A TEXT BOOK ON CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY BY S. J. JURICH, D.C., Ph. C. Professor ofChemistry and Histology in the Palmer School of Chiropractic "CHIROPRACTIC FOUNTAIN HEAD" FIRST EDITION COPYRIGHT. 1919 S. J. BURI CH, D.C., Ph C. Davenport, Iowa. U.S.A. DEDICATION Realizing, as only a parent can, the meaning of parental love and for the many happy hours he has brought to my life and work, I dedicate this text book on Chemistry to my be- loved son ("Billy") William James Burich. S. J. Burich, D. C., Ph. C. 3 PREFACE There is no text on chemistry which combines the essen- tial parts of general and physiological study. This volume is written to supply this vacancy and is especially designed for the specific needs of the Chiropractic student. It consists of such parts of general and physiological chemistries suited to his needs, excluding the technical descriptions having a direct bearing in the work of the student of medicine. This volume is not intended to contain a full description of all the chemical elements, but only those with which one comes in contact more often. This work gives definitions; simple equations of reactions between the different chemical substances; the various symbols of elements and formulae of compounds together with the atomic weights and principle tests of such elements. It is destined merely to convey simple and direct facts regarding the subject of chemistry. The author, throughout the last six years as instructor of this subject in the Palmer School of Chiropractic has realized the necessity of such a book containing material selected to meet the needs of his own students, and which will be of value to the Chiropractic profession in general. S. J. Burich, D. C., Ph. C. 5 CONTENTS PART I. PAGE Inorganic Chemistry 11 Definitions 11 Physical and Chemical Changes 15 Notation and Nomenclature 15 Valency and Radicals 22 Atomic and Electron Theories 27 Laws 30 Classification of Elements 37 Acids, Salts and Bases 42 Electrolysis 50 Synonyms 52 Elements and Compounds 54 Tests 178 Organic Chemistry 190 Definitions 190 Carbohydrates 194 Fats and Related Substances 201 Proteins 205 Hydrocarbons 215 Nitrogen Derivatives 228 Tests 232 PART II. PART HI. Physiological Chemistry 239 Definitions 239 Composition of the Human Body 241 Water 245 Enzymes and Ferments 252 7 8 chiropractic chemistry Physiological Chemistry (Continued) page Chemistry of the Liver 259 Chemistry of the Pancreas 266 Chemistry of the Spleen 268 Chemistry of the Salivary Glands 269 Chemistry of Gastric Digestion 271 Intestinal Digestion 273 Digestion Summarized 278 Chemistry of Internal Secretions 285 Chemistry of Blood 291 The Lymphatic Nodes 298 Gaseous Exchange in the Lungs 301 The Skin 302 Kidneys 303 Urine 306 Urinalysis 321 Tests 321 PART IV. Poisons and Antidotes 349 Definitions 349 Poisons Considered Generally 351 The Corrosive Poisons 357 Corrosive Mineral Acids 357 Corrosive Vegetable Acids 361 Corrosive Organic Derivatives 363 Caustic and Carbonated Alkalies 365 Irritants 369 Simple Irritants 369 Vegetable Irritants 373 Animal Irritants 373 Irritant Gases 374 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 9 Poisons and Chemistry (Continued) page Specific Irritants 374 Specific Vegetable Irritants 387 Specific Animal Irritants 387 Neurotic Poisons 388 Narcotics 388 Anesthetics 389 Inebriants 391 Deliritants 392 Convulsants 395 Paralysants 397 Syncopants 398 Depressants 401 Asphyxiants 402 Miscellaneous 404 INORGANIC CHEMISTRY DEFINITIONS Science is a systematic, orderly arrangement of knowledge purporting absolute facts. Chemistry is a natural science that treats of the atomic and molecular composition of chemical elements or the com- position of matter. Matter is anything that has length, breadth and thickness and occupies space. An atom is the smallest quantity of a chemical substance that can enter into chemical combination. A molecule is the smallest quantity of a chemical sub- stance that can exist in the free state. The atomic weight of an element is the weight of one of its atoms as compared with the weight of hydrogen. Molecular weight of a substance is the weight of its molecule as compared with the weight of an atom of hydro- gen. An element is a substance that cannot be split up by any known means into anything else but itself. A compound is a substance composed of two or more elements chemically united. Analysis is the breaking down of compound bodies into simple constituents. Synthesis is the process of building up compound bodies from elements or simpler compounds. Valency is the combining power of an atom of one element as compared with the combining power of one atom of hydro- gen. A symbol is a sign by which an elementary substance is expressed in chemical writing. 11 12 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY A formula is a combination of symbols representing a molecule and showing the kind and number of atoms of which it is composed. A chemical equation is an expression of a chemical action by means of symbols, numbers and signs. Reaction is a term applied to chemical action and also to action of substances upon certain organic pigments. An oxid is a compound containing oxygen and another element. Volume is the space occupied by a certain amount of matter. Precipitation is the return from a dissolved to a solid state. Dissolution is the change from a solid or gas to a liquid. Crystallization is the property of matter in passing from liquid to solid state and assuming regular geometric forms. A reagent is a substance capable of producing a reaction. Polarity is the force which bodies possess to attract or repel each other. Gravitation is the attraction which exists between matter and the center of the earth. Mobility is the state of constant motion. Melting is the change from a solid to a liquid state by the raising of temperature. Sublimation is the change from a solid to a gas and back to a solid. Distillation is the process of changing liquids to gas and again to liquid. Diffusion is the process by means of which gases or fluids become automatically mixed. Combustion is a chemical process accompanied by flame. Oxidation is the process of increasing oxygen by com- bining the substance directly with more oxygen or a compound containing oxygen. