear, nose and 
(34.0) 
(33.5) 
(41.5) 
(64.5) 
(58.0) 
(39.5) 
(32.0) 
(60.0) 
throat. Not 
known to be pro- 
moted 
140 
8.1 
11.4 
10.5 
25.9 
15.5 
9.9 
14.0 
31.6 
(Percentile reached) 
(21.0) 
(29.5) 
(36.5) 
(47.0) 
(39.5) 
(29.5) 
(26.0) 
(49.0) 482 
STA TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
these two medical groups (as appears in figure 4) differ in two 
obviously important respects. That for the younger group closely 
approximates the 50th percentile standard and is similar in form 
to the psychograph for infantry officers. That for the older group 
falls even farther below the standard than the psychograph for all 
medical officers and its form is an accentuation of the peculiarities 
of the medical psychograph which has been considered in an earlier 
paragraph. 
Comparison of figures 2 and 4 indicates a certain similarity be- 
tween the psychograph of chaplains (figure 2) and that of older med- 
ical officers (fig. 4). The median age of the chaplains is 31.8 
years. It is possible that a group of engineers of approximately 
the same age as the medical officers would yield a psychograph 
similar to theirs and radically different from that of the army 
engineers. It appears, then, that age may influence the form of 
psychograph. 
The influence of language habits, in relation to age, appears in 
the results for the “opposites” test. The score for this test, as also 
for the “information” test, is larger for the older medical officers. 
The psychographs of such professional groups as medical, vet- 
erinary, engineer, chaplains, may prove to have either educational 
or vocational significance, or possibly both. Should further 
inquiry indicate that they are characteristic of the student groups 
which enter the several types of school, respectively, it would seem 
that they might serve as partial basis for vocational advice. If, 
on the contrary, they are the product of professional training and 
experience, they should prove useful in connection with educational 
methods. In any event, it is clear that this subject deserves fur- 
ther and immediate attention, since it may possibly yield informa- 
tion which will serve to improve the status of the medical profession 
either through more satisfactory selection of medical students or 
through their more effective training. 
Age of Medical Officers 
It was early suggested that greater age of medical officers might 
be responsible for their relatively low intelligence rating. The 
facts presented on pp. 480, 481 and in this section wholly justify this 
surmise. In the first place it appears from table 9 that the median 
age of officers of the Medical Corps is 37.6 years, whereas that of all 
officers is 28.8. The nearest approach to the median age of medical ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
483 
Table 9 
Age distribution of officers. Figures are percentage distributions 
for different arms of the service1 
Age-group (years) 
Number 
of 
cases 
Arm 
20 and 
less 
21-22 
23-24 
25-20 
27-28 
29-30 
31-40 
41-50 
51-60 
Median 
age 
Infantry 
0.3 
8.9 
19.8 
19.7 
15.1 
11.1 
20.0 
4.7 
0.4 
27.2 
6812 
Artillery 
0.1 
11.3 
23.4 
20.4 
15.6 
12.2 
15.3 
1.7 
0.0 
26.5 
1507 
Machine gun 
battalions 
0.0 
10.6 
21.2 
18.9 
16.2 
8.5 
19.9 
4.7 
0.0 
26.9 
493 
Engineers 
0.1 
6.7 
16.9 
17.2 
16.0 
12.2 
25.6 
4.5 
0.5 
28.1 
984 
Field Signal 
Corps 
0.3 
5.5 
14.7 
16.4 
13.2 
13.5 
27.9 
8.6 
0.3 
29.0 
350 
Quartermaster 
Corps 
0.1 
4.0 
13.2 
15.4 
16.6 
12.4 
25.0 
11.9 
1.1 
29.1 
747 
Medical Corps 
0.0 
0.0 
2.2 
4.8 
7.3 
8.1 
42.0 
30.1 
5.6 
37.6 
3090 
Dental Corps 
0.0 
3.9 
16.8 
25.0 
16.8 
14.2 
17.2 
6.0 
0.0 
27.5 
413 
Veterinary Corps 
0.0 
3.2 
13.6 
16.7 
22.0 
15.1 
26.7 
2.4 
0.4 
28.5 
251 
All officers 
0.2 
6.4 
15.2 
15.9 
13.8 
10.9 
25.8 
10.6 
0.1 
28.8 
15385 
officers is that of the Quartermaster Corps, 29.1. It thus appears 
that the median medical officer is approximately 9 years older than 
his median military associate. 
That intelligence is related to age has been demonstrated by the 
analysis of mental measurements made in the army. In general 
the intelligence rating tends to diminish with age. That this is 
due to age alone and not to selectional processes operating in con- 
nection with age is by no means certain. The above statements 
are based upon such data as are reproduced in the accompanying 
tables 10 and 11. No special study, in addition to the comparison 
instituted in figure 4, has been made of the relation of age to in- 
telligence in the particular group of medical officers under consider- 
ation. From table 10 it appears that there is no regular or sig- 
nificant decrease in intelligence rating from 20 to 26 years. There- 
after to the age of 60 there is a marked decrease. The median for 
the age group 31 to 40 years (within which the age of medical 
officers falls) is 133 points, whereas that for the age group of officers 
in general is about 143 points. Particularly significant are the data 
of table 11 for the large group of medical officers examined at Camp 
Greenleaf with army examination a. It should be mentioned 
1 Official report, table 372, p. 818. 484 
57M TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
that the median scores of this table are much larger than those of 
previous tables because the maximum score for examination o 
is 414 points, whereas that for examination alpha is 212 points. 
These medians indicate that a medical officer above 30 years of 
age is at a disadvantage in the intelligence examination a, as com- 
pared with an officer under 30 years of age. Finally, the following 
Table 10 
Relation of age to intelligence for 15,385 officers given 
examination alpha1 
Intelligence rating 
20 and 
less 
21-22 
23-24 
25-26 
27-28 
29-30 
31-40 
41-50 
51-60 
60 up 
A 
66.8 
66.9 
63.6 
60.3 
60.3 
57.4 
49.1 
40.0 
34.0 
62.5 
B 
29.2 
24.7 
27.7 
28.3 
25.9 
28.1 
30.1 
31.4 
32.7 
25.0 
c+ 
4.2 
6.5 
7.8 
9.7 
11.1 
11.6 
15.5 
21.1 
21.2 
0.0 
C 
1.5 
1.2 
1.8 
2.2 
2.4 
4.9 
6.4 
10.2 
12.5 
c— 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
0.6 
0.7 
2 0 
D 
0 1 
0 3 
D— 
Median 
150 
146 
146 
147 
143 
141 
133 
125 
120 
140 
Number of cases 
24 
985 
2,330 
2,434 
2,101 
1,665 
3,963 
1,635 
240 
8 
Percent of total num- 
ber of cases 
0.2 
6.4 
15.2 
15.9 
13.8 
10.9 
25.8 
10.6 
1.6 
0.1 
coefficients of correlation between age and score in examination 
a are offered in justification of the conclusion that age is negatively 
correlated to a significant degree with intelligence rating:2 
5,404 medical officers, Camp Greenleaf —0.192 
2,475 medical officers, Camp Greenleaf, 21-30 years. —0.063 (P. E. 0.013) 
3,267 medical officers, Camp Greenleaf, 30-60 years. —0.192 (P. E. 0.011) 
146 medical officers, Camp Devens —0.011 
308 infantry officers, Camp Devens —0.120 
Four principal causes have been suggested for the relatively 
low intelligence rating of medical officers. These are, first, lack of 
agility and speed in the examination because of age; second, ten- 
dency to work carefully and accurately as a result of professional 
training and experience; third, special characteristics of tests ren- 
dering them easier for men of mathematical and mechanical training 
1 Official report, table 366, p. 814. 
2 Ibid., p. 817. 5774 TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN A RMY: COBB AND YERKES 
485 
Table 11 
Relation of intelligence to age of 5,742 medical officers, 
Camp Greenleaf, given examination a1 
2,475 of draft age 
Statistical measurement 
Age 
21 
22 
23 
24 
25 
26 
27 
28 
29 
30 
Median 
Number of cases 
232 
11 
273 
52 
269 
132 
273 
241 
277 
303 
267 
376 
265 
361 
266 
352 
261 
338 
258 
309 
3,267 over draft age 
Statistical measurement 
CO 
A 
CO 
CO 
CO 
1 
CO 
iO 
CO 
1 
Tf 
CO 
CO 
1 
CO 
CO 
05 
CO 
1 
00 
CO 
5 
A 
CO 
1 
<N 
to 
1 
T* 
'rV 
1 
CO 
05 
1 
00 
to 
A 
to 
CO 
to 
1 
(N 
to 
to 
»o 
1 
•o 
Median 
Number of cases.... 
254 
582 
259 
330 
262 
257 
252 
301 
255 
301 
255 
305 
246 
279 
235 
241 
242 
219 
237 
172 
223 
131 
214 
82 
212 
63 
than for medical officers; and fourth, method of selection for mili- 
tary appointment. These four possible factors will be considered 
briefly in order. 
It is granted that increasing age tends to diminish the score in 
examinations a and alpha. The statistical data clearly indicate, 
however, that age is only partly responsible for the relative position 
of the Medical Corps. 
The importance of agility and speed in the tests is generally 
overestimated by the subject of examination. It would seem 
reasonable to suppose that medical officers on account of their 
greater age would be placed at a disadvantage by comparison with 
other officers because of the limited time allowed to work on each 
test. If this were actually the case those tests which are most 
closely timed, and therefore most nearly speed tests, rather than 
achievement tests, should show relatively the lowest scores for 
medical officers. This is not the case. Comparison of the numbers 
of officers who complete a test within the time limit shows that 
the allowance is relatively liberal for tests 1, 5, 7 and 8, whereas 
for tests 2, 3, 4 and 6 the time allowance is so short that only 
a small proportion of officers can finish. 
The medical psychograph of figure 2 indicates that of the four 
1 Official report, table 369, p. 816. 486 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
liberally timed tests, number i and number 7 are the most difficult, 
and number 8 one of the easiest for medical officers. Test 5 also 
is relatively easy. Of the speed tests, numbers 2 and 6 are relatively 
difficult, whereas test 4 ranks with test 8 as one of the easiest of 
all. Test 3 also is relatively easy. It is evident, then, that a short 
time allowance is not a factor which renders the tests of examina- 
tion alpha more difficult for medical officers than for other army 
officers. 
There is no evidence whatever that medical officers worked more 
carefully and accurately than other officers and as a result failed 
to achieve as high scores as those officers who worked more rapidly. 
In general it has been found that speed and accuracy in tests of 
intelligence are highly correlated. It is therefore wholly improb- 
able that the relative rank of the Medical Corps is affected to any 
considerable extent by professional training and experience. 
Evidence is lacking also for differences in applicability of the 
tests to special army groups. Examination of the preceding tables 
and curves shows that the examination as a whole is fair to very 
diverse individuals and groups because of the variety of elements 
combined in it. In this connection careful study of table 7 and 
figure 2 is desirable. If the examination in question had depended 
upon the exercise of a single type of intellectual function the possi- 
bility of unfairness would be obvious. Instead it depends upon the 
exercise of all of the principal intellectual functions and employs 
those functions in various combinations for response to a large 
number of test items in each of eight markedly different types of 
test. 
The method of selection for military appointment in the Medical 
Department differed radically from that of other arms of the 
service. For the Medical Corps, as well as the Dental, Veterinary 
and Sanitary Corps, applications were received from qualified 
civilians and acted on either favorably or unfavorably according 
to physical condition, age and professional qualifications. Aside 
from the physical examination, and in certain instances a pro- 
fessional examination of candidates for the Medical Corps, no 
special tests were given to measure the ability or professional 
competence of the individual, and though many of the candidates 
were sent to officers’ training schools for rapid or intensive training, 
this was done in the Medical Department after military appoint- 
ment instead of before. In the case of the other arms of the ser- STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
487 
vice a large proportion of candidates for appointment were sent 
to officers’ training schools prior to appointment and were there 
subjected to a series of examinations, the effect of which was to 
eliminate the less intelligent as well as those otherwise less com- 
petent for military service. Data of psychological examinations 
show a high correlation between intelligence and success in achieving 
military appointment in officers’ training schools. There can be 
no doubt that the method of selection employed by the Medical 
Department of the army worked to the disadvantage of the medical 
profession so far as intellectual status is concerned. Had the ex- 
igencies of the situation permitted the Medical Department to 
utilize a probational period as did the other corps, the intelligence 
of its personnel would have been much higher.1 
It is reasonably certain, then, that age and method of military 
selection are largely responsible for the relatively low intelligence 
of medical officers. The Medical Department obtained the ser- 
vices alike of the best and the poorest members of the profession, 
but the proportion of intellectually inferior and professionally 
incompetent men was much larger in this group, for the reason 
indicated above, than in many other arms of the service. These 
explanations of the status of medical officers must not be taken as a 
justification of that status. It is wholly clear that the medical 
profession has a large number of men who are intellectually in- 
competent and who should not have been allowed to study medicine, 
or having studied it, should not have been licensed as practitioners. 
The army was constrained to accept their services because of an 
imperative need of medical officers. Ordinarily their applications 
would have received scant consideration. 
