TM Mi 
WAR DEPARTMENT TECHNICAL MANUAL 
PRINCIPLES OF 
COLD WEATHER 
CLOTHING AND 
EQUIPMENT 
WAR DEPARTMENT • 26 OCTOBER 1944 WAR DEPARTMENT TECHNICAL MANUAL 
T M 1 0-2 7 5 
PRINCIPLES OF 
COLD WEATHER 
CLOTHING AND 
EQUIPMENT 
WA R DEPARTMENT 
2 6 OCTOBER 1944 
United States Government Printing Office 
Washington: 1944 WAR DEPARTMENT, 
Washington 25, D. C., 26 October 1944. 
[A.G. 300.7 (1 Jul 44).] 
TM 10-275, Principles of Cold Weather Clothing and Equipment, is 
published for the information and guidance of all concerned. 
By order of the Secretary of War: 
G. C. MARSHALL, 
Chief of Staff. 
Official: 
J. A. ULIO, 
Major General, 
The Adjutant General. 
Distribution: 
As prescribed in paragraph 9a, FM 21-6; Bn & H (1); C in Arctic Z 
(10); C in Extreme Cold Temperate Z (10); C in Temperate Z 1 & 
2 (2). (See map on page iii as guide for distribution to areas in Arctic 
and Temperate Zones.) 
For explanation of symbols, see FM 21—6. 
II CONTENTS 
Paragraphs Page 
CHAPTER 1. CLOTHING. 
Section I. General 1-3 1 
II. Basic principles for keeping warm 4-9 1 
III. Body clothing 10-26 4 
IV. Footwear 27-37 18 
V. Handwear 38-43 28 
VI. Headgear 44-54 31 
CHAPTER 2. EQUIPMENT. 
Section I. Packing equipment 55-57 35 
11. Sleeping equipment 58-59 43 
III. Cooking equipment and food bags 60-65 48 
IV. Making camp 66-69 55 
V. Mountain climbing equipment 70-73 58 
VI. Skiing equipment 74-83 64 
VII. Snowshoes 84-88 75 
VIII. Miscellaneous equipment 89-93 78 
Dark shaded area—Temperate Z 1 C(2) 
Medium shaded area—Temperate Z 2 C(2) 
Light shaded area—Temperate Z 3 No Distr. 
Unshaded area in Arctic Z C(10) 
Unshaded area in Extreme Cold—Temperate Z C(10) 
Unshaded area in Tropic Z No. Distr. 
ill CHAPTER 1 
CLOTHING 
Section I. GENERAL 
I. PURPOSE. The purpose of this manual is to insure proper use, care, 
and maintenance of cold-weather clothing and equipment. More cas- 
ualties in extremely cold climates and mountainous terrain have been 
caused by inadequate clothing and equipment and the improper use of 
adequate clothing and equipment, than have been caused by enemy 
forces. Each soldier must learn a special technique to enable him to 
live comfortably and safely in the field under the most adverse condi- 
tions. Ignorance and carelessness in using and caring for specialized 
clothing and equipment have far more serious consequences in the 
mountains and cold climates than elsewhere. If a soldier in Georgia 
uses the wrong kind of socks, he has to nurse a painful pair of blistered 
feet; if he makes a mistake about the kind of footwear to use in the 
winter in Alaska, or if he uses the right type incorrectly, his feet freeze 
and he is likely to lose several toes. Remember at all times that a soldier 
who has fallen a casualty to the weather is just as useless as one knocked 
out by enemy fire. 
2. SCOPE. This manual deals with all important items of clothing and 
equipment used in cold climates and in the mountains. Not everything 
in the manual is issued to each man or to each unit, but all specialized 
items which are issued to an individual or to a unit should be checked 
against the appropriate section in this manual. (The items marked 
with an asterisk (*) are limited standard, and will be issued only until 
exhausted.) 
3. REFERENCE. For information concerning cold weather operations as 
a whole, see FM 31-15 and TM 1-240. 
Section li. BASIC PRINCIPLES FOR KEEPING WARM 
4, PRINCIPLE OF INSULATION. Substances which offer little resistance 
to the transference of heat are known as good conductors; those which 
resist it are said to be good insulators. Suitable cold weather clothing 
is not warm in itself; it is merely a good insulator and a poor conductor 
of heat. The heat of the body is held in by the clothing, and prevented 
from escaping into the atmosphere. Since still air is an excellent insu- 
I later, the best cold-weather clothes are those which entrap a considerable 
amount of air. The warmth of a woolen sweater lies mainly in the 
thousands of tiny air cells between the woolen fibers; fur is warm be- 
cause of the air trapped among the hairs. (Some furs, such as caribou, 
have hollow hair, which makes them even warmer.) Several thin layers 
of cloth are better than one thick, heavy, matted piece of material, for 
air pockets can form between the layers. 
5. IMPORTANCE OF LOOSE APPAREL. Cold-weather clothing must be 
roomy. If it is tight, much of the insulating air will be squeezed out. 
Moreover, the pressure on the body will restrict the circulation of the 
blood, which must move freely if frostbite is to be avoided. Loose-fitting 
clothes are perhaps not as smart in appearance as most military clothing, 
but they are essential if casualties from the cold are to be avoided. 
6. CLEANLINESS, a. Dirt and grease mat clothing and fill the air 
pockets which give it its warmth. Grease makes clothing a good con- 
ductor of heat and a poor insulator. Therefore, dirty clothes are cold 
clothes. Clothes which are to be worn in cold weather must therefore 
be kept as clean as possible. 
b. Wash and rinse woolens in lukewarm water; if washed in hot water 
they will shrink badly. 
7. IMPORTANCE OF AVOIDING UNNECESSARY PERSPIRATION. 
a. Moisture is a good conductor of heat. When clothing gets damp, the 
spaces previously occupied by that excellent insulator, still air, become 
filled with heat-conducting moisture, which allows body-heat to escape. 
Clothing must be kept dry if it is to furnish good insulation. Since 
perspiration is the one factor most likely to cause wet clothing, shed 
clothes before getting really hot. In cold weather, it is better to be 
slightly chilly and dry than to run the risk of sweating. To stay warm, 
avoid getting hot. 
b. There is a second reason for avoiding perspiration. Evaporation 
of perspiration causes a great heat loss. Regardless of care taken, short 
periods of strenuous activity will always result in some perspiration. In 
such cases, loose clothing can be opened at the neck, sleeves, waist, and 
ankles to allow air to circulate directly on the skin and evaporate the 
perspiration before the body becomes overheated. 
8. ESSENTIAL CHARACTERISTICS OF COLD-WEATHER CLOTHING. 
a. All clothing should be— 
(1) Loose. 
(2) Clean. 
(3) Dry. 
b. Outer clothing should be— 
2 (1) Windproof, to prevent displacement of the insulating air held in 
air pockets in the clothing. 
(2) Water-repellent, to keep light rain and snow from penetrating to 
the inner clothing. Do not wear waterproof clothing in cold weather, 
as it will prevent perspiration from evaporating and cause inner cloth- 
ing to become wet. 
c. Inner clothing should consist of several layers of some good insu- 
lating material, such as wool or pile. 
9. DRYING CLOTHING IN COLD WEATHER. Even in the coldest 
weather it is impossible to avoid perspiring entirely. Keeping perspira- 
tion down to a minimum, and drying the clothing after it gets damp, 
are two of the biggest problems for the soldier operating in the cold. 
He must be very careful to make use of every opportunity to dry his 
clothing. 
a. Removal of frost. Regardless of the care taken to prevent perspira- 
tion in cold weather, some moisture will always condense in clothing 
and boots in the form of frost. Most of this frost (usually deposited 
just inside the outer layer) may be brushed or beaten off before it has 
a chance to melt. Before entering quarters, take off the outer clothing, 
turn it inside out, and remove as much frost as possible. If boots are 
flexible, turn them inside out also, and brush and scrape them. Solid 
boots should have as much frost scraped out as possible. Never take 
outer clothing indoors unless there will be time enough to dry it thor- 
oughly. Otherwise, the frost will melt, soak the clothing, and then form 
as ice when it is exposed again to cold air; and icy clothing is much 
colder than clothing with a layer of frost on it. Leave frosted clothing 
outside if planning to return soon into the cold. 
b. Drying clothing indoors. Hang each piece of clothing separately, 
where dry circulating air will strike it. Never put articles close to a 
fire or hot pipes. Leather articles, especially boots, must be dried 
slowly, as too much heat will ruin them. When the stove is lighted, 
hang clothes near the top of the tent, unless there is something steaming 
on the stove. Be careful not to dry clothes too close to a fire, as there 
is always danger of burning them; and make sure that if they fall, they 
will not land in the fire. A considerable amount of clothing has been 
destroyed in the past in these ways. Soldiers have even burned the 
boots and clothes they were wearing, while warming themselves by the 
fire. A soldier cannot get his feet warm before a fire when wearing 
several pairs of socks with cold-weather footgear. He will merely get 
them wet with melting frost, and be likely to burn his boots. Wet gar- 
ments should be removed and thoroughly dried. At night, take damp 
mittens, socks, and other small articles into the sleeping bag to finish 
drying them by the heat of the body (see fig. 1). 
3 c. Drying clothing outdoors. In good weather, it is not unusual to see 
water vapor rising from clothing, regardless of the temperature. To 
dry clothes, expose them to sun and wind, unless the snow is drifting, by 
hanging them from the guy ropes of tents or from the branches of trees. 
NEAR TOP OF TENT 
NEAR THE BODY 
ON THE MARCH 
IN SLEEPING BAG 
Figure 1. Methods of drying clothing. 
d. Drying clothes on the march. Mittens, socks, etc., may be hung from 
the pack, provided they are firmly enough attached not to fall off and 
get lost. Such articles may also be placed underneath the outer clothing 
if there is adequate ventilation to carry off the moisture as they dry. 
Section III. BODY CLOTHING 
10. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. In cold climates, several layers of 
light or medium weight woolen clothing are usually worn at the same 
time, covered by a windproof outer shell. This permits air to be 
trapped between the different layers, and also enables the wearer to 
regulate his temperature easily by adding or removing single pieces of 
clothing. A belt or drawstring around the waist helps to regulate 
ventilation. No gaps should remain at the neck, wrists, waist, or ankles. 
In general, the amount of clothing worn should depend on the tem- 
perature and on individual requirements. 
4 li. JACKET, FIELD, MI943. a. Description. The field jacket is a wind- 
proof, water-repellent jacket which is used in temperate and cold cli- 
mates as the necessary windproof outer shell. It may be worn over a 
shirt, sweater, and pile jacket, or any combination of the three. There 
are two breast pockets and two lower pockets which have unusual capac- 
ity. Although it is not intended that these be filled at all times, they 
are extremely useful in emergencies and at times when the pack is not 
carried. 
b. Fitting. The field jacket should be large enough so that when the 
pile jacket or sweater is worn under it, the jacket will still be loose, 
and will not constrict the wearer in any way. 
c. Use. Although the jacket must be loose enough to fit over the pile 
jacket or sweater, it can still fit properly when worn over a shirt alone. 
Figure 2. Three possible collar adjustments of jacket, field, M1943 
5 This adjustability in size is made possible by the double sets of buttons 
at the wrists and neck, and by the waist drawstrings. There is another, 
more important, reason for these adjustable closures; they permit the 
wearer to adjust the warmth of his clothing. He can thus keep ade- 
quately warm without becoming overheated. Before he gets overheated 
and begins to perspire, he should loosen the waist closure, collar and 
sleeves, and let in cold air. If he gets cold, he should close the jacket 
at these points. If this is insufficient, he must vary the amount of 
clothing worn underneath at the first opportunity. 
(1) Collar. The collar may be worn in three different ways: 
(a) It may be worn open with the top button undone and with lapels 
turned back (see fig. 2). 
Figure 3. Waist drawstring loop of jacket, field, Ml943, may be easily untied 
to allow adjustment. 
(b) It may be closed, with the top buttonhole on the farther button, 
if light clothing is being worn underneath; or on the nearer button, if 
the pile jacket, a muffler or other heavy clothing is being worn (see fig. 2). 
(c) It may also be worn with the collar turned up and the flap but- 
toned under the chin (see fig. 2). When not in use, this flap must al- 
ways be carefully buttoned out of the way. The position of the buttons 
should be checked and corrected if necessary. 
(2) Sleeve cuff. There are two adjustment buttons on the cuffs. If 
the cuffs wear out before the rest of the jacket, they can be replaced. 
(3) Waist drawstring. The drawstring usually is pulled until the 
6 jacket fits tightly enough around the waist. Loops are then tied in the 
drawstring to keep it from pulling back through the eyelets. The extra 
material gathered up by the drawstring is distributed around the jacket. 
These loops must undo very simply so that it will not be difficult to 
LAYERS OF CLOTHING 
1. UNDERWEAR 
2. WOOL SHIRT 
3. SWEATER 
4. FIELD JACKET 
Figure 4. Methods of wearing clothing in layers. Pile jacket or pile parka is always 
covered by field jacket or cotton parka. 
readjust the waist closure for colder or warmer conditions (see fig. 3). 
In rather warm weather the drawstring may be tied across the body and 
the jacket tied open to prevent flapping in the wind. 
7 d. Washing precautions. The field jacket may be washed. It has been 
treated to make it water-repellent. Although the substance used is 
comparatively fast, the Army laundry must provide for replacing water- 
repellency whenever possible. 
12. JACKET, FIELD, PILE. a. Use. The pile jacket (see fig. 4) is ex- 
tremely warm when worn under the field jacket or parka. 
b. Cleaning. The pile jacket may be washed in the same way as any 
woolen garment. Lukewarm water should be used. Never use hot 
water. 
IB. PARKA, FIELD, COTTON, OD. a. Nature and use. The olive-drab 
cotton field parka is well adapted to windy and cold climates. It is 
used as part of the windproof outer shell in climates which are too 
severe for the field jacket. The parka is a long-skirted jacket with a 
hood, with closures at the neck, wrists, and waist. When closed, these 
make it very warm; but they may be opened to permit adequate ventila- 
tion of the clothing when the weather is milder. There is a large pouch 
pocket on the front which has two openings. The olive-drab parka is 
often worn over the pile parka in extremely cold weather, and over other 
types of clothing in less severe weather. 
b. Fib The parka should fit loosely over the clothing worn beneath 
it. It must not constrict the wearer in any way, even when he has on 
the maximum amount of clothing (woolen undershirt, flannel shirt, 
high-necked sweater, pile jacket, pile parka). There are three sizes: 
small, medium, and large. 
c. Manner of wear. When wearing a parka (or any other kind of cold- 
weather clothing), a soldier should take particular care to keep warm 
but avoid getting hot enough to perspire, since damp clothing leads to 
chilling. Before setting out in the morning, he should try to estimate 
what temperatures he may encounter and dress accordingly. During 
the day, however, he will have to make adjustments when temperatures 
change, or when periods of strenuous physical activity are followed by 
inactivity, or vice-versa. The wearer of a parka can easily regulate the 
warmth of his clothing in the following two ways: 
(1) Increasing or decreasing the amount of ventilation through cloth- 
ing. When the parka is closed at the neck, wrists, and waist very little 
air can circulate through the clothing. When it is left open at these 
places, circulating air hits much of the body surface, cooling it and 
evaporating the perspiration. After some experience, it is easy to regu- 
late the amount of air needed to keep from perspiring. If sudden 
exertion makes the wearer too warm, he may loosen the waist drawstring 
and the neck of the parka. With the hood still up or thrown back on 
his shoulders, he can grasp the opening at the neck with both hands 
8 and pump air into his clothing by raising and dropping his elbows 
(see fig. 5). A word on how to regulate each of these closures follows: 
(а) Neck closure. For the greatest warmth in cold weather, the 
button which holds the flap in place must be fastened, as well as the 
three buttons along the edge of the opening. In warmer weather, these 
buttons may or may not be fastened as desired. 
(б) Sleeve closure. The sleeves may hang loose or may be closed by 
means of the tabs, which give different adjustments, depending on 
whether they run around the front or back of the wrist. 
(c) Waist drawstring. The wooden ball on the waist drawstring holds 
it as tight as desired. The skirt of the parka is always worn on the 
outside, over the trousers. 
(d) Drawstring at bottom edge. The bottom drawstring is ordinarily 
used only by casualties and by inactive men who are forced to remain 
quiet for long periods in the cold. The drawstring is held in place by 
a wooden ball. 
COLLAR OPEN 
FOR 
VENTILATION 
WAIST 
DRAWSTRING 
LOOSE 
Figure 5. Cooling the body by allowing air to ventilate the clothing. 
(2) Removing or adding clothing. If control over the ventilation of 
the clothing is insufficient, the wearer should change the amount of 
clothing worn at the first opportunity. Since it is extremely difficult 
to remove or add a pair of trousers when under way, he should alter 
clothing on the upper part of his body and then replace his parka. 
Although no set rules can be given for the correct quantity of clothing, 
experience and common sense soon teach the wearer how to stay warm 
enough and yet perspire very little. 
d. Hood. The hood may be worn in several ways. If the snaps at 
the back of the hood are left loose, the hood will extend forward, creat- 
ing a dead air space in front of the face (see fig. 6). If the weather is 
warmer or if better visibility is essential, the hooks may be snapped to 
9 SNAPS 
UNFASTENED 
HOOD PULLED FORWARD TO PROTECT 
FACE FROM THE WIND 
SNAPS - 
FASTENED 
HOOD PULLED BACK BY 
SNAPS TO UNCOVER FACE 
HOOD THROWN BACK 
ON SHOULDERS 
'NECK CLOSURE OPENED 
Figure 6. Methods of wearing the parka hood 
pull the hood back onto the head (see fig. 6). There are several ways 
to vary the shape of the hood; the upper set of snaps may be fastened, 
or the lower set, or both; or the upper snaps may be fastened onto the 
lower snaps. In any case, the drawstring will permit further adjust- 
ments, allowing ventilation around the neck or giving complete closure. 
In warmer weather, the hood may be thrown back off the head (see 
fig. 6), but in bad weather it must be tucked down the neck to avoid 
catching drifting snow or rain. Other headgear is often worn inside 
10 the parka hood, especially when the pile parka is not worn. The steel 
helmet may be worn over the hood, but the headband of the helmet 
liner must be adjusted before the need for wearing the helmet arises. 
e. Warming the hands. In cold weather, the arms may be pulled out 
of the sleeves of the parka to warm the hands against the body or under 
the armpits (see fig. 7). 
ARMS INSIDE 
PARKA FOR 
WARMTH 
Figure 7. The arms may be drawn out of the sleeves into the parka to 
warm the hands against the body. 
f. Washing. The parka may be washed. Although the substance used 
to make the parka water-repellent is comparatively fast, the Army 
laundry must provide for replacement of the water-repellent. 
14. PARKA, FIELD, PILE. a. Nature and use. The pile field parka is 
used in regions of extreme cold. It is not windproof, and therefore is 
always worn, hair side in, underneath the olive-drab cotton field parka. 
The two parkas are worn as a unit, and are ordinarily put on and taken 
off together without removing one from the other. Three buttons will 
be found on the pile parka hood, which are buttoned into the corre- 
sponding buttonholes in the olive-drab parka hood. When the two 
hoods are attached, the snaps on the outer parka control both. 
b. Care of fur ruff. The fur ruff around the face opening of the parka 
helps keep the face from getting frostbitten; it is particularly valuable 
in a crosswind. In cold weather, hoarfrost forms on the ends of the 
guardhairs, and should be stripped off with the fingers from time to 
time to prevent its accumulation. If the ruff becomes damp, it must 
be dried slowly to keep the furs from being ruined. The pile parka 
should be dry-cleaned, not washed. c. Removal of frost. Regardless of the care taken to ventilate clothing, 
some perspiration will form and condense as frost between the layers. 
At the end of the day, or before entering a heated place for only a short 
time, the wearer should take off his parka and beat or brush off as much 
frost as possible. If he does not intend to stay in the warm place long 
enough to allow the remaining frost to melt and dry completely, he 
should leave this outer clothing outdoors. Otherwise the frost will 
melt, soak the clothes, and freeze as ice when he comes out again into 
the cold. 
d. Delousing. Delousing is a comparatively simple matter in extremely 
cold weather. If infested garments are hung out for several hours, on 
2 or 3 successive days, at temperatures approaching 0°F., all lice and 
eggs will freeze to death and may be shaken out of the clothing. Care 
must be taken, however, to insure that there are no folds which are not 
exposed to the frigid air. 
15. PARKA, FIELD. OVER. WHITE, a. Purpose. This parka is used with 
white overtrousers and white overmittens to camouflage the soldier on 
snowy terrain. Unless it is kept absolutely clean, he will stand out 
against a white background. Therefore, it is used only foi camouflage 
purposes, and never as a substitute for any other parka. Whenever 
the situation permits, a dirty overparka should be washed. When not 
in use, hang it in a clean, dry place, 
b. Use. This garment is designed to fit over a cotton field parka. If 
a pile field parka is worn under the cotton field parka, the buttons on 
its hood are buttoned through the corresponding buttonholes of the 
cotton field parka, and then through those of the white overparka. The 
three parkas may then be worn as a unit, and can be put on and taken 
off together without removing one from the other. When the hoods 
are attached, the snaps on the outer parka control all three. If no pile 
parka has been issued, the soldier may find it advisable to sew buttons 
to the hood of the cotton field parka near the buttonholes, to be able 
to control both parkas with a single set of snaps. Otherwise, the inner 
parka should generally be left snapped back, while the outer is adjusted 
to meet weather conditions. (For further details on the use of the 
parka, see par. 13.) 