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 13 Phosphorescence is the production of light thru chemical action without the use of heat. Fusion is the process of liquifying of metals by heat and uniting them. Efflorescence is the process by which crystals lose their water of crystallization. Water of crystallization is the water found in most crys- tals giving them the property of transparency. Deliquescence is the property a solid possesses in ab- sorbing water from the atmosphere and thus turning itself into a liquid. Effervescence is the reproduction of gas from a dissolved state. Exsiccation is the process of removing moisture from solid substances at a high temperature. Desiccation is the removing of moisture slowly. It is a process of drying. Reduction is a process of removing oxygen from a com- pound . An amalgam is a mixture of two or more metals, one of which is mercury. An alloy is a mixture of two or more metals none of which is mercury. A saturated substance is one (usually a liquid) that has dissolved as much of a solid as it is capable of holding. A metal is an elementary, positive substance capable of conducting heat and electricity. An acid is a compound composed of the positive element hydrogen united with a negative element or radical. A radical is a group of atoms passing unaltered from one compound to another and behaving as an element. A salt is a compound composed of a nnnjh've element (not hydrogen) united with a negative element or radical. 14 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY A base is a compound capable of reacting with an acid and forming salt and water. A base is a hydroxid of a metal. A hydroxid is a combination of a positive element and a hydroxyl radical. An ion is the primary product of the process of elec- trolysis. Ionization is the process of dissociation into ions. An electrolyte is a solution capable of conducting an elec- tric current. Electrolysis is the process of separating the constituents of an electrolyte by means of an electric current. A coefficient is a number written before a chemical form- ula to indicate the number of molecules. An exponent is a number written below and behind an element to show the number of parts of such element used. Allotropy is the property which some elements possess in being able to occur in two or more forms. The chemical relations of these forms remain unaltered, but the physical properties vary. A malleable substance is one that can be rolled out into thin sheets. A ductile substance is one which can be drawn out into a fine wire. Cohesion is the force by which particles of the same sub- stance are held together. Adhesion is the force by which particles of one kind are held to particles of another kind. An amorphous substance is one that does not crystallize. A reducing agent is one that is capable of removing oxy- gen from its compounds. An oxidizing agent is one that is capable of imparting its oxygen to another substance. PHYSICAL AND CHEMICAL CHANGES NOTATION AND NOMENCLATURE By a physical change we understand that there exists an alteration unaccompanied by change in composition. It is but a change in the state of matter or state of aggregation. There are three such states existing; namely, solid, liquid and gaseous. The examples of the first state are very numerous such as iron, tin, zinc, platinum, gold, silver, etc. The ex- amples of the second state are water, hydrochloric acid, sul- phuric acid, mercury, bromin, etc. Those of the third class are all the gases: Hydrogen, oxyg'en, nitrogen, and numerous others. A change from one of these conditions to another very often obtains under the influence of temperature and does not necessarily Mean an alteration in the composition. The changing of water into ice or steam and the reverse af- fords a good example. Iron assuming magnetic properties is another example. Matter undergoing a physical change never becomes altered in composition and any change in its state is termed a physical phenomenon. Chemical changes or chemical phenomena, the study of which constitutes chemistry are always attended by change in composition. Combustion of coal, decay of vegetation and the rusting of iron are only some of the instances denoting a chemical change. We study three distinct forms of chemical change, namely, re-arrangement, combination and decomposition. Rearrangement refers to the formation of new substances by a combination of the same substances in different ways. Decomposition is the separation of a body into new substances and constitutes chemical analysis. Combination is the union of bodies to form a new substance and is rightly termed synthesis. 15 16 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Notation Notation is a particular system of characters, symbols or abbreviated expressions used in any art or science to express briefly certain technical facts. In chemistry all such char- acters employed are known as symbols. Every element has a symbol and in most cases this symbol is the initial letter of the name of each particular element. As examples we have C for carbon, P for phosphorus, H for hydrogen, O for oxygen. Many of the chemical elements, however, have the same initial and in such cases proper distinction is obtained by assigning the single letter to the most common of these ele- ments and affixing other letters to the initials of the less com- mon substances. The letter used with the initial in these cases is the one brought out strongly in the pronunciation of the name of such elements. Thus calcium, cadmium, chlorin and carbon all have the same initial, and for these the follow- ing symbols are used: C for carbon, Cl for chlorin, Cd for cadmium and Ca for calcium. Some of the elements have dif- ferent names in different languages and for these, symbols are usually formed from the Latin. The same rule is employed here as in forming symbols from the English named elements. The initial letter is used as the symbol for the most common while the initial letter with another small letter attached is used as the symbol of the less common. The symbol for iron is Fe (ferrum) ; for lead Pb (plumbum) ; for gold Au (aurum) ; for potassium K (kalium); for silver Ag (argentum). In expressing a combination between various elements the symbols are written together like the letters in a word. Such a combination of symbols is known as a formula. HC1 is a formula for hydrochloric acid; NaCl for sodium chlorid; KBr for potassium brom id. Each of the above expressions shows only one molecule of the substance and also that only one atom of each element is used in the combination. To show CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 17 expressions, other than the simple ones above, certain rules are followed. To multiply any single atom a small number is placed at the lower right hand-thus H2 indicates two atoms of hydro- gen. The numbers so used are known as exponents. To multiply several atoms by the same number a large figure is placed before the whole expression, thus-2HC1 showing two molecules of hydrochloric acid. The number here used is called a coefficient. In multiplying a portion of an expression, several methods are employed. The quantity to be multiplied is enclosed in parentheses and the proper figure is placed at the lower right hand of the expression. Sb(OH)3, the formula for stibium hydroxid, indicates that the hydroxyl radical has been em- ployed three times in the combination. Only the part enclosed in the parentheses is affected by the Figure 3. The above method is used especially in multiplying symbols in the mid- dle or at the end of the formula. To multiply symbols at the beginning of the formula it is best to point off the part to be multiplied. For this both the comma and semicolon are used thus: 2C2H5; H2N, in which expression the power of the 2 does not affect the quantity H2N. Arithmetical signs also stop the multiplying effect of the figure at the beginning of the expression. 