To the credit of the Medical Department of the army is the fact 
that rank is more highly correlated with intelligence in the case of 
medical officers than for any other military group. The intellec- 
tually low grade men of the medical profession are almost invariably 
of low military rank, and promotion depends alike upon intellectual 
ability and professional value. 
Education of Medical Officers 
1 At Camp Greenleaf, the medical officers’ training camp, beginning early in 1918, 
a professional examination and also the army psychological examination were utilized 
to eliminate the incompetent. Doubtful cases were re-examined after a period of in- 
tensive training. This definitely indicates that the Medical Department appreciated 
the desirability of rigorous examinations in association with a probational period. 
The schooling reported on the psychological examination record 488 
STA TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
by all officers yields a median of 14.7 years. If 8 years be allowed 
for grammar school and 4 years for high school, this median rep- 
resents 2.7 years of college or professional training. Put in another 
way, the average army officer was nearly through the third year in 
college, technical or professional school, when his formal education 
ended. The group of medical officers reported a median schooling 
of 15.8 years, which is equivalent to 3.8 years beyond high school. 
As a rule these years were devoted to professional instead of col- 
legiate or pre-medical study. 
The principal available facts concerning the schooling of the chief 
arms of the service appear in table 12, which gives the distribution 
for several arms of the service and also for three rank-groups in 
the Medical Corps, as well as the medians for each. According to 
this table the medical group has the most schooling, the Quarter- 
master Corps the least schooling, of the several arms of the service 
compared. Yet their performances on examination alpha are 
practically identical. Between medical officer and engineer officer 
there is one-half year difference in favor of the former. 
For the special medical group which has been intensively studied, 
data concerning education, both pre-medical and medical, are 
assembled in table 13. It is evident from the figures that the 
pre-medical education ordinarily does not exceed high school 
training, and that the professional training adds nearly four years 
to the total. 
Figure 5 visualizes the distribution of schooling in case of recruits, 
Quartermaster, Engineer and Medical Corps. 
The relation of intelligence to date of education, as indicated by 
table 14, is worthy of consideration. The median intelligence 
increases with approach to the present. This is in part due to age 
of the individuals, since the earlier graduates would show somewhat 
lower scores than the later graduates, but it is also due in part to 
the abandonment of several poor medical schools following the 
publication of Flexner’s1 report on the status of medical education 
in the United States, and the increase in educational requirement 
for entrance to medical schools. 
Professional Experience of Medical Officers 
The professional experience of this group of 2500 medical officers, 
previous to military appointment, is recorded statistically in table 
1 Abraham Flexner, “Medical Education in the United States and Canada.” New 
York, Carnegie Foundation for the Advancement of Teaching, 1910. ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
489 
Fig. 5. Period of schooling of important military groups. Recruits, ; Quartermaster Corps, ; Engineer Corps, — — ; Medical 
Corps, 
Schooling 490 
ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Table 12 
Length of schooling reported by officers in different arms of 
the service and by different ranks in the medical corps 
Yrs. 
schooling 
In- 
fantry 
Ar- 
tillery 
Engi- 
neer 
Quarter- 
master 
Medi- 
cal 
Den- 
tal 
Veter- 
inary 
Total 
Medical 
1st 
Ets. 
Cap- 
tains 
Major 
and above 
25 
1 
1 
1 
24 
i 
2 
3 
2 
23 
3 
3 
3 
22 
2 
13 
16 
6 
7 
21 
1 
1 
27 
34 
16 
10 
1 
20 
6 
2 
i 
242 
i 
260 
149 
79 
14 
19 
90 
22 
4 
8 
187 
6 
2 
337 
107 
67 
13 
18 
132 
40 
10 
8 
318 
9 
12 
554 
197 
111 
10 
17 
177 
60 
37 
8 
234 
21 
12 
592 
150 
77 
7 
16 
1486 
470 
238 
100 
1230 
113 
43 
3894 
799 
366 
65 
15 
778 
181 
53 
64 
136 
159 
140 
1604 
62 
67 
7 
14 
809 
154 
33 
80 
57 
8 
1247 
27 
26 
4 
13 
487 
79 
18 
51 
12 
2 
1700 
11 
1 
12 
854 
124 
24 
102 
41 
9 
1246 
26 
13 
2 
11 
337 
29 
8 
42 
8 
3 
460 
2 
6 
10 
328 
35 
9 
38 
20 
2 
11 
485 
4 
16 
9 
228 
18 
4 
24 
1 
1 
3 
318 
1 
8 
305 
16 
5 
54 
13 
5 
443 
7 
5 
1 
7 
39 
4 
3 
7 
6 
64 
3 
3 
6 
37 
4 
1 
4 
4 
51 
3 
1 
5 
18 
3 
6 
3 
31 
3 
4 
16 
O 
1 
22 
1 
3 
14 
4 
1 
20 
2 
5 
1 
6 
1 
1 
1 
0 
3 
1 
4 
Total 
6154 
1255 
448 
598 
2559 
334 
229 
12396 
1576 
857 
126 
Median 
13.5 
14.8 
15.3 
12.4 
15.8 
14.9 
14.7 
14.7 
15.8 
15.8 
15.7 
15- The largest single group had from io to 14 years’ experience, 
while the median period is slightly in excess of 11 years. 
In this respect the Medical Corps is unique, for no other arm of 
the service, not excepting the Engineer, Dental and Veterinary, 
has half the professional experience of this group. It is undoubtedly 
true that this marked difference in length of professional experience, 
coupled with age, affects not only the intelligence score of the 
medical officer, but also the character of his psychograph. STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
491 
Distribution of length of pre-medical and of total education 
of medical officers 
Table 13 
Years 
Pre-medical education 
Total education 
Number 
Percentage 
Number 
Percentage 
24 
2 
0.09 
23 
1 
0.04 
22 
4 
0.2 
21 
36 
1.5 
20 
293 
12.5 
19 
1 
0.04 
250 
10.7 
18 
7 
0.3 
308 
13.1 
17 
32 
1.3 
310 
13.2 
16 
485 
20.5 
744 
31.6 
15 
148 
6.2 
288 
10.6 
14 
267 
11.2 
111 
4.7 
13 
295 
12.4 
32 
1.4 
12 
826 
34.8 
12 
0.5 
11 
199 
8.4 
5 
0.2 
10 
92 
3.9 
9 
20 
0.8 
8 
2 
0.1 
Not given 
133 
152 
No. cases 
2.507 
2507 
Median 
12.16 
16.07 
Geographical Facts and Relations 
The medical officers under consideration were drawn from all 
parts of the United States, but not in proportion to the number of 
practitioners in different localities. Instead, the records used for 
this report come largely from camps in which medical officers were 
most frequently examined. It happens, however, that every state 
in the union except Wyoming is represented in the group. The 
states most numerously represented are New York, Illinois, Ohio 
and Pennsylvania. Those least represented are Nevada, New 
Mexico and Delaware. Because of the small representation of 
certain states it was necessary to group the states for statistical 
purposes as indicated in table 16. 
Locational intelligence.—For these several sections of the country 
interesting and valid differences in intelligence, experience, earn- 492 
ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Table 14 
Alpha 
score 
1880-85 
1886-90 
1891-95 
1896-1900 
1901-05 
1906-10 
1911-15 
1916-18 
Years not 
known 
and non- 
grad- 
uates 
Total 
20.5-212 
200-204 
1 
1 
1 
3 
190-199 
3 
1 
7 
i 
7 
3 
22 
180-189 
1 
1 
2 
10 
19 
21 
15 
7 
76 
170-179 
1 
4 
19 
16 
25 
39 
27 
131' 
160-169 
3 
7 
25 
39 
48 
45 
27 
1 
195 
150-159 
7 
19 
29 
57 
51 
56 
29 
2 
250 
140-149 
4 
8 
15 
35 
60 
56 
53 
35 
i 
267 
130-139 
3 
7 
19 
33 
57 
57 
77 
34 
287 
120-129 
8 
18 
40 
54 
68 
62 
25 
i 
276 
110-119 
3 
19 
37 
63 
63 
68 
31 
i 
285 
100-109 
9 
16 
30 
45 
63 
50 
13 
i 
227 
90-99 
1 
3 
9 
26 
38 
39 
43 
12 
i 
172 
80-89 
1 
2 
12 
28 
31 
21 
19 
7 
121 
70-79 
3 
9 
11 
18 
17 
14 
3 
i 
76 
60-69 
4 
3 
8 
12 
16 
8 
1 
i 
53 
50-59 
5 
6 
14 
6 
6 
37 
40-49 
1 
1 
4 
4 
1 
5 
2 
1 
19 
30-39 
1 
2 
1 
2 
i 
7 
20-29 
1 
1 
2 
10-19 
1 
i 
Total 
11 
60 
166 
343 
535 
558 
567 
256 
ii 
2507 
Median 
138.75 
126.25 
121.3 
124.8 
127.9 
127.1 
131.0 
140.3 
117.5 
129.2 
Alpha distributions of groups graduated in different years 
Distribution of experience of 2392 medical officers 
Table 15 
Years’ experience 
Number 
Percentage 
25 years and over 
137 
5.7 
20-24 
237 
9.9 
1,5-19 
399 
16.7 
10-14 
538 
22.5 
7-9 
321 
13.4 
4-6 
325 
13.6 
1-3 
302 
12.6 
0 
133 
5.6 
Total1 
2392 
Median 
11.07 years 
1 Experience was not indicated by 115 of the 2507 medical officers. Table 16 
States included in each section, with number of cases 
Stale 
No. eases 
State 
No. cases 
Residence 
Certificate 
College 
Residence 
Certificate 
College 
NORTHEAST 
SOUTH CENTRAL 
' 
Maine 
17 
15 
9 
19 
20 
{j 
New Hampshire 
14 
10 
14 
South Carolina 
14 
16 
9 
Vermont 
8 
16 
29 
77 
133 
Massachusetts 
138 
152 
124 
52 
62 
129 
It) 
9 
o 
Connecticut 
22 
15 
9 
152 
175 
277 
27fi 
257 
272 
Total 
485 
474 
457 
NORTH CENTRAL 
Ohio 
194 
190 
191 
ATLANTIC 
Michigan 
65 
69 
75 
Minnesota 
64 
51 
44 
New Jersey 
50 
30 
0 
61 
56 
29 
Pennsylvania 
193 
183 
253 
9 
10 
o 
Delaware 
3 
5 
0 
14 
13 
0 
28 
34 
147 
Virginia 
20 
30 
42 
407 
389 
339 
30 
19 
0 
District of Columbia.. 
11 
6 
23 
CENTRAL 
Total 
335 
307 
465 
Indiana 
109 
100 
58 
Illinois 
220 
278 
393 
SOUTHERN 
Iowa 
86 
88 
56 
Missouri 
115 
114 
146 
Georgia 
47 
48 
52 
42 
r^n 
Florida 
15 
11 
0 
44 
45 
43 
Alabama 
37 
41 
21 
Mississippi 
46 
45 
21 
616 
661 
746 
Louisiana 
29 
32 
51 
Arkansas 
3 
22 
6 
Oklahoma 
33 
16 
4 
WESTERN 
Texas 
57 
48 
19 
7 
4 
0 
Oregon 
37 
31 
16 
47 
25 
o 
274 
267 
154 
Montana 
21 
15 
0 
Idaho 
8 
7 
0 
Wyoming 
0 
0 
0 
California 
85 
50 
43 
Nevada 
0 
1 
0 
Utah 
9 
7 
0 
Arizona 
21 
0 
0 
Colorado 
24 
16 
10 
Total 
252 
152 
69 494 
STA TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
ings and degree of specialization appear. The outstanding differ- 
ences are those in intelligence as measured by examination alpha. 
These are indicated by the median scores and grades of table 17 
Median alpha scores of doctors from different sections 
of the country 
Table 17 
Section 
Residence 
Certificate 
Graduation 
No. 
cases1 
Score 
Grade 
No. 
cases 
Score 
Grade 
No. 
cases 
Score 
Grade 
Northeast 
485 
138.8 
A 
474 
138.1 
A 
457 
139.9 
A 
Atlantic 
335 
126.1 
B 
307 
124.7 
B 
465 
129.9 
B 
South Central 
152 
102.3 
c+ 
175 
104.4 
c+ 
277 
105.6 
B 
Southern 
274 
115.2 
B 
267 
116.8 
B 
154 
117.6 
B 
North Central 
407 
135.1 
A 
389 
135.3 
A 
339 
131.3 
B 
Central 
616 
126.0 
B 
661 
127.4 
B 
746 
129.3 
B 
Western 
252 
140.0 
A 
152 
137.7- 
A 
69 
139.6 
A 
Total 
2521 
129.2 
B 
2419 
128.9 
B 
2507 
129.2 
B 
and by the detailed distribution of table 18. They are also visual- 
ized in part by figure 6. 
The median scores for the seven sections of the country range 
from 102 points in the South central, including North and South 
Carolina, Kentucky and Tennessee, to 139 and 140, respectively, 
in the Northeast and the Pacific and Rocky Mountain states. 