16. PARKA, WET WEATHER, AND TROUSERS, WET WEATHER, a. Gen- 
eral. When the temperature remains near freezing, and rain, sleet, and 
snow fall nearly every day, the soldier untrained to such conditions may 
find it harder to keep warm then in moderate or extreme cold. It is 
particularly important to keep dry in wet cold regions. When clothing 
becomes damp or wet, it is no longer efficient in keeping the soldier 
warm, and may chill his whole body. Such chilling of the body very 
often affects the feet, especially if socks and boots are also wet. Even at 
12 temperatures above freezing, damp clothing and footgear have caused 
hundreds of men to become needless casualties, have necessitated ampu- 
tations, and have even resulted in loss of life. There are two principal 
sources of moisture which are likely to wet clothing in such climates: 
precipitation and sweat. Rain, sleet, and snow must be guarded against 
to keep them from wetting the clothing from the outside. Perspiration 
must be held to a minimum to keep the clothing dry from the inside. 
Constant care is needed since it is very difficult to dry clothes in a wet 
cold region after they have become damp. 
b. Use. When the soldier is not particularly active, he finds it rather 
easy to keep dry merely by wearing the wet-weather parka and trousers 
over adequate clothing. His feet will probably get best protection from 
shoepacs. He will find it more difficult to keep dry, however, when 
he is active. Unless proper care is taken, he may find that the water- 
proof wet-weather unit will trap so much perspiration that he will be 
wetter than he would have been if he had not worn the suit. Under 
such conditions, the soldier must learn from experience when it is best 
to remove the suit before starting to do active work. He must also 
learn under what conditions it is preferable to wear some water-repellent 
clothing, such as a field jacket or parka, in place of the waterproof 
wet-weather suit. Many men have successfully solved the problem by 
having two sets of clothing, one of which is always kept dry. The wet 
one is removed after coming into a shelter, and the dry one put on in 
its place. Even though every effort is made to dry it before going out 
again, it may still be damp by the time it is needed. In that case, it 
should be worn for the active outside work, so that the other set will 
still be dry when it is needed by the soldier at rest. In some instances. 
Hat, Rain,* Jacket, Rain,* and Trousers, Rain,* are issued in place of 
the wet-weather parka and trousers. 
c. Precautions against perspiration. When the wet-weather parka and 
trousers are worn, it is essential to start with dry clothing underneath. 
As little underclothing as possible should be worn, so that sweating will 
be kept to a minimum. The moisture from perspiration will wet 
clothing less if the suit is well ventilated. The ventilating eyeholes, 
although helpful, will not provide sufficient ventilation. The draw- 
string in the parka hood and at the waist, the buckles at the waist of 
the trousers and at the neck, and the snaps at the wrists may be left 
undone to allow air to circulate through the clothing. The snaps at 
the ankles may be left loose when there is no danger of stepping into 
water, mud, or snow. This ventilation helps to reduce the body 
temperature by allowing the warm air around the body to escape, and 
by facilitating evaporation of perspiration. 
d. Necessity for an extra change of clothing. In wet cold regions, it is 
very difficult to dry clothing anywhere, and almost impossible when 
away from a heated shelter. On an extended trip away from the base. 
13 each soldier should carry at least a complete change of socks, woolen 
underwear, mitten-inserts and insoles. 
e. Special notes on Parka, Wet-Weather. This is not a substitute for 
water-repellent parkas such as the Parka, Field, Cotton, OD, or the 
Parka, Ski, Reversible,* which are intended for cold, windy weather. 
As its name suggests, the wet-weather parka is intended only for wet 
conditions. 
f. Special notes on Trousers, Wet-Weather. These trousers have a high 
bib and are held up by attached suspenders. Normally, the waist 
buckles will be adjusted to fit the wearer, but if he gets too warm he may 
open them to allow greater ventilation, letting the trousers hang on 
the suspenders. There are two ankle adjustments. The trouser legs 
may be worn either inside or over the boots, depending on conditions. 
In very wet weather, it is often preferable to leave the trousers outside 
the boots, so that water will not run down the legs into the boots. For 
crossing shallow water, a more watertight closure may be made by tying 
the trouser legs tightly around the boottops. Strips of cloth several 
inches wide and 3 or 4 feet long may be wrapped around the tops of 
the boots or around the cuffs of the trousers, as puttees. 
17. OVERCOAT, PARKA TYPE. WITH PILE LINER, a. Use. The parka 
type overcoat with pile liner is used in cold climates, particularly by 
individuals whose work is fairly inactive, such as drivers and sentries. 
For strenuous activity, other types of parkas are more practical. The 
pile liner may be removed and the outer layer worn alone, to fit 
variations in temperature. 
b. Types. (1) Overcoat, Parka Type, with Pile Liner. This is a two- 
piece garment consisting of an outer shell with a pile-lined hood, made 
of windproof material, and an inner pile liner. The pile liner snaps 
into the outer shell (see fig. 4). 
(2) Overcoat, Parka Type, Reversible, With Pile Liner. This type 
has two distinct parts, the windproof shell and the pile lining. It is 
possible to reverse the shell without removing the lining, exposing either 
the olive-drab or the white side for the best camouflage effect. Unless 
the white side is kept clean, the coat will stand out clearly against a 
snowy background. The olive-drab side is therefore worn on the 
outside when there is no need for camouflage. 
18. JACKET, MOUNTAIN*, a. Nature and use. The mountain jacket, 
which is issued to mountain troops, serves either as a parka or as an 
ordinary jacket. It should have a loose fit, especially around the arms 
and shoulders. 
b. Parts. (1) Hood. The hood is adjusted to give a good closure 
about the neck and face by fastening the buttons and adjusting the 
14 drawstring around the face. If the hood is not needed, it fits neatly 
into a pocket made for the purpose if folded three times and tucked 
in flat. The jacket-collar covers the opening of the pocket. 
(2) Interior suspenders. These suspenders are used to support 
weights in the pockets. Buckles are provided to adjust the suspenders 
to the wearer and to the loads he carries in his pockets. When the 
jacket is slipped on, one set of straps stays in front of the arm, allowing 
the suspenders to run directly over the shoulders. In warm weather, 
these interior suspenders serve a second purpose. If no pack is being- 
worn, the jacket may be hung from the shoulders on the suspenders 
which will resemble rucksack shoulderstraps. 
(3) Pockets. The pockets of the mountain jacket are designed to 
carry a considerable load. The slide fastener which holds the back 
pocket shut is on the right side. Bulky articles, folded flat, may be 
carried in the back pocket; more compact objects are placed in the 
front pockets. The weights in the front and back pockets should be 
equalized as much as possible, to keep the jacket from being dragged 
down either in front or in back. If there is a large load in the pockets, 
the belt is tightened, to keep it from flopping. If very little is being 
carried in the back pocket or if the load consists only of heavy compact 
articles, it may be advisable to tighten the belt first to close off the 
bottom portion of the pocket and to keep the load higher on the 
shoulders. 
c. Cleaning precautions. The mountain jacket is treated to make it 
water-repellent. Although the substance used is comparatively fast, 
the Army laundry must provide for replacing the water-repellency when 
the jacket is cleaned or washed. 
19. PARKA, REVERSIBLE, SKI*, a. Nature and use. This garment is well 
adapted to mountain weather. It is white on one side and olive-drab 
on the other. Either side may be worn on the outside, depending on 
which offers the better camouflage. If there is no need for camouflage, 
the olive-drab should be worn on the outside, as it absorbs more 
warmth from the sun than the white side, and the white side is kept 
cleaner when worn on the inside. 
b. Hood, See paragraph 13d. 
c. Cleaning procedures. Because dirt spoils the camouflage effect of the 
white side, it is important to keep it clean. If it should become 
spotted, clean it with soap and water, making absolutely sure that all 
the soap is carefully washed out, if even a small amount of soap is 
left, the water-repellent quality will be ruined. Never use leaded 
gasoline to remove spots, as it will leave a yellow stain. Ordinarily, the 
parka should be dry-cleaned. Although the substance used to make 
the parka water-repellent is comparatively fast, the Army laundry must 
provide for replacing the water-repellency. 
15 20. JACKET, COMBAT, WINTER*, a. Purpose and use. The winter com- 
bat jacket is worn by members of the armored force when the weather 
is cold enough to warrant it. Since it will frequently be worn over 
other heavy clothing, it should be fitted loosely enough to cover a 
flannel shirt and sweater. 
b. Cleaning precautions. The lining of this cotton jacket is made of 
wool. If possible, therefore, it should be dry-cleaned when it gets dirty, 
in order to get both the lining and the cotton outer material clean. 
If it has to be washed, it should be treated as a woolen and washed 
with soap and lukewarm water. 
21. JACKET, FIELD, OD, ARCTIC*, a. Nature and use. The Arctic field 
jacket is useful in moderately cold temperatures. In extreme cold or 
wind some type of parka should be worn. The jacket should be large 
enough to fit comfortably over a flannel shirt and sweater. 
b. Cleaning. Whenever possible, this jacket should be dry-cleaned 
rather than washed. If dry-cleaning facilities are not available, it 
should be washed with lukewarm water and soap like other woolens. 
Very hot water will shrink the wool lining. 
22. TROUSERS, FIELD, COTTON, OD. a. Nature and fitting. In cold 
weather, olive-drab cotton field trousers provide a windproof, water- 
repellent outer shell for use over heavy trousers. In warmer weather, 
they are used alone over summer underwear. The waist is somewhat 
oversized, but there is an adjustment tab on the waistband above the 
hips to make it fit well under all conditions. When trousers are fitted 
over woolen underwear, the tabs should be buttoned to the rear buttons 
to give a large waist measurement. When they are worn alone, the 
tabs should be buttoned to the front buttons to reduce the size of the 
waist. Regardless of the climate in which they are issued, the trousers 
must always be fitted to permit the use of heavy trousers (such as 
Trousers, Field, Wool, OD), underneath. Trousers which are marked 
size 32, for example, fit properly under all conditions on a man who 
normally wears a size 32. 
b.. Parts. Several parts warrant special considerations: 
(1) Belt loops, suspender loops. Field trousers may be used with 
either a belt or suspenders. If additional trousers are being worn, the 
suspenders may be attached to the inner pair of trousers (see fig. 4). The 
suspender loops will then hold up the field trousers. If heavy loads 
are carried in the pockets, suspenders may be useful. 
(2) Ankle closure. There are flaps at the inside of the ankle which 
may be buttoned onto the button at the outside of the ankle to provide 
good closure. The tightness of closure varies, depending upon whether 
the tab is placed in front of or behind the ankle. The cuffs of the 
16 trousers may be worn inside or outside the boots, but in wet snow or 
other wet conditions it is usually better to wear them with the flap 
buttoned tightly over the outside of the boot to prevent water from 
running down the trouser legs and seeping into the boots. When 
the trousers are worn loose at the bottom, air can circulate up the 
trouser leg. The flap should then be buttoned flat. 
c. Washing precautions. Field trousers may be washed but, whenever 
possible, they should be treated afterward to restore water-repellency. 
23. TROUSERS, FIELD, WOOL, OD. These are heavy woolen trousers, 
worn sometimes alone, but for the most part, especially in cold weather, 
under olive-drab cotton field trousers, which are windproof and add 
a great deal of warmth. The trousers may hang loosely at the ankles, 
or be closed by means of the button tab. Use either a belt or sus- 
penders. When not needed, the protective flap at the fly may be folded 
back and buttoned to the suspender buttons. 
24. TROUSERS, FIELD, OVER, WHITE, a. Nature and use. These trousers 
are intended primarily for camouflage. Since they stand out against 
a snowy background when dirty, they must be kept as clean as possible. 
Therefore, although they add some warmth because of their windproof 
qualities, use them only where camouflage is needed. If possible, they 
should be washed even when only slightly dirty. Store them in a clean, 
dry place. 
b. Manner of wear. These trousers fit over other trousers and may 
be slipped on and off without removing the boots. They are usually 
worn outside the footwear, so that they may be removed quickly when 
necessary. Adequate ankle-closure is given by the drawstrings or snaps 
at the ankles. 
25. TROUSERS, MOUNTAIN* a. Nature and use. Mountain trousers, 
which are issued to mountain troops, are not particularly warm in them- 
selves, but they form a windproof shell over woolen underclothes or 
other trousers. 
b. Parts. Several parts warrant special consideration: 
(1) Belt loops and suspender buttons. Mountain trousers are 
equipped with both of these devices. The suspender buttons may be 
used to hold up woolen underpants. 
(2) Cuffs. The cuffs at the ankles fit over all the socks. The straps 
under the insteps keep the cuffs from pulling out of the boots. 
(3) Pockets. These must be carefully buttoned to keep out snow. 
26. TROUSERS. KERSEY-LINED* AND TROUSERS. COMBAT. WINTER*, 
a. Nature and Use. Kersey-lined trousers combine the windproof outer 
17 shell and the warmth-giving woolen layer in one garment. They may 
be worn by themselves or, more commonly, over woolen underwear. 
Winter combat trousers are used by members of the armored force in 
cold weather. The latter trousers come up high on the chest and are 
held up by suspender straps. They are adjusted to the height of the 
wearer by buckles on the straps. There is a good ankle-closure provided 
by snaps at the bottoms of the trouser legs. 
b. Cleaning precautions. Since the trousers are lined with wool, they 
should be dry-cleaned. If they must be washed, they should be treated 
as woolens and washed with soap and lukewarm water to keep the lining 
from shrinking. 
Section IV. FOOTWEAR 
27. GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS. It is difficult to keep the feet warm 
in cold climates.The weight of the body compresses much of the air out 
of the insulating material under the foot, and the movement of the foot 
prevents the air from remaining still. Furthermore, a certain amount 
of perspiration always forms. In cold weather this goes, as water vapor, 
toward the outer layer, and escapes to a greater or lesser extent, depend- 
ing on the waterproofing qualities of the boots. Since most boots are 
at least slightly waterproof, a certain amount of moisture collects inside 
them in the form of frost. In the most extreme cold, the temperature 
of the boots themselves is so cold that the moisture condenses inside 
the footgear no matter how permeable the boots are. Much of this 
frost forms in the insoles and outer pair of socks. However, precautions 
may be taken to insure adequate warmth for the feet. 
28. SOCKS, a. Types. There are several types of socks for use in cold 
weather. These are worn in various combinations, depending on the 
type of boots worn. The shoes should be fitted with the proper sock 
combination, and should always be worn with this combination. 
(1) Wool, Ski. These are heavy woolen socks which come about half- 
way up to the knees. They are worn either next to the skin or as outer 
socks. 
(2) Wool, Heavy. These are lighter than Socks, Wool, Ski. They 
are ordinarily used alone or as inner socks. 
(3) Wool, Cushion-Sole. These are lightweight socks with a rein- 
forced sole. They are usually worn alone or as inner socks. 
(4) Felt. Loose-fitting felt socks are used in mukluks, and should 
keep the feet warm in the coldest weather. They are the correct size 
if they will fit over two pairs of wool ski socks without constricting the 
feet in any way. Felt socks should be dry-cleaned and not washed. 
18 (5) Arctic * These are about the same weight as Socks, Wool, Ski, 
but reach up to the knees. 
b. Wear. (1) Several pairs of heavy socks are warmer than a single 
extremely thick pair, because more air can be trapped between the 
layers. 
(2) When two or more pairs of socks are worn at the same time, the 
outer pair should be larger so that the feet will not be cramped and 
circulation restricted. If the size numbers become obliterated, mark 
the socks with some easily identified mark. For example, one strand 
of colored yarn, thread, or string may indicate the smaller socks, while 
two indicate the larger. If different colored yarn, thread, or string is 
available, each color may indicate a different size. 
(3) Do not cram boots full of socks. For example if boots fit well 
with two pairs of socks and insoles, a third pair will only make the 
boots tight and cold and cause the feet to become frostbitten. 
(4) During a long halt or at the end of the day, change damp socks 
as soon as possible. In cold weather, damp socks are dangerous because 
of the possibility of frostbite. If they become really wet, blisters on the 
feet often result regardless of the temperature. 
(5) Dry socks carefully. Brush, scrape, or beat off any visible frost. 
If the socks are then exposed to sun and air, some moisture will pass 
off, even into frigid air. When socks are placed inside well-ventilated 
clothing, the heat of the body will help to-dry them. Be careful not 
to burn them when drying them in front of a fire. In the field, the 
soldier takes damp socks into his sleeping bag with him at night, where 
body-heat will help to dry them. 
(6) If possible, put on dry insoles and socks every morning. 
(7) Dirty socks are cold socks. Socks should be washed in lukewarm 
water; hot water will shrink them. After washing, when the soap has 
been carefully rinsed out, the socks should be squeezed out and pulled 
into shape again. They must be dried thoroughly before they are worn. 
29. INSOLES, a. Nature and use. Insoles are essential to cold-weather 
footwear, for they provide added insulation in the soles, thus preventing 
the cold from coming up from below and absorbing moisture from the 
feet. Two pairs of insoles, cut to the proper shape, are issued with all 
new cold-weather footwear. The two pairs are used alternately, one 
pair being dried while the other is used. In mukluks, two pairs are 
used for greater interior insulation. 
b. Care. When insoles are damp, they lose much of their insulating 
quality; they should be dried at the first opportunity. Sun and air will 
help dry them, even when the temperature is below freezing. They 
will also dry if kept next to the body in well-ventilated clothing. When 
the soldier gets into his sleeping bag at night, if the insoles are still 
19 damp he should put them in with him to finish drying. Insoles must 
be removed the minute boots are taken off. If left in the boots, they 
will not dry properly and will soon freeze to the boots and prevent 
both from drying. Alternating pairs of insoles each morning will keep 
them in good condition. 
c. Replacements. Replacements come in blocks of felt which must be 
cut out to fit the size of the boots in which they will be worn. The old 
insoles which were issued with the boots can serve as a pattern for 
cutting the new ones. 
30. BOOTS, a. General. There are several types of special boots issued 
to mountain troops and to troops operating in extreme cold. Each 
has its particular use and is especially suited to specific conditions. 
Heavily greased boots, such as high-top blucher boots, are not satisfac- 
tory for really cold weather. They are very cold because the grease in 
them freezes and does not permit the boots to “breathe.” Further, 
when the grease freezes, the boots become stiff and circulation is im- 
paired. Very little dubbin should be applied to boots during the fall 
and winter. In cold weather, boots should be laced loosely, as tightness 
reduces insulation and restricts blood circulation. If there is no danger 
that snow will come over the tops of the boots, they should be left loose 
on the legs so that moisture can escape upward. 
b. Mukluk. (1) Nature and use. Mukluk boots are the warmest type 
of footwear issued and may be worn in temperatures of 20°F. or lower. 
Since they are not waterproof, they do not collect much frost. For the 
same reason, however, they cannot be used in weather warmer than 
about 20° F. or in wet snow. They are not suitable for use on skis, 
except when the skis are equipped with flexible bindings. 
(2) Fitting. Only three sizes of mukluks are needed, since they fit 
very loosely. The following sizes should be issued: 
(a) Small—for feet up to size 7y2. 
(b) Medium—for feet from size 8 to 10. 
(c) Large—for feet size 11 and up. 
(3) Wear. In the coldest weather, a pair of cushion-sole socks, two 
pairs of wool ski socks, a pair of felt socks, and two pairs of insoles fill 
the mukluks, and should provide adequate protection against the cold. 
(See fig. 8 for correct sock combination.) It is sometimes more com- 
fortable to wear the second pair of insoles inside the outer socks. Great 
care should be taken to set the insoles squarely in the mukluks, and to 
prevent their sliding forward and bunching at the toe when the foot 
is inserted. If the insole tends to slip to one side at the heel when 
marching, make an immediate adjustment. Mukluks are usually laced 
in the following manner (see fig. 8): 
(a) Fasten the tie string loosely at the top to hold the mukluk up 
under the knee. 
20 SOCKS, WOOL. SKI 
INSOLES 
SOCKS, WOOL, CUSHION SOLE 
SOCKS,FELT 
CORRECT 
LACING 
Figure 8. Correct sock combination for mukluk boots; 1 pair Socks, Wool Cushion 
Sole; 2 pairs Socks, Wool, Ski; 1 pair Socks, Felt; 2 pair insoles. 
(b) Run the laces through the toe loops so that the ends run toward 
the heel, and are of equal length. 
(c) Cross the laces over the instep and run them through the ankle 
and heel loops. 
(d) Wrap the laces loosely two or three times around the ankle and 
tie in bowknots. Once the laces are placed in the loops, they may be 
loosened to remove the foot; they need not be pulled out. 
(4) Arch support. When a change is made from stiff shoes which 
give good arch support, to flexible mukluks, a week may be required 
21 to overcome muscular fatigue. The inconvenience sometimes experi- 
enced during the first week of wearing mukluks is caused by the sudden 
strenuous use of muscles which have not been strengthened sufficiently 
while wearing stiff leather shoes, and results in no injury. Soldiers 
should be given some time for their feet and leg muscles to get accus- 
tomed to the new footgear before undertaking long marches. 