2KC1 -j- H2SO4 is an example where the fig- ure 2 only multiplies the expression KC1 and has no effect on the H2SO4. I£ we desire to multiply the entire expression by the figure 2, then we would enclose the same in parentheses as follows: 2(KC1 -f- H2SO4). The 2 now multiplies the whole expression. The symbol of any element represents only one atom thereof and hence it also carries with it the idea of quantity. Any figure used to multiply the number of atoms, molecules or entire expressions also multiplies the quantity in just the 18 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY same manner. HC1 means that one atom of hydrogen is united with one atom of chlorin and also means that there exists a combination by weight being 1 (the atomic weight of hydrogen), as combined with 35.5 (the atomic weight of chlorin). To multiply any single atom as H2 the figure would also multiply the atomic weight and we would have 2 as the atomic weight of the two hydrogen atoms. To multiply any one portion of an expression as Sb(OH)3 the same figure would multiply the atomic weights as follows: 120.2 (atomic weight of antimony) [16 (atomic weight of oxygen) 4" 1 (atomic weight of hydrogen)] multiplied by 3. We would have in simplifying the expression 120.2 -|- (17) 3. Further simplifying we would have 120.2 -J- 51 or 171.2 as the molecular weight of antimony hydroxid. In any case where the figure is employed it multiplies the atomic weights as well as the atoms of the elements indicated. There are three distinct kinds of formulae used in writing different chemical combinations and are known as the em- pirical, rational and structural. When the expression is so written to merely show the number of each of the atoms present the formula is an empirical one. Example H3PO2 (hypophosphorus acid). When any arrangement of any of the atoms is indicated the formula is termed rational. Ex- ample (HO)H2PO3 (phosphoric acid). Graphic or structural formulae are used particularly to show valency and also, as many authorities state, to represent the arrangement of atoms in space. This is also a convenient way of showing whether a molecule is saturated or not. To write a graphic formula, write the symbols of each element represented extending from each symbol a number of short lines equal to the valency of that element. It does not matter in what position these lines are attached as long as they are in proper number. Examples of these formulae are given in connection with the subject of CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 19 valency showing there the formation of the saturated and un- saturated molecules. Nomenclature Nomenclature is a system of technical names, prefixes and suffixes used for a particular science. All the elements in the old classification were divided into metals and non-metals and those of the first class distinguished by the ending um. If oxygen was combined with any of the metals the ending um was then changed to a, for example, potassium (K) when combined with oxygen was changed to potassa having the formula (K2O); sodium (Na) changes to soda (Na2O) ; mag- nesium (Mg) becomes magnesia (MgO). This rule has only a limited application as many of the metals do not end in um unless the Latin name for them is used. Compounds which consist of a combination of only two elements are known as binary compounds. These are named by joining the names of the two substances uniting, and at- taching to one of them the termination id. The ending id is equivalent to the phrase nothing else and means that nothing else is contained in the combination except that which is ex- pressly mentioned. Hydrogen sulphid (H2S), as the name indicates, contains nothing but hydrogen and sulphur; sodium chlorid (NaCl) contains nothing but sodium and chlorin; potassium bromid (KBr) contains only potassium and bromin. The word of is used in many of the older works on chem- istry and then instead of saying hydrogen sulphid, we would say "sulphid of hydrogen," in place of saying sodium chlorid, we would say "chlorid of sodium." Many compounds, though composed of just exactly the same elements, possess the peculiarity of combining in several different proportions. Being combined in different propor- tion there must be some way of differentiating these different substances. This is done by the use of various prefixes. The 20 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY prefix sub denotes that there is an insufficient quantity of the element to which the other substance is united. Cu2O would be named copper suboxid, indicating a lack in the amount of oxygen. This prefix is usually applied in cases where the de- ficient substance belongs to the oxygen or chlorin groups. In differentiating other combinations like the above the pre- fixes mono, di, tri, tetra, penta, etc., are used, meaning one, two, three, four, five, etc. As examples where these prefixes are employed we have (N2O) nitrogen monoxid; (N2O2) ni- trogen dioxid; (N2O3) nitrogen trioxid; (N2O4) nitrogen tetroxid; (N2O5) nitrogen pentoxid; (SO2) sulphur dioxid; (SO3) sulphur trioxid; (H2O) hydrogen monoxid. Some elements form combinations in the proportion of 1 to 1% and as no fractions are allowed in formulae the whole proportion is multiplied by 2, giving the new proportion of 2 to 3. In the naming of any compounds existing in the above proportion the word sesqui is used, meaning one to one and a half, thus conveying the existing proportion. FeO1(< multi- plied by 2 becomes Fe2O3 and is known as iron sesquioxid. Pb2O3 lead sesquioxid. In some cases the suffix id is used in naming of com- pounds containing more than two elements, but in these cases some of the elements act as a group or unit passing from one compound to another. NaOH is named sodium hydroxid containing the OH group or radical acting as the unit. Ternary compounds are compounds that consist of a combination of three elements. Though most of these could be named by naming all the elements contained and adding the suffix id, no uniform method is followed. Salts belong to this class of ternary compounds consisting