The Atlantic central states stand higher than the Southern but lower 
than the North central. Corresponding groupings were made on 
the basis of the state from which the individual is certified and also 
in which he was graduated. These groupings yield results very 
similar to the above. 
The data of the tables tend to confirm Cattell’s study of the 
distribution of professional ability (“American Men of Science”), 
in which he demonstrated that New England and California were 
supplying eminent men of science in larger proportion than were 
other regions. The groups of medical officers from the Northeast 
and the Pacific coast are nearly identical in intelligence and similar 
in other respects as indicated by the several tables of this section. 
1 For number of cases from individual states, see table 16. 495 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Fig. 6. Intelligence of medical officers in relation to geographical location. All medical officers (total of table 18), 
; South, ; Northeast, 
Score 
Population and intelligence.—In order to study relation of other 
facts to population of the community in which medical officers had 
practiced, communities with population of less than 2500 are classi- 
fied as rural; 2500 to 249,999 as urban; 250,000 or more as metro- 
politan. For these three types of community the distribution of 
intelligence scores is given in table 19. There is a tendency for 496 
ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Table 18 
Distribution of alpha scores of doctors practicing in different 
parts of the country 
Alpha 
.score 
North- 
east 
Atlantic 
South 
central 
South 
North 
central 
Central 
Western 
Total 
200-204 
2 
1 
3 
190-199 
7 
6 
4 
4 
2 
23 
180-189 
24 
10 
1 
3 
12 
14 
12 
76 
170-179 
43 
15 
1 
7 
27 
20 
18 
131 
160-169 
50 
25 
4 
16 
30 
42 
31 
198 
150-159 
48 
34 
9 
18 
51 
60 
30 
250 
140-149 
59 
27 
9 
22 
48 
71 
32 
268 
130-139 
61 
35 
8 
24 
60 
65 
37 
290 
120-129 
48 
44 
12 
27 
34 
93 
19 
277 
110-119 
57 
44 
18 
35 
48 
62 
21 
285 
100-109 
33 
35 
19 
34 
32 
54 
21 
228 
90-99 
15 
27 
21 
23 
22 
53 
13 
174 
80-89 
18 
10 
14 
22 
21 
29 
7 
121 
70-79 
11 
7 
13 
16 
8 
20 
2 
77 
60-69 
5 
5 
9 
8 
5 
16 
5 
5* 
50-59 
3 
8 
10 
7 
2 
6 
1 
37 
40-49 
1 
2 
2 
6 
2 
6 
19 
30-39 
2 
5 
1 
8 
20-29 
1 
1 
2 
15-19 
1 
1 
Total.... 
485 
335 
152 
274 
407 
616 
252 
2521 
Median .. 
138.8 
126.1 
102 3 
115.2 
135.1 
126.0 
140.0 
129.2 
the more intelligent medical men to practice in the larger com- 
munities. Although the differences in median scores are not great, 
they undoubtedly indicate that the less intelligent physician can 
more readily gain a practice in the less populous community. 
Earnings of Medical Officers 
Medical officers report annual earnings over a wide range. The 
highest amount reported is $75,000. The lowest, except for in- 
ternes or those beginning practice, is $500. The distribution of 
earnings for the 1536 medical officers who reported this item is 
given in table 20, which indicates also median earnings of $4,318.40. 
Certain of the important factors influencing professional earnings 
are briefly considered below. 
Earnings and location.—The earnings of the medical profession 5774 TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
497 
Table 19 
Distribution of alpha scores of doctors practicing in rural, 
urban and metropolitan communities 
Alpha score 
Rural 
under 2500 
Urban 
2500 to 249,999 
Metropolitan1 
250,000 and over 
Total 
205-212 
200-204 
0.15 
0.2 
0.1 
190-199 
0.75 
0.7 
1.4 
0.9 
180-189 
2.4 
2.8 
4.2 
3.1 
170-179 
1.95 
5.2 
8.0 
5.1 
. 160-169 
6.0 
8.1 
9.6 
8.0 
150-159 
9.15 
10.2 
10.6 
10.0 
140-149 
9.6 
111 
10.7 
10.6 
130-139 
10.5 
10.8 
13.3 
11.4 
120-129 
12.6 
10.7 
9.8 
11.0 
110-119 
11.25 
11.9 
10.2 
11.3 
100-109 
9.3 
9.2 
8.7 
9.1 
90-99 
8.55 
6.4 
6.2 
6.9 
80-89 
6.45 
5.4 
2.6 
4.9 
70-79 
4.35 
3.0 
1.7 
3.1 
60-69 
3.0 
2.0 
1.7 
2.2 
50-59 
2.25 
1.3 
0.8 
1.4 
40-49 
0.75 
0.8 
0.2 
0.6 
30-39 
0.9 
0.1 
0.2 
20-29 
0.1 
0.1 
0.1 
10-19 
0.1 
Total 
666 
1071 
723 
2460 
Median 
122.6 
129 
136.3 
129.3 
differ for sections of the country as shown by tables 21 and 22. 
These differences are similar to those for intelligence, despite the 
fact that the more intelligent officers do not earn most. 
Earnings and population.—Tables 23 and 24 contain significant 
data on the relation of earnings to population of the community. 
The coefficient of correlation is +0.19. This figure is many times 
greater than its probable error and may be taken to indicate that 
density of population has a definite and positive relation to a 
physician’s earnings. 
Earnings and intelligence.—Surprising as it may appear, earnings 
1 Includes the following cities: Baltimore, Boston, Brooklyn, Buffalo, Chicago, 
Cincinnati, Cleveland, Denver, Detroit, Indianapolis, Kansas City, Los Angeles, Mil- 
waukee, Minneapolis, New Orleans, New York, Newark, N. J., Philadelphia, Pittsburgh, 
Portland, Ore., Rochester, St. Louis, San Francisco, Seattle. 498 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Table 20 
Distribution of earnings of 1536 medical officers 
Annual earnings 
Number of cases 
Percentage 
$30,000 and over 
8 
0.5 
25,000 
4 
0.3 
20,000 
9 
0.6 
18,000 
7 
0.5 
16,000 
5 
0.3 
14,000 
22 
1.4 
12,000 
36 
2.3 
10,000 . 
75 
4.9 
9,000 
30 
2.0 
8,000 
64 
4.2 
7,000 
59 
3.8 
6,000 
142 
9.2 
5,000d 
170 
11.1 
4,000 
201 
13.1 
3,000 
297 
19.3 
2,500 
119 
7.7 
2,000 
155 
10.1 
1,500 
66 
4.3 
1,000 
49 
3.2 
500-999 
18 
1.2 
Total1 
1536 
Median 
$4,318.40 
Table 21 
Median annual earnings of doctors from different 
sections of the country 
Section 
Residence 
Certificate 
College 
No. cases 
Median 
earnings 
No. cases 
Median 
earnings 
No. cases 
Median 
earnings 
Northeast.... 
274 
$4781 
274 
$4742 
457 
$4667 
Atlantic 
206 
4774 
204 
4834 
465 
4930 
South central 
105 
3184 
121 
3239 
277 
3525 
Southern 
185 
3803 
169 
3838 
154 
3367 
North central 
249 
4411 
239 
4339 
339 
4310 
Central 
355 
4226 
385 
4385 
746 
4675 
Western 
160 
5000 
113 
4967 
69 
4214 
Total 
1534 
$4332 
1505 
$4338 
1536 
$4318 
1 Earnings were not given by 971 (38.8%) of the 2507 medical officers. STA TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
499 
Table 22 
Distribution of earnings of doctors practicing in different 
parts of the country 
Annual 
earnings 
Northeast 
Atlantic 
South 
central 
Southern 
North 
central 
Central 
Western 
Totals 
$30,000 
and over 
1 
3 
1 
2 
7 
25,000 
2 
1 
1 
4 
20,000 
i 
1 
2 
2 
3 
9 
18,000 
i 
3 
1 
2 
7 
16,000 
i 
3 
1 
5 
14,000 
6 
7 
1 
3 
2 
3 
22 
12,000 
11 
5 
2 
6 
6 
6 
36 
10,000 
16 
11 
3 
4 
ii 
16 
14 
75 
9,000 
7 
5 
1 
2 
4 
6 
• 6 
31 
8,000 
ii 
9 
5 
13 
20 
6 
64 
7,000 
6 
13 
2 
6 
9 
19 
5 
60 
6,000 
32 
15 
2 
16 
26 
30 
21 
142 
5,000 
35 
30 
9 
19 
25 
40 
11 
169 
4,000 
32 
31 
20 
30 
28 
42 
22 
205 
3,000 
43 
34 
19 
38 
58 
83 
23 
298 
2,500 
23 
18 
16 
14 
18 
15 
10 
114 
2,000 
19 
17 
23 
26 
15 
43 
14 
157 
1,500 
10 
5 
4 
16 
8 
16 
7 
66 
1,000 
14 
5 
6 
4 
11 
4 
4 
48 
500-999 
3 
2 
3 
7 
" 
15 
Total.... 
274 
206 
105 
185 
249 
355 
160 
1534 
Median 
earnings 
$4781 
$4774 
$3184 
$3803 
$1411 
$4226 
$5000 
$4337 
Median 
experi- 
ence 
11.21 
11.20 
7.26 
12.79 
11.70 
10.85 
10.15 
11.07 
in the medical profession apparently are not dependent upon in- 
telligence. The correlation between earnings and alpha scores 
(see table 25) is +0.06. On the possibility that this result might 
be misleading, the relationship was still further studied. It was 
thought that experience, because of its predominating influence, 
might obscure the importance of intelligence. The correlation 
was therefore computed for a closer experience-group of from 10 
to 14 years. For this group earnings correlated with intelligence 
to the extent of +0.08. Since even this group had included an 500 
ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Table 23 
Differences in alpha score and in earnings between doctors 
practicing in rural, urban and metropolitan communities 
Community 
Alpha score 
Earnings 
No. cases 
Median 
No. cases 
Median 
Rural 
666 
122.6 
448 
$3606 
Urban 
1071 
129.0 
681 
4994 
Metropolitan1 
723 
136.3 
378 
4646 
Total 
2460 
129.3 
1507 
$4380 
Table 24 
Correlation between earnings and size of town 
POPULATION 
Earnings 
999 
1,000 
2,500 
10,000 
50,000 
250,000 
500,000 
1,000,000 
Total 
$25,000 
and over 
2 
4 
2 
3 
11 
18,000 
2 
4 
3 
4 
1 
2 
16 
14,000 
1 
2 
9 
7 
4 
3 
1 
27 
12,000 
2 
1 
3 
10 
7 
4 
2 
7 
36 
10,000 
5 
4 
13 
18 
9 
7 
7 
12 
75 
8,(XX) 
4 
9 
19 
18 
16 
8 
12 
8 
94 
6,000 
17 
28 
36 
38 
39 
19 
12 
12 
201 
4,000 
67 
45 
66 
54 
49 
37 
25 
28 
371 
3,000 
69 
35 
29 
57 
34 
29 
19 
22 
294 
2,500 
22 
16 
13 
12 
17 
16 
5 
7 
108 
2,000 
53 
25 
17 
14 
16 
10 
9 
8 
152 
1,500 
20 
2 
9 
8 
7 
3 
2 
8 
59 
1,000 
14 
5 
3 
8 
3 
5 
5 
5 
48 
500-999 
4 
3 
2 
1 
3 
1 
1 
15 
Total 
277 
171 
215 
254 
212 
151 
103 
124 
1.507 
r = +0.19 
extreme difference in experience of 5 years, further selection was 
made and the correlation between earnings and intelligence was 
computed for 88 medical officers who reported 12 years’ experience. 
The result was +0.07. These correlations are too low to be sig- 
nificant practically, if not statistically. 
1 For list of cities included see table 19. STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
501 
Earnings, experience and military rank.—The physician’s earning 
capacity, according to the statistical data for the group of medical 
officers, is closely related to the length of his practical experience. 
This appears from the medians of table 26. There is a steady 
increase in median earnings up to 20 years’ experience and there- 
Table 25 
Correlation between earnings and alpha score 
Earnings 
Alpha 
score 
O 
a 
a 
o 
to 
1,000 
1,500 
2,000 
2,500 
3,000 
4,000 
6,000 
8,000 
10,000 
12,000 
000‘f-l 
18,000 
25,000 
and over 
Total 
200-212 
2 
2 
190-199 
3 
1 
3 
6 
1 
14 
180-189 
3 
3 
1 
9 
12 
9 
2 
4 
1 
2 
1 
1 
48 
170-179 
1 
5 
4 
8 
13 
20 
9 
2 
1 
2 
3 
1 
69 
160-169 
4 
3 
10 
6 
23 
23 
18 
4 
7 
4 
4 
1 
1 
108 
150-159 
1 
6 
10 
12 
14 
30 
37 
30 
7 
6 
2 
2 
3 
2 
162 
140-149 
1 
4 
5 
21 
10 
28 
26 
23 
ii 
7 
3 
1 
1 
3 
144 
130-139 
2 
6 
7 
14 
13 
37 
40 
20 
10 
7 
3 
5 
2 
1 
167 
120-129 
3 
7 
14 
6 
36 
41 
24 
15 
9 
4 
2 
i 
1 
163 
110-119 
3 
4 
7 
15 
17 
31 
43 
23 
9 
8 
5 
3 
i 
169 
100-109 
1 
5 
9 
14 
11 
34 
36 
12 
13 
8 
2 
4 
2 
1 
152 
90-99 
1 
5 
5 
12 
7 
16 
27 
13 
11 
4 
2 
1 
1 
105 
80-89 
2 
1 
1 
15 
8 
12 
21 
6 
4 
5 
4 
1 
80 
10— / 9 
2 
5 
10 
4 
6 
15 
3 
3 
4 
2 
1 
55 
60-69 
2 
5 
3 
4 
11 
6 
2 
4 
1 
1 
39 
50-59 
1 
2 
3 
3 
6 
8 
4 
1 
1 
1 
30 
40-49 
1 
1 
1 
1 
5 
5 
1 
1 
16 
30-39 
i 
1 
4 
6 
20-29 
1 
1 
10-19 
1 
1 
Total... 