(5) Care. One of the reasons for the warmth of a mukluk boot is 
that it is not waterproof. Even if the temperature is well below freez- 
1 PR. CUSHION SOLED SOCKS 
1 PR. FELT 
INSOLES 
2 PR. WOOL SKI 
SOCKS OF 
GRADUATED 
/ SIZES -i 
Figure 9. Correct sock combination for boots, ski-mountain; 1 pair socks, wool, 
cushion-sole; 2 pairs of socks, wool, ski, 1 pair insoles. 
ing, perspiration will usually pass off into the air as water-vapor without 
forming frost in the boot or socks. For this reason, dubbin, which is 
water-repellent, should never be applied to a mukluk. If frost does 
form in a mukluk, the boot should be turned inside out, the frost 
brushed out, and the inside left exposed to the air. The moment 
mukluks are taken off, insoles should be removed to prevent them from 
freezing in. Snow should always be brushed off before mukluks are 
brought into a heated place. 
22 31. BOOTS, SKI-MOUNTAIN, a. Nature and use. Ski-mountain boots (see 
fig. 9) combine the characteristics of hobnailed mountain-climbing boots 
and ski boots. Mountain troopers use them more than any other type 
of footwear, because they are suitable under almost any conditions. 
They are warm in all but the coldest temperatures. In the mountains, 
they are equally useful in winter and in summer. When nailed or 
fitted with rubber-cleated soles, they hold on both wet and dry rock, 
on steep grass, snow, and glacier ice. (On smooth ice, crampons should 
be worn.) Ski-mountain boots have square toes and the heels are 
grooved to fit ski bindings. The rubber-cleated soles make no noise 
and do not cause sparks, as nailed boots sometimes do. Rubber-cleated 
soles wear better than the nailed type; and boots made with this type 
of sole are warmer and lighter than those with nailed soles. The ski- 
mountain boot with nailed sole grips well on most surfaces. However, 
crampons should be worn on all steep, smooth ice. If hobnails or 
edge nails are used, missing ones should be replaced at the first oppor- 
tunity. In the field it is usually necessary to place a rock inside the 
boot when hammering nails in. Boots can be nailed most easily when 
the sole is wet. Ski-mountain boots with plain leather soles may be 
used for skiing or walking on easy terrain but they are treacherous on 
grass or uneven ground. 
b. Wear. Ski-mountain boots must fit snugly but not tightly over one 
pair of cushion-sole socks, two pairs of ski socks and a pair of felt insoles. 
(See fig. 9 for correct sock combination.) Although boots should be 
laced up very tightly when skiing downhill, for good ankle-support, the 
wearer must remember to loosen them again later for better circulation, 
especially if the weather is cold. 
c. Care. Ski-mountain boots are perhaps the most important item of 
the mountain trooper’s clothing. Without them he cannot hope to 
carry out his duties safely and efficiently. He must therefore take great 
care to keep them in good condition. The following measures should 
be taken as needed: 
(1) When quarters are reached or camp is made, boots should be 
taken off and insoles removed to dry. The hoots should always be 
opened wide, and left, so that they can be slipped on easily even if 
frozen solid. If the boots are used as a pillow or placed under the feet 
at night, they will freeze less easily. If they are solidly frozen in the 
morning, they should be slipped on before breakfast. By the time 
breakfast is over, they will be sufficiently thawed to lace up. 
(2) Always dry boots slowly. They must never be left near a fire 
or near warm pipes, no matter how wet they are, because the heat will 
cause the leather to crack, 
(3) Treat the boots with dubbin about once a week, if the weather 
is not too cold. In extreme cold, dubbin should not be used, since 
23 grease freezes and makes boots colder. If the boots are used a great deal 
in wet snow, frequent applications are needed. 
(4) Treat boots with dubbin in the following manner: 
(a) Clean off mud and dirt. 
(b) If the boots are wet, rub only enough moisture off the surface to 
allow the dubbin to spread out evenly. If the application is made 
while the boots are still damp, the dubbin will go on more evenly and 
the leather will not get stiff. 
(c) Next, coat the whole boot (including the sole, if leather) with 
dubbin. 
(d) Give special treatment to the welt, where the upper part of the 
boot and the sole meet. 
(e) Rub the dubbin into the leather and polish the boots by hand. 
1 PR. FELT INSOLES 
1 PR. WOOL SKI SOCKS 
11 PR. CUSHION 
[ SOLE SOCKS 
Figure 10. Correct sock combination for Boots, Blucher, High Top; one pair of socks, 
wool, cushion soles; one pair socks, wool, ski, one pair of insoles. 
32. BOOTS, BLUCHER, HIGH TOP. a. Use. These boots (see fig. 10) 
are highly greased and are not intended for use in extreme cold. Al- 
though they are relatively waterproof, they do soak through when 
exposed to wet conditions for long periods of time. Once wet, they 
are very difficult to dry. These boots should therefore be used only in 
moderate weather, neither too wet nor too cold. Frequent applications 
of dubbin are needed to keep out as much moisture as possible. Blucher 
boots are designed to be worn with a pair of insoles, one pair of cushion- 
sole socks, and one pair of wool ski socks. (See fig. 10 for correct com- 
bination.) 
b. Care. Dry blucher boots slowly, away from fire or hot pipes, which 
will ruin the leather. Treat them with dubbin at least once a week. 
For directions about applying dubbin see paragraph 31. 
24 1 PR. OF FELT INSOLES 
2 PR. WOOL SKI SOCKS 
IN GRADUATED SIZES 
Figure 11. Correct sock combination shoepacs; two pairs socks, wool, 
ski, one pair insoles. 
33. SHOEPACS. a. Nature and purpose. Shoepacs are boots with rubber 
feet and leather tops (see fig. 11). They are particularly useful in wet 
terrain or snow, and are excellent for use with snowshoes. They are 
waterproof boots and are not intended for protection against extreme 
cold. Since the feet are made of rubber, perspiration cannot escape 
easily and frost will form inside in cold weather, making the boots stiff 
and cold. They are adequate for active men in temperatures down to 
about 0° and for inactive men in temperatures down to about 15°, 
provided their socks and insoles are dry. 
b. Fit. Shoepacs should fit snugly but not tightly over two pairs of 
wool ski socks and one pair of insoles (see fig. 11). Improper fit some- 
times leads to chafing or blistering of the foot. (1) If the seam beneath 
the ankle bone chafes, try one of the following methods: 
(a) Raise the foot slightly by putting a pad under the heel. The 
pad may be cut out of the piece of felt intended as an insole replacement. 
(b) Turn the top of the outer sock down over the ankle to provide 
more padding. 
(2) If the heel gets chafed, there is usually too much space through 
the instep. This can be corrected in one or more of the following ways: 
(a) Lace the shoepacs snugly over the instep and tie a square knot. 
Then lace the top loosely. (See fig, 11.) 
(b) Turn the top of the outer sock down to the instep, to take up 
extra space and pad the heel. 
(3) Chafing is not always caused by improper fit. If the leather is 
not treated with dubbin it gets hard. If socks are dirty, they may chafe. 
If they are damp, the skin may become tender and blister easily. 
25 c. Use. Socks and insoles used in shoepacs must always be kept as dry 
as possible. If they are damp, it is advisable to change them imme- 
diately at the beginning of a long halt, or at the end of the day, while 
the feet are still warm. The insoles are al\yays removed when the 
shoepacs are not being worn. Shoepacs, like all boots, dry best when 
left right side up in a warm place. 
d. Care. The leather tops can be kept in good condition by a weekly 
application of dubbin. When applying, care must be taken to keep 
the dubbin from getting onto the rubber and seam, or it will ruin the 
rubber. Perhaps once a month, when opportunity offers, the inside 
of the shoepacs should be washed out with warm water and soap, and 
then dried thoroughly. 
e. Precautions before wearing leather boots. After wearing shoepacs for 
some time, if takes a short while to get reaccustomed to leather shoes. 
Whenever possible, leather shoes should be worn at first for only half 
a day at a time, and not on long marches. 
34. OVERSHOES, ARCTIC. Arctic overshoes are not a substitute for the 
more waterproof type of footgear, such as shoepacs or rubber boots; 
but when worn over service shoes in wet or muddy terrain they will 
keep the feet fairly dry. They are not ideal marching boots, for they 
do not fit well enough over other shoes to allow all the footgear to be 
lifted as a single unit. In temperatures around freezing they give a 
certain amount of protection against the cold when worn over a service 
shoe. In really cold weather, cloth-topped overshoes should be worn 
over several pairs of woolen socks and insoles, or over felt shoes. If 
the heel cup is filled with part of an insole cut to the proper shape, the 
overshoe is more comfortable for such use. In very cold weather, do 
not wear service shoes in overshoes. 
35. SHOES, ARCTIC, FELT. a. Purpose. Arctic felt shoes are used in ex- 
tremely cold weather, and are worn without any outer covering (see 
fig. 12). They will keep the feet of active men warm at temperatures 
down to about minus 40°, and those of inactive men warm at tem- 
peratures down to about minus 20°; when the temperature is colder 
than this, mukluks are needed. Felt shoes give the foot more arch 
support than mukluks and are preferred by some men as cold-weather 
marching boots. They may be used with flexible cross-country bindings 
for skiing. Arctic felt shoes should not be worn when the temperature 
is above 20°, or the heat from the foot will melt the snow and wet the 
shoes. Always brush off any snow before going into a heated place. 
b. Fit. Arctic felt shoes must fit snugly, but not tightly, with two pairs 
of wool ski socks and one of insoles (see fig. 12). Sometimes a cushion- 
sole or a heavy wool sock is worn next to the foot in addition to the 
other socks. 
26 c. Drying. Felt shoes must be kept dry to keep the feet warm. Snow 
will not wet them until the temperature rises above 20°. They will, 
however, get somewhat damp from perspiration collecting in them as 
frost, and must therefore be dried carefully every night. Remove the 
insoles as soon as the shoes are taken off. Scrape off any frost which 
is visible. Then open shoes wide and leave them to dry. If you are 
camping out, put them where they will get the greatest amount of heat, 
such as near the peak of the tent. If indoors, keep them in a moder- 
ately warm place but away from fires, stoves, hot pipes, etc. 
1 PR. FELT INSOLES 
2 PR. WOOL SKI SOCKS 
IN GRADUATED SIZES 
1 PR. CUSHION 
SOLED 
SOCKS 
Figure 12. Correct sock combination with shoes, Arctic felt; one pair socks, cushion- 
sole; two pairs socks, wool, ski; one pair insoles. 
36. SHOES, FELT, COLD CLIMATE, AND OVERSHOE. ARCTIC, a. Pur- 
pose and use. Shoes, Felt, Cold Climate, are used especially by garrison 
troops whose duties require them to come in and out of heated build- 
ings, and by vehicle drivers, mechanics, etc. They are less suited to 
marching than the Arctic felt shoe. Because of the permeable nature 
of the felt, they are not uncomfortable in moderately warm rooms. 
When used outdoors, they should always be covered by special felt shoe 
overshoes to keep them from getting wet in slushy patches around 
entrances or in the floors of vehicles. These overshoes are specially 
sized to fit over the garrison felt shoe and should always be issued with 
them, since ordinary arctic overshoes are not of correct size for the pur- 
pose. They are adequate for active men in temperatures down to about 
minus 20° and for inactive men in temperatures down to about 0°. 
27 b. Fit. Garrison felt shoes must fit snugly, but not tightly, with one 
pair of wool ski socks, one pair of cushion-sole socks, and one pair of 
felt insoles. 
c. Drying. Like any other cold-weather footgear, garrison felt shoes 
must be dry to keep the soldier’s feet warm. If they are worn indoors, 
the wearer must check carefully to see that his socks, insoles, and shoes 
are dry, before going outdoors for any considerable length of time. 
The shoes should be dried carefully every night after the insoles have 
been removed. 
37. GAITER, SKI. a. Nature and use. Ski gaiters make a good closure 
between the trousers and the ski-mountain boots and prevent snow and 
dirt from working into the tops of the boots. The ski gaiter should be 
put on in the following manner: 
(1) Place the gaiter on the foot with the lacings on the outer side. 
(2) Run the longer of the two leather straps under the arch, over the 
top of the instep, and through the leather tunnel; then buckle firmly 
to the other strap. 
(3) Start the lace at the rear bottom eye, tying a knot'on its end to 
keep it from sliding through the hole. 
(4) Slip the lace out through the outer eye on the bottom of the 
gaiter, causing the front half to be pulled over the back. 
(5) Run the lace up the hooks to the top, where it is slipped in 
through the two superimposed eyes, and out through the rear top eye. 
(6) Fasten the lace with a half-hitch, which will undo when pulled. 
A hard knot may become impossible to untie if ice freezes on it, 
(7) Shove the loose end into the top of the gaiter. 
b. Special precautions. The buckle which fastens the leather straps 
sometimes gets clogged with ice. If this is likely to happen, it is advis- 
able to leave the end of the strap loose and not tuck it under the bar 
of the buckle. If it should get frozen, heat (a lighted match) may be 
applied, provided care is taken not to scorch the boot or gaiter. 
Section V. HANDWEAR 
38. COLD-WEATHER HAND WEAR. The same principles that apply to 
keeping warm in other types of clothing hold true for handwear. 
a. Gloves must be clean. Dirt, especially grease, ruins insulation 
and helps conduct heat away from the hands. 
b. Gloves must be dry. If handwear is damp, it loses its insulating 
qualities. Remove a layer before the hands begin to sweat. If bare 
hands get wet from melting snow, dry them carefully before putting 
them back into mittens. The amount of protection needed to keep 
the hands warm varies with the individual and his duties. Mittens are 
28 warmer than gloves, since the fingers are together and help to keep each 
other warm. Delicate work, however, requires fingered gloves or bare 
hands. Handle metal with care at cold temperatures for the skin may 
stick to it. Bare hands melt snow and wet hands will chill quickly 
by evaporation. 
c. Gloves must fit correctly. Gloves must be issued in proper sizes. 
Tight handwear cuts off the circulation and causes the hands to become 
cold. To check the size accurately it is helpful to use templates when 
issuing gloves. 
d. At times the fingers become cold and numb, even if all the mitten 
layers are used properly. A good way to warm them is to swing the 
arms from the shoulders in a vertical circle, forcing blood back into the 
finger tips. Another excellent method is to withdraw the arms from 
the parka sleeves and place the hands under the armpits beneath the 
parka. 
39. MITTENS, SHELL, TRIGGER FINGER. Shell mittens with trigger 
fingers are designed to be worn over trigger finger insert mittens (see 
„fWu „ 
MITTEN SHELL TRIGGER FINGER 
MITTEN INSERT. TRIGGER FINGER 
MITTEN, OVER. WHITE 
Figure 13. Handwear. 
fig. 13). Two types of both the shell and insert have been issued, some 
having the trigger finger on the front and others having it on the back 
of the hand. The mittens fit better when the trigger fingers are on the 
same side of both inserts and shells; but if they are not, the trigger 
fingers come nearly to the same position if the inserts are worn on the 
opposite hand. In windy but not too cold weather, to keep the hands 
from perspiring, it is often desirable to wear the shells without the 
woolen inserts. Both mittens are large enough to allow the first finger 
to be withdrawn from the trigger finger of the mitten and kept with 
the other fingers for warmth. The thumb, too, may be withdrawn and 
warmed by the other fingers. When the trigger finger is not in use, it 
may be turned out and slipped inside the mitten if it is not likely to 
29 be needed in a hurry. The gauntlet wrist fits over all the sleeves and 
should be tightened slightly by means of the strap to insure a good 
closure. The wriststrap gives adjustability at the wrist. 
40. MITTENS, INSERT, TRIGGER FINGER. Woolen insert mittens with 
trigger fingers are used inside the shell mittens (see fig. 13). They 
should never be worn alone, because they wear out quickly and catch 
loose snow. Both pairs of inserts issued to each man should be carried, 
so that when a pair becomes damp or perspired it may always be re- 
placed by a dry pair. Damp mittens lose their insulating power. Ordi- 
narily inserts should be taken off before the hands get too warm. After 
a damp pair of mittens is removed, it may be placed inside well-venti- 
lated clothing, or hung securely from the pack to dry. At night, the 
soldier should take them into his sleeping bag with him to help them 
dry. Wash insert mittens in lukewarm (never hot) water with soap. 
Squeeze, but do not rub them, while washing. If these instructions are 
followed, the inserts will not shrink or lose their shape. 
41. GLOVES, SHELL, LEATHER, a. Purpose. Leather glove shells are used 
to do delicate work with the fingers. Do not use them for heavy labor 
such as construction or stevedore work. Heavy leather gloves are pro- 
vided for these purposes. 
b. Fit. This item comes in three sizes: small, medium, and large. The 
glove shells should be fitted over wool glove inserts so that they avoid 
sloppiness but do not constrict the hand. 
c. Use. In cold weather, leather glove shells are worn over wool glove 
inserts. In warmer weather, the shell is used alone to keep the hands 
from perspiring. In either case, the straps on the back of the wrists 
should be pulled up to give them a better fit. 
d. Drying and cleaning. Dry these gloves in a moderately warm place 
away from excessive heat, which will make the leather stiff and reduce 
their length of life. If the leather does get stiff, work it carefully with 
the fingers until it is soft again. The gloves may be washed in soap 
and water, or dry-cleaned. 
42. GLOVES, INSERT, WOOL. a. Wool glove inserts are always used 
inside leather glove shells. If used alone, they will wear out quickly 
and, in snowy country, the snow will cling to them and they are likely 
to get wet. Like the trigger finger insert mitten, they should be re- 
moved before the hand gets warm enough to dampen them with per- 
spiration. They are made to fit either hand. They last considerably 
longer when they are worn on one hand one day, and on the other 
hand the next day. When only one new glove insert is needed, a single 
one should be issued as replacement. 
b. For drying, washing, etc., see paragraph 40. 
30 43. MITTENS, OVER, WHITE. White overmittens are used to complete 
camouflage on snow (see fig. 13). Since their usefulness depends on 
their whiteness, they must be used only when actually needed for camou- 
flage. When not in use, they should be dried, turned inside out, and 
stored in a clean place. White overmittens fit over trigger finger shell 
mittens. There are two types; one with a slit across the whole back 
of the hand which fits best with the shells that have the trigger finger 
on the front; and the other with a smaller slit for the trigger finger 
alone, which may be worn with either type of shell. 
Section VI. HEADGEAR 
44. GENERAL, a. With proper headgear, it will not be difficult to keep 
the head and face warm, except in a wind. In very cold weather, the 
hood of a windproof parka, worn over either a pile parka hood or some 
warm type of cap, is generally adequate. A face-mask (see fig. 15) is 
needed by men who must face directly into a cold wind, as in open 
vehicles and tanks. In extremely low temperatures, especially if the 
wind is blowing, ears, nose, cheeks and chin are susceptible to frostbite. 
Shielding the face from the wind with a mitten will help. Making 
faces will warm the face a little and help to prevent frostbite. Keep 
a careful watch on the faces of others for the tell-tale sickly white patches 
indicative of frostbite. 
b. For parka hood, see Parka, Field, Cotton OD (par. 13). 
45. CAP, FIELD, PILE, OD. a. Purpose. The pile cap will keep the head 
warm under extremely cold conditions (see fig. 14), It is particularly 
useful for vehicle drivers, who need protection against the cold, but 
must be able to look behind them more easily than is possible in a 
parka. The cap may be worn under the steel helmet if the headband 
of the helmet liner is adjusted. 
b. Use. This item has the following adjustable features: 
(1) Visor. The visor may be pulled down or worn up flat against 
the cap. It stays in whichever position it is placed. 
(2) Earftaps. The earflaps may be worn either down around the ears 
and chin, or tied up on top of the cap. When worn under the chin, 
the left earflap is slipped through the loop of the right earflap, and 
tied with a bowknot, overlapping (see fig. 14). When it is not cold 
enough to wear the earflaps, the left earflap is shoved through the loop 
of the right earflap and tied on top of the head. If it gets too warm, 
the flap may be tied up shorter to pull the cap off the ears. 
46. CAP. FIELD. COTTON, OD. w/VISOR. The field cap is useful in 
both hot and cold weather. The visor keeps the sun out of the eyes. 
31 The earflaps are pulled down to protect the ears in cold weather and 
are turned up inside the cap when the weather is warm. The field cap 
can usually be worn under the steel helmet without readjusting the 
helmet-liner headband. 
47. CAP, SKI*. Similar to Cap, Field, Cotton, OD (par. 46) 
48. TOQUE, WOOL KNIT, Ml941 (WITH HOOD CLOTH)*. The wool 
knit toque is often used under parka hoods in very cold weather. With 
the cloth hood, it may be worn alone. It covers the ears, chin, cheeks, 
and forehead, leaving only the mouth, nose and eyes exposed. If worn 
VISOR 
DOWN 
EAR-FLAPS 
DOWN 
FASTENED 
AT NECK 
Figure 14. Pile field cap with earflaps and visor down. 
across the nose and mouth the moisture in the breath freezes on the 
toque and may cause frostbite. The toque should be removed if the 
wearer begins to perspire, for perspiration leads to chilling. The toque 
may be worn under the steel helmet. 
49. CAP, WOOL, KNIT, Ml941*. The wool knit cap is used especially 
under parka hoods, or alone, in windless weather. It has a short visor, 
and earflaps which may be pulled down when needed. It fits under 
the steel helmet. 