of three elements, one of which is oxygen. They are named by joining the names of the two elements and adding certain prefixes or suffixes to show the presence of oxygen. These syllables also denote, to CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 21 a certain extent, the percentage of oxygen present. In cases where the same three elements unite in four different propor- tions to form four different salts, the most important or most common of the four is .designated by the ending ate; the next below by the ending ite. That compound which contains a still greater percent of oxygen than that designated by the ending ate is differentiated by the use of the prefix hyper and that which is lower in oxygen than the ite, is named by pre- fixing the term hypo. The table which follows is an illustra- tion to show the use of the syllables. KC1OPotassium hypochlorite. KC1O2Potassium chlorite. KCIO3Potassium chlorate. KCIO4Potassium hyperclorate. The syllable hyper is generally abbreviated into per, so instead of hyperchlorate we would say perchlorate. When hydrogen is present as one of the three elements the compounds are named as follows: the term hydrogen is dropped, the ending ate is changed to ic, the ending ite to ous and the word acid is added thus- HC1OHypochlorous acid. HC1O2Chlorous acid. HC1O3Chloric acid. HC1O4Hyperchloric or perchloric acid. The ending ous is frequently used for one compound and the ending ic for another richer than the former is one of its ingredients. Thus SO2 (sulphur dioxid) is also called sul- phurous oxid, and SO3 (sulphur trioxid) is also called sul- phuric oxid. The term proto is often used and denotes a formation which is the first of a series or the highest in rank. Thus water (H2O) is known as hydrogen protoxid; litharge (PbO) as lead protoxid. VALENCY AND RADICALS Valency is chemical affinity of elements, expressed in terms of hydrogen atoms. The number of hydrogen atoms, or other univalent atoms, with which an atom of a given ele- ment combines, determines the valence of the latter. The highest valence which any atom exhibits in any known com- pound is called its maximum valence. Different elements possess different valencies and even this may vary for the same element ranging from one as high as eight, though in most cases the variation is very slight. Hydrogen is always univalent; oxygen is almost always divalent; and carbon usually tetravalent. The valency of any element may change as that element combines with different substances. Thus chlorin is always univalent, or monovalent toward hydrogen, but in uniting with oxygen it may be monovalent, divalent, tetravalent, or heptavalent. Though carbon is usually tetrava- lent in some compounds it is divalent or even trivalent. The atom of hydrogen is taken as the basis of comparison and the valency of every other element is compared to the number of hydrogen atoms with which it forms the most stable combination. Degrees of valency are indicated by names and Roman numerals. The numerals are always placed at the upper right hand of the symbol. I indicates a monad with valency of one. II " " diad " " " two. III " " triad " " " three. IV " " tetrad " " " four. V " " pentrad " " " five. VI " " hexad " " " six. VII " " heptad " " " seven. VIII " " octad " " " eight. Valency is merely a measure of capacity and has ab- 22 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 23 solutely nothing to do with the actual chemical activity of an element. Elements possessing- a high valency are often chem- ically very inactive, while others possessing a low valency are strongly active chemically. Nitrogen has a valency of three, but is less active then chlorin, which only has a valency of one. Degrees of valency are determined by comparison and are best illustrated through the use of the graphical formulae. Taking the formula H2O (water) and writing it graphically we have H- H-° showing two atoms of hydrogen each with the valency of one united with one atom of oxygen. The oxygen is represented as having saturated both bonds of union and must, therefore, be divalent. Hydrochloric acid (HC1), written graphically, would be H-Cl, showing one univalent atom of hydrogen saturated by uniting with one atom of chlorin, thus making chlorin also univalent. Sodium chlorid (NaCl), written graphically, would be Na-Cl, showing one univalent chlorin united with one atom of sodium, thus indicating that sodium is also univalent. So through all the chemical formulae, knowing the valency of cer- tain elements present, we are able to determine the valency of the other elements. Though this is true, it is best to make an outline of some of the most important elements, especially the monads, diads and triads and study their valencies. In the electrolysis of various substances we find that some are collected at the negative pole, showing that they are posi- tive, while others are collected at the positive pole, showing that they are negative. Likes repel and unlikes attract. Thus we find that we have positive monads, diads, and triads as well as negative monads, diads and triads. Not only are there positive monad, diad and triad ele- 24 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY ments, but there are as well positive monad, diad and triad radicals, salts, acids and other compounds. Following is the table of valency of the most important elements: 4- monads: + diads + triads As Bi - monads: - diads - triads: P K H Ba Sr F Cl S O Na Ca Sb Br nh4 Mg I Li Mn CN Ag Sn Zn Zn Cu Cd Co Pb Ni Fe Hg N Elements combined in proportions where all the valencies are equalized form saturated compounds. The term saturation in this connection should not be confused with the more com- mon use of the term in connection with saturated solution, meaning a substance which holds as much of another sub- stance as can be dissolved. Degrees of valency as stated before may be variable, but if they are, a simple law, which has but few exceptions, is followed. An element possessing even valency would always remain even and one possessing odd valency would always remain odd. It would, therefore, follow that an element would, when changing, change two degrees at a time. The exceptions to this rule are based on the supposition that some atoms possess the property of combining with other similar atoms; that is, forming a combination with themselves, result- ing in the formation of double atoms. These double atoms CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 25 possess a valency greater than either single atom and less than the sum of the valencies of the two atoms. Radicals A radical is a combination of atoms having unsaturated valency; the number of unsatisfied bonds of union is the valency of the radical. The formulae representing this prin- ciple are