15 
48 
65 
157 
114 
297 
373 
202 
95 
75 
36 
27 
16 
11 
1531 
r = +0.06 
after a decrease, according to the data of this table. This result 
may be due to seleetional processes operating in the Medical 
Department, for ordinarily physicians with more than 25 years’ 
experience would not be accepted for service. 
The correlation between earnings and experience as computed 
from table 27 is +0.25. This is not a high correlation but it 
indicates the closest relationship which has been found between 
earnings and any other variable. 502 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Table 26 
Median earnings of groups reporting different length 
of experience 
Years’ experience 
No. cases 
Median earnings 
1-3 
147 
$2529 
4-6 
206 
3686 
7-9 
232 
4594 
10-14 
394 
4914 
15-19 
277 
4956 
20-24 
177 
4938 
25 and over 
98 
4625 
Total 
1531 
$4339 
Earnings are importantly related to the military rank an officer 
received, as appears from table 28. Or differently viewed, the 
rank of medical officers varies directly with experience, as does also 
their annual earning capacity in civil practice. 
Table 27 
Correlation between earnings and experience 
Earnings 
Years of experience 
Total 
1-3 
4-6 
7-9 
10-14 
15-19 
20-24 
25 and above 
$25,000 
and over 
2 
3 
1 
2 
3 
11 
18,000 
1 
2 
4 
2 
4 
3 
16 
14,000 
3 
8 
9 
7 
27 
12,000 
1 
5 
14 
8 
6 
2 
36 
10 000 
2 
10 
10 
22 
15 
9 
7 
75 
8,000 
1 
10 
14 
28 
21 
9 
11 
94 
6,000 
3 
23 
39 
63 
35 
32 
7 
202 
4,000 
14 
42 
60 
108 
82 
42 
26 
374 
3,000 
29 
51 
46 
69 
49 
35 
18 
297 
2,500 
26 
18 
11 
21 
23 
12 
3 
114 
2,000 
29 
26 
24 
34 
24 
13 
7 
157 
1,500 
17 
17 
7 
12 
3 
4 
5 
65 
1,000 
19 
5 
7 
6 
5 
1 
5 
48 
500-999 
7 
2 
2 
2 
1 
1 
15 
Total 
147 
206 
232 
394 
277 
177 
98 
1531 
r= + 0.25 ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
503 
Earnings and specialty.—Another factor which has definite 
relationship to the annual earnings of the medical officer is his 
specialty. It has been found, for instance, that those reporting 
themselves as surgeons earn $5,666, whereas those listed as special- 
ists in mental and nervous diseases report earnings of $3,312. 
These facts appear in table 29 along with data for certain other 
Table 28 
Earnings and military rank 
Earnings 
Lieutenan ts 
Captains 
Majors and 
above 
Total 
$30,000 and over 
5 
3 
8 
25,000 
2 
1 
1 
4 
20,000 
2 
5 
2 
9 
18,000 
6 
1 
7 
16,000 
1 
4 
5 
14,000 
6 
11 
5 
22 
12,000 
14 
18 
4 
36 
10,000 
32 
37 
6 
75 
9,000 
9 
19 
2 
30 
8,000 
27 
34 
2 
63 
7,000 
28 
28 
3 
59 
6,000 
76 
61 
6 
143 
5,000 
92 
72 
6 
170 
4,000 
121 
65 
15 
201 
3,000 
199 
86 
10 
295 
2,500 
90 
28 
2 
120 
2,000 
120 
35 
1 
156 
1,500 
54 
10 
2 
66 
1,000 
40 
9 
49 
500-999 
15 
3 
18 
Not given 
573 
326 
72 
971 
Total 
1501 
863 
143 
2507 
Median 
$3728 
$5451 
$5916 
$4318 
Median, years’ ex- 
perience 
7.71 
15.76 
17.67 
11.07 
important special groups. For ready comparison the median alpha 
scores also are inserted. Internal medicine provides next to the 
highest intelligence score, 142.5 points, whereas surgery with a 
median score of 126.8 points reports larger earnings. This is prob- 
ably due on the one hand to the inclusion in the surgical group 
of a number of practitioners whose earnings are exceptionally 504 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
large, and on the other hand to the fact that the Medical Depart- 
ment undoubtedly utilized the services of a considerable number 
of surgeons of low grade intelligence. 
To sum up this account of the relations of earnings, it would 
seem that length of experience, field of specialization, population of 
the community and geographical location are importantly related 
to earning capacity. On the other hand, earning capacity appears 
Table 29 
Earnings and intelligence of specialists in different fields 
Specialty 
Earnings 
Alpha 
scores 
No. cases 
Median 
No. cases 
Median 
Surgery 
395 
$5666 
571 
126.8 
Internal medicine 
102 
.5481 
159 
142.5 
Eye, ear, nose and throat 
139 
5182 
205 
128.3 
Gynecology and obstetrics 
61 
4622 
78 
127.5 
Genito-urinary, urology 
49 
3812 
69 
131.5 
General practice 
463 
3782 
999 
125.2 
Roentgenology, X-ray, Radiography... 
35 
3750 
45 
132.5 
Not given 
143 
3342 
Mental and nervous 
35 
3312 
50 
143.0 
Total 
1536 
$4318 
2507 
129.2 
to be practically independent of intelligence as measured by army 
examination alpha. 
Military Relations and Specialty of Medical Officers 
Military appointment and intelligence.—Several interesting as- 
pects of the relation of doctors to the military machine may be 
seen through these data. By far the larger part of the group 
had been commissioned in the Medical Officers Reserve Corps. 
There were included, however, a small group of officers of the 
National Guard and another of the Regular Army. These two 
small groups made a much better showing on examination alpha 
than did the larger group from the Medical Officers Reserve Corps. 
The medical officers of the Regular Army, in fact, did as well as 
officers of any branch of the army except the engineers. The small 
size of the group, however, makes the reliability of the median un- ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
505 
certain. The median score is 143 for the National Guard and 
Regular Army combined, as compared with 128.6 for the Medical 
Reserve Corps. 
Military assignment, specialty and promotion.—The specialties 
reported by our group of medical officers appear in table 30. 
There was, of course, some attempt to recognize civilian special- 
ization in military assignment. The available data concerning 
civilian specialization and assignment to special work in the Medical 
Department have been assembled in table 31, which shows the 
number of cases in which assignment was to the specialist’s own 
field, the number in which it was different, and the number in which 
no record appears. 
Table 30 
Specialties reported 
Specialty 
No. of cases 
Percentage 
Anesthesia 
37 
1.6 
Eye 
46 
2.0 
Eye, ear, nose and throat 
193 
8.5 
Genito-urinary 
77 
3.4 
Gynecology and obstetrics 
88 
3.9 
Internal medicine 
178 
7.8 
Mental and nervous diseases 
54 
2.4 
Roentgenology 
52 
2.3 
Surgery 
640 
28.2 
General practice 
683 
30.0 
Miscellaneous 
224 
9.9 
Total, specialty given1 
2272 
Similarly table 32 shows the number and percentage of promo- 
tions on record for each division of the Medical Department and 
for each specialty. Promotions were more frequent in some divi- 
sions than in others. They do not appear, however, to have been 
more frequent for medical officers who were assigned to their own 
specialty than for others. The high frequency of promotion in the 
group whose assignment is unknown is unexplained. 
Military rank and its relations.—The rank of the medical officer, 
and especially the rank to which he was commissioned from ci- 
1 Of the 2507 medical officers, 235 failed to indicate either specialty or general 
practice. 506 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Specialty 
| Laboratory division 
| Permanent staff 
| Sanitation 
Eye, ear, nose and throat 
| Genito-urinary diseases 
Internal medicine 
Mental and nervous diseases 
•-» 
Orthopedics 
ssign 
>i 
be 
JD 
’o 
C 
8 
bfi 
a 
o 
P4 
ment 
>> 
U 
B 
bfO 
u 
d 
| Tuberculosis 
| Venereal diseases 
General service 
Field service 
Reconstruction, Division of 
Hospitals, and Aviation 
Assignment same 
Percentage 
Assignment different 
Percentage 
Total, assignment known 
Assignment not known 
Total 
1 
1 
9 
14 
5 
1 
o 
0 
31 
100 
31 
4 
35 
Gynecology and obstetrics 
1 
6 
2 
i 
25 
1 
15 
11 
1 
0 
0 
63 
100 
63 
24 
87 
20 
2 
7 
4 
1 
20 
59 
14 
41 
34 
12 
46 
1 
4 
114 
2 
1 
1 
1 
26 
13 
2 
114 
69 
51 
31 
165 
29 
194 
2 
40 
2 
4 
1 
5 
3 
40 
70 
17 
30 
57 
20 
77 
Internal medicine 
1 
3 
2 
1 
98 
1 
i 
2 
4 
18 
7 
98 
71 
40 
29 
138 
41 
179 
Mental and nervous diseases 
4 
1 
1 
19 
2 
2 
1 
19 
63 
11 
37 
30 
24 
54 
13 
1 
1 
13 
87 
2 
13 
15 
1 
16 
1 
30 
5 
2 
1 
30 
68 
15 
32 
45 
9 
54 
Surgery 
4 
8 
5 
25 
20 
6 
285 
95 
42 
4 
285 
58 
209 
42 
494 
146 
640 
Tuberculosis 
1 
5 
9 
5 
2 
2 
9 
37 5 
15 
62.5 
24 
10 
34 
Venereal diseases 
1 
1 
3 
3 
2 
1 
3 
27 
8 
73 
11 
1 
12 
General practice 
2 
2 
20 
3 
2 
71 
1 
4 
4 
57 
3 
74 
96 
11 
270 
60 
180 
40 
450 
233 
683 
Miscellaneous 
24 
6 
3 
0 
0 
40 
1 
1 
3 
1 
22 
6 
4 
17 
15 
94 
85 
111 
52 
163 
Not known 
6 
3 
6 
5 
2 
8 
1 
6 
24 
5 
18 
2 
86 
86 
147 
233 
Total 
36 
21 
48 
144 
51 
261 
21 
48 
43 
415 
18 
5 
398 
214 
31 
918 
52 
836 
48 
1754 
753 
2507 
Specialty different j No 
H5 
14 
'46 
10 
11 
163 
2 
35 
13 
130 
9 
2 
224 
118 
31 
from assignment \ % 
42 
67 
96 
7 
22 
62 
10 
73 
30 
31 
50 
40 
56 
55 
100 
Relation of military assignment to specialty in civil life 
Table 31 STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
507 
2 
2 
£Q<MSP wo 
Ancsthe 
Gynecol 
Eye 
Eye, ear 
Genito-r 
Internal 
Mental 
c 
3 
% 
»-t O 
o a> 
s a 
o -'2 2 c 5 o 3 
i+ » a p cr*~3 re jz. 
wloSS^WLg- 
a a 2 fio ! 
P SP P f» oJliq’d 
o fj "W c z ft ft 
o 
■d 
•-» 
o 
pJW 
2.01 
• o 
i 
lag.* 
o j? 
/) rf. p 
r 
A 
i 
P CL 
2.0 
o 1/5 
Qrq • 
a< : 
§ 3 3. a : eg 
q.|g O : 
g*. E Cfl V M 
P Q.a< n ■ P 
S' 
cn 
•o 
o 
2. 
p* 
3 
o 
r+ 
• o 
r+ 
; » 
T> rt> 
(A 
2 S Sip ’• I* 
o : « »•: §■ 
£ 
C • p a, tn 
3 
C/J 
c/> . (a sr. ft 
. n> . 2. 
a- “ o . £ 
v ■ : : 2 
h-1 
CO 
CO »-* 
CO<IOO 
001 
0 
Laboratory division 
Oi 
CO 
8 
S8: 
05 • 
Permanent staff 
LO 
O CO 
Hi • O • • 
. 