50. HELMET, COMBAT, WINTER. The winter combat helmet is issued 
to members of the armored force. It is a close-fitting windproof helmet 
with a woolen lining. It may be washed like any woolen material. 
32 51. HELMET, STEEL, Ml (COMPLETE). Where camouflage on snow is 
needed, steel helmets (and other equipment) should be covered with 
special white camouflage paint, which is soluble in gasoline. If the 
helmet has not been painted, pour water over the outside of it before 
use, and dip it in the snow. If the snow is partly melted first, it can be 
put on in lumps which break the outline. Be careful not to touch the 
helmet with bare hands in cold weather, or skin will stick to it. 
52. MASK, FIELD, CHAMOIS, a. Purpose. The face mask (fig. 15) is in- 
tended for men who must face winds at cold temperatures. It is par- 
ticularly useful for vehicle drivers who cannot afford to reduce visibility 
by wearing the parka hood, or who are facing directly into the wind. 
CHAMOIS 
FIELD 
MASK 
TRIM NOSE 
FOR PROPER 
VENTILATION 
Figure IS. Ski-mountain goggles must always be worn on sunny or bright cloudy days. 
The chamois field mask is fitted to the individual. Here the nosepiece has been 
trimmed. 
b. Fitting. A new face mask should be carefully fitted to the wearer, 
in the following manner: 
(1) Place the face mask over the face with the eyeholes still uncut. 
(2) Adjust the strap which runs around the back of the head. It 
must be tight enough to keep it below the bump at the back of the head. 
(3) Adjust the strap which runs over the top of the head, but do not 
tighten it enough to pull the other strap off the back of the head. 
(4) After the straps are perfectly fitted, trace the eyeholes with a 
pencil. Remove the face mask and cut them out. 
(5) Trim the nosepiece if it hangs too low. 
c. Use. When the mask is used in extremely cold temperatures, ice 
will form on it around the nose and mouth. Men who must face a 
33 cold wind, as do the drivers of open vehicles, should be provided with 
several masks, so that they can change at least every hour. 
53. GOGGLES, SKI-MOUNTAIN, a. Purpose. Goggles (see fig. 15) are a 
protection for the eyes against direct and reflected rays of the sun. They 
must be worn on snow, and occasionally, especially at high altitudes, 
on light-colored rocks. One hour on bright snow without goggles can 
cause snow-blindness. Because the eyes are particularly sensitive to 
diffused light, snow-blindness often occurs on cloudy days when the sun 
is shining through fog or clouds. Therefore, goggles must be worn on 
bright, cloudy days, as well as on sunny days. 
b. Fitting. Goggles can be adjusted to fit the head very comfortably. 
The head band must not be too tight. If the leather strap on the nose 
bridge is too long after it has been carefully fitted, the ends may be 
cut off with enough to spare to keep them from slipping through the 
buckle. 
c. Precautions against fogging. In cold weather, the difference in tem- 
perature between the sides of the glass may cause the goggles to fog. 
This may be remedied by holding them slightly away from the face for 
a few seconds and letting air get in behind the glass. Paraffin or soap, 
rubbed on and polished with a soft cloth or an application of gylcerin, 
helps to keep goggles from fogging in a snowstorm. If the goggles still 
fog badly, trim the padding around the ventilation holes and punch 
holes in the fabric. Breathing on goggles in cold weather will cause 
moisture to freeze on them. 
d. Care when not in use. Goggles must be carried in the case when they 
are not in use; they must not merely be worn on the cap or hung around 
the neck. Sun reflected from the lenses will give the wearer’s presence 
away to the enemy at a very great distance. Although such reflection 
cannot be avoided when goggles have to be worn, there is no reason for 
making oneself needlessly conspicuous when not wearing them. The 
case will also protect the lenses from getting scratched. 
54. HOOD, JACKET, FIELD, Ml943. a. General. This detachable hood 
makes it possible to use the Ml943 field jacket at lower temperatures. 
However, in extremely cold weather, the parka should still be worn. 
The hood may also be used with the overcoat, field, officer’s trench coat 
type. It may be worn under the steel helmet. 
b. Use. (1) Unbutton the shoulder straps, button the hood onto the 
shoulder strap buttons, rebutton the shoulder straps. 
(2) Button the flap of the field jacket under the chin. 
(3) Button the right flap onto the top jacket button (the middle of 
die three exposed buttons). Button the left flap over the right flap 
(4) Adjust the drawstring. 
34 CHAPTER 2 
EQUIPMENT 
Section I. PACKING EQUIPMENT 
55. PACK, FIELD, a. Purpose and description. The field pack is designed 
to carry the normal load of the infantryman. Other types of specialized 
packs are issued to each soldier only for certain operations such as those 
in mountains. The main pouch of the pack is cylindrical in shape, 
and is covered by a large flap which has a separate, zipper-opening 
pocket. There are horizontal and vertical straps running around the 
pack, making it adjustable to the size of the load. 
b. Packing. (1) It is impossible to give exact packing instructions, for 
the load differs from time to time and from region to region. Ordinarily, 
however, heavy objects should be placed near the man’s back and hard 
or sharp objects well towards the center, where they will not chafe the 
back or rub against the pack. The pack must be kept as compact as 
possible. Clothing should be folded, or rolled and tied with a thong. 
When the load is packed it should be well balanced. 
(2) Main pouch. Objects which are not needed on the march should 
be packed in the main pouch. If a bag, preferably a waterproof one, 
is available, it is advisable to place in it everything which will not be 
needed in combat, so that the whole bag can be removed quickly when 
the pack is stripped preparatory to going into action. After the pouch 
is filled, pull the drawstring up tight and tie it with an easily untied 
knot, taking care to cross-loop the lacing, as shown in figure 16. 
c. Adjusting size of pack. After the pack is filled, the adjustment straps 
which run horizontally and vertically around the pack are tightened 
to make the load as compact as possible (see fig. 17). The two vertical 
CORRECT 
TYING OF 
KNOT 
Figure 16. The drawstring of the field pack is cross looped before being tied. 
35 straps hold down the cover flap and enable the soldier to decrease the 
length of the pack; the horizontal straps control its diameter. Buckles 
must always be kept fastened, to keep them from rattling. 
(1) Short pack (set fig. 17). The field pack is shortened in the follow- 
ing manner: 
(a) Unhook the bottom ends of the shoulderstraps from the lower 
set of D-rings. 
(b) Pull the vertical adjustment straps as far as possible through the 
slide buckles, which are normally located on the front of the pack 
about 6 inches above the bottom. Roll the bottom of the pack neatly 
as the adjustment straps are tightened. 
(c) Snap the shoulderstraps into the upper set of D-rings. 
TOP 
POUCH 
HORIZONTAL 
ADJUSTMENT 
STRAP . 
VERTICAL ' 
ADJUSTMENT 
V STRAP > 
STRIP FOR 
ATTACHING 
CAMOUFLAGE 
HOOK FROM PACK 
TO AMMUNITION 
V BELT j 
Figure 17. Pack, Field. 
(2) Combat pack. When the main pack is empty or nearly empty, 
the combat pack (see fig. 17) is adjusted in the following manner: 
(a) Same as for short pack. 
(b) Same as for short pack. 
(c) Pull the flap down so that the flap-buckles rest on the upper set 
of D-rings. Snap the shoulderstraps into both the flap-buckles and the 
D-rings. 
36 d. Attaching equipment to outside of pack. (1) Cartridge belt. The 
cartridge belt is snapped onto the field pack by means of snaphooks. 
The snaphooks, which are suspended from the shoulderstraps, fasten 
to the front of the belt; the hooks which hang on straps attached to the 
middle of the back of the padc snap into the rear of the belt. In either 
hot or cold climates, whenever it is necessary to ventilate the body to 
avoid or evaporate perspiration, the cartridge belt can be left unbuckled 
and suspended from the shoulders. When no cartridge belt is carried, 
the snaphook may be snapped into D-rings. 
SHOULDER 
STRAPS 
HOOK FOR RIFLE 
ATTACHMENT STRAP 
BELLY 
BAND 
HOOK FOR 
SWIVEL 
AT BUTT 
.OF RIFLE . 
Figure 18. Rucksack from rear. (Note arrangement of straps.) 
(2) Entrenching tool. The entrenching tool is attached to the center 
tab on the flap and is carried in the special Carrier, Entrenching, Ruck- 
sack. The handle is held under the horizontal adjustment straps. 
(3) Bayonet. The bayonet is hooked into the tab on the cover flap 
near the left shoulder, and slipped under the loop halfway down the 
pack. 
e. Camouflage. A tape is sewed in loops to the top of the pack, to 
hold grass or leaves for camouflage. The horizontal adjustment straps 
may also be used for this purpose. The vegetation used should be 
chosen from the commonest kinds in the region. The lighter-colored 
37 undersides of the leaves must not be exposed. Short grass and small 
leaves are usually preferable to large ones since they are less noticeable 
when the soldier moves. 
56. RUCKSACK, a. Nature and purpose. The complete rucksack (see 
fig. 18) consists of a canvas bag with a map pocket, in the flap which 
covers the main sack, and three outside pockets; a metal tubing pack 
frame; a webbing backstrap; a belly strap; and a white camouflage 
cover. Although the pack board is preferable for heavy loads (over 
40 pounds), medium-weight loads (20 to 40 pounds) are carried much 
more easily in the rucksack than in an ordinary pack. The shoulders 
take only a part of the weight, for much of it is distributed onto the 
hips by the frame. The frame also holds the load off the back; allow- 
ing air to circulate between the clothes and the load will reduce the 
amount of perspiration which will collect on the soldier’s back. 
b. Nature and attachment of parts. (1) Metal tubing pack frame. The 
metal tubing pack frame is easily attached to the canvas bag. The top 
of the frame is pushed into the leather pocket and held in place by a 
snap. The bottom of the bag is next strapped tightly to the horns of 
the pack frame (those parts of the tubing which extend forward around 
the hips. The strap from the bottom of each side of the pack is run 
outside and below the metal tubing and back through the D-shaped part 
of the horn, and then fastened to the buckle located near the strap on 
the bag. The shoulderstraps are next attached to the frame, behind 
the perpendicular crossbar of the D. If the pack tends to pull away 
from the back, these straps may be lashed, with thongs, farther toward 
the center of the pack along the same piece of tubing. 
(2) Webbing backstrap. The webbing backstrap runs double be- 
tween the straight sides of the D of the horns. The flat portion rests 
on the back, while the buckles are away from it. There are two attach- 
ments which hold the backstrap onto a crossbar of the metal pack-frame. 
(3) Belly strap. The loops for the belly strap are located about three- 
quarters of the way down the canvas bag in the webbing which runs 
around the whole pack; at these points, the webbing is not sewed tightly 
to the canvas. Under rare circumstances, it is more comfortable to run 
the belly strap doubled between the horns than around the waist. 
(4) White camouflage cover. The white camouflage cover should be 
kept scrupulously clean. It is placed over the whole pack, with the 
drawstrings on both sides. The drawstrings are pulled up and fastened 
with bowknots. The tie string on the upper side of the cover is passed 
under the loops connecting the shoulderstraps to the bag, and tied with 
a bowknot on the leather between the shoulderstraps. The camouflage 
does not hide the horns or the shoulderstraps. Since the cover would 
get dirty if always used, it is left behind except when there is snow on 
the ground. 
38 c. Precautions in use. (1) Load. Since conditions are different for 
every operation, the loads carried also differ. Only what is needed is 
packed. Although it is imperative to figure on most contingencies, the 
rucksack must not be too heavy. For instance, tent poles and stakes 
may safely be left behind in wooded terrain, and ski-repair equipment 
may be eliminated from the packs of units not on skis; but if steep ice 
slopes are to be climbed, it is foolish not to carry crampons and ice-axes. 
Obviously, the less that is carried the more mobile a group wdll be, pro- 
vided it has everything it needs to be really efficient. 
(2) Manner of carrying. Unlike the packboard, the rucksack is not 
designed for carrying the load high. The shoulder straps are left long 
enough to allow the webbing backstrap to rest comfortably on the back 
just above the hips. The shoulders get less tired when the arms are 
being used energetically; for example, when cutting steps on ice, or 
poling on skis. The webbing backstrap is most comfortable if it is 
tightened only enough to keep the frame off the back. If the top of 
the rucksack tends to pull away from the shoulder, the bottom ends of 
the shoulderstraps may be lashed nearer the center of the frame as 
described above. The belly strap is fastened in front of the body to 
keep the rucksack from flopping, 
d. Packing rucksack. (1) General procedure. As a rule, the rucksack 
is packed with the heaviest objects near the frame. Sharp and hard 
objects are placed well inside, where they will not rub against the bag. 
When the load is completely stowed, it must be well balanced. Articles 
which are needed frequently are carried in the outside pockets or at the 
top. Maps and other objects which should remain flat are kept in the 
map pocket. Since everything has to fit into the smallest possible 
space, clothes are carefully folded or rolled up and tied with thongs, the 
stove is placed inside the pots of the mountain cook set, and small ob- 
jects are carried in the canteen cup. 
(2) Suggested arrangement. Although there are no definite instruc- 
tions about packing the rucksack, the following suggestions are made; 
(a) In the middle outer pocket: The 1-quart fuel container. The 
flap is buckled down. 
(b) In the side outer pockets: Ski wax, avalanche cord, thongs, sun- 
burn preventive, and other small objects which fit into the canteen cup; 
extra socks, mittens, insoles, ski climbers, pitons, or any other small 
items needed on the march. 
e. Fastening loaded pack. After the rucksack is filled the straps which 
fasten down the big flap should be pulled up tight and buckled. Be- 
cause they go around the whole pack, when pulled tight they reduce the 
size of the pack to a minimum and keep it from flopping. All buckles 
must be fastened, to keep them from rattling. 
f. Attaching equipment to outside of rucksack. (1) General. Some ad- 
ditional equipment is carried on the outside of the rucksack on the left 
39 side. The bayonet is hooked into the flap nearest the left shoulder, 
while the entrenching tool (in the Carrier, Entrenching, Rucksack), 
pick, or ax hangs from the middle flap. Both are slipped under the 
loops halfway down the pack. The first-aid packet is carried on the 
rearmost flap. 
(2) Rifle. The rifle is slung from the right side of the rucksack, bal- 
ancing the above-mentioned objects on the left. It is attached in the 
following manner: 
(a) Hold the rifle at the balance point with the left hand, with sling 
down. 
(b) Snap the wire hook, which is on the right horn of the pack frame, 
into the butt swivel on the side toward the body. Hold the piece erect 
from the swivel. 
(c) Bring the strap from the right top of the rucksack forward over 
the right shoulder, passing it outside the piece. 
(d) Grasp the strap with the left hand and snap it over the head, 
allowing the rifle to drop between the pack and the right shoulder, with 
the sling on the body. Place the ring on the strap into the hook on the 
left shoulderstrap. The ring will slide in and out of the hook most 
easily if it is turned half over and rolled in or out. The rifle is released 
by rolling the ring out of the hook, putting the strap over the head, and 
letting the piece slide down the strap into the hand. The hook is then 
unsnapped from the butt swivel. 
g. Special uses of rucksack. (1) Without frame. In certain circum- 
stances the rucksack is used without the frame. The frame is frequently 
discarded for difficult rock climbing, where it would get in the way. 
The pack is assembled as follows: 
(a) Unsnap the top of the frame from the leather pocket. Unbuckle 
the straps from the horns of the frame. Unbuckle the lower ends of 
the shoulderstraps, and remove them from the frame. The rucksack 
will then be free from the frame. 
(b) Rebuckle the straps which were holding the horns of the frame. 
(c) Slip the end of the shoulderstrap which has the wire loop on it 
under the horn-strap. Pull the outer end through the loop, thus at- 
taching it to the horn strap. 
(d) Rebuckle the shoulderstrap and adjust it. 
(2) Prevention of frostbitten toes. The rucksack may prevent frost- 
bitten toes, if sleeping bags are not available in a bivouac. Remove 
boots and exchange wet socks for dry ones, then place feet in rucksack, 
which serves as a windbreak. 
(3) Evacuating casualties. The rucksack may also be used as an im- 
provised carrying-frame in which to evacuate soldiers with minor in- 
juries, pick-a-back fashion. A strong man can carry a patient in terrain 
of only moderate difficulty, along a level or downhill, without too much 
trouble. (For steep climbing, not counting short rises, this method is 
40 much too tiring.) To carry a patient in a rucksack, enough stitches in 
the seams on both sides of the rucksack should be removed to permit 
the patient’s legs to stick through up to the thigh. He sits in the bag 
with his legs projecting forward around the hips of the bearer. Cloth- 
ing is placed in the bottom of the rucksack, so that the patient sits high 
enough and does not hang down behind. His thighs are held by two 
or three belts under his knees, strapped together and hung from the 
bearer’s shoulders. He is held to the upper part of the rucksack frame 
by his own belt, which reinforces the rucksack cord, coming up around 
his sides. This method can be used for carrying an unconscious patient 
for he will not be able to tip over backward; but it cannot be used for 
such serious injuries as broken bones. 
(4) For making an emergency sled, see Adaptor, Ski (par. 81). 
57. PACKBOARD. a. Purpose. Loads of considerable weight and un- 
usual shape can be carried more easily on a packboard than on any 
other type of back-packing equipment. Because the weight is dis- 
tributed over the back and shoulders, 50 pounds can be carried with 
comparative ease, and loads well over 100 pounds are by no means im- 
possible. The open air space between the body and the load protects 
the back from hard and irregular objects, and facilitates evaporation 
of perspiration. This latter function is particularly important in cold 
weather, as moisture will reduce the insulation of clothing and make 
it cold. 
b. Types. (1) Yukon type*. A wooden frame with canvas running 
around the whole board. 
(2) Plywood type. A bent piece of plywood, with canvas lashed onto 
the section which rests on the soldier’s back (see fig. 19). 
c. Preparing packboard for use. The lacings on the canvas of a new 
packboard are tightened before any load is lashed on. Thereafter the 
lacings should be tightened whenever they become loose. The lacings 
of the Yukon type are merely pulled up and tied with a bowknot. The 
lacings of the plywood type are more complicated. To lace this type, 
the cord ties into one of the eyelets at the top of the board. Run the 
cord over the edge, back through the hole of the packboard, down along 
the packboard, out through the second hole, over the edge of the pack- 
board, down through the second eyelet of the canvas, over the edge of 
the packboard, back through the hole, etc. After one side is laced and 
firmly fastened, the other side should be laced as tightly as possible. If 
the cord is wrapped around a stick each time it comes out from the 
eyelet in the canvas, it can be pulled much tighter. 
d. Packing the load. (1) General. Exact instructions for packing a 
load cannot be given, for the objects carried are always different. It is 
very important to keep the load compact and high on the board, with 
the heaviest articles on the upper half, and close to the packboard (see 
41 fig. 19). Long objects, such as skis, are packed either crosswise or up 
and down, depending on the terrain. In open country they should be 
packed horizontally, so they will not swing the packer too much; but in 
wooded terrain they will usually catch on trees unless carried vertically. 
(2) Packing procedure. The board is placed flat on the ground, 
shoulder straps down. When the lashing cord has been undone, a 
small loop is tied on one end and placed on one of the top hooks. As 
each article is laid separately on the packboard, the cord is run across 
and back, as well as up and down in the hooks, and pulled up very 
tightly. When the whole load is on the board, the cord is fastened with 
some type of knot which is easy to untie. The loose end is run through 
PACK HIGH 
ON PACK- 
. BOARD 
KEEP CORO 
ON BOARD 
WHEN NOT 
IN USE 
Figure 19. Plywood packhoard. The load is kept compact and high on the board. 
the uppermost and lowest cross loops, which are then drawn closer to- 
gether, to tighten the lashing. With a little practice, it becomes fairly 
easy to pack a neat and secure load which will hold together during an 
entire day. 
e. Use. Some loads are so heavy that they cannot be picked up and 
slung onto the shoulders. With such a load, the packer should set the 
loaded board upright on the ground, sit down with his back against the 
canvas, and slip his arms through the shoulder straps. He will then 
find it easy to roll over onto his hands and knees and get to his feet. 
Shoulder straps should be kept as short as comfortably possible, so that 
the load will stay high. If the shoulders get tired, the lower ends of 
42 the board behind the hips may be grasped with the hands, which can 
take the whole weight of the load. When the packer stops to rest, he 
should try to find a bank or stump on which to rest the load, in order 
to make it easier to get up again. Regardless of how light the load is, 
the packer must never let the packboard drop to the ground, or the 
frame may break. 
f. Under sleeping bag. A packboard may be used in place of the 
insulating sleeping pad under the sleeping bag to protect the soldier’s 
back from snow or cold ground. 
g. Care. (1) General. A packboard is kept in good repair by mend- 
ing or replacing a worn canvas before it rips seriously, and by tightening 
the hooks if they work loose. 
(2) Lashing cord. When there is no load on the packboard, the 
lashing cord is wound back and forth around the top of the board (see 
fig. 19). It is kept on the board and never taken off for any use unless 
returned immediately. 
h. . Attachments with quick-release straps.. Special attachments and quick- 
release straps are issued, which greatly increase the efficiency of troops 
carrying heavy weapons and other awkward loads on the packboard 
(see fig. 20). 