as follows: / VI X1 ( NH /Ammonium radical. / I II X I I £fo /Hydroxyl radical. / I II \I ( jl S /Hydrosulphyl radical. / I IV \I q JMethyl radical. / IV II \ II ( CO )Carbonyl radical. / VH X1 I q ]Nitrosyl radical. A radical is a root, characterized by an atom or a group of atoms running thru a series of compounds like the root words in language. A single atom which forms a series of compounds is called a simple radical. A compound radical is a group of atoms running thru a series of compounds and acting as a single atom. Radicals enter or leave a com- pound the same as individual atoms. The combining capacity of any group of atoms is dependent upon the degree of un- 26 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY saturated valency, but the electrical relations are usually de- termined by the electrical character of the prepondering valency. Though this is true, the whole molecule takes part and the character is influenced somewhat by each atom pres- ent. In the NH4 radical the nitrogen valancies are in excess and it would seem that the electrical relations would be gov- erned by this excess, yet by experiment it is distinctly proven that the valancies of the positive hydrogens impress their function on the molecule. Chemical relations of radicals depend largely upon the readiness with which the compounds containing them ionize. If compounds are very active the radicals are likewise active, while if compounds are inactive the radicals are inactive to the same degree. THE ATOMIC AND ELECTRON THEORIES Any solid substance such as a piece of iron may be re- duced to extremely minute indivisible particles. It would seem that such a division, no matter how ultra-microscopic the particles become, has no limit. Chemists are of the opin- ion that a limit does exist and that every substance is made up of particles of a definite size incapable of further division. These particles they have termed atoms (from the Greek meaning indivisible) and have defined the term as the smallest particle of matter that can enter into chemical combination. Atoms rarely exist in a perfectly free state, but are associated in groups called molecules. A molecule is termed the smallest particle of matter that can exist alone. Molecules consisting of atoms of the same kind are called elemental molecules; those containing atoms of different kind are called compound molecules. O -|- O is equal to ozone and is an example of the elemental molecule. H +' Cl is equal to hydrochloric acid and is an example of the compound molecule. If we assume that the atoms are exactly the same in weight and other properties in the case of any one element, but different in weight and properties in different elements and that compounds are formed by the union of the various elements, then we can readily explain the laws of definite, multiple and reciprocal proportion. Law of definite proportion.-A chemical compound al- ways contains the same elements in the same proportions by weight. No matter by what process, when or where hydro- chloric acid is made, it always contains hydrogen and chlorin in the proportions of I gram of hydrogen to 35.45 grams of chlorin. Water always consists of I gram of hydrogen and 8 grams of oxygen. Common salt is always formed by 23 grams of sodium and 35.45 grams of chlorin. If we assume that atoms of elements are indivisible, then only whole atoms 27 28 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY or numbers of atoms can unite to form compounds and the above law is true. Iron and sulphur forming ferrous sulphid are always in the proportion of 28 grams of iron to 16 grams of sulphur: in forming ferric sulphid iron is found to the extent of 28 grams and sulphur to the extent of 32 grams. In chlorin peroxid 35.45 grams of chlorin are united with 32 grams of oxygen; and in chlorin heptoxid 35.45 grams of chlorin are combined with 56 grams of oxygen. If the atoms of the dif- ferent elements are indivisible as before stated, then we have the law of multiple proportions. When any two elements, A and B, form more than one compound with each other, the amounts of B that unite with one and the same weight of A are simple rational multiples of one another. Assume that hydrogen, oxygen and chlorin are three ele- ments that unite with one another to form compounds. In water there are 8 grams of oxygen for one gram of hydrogen; in hydrochloric acid there are 35.45 grams of chlorin to 1 gram of hydrogen, thus if oxygen and chlorin unite, the proportion would be 8 grams of oxygen to 35.45 grams of chlorin. Again assuming there is no division of the atoms we have the law of reciprocal proportions. When three elements, A, B and C are able to form chemical compounds with one another, the proportions by weight in which A and B unite to form the compound AB, and the proportions in which A and C unite to form the compound AC, also determines the proportions in which B and C unite to form the compound BC. In conclusion we find that the atomic theory is based upon weight relations that obtain when elements unite chem- ically as expressed by the three foregoing laws. The Electron Theory The electron theory considers electricity material in char- 29 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY acter and composed of particles that possess weight. It is further stated that the electrons are considered negative as the positive have been extremely hard to isolate. Atoms are by many regarded as divisible into smaller particles called electrons, each possessing an electric charge. Attempts have been made of late to construct a theory on this basis and by this means to prove periodicity of the different elements. The subject of electrons belongs to physics rather than chemistry, so in this text no particular reference will be made to it. The atom will be used as the unit mass and the atomic theory applied in all chemical combinations. As both the subjects of atoms and electrons are theories it will be well to make a distinction between theory and fact. Facts result from actual observation and experiment and a collection of these observations expressed in a general state- ment forms a law. Thus by experiment we find that water, salt, hydrochloric acid, etc., are constant in composition, show- ing a series of facts. If now we say that these chemical com- pounds always have the same composition, we have a law. A theory is neither a fact nor a general statement of fact, it is merely assumption for correlating and accounting for facts that are collected and formulated into laws. A theory enables one to see facts, make better the comprehension of things ob- served and suggests new avenues for inquiry and experimenta- tion by which further facts may be deduced. Thus the atomic theory enables us to understand the facts expressed