Sanitation 
* 
00 
oi co co ■ 
CO • • 
0 
25 
00 
25 
00 
00 
© 00 Oi ■ 
00 • • 
28 
H-1 
CO 
6 
co • 
CO • 
g • So- 
o 
Eye, ear, nose and throat 
a- 
to 
g 
o o 
o • • 
13 
0 
Genito urinary diseases 
£ 
h-1 
to a-1 a-1 • 
On CO On • 
4a CO • • 
O 05 • • 
O Oi o o o c o 
Internal medicine 
B 
i—11 
CO 
O 
o • 
to 
Mental and nervous diseases 
P 
Oi 
o o o • 
23 
20 
• o : o ■ o 
Orthopedics 
P 
W 
2. 
h—1 
Oi 
o o o • 
H—* h-1 • 
M <1 • 
: :::: s 
Roentgenology 
3 
9 
o 
3 
§ 
K 
4)a 00 a-* • 
C5 00 to • 
•' 
Ha tO • 
CO o • 
• o o o • to o 
Surgery 
CO 
£; 
►—1 
o' o' • 
Tuberculosis 
05 
CO 
o 
o- 
I—1 
to 
. . o • 
Venereal diseases 
o 
• o 
• o • • © 
o 
O O 
OOOOOOO OOOO^IO 
General service 
to 
Oi 
g 
4l 
to 
O C 
h-OOhIOOO OOOOOO 
| Field service 
CO 
CD 
CO • 
Reconstruction, Division of 
to 
gg 
o o • 
o • ■ oooo 
Hospitals and Aviation 
CO 
t—‘ 
1—1 Ha to to HHHH' 
Assignment same 
CO 
00 o c 
WhJCOh Oi CO CD O • 
05 
>—1 
Wa*M 
to 
Assignment different 
00 
4^ 
CO CO O CO >— CO © CO O C5 05 N 00 o 
S2 
4^ 
co iP cn 
Cn 4l 4*. tO hJ 
Assignment not known 
© 
Oi 
COOWOOOICOOO c: Ci Oi to f- 
Oi 
to 
CO to to 
to to Ha to CO to H to H H 
Percentage of total promoted 
to 
C5 CO O N to CO 
562 
Op co Cn 
S CD vl C 
c 
14 
10 
125 
i—1 1—1 CO 1 
© cn co oo o co 
Number of promotions 
Relation of promotion in the army to assignment and specialty (percentages) 
Table; 32 508 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
vilian life, depended primarily on age, length of experience and 
earnings in civil life. 
Table 33 presents the median values by rank of medical officers, 
for intelligence, experience, schooling and earnings. 
Table 33 
Rank of medical officers and intelligence, experience, 
schooling and earnings 
Median values 
Lieutenant 
Captain 
Major and 
above 
All medical 
officers 
Intelligence 
128 
134 
149 
129.2 
Experience 
7.71 
15.76 
17.67 
11.07 
Schooling 
15.80 
15.80 
15.73 
15.8 
Earnings 
$3728 
$5451 
$5916 
$4318 
Table 34 
Distribution of alpha scores of medical officers 
of different ranks 
Alpha score 
Lieutenant 
Captain 
Major and above 
Total 
200-204 
1 
2 
3 
190-199 
12 
7 
3 
22 
180-189 
34 
32 
a 
77 
170-179 
72 
46 
13 
131 
160-169 
114 
62 
19 
195 
150-159 
146 
86 
19 
251 
140-149 
151 
94 
21 
266 
130-139 
170 
98 
19 
287 
120-129 
165 
100 
11 
276 
110-119 
184 
91 
10 
285 
100-109 
144 
75 
7 
226 
90-99 
113 
53 
7 
173 
80-89 
73 
46 
i 
120 
70-79 
45 
30 
i 
76 
60-69 
33 
19 
i 
53 
50-59 
24 
13 
37 
40-49 
13 
6 
19 
30-39 
6 
1 
i 
20-29 
1 
1 
2 
15-19 
1 
1 
Total 
1501 
863 
143 
2507 
Median 
128 
134 
149 
129.2 STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
509 
Membership of Medical Officers in Medical Societies 
In the group of officers studied, 1964 individuals reported mem- 
bership in medical societies of the United States. The number of 
societies reported ranges from 1 to 7. Over 25% of those report- 
ing held membership in three medical societies. Over 50% report 
membership in one or two societies. Membership in no medical 
society was reported by 237 officers. Of the 1964 officers report- 
ing membership in medical societies, 50.7% were members of the 
American Medical Association. The median intelligence score of 
those reporting themselves as members of the American Medical 
Association is 128.2; that of non-members, 129.8. 
Over 130 medical schools are represented by this group of 2507 
medical officers. The number of men from a single school was, in 
most cases, small, the largest number being 118 from Rush Medical 
College. Only 18 schools were represented by as many as 35 in- 
dividuals. Statistics for these 18 schools are given later. In general, 
it was necessary, if reliable figures were to be obtained, to consider 
schools by groups. They were grouped first according to location. 
The geographical groups thus obtained yielded information which 
confirms geographical data already presented. The schools were 
next grouped by size. Certain statements may be made con- 
cerning the large schools as compared with those which have few 
students. They were then grouped according to entrance require- 
ments. Groupings were also made according to the rating of the 
school by the American Medical Association, and according to 
the medical sect followed. The groupings obtained on these 
different bases have been compared as to score in intelligence ex- 
amination alpha, income reported and length of experience. 
DATA CONCERNING MEDICAL SCHOOLS 
Geographical Classification 
The geographical grouping of states is that previously used for 
grouping medical officers (table 16). 
Geographical Grouping of Medical Schools 
NORTHEAST 
University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College 
Boston University School of Medicine. 
Bowdoin Medical School. 
University of Buffalo Department of Medicine. 
College of Physicians and Surgeons, Boston. 510 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. 
Cornell University Medical College. 
Dartmouth Medical School. 
Fordham University School of Medicine. 
Medical School of Harvard University. 
Long Island College Hospital. 
New York Homeopathic Medical College and Flower Hospital. 
Eclectic Medical College of the City of New York. 
Syracuse University, College of Medicine. 
Tufts College Medical School. 
Union University. 
University of Vermont College of Medicine. 
Yale University School of Medicine. 
ATLANTIC: 
Baltimore University School of Medicine. 
Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital of Philadelphia. 
Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia. 
Johns Hopkins University Medical Department. 
Maryland Medical College. 
University of Maryland School of Medicine and the College of Physicians and Sur- 
geons. 
Medico-Chirurgical College of Philadelphia. 
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. 
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. 
Temple University Department of Medicine. 
Medical College of Virginia. 
University of Virginia Department of Medicine. 
SOUTH CENTRAL: 
University of Chattanooga Medical Department. 
University of Louisville Medical Department. 
University of Nashville Medical Department. 
North Carolina Medical College. 
Medical College of the State of South Carolina. 
University of the South Medical College. 
Southwestern Homeopathic Medical College and Hospital. 
University of Tennessee College of Medicine. 
Vanderbilt University Medical Department. 
SOUTHERN: 
University of Alabama School of Medicine. 
University of Arkansas Medical Department. 
Hospital Medical College, Eclectic, Atlanta. 
Baylor University College of Medicine. 
Emory University School of Medicine. 
Georgia College of Eclectic Medicine and Surgery. 
University of Georgia Medical Department. 
Mississippi Medical College. 
University of Oklahoma School of Medicine. 
Physio-Medical College of Texas. 
Southern Methodist University Medical Department. ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB A ND YERKES 
511 
Medical Department of the Texas Christian University. 
University of Texas Department of Medicine. 
Tulane University of Louisiana School of Medicine. 
NORTH CENTRAL: 
Cincinnati College of Medicine and Surgery. 
Eclectic Medical College, Cincinnati. 
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine. 
Cleveland Homeopathic Medical College. 
Detroit Homeopathic Medical College. 
Detroit Medical College. 
Grand Rapids Medical College. 
Medical Department Hamline University. 
Marquette University School of Medicine. 
University of Michigan Medical School. 
University of Michigan Homeopathic Medical School. 
Milwaukee Medical College. 
Minneapolis College of Physicians and Surgeons. 
University of Minnesota Medical School. 
University of Minnesota College of Homeopathic Medicine and Surgery. 
Ohio State University, College of Medicine. 
Saginaw Valley Medical College. 
Toledo Medical College. 
Western Reserve University School of Medicine. 
Wisconsin College of Physicians and Surgeons. 
CENTRAL: 
Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery. 
Dearborn Medical College. 
Ensworth Medical College. 
Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital of Chicago. 
Hering Medical College. 
University of Illinois College of Medicine. 
Indiana Eclectic Medical College. 
Indiana University School of Medicine. 
Physio-Medical College of Indiana. 
State University of Iowa College of Medicine. 
State University of Iowa College of Homeopathic Medicine. 
Jenner Medical College. 
John A. Creighton Medical College. 
University of Kansas School of Medicine. 
University Medical College of Kansas City. 
Eclectic Medical University, Kansas City. 
Lincoln Medical College. 
Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery, School of Medicine of Loyola University. 
Homeopathic Medical College of Missouri. 
National Medical University, Chicago. 
National University of Arts and Sciences, St. Louis. 
University of Nebraska College of Medicine. 
Northwestern University Medical School. 
Rush Medical College. 
Sioux City College of Medicine. 512 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YEIiKES 
Kansas City Hahnemann Medical College. 
St. Louis University School of Medicine. 
Washington University Medical School. 
WESTERN: 
University of California Medical School. 
Hahnemann Medical College of the Pacific. 
University of Southern California (College of Physicians and Surgeons). 
University of Southern California Medical College. 
California Eclectic Medical College. 
University of Colorado School of Medicine. 
Leland Stanford Junior University School of Medicine. 
University of Oregon Medical School. 
College of Physicians and Surgeons of San Francisco. 
Distribution of alpha scores of men who were graduated from 
schools in each section is similar to that shown in table 17. This 
is naturally the case, as the groups of men from schools in different 
sections overlap to a large extent the group of doctors practicing 
in these sections so that many members of the group are identical. 
I11 other words, the majority of the doctors attended school in the 
same state in which they are practicing; they usually hold certificate 
from that state, or from the state in which their school is situated. 
It is interesting to find that on the whole the schools, good or poor, 
large or small, of a given section of country, did represent fairly 
well the intelligence level of the medical profession in that section. 
Difference in the earning power of graduates from schools of 
these groups are again so closely similar to the difference shown 
in table 22 that they need not be again presented. The South 
central group of states is again the lowest in the median pay received 
by doctors graduated from schools within its borders. The differ- 
ences are somewhat smaller than those of table 22 and are doubt- 
less partially due to the fact that graduates of these schools are also 
largely practicing in these states. 
Classification of the Medical Schools by Size 
When graded according to size the schools represented fall into 
the classification which follows. (The figures were taken from the 
American Medical Directory for 1918, which gives the number 
of students registered in 1916-17.) 
0-49 students 
Grouping of Schools by Size 
University of Alabama School of Medicine, Mobile. 
University of Arkansas Medical Department, Little Rock. STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
513 
Dartmouth Medical School, Hanover, N. H. 
State University of Iowa College of Homeopathic Medicine, Iowa City. 
Lincoln Medical College, Eclectic, Lincoln, Nebraska. 
Eclectic Medical University, Kansas City, Missouri. 
University of Michigan Homeopathic Medical School, Ann Arbor. 
50-99 students 
Baylor University College of Medicine, Dallas, Texas. 
Boston University School of Medicine, Boston, Mass. 
Bowdoin Medical School, Medical Department of Bowdoin College, Brunswick and 
Portland, Maine. 
Eclectic Medical College, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
College of Physicians and Surgeons, Boston, Mass. 
University of Colorado School of Medicine, Boulder and Denver. 
Georgetown University School of Medicine, Washington, D. C. 
University of Georgia Medical Department, Augusta. 
Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital of Chicago, 111. 
University of Oklahoma School of Medicine, Norman and Oklahoma City. 
College of Physicians and Surgeons of San Francisco, Calif. 
Medical College of the State of South Carolina, Charleston. 
Temple University Department of Medicine, Philadelphia, Pa. 
Medical Department of the Texas Christian University, Fort Worth. 
University of Vermont College of Medicine, Burlington. 
Yale University School of Medicine, New Haven, Conn. 
100-149 students 
University of California Medical School, Berkeley and San Francisco. 
University of Southern California College of Medicine, Los Angeles. 
Hahnemann Medical College of the Pacific, San Francisco, California. 
College of Physicians and Surgeons (Medical Department of the University of 
Southern California), Los Angeles. 
Lelancl Stanford Junior University School of Medicine, Palo Alto and San Francisco, 
California. 
University of Kansas School of Medicine, Lawrence and Rosedale. 
Kansas Medical College, Topeka. 
John A. Creighton Medical College, Medical Department of the Creighton University, 
Omaha, Nebraska. 
Jenner Medical College, Chicago, 111. 
Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital of Philadelphia, Pa. 
George Washington University Medical School (National University Medical De- 
partment), Washington, D. C. 
University of Louisville Medical Department, Louisville, Ky. (Hospital College of 
Medicine, Medical Department, Central University of Kentucky; Kentucky School 
of Medicine; Kentucky University Medical Department; and Louisville Medical 
College). 
University of Nebraska College of Medicine, Omaha, Neb. 
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine, Pittsburgh, Pa. 
Syracuse University College of Medicine, Syracuse, N. Y. 
Union University Medical Department (Albany Medical College), Albany, N. Y. 