QUICK- 
RELEASE 
BUCKLE 
r PACK 
BOARD 
ATTACHMENT 
Figure 20. Packboard attachments used with quick-release buckles. 
Section II. SLEEPING EQUIPMENT 
58. BAG, SLEEPING, a. Use. The sleeping bag is one of the most 
valuable items of cold-weather equipment. The user must take special 
care of it, as it is essential to his comfort. The effects of misuse are 
cumulative, so it is extremely important to learn definite “sleeping 
technique.” An experienced man can sleep with complete comfort in 
a bag in which an inexperienced person would soon become cold. 
43 (1) Importance of keeping dry. A sleeping bag must be kept dry if 
it is to be warm. This is particularly true in the case of down-filled 
sleeping bags, for wet down is extremely hard to dry, and lacks the 
excellent insulating qualities of dry down. Unless proper care is taken 
in cold weather, a sleeping bag will soon become caked with ice, which 
makes it frigid. Not only is there danger of the bag’s becoming wet 
from the outside, especially from below, but there is also a greater danger 
that moisture from the body will condense within. 
(2) Control of perspiration. Perspiration occurs even in cold weather. 
It must be held to a minimum to keep the sleeping bag dry. No more 
clothing should be worn in bed than is needed to keep warm. If the 
two-layer Arctic bag is issued, the inner case is used alone unless the 
weather is cold enough for both to be needed. If too much clothing, 
or too warm a sleeping bag, is used in really cold weather, the sleeper 
will perspire and find himself inside an inefficient icy casing after a few 
nights’ use. Since some perspiration will always occur, the bag is al- 
ways opened wide just as soon as the sleeper gets up, and air is pumped 
in and out to exhaust the moist air and reduce the temperature inside 
the bag (see fig. 21). Whenever an opportunity arises (during the 
PUMPING AIR 
INTO BAG FOR 
VENTILATION 
Figure 21. As soon as the sleeper gets up, he should pump cold air into his sleeping 
bag, and remove the moist, warm air. 
noonday halt for instance), the bag should be unrolled and aired. Sun 
and wind have a drying effect even when the temperature is well below 
freezing. 
(3) Breathing. Since a large proportion of the water vapor which 
escapes continually from the body is exhaled from the mouth, special 
care is needed to keep the breath from condensing inside the sleeping 
bag. The head should never be drawn completely into the sleeping 
bag, away from the face-opening of the hood. In moderately cold 
weather the nose is always left uncovered in the face opening (see fig. 22). 
Since the nose is inside this tunnel entrance, it keeps warm enough, but 
the moist, exhaled air escapes freely and does not condense to any great 
extent inside the bag. The small frosted area on the hood is easier 
to dry if the cloth around the edge of the hood is turned in so that the 
breath strikes on the outside rather than the inside of the hood. In very 
44 cold weather, it is advisable to cover the face with a sweater, muffler, or 
some such woolen piece of clothing, which will keep the face warm and 
collect all the moisture, and can be easily dried (see fig. 22). 
(4) Amount of clothing worn. Experience will help to teach how 
much clothing to wear in a sleeping bag. It is the tendency of the 
untrusting beginner to wear too much in a down sleeping bag, and thus 
to defeat the working principle of the bag. Tire sleeping bag is in- 
tended to be warmed by the person sleeping in it. The warm air in 
the down provides insulation from the outside cold. Wearing too much 
WOOL 
GARMENT 
TO CATCH 
MOISTURE 
Figure 22. The nose must always be kept in the face opening of the sleeping bag. 
A wool garment is used to catch moisture from the breath. In cold weather this 
may be pulled over the face. 
clothing, in addition to inducing perspiration, will make the sleeping 
bag cramped and tight and still further reduce its insulating efficiency. 
(5) Insulation from below. Added insulation is needed beneath the 
sleeping bag, especially under the shoulders and hips, because the 
sleeping bag when it is compressed no longer has the same insulating 
qualities. If care is not taken in this respect, the soldier’s back will get 
cold, and the heat of his body will melt the snow beneath him. Placing 
extra clothing underneath the sleeping bag, on top of the insulating pad, 
is often warmer than wearing it. Packboard, fir boughs, or other ma- 
terials may be used for added insulation. A down sleeping bag is 
warmer if fluffed up after being unrolled. This should be a regular 
practice. 
b. Types. There are four types of sleeping bags: 
(1) Bag, Sleeping, Wool. The wool sleeping bag, which weighs about 
3 pounds, has the warmth of about two 4-pound blankets when used 
without the water-repellent shell, and is even warmer when used with it. 
It is not intended for really cold weather, but is adequate down to 
about 40° F. It may be used inside other sleeping bags to give addi- 
45 tional warmth. Like all sleeping bags, it has a mummy shape, a hood, 
and a quick-release slide fastener. 
(2) Bag, Sleeping, Mountain. The mountain sleeping bag is a single 
down and feather filled case, with a hood and a full mummy shape. 
When properly used, it is adequate for temperatures down to slightly 
below zero. There are two sizes; regular and large. 
(3) Bag, Sleeping, Arctic. The Arctic sleeping bag is used in ex- 
tremely cold weather. It consists of two down and feather filled cases, 
the inner one being a regular mountain sleeping bag. The outer case 
has a hood and a full mummy shape, but is closed with snaps. The 
two cases may be tied together by means of the tapes at the foot of 
each bag. When the weather is only moderately cold and it is important 
to cut down on weight, the outer case may be left at the base. 
(4) Bag, Sleeping, Kapok*. A kapok sleeping bag is issued in some 
areas. 
c. Case, Water-Repellent. A water-repellent case is ordinarily used 
with all sleeping bags, especially in damp or windy climates. In warm 
weather, when little protection is needed, the case may be used alone. 
The case fits over the sleeping bag and is laced to the opening. A sep- 
arate lacing should be used on each side. This lacing should not cross 
the zipper at any point, and should be knotted at both ends to keep it 
in place. The snaps are not usually closed, since they merely supple- 
ment the zipper, but they provide a good emergency closure. There 
are slits at the bottom of the case through which the tapes used to tie 
up the rolled sleeping bag may be slipped. Even with this case, a sleep- 
ing bag should be placed, not directly on the snow or wet ground, but 
on some more waterproof substance, such as a tent floor, a shelter half, 
or fir boughs. 
d. Liner, Bag, Sleeping. A washable sleeping bag liner fits all types of 
sleeping bags. The liner adds somewhat to the warmth of the bag and 
keeps it a great deal cleaner. It should always be used with the moun- 
tain and Arctic sleeping bags, and may be used if desired with the more 
easily laundered wool sleeping bag. Eyelets at the top of the face 
opening permit attachment of the liner to all types of bags. The liner 
is placed inside the sleeping bag, so that the hood fits inside, with the 
hood flap outside. Laces are then slipped through the eyelets in the 
liner inside the hood, through the sleeping bag itself, and out through 
the hood flap of the liner. Tie tapes at the bottom and sides are at- 
tached to the corresponding tie tapes in the mountain sleeping bag, to 
keep it in place. In cold weather, the liner hood flap may be made 
into the shape of a funnel to catch moisture from the breath, or may 
be pulled inside the bag to keep drafts from going down past the 
shoulders. 
e. Quick-release slide fastener. All newer type sleeping bags are now 
provided with quick-release slide fasteners, which can be opened in a 
46 split second. If closed to about 1 inch from the end of its track, this 
zipper remains tightly shut; but when pulled to the very end, it opens 
immediately along its whole length. To close it, run the slider down 
to the bottom end, thread it into the other side and pull it up again. 
Be sure that both sides are close together before closing. This feature 
is ordinarily not used, except in a case of real emergency, for it takes 
time to rethread the fastener, and it is somewhat difficult to manage 
with cold fingers. 
f. Emergency closure. The sleeping bag has eyelets to which the water- 
repellent case is usually laced. When the case is on the bag, its snaps 
provide an emergency closure in case the slide fastener fails. If the bag 
is being used alone, these eyelets may be used with emergency laces. 
g. Use in drying clothing. The sleeping bag is the best place to dry 
damp clothing at night, when camping outdoors in cold weather. Damp 
(but not wet) socks, mittens, insoles, etc., are placed in the bag to be 
dried by the heat of the body. It is wise to take all the socks and insoles 
which have been worn during the day into the sleeping bag, even if 
they do not feel damp. 
h. Carrying sleeping bags. Sleeping bags may be carried in one of two 
ways: they may either be stuffed directly into the waterproof sack with- 
out being rolled (this helps to keep the down fluffed up), or they may 
be rolled into a comparatively small bundle and held by the straps pro- 
vided at the foot for this purpose. They are carried inside their water- 
proof covers. If the weather is moderately cold, the canteen may be 
wrapped inside the sleeping bag so that hot liquids will retain their 
heat and cold ones will be kept from freezing for a few hours. 
i. Cleaning. Any type of sleeping bag may be washed. Special instruc- 
tions have been issued to field laundries on the necessary procedure for 
washing Arctic and mountain sleeping bags. Wool sleeping bags are 
washed, like any woolen garment, in lukewarm, never hot, water. 
59. PAD, INSULATING, SLEEPING, a. Purpose. The insulating sleeping 
pad is issued, not to make the sleeping bag softer and more luxurious, 
but to increase the warmth of the sleeping bag and to keep it dry. The 
down in a sleeping bag compresses under the body of the sleeper, re- 
ducing the amount of entrapped still air and lowering its insulating 
qualities. As the insulating sleeping pad is not easily compressed, it 
adds insulation where it is most needed, both to keep the sleeper warm 
and to prevent the heat of his body from melting the snow beneath. If 
the cover of the sleeping bag were waterproof, perspiration would con- 
dense and wet the bag. The pad therefore performs the second func- 
tion of keeping moisture from wetting the water-repellent (but never 
waterproof) bag from below, when camp is pitched on wet ground or 
snow. 
b. Types. (1) Filled type. Although the filled type of insulating 
47. sleeping pad is not a real air mattress, air must be entrapped among the 
fibers to give maximum warmth. A small amount of air may therefore 
be blown into it to keep the fibers from compressing. 
(2) Inflated type. The inflated type is inflated with the mouth. 
When there are separate tubes, inflating the outer tubes more than the 
tubes toward the center will help prevent the sleeper from rolling off 
the mattress. 
c. Use. The inflated pad is used under the shoulders and hips. (A 
rolled-up shirt makes a good pillow. If available, a packboard under 
the legs and feet is very comfortable; otherwise, clothes or a rucksack 
complete the insulation beneath the rest of the body.) If either type 
of pad is inflated too much, it will be very uncomfortable and make the 
sleeper bounce as he turns over. Before the pad is packed into the ruck- 
sack, it should be completely deflated and rolled up to fit into the 
smallest possible space. 
d. Care. If the underside of the pad gets wet, it should be aired and 
dried to prevent its wetting the sleeping bag, and to keep its own weight 
down. 
Section III. COOKING EQUIPMENT AND FOOD BAGS 
60. GENERAL. Individual or squad cooking will not be very difficult if 
well planned in advance. For instance, less time will be lost in the 
morning if preparations are made the night before. Adequate water 
may be left in readiness, if it is well insulated from the cold to keep it 
from freezing. Lunches for the next day may be distributed. Fruit 
may be stewed for breakfast. The only things then left to be prepared 
in the morning will be cereal and a beverage. 
61. SUPPLY OF WATER. When camping in the snow, water is always a 
problem. Since it takes about the same amount of heat merely to melt 
snow as it does to bring cold water to a boil, running water is used, 
when available, to save fuel. Glacier water is usually clean enough, if 
the sediment is given a little time to settle. The sun may be used to 
melt snow. Even when the temperature is low, if snow is sprinkled in 
a hollow on rocks or on a dark-colored waterproof cloth such as the tent, 
drops of water will run off and can be caught in a pot. There are many 
times, however, when it is necessary to melt snow or ice to obtain water. 
Since ice and wet or frozen snow have a much higher water content 
than powder snow, they are more satisfactory. It is therefore often 
worthwhile to scrape off surface powder snow to get to more solid snow 
for melting. It is easy to burn the pot when powder snow is used, for 
the snow near the bottom melts first and is drawn up into the drier 
snow above. Snow must therefore be stirred constantly and shoved to 
48 the bottom of the pot until the whole is slushy (see fig. 23). Take great 
care to use only uncontaminated snow. 
62. STOVE, GASOLINE, ONE-BURNER, M1941 AND Ml942. One-burner 
gasoline cooking stoves are issued for the use of mobile troops who pre- 
pare and cook their own food. These stoves are easy to manage, burn 
little fuel, and are light in weight. 
a. General precautions in use. (1) Ventilation. The combustion of the 
fuel in these small gasoline stoves is usually almost perfect, and there is 
little danger from fumes. When the weather is cold, however, or when 
a pot filled with snow is placed on the stove, the combustion will not be 
complete, as the gases cool rapidly. As a result, poisonous but odorless 
Figure 23. Melting snow in mountain cook set, with M1942 one-burner gasoline stove. 
The snow must be stirred and shoved to the bottom, to keep the pot from burning. 
carbon monoxide gas escapes into the atmosphere. Therefore, the 
colder the weather, the greater the need for ventilating a tent when the 
stove is burning. As the mountain tent is absolutely airtight, extreme 
care must be taken to keep the tent ventilated when a stove is lighted, 
particularly when cooking. Ventilators must never be tied shut, regard- 
less of the temperature. In addition the door should be left open, if 
possible. 
(2) Steam. When liquid is boiling on the stove, the pot should be 
covered to keep steam from rising, forming as frost on the tent roof, and 
wetting everything in the tent. Use as low a flame as practicable, to 
minimize moisture and save fuel. 
(3) Wind. When the stove is used outdoors, it must be shielded from 
the wind. 
(4) Fuel. If small gasoline stoves are filled more than three-quarters 
full, they flare up and, although they will not explode, the flame may 
49 burn the tent or other equipment. Nonleaded “white” gas should be 
used when available. Kerosene is quite satisfactory. 
(5) Lubrication. Pump washers should be oiled regularly. 
b. Types. Of the two types of one-burner gasoline cooking stoves, the 
Ml942 is decidedly the lighter and more compact. 
(1) Stove, Gasoline, One-Burner, M1941 (see fig. 24). Before this 
stove is lighted, the covering cups are removed and the legs and pot arms 
snapped out. The stove is lighted and cared for in the following 
manner: 
(a) Unscrew the pump handle by turning it two turns to the left. 
Holding the thumb over the venthole in the cup of the pump handle, 
pump about 30 times. Push the pump handle in and screw it to the 
right until tight. 
'valve 
.KNOB 
PUMP 
VALVE 
WHEEL 
TUNNEL 
/PUMP AND \ 
SPARE PARTS 
V CONTAINER/ 
M. 1941 
M.1942 
Figure 24. The Ml941 and Ml942 one-burner gasoline stoves. 
(b) Revolve the wire lever near the valve knob several times, to clean 
the tip. Leave the lever in a down position. 
(c) Light a match. 
(d) Turn the valve knob a quarter turn to the left (counterclockwise), 
and light the stove by applying the match to the top of the burner. Do 
not open the valve farther at this time. 
(e) After 3 or 4 minutes, when the yellow flame subsides and the flame 
burns completely blue, turn the valve knob as far to the left as possible. 
Pump more air into the stove until the flame burns vigorously. 
(/) If the flame is too hot, turn up the wire-cleaning lever to adjust 
the heat, and throttle the flame down. If the flame starts to flicker, 
clean the tip by twisting this lever around several times. Since this will 
probably put out the flame, keep a lighted match in readiness. 
(g) When the stove is no longer needed, extinguish the flame by 
turning the valve knob to the right to close the valve. 
(h) If the stove is not functioning properly, use the extra generator 
assembly attached to the inside of one of the uprights. To install the 
50 new generator assembly, the crown of the burner is unscrewed counter- 
clockwise. The nut which holds the old generator in place is then un- 
screwed, and the old generator removed. If the needle which remains 
exposed is damaged, it is also unscrewed. The nut on the old needle 
is removed and placed on the new needle, which is then screwed firmly 
into place. When the cleaning wire lever is up and the new generator 
is in place, the needle should be exposed about yi6 inch through the 
burner orifice. Then the new generator is bolted down and the rest 
of the burner screwed back on. If the cleaner lever does not move freely 
up and down, the cleaner needle has not been screwed down far enough. 
The needle must be handled carefully so as not to damage it when mak- 
ing repairs. When the stove is packed to be carried with gasoline in it, 
loosen the screw caps on the gasoline tank to release the pressure, and 
then retighten. Check the valve to see that it is shut. Place the small 
utility cups down over the burner carefully, so that they will not jam 
on the chain. 
(2) Stove, Gasoline, One-Burner, M1942. This stove is as easy to use 
as the Ml941. Before it is lighted, its legs are snapped out. The pot 
arms are then raised allowing the ring on which they rest to slide down 
into position. The stove is lighted and controlled in the following 
manner: 
(a) Before pumping air pressure into the stove, to clean the tip, turn 
the wheel under the burner to the right until it stops. 
(b) Turn the wheel back to the left until it stops, closing the valve. 
(c) Pump about 35 strokes. 
(d) Light a match. 
(e) Open the valve slightly by turning the wheel to the right, and 
light the stove by applying the match to the top of the burner. Do not 
open the valve farther at this time. 
(/) When the flame burns blue, turn the wheel to the right a full turn. 
(g) Pump until the flame burns vigorously. After the stove is burn- 
ing well, the heat of the flame may be reduced by turning the wheel to 
the right until the cleaner needle enters the orifice. 
(h) If the flame flickers, clean the tip by turning the wheel to the 
right until it stops. Turn wheel back to the left and relight. Extin- 
guish the flame by turning the wheel to the left until it shuts the valve. 
(i) If the cleaning needle does not work properly, or if the flame 
seems faulty, inspect the generator and needle, and if necessary, replace. 
This is done in the following manner: 
1. Unscrew the burner head counterclockwise. Shut the valve 
by turning it to the left, and, holding the valve wheel sta- 
tionary, loosen the large nut below the priming cap. 
2. Lift the generator out through the top opening. 
3. If the needle requires changing, open the valve by turning it 
to the right until it stops. 
51 4. Unscrew the needle and remove the small nut. Screw the nut 
onto the new needle and put it back into position. When the 
generator is properly seated, the needle should show about 
% 6 inch above the opening. 
5. Reassemble. 
(j) If the stove leaks below the valve wheel and above the tank con- 
nection, tighten the nut below the valve wheel to eliminate the leak. If 
this is not effective, replace the packing, in the following manner: 
1. Loosen the nut below the valve wheel until it drops down. 
Raise the wheel directly upward and remove it carefully. 
2. Unsnap the small wire ring around the exposed portion of the 
valve, and remove it. 
3. Lift the ring off the whole assembly. 
4. Remove the packing and the packing rings, and insert the 
new packing. 
5. Reassemble carefully. 
(k) If air leaks out of the pump, check to see if it needs a new pump 
cap gasket. Remove the whole pump from the tank and unscrew the 
knurled section from the pump body, exposing the gasket. Then re- 
move the old gasket, if necessary, and replace with the new one, which 
must be packed completely into the circular recess. 
(/) If gasoline leaks out of the pump, check to see if it needs a new 
pump check. If it does, repair as follows: 
1. Remove the pump from the tank. 
2. Unscrew the nut at the bottom end of the pump. (Be careful 
not to lose the small spring.) 
3. Remove the old check. 
4. Insert the spring into the new check. 
5. Insert the spring and check into the nut, removing the spring 
first. 
6. Reassemble. 
(m) Before it is packed for carrying (in the mountain cook set), cool 
the whole stove, and check the wheel to see that the valve is closed. 
Loosen pump cap and tighten it, to let out gasoline vapor, which might 
otherwise build up pressure tending to cause leakage of gasoline into the 
cook set. If gasoline should leak into the cook set, heat the empty pots 
carefully before cooking, to drive off the gasoline. 
(3) Stove, Cooking, Gasoline, M1942 Modified. The modified M1942 
is similar to the older model but has a different type of burner which 
is somewhat similar in appearance to that of the Ml941 model. The 
stove is lighted and cared for in the following manner: 
(a) Clean the tip by moving the cleaner lever down and back up. 
(b) Pump 20 to 30 strokes. 
52 (c) Open the valve slightly by turning the valve knob counterclock- 
wise and allow the priming cup to fill three-quarters full. Close the 
valve. 
(d) Light the gasoline in the priming cup. 
(e) When the flame has almost died down, open the valve gradually 
until the maximum blue flame appears. 
(/) The flame may be reduced somewhat by lowering the cleaning 
needle a little. 
(g) To extinguish, turn the valve clockwise until the flame is ex- 
tinguished. 
(h) A maintenance wrench is attached to the side of the stove. This 
may be removed by pulling out the spring clip slightly and by lifting 
the wrench directly upward. 
(i) If the stove is not functioning properly, use the extra generator 
assembly attached to the inside of one of the uprights. To install the 
new generator assembly, the crown of the burner is unscrewed counter- 
clockwise. The nut which holds the old generator in place is then 
unscrewed, and the old generator removed. If the needle, which re- 
mains exposed, is damaged, it is also unscrewed. The new needle is 
then screwed firmly into place. Then the new generator is bolted down 
and the rest of the burner screwed back on. If the cleaner lever does 
not move freely up and down, the cleaning needle has not been screwed 
down far enough. The needle must be handled carefully so as not to 
damage it when making repairs. 