in the different laws of chemical combination. Theories are change- able while laws and facts are constant. In the evolution of any science many and varied theories obtain, and as the work of research progresses many old theories are discarded and new ones formulated. It was on a theory or supposition that nan could fly that ideas were worked out until today the sup- position is truly a fact. Theories then are avenues through vhich by persistent work we are enabled to reach definite onclusions. LAWS A law is a combination of similar facts expressed in a general statement. Specific gravity is the weight of equal volumes of matter at the same temperature and pressure computed on the basis of water at four degrees centigrade referred to solids and liquids. Four degrees centigrade (39 degrees F.) is the tem- perature at which water possesses the greatest specific grav- ity. Assuming that one cubic centimeter of water weighs one gram, compare the weight of one cubic centimeter of iron with it. Suppose that the iron is 100 times as heavy, than the specific gravity of it is 100. The specific gravity of liquids is obtained by comparing them with distilled water. The stand- ard used for the specific gravity of gases is hydrogen at 1. Law of definite proportions. Every chemical compound always contains the same ingredients in the same proportion by weight. By this law we find that hydrochloric acid (HC1) always contains 1 gram of hydrogen and 35.45 grams of chlorin wherever found and by whatever process made. Sim- ilarly all other combinations always contain exactly the same amount of substances under all conditions. Law of multiple proportions. When any two elements, A and B, form more than one compound with each other, the amounts of B that unite with one and the same weight of A are simple rational multiples of one another. Thus iron and sulphur in forming ferrous sulphid are always in the pro- portion of 28 grams of iron to 16 grams of sulphur; and in forming ferric sulphid they are in the proportion of 28 grams of iron to 32 grams of sulphur. Here we see that sulphur combines in two different proportions with iron and that these amounts of sulphur are simple multiples of one another. 30 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 31 The law of reciprocal proportions. When three elements, A, B and C, are able to form chemical compounds with one another, the proportions by weight in which A and B unite to form the compound AB, and the proportions in which A and C unite to form the compound AC, also determine the proportions in which B and C unite to form the compound BC. Taking three elements, hydrogen, oxygen and chlorin, which are capable of forming combinations with one another, we find that 8 grams of oxygen combine with 1 gram of hydrogen to form water; 35.45 grams of chlorin combine with 1 gram of hydrogen to form hydrochloric acid. If then oxygen and chlorin were to form a combination, they would unite in the proportion of 35.45 grams of chlorin to 32 grams of oxygen. Thus we see the above law exemplified. Law of Gay Lussac. When gases combine to form chem- ical compounds, the volumes of the gases that enter into com- bination bear a simple relation to one another; and if the product formed be gaseous, its volume also bears a simple relation to the volumes of the original gases. If two volumes of hydrogen are mixed with one volume of oxygen, the result of this combination chemically is water. If the water is not allowed to condense it will occupy just %s of the sum of the volumes of the hydrogen and oxygen, or two volumes. This, of course, is under the same conditions of temperature and pressure. This relation is typical of the volume relations in all gases that combine chemically. Avogadro's Hypothesis. Equal volumes of gases under the same conditions of temperature and pressure contain the same number of molecules. This is further supported by the fact that all gases contract and expand alike under the same changes of temperature and pressure. Under this hypothesis Avogadro considers the molecule of hydrogen as H2 and the 32 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY molecule of chlorin as Cl2, and when chemical action obtains we have the following: H2 +' Cl2 = 2HC1 1 volume 1 volume = 2 volumes 1 molecule -j- 1 molecule = 2 molecules The above is often spoken of as the double atom theory and is now accepted as the basis of the molecular theory. Law of Dulong and Petit. The product of the specific heat of an element in the solid state and its atomic weight is constant. It may be expressed by saying that the atoms of the elements have the same heat capacity. This law is used to determine the atomic weights of the different elements by dividing the atomic heat, which is approximately 6.4 by the specific heat of the element thus:-dividing the atomic heat of sodium which is 6.74 by the specific heat which is 0.293 we obtain 23.00 as the atomic weight. Atomic Specific Atomic Element Symbol weight heat heat Sodium Na 23.00 .293 6.74 Magnesium Mg 24.32 .245 5.95 Phosphorus P 31. .202 6.26 Sulphur S 32.07 .203 6.50 Potassium K 39.10 .166 6.49 Iron Fe 55.85 .112 6.26 Copper Cu 63.57 .095 6.04 Zinc Zn 65.51 .093 6.09 Silver Ag 107.88 .057 6.15 Gold Au 197.2 .0324 6.40 Mercury- Hg 200. .0333 6.66 Lead Pb 207.1 .315 6.52 Law of Isomorphism. Chemical compounds which are CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 33 similar in character crystallize in the same forms. Whenever substances are isomorphous they are chemically analogous, so from the determined formula of one compound other formulae are readily deduced by analogy. The sulphates of magnesium and zinc are isomorphous. If the atomic weight of zinc is 65.51, then the amount of magnesium required to replace 65.51 parts of zinc in the sulphate is 24.32, the atomic weight of magnesium. Valency. The number of hydrogen atoms, or other uni- valent atoms, with which an atom of a given element combines determines the valence of the latter. The law of valency has been fully discussed in a previous chapter. Law of mass action. The speed or rate of any chemical change is proportional to the active mass, that is, the molec- ular concentration of each substance engaged in the reaction. The amount of matter contained in unit of volume is known as concentration. In a solution it is the amount of matter dissolved in one unit volume of the solution. The rapidity with which the reaction obtains depends upon the amount of active material contained in any one unit volume. The more dilute this unit volume becomes the more is its concentration affected and its action diminished. Law of mass conservation. During the process of chem- ical change the total mass of the reacting substances remains constant. When a chemical combination takes