University of Virginia Department of Medicine, Charlottesville. 
Washington University Medical School, St. Louis, Missouri. 
St. Louis Medical College, St. Louis, Missouri. 
Missouri Medical College, St. Louis, Missouri. 514 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
150-199 students 
University of Buffalo Department of Medicine, Buffalo, N. Y. 
Cornell University Medical College, Ithaca and New York City, N. Y. 
Detroit College of Medicine and Surgery, Detroit, Mich. 
Indiana University School of Medicine, Bloomington and Indianapolis. 
Medico-Chirurgical College of Philadelphia, Pa. 
New York Homeopathic Medical College and Flower Hospital, New York City. 
Vanderbilt University Medical Department, Nashville, Tenn. 
200-249 students 
University of Illinois College of Medicine, Chicago. 
Northwestern University Medical School, Chicago. 
250-299 students 
St. Louis University School of Medicine, St. Louis, Mo. 
Fordham University School of Medicine, New York City. 
Long Island College Hospital, Brooklyn, N. Y. 
University of Minnesota Medical School, Minneapolis. 
University of Texas Department of Medicine, Galveston. 
Tulane University of Louisiana School of Medicine, New Orleans. 
300-399 students 
Medical School of Harvard University, Boston, Mass. 
Johns Hopkins University Medical Department, Baltimore, Md. 
University of Michigan Medical School, Ann Arbor. 
Tufts College Medical School, Boston, Mass. 
400 or more students 
University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College, New York City. 
Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons, New York City. 
Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia, Pa. 
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine, Philadelphia. 
Rush Medical College, Chicago, 111. 
Unclassified 
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine, Cincinnati, Ohio. 
Emory University School of Medicine, Atlanta, Georgia. 
Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery, School of Medicine of Loyola University, 
Chicago, 111. 
State University of Iowa, College of Medicine, Iowa City. 
Marquette University School of Medicine, Milwaukee, Wis. 
University of Maryland School of Medicine and the College of Physicians and Sur- 
geons, Baltimore, Md. 
Ohio State University College of Medicine, Columbus. 
University of Oregon Medical School, Portland. 
University of Tennessee College of Medicine, Memphis. 
Medical College of Virginia, Richmond. 
Western Reserve University School of Medicine, Cleveland, Ohio. 
Extinct 
Hospital Medical College, Eclectic, Atlanta, Georgia. ST A T US OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
515 
Atlantic Medical College, Baltimore, Md. 
Baltimore University School of Medicine, Baltimore, Md. 
California Eclectic Medical College, Los Angeles, Calif. 
Chattanooga Medical College, Chattanooga, Tenn. 
Cincinnati College of Medicine and Surgery, Cincinnati, Ohio. ' 
Cleveland Homeopathic Medical College, Cleveland, Ohio. 
Dearborn Medical College, Chicago, 111. 
Detroit Homeopathic Medical College, Detroit, Mich. 
Ensworth Medical College, St. Joseph, Mo. 
Georgia College of Eclectic Medicine and Surgery, Atlanta. 
Grand Rapids Medical College, Grand Rapids, Mich. 
Hering Medical College, Chicago, 111. 
Indiana Eclectic Medical College, Indianapolis. 
Physio-Medical College of Indiana, Indianapolis. 
University Medical College of Kansas City, Mo. 
Maryland Medical College, Baltimore. 
Milwaukee Medical College, Milwaukee, Wis. 
University of Minnesota College of Homeopathic Medicine and Surgery, Minne- 
apolis. 
Homeopathic Medical College of Missouri, St. Louis. 
Mississippi Medical College, Meridian. 
University of Nashville Medical Department, Nashville, Tenn. 
National Medical University, Chicago, 111. 
National University of Arts and Sciences, Medical Department, St. Louis, Mo. 
Eclectic Medical College of the City of New York. 
Saginaw Valley Medical College, Saginaw, Mich. 
Sioux City College of Medicine, Sioux City, Iowa. 
University of the South Medical College (Sewanee Medical College), Sewanee, Tenn. 
Southern Methodist University Medical Department, Dellas, Texas. 
Kansas City Hahnemann Medical College, Kansas City, Mo. 
Southwestern Homeopathic Medical College and Hospital, Louisville, Ky. 
Toledo Medical College (Medical Department Toledo University), Toledo, Ohio. 
Wisconsin College of Physicians and Surgeons, Milwaukee, Wis. 
The first question is whether the men graduated from the larger 
institutions are a more intelligent group than those from the smaller 
schools. Table 35 shows that on the whole they are. Differences 
are not very large, and the variations are rather irregular. The 
lowest group of schools with less than 50 students is represented 
by only 59 individuals, too few for reliability. In figure 7 the three 
lowest groups, including all those from schools with less than 
150 students, are compared with the groups from schools with 300 
or more students each. This large-attendance group, including 
nine different schools, stands out as distinctly above the others 
in intelligence. 
The earnings reported by graduates from schools of different size 
fall in a manner which is irregular and almost impossible to inter- 
pret. It seems obvious that other factors than the size of the 516 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Fig. 7. Intelligence of graduates of large and small medical schools. Schools under 150 students, ; schools 
with 300 or more students, , 
Secrci 
school have an important influence on the type of student, so that 
the influence of size is obscured. Some of the groups contain 
so few schools that they are not representative geographically, and 
probably not in other ways. For instance, schools having from 200 
to 249 students are represented only by the University of Illinois STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
517 
Table 35 
Distribution of alpha scores of graduates from schools 
of different size 
Alpha 
score 
Number of students 
Ex- 
tinct 
schools 
Unclas- 
sified 
schools 
Total 
0 
to 
49 
50 
to 
99 
100 
to 
149 
150 
to 
199 
200 
to 
249 
250 
to 
299 
300 
to 
399 
400 
or 
more 
200-204 
1 
1 
i 
3 
190-199 
1 
1 
3 
1 
2 
3 
8 
1 
2 
22 
180-189 
1 
8 
10 
4 
5 
3 
13 
21 
2 
10 
77 
170-179 
3 
11 
12 
9 
7 
7 
22 
42 
4 
14 
131 
160-169 
6 
16 
28 
11 
19 
15 
25 
39 
13 
23 
195 
150-159 
5 
16 
40 
22 
16 
15 
19 
63 
13 
41 
250 
140-149 
4 
19 
41 
23 
34 
17 
27 
40 
20 
41 
266 
130-139 
4 
21 
40 
22 
23 
27 
25 
45 
21 
61 
289 
120-129 
9 
14 
45 
27 
26 
16 
19 
40 
19 
61 
276 
110-119 
6 
20 
38 
30 
17 
23 
17 
47 
22 
64 
284 
100-109 
4 
9 
41 
22 
17 
17 
14 
26 
16 
60 
226 
90- 99 
6 
18 
29 
17 
4 
13 
1 
19 
13 
52 
172 
80- 89 
5 
6 
22 
15 
6 
9 
3 
8 
16 
31 
121 
70- 79 
2 
6 
15 
8 
2 
9 
2 
7 
8 
17 
76 
60- 69 
3 
10 
3 
3 
1 
1 
4 
8 
20 
53 
50- 59 
i 
2 
8 
2 
1 
2 
3 
4 
14 
37 
40- 49 
i 
6 
1 
1 
2 
8 
19 
30- 39 
3 
1 
1 
2 
7 
20- 29 
1 
1 
2 
10- 19 
1 
1 
Total. . . 
59 
170 
393 
218 
180 
178 
192 
413 
183 
521 
2507 
Median 
126.3 
133.5 
124.7 
123.6 
135.9 
127 
145.4 
142.2 
120.5 
119.1 
129.2 
College of Medicine and Northwestern University Medical School, 
both in Chicago. The experience of the different groups is uneven 
and interferes with direct comparison. Table 36 indicates the dis- 
tribution of earnings and median experience in the groups of schools 
of different size. 
Classification of the Medical Schools by Entrance Requirements 
As it was impracticable to ascertain the entrance requirement of 
each school for every year in which a member of the group of 
medical officers entered it, classification has been made on the 
basis of the entrance requirement guaranteed as enforced in the 
year 1916-1917. This information was contained in a personally cer- 
tified letter to the Surgeon General of the Army from a responsible 
school official of each college. It is obvious that this method of 518 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Distribution of earnings of graduates from schools 
of different size 
Table 36 
Annual 
earnings 
Number of students 
Unclas- 
sified 
schools 
0 
to 
49 
50 
to 
99 
100 
to 
149 
150 
to 
199 
200 
to 
249 
250 
to 
299 
300 
to 
399 
400 
and 
above 
Extinct 
schools 
Total 
$30,000 
and over 
2 
1 
1 
3 
1 
8 
25,000 
1 
1 
1 
4 
20,000 
. * 
1 
2 
3 
1 
3 
9 
18,000 
1 
2 
3 
1 
7 
16,000 
1 
1 
1 
1 
1 
5 
14,000 
2 
1 
3 
3 
2 
10 
2 
23 
12,000 
1 
1 
4 
2 
7 
3 
1 
8 
4 
4 
35 
10,000 
2 
3 
14 
4 
5 
6 
8 
18 
4 
11 
75 
9,000 
1 
3 
3 
5 
2 
2 
7 
2 
5 
30 
8,000 
1 
3 
5 
7 
5 
9 
6 
11 
5 
12 
64 
7,000 
2 
2 
13 
6 
6 
2 
2 
14 
2 
10 
59 ' 
6,000 
2 
13 
18 
14 
11 
15 
13 
20 
13 
23 
142 
5,000 
4 
18 
25 
12 
15 
11 
11 
25 
15 
34 
170 
4,000 
8 
15 
37 
17 
9 
13 
11 
28 
14 
49 
201 
3,000 
13 
17 
51 
24 
21 
19 
19 
36 
26 
71 
297 
2,500 
2 
11 
16 
15 
3 
6 
10 
15 
12 
29 
119 
2,000 
2 
12 
38 
9 
6 
12 
8 
17 
13 
38 
155 
1,500 
1 
7 
11 
4 
3 
11 
2 
7 
6 
14 
66 
1,000 
1 
3 
10 
4 
3 
7 
8 
1 
12 
49 
500-999 
1 
5 
3 
1 
1 
1 
2 
4 
18 
Earnings 
not 
known 
19 
61 
139 
90 
79 
63 
83 
176 
64 
197 
971 
Total. . . 
59 
170 
393 
218 
180 
178 
192 
413 
183 
521 
2507 
Median 
$4000 
$4233 
$3922 
$4294 
$5500 
$4423 
$4682 
$5240 
$4107 
$3915 
$4318 
Median 
score 
126.3 
133.5 
124.7 
123.6 
135.9 
127 
145.4 
142.2 
120.5 
119.1 
129.2 
Median 
years’ 
experi- 
ence 
8.8 
11.01 
12.97 
10.81 
9.08 
9.65 
9.4 
12.13 
13.48 
10.18 
11.07 
classification is unsatisfactory since many of the poorer schools 
have ceased to exist or have increased their entrance requirements, 
whereas better schools have made less radical changes. 
The lowest requirement reported is one year of college work in 
addition to high school graduation and certain science requirements. ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
519 
The highest requirement (the Johns Hopkins Medical School only) 
is graduation from college. 
Grouping of Schools by Entrance Requirements 
One year of college work 
University of Arkansas Medical Department. 
Baylor University College of Medicine. 
University an4 Bellevue Hospital Medical College. 
Eclectic Medical College, Cincinnati. 
Detroit College of Medicine and Surgery. 
Emory University School of Medicine. 
Fordham University School of Medicine. 
George Washington University Medical School. 
University of Georgia Medical Department. 
Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital of Philadelphia. 
John A. Creighton Medical College. 
University of Louisville Medical Department. 
Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery, School of Medicine of Loyola University. 
Long Island College Hospital. 
University of Maryland School of Medicine and the College of Physicians and Sur- 
geons. 
New York Homeopathic Medical College and Flower Hospital. 
University of Oregon Medical School, and Willamette University Medical Depart- 
ment. 
St. Louis University School of Medicine. 
Temple University Department of Medicine. 
University of Tennessee College of Medicine. 
Medical Department of the Texas Christian University. 
Tulane University of Louisiana School of Medicine. 
Union University (Albany Medical College). 
Vanderbilt University Medical Department. 
University of Buffalo Department of Medicine. 
Two years of college work 
University of Alabama School of Medicine. 
Boston University School of Medicine. 
Bowdoin Medical School. 
University of California Medical School. 
Medical Department of the University of Southern California. 
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine. 
University of Colorado School of Medicine. 
Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. 
Dartmouth Medical School. 
Georgetown University School of Medicine. 
Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital of Chicago. 
University of Illinois College of Medicine. 
Indiana University School of Medicine. 
State University of Iowa College of Medicine. 
State University of Iowa College of Homeopathic Medicine. 
University of Kansas School of Medicine. 
Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia. 
Marquette University School of Medicine. 520 
ST A TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
University of Michigan Medical School. 
University of Michigan Homeopathic Medical School. 
University of Minnesota Medical School, and Medical Department Hamline Uni- 
versity. 
University of Nebraska College of Medicine. 