(j) If gasoline leaks from around the cleaning lever, the packing nut 
should be tightened slightly until the leak stops. If this is not adequate 
a spare packing is found in the spare parts container attached to one of 
the uprights. Unscrew the plastic knob on the lever, remove the pack- 
ing nut, pull out the lever body including the lever packing gland and 
the old packing. Separate the lever packing gland and the old packing 
from the lever body. Reinsert the lever body into the stove and fit the 
packing very carefully into position. (This packing crumbles easily 
and must be handled with care. If it breaks, it may, in an emergency, 
be replaced with graphited asbestos cord.) Insert lever packing gland, 
being certain it is properly seated. Attach the lever packing nut and 
tighten moderately. Reattach the lever knob. 
(k) If gasoline leaks from the valve stem tighten the valve packing 
nut moderately until the leak stops. If this is not adequate, a spare 
packing is found in the pump barrel. This should be inserted to re- 
place the old packing. 
(/) If the pump leaks, repair as in (2) (k) and (I) above. 
c. Replacement parts. These parts are carried in the pump plunger. 
When the pump plunger is pulled out, the pump handle may be un- 
screwed. In the plunger are the following items: generator assembly 
53 (including a cleaning needle, an orifice, screens, and a generator), extra 
screen, valve packing, pump check and pump cap gasket. 
63. COOK SET, MOUNTAIN, a. Nature. The mountain cook set is com- 
posed of two pots which nest into each other and a cover for the larger 
pot (see fig. 23). The cover is also used as a frying pan. 
b. Care. The pots should be kept scrupulously clean, so that the user’s 
health will not suffer. Sand or granular snow is useful for scrubbing 
the pots, which should also be washed in extremely hot water to remove 
grease. If used over open wood fires, the outsides of the pots become 
blackened. They must be cleaned before being put into the rucksack 
to keep clothes from getting dirty. 
c. Carrying Ml942 gasoline stove. (1) The M1942 gasoline stove is 
carried in the cook set.. The pots are nested together, the stove placed 
inside, and the cover placed on the top. 
(2) When the tactical situation requires silent movement, the stove 
may be wrapped in a sock to keep it from rattling around. 
(3) The air valve must be opened before packing, to prevent gasoline 
from leaking into the cook set. 
64. CONTAINER, FUEL, I-QUART, a. Purpose. This container is issued 
for carrying fuel and for filling small gasoline stoves. It fits into the 
middle outside pocket of the rucksack, where it is carried well away 
from any rations. 
b. Use. (1) Slight seepage of gas may take place during carrying. 
After unit is unpacked and before using, this gas may be driven off by 
heating carefully over a low flame while the pots are still empty. 
(2) There are two types of caps. In one type, a piece of tubing pro- 
jects into the can from the screw cap, and is screwed firmly into place 
when the container is being used only to carry fuel. When it is needed 
to fill a stove, the plug in the screw cap is unscrewed, releasing the tube, 
which is pulled up until the lower plug stops it. This lower plug is 
then threaded into the socket. When the tube has been inserted into 
the fuel opening of the stove, the container is tipped to allow the fuel 
to enter the tube and run into the stove through the hole near its upper 
end. Squeezing the sides of the can speeds the flow of gasoline. 
(3) With the other type, there is a tube fixed horizontally to the cap. 
When the washer inside one cap is removed, gasoline can flow freely out 
of either end. 
65. BAG, FOOD, WATERPROOF, a. Purpose and nature. Waterproof 
food bags are issued principally for carrying food. A complete set 
consists of four bags, each a different size. 
b. Use. As the use for each bag is not definitely specified, the moun- 
tain trooper may use his own judgment about what to put in each. For 
54 example, a bag may be used to hold half a can of powdered milk, or the 
remainder of some cereal. It is suggested that one bag be reserved for 
the food which will be used on the march during the course of the day. 
The bags may be used for objects other than food which must also be 
kept dry. The tie string at the top of the bag permits an almost perfect 
watertight closure. This string may be simply looped twice around 
the mouth of the bag, pulled up very tight, and tied with a bowknot. 
However, closure is better if the mouth of the bag is folded over and 
held firmly in place by the tie string. 
c. Care. After use, the bag should be turned inside out, brushed, and 
aired. Occasionally it should be washed in fairly hot (but never boiling) 
water. * 
Section IV. MAKING CAMP 
66. TENT, MOUNTAIN, TWO-MAN, COMPLETE, a. (1) The mountain 
tent (see fig. 25) is a lightweight, waterproof, two-man tent with a floor. 
It is reversible and may be pitched with either the olive-drab or white 
side out, depending on which will provide the best camouflage. A com- 
plete tent unit consists of the following items; 
'RECTANGULAR 
V WIRE LOOP / 
f FRONT x 
,GUY-ROPE 
SIDE GUY 
V ROPES , 
CORNER 
vLOOPSy 
SLEEVE 
DOORS TIED] 
v OPEN I 
Figure 25. The mountain tent, pitched. 
(a) One tent. 
(5) Twelve tent pole sections (four complete tent poles). 
(c) Six tent pegs. 
(2) There are two types of tent poles, each with a different kind of 
top section. One type has a rectangular wire loop at the top of the 
pole (see fig. 25). No toggle pin is needed with this type of pole. The 
other has a circular disk with the eyelet on the end of the top section. 
Two toggle pins are necessary with this type. They should be attached 
to the webbing at the top of the ventilators. 
55 b. The complete unit need not always be carried. Snow and bough 
shelters may be used in place of the mountain tent, either intentionally 
to save weight, or in an emergency. These are fully described in.FM 
31-15. Occasionally, in wooded terrain, the tent alone is used in order 
to save weight and achieve maximum mobility. In such cases the 
corners are staked down with any sticks or rocks that are available. The 
front and rear guy ropes are staked out onto sticks or rocks. If the 
ridge of the tent sags, it may be supported by the loop located at the 
center of the ridge. Skis and ski-poles may also be used, i„n place of 
tent poles and pegs. 
67. PITCHING THE TENT. a. Wind consideration. The prevailing wind 
should be taken into consideration. If possible, the tent should be 
pitched with one of the back corners into the wind, rather than a side 
or the front. If the tent is pitched on snow with the entrance directly 
down wind, the entrance is likely to become blocked, as drifting snow 
tends to pile up in the lee of any object. 
b. General procedure. With a little practice, the tent can be pitched 
quickly. The normal procedure is as follows: (1) The tent is reversible, 
and may be turned inside out if necessary. Start with the proper color 
on the outside. 
(2) Divide the tent pole sections into four groups of three so that 
each has a bottom section with a spiked end, a middle section, and a 
top section with an eye and disk, or a rectangular wire loop. 
(3) Assemble two of the poles in the outside sleeves in the front. The 
sleeves are found inside and outside the tent, along the seams which join 
the sides to the front and to the back. Slip the spikes on the bottom 
of the poles through the loops in the corners. 
(а) If the poles have rectangular wire loops at the top, slip one loop 
through the other. Twist the pole a half-turn, to lock the loops to- 
gether. 
(б) If the poles have eyes and disks at the top, place the eyes over each 
other. Slip the toggle through both eyes and through the grommet at 
the peak of the tent. Lock the toggle. 
(4) Assemble the rear poles similarly. 
(5) Attach the guy ropes to the webbing loops on the front and rear 
peaks of the tent. 
(6) Stake out the front and rear guy ropes on tent pegs. 
(7) Attach side guy to loops on the sides of the tent. 
(8) Stake out the side guy ropes on tent pegs. Both ropes may be 
attached to the same peg. 
(9) To anchor the corners, tie ropes to the loops at the corners and 
stake them to the front or back peg. 
c. Special procedure. (1) In rocky terrain, it may be impossible to 
56 drive the tent pegs into the ground. In that case, attach the guy ropes 
to rocks. 
(2) If the snow on which the tent is pitched is loose and powdery, the 
guy ropes may be attached to skis, ski-poles or ice axes driven into the 
snow, after it has been packed. 
(3) Ropes from the loops at the corners to the front or back peg will 
anchor the corners. 
68. PERSONAL PRECAUTIONS, a. Care of clothes and boots. Before en- 
tering the tent, each man must be very careful to brush all the snow off 
his clothes and boots. Snow brought into the tent will melt and wet 
sleeping bags and clothes. If two men enter a tent, one man should 
come in first and take the bags, packs, etc., from the other, after the 
latter has brushed them off carefully. No small objects should be left 
loose outside the tent, for they will sink into the snow and get buried 
and lost. Care should be used, when wearing nailed boots in a tent, 
not to rip the floor. 
b. Closing the entrance. The tunnel entrance of the tent may be tied 
up tight by means of the tie string from either the inside or the outside. 
The tie string is merely wound around the tunnel entrance as if it were 
the mouth of a bag, and fastened with a half-hitch. The entrance may 
be kept wide open by tying together the tapes located around the edge 
of the tunnel (see fig. 25). 
c. Ventilation. Ventilation is of the greatest importance in the moun- 
tain tent, for the cloth is absolutely impermeable. It is dangerous to 
close up the tent completely, especially if a stove is burning. To insure 
a good supply of fresh air at all times and in all kinds of weather, 
ventilators are provided at each end of the tent. In good weather, 
they are usually kept wide open by hooking them up to the guy ropes. 
In most storms, they will provide adequate protection as well as venti- 
lation if left hanging loosely. Only under exceptional circumstances 
are the ventilators closed with the tapes, and never when a stove is 
lighted, because of the danger of carbon monoxide. In cold weather, 
there is an additional reason for leaving them open. Unless the mois- 
ture caused by breathing and cooking can pass off into the outside air, 
it forms as frost inside the roof of the tent. In a wind, this shakes off 
and .vets the clothes and sleeping bags. To keep this from happening, 
brush frost from the roof, walls, and floor and throw it out. - - 
69. BREAKING CAMP. When breaking camp, if the mountain tent has 
frozen in as the result of successive thawings and freezings, it must be 
handled very gently. Shovels must be used with the greatest care, since 
it is very easy to rip the tent while digging it out. Ice remaining on 
the tent should be carefully removed before the tent is packed up. 
57 Section V. MOUNTAIN CLIMBING EQUIPMENT 
70. AX, ICE, MOUNTAIN, a. Purpose. The ice ax is useful, not only on 
ice and snow, but in most types or montainous terrain. As a walking 
stick, it aids balance and helps reduce the weight on the legs, particu- 
larly when heavy loads are carried. It is also used for cutting steps on 
grass and gravel slopes. When the pick end of the head is firmly shoved 
into turf, gravel, or hard snow, the blade end makes an excellent hand- 
hold. In the first World War, the ice ax served at times as a very effec- 
tive weapon in close-in fighting on the Alpine front. The most im- 
portant use of the ice ax, however, is on ice and snow. The pick end 
of the head is essential for chopping steps in ice, while the blade is used 
to cut steps in hard snow and to clean them of ice chips. The ice ax is 
needed for belaying the rope on snow and ice to safeguard the climbers. 
Suspected snow should be probed with the ice ax to see whether there 
are hidden crevasses under it. 
b. Use. (1) On easy terrain. In easy terrain when the ice ax is used 
as a walking stick, the hand grasps the head with the pick forward. The 
palm rests on the blade of the head, while the sling hangs around the 
wrist. Sometimes the ice ax is not needed, and sometimes the noise 
of the point striking rocky ground may make its use inadvisable. In 
such cases, there are two easy methods of carrying it. The shaft may 
be held in the hand with the point forward, where it is out of the way 
of anyone following, or the ax may be held under the arm with its 
head resting against the back and its shaft held up by the forearm. 
(2) On slopes. In traversing steep grass, rock, snow, or ice slopes, 
the ice ax is an indispensable aid to balance. The head of the ax is 
held in the hand away from the slope, while the shaft, which runs 
diagonally across in front of the body, is grasped by the hand toward the 
slope. If the climber slips, he can throw his weight onto the shaft and 
save himself from falling, since the point will catch on the slope. It is 
used similarly for glissading or sliding down snow or scree slopes. For 
climbing up snow it is usually driven in vertically. 
(3) On rock. On rock, the ice ax is more of a problem. If not 
needed, it may hang from the wrist on the sling. For short pitches, it 
is sometimes tucked into the belt or rope, but care is needed to keep 
it from falling out. It may be shoved between the wearer’s back and 
the rucksack, with its point down and its head on the top of the pack. 
For long rock climbs, however, it is usually packed in the rucksack. 
The head rests on tfie bottom of the bag and the point sticks straight up 
out of the pack. 
(4) On snow and ice. (a) Cutting steps. 
1. Step cutting needs a great deal of practice. With both hands 
on the shaft, one through the wrist sling, the climber strikes 
two or three blows with the pick across the ice in a straight 
58 line perpendicular to the slope. He then strikes at a slight 
downward angle into the ice above this line, finishing the 
step. If the ice is brittle, he must be careful not to strike too 
hard and chip the whole surface away. On hard snow the 
blade end of the head can be used to scrape out a step in a 
single blow. 
2. Ice steps need be only big enough so that the foot can rest 
safely on them. Their surface should slope in slightly. Since 
it is easiest to chop steps diagonally going up hill, a big ice 
slope will be ascended in zigzags, with larger steps at the turns. 
While chopping, the climber stands with his outside foot in 
the lower step, and may balance himself with his uphill knee 
which rests against the slope. Ordinarily, two steps are cut 
from one position. 
3. On very steep slopes, handholds are sometimes chopped. 
4. Cutting down hill is tiring and difficult, since the climber 
must lean forward down the slope. 
5. The use of crampons eliminates the need for step-cutting on 
moderate slopes, and makes climbing ice steps on steep slopes 
much safer. 
(b) Belaying. The ice ax is used for belaying the rope on snow and 
ice to safeguard the climbers. Two methods are described below: 
1. A shaft belay is used, unless the snow or ice is so hard that 
most of the shaft of the ice ax cannot be driven in. It is well 
to steady the ax with the hand and knee. The rope is looped 
around the shaft near the surface of the snow, and both strands 
are held together in the hand. Tire rope is taken in or payed 
out to keep it taut as the climber moves. 
2. When the ice is too solid for the shaft belay, the pick belay 
is used. The pick is driven into the ice as far as possible. 
While one hand or knee keeps it solidly in the ice, the other 
pays the rope over the head of the ax. 
c. Care. (1) General. Since the life of a mountain trooper often de- 
pends on his ice ax, he must take good care of the ax. The shaft is 
treated with linseed oil two or three times a year. If it gets rough, it 
should be sandpapered smooth to save the hands. A weakened shaft 
must be replaced at the first opportunity. Whenever the point on the 
bottom of the ice ax gets dull, it should be filed sharp again or it will 
slip. A bit of oil on the metal parts of the ice ax when it is not in use 
will keep it from rusting. 
(2) During storms. Mountain troopers must often operate in storms. 
Lightning is especially dangerous in the mountains. Since ice axes, 
like all metal equipment, attract lightning, they should be laid aside 
while the climbers wait at some distance from the ridge top. 
59 71. CRAMPONS, MOUNTAIN, a. Purpose and nature. The soles of un- 
nailed boots are dangerously slippery on hard ice even where a mountain 
slope is only moderately steep, whether or not steps are chopped in the 
ice. The nails or cleated soles of ski-mountain boots help hold on such 
a slope, and may be used in ice steps; but they, too, have their limitations 
on hard ice and steep slopes. Therefore crampons (see fig. 26) are often 
used, to give the feet a safer grip on icy slopes. Crampons save time 
and energy as well, for they often eliminate step cutting. Chopping 
steps is time consuming and tiring. Where a group without crampons 
must work its way laboriously and slowly up hill, another group with 
ANKLE 
STRAP 
TOE 
STRAP 
Figure 26. Crampons being put on. (Note bindings.) 
crampons can move rapidly and with much less effort. Even with 
crampons, the ice may sometimes be so hard and the slope so steep that 
steps have to be cut; but much smaller steps are sufficient. Crampons 
make it possible to climb almost noiselessly, eliminating the sound of 
the ice ax striking the ice and the clatter of ice chips. Crampons are 
also very useful on extremely steep grass slopes. 
b. Fitting. Crampons are provided in two sizes because they must fit 
well on the soles of the boots. Since the length is not adjustable, the 
proper size should be chosen when the crampons are issued. The front 
points should be under the very toe of the boot, when the foot rests in 
position on the crampon. The width is easily adjusted to fit the sole 
exactly, by spreading or narrowing the uprights of the crampons with 
a hammer, preferably in a vise. The fit is correct when all the points 
are under the edge of the boot, and when the upright binding pieces 
fit snugly around the sole. 
c. Attaching. To attach the crampon to the boot, it is placed on the 
snow with the points down, with the metal band connecting the two 
rear rings toward the heel, and the buckles outside. The foot is placed 
on the crampon and pushed back snugly against the heel band, which 
60 is raised to grasp the boot firmly. The rear straps are buckled over the 
ankle and the front straps fastened across the foot (see fig. 26). These 
straps must be buckled so tightly that they will not allow the crampon 
any play on the foot, but not so tightly that they will cut off the circu- 
lation and cause frostbite. If a binding breaks'when in use, a long 
thong or strap may be substituted. This is threaded from the rear out- 
side ring, to the middle inside ring, through the front outside ring, 
through the front inside ring, through the middle outside ring, through 
the rear inside ring, and then tied across the ankle. 
d. Use. The use of crampons requires a certain amount of practice. 
When wearing crampons, the foot should not be edged into the slope. 
On the steep slope, the ankle must be bent considerably to allow the 
foot to strike flat on the slope with all points biting into the ice. The 
climber should swing his foot forward without bringing it close to the 
other leg. Trousers snagged on crampons points have caused serious 
falls. If there is loose snow on the ice, it may ball up in the crampon 
and keep the points from gripping on the hard surface below. When 
this happens, the foot should be raised and the edge of the boot struck 
with the shaft of the ice ax. Where there are short stretches of rock, 
it is usually not worthwhile to remove the crampons. Care is needed, 
however, since they do not grip well on rock. 
e. Care. Crampons should be kept free from rust. If they are not in 
frequent use, a little oil now and then will keep the metal in good con- 
dition. When the points become dull, from use on rocks, for instance, 
they should be filed sharp again. It is advisable to inspect crampons 
occasionally for splits or cracks in the bends of the metal. If a point 
does break off on a steep slope, a bad fall is almost sure to result. The 
binding will last much longer if dubbin is applied occasionally. The 
amount of dubbin used should be limited, however, otherwise the straps 
will get stiff in cold weather. A weak binding must be replaced at the 
first opportunity. m 
f. Placing in rucksack. Crampons are rather a nuisance in the rucksack, 
since clothing, tents, and sleeping bags are easily snagged on the points. 
They are held by the binding straps with their points together and 
placed under the large flap on the top of the rucksack. They should 
not be hung on the outside or they might flop and be noisy. 
72. ROPES, CLIMBING, a. Purpose. Climbing rope is used to safeguard 
the lives of mountain troopers when climbing, and to help them carry 
out many of their duties. Although its principal use is in safeguarding 
climbers on difficult mountain slopes, it also serves for lashing loads 
down, for hauling up or lowering loads, for making stirrups with which 
to climb out of crevasses or overhangs, for improvising rope ladders, 
etc. The larger %6 inch rope is always used for roping men together 
and may also be used for the other purposes mentioned above. The 
61 14 inch rope is intended only for the auxiliary uses, and to serve as a 
fixed rope. 
b. Treatment of new rope. Because a new rope kinks easily, it is worth- 
while working a rope over carefully when new. It is not considered 
advisable to wet and stretch a new rope, as this destroys essential resili- 
ence. The middle, and perhaps also the quarters, of a rope should be 
clearly marked with some simple identification, such as colored thread 
woven through the strands. 
c. Care in use. (1) Ropes fray when dragged under tension over sharp 
rock edges. If a slip occurs when the rope is running across such an 
edge, it may break at that point. Therefore if it is impossible to avoid 
sharp edges, hammer them off or pad them with clothing or some other 
material. At the end of a day of rock climbing, the rope should be 
examined carefully along its whole length to see if it has become snagged 
or cut. Nylon rope frays slightly on the surface without causing any 
real loss of strength. Be careful to see whether the rope is frayed only 
on the surface or is really snagged. Loose ends must be rewhipped 
immediately. The ends of a nylon rope may be fused in a hot flame 
in addition to whipping. 
(2) The rope should be kept taut between men so it will not get wet 
from dragging on snow. Wet rope should be dried completely, at the 
first opportunity, by uncoiling it and hanging it in big, loose loops, in 
a cool, dry place where air is circulating. * 
d. Precautions when rope is not in use. The easiest way to prevent the 
rope from tangling when not in use is to keep it well coiled. The right 
size coil will result if the climber sits down and coils the rope over his 
knee and foot, after first securing one end with a square knot. He coils 
it until about 8 feet are left. After fastening these with a half-hitch, 
he winds the remaining end tightly around and around the whole coil 
until it is used up. The very end is secured by shoving it into the coil 
or by tying it. Climbing rope loses much of its strength when stored 
and not used. It deteriorates least when kept in a cool, dry place. The 
rope should be kept out of strong sunlight when not in use. 