place between chemical substances, the sum total of the weights of the dif- ferent ingredients is equal to the total weight after the reaction has taken place. If any change does obtain in the weight after the reaction, it is no doubt due to experimental error. Law of gravitation. Force of gravitation is directly pro- portionate to the mass, and varies inversely to the square of the distance. That is, the attraction between two bodies two feet apart will be four times as great as between bodies four 34 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY feet apart. The weight of any body is due to the attraction existing between it and the center of the earth. Law of absolute weight. Pressure exerted by any sub- stance upon underlying matter is in direct proportion to its density. The pressure exerted upon an underlying surface by a piece of iron is much greater than that exerted by a piece of wood of the same size. Law of Lavoisier and Laplace. If no heat be lost, the heat evolved during a chemical change is always exactly equal to the heat that is absorbed when the reaction is reversed. Law of Hess. The thermal change accompanying any chemical reaction depends on the initial and final condition of the substances involved, and is independent of the intermedi- ate changes that may occur during the reaction. The total amount of heat liberated when 1 gram of carbon is burned to CO2 is the same whether or not CO is first formed and later oxidized, or whether CO2 is formed directly. t Berthelot's law of maximum work. Every change accom- plished without the intervention of extraneous energy tends to produce a substance in the formation of which the greatest amount of heat is disengaged. Law of octaves. The properties of every eighth element are similar to the properties of the first element if the elements are arranged in order of the magnitude of their atomic weights. This is true no matter from which element we begin the count. The physical and chemical properties of elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights. As a result of this law of octaves, Mendeleeff and Meyer arranged a table known as the periodic system of elements. Law of Henry. At constant temperature, the amount of gas absorbed by a liquid is directly proportional to the pres- sure. This law holds good only where the gases are not too readily soluble in the liquid, like oxygen or hydrogen in water. Such gases are said to have a low heat of solution thus 0 I II III IV V VI VII VIII He 4 Li 7 G19.1 B 11 C12 N 14 O 16 F 19 Ne20 Na 23 Mg 24.3 Al 27.1 Si 28.3 P31 S32.1 Cl 35.5 A 39.9 K39.1 Ca40 Sc 44.1 T1 48.1 V51.2 Cr 52.1 Mn 55 Fe 55.8 Ni 58.7 Co 5 9 • • • • • Cu 63.6 Zn 65.5 Ga 70 Ge 72.5 As 75 Se 79.2 Br80 Kr82 Rb 85.5 Sr 87.6 Y89 Zr 90.6 Cb93.5 Mo 96 Ru 101.7 Rh 103 Pdl06.7 • • • • • Ag 107.9 Cd 112.4 In 114.8 Sn 119 Sb 120.2 Te 127.5 1126.9 X 128 Cs 133 Ba 137.4 La 139 Ge 140.2 •••••• Yb 172 Ta 181 Os 191 Ir 193 Pt 195 Au 197 W184 Hg200 T1 204 Pb 207 Bi 208 U 238.5 Ra 226 Th 232 35 36 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY possessing little affinity for the liquid. The law does not hold in gases that have a high heat of solution and hence possess great affinity for liquids. Faraday's law. The passage of the electric current through an electrolyte is always accompanied by the appear- ance of decomposition products at the electrodes, and the amount of decomposition is proportional to the amount of current. Law of thermoneutrality. When two solutions of neutral salts, that form no precipitate, are mixed, there is no change in temperature of the mixture. Law of diffusion. The rapidity with which gases diffuse varies inversely as the square roots of their densities. Boyle's law. The volume of a confined gas varies in- versely to the pressure. Charle's law. The volume of a gas under constant pres- sure varies directly with the absolute temperature. A gas ex- pands 1/273 of its volume for every degree of rise in tempera- ture. All the different gases expand or contract equally with every change in temperature providing the pressure remains constant. CLASSIFICATION OF ELEMENTS An element is a substance made up of atoms of the same kind. It cannot be broken up into anything but itself. Ele- ments are positive and negative, these properties being de- termined by the process of electrolysis. The positive element is collected at the negative pole in electrolysis while the nega- tive is collected at the positive pole. In writing formulae ex- pressing different combinations between atoms of various elements, the positive is written first and the negative last. Many different ways of classifying elements exist but so far no one system of classification is adequate. There are always some substances which do not adhere closely to any one rule. In ancient times when only few elements were known in the free state, all, with the exception of sulphur and carbon, were called metals. These were divided into two groups based on the effects produced when heating them in the air. Those which oxadized were called the base metals and those that did not oxadize were called the noble metals. To the first class belonged such elements as tin, copper and iron; to the second class gold and silver. This ancient classification has been abandoned and other modes of association instituted. The most common of these was the division of all elements into metals and non-metals. A metal is an element capable of replacing the hydrogen of an oxy acid to form a salt. To this class belong substances possessing high specific gravity and high fusing points. They oxadize easily, are malleable and ductile, and make good con- ductors for heat and electricity. In the formation of com- pounds they are usually in the position of the positive ion. Non-metals are substances which do not replace the hydrogen of oxy acids to form salts. Their oxides combine with water to form acids, never to form bases. To this class belong those elements which have low specific gravity and low 37 38 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY fusing points. They are not malleable nor ductile and very seldom oxadize. They are non-conductors of heat and elec- tricity. There are some elements which in their properties con- form to neither of the above two classes. These represent a transition in properties and are called metalloids. Potassium and sodium possess low specific gravity and low fusing points; antimony and bismuth are not malleable or ductile; yet they are classed under the head of metals. Carbon, classified as a non-metal, has a high fusing point, and conducts heat and elec- tricity readily. Experiment has shown that the physical and chemical properties of elements are closely related to their atomic weight and since the time of this discovery, attempts have been made to classify all elements in this way. Dobereiner noted the fact that the atomic weight of strontium, 87.62, is very near the arithmetical mean of the atomic weights of barium, 137.37, and calcium, 40.09. These three elements are very similar in properties. A number of other elements were so classed into what were called triad groups. Chlorin, 35.45; Bromin, 79.92; lodin, 126.92. 