Northwestern University Medical School. 
University of Oklahoma School of Medicine. 
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. 
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. 
Rush Medical College. 
Syracuse University College of Medicine. 
Medical College of the State of South Carolina. 
University of Texas Department of Medicine. 
University of Virginia Department of Medicine. 
Medical College of Virginia. 
Yale University School of Medicine. 
Washington University Medical School. 
Three years of college work 
Cornell University Medical College. 
Leland Stanford Junior University School of Medicine. 
Western Reserve University School of Medicine. 
More than three years of college work 
Johns Plopkins University Medical Department. 
Medical School of Harvard University. 
Unclassified 
College of Physicians and Surgeons, Boston. 
Jenner Medical College. 
Eclectic Medical University, Kansas City. 
Lincoln Medical College. 
Minneapolis College of Physicians and Surgeons. 
Ohio State University College of Medicine and Ohio Medical University. 
Medico-Chirurgical College of Philadelphia. 
College of Physicians and Surgeons of San Francisco. 
Tufts College Medical School. 
University of Vermont College of Medicine. 
Extinct 
As listed on pages 514, 515. 
Distributions of median alpha scores of these groups of schools 
with different entrance requirements are shown in table 37. The 
decided differences between the medians show that the entrance 
requirement is an important factor in determining the intelligence 
of the students graduated. The higher the requirements the 
more intelligent the group. The difference between the lowest 
group and the highest (medians 118.7 and 154-2) is as great as that 
between the geographical section showing the lowest intelligence 
and that showing the highest. No other classification exhibits 
as great differences in alpha scores as this. STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
521 
Table 37 
Distribution of alpha scores of graduates from schools 
with different entrance requirements 
Alpha 
score 
One year 
college 
Two years 
college 
Three years 
college 
Further 
requirements 
Extinct 
Unclas- 
sified 
Total 
200-204 
2 
1 
3 
190-199 
3 
14 
1 
3 
1 
22 
180-189 
13 
40 
5 
12 
2 
5 
77 
170-179 
20 
78 
6 
15 
4 
8 
131 
160-169 
48 
102 
6 
16 
13 
10 
195 
150-159 
70 
133 
6 
14 
13 
14 
250 
140-149 
63 
144 
3 
16 
20 
20 
266 
130-139 
87 
133 
8 
15 
21 
25 
289 
120-129 
97 
126 
5 
6 
19 
23 
276 
110-119 
115 
111 
5 
9 
22 
22 
284 
100-109 
96 
91 
4 
5 
16 
14 
226 
90- 99 
76 
71 
13 
12 
172 
80- 89 
47 
42 
16 
16 
121 
70- 79 
44 
20 
8 
4 
76 
60-*69 
23 
18 
8 
4 
53 
50- 59 
18 
11 
1 
4 
3 
37 
40- 49 
11 
5 
1 
2 
19 
30- 39 
7 
7 
20- 29 
1 
1 • 
2 
15- 19 
1 
1 
Total 
839 
1142 
51 
112 
183 
180 
2507 
Median.... 
118.7 
135.9 
146.3 
154.2 
120.5 
126.4 
129.2 
The earnings of graduates from schools in these groups (table 
38) show the same tendency to increase with the increase of en- 
trance requirements, except that the highest group, including the 
Johns Hopkins Medical School and Harvard Medical School, 
report on the whole lower earnings than the preceding group. 
The differences given are striking and show clearly that the grad- 
uates from medical schools with high entrance requirements earn 
more than the graduates of other schools. This may be because 
the schools which have the more advanced educational basis on 
which to build lead their students to greater specialization, and that 
as specialists they have a higher earning capacity. That difference 
in length of previous experience is not mainly responsible for these 
differences in earnings is indicated by the medians for experience 
at the bottom of the table. 522 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Table 38 
Distribution of earnings of graduates from schools with 
different entrance requirements 
Annual 
salary 
One year 
college 
Two years 
college 
More than 
two years 
college 
\ 
Extinct 
Unclassified 
Total 
$30,000 
3 
9 
12 
18,000 
2 
11 
2 
i 
16 
16,000 
5 
18 
2 
i 
1 
27 
12,000 
9 
20 
1 
4 
2 
36 
10,000 
18 
41 
8 
4 
4 
75 
8,000 
29 
44 
7 
7 
7 
94 
6,000 
59 
95 
20 
T3 
10 
201 
4,000 
120 
173 
18 
29 
31 
371 
3,000 
110 
123 
17 
25 
21 
297 
2,500 
50 
39 
4 
12 
14 
119 
2,000 
74 
54 
6 
13 
8 
155 
1,500 
29 
26 
2 
6 
3 
66 
1,000 
18 
19 
6 
1 
5 
49 
500-999 
Salary not 
9 
8 
1 
18 
known 
304 
462 
69 
64 
72 
971 
Total 
839 
1142 
163 
183 
180 
2507 
Median . . . 
$3795 
$4807 
$5300 
$4107 
$4150 
Median 
score.... 
118.7 
135.9 
150.9 
120.5 
126.4 
129.2 
Median 
years’ ex- 
perience. . . 
10.47 
11.50 
9.39 
13.48 
9.53 
11.07 
Classification According to Rating of American Medical 
Association 
The general excellence of the school or the extent to which it 
attained the standard of the American Medical Association, as 
indicated by the rating given by the Association, served as a basis 
for the following classification. The American Medical Directory 
of 1918 was used as source of information. 
Grouping of Schools by Rating of American Medical 
Association 
Class A 
University of Alabama School of Medicine. 
Baylor University College of Medicine. 
University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College. 
Boston University School of Medicine. STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
523 
Bowdoin Medical School. 
University of Buffalo Department of Medicine. 
University of California Medical School, and Hahnemann Medical College of the 
Pacific. 
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine. 
University of Colorado School of Medicine. 
Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. 
Cornell University Medical College. 
Dartmouth Medical School. 
Detroit College of Medicine and Surgery. 
Emory University School of Medicine. 
Fordham University School of Medicine. 
Georgetown University School of Medicine. 
George Washington University Medical School. 
University of Georgia Medical Department. 
Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital of Philadelphia. 
Medical Department Hamline University. 
Medical School of Harvard University. 
University of Illinois College of Medicine. 
Indiana University School of Medicine. 
State University of Iowa College of Medicine. 
State University of Iowa College of Homeopathic Medicine. 
Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia. 
John A. Creighton Medical College. 
Johns Hopkins University Medical Department. 
University of Kansas School of Medicine, and Kansas Medical College. 
Leland Stanford Junior University School of Medicine. 
Long Island College Hospital. 
University of Louisville Medical Department. 
Marquette University School of Medicine. 
University of Maryland School of Medicine and the College of Physicians and Sur- 
geons. 
University of Michigan Medical School. 
University of Michigan Homeopathic Medical School. 
University of Minnesota Medical School. 
University of Nebraska College of Medicine. 
Northwestern University Medical School. 
Ohio State University College of Medicine. 
Minneapolis College of Physicians and Surgeons. 
University of Oregon Medical School, and Willamette University Medical Depart 
ment. 
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. 
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. 
Rush Medical College. 
Medical College of the State of South Carolina. 
St. Louis University School of Medicine. 
Syracuse University College of Medicine. 
Medico-Chirurgical College of Philadelphia. 
University of Tennessee College of Medicine. 
University of Texas Department of Medicine. 
Tufts College Medical School. 
Tulane University of Louisiana School of Medicine. 524 
STA TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Albany Medical College. 
Vanderbilt University Medical Department. 
University of Vermont College of Medicine. 
University of Virginia Department of Medicine. 
Medical College of Virginia. 
Washington University Medical School. 
Western Reserve University School of Medicine. 
Yale University School of Medicine. 
Class B 
Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery. 
University of Arkansas Medical Department. 
University of Southern California Medical Department, and University of Southern 
California College of Medicine. 
Eclectic Medical College, Cincinnati. 
Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital of Chicago. 
Chicago Homeopathic Medical College. 
Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery, School of Medicine of Loyola University. 
New York Homeopathic Medical College and Flower Hospital. 
University of Oklahoma School of Medicine. 
Temple University Department of Medicine. 
Medical Department of the Texas Christian University. 
Class C 
College of Physicians and Surgeons, Boston. 
Jenner Medical College. 
Eclectic Medical University, Kansas City. 
Lincoln Medical College. 
College of Physicians and Surgeons of San Francisco. 
Extinct 
As listed on pages 514, 515. 
Table 39 shows the results with respect to scores on intelligence 
examination alpha. Here again there are obvious differences 
between the intelligence levels of the groups. The difference 
between the median alpha scores of the groups from schools rated 
C and from those rated A is little more than half as great as between 
schools requiring one year of college work and those requiring 
college graduation for entrance, but it is, nevertheless, significant. 
It is interesting that the schools rated C stand as a group even 
below those schools in each list which have already become extinct. 
The extinct group is well below the whole group in intelligence, 
and also in earnings, although naturally the median experience is 
greater. 
The earnings of graduates from schools rated B and C are 
reported as somewhat lower (table 40) than earnings of those from 
schools rated A and the differences in experience shown at the foot 
of table 40 are not such as entirely to account for this. It should STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
525 
Table 39 
Distribution of alpha scores of graduates from schools differently 
rated by the American Medical Association 
Alpha score 
A. M. A. rating 
Extinct 
Total 
Class A 
Class B 
Class C 
200-204 
3 
3 
190-199 
20 
1 
1 
22 
180-189 
69 
5 
1 
2 
77 
170-179 
124 
3 
4 
131 
160-169 
171 
10 
1 
13 
195 
150-159 
221 
16 
13 
250 
140-149 
234 
11 
1 
20 
266 
130-139 
*249 
17 
2 
21 
289 
120-129 
233 
22 
2 
19 
276 
110-119 
238 
20 
4 
22 
284 
100-109 
199 
8 
3 
16 
226 
90-99 
133 
24 
2 
13 
172 
80-89 
99 
4 
2 
16 
121 
70-79 
60 
8 
8 
76 
60-69 
43 
2 
8 
53 
50-59 
33 
4 
37 
40-49 
16 
1 
2 
19 
30-39 
6 
1 
7 
20-29 
1 
1 
2 
10-19 
1 
1 
Total 
2152 
154 
18 
183 
2507 
Median.... 
130.6 
123.3 
113.3 
120.5 
129.2 
be noted, however, that the experience of medical officers from 
schools in group B is less than that of those from schools in the 
other groups. 
Classification by Medical Sect 
Comparisons between schools belonging to different medical 
sects were started by means of information given in the American 
Medical Directory for 1918. The institutions calling themselves 
“regular,” “homeopathic” and “eclectic” were as follows: 
Grouping of Schools by Medical Sect 
Regular 
University of Alabama School of Medicine. 
University of Arkansas Medical Department. 
Baltimore University School of Medicine. 
Baylor University College of Medicine. 
University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College. 526 
STA TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
College of Physicians and Surgeons, Boston. 
Bowdoin Medical School. 
University of Buffalo Department of Medicine. 
University of California Medical School. 
University of Southern California College of Medicine. 
Chattanooga Medical College. 
Cincinnati College of Medicine and Surgery. 
University of Cincinnati College of Medicine. 
University of Colorado School of Medicine. 
Columbia University College of Physicians and Surgeons. 
Cornell University Medical College. 
Dartmouth Medical School. 
Table 40 
Distribution of earnings of graduates from schools differently 
rated by the American Medical Association 
Earnings 
A. M. A. rating 
Extinct 
Total 
Class A 
Class B 
Class C 
$30,000 
and over 
8 
8 
25,000 
4 
4 
20,000 
8 
1 
9 
18,000 
7 
7 
16,000 
4 
1 
5 
14,000 
21 
1 
22 
12,000 
31 
1 
4 
36 
10,000 
68 
3 
4 
75 
9,000 
27 
1 
2 
30 
8,000 
56 
2 
1 
5 
64 
7,000 
56 
1 
2 
59 
6,000 
116 
11 
2 
13 
142 
5,000 
149 
6 
15 
170 
4,000 
175 
10 
2 
14 
201 
3,000 
238 
29 
4 
26 
297 
2,500 
100 
5 
2 
12 
119 
2,000 
131 
ii 
13 
155 
1,500 
55 
5 
6 
66 
1,000 
44 
3 
1 
i 
49 
500-999 
17 
1 
18 
Earnings not 
known 
847 
64 
6 
64 
971 
Total 
2152 
154 
18 
183 
2507 
Median 
$4385 
$3690 
$37.50 
$4107 
$4318 
Median score... . 
130.6 
123.3 
113.3 
120.5 
129.2 
Median years’ 
experience 
11.06 
7.39 
10.71 
13.48 
11 07 STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
527 
Dearborn Medical College. 
Detroit College of Medicine and Surgery. 
Emory University School of Medicine. 
Ensworth Medical College. 
Fordham University School of Medicine. 
Georgetown University School of Medicine. 
George Washington University Medical School. 
University of Georgia Medical Department. 
Grand Rapids Medical College. 
Medical Department Hamline University. 
Medical School of Harvard University. 
University of Illinois College of Medicine. 
Indiana University School of Medicine, and Physio-Medical College of Indiana. 