73. PITONS. MOUNTAIN: SNAPLINKS, AND HAMMER PITON. a. Pur- 
pose. Pitons are driven in with a piton hammer and a snaplink is always 
snapped into the ring of the piton to hold the rope (see fig. 27). Pitons 
are driven into cracks in rocks and into ice as safeguards to difficult 
climbing where there is no projection of rock; pitons and rope slings 
may hold a doubled rope for roping down. They may also be made 
into improvised pulleys for hauling heavy loads up precipitous slopes. 
b. Types. (1) Pitons, Rock. Pitons are driven in with the ring on 
the lower side. Some cracks run horizontally across a cliff, while others 
run vertically up and down. To keep the ring on the lower side, there 
are therefore both horizontal and vertical pitons (types I and II). 
62 Sometimes such pitons cannot be driven in with rings in position to 
hold the snaplink. In such a case, a wafer rock piton (type III), with 
a movable ring, is preferable. In wide cracks or in comparatively soft 
rock, angle rock pitons (type V) are used. Since it is obvious that pitons 
will have more of a tendency to pull out of vertical cracks than hori- 
zontal ones, greater care must be taken to see that vertical pitons are 
firmly driven into the rocks. Pitons driven in downward may hold 
well, but if they are driven in upward, they are rarely much of a safe- 
guard. A secure piton will sing on a characteristic high note when it 
P1T0N 
SNAP- 
LINK 
Figure 27. A piton being driven in with a piton hammer. The rope runs through 
the snaplink which hangs from a second piton (lower right). The climber is thus 
safely belayed. 
is driven well home. Each piton should be tested before relying upon 
it. When the stance of the climber is rather difficult, avoid loss of 
pitons by snapping them into a snaplink hanging on a thong from the 
neck, while driving them in. Pitons are pulled out by the last climber 
whenever possible, and used again. Old pitons found in the rocks 
must always be carefully tested; usually they should be removed and 
redriven. 
(2) Pitons, Ice. There is only one type of ice piton (type IV) issued 
to mountain troops; it is a tubular type with a movable ring. Although 
most of the displaced ice goes up the tube when it is driven in, there 
is always danger that the force of the blows will cause brittle ice to 
flake off. Before pitons are driven, rotten surface ice should be chipped 
63 off until sound ice is reached. Ice pitons are usually driven in slightly 
downward from a line perpendicular to the slope until all but about 
1 inch of the tube is in the ice. Fixed ropes cannot be left attached 
to ice pitons for more than a short time, for the piton is likely to melt 
out. When the temperature is near freezing or higher, the tension on 
the piton may lower the melting point of the ice so that the piton 
becomes insecure. When the sun is strong, ice pitons should be placed 
in the shade, if practicable. Like rock pitons, ice pitons should, when- 
ever possible, be removed and used again. 
c. Snaplinks. Snaplinks are always used with pitons, since otherwise 
it would be necessary to unrope in order to thread the rope through the 
piton. After the piton is driven in, the snaplink is snapped into the 
ring of the piton and then around the rope (see fig. 27). Care is needed 
to keep the movable lever away from the rock, so that the snaplink will 
not open from pressure against the rock. When climbing with pitons, 
the rope leader carries several snaplinks on his belt or on the noose of 
rope around his waist, where he can get at them easily. If they are on 
the noose, he must be careful when unroping to keep them from falling 
and getting lost. When the last man on the rope reaches the snaplink, 
he unsnaps it from the piton, but leaves it on the rope until he is in 
a position to snap it onto his belt or to return it to the rope leader. 
Snaplinks are never left behind in pitons. 
d. Hammer, Piton, Mountain. (1) Nature and use. The head of the 
piton hammer (see fig. 27) has a flat striking surface on one end, and 
a pick on the other. The former is used principally for driving and 
removing pitons. It is also useful for smoothing off sharp edges and 
jagged rocks, which otherwise would fray the rope. The pick is used 
for chopping corners and insecure rocks out of cracks. It may also be 
used for scraping ice glaze off rocks. On ice it makes a poor substitute 
for an ice ax. The head of the hammer must never be used as a lever. 
(2) Manner of carrying. The piton hammer may be hung from the 
wrist on a leather thong at the end of the short hickory handle. The 
ends of the thong are fastened by means of two slits in the leather. The 
slit on one end is opened and the other end slipped through it. The 
slit on the second is then opened, and the middle of the first strap is 
pulled through to make an adjustable loop for the wrist. The thong 
is adjusted to the wrist. Some climbers prefer the longer emergency 
thong which can be worn around the neck leaving the hands free. 
Section VI. SKIING EQUIPMENT 
74. GENERAL For operations in deep snow, skis or snowshoes are 
needed. Skis are much faster, especially down hill, and less tiring to 
soldiers skilled in their use. However, for pulling sleds, carrying very 
heavy loads, or operating in thick woods, snowshoes are preferable. 
64 A soldier on skis needs a considerable amount of equipment aside from 
the skis themselves. Unless a flexible ski binding is available, he must 
wear ski-mountain boots, well fitted to the ski bindings. He always 
carries a pair of ski-poles. Ski wax is essential for sliding down hill 
and for climbing up hill, as well as to keep the skis in good condition. 
Mohair ski climbers save a great deal of energy on long climbs. When 
skis are damaged in the field, emergency ski tips, contraction bands, and 
a ski repair kit are needed to make temporary repairs. A soldier on 
skis can improvise a sled from his equipment, if he carries ski adaptors. 
75. SKIS. a. Nature and fitting. Both laminated and solid flat-top hickory 
skis are provided in four lengths. The length of the ski is important. 
In general, when the soldier stands upright and stretches his arm above 
his head, the tip of the ski should reach to the middle of his palm. 
After the bindings have been perfectly adjusted to the boots, and the 
skis have been waxed, he is ready to set out. 
CABLE GUIDE 
FOR CROSS 
VCOUNTRY y 
TOE IRON 
TOE STRAP 
f CABLE > 
ASSEMBLY 
FRONT 
LADDER 
ADJUSTMENT 
'CABLE GUIDE' 
BRACKETS FOR 
VDOWN PULL J 
Figure 28. Ski bindings. Some bindings have a front throw to tighten the heel spring. 
(1) Bindings, Ski. The ski binding (see fig. 28) attaches the foot to 
the ski and makes it possible to control the ski. The center of the 
adjustable toe iron of the binding is fastened to the ski at the balance 
point. The front ladder adjustment should be screwed to the top of 
the ski far enough ahead of the toe iron so that the cable will be tight 
around the heel. The cable guide brackets are attached to the side of 
the ski immediately behind the toe irons. Foot plates protect the sur- 
face of the ski under the boot. The only part of the binding which is 
not permanently fixed to the ski is the cable assembly. 
(2) Adjustment of toe iron. Ski-mountain boots are the type always 
worn with skis, since other types of boots do not permit adequate con- 
trol. The adjustment of the toe irons is extremely important. Each 
should be fitted to the boot so that the boot rests absolutely straight on 
65 the ski in the exact center. The boot should not extend far in front 
of the toe iron; about 1 inch is the maximum permissible. To adjust 
the toe irons, all the screws are loosened and tfre five center ones re- 
moved. After the boot has been placed lightly in position, the cover 
plate is raised just enough to disengage the adjustment teeth. As the 
side plates of the toe iron then slide easily, they may be pushed to fit 
the sides of the boot soles exactly. After the cover plate is pushed down 
to engage the teeth again, the boot is removed carefully so that the 
adjustment will not be affected. The screws on the front and rear 
bands of the cover plate are tightened, then the other screws are replaced 
and also screwed tight. The toe strap is then inserted, the loose end 
extending toward the outside to indicate whether it is the right or 
left ski. 
(3) Adjustment of cable assembly. The length of the cable is deter- 
mined by the front ladder adjustment. Under the cover, which is 
hinged in front and may be opened by lifting it from the rear, there 
are four steps over which the cable may run. If the cable slips onto 
the heel too loosely, it should be placed farther ahead. If it is too 
tight, it should be run over one of the ladder steps farther to the rear. 
Only when these means of fitting prove inadequate, should the whole 
front ladder adjustment be moved ahead or farther back. When the 
cable is in place, the cover is snapped down. There are two possible 
attachments for the cable next to the foot. For climbing up hill or for 
cross-country skiing, the cables are placed in the attachments on the 
side of the toe iron, which allows the heel to move easily off the footplate. 
For down hill skiing, however, control over the skis is better if there 
is sufficient down pull to prevent the heels from rising easily. There- 
fore when skiing down hill, the cables are loosened, slipped under one 
or both hooks of the cable guide brackets on the side of the ski, and then 
retightened. If both hooks are used, there will be greater down pull. 
(4) Attaching ski to foot. The ski is easily attached to the foot. The 
boot is slipped into the binding to which it has been adjusted, the spring 
of the cable is placed in the groove on the heel of the boot and the cable 
is tightened. Some cables are tightened by means of a throw on the 
front ladder attachment. Others have a tightening lever on the side 
of the cable, just ahead of the heel spring. The cable should be placed 
in the front ladder attachment and in the cable brackets in such a way 
that this lever rests on the outer side of the heel. To utilize fully the 
safety feature of the combination heel spring and tightening lever, it is 
important that the cable be placed in the front ladder in such a way 
that the lever snaps open automatically on a forward fall. If the lever 
is placed too far behind the heel, it locks and will not open; if it is 
placed too far forward, it will not stay closed. Each man should find 
the place, between these extremes, at which the lever will snap open 
when the leg is bent too far forward. 
66 (5) Strap, Ski, Safety. Ski safety straps are provided to keep skis from 
running down the slope if they come off in a bad fall. The slit end of 
the strap is run through the loop above the heel of the boot. The 
buckle is threaded through the slit and then hooked onto the clevis on 
the inner side of the cable just ahead of the heel spring. 
b. Care of skis. (1) During a halt, the skis are usually removed from 
the feet and stuck into the snow, heels down, unless upright skis would 
give the position of the group away to the enemy. Sometimes the skis 
are used to sit on when the skier wants to keep dry. To wax skis in 
fine weather, any snow should be wiped off, and they should be left, 
running surfaces exposed to the sun, with their heels on the snowr and 
their tips held in the wrist loops of upright ski-p°les- 
(2) At the end of the day, skis are cleaned of snow, strapped together, 
and placed heels down in their assigned places, preferably under cover. 
If left outdoors, they should be set with their heels on the dry ground 
or hard snow where no dripping water will strike them. In warm 
weather, they are exposed to the sun for a few minutes to dry them 
and then placed in the shade. Skis must never be left on their sides 
or they will warp. 
(3) When camping on snow, skis should be left upright to keep them 
from getting buried in a snowstorm or drifted over. When stuck into 
wet snow, they must be absolutely straight up and down. Otherwise 
their own weight will warp them. They may be laid against trees in 
the woods. 
(4) Maintaining correct bend. The skis leave the factory with ex- 
actly the correct bend and it is therefore a mistake to tie them together 
under tension, unless they begin to flatten out. If the skis start to lose 
their camber or arch, they should be strapped together at the heels and 
tips with a block of wood about \y2 to 2 inches thick inserted under the 
binding. The strap near the tip is placed at the beginning of the up- 
turn, so as not to change the bend of the tip in the least. If the tip 
begins to lose its upturn, the skis should be strapped together as de- 
scribed above. A cord should then be slipped through the hole in the 
tip, pulled back until the original bend is regained, and tied to the 
front ladder adjustment of the binding. 
(5) Maintaining and restoring finish. If any part of the wood of the 
ski gets exposed from lack of wax or finish, it is likely to warp, because 
the exposed part soaks up water faster while the ski is in use and dries 
out more quickly wrhen it is not. This warping and twisting is caused 
by the uneven increase or loss of moisture throughout the ski. The 
top edges of the ski become worn from frequent scraping by the steel 
edges of the other ski until the finish is off. In wet snow, this exposed 
wood will soak up moisture which will make it wear even faster. The 
tips of the steel edges may then get uncovered along the top edges of 
the ski which will allow them to pull out. It is extremely important, 
67 therefore, to keep the finish of the ski in good repair. In addition, 
too much moisture or exposure to the sun, as well as sudden changes 
in the temperature, will tend to crack or check the finish on the tops 
of the skis. 
(a) Whether or not the skis are in use, keep the running surfaces 
well waxed. The wax wears particularly quick near the edge of the 
front quarter of the ski and on the heel. Ski wax is necessary not only 
to help sliding and climbing, but also to keep the skis waterproof and 
help retain their shape. 
(р) If there are occasional scratches, especially if they are on the top 
edges, they should be lacquered or, if lacquer is not immediately avail- 
able, covered temporarily with ski wax. 
(с) If the whole finish is in bad condition, the skis should be scraped 
down and sanded with a medium fine sandpaper, covered with white 
paint, dried, and then covered with a waterproof lacquer. After dry- 
ing, the new finish should be rubbed lightly with steel wool to dull it, 
(d) When skis are to be stored for a long period, the remaining wax 
is scraped off and two or three coats of boiled linseed oil, cut with tur- 
pentine, are applied to the running surfaces, over a period of about 
a week. The skis are then strapped with their running surfaces to- 
gether, and a block about li/2 inches thick between the skis at the 
bindings to maintain the camber. They are set on their heels in a 
cool, dry place and must stand absolutely perpendicular, not at an angle, 
c. Repairs. (1) Kit, Repair, Ski. Ski repair kits are issued for minot 
repairs. 
(a) The four-man kit contains the following items: 
1 combination file and countersink. 
1 scraper. 
2 pairs of combination pliers, with wire-cutters and milled laws, 
a screw driver on one handle and a wrench on the other, 
12 No. 2 wood screws with No. 2 recessed heads, 14 inch long. 
12 No. 3 wood screws with No. 3 recessed heads, 14 inch long. 
12 No, 2 wood screws with No. 2 recessed heads, 5/16 inch long. 
12 No. 3 wood screws with No. 3 recessed heads, %6 inch long. 
12 No. 3 wire size bolts with hexagonal nuts, i/2 inch long. 
6 6-inch sections of steel edges. 
10 feet of steel wire. 
2 %6-inch leather laces 55 inches long. 
2 i/g-inch leather laces 55 inches long (for emergency binding 
heel strap). 
(5) As soon as any items have been used, they should be replaced. The 
mountain pocketknife is fitted with other tools needed for emergency 
repairs. No wood drill is provided. If a small hole is needed while 
in the field, a nail or bolt can be heated and allowed to burn its way 
through the wood. 
68 (2) Repairs to steel edges, (a) Edge screws should be tightened if 
they work loose, but care is necessary to keep from breaking their shanks 
off and from twisting the threads out of the wood. If a screw breaks 
off, another should be inserted at a slight angle and its head filed flat. 
If the threads in the wood are pulled out, a larger (No. 3) screw is used. 
To make the head of the screw flush with the surface of the steel edge, 
the hole in edge is reamed out with the countersink on the end of 
the file before the screw is inserted. If the hole is clogged with broken 
screws, or is too large for the biggest screws, it must be drilled through 
for a No. 3 wire size i/2-inch bolt. After the nut is screwed down tightly 
on the upper surface of the ski, the part of the bolt extending beyond 
the nut is filed off. Skis should be inspected daily for lost edge screws. 
(b) If the steel edges are humped up between the screws, they should 
be removed and straightened on a wooden block with light hammer 
blows, until they are bent back to their original shape. The wood on 
which the edges rest should be cleaned of any foreign matter before 
they are screwed back on. 
(c) If a section of the steel edge is missing, it should be replaced at 
the first opportunity. The whole broken section should be removed. 
If one or two of the sections in the ski repair kit fit the gap perfectly, 
the new section of edge is then screwed on. Sometimes, however, part 
of a section must be fitted in. Sections are cut off just beyond the 
screw holes so that they will fit exactly. Where two cut sections join, 
they should be beveled so that the forward part overlaps the rear. The 
whole edge is then screwed down. 
(d) For making emergency repairs to broken skis, see paragraph 79. 
(3) Repairs to ski bindings and replacements, (a) All screws should 
be inspected and tightened from time to time. If a particular screw 
loosens often, it should be replaced by a slightly larger one. 
(b) Toe straps, which wear particularly in the slot in the toe iron and 
at the adjustment holes, should be replaced before they break. 
(c) Hinge pins eventually wear where the cables are tightened to a 
point where they need to be replaced. 
(d) The cables should be replaced when they show excessive wear 
at the front ladder adjustment, at the cable brackets, or in front of the 
heel spring, as well as when the housing is broken or worn through. 
Cables occasionally break in bad falls. The i/2-inch strap from the 
ski repair kit is then used as an emergency heel strap until the skier 
returns to his base. To improvise an emergency heel strap, cut a small 
slit in one end of this i/2-inch strap and run it through the vertical slot 
on the rear of one side of the toe iron, around the heel groove, through 
the slot on the other side of the toe iron, and back around the heel. 
One end is then run through the slit in the other end. The straps are 
pulled up as tightly as possible and fastened with two half-hitches on 
a sheet bend. The loose end of the piece of lace may be placed over 
the instep on both sides and pulled up to take in any slack. 
69 76. POLES, SKI, STEEL TYPE II, LAMINATED TYPE I. a. Nature and use. 
Both laminated cane and steel ski-poles are issued to troops operating 
on skis. They are used primarily for poling to help the skier move faster 
and more efficiently along the level and uphill, but they serve other 
useful purposes too. They can be used, for example, as tent poles, as 
rafters for snow shelters (improvised), as gee-poles (when lashed onto 
the front of a sledge), or, with rings removed, as a substitute for ava- 
lanche probes. 
b. Fitting. There are four ski-pole sizes. A ski-pole should ordinarily 
reach about up to the skier’s armpits when set on the ground next 
to him. 
c. Care and repair. (1) Cane poles. Cane poles must never be brought 
directly out of a hot room, for sudden changes of temperature may 
cause them to split. 
(2) Wrist straps. Wrist straps break occasionally in bad falls. The 
rivet which holds the strap to the top of the pole, because it is covered 
by the grip, is difficult to get at if the leather pulls away from it. In 
such a case, holes should be punched in the attached portion of the 
leather near the grip and on the end of the strap, A piece of rawhide 
or string is then threaded through the holes and tied to hold the new 
loop together. When the soldier returns to his base, the grip is un- 
threaded, the strap reriveted, and the grip resewn. 
(3) Rings. A ring which is damaged, badly worn, or lost should be 
replaced immediately. 
77. WAX, SKI. a. Importance. Ski wax serves two major functions: 
(1) Aid to operation. Ski wax is applied to the running surfaces of 
skis to make them slide down hill and to keep them from slipping back 
when climbing up hill. The same coating serves both purposes if the 
skis are properly waxed. Climbing roughens the wax. If the surface 
of the snow were magnified, tiny points could be seen on the snow 
crystals. When the ski is pressed down on these points, they bite into 
the surface of the wax and keep the skis from slipping back. When 
the ski slides forward the wax is smoothed out and the points of the 
crystals have no chance to hold the ski back. For long climbs, it is 
more efficient and less tiring to use ski climbers than to use wax alone, 
but when the going is both up and down hill, or when there is risk 
that the enemy may not allow a unit time enough to put climbers on, 
it is best to wax for up hill as well as down hill skiing. 
(2) The importance of waterproofing skis to avoid warping is dis- 
cussed in paragraph 75b(5). Skis must be waxed, whether or not they 
are in use. 
b. Waxing. It is easiest to wax skis in a warm place, for the wax will 
spread most easily and evenly if it and the skis are moderately warm. 
New skis have treated running surfaces on which the wax is applied. 
70 The first time the skis are waxed, a layer of wax should be rubbed over 
the whole surface and smoothed down. The skis should then be put 
in a cool place to allow the layer to harden before the surface wax is 
applied. If the skis have already been used, the old wax is rubbed 
down smooth and used as a base wax. Although the wax must never 
be allowed to get too thick, the old wax has to be removed only in rare 
instances. It takes experience to become an expert on wax. Because 
of the large number of variables, only a few hints on the specific use 
of waxes can be given here: 
(1) For dry snow (snow which will not make snowballs). Polish a 
thin layer of blue dry snow wax on the skis until smooth. If skis are 
slow, add a thin layer of red speed wax and polish it for down hill 
running. If the skis will not climb, apply a rougher layer of blue. 
If they still do not climb well, apply a thin section, about 18 inches 
long, of rough orange wet and corn snow wax under the feet. 
(2) For wet snow (snow which makes excellent snowballs). Apply 
a thin layer of orange and smooth it out only slightly. If this does 
not make skis run well down hill, use red speed wax fairly rough, or 
paraffin, if available. If the skis do not climb, apply an 18-inch section 
of rough orange under the feet. 
(3) For corn snow (granular snow). Wax about the same as for wet 
snow, but apply the wax in slightly thicker layers. 
78. CLIMBERS, SKI, MOHAIR, a. Purpose and nature. Ski climbers are 
used on the running surfaces of skis to facilitate climbing. The mohair 
lies with the ends pointing toward the heels of the skis. When the 
skis slide forward, the hair remains flat, offering little friction; but when 
the skis start to slide back, the hair is rubbed the wrong way, becomes 
roughened, and keeps the skis from slipping. Ski climbers are used 
when the ascent is sufficiently long to justify taking the time to put 
them on. 
b. Manner of use. The big loop near the rear end of the climber is 
slipped over the heel of the ski so that the straps and the buckle rest on 
its upper surface. The front loop is placed over the ski tip and the 
strap on the rear end of the climber is run over the ski heel and back 
forward along the top of the ski to the buckle in the big rear loop. It 
is pulled as tightly as possible, and then fastened. The other two straps, 
one just ahead of the bindings and the other just behind them, are 
pulled up tight and buckled. Straps must be kept tight to keep the 
climbers from slipping off. Some ski climbers are fitted with three bar 
buckles with V-shaped sides. These may be used in extremely cold 
weather without removing the mittens. The strap is run under the 
two exposed bars, back over the middle one at the point of the V, and 
under the end one. The strap is tightened by pulling the end of it. 