35.45+126.92 = 81.19 2 Sulphur, 32.07; Selenium, 79.2; Tellurium, 127.5. 32.07+127.5 = 79.78 2 Phosphorus, 31; Arsenic, 75; Antimony, 120.2. 31+120.2 = 75.6 2 Lithium, 7; Sodium, 23; Potassium, 39.10. 7+39.10 = 23.05 2 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 39 Newlands, somewhat later, arranged the elements accord- ing to the magnitude of their atomic weights, finding that every eighth element possessed properties similar to the first. This he called the law of octaves. At about the same time Mendeleeff and Meyer, arranged all the elements in a table known as the periodic system. The periodic law which re- sulted is, that the physical and chemical properties of the elements are periodic functions of their atomic weights. A table showing the arrangement of elements according to the periodic law is given on page 35. The first group known as the argon group includes helium, neon, argon, krypton and xenon. These are gaseous elements found in minute quantities in the atmosphere. So far as is known the elements of this group form no compounds. Having a zero valency, this group is often called the zero group. The second or potassium group includes hydrogen, lith- ium, sodium, potassium, rubidium and cesium. These ele- ments are positive monads with great affinity for elements of groups six and seven. These are called alkali metals since they form with oxygen powerfully corrosive compounds called alkalies. Copper, silver and gold are included as sub-groups. The calcium group includes glucinum, calcium, barium, strontium and radium. They are positive diads and form oxides less corrosive than those of the preceding class and hence are commonly known as alkaline earths. Magnesium, zinc, cadmium and mercury are the sub-groups with mag- nesium bearing the closest resemblance. The aluminum group includes the so-called metals of the earths. They are aluminum, boron, gallium, indium, thallium, scandium, yttrium, lanthanum and ytterbium. Aluminum is by far the most important of the class. The others with the exception of boron and thallium are quite rare. The elements of this class are trivalent in all their combinations. 40 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY ELEMENTS, SYMBOLS, VALANCIES AND ATOMIC WEIGHTS Element Symbol Val- ency Atomic Wt. Element Symbol Val- ency Atomic Wt. Aluminum Al IV 27.1 Neon Ne 0 20 Antimony Sb HI V 120.2 Nickel Ni II 58.7 Argon A 0 39.9 Niobium Nb V 94 Arsenic As III V 75 Nitrogen N HI V 14 Barium Ba II 137.4 Osmium Os VI 191 Bismuth Bi III V 208.5 Oxygen O II 16 Boron B III 11 Palladium Pd II IV 106.5 Bromin Br I 80 Phosphorus P HI V 31 Cadmium Cd II 112.4 Platinum Pt IV 194.8 Cesium Cs I 132.9 Potassium K I 39.1 Calcium Ca II 40.1 Praseodymium Pr 140.5 Carbon C IV 12 Radium Ra II 225 Cerium Ce II IV 140.2 Rhodium Rh II IV 103 Chlorin Cl I 35.5 Rubidium Rb I 85.5 Chromium Cr IV 52.1 Ruthenium Ru II IV 101.7 Cobalt Co II 59 Samarium Sm HI 150.3 Copper Cu II 63.6 Scandium Sc III 44.1 Erbium Er III 166 Selenium Se IIIV VI 79.2 Fluorin F I 19 Silicon Si IV 28.4 Gadolinum Gd 156 Silver Ag I 108 Gallium Ga HI 70 Sodium Na I 23 Germanium Ge II IV 72.5 Strontium Sr II 876 Glucinum G1 II 9.1 Sulphur S IIIV VI 32 Gold Au III 197.2 Tantalum Ta III V 183 Helium He 0 4 Tellurium Te IIIV VI 127.6 Hydrogen H I 1 Terbium Tr 160 Indium In III 115 Thallium T1 im 204.1 lodin I I 127 Thorium Th II IV 232.5 Iridium Ir II IV 193 Thulium Tu 171 Iron Fe II IV 55.9 Tin Sn II IV 119 Krypton Kr 0 81.8 Titanum Ti IV 48.1 Lanthanum La HI 138.9 Tungsten W IV 184 Lead Pb II 206.9 Uranium u ii 238.5 Lithium Li I 7 Vanadium V III V 51.2 Magnesium Mg II 24.3 Xenon Xe 0 128 Manganese Mn II IV 55 Ytterbium Yb 173 Mercury Hg II 200 Yttrium Y HI 89 Molybdenum Mo II IV 96 Zinc Zn II 65.4 Neodymium Nd 143.6 Zirconium Zr IV 90.6 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 41 The carbon group includes carbon, silicon, germanium, tin, lead, titanium, zirconium, cerium and thorium. These are tetrad elements and generally positive. The nitrogen group includes nitrogen, phosphorus, arsenic, antimony, bismuth, vanadium and tantalum. These elements possess a valency of three or five and are usually positive. The oxygen group includes oxygen, sulphur, selenium and tellurium also the sub-groups of chromium, molybdenum, tungsten and uranium. These are all negative diads. The chlorin group is composed of chlorin, fluorin, bromin and iodin. These are negative monads and the only elements which form salts without the aid of oxygen. They are known as halogens, meaning salt formers. Manganese is a sub-group of this division. The iron group consists of elements that usually form two sets of compounds. In the first set they act as diads and in the second as tetrads. This group is positive and includes, iron, nickel, cobalt, ruthenium, rhodium, palladium, osmium, iridium and platinum. Some of the elements in these different groups have prop- erties which strongly resemble other groups. Even though this is true the above classification is undoubtedly the most convenient and the one generally followed. ACIDS, SALTS AND BASES An acid is a compound composed of the positive element hydrogen united with a negative element or radical. It is a combination of an electro-negative element or radical with hydrogen. When the hydrogen of an acid is replaced by the metal the product is a salt. Acids are sour in taste, corrosive in action, always contain hydrogen and possess the property of turning blue litmus paper red. This property of acids is commonly known as acid reaction. There are two main classes of acids known as the hydro- gen and oxygen acids. Many pronounced acids exist that con- tain no oxygen, but of this class five commonly known as the hydro acids are composed of hydrogen united with a negative element. The negative elements with which hydrogen unites to form these acids are the halogens. Following are the five acids that belong to this group. HC1Hydrochloric acid. HBrHydrobromic acid. HIHydriodic acid. HFHydrofluoric acid. HCNHydrocyanic acid. All of the above acids are named by using the name of the negative element with the prefix hydro to denote the absence of oxygen and the suffix ic to show that they are saturated substances. Water (H2O) and hydrogen sulphid (H2S) are also formed by the union of hydrogen with a negative element and according to the definition should be true hyrdo acids. The only