State University of Iowa College of Medicine. 
Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia. 
Jenner Medical College. 
John A. Creighton Medical College. 
Johns Hopkins University Medical Department. 
University of Kansas School of Medicine, and Kansas Medical College. 
University Medical College of Kansas City. \ 
Leland Stanford Junior University School of Medicine. 
Long Island College Hospital. 
University of Louisville Medical Department. 
Marquette University School of Medicine. 
University of Maryland School of Medicine, and the College of Physicians and 
Surgeons. 
Milwaukee Medical College. 
University of Michigan Medical School. 
University of Minnesota Medical School. 
Mississippi Medical College. 
University of Nashville Medical Department. 
Maryland Medical College. 
National University of Arts and Sciences Medical Department. 
University of Nebraska College of Medicine. 
Northwestern University Medical School. 
Ohio State University College of Medicine. 
University of Oklahoma School of Medicine. 
University of Oregon Medical School, and Willamette University Medical Depart- 
ment. 
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine. 
Medico-Chirurgical College of Philadelphia. 
University of Pittsburgh School of Medicine. 
Rush Medical College. 
Saginaw Valley Medical College. 
College of Physicians and Surgeons of San Francisco. 
Sioux City College of Medicine. 
Medical College of the State of South Carolina. 
University of the South Medical College. 
Southern Methodist University Medical Department. 
St. Louis University School of Medicine. 
Temple University Department of Medicine. 
University of Tennessee College of Medicine. 528 
STA TUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Medical Department of the Texas Christian University. 
University of Texas Department of Medicine. 
Toledo Medical College. 
Tufts College Medical School. 
Tulane University of Louisiana School of Medicine. 
Albany Medical College. 
Vanderbilt University Medical Department. 
University of Vermont College of Medicine. 
University of Virginia Department of Medicine. 
Washington University Medical School. 
Western Reserve University School of Medicine. 
Wisconsin College of Physicians and Surgeons. 
Yale University School of Medicine. 
Homeopathic 
Atlantic Medical College. 
Boston University School of Medicine. 
Hahnemann Medical College of the Pacific. 
Cleveland Homeopathic Medical College. 
Detroit Homeopathic Medical College. 
Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital of Chicago. 
Chicago Homeopathic Medical College. 
Hahnemann Medical College and Hospital of Philadelphia. 
Hering Medical College. 
State University of Iowa College of Homeopathic Medicine. 
University of Michigan Homeopathic Medical School. 
University of Minnesota College of Homeopathic Medicine and Surgery. 
Missouri Medical College. 
National Medical University. 
New York Homeopathic Medical College and Flower Hospital. 
Kansas City Hahnemann Medical College. 
Southwestern Homeopathic Medical College and Hospital. 
Eclectic 
Hospital Medical College, Eclectic, Atlanta. 
California Eclectic Medical College. 
Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery. 
Eclectic Medical College, Cincinnati. 
Georgia College of Eclectic Medicine and Surgery. 
Indiana Eclectic Medical College. 
Eclectic Medical University, Kansas City. 
Lincoln Medical College, Eclectic. 
Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery, School of Medicine of Loyola University. 
Eclectic Medical College of the City of New York. 
Syracuse University College of Medicine. 
Graduates from homeopathic medical schools made scores on 
examination alpha as much greater than those made by graduates 
from schools calling themselves eclectic as are the scores of Class 
A schools above those of Class C (table 41). The median alpha 
scores of graduates from “regular” schools fall approximately 
half way between those of groups from homeopathic and eclectic ST A TVS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
529 
schools. It is of course possible that homeopathic physicians were 
scrutinized with special care before they were commissioned in the 
army so that they were thus more carefully selected than the 
“regulars.” The homeopathic group shows the same superiority 
in the matter of earnings, though this may be partly accounted 
for by its greater experience. The eclectic group reports lower 
earnings than the regulars, but this may be accounted for by its 
relative lack of experience (table 42). 
Table 41 
Distribution of alpha scores of graduates from schools of 
different medical sects 
Alpha score 
Regular 
Homeopathic 
Eclectic 
Total 
200-204 
3 
3 
190-199 
19 
2 
1 
22 
180-189 
71 
4 
2 * 
77 
170-179 
126 
5 
131 
160-169 
180 
11 
4 
195 
150-159 
223 
19 
8 
250 
140-149 
243 
17 
6 
266 
130-139 
265 
12 
12 
289 
120-129 
244 
13 
19 
276 
110-119 
257 
10 
17 
284 
100-109 
214 
5 
7 
226 
90- 99 
148 
8 
16 
172 
80- 89 
115 
2 
4 
121 
70- 79 
68 
8 
76 
60- 69 
47 
3 
3 
53 
50- 59 
37 
37 
40- 49 
17 
1 
1 
19 
30- 39 
6 
1 
7 
20- 29 
2 
2 
15- 19 
1 
1 
Total 
2286 
112 
109 
2507 
Median 
128.5 
140.8 
117.8 
129.2 
Comparison of Schools 
Eight schools are represented by more than 75 graduates each. 
These groups are considered large enough to yield fairly reliable 
statistical information. Ten additional schools are represented 
by from 35 to 60 graduates. The information for these schools, 
although less reliable, is worthy of presentation. Table 43 gives, 
for each of these 18 schools, the number of graduates by which 530 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
Table 42 
Distribution of earnings of graduates from schools of 
different medical sects 
Earnings 
Regular 
Homeopathic 
Eclectic 
Total 
$30,000 and over 
8 
8 
25,000 
4 
4 
20,000 
9 
9 
18,000 
7 
7 
16,000 
5 
5 
14,000 
20 
1 
1 
22 
12,000 
32 
3 
1 
36 
10,000 
69 
5 
1 
75 
9,000 
28 
1 
1 
30 
8,000 
60 
2 
2 
64 
7,000 
54 
4 
1 
59 
6,000 
123 
12 
7 
142 
5,000 
158 
7 
5 
* 170 
4,000 
187 
6 
8 
201 
3,000 
258 
20 
19 
297 
2,500 
109 
6 
4 
119 
2,000 
144 
5 
6 
155 
1,500 
62 
2 
2 
66 
1,000 
43 
1 
5 
49 
500-999 
17 
1 
18 
Earnings not known 
889 ‘ 
37 
45 
971 
Total 
2286 
112 
109 
2507 
Median 
$4350 
$4583 
$3750 
$4318 
Median score 
128.5 
140.8 
117.8 
129.2 
Median yrs. experience 
10.11 
13.79 
7 
11.07 
a school was represented, median alpha score, pre-medical educa- 
tion, total education, experience, annual earnings, percentage of 
the graduates who were members of the American Medical Asso- 
ciation, percentage known to have been promoted while in the 
army and information concerning the specialties of graduates. 
It is not surprising to find that a few schools are seemingly of 
outstanding excellence. There are, for example, among these 18 
medical schools 5 which rank exceptionally high in intelligence of 
graduates. These 5 constitute two groups, the first of which 
comprises the Johns Hopkins Medical School and the Medical 
School of Harvard University, and the second, somewhat lower in 
intelligence of graduates, the College of Physicians and Surgeons STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
531 
Graduates from: 
Number students 
1917 
Entrance req u i r e - 
ments 1917 
Number cases 
Median alpha score 
Median pre-medical 
education 
Median total educ. 
Median experience 
Median earnings 
Percentage A. M. A. 
members 
Percentage pro- 
moted in army 
Percentage general 
practice 
Percentage eye, ear, 
nose and throat 
Percentage internal 
medicine 
Percentage surgery 
Columbia University College of Physicians and Sur- 
85500 
43.8 
21 .3 
17.0 
8.6 
14.3 
38.6 
geons 
491 
2 yrs. Col. 
79 
148.8 
15.13 
18.42 
12.03 
Medical School of Harvard University 
357 
Graduation1 
77 
153.1 
15.32 
18 86 
11 .25 
5000 
41 .6 
19.5 
16.9 
12.7 
11.3 
29.6 
University of Illinois College of Medicine 
213 
2 yrs. Col. 
88 
129.4 
11.83 
15.83 
9 1 
4750 
50.0 
18.2 
34.7 
10.7 
5.3 
37.7 
Jefferson Medical College of Philadelphia 
University of Maryland School of Medicine and the 
540 
2 yrs. Col. 
81 
129.2 
12.59 
16.5 
9.83 
4722 
46.9 
33.3 
28.1 
17.2 
10.9 
32.8 
College of Physicians and .Surgeons 
298 
1 yr. Col.2 
102 
116.7 
11 .83 
15.73 
12.05 
4944 
38.2 
24.5 
35.6 
21.1 
7 8 
18.9 
Northwestern University Medical School 
247 
2 yrs. Col. 
92 
139.3 
13.24 
17.08 
9.07 
5889 
53 .3 
19.6 
25.3 
13.3 
3.6 
49.4 
University of Pennsylvania School of Medicine 
585 
2 yrs. Col. 
81 
148.8 
13.8 
18.09 
12.67 
5300 
54.3 
33.3 
20.0 
13.8 
9.2 
26 .2 
Rush Medical College 
567 
2 yrs. Col. 
118 
148.8 
15.09 
17.58 
12.21 
5500 
50.8 
25.4 
26.1 
8.7 
14.1 
37.0 
AUL COLLEGES 
2507 
129.2 
12.16 
16.07 
11.07 
4318 
50.7 
22.3 
33.3 
9.0 
8.0 
30.0 
University and Bellevue Hospital Medical College. . . . 
429 
1 yr. Col.2 
54 
126.7 
11.88 
15.86 
15.5 
5000 
29.6 
20.4 
20.4 
4.1 
14.3 
40.8 
University of Buffalo Department of Medicine 
196 
1 yr. Col.2 
39 
122.5 
11 .76 
15.63 
8.88 
3000 
38.5 
7.7 
20.6 
17.6 
8.8 
26.5 
Johns Hopkins University Medical Department 
359 
Graduation 
35 
155.8 
15.56 
19.44 
7.67 
52.50 
42.9 
37.1 
22.2 
18.5 
25.9 
11.1 
University of Louisville Medical Department 
Chicago College of Medicine and Surgery, School of 
118 
1 yr. Col.2 
60 
113.' 
11.70 
15.68 
8.5 
3250 
40.0 
21.7 
45.2 
5.8 
0 
26.9 
Medicine of Loyola University 
643 
1 yr. Col. 
60 
117.0 
11 .69 
15.68 
4.14 
3318 
16.0 
30.2 
3 .8 
3 .8 
26 .4 
University of Michigan Medical .School 
322 
2 yrs. Col. 
47 
136.3 
13.17 
16.86 
12.69 
4833 
48.9 
25.5 
31.0 
16.7 
7.1 
31 .0 
St. Louis University School of Medicine 
254 
1 yr. Col.2 
50 
122.5 
11.96 
15.94 
11 .36 
5000 
52.0 
24.0 
31.1 
22.2 
6.7 
25.7 
University of Tennessee College of Medicine 
122 
1 yr. Col. 
62 
93.3 
12.15 
15.96 
11.23 
3250 
30.6 
14.5 
54.7 
9.4 
3.8 
22.6 
Tulane University of Louisiana School of Medicine.... 
267 
1 yr. Col. 
51 
117.5 
12.0 
16.67 
9.00 
3875 
37.3 
21.6 
33.3 
15.5 
2.2 
35.6 
Vanderbilt University Medical Department 
152 
1 yr. Col. 
41 
124.6 
12.8 
16.5 
6.04 
3667 
46.3 
31.7 
34.5 
6.9 
13.8 
37.9 
1 Harvard requires a bachelor’s degree, or standing in upper third of class during two or three college years. 
1 2 yrs. college beginning 1918. 
Comparison of schools 
Table 43 532 
STATUS OF MEDICAL PROFESSION IN ARMY: COBB AND YERKES 
of Columbia University, the School of Medicine of the University 
of Pennsylvania and Rush Medical College. 
The graduates of the medical schools of Johns Hopkins University 
and Harvard University present the highest scores on examination 
alpha and few exceptionally low scores, ioo points being practically 
the minimum. They also spend relatively more time on their 
medical training and command large earnings. In the latter re- 
spect, however, they are surpassed by the graduates of North- 
western University Medical School, the College of Physicians and 
Surgeons of Columbia University and Rush Medical College. 
The earnings reported by the group from Northwestern Uni- 
versity Medical School are notably high. This is not due to 
greater experience, for the median (9 years) for the group is two 
years less than that for the entire group of medical officers. It is 
not to be explained geographically, for in general schools in the same 
section show smaller earnings. Probably the unusually large pro- 
portion of surgeons is largely responsible for the high rank of the 
school in earnings of its graduates. It is interesting to compare 
the three Chicago schools from which there is a considerable number 
of cases: The University of Illinois College of Medicine, North- 
western University Medical School and Rush Medical College. 
The alpha medians are 129.4, I39-3> and 148.8, respectively. The 
median number of years devoted to education is 15.8, 17, 17.6, 
respectively; the median experience is 9.1, 9.1 and 12.2 years, and 
the median earnings, $4750, $5889 and $5500. Bulletin of the National Research Council 
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