The buckle can be easily released by pushing the point of the V toward 
the rivet. 
71 c. Care. Climbers will last longer if properly cared for. The follow- 
ing are important precautions: 
(1) Climbers should be removed before a descent of any length, as 
down hill skiing seriously shortens their lives. 
(2) Straps must be kept in good repair and stitches reinforced when- 
ever necessary. 
(3) When not in use, ski climbers are usually rolled up; but if they 
are wet, they must be unrolled and hung up to dry at the first oppor- 
tunity. 
(4) When the rucksack is not carried, the climbers are worn around 
the waist like a belt. 
79. TIP, SKI, EMERGENCY REPAIR, a. Purpose. An emergency repair ski 
tip makes it possible to get back to base after snapping off the tip of 
a ski. Since such a repair is makeshift, an effort must be made at the 
first opportunity to repair the ski properly or to replace it entirely. 
b. Types. There are two types of emergency repair ski tips: wooden 
and metal. 
(1) Use of wooden emergency repair ski tip. If the ski is badly shat- 
tered, the slivered end should be trimmed off fairly even. The wooden 
emergency repair ski tip is set under the broken end with sufficient 
overlap to bring all the screwholes over solid wood. Four steel edge 
screws, either removed from the broken tip or taken from the ski repair 
kit, are screwed up into the lower surface of the ski though the screw- 
holes in the emergency repair ski tip. To reinforce the joint further, 
two contraction bands are then placed over the overlap. 
(2) Use of metal emergency repair ski tip*. This type of tip may be 
used in two ways: 
(a) The most successful repairs are made by holding the broken ski 
tip in place with the emergency repair tip or the contraction band. 
When the broken tip is used, the ends are fitted back together. Then 
the emergency repair tip is placed under the ski with the channels over- 
lapping the break, so that the forward screwholes are ahead and the 
rear ones behind. Four steel edge screws, either removed from the 
broken tip or taken from the ski repair kit, hold the tip firmly in place. 
(b) If it is lost or badly shattered, the broken tip obviously cannot 
be used for repairs; nor can it be used unless the break is about 8 to 
12 inches from the point of the ski. In such cases, the emergency repair 
tip is used alone. The tip is slipped onto the broken remainder of the 
ski so that the break rests just ahead of the front of the channel and 
is held firmly in place by four steel edge screws. In this case, as above, 
the width of the emergency repair tip, which is adjustable, should be 
kept to a minimum so that the ski will be firmly seated in the channel. 
80. BAND, CONTRACTION. The contraction band is useful in making 
emergency repairs if a ski tip is snapped off. The broken surface of 
72 the tip is trimmed down to allow the two surfaces to meet smoothly 
without a definite step when the tip is placed under the main part of 
the ski. The tip should overlap the rest of the ski by at least 3 inches 
more if it is badly splintered. Two contraction bands are placed around 
the overlapping section, and after the contraction bolts have been 
threaded into the two toggle nuts, they are screwed tightly together. 
The forward edge of the first contraction band should rest on a smooth 
surface on the underside of the tip, so that snow will not force its way 
underneath the band. If possible, cover the bands with tape, and wax 
the part which is on the sliding-surface of the ski. If it is impossible 
to use two contraction bands, one, carefully adjusted, may be used alone. 
' SKI > 
ADAPTOR, 
RUCK SACK 
> FRAME , 
SKI 
CONTRACTION 
v BAND , 
Figure 29. Emergency sled made from four pairs of ski adaptors, four contraction 
bands, two pairs of skis, and two rucksack frames. 
81. ADAPTOR, SKI. a. Purpose. Ski adaptors make it possible to impro- 
vise an emergency sled quickly from equipment usually carried by the 
skier. The necessary equipment includes— 
4 pairs of ski adaptors. 
4 contraction bands. 
2 pairs cf skis. 
2 rucksack frames. 
b. Setting up emergency sled (fig. 29). (1) Place two skis on the snow 
parallel to each other, a rucksack’s width apart. 
(2) Open four contraction bands so that the contraction bolts remain 
screwed into the toggle nuts on only one side. Slip the contraction 
bands under the skis> one about 18 inches from the tip and one the 
same distance from the heel. 
(3) Remove two rucksack frames from the rucksacks. Place these on 
the skis so that the parts of the frame which normally extend forward 
73 near the hips rest on the upper surface of the ski, immediately above 
the contraction bands. The parts of the frame which are normally at 
the base of the neck will nearly meet above the ski bindings. 
(4) Place the ski adaptors on the skis with the flat surface down, one 
piece on each side of the metal tubing of the rucksack frame and prop- 
erly aligned, so that the channels will fit the tubing. Push the ski 
adaptors together so that they grip the rucksack frame tubing firmly. 
(5) Thread the contraction bolts across the ski adaptor and the ruck- 
sack frames into the toggle nuts on the opposite side. Screw the bolts 
tight. 
(6) Lash together the rucksack frames where they meet above the 
bindings, and reinforce the joint by means of ski-poles or sticks placed 
diagonally through the top bends of the rucksack frames. 
(7) Lash a pair of skis onto the rucksack frames to make the platform 
for the sled. Ski-poles, sticks, or another ski will improve the platform. 
c. Precautionary measure with injured. When the sled is used for an 
evacuation, the casualty must be lashed on with particular care. Ski 
climbers are well adapted to the purpose of lashing the patient, since 
they are broad, and will not cut into him and restrict his circulation. 
The patient should be kept as warm as possible, preferably in a sleep- 
ing bag, to reduce the chances of frostbite and shock. More padding 
should be placed beneath than on top of him, as a protection both 
against the cold coming up from below and from any roughness on 
the platform. 
d. Trace ropes. Traces improvised from tent ropes, climbing ropes, 
etc., are attached to the holes in the ski tips. For level going and up 
hill climbing, ropes are needed only in front of the sled; but for steep 
descents, other ropes must be attached to hold the sled back. 
e. Gee-pole for rough going. A gee-pole, which is extremely useful to 
guide the sled in rough country, is easily improvised. One end of a 
stick or pole is lashed firmly at the right of the front rucksack frame 
where it rests on the ski, and the pole is then lashed again to the right 
side of the platform so that it is held forward at a gentle upward angle. 
When the man who is to pull next to the sled takes his place in the 
traces, the gee-pole will be beside his right hand where he can easily 
grasp it to guide and steady the sled or to turn it quickly. An addi- 
tional pole on the left side is useful for guiding the sled down gentle 
ski slopes. The skier steps between the two poles, grasping one in each 
hand, so that he can pull the sled along, hold it back, or steer it. 
82. SKIS, CROSS-COUNTRY. Cross-country skis are issued for use in flat 
or rolling terrain. They have no steel edges. These skis are lighter 
and slightly narrower than steel edged skis. They come only in the 7- 
foot 3-inch length. Flexible ski bindings should be used with them. 
74 83. BINDING, SKI, FLEXIBLE, a. General. Flexible ski bindings are used 
on cross-country skis with any type of winter footgear such as shoepacs, 
mukluks, felt shoes, etc. 
b. Mountain binding. (1) Place the boot along the balata strip with 
the heel in the heel cup. Center the strip and boot on the ski with the 
ball of the foot over the balance point of the ski, (This is marked on 
the side of the ski.) Remove the boot, holding the strip firm. 
(2) Place the metal cover plate on the balata strip so that the two sets 
of holes in the cover plate lie on either side of the balance point. Mark 
the holes through the plate and strip. Remove and check marks to see 
that they are equally distant from either side. Drill holes %2 inch in 
diameter and i/2 inch deep. 
(3) Insert toe piece wiith straight edge toward the ski tip and place 
the cover plate over the strip. Match the holes in the ski, toe piece, 
strips, and cover plate. Screw down all four screws. 
(4) Drill holes in the ski to match the front two holes in the balata 
strip. Screw down. < 
c. Use. To adjust the binding, buckle the toe piece over the toe of 
the boot and the ankle strap over the instep. If the boot is properly 
fitted, the toe of the boot is held snugly by the toe piece and the heel 
rests flush in the heel cup. If snow sticks between the ski and the balata 
strip, rub paraffin or red ski wax on the strip. 
Section VII. SNOWSHOES 
84. PURPOSE. Snowshoes as well as skis are used for operations on snow. 
Skis are usually faster and less tiring, particularly for downhill running, 
but snowshoes require less skill to handle, and are easier to manage in 
rough or thickly wooded terrain. Snowshoes are also more efficient 
when carrying heavy loads and when pulling sleds. In deep snow they 
are frequently used to break trail for sledge dogs. 
85. USE. a. Technique. It takes only a little practice to become skillful 
in the use of snowshoes. The beginner soon learns how to avoid catch- 
ing the tip in the snow and tripping himself, and acquires the waddling 
gait needed to keep from stepping on the side of one snowshoe with the 
side of the other. On a steep descent he can slide by squatting down, 
putting the toe of one snowshoe on the other and holding it under the 
heel of the other boot. 
b. Pad, Snowshoe, Mountain. Although soft-soled boots are the type 
ordinarily worn with snowshoes, nailed ski mountain boots can be used 
with mountain snowshoe pads. If pads are not used, the nails will wear 
right through the webbing. The pad is lashed onto the snowshoe under 
the foot. There are six sets of three holes each, located at the corners 
75 and on both sides of the pads. Two of the holes in each set should lie 
above some strand of the webbing where they will be convenient for 
holding the lashing. The pad is revarnished when the need arises. 
86. CARE. Snowshoes must always be kept in good condition. When- 
ever a piece of rawhide breaks, it should be repaired as soon as possible 
or the whole webbing will loosen and unravel. Sometimes in wet snow, 
the rawhide begins to get white, particularly at the edges and at other 
points of wear. At the first opportunity, the snowshoes should be dried 
slowly for a period of about 48 hours in a cool, dry place where air is 
circulating. Then the whole of the snowshoe, both webbing and frame, 
should be given one or two coats of waterproof varnish. At the end 
of the winter or halfway through a long season, even though the need 
is not yet apparent, snowshoes should be revarnished. When the 
wooden frames fray, the splinters should be carefully removed, the edges 
smoothed, and the whole frame revarnished. All leather bindings 
should be treated with dubbin once or twice a winter, Snowshoes must 
be stored in a dry place so the rawhide will not mildew or rot, and the 
frames will not warp. Even if they are to be left for only a day or two, 
they must be hung up where rodents cannot gnaw the rawhide webbing. 
This is equally important in the field. 
> 
.STRAPj 
'ANKLE' 
.STRAP, 
f TOE 
.STRAP 
TOE 
CAP 
Figure 30. Trail snowshoes. (Note binding detail.) 
87. SNOWSHOES, TRAIL Since trail snowshoes are long and narrow 
with upturned toes, they are particularly good for fast cross-country 
travel in open and sparsely wooded terrain. The binding permits the 
heel of the boot to rise off the snowshoe, but allows the tail to drag on 
the ground like a toe slipper. The ball of the foot rests on the web- 
bing just behind the toe hole, so that the front of the boot pushes 
through when the wearer lifts his heels or when he stands on his toes 
to get better traction. The binding is attached to the snowshoe (see 
76 fig. 30) in the following manner (the outer side is always the left of the 
left snowshoe and the right of the right snowshoe): 
a. Lay the toe cap (the short wide strap with four slits) along the 
center of the reinforced cross webbing, just behind the toe hole. 
b. Thread the toe strap (the longer strap with the buckle) down 
through the outer rear slit around the reinforced cross-webbing, back 
up through the outer front slit, across the toe cap, down through the 
inner front slit, around the reinforced cross-webbing, and back up 
through the inner rear slit. Buckle the strap together. 
c. Thread the heel strap which has a buckle (the shorter of the two 
straps with buckles) down in front of the reinforced cross-webbing (be- 
tween the two outer lengthwise strands of webbing beside the toe hole) 
and back around the cross-webbing. Open the slit and feed the buckle 
through. 
HEEL 
STRAP 
TOE 
HOLE 
ANKLE 
STRAP 
TOE 
CAP 
Figure 31. Bearpaw snowshoes and mountain snowshoe bindings. 
(Note binding details.) 
d. The heel strap which does not have a buckle (the longer strap 
without a buckle) is threaded similarly, but on the inner side. Then 
the slit is opened and the end with the adjustment holes is fed 
through it. 
e. Slip the long heel strap through the loops on the ankle strap so 
that the adjustment holes and buckles will meet above the instep. 
Once the binding is on the snowshoes, it does not have to be removed 
again. The foot is slipped under the toe cap until the ball of the foot 
77 rests on the reinforced cross-webbing. The top strap is then adjusted 
to hold the foot firmly, but not tight enough to cut off the circulation. 
The heel strap is buckled around the ankle, high enough so that it will 
stay on, but not high enough to hurt the Achilles tendon. The ankle 
strap goes completely around the foot and is fastened loosely above the 
instep to hold the heel strap in place. Just how tight the straps should 
be can be determined from experience. If they are too tight, the circu- 
lation of the blood will be restricted so that the feet will become cold 
or frostbitten. If they are too loose, the snowshoes will fall off the 
boots. Worn binding parts should be replaced as soon as possible. 
88. SNOWSHOES, BEARPAW. For hard going in thick woods and 
rough, difficult terrain, Bearpaw snowshoes (see fig. 31) are handier than 
the longer, narrower trail snowshoes. They have an oval shape and no 
tails. Bearpaw snowshoes are held onto the boots by mountain snow- 
shoe bindings. They are lashed firmly onto the center of the reinforced 
cross-webbing, just behind the toe hole. The foot is slipped into the 
toe cap so that the ball of the foot rests on this cross-webbing, and the 
lacings are tightened to hold the foot from sliding farther through. 
The heel strap is buckled around the foot, high enough to keep it from 
slipping off but not high enough to press on the tendon. The ankle 
strap holds the heel strap in place. In a properly adjusted binding, 
when the heel is raised off the snowshoe, the toe extends through the 
toe hole and gives good traction for hauling loads or climbing steep 
slopes. The claw will hold on crust. 
Section VIII. MISCELLANEOUS EQUIPMENT 
89. BOX, MATCH, WATERPROOF, a. Description and purpose. The 
waterproof matchbox is a small, cylindrical, plastic box with a screw 
cap. Mobile troops operating away from their bases need dry matches 
for starting fires. 
b. Use. The matchbox holds about 20 ordinary “strike anywhere” 
matches and a larger number of safety matches. Double the number 
of matches may be carried, if they are cut in half and only the tip end 
is used. Ordinarily, matches carried in the box are reserved for light- 
ing fires, etc. Matches for smoking are carried separately to keep the 
supply of matches in the matchbox for real emergencies. 
c. Striking matches. “Strike anywhere” matches may be struck on a 
dry surface or along the special grooves on the side of the matchbox. 
There is a small striking disk inside the cap for safety matches. 
d. Striking bar. To save matches, the metal bar on the bottom may be 
struck with a knife blade, screw driver, or other metal object. The 
resulting spark is enough to start a gasoline stove or a heap of tinder. 
78 Tinder usually consists of fine dry grass, leaves, splinters, lint, or cotton. 
The powder from a cartridge may also be used. A bit of gasoline 
poured onto the tinder will make it light more easily. When the spark 
has set the tinder on fire, blow on it until it bursts into a good flame. 
An adequate supply of fuel must be on hand to keep the fire going. 
90. CREEPERS, ICE. a. Purpose and nature. Ice creepers may be worn 
with any type of shoe except nailed or rubber-cleated ski-mountain 
boots, which grip adequately on average ice and snow. The metal 
spikes bite into hard snow and ice enabling troops to move safely and 
efficiently on such terrain. They are not a substitute for crampons, 
which are used for steep climbing on hard snow and ice. 
b. Use. The ice creeper is strapped on the shoe. It is placed on the 
foot, spikes down, with the chain toward the heel. When the ice 
creeper has been adjusted to fit the front of the shoe, the D-rings which 
hold the straps are bent over the edge of the sole and the straps buckled 
across the toe. The straps in the rear, which are attached to the end 
of the chain, run around the back of the heel and are buckled over the 
instep. 
91. BRUSH, MOUNTAIN. The mountain brush is particularly useful 
for troops camped on snow. Before entering a tent, each soldier brushes 
off any snow clinging to his trousers, socks, boots, rucksack, and other 
objects. As soon as he has removed his outer clothing, socks, and boots, 
he brushes out all the frost he can. He naturally sweeps snow and loose 
frost out the tent door before they have any chance to melt and wet the 
sleeping bags and clothing. In terrain where dirt is tracked into the 
tent, the mountain brush is used to keep the floor clean. 
92. MARKERS, TRAIL. Trail markers are used for marking trails on 
snow. Although they must not be used where they will give positions 
or routes away to the enemy, they are essential for indicating difficult 
routes, especially in bad weather and at night. For example, they may 
be used to show the best line through the crevasses on a glacier. Trail 
markers are ordinarily placed about 100 feet apart, or at bends in the 
routes. In bad weather, one man should stay at a marker until the 
man ahead finds the next one. 
93. CREAM. SUNBURN-PREVENTIVE, a. Need. On snow, particularly at 
high altitudes, sunburn is often serious enough to keep men from per- 
forming their usual duties. Minor cases may be extremely painful, and 
bad ones are accompanied by running sores and infections. In the 
snow, sun not only shines directly on the exposed skin, it is also reflected 
up from the snow below. Since the diffused rays of the sun burn just 
as badly in bright foggy weather, precautions must be taken even when 
the sun is not shining. 
79 b. Preventive measures. The best way to avoid sunburn is to keep 
covered. Shirts and hats should not be removed in brilliant sunshine. 
Exposed portions of the body, such as the face, must be protected by 
rubbing sunburn preventive, issued to troops who are in danger of 
being badly sunburned, into the skin before exposure. It should be 
renewed during the course of the day. 
80 INDEX 
Adaptor, ski 81 73 
Ax, ice, mountain 70 58 
Bag, food, waterproof 65 54 
Bag, sleeping: wool; mountain; Arctic; kapok 58 43 
Band, contraction 80 72 
Boots 30 20 
Blucher, high top 32 24 
Ski-mountain 31 23 
Box, match, waterproof 89 78 
Breaking camp 69 57 
Brush, mountain 91 79 
Cap: 
Field, cotton, OD 46 31 
Field, pile, OD 45 31 
Ski 47 32 
Wool, knit, Ml941 49 32 
Cleanliness 6 2 
Climbers, ski mohair 78 71 
Cold-weather handwear 38 28 
Container, fuel, 1-quart 64 54 
Cook set, mountain 63 54 
Crampons, mountain 71 60 
Cream, sunburn-preventive 93 79 
Creepers, ice 90 79 
Drying clothing in cold weather 9 3 
Essential characteristics of cold-weather clothing 8 2 
Gaiter, ski 37 28 
Gloves: 
Insert, wool 42 30 
Shell, leather 41 30 
Goggles, ski-mountain 53 34 
Flelmets: 
Combat, winter 50 32 
Steel 51 33 
Hood, jacket, field M1943 54 34 
Insoles 29 19 
Jackets: 
Combat, winter 20 16 
Field, Ml943 H 5 
Field, OD, Arctic 21 16 
Field, pile 12 8 
Mountain 18 14 
Markers, trail 92 79 
Mask, field, chamois 52 33 
Paragraph Page 
81 Mittens: 
Insert, trigger finger 40 30 
Shell, trigger finger 39 29 
Mountain cook set 63 54 
Mountain crampons 71 60 
Overcoat, parka type, with pile liner 17 14 
Overshoes, Arctic 34 26 
Packboard 57 41 
Pack, field 55 35 
Pad, insulating, sleeping 59 47 
Parka: 
Field, cotton, OD 13 8 
Field, over, white 15. 12 
Field, pile 14 11 
Reversible, ski 19 15 
Wet weather 16 12 
Personal precautions 68 57 
Perspiration, importance of avoiding 7 2 
Pitching tent 67 56 
Pitons 73 62 
Poles, ski 76 70 
Reference 3 1 
Ropes, climbing 72 61 
Rucksack 56 38 
Shoepacs 33 25 
Shoes, Arctic, felt 35 26 
Shoes, felt, cold-weather 36 27 
Skis 75 65 
Adaptor 81 73 
Gaiter 37 28 
Poles 76 70 
Tip, ski, emergency repair 79 72 
Wax 77 70 
Socks 28 18 
Stove, gasoline, one-burner, M1941 and M1942 62 49 
Tent, mountain, two-man complete 66 55 
Toque, wool knit, M1941 48 32 
Trousers: 
Combat, winter 26 17 
Field, cotton, OD 22 16 
Field, over, white 24 17 
Field, wool, OD 23 17 
Kersey-lined 26 17 
Mountain *. 25 17 
Wet wreather 16 12 
Wax, ski 77 70 
Paragraph Page 
82 
•& U. S. GOVERNMENT PRINTING OFFICE: 1945—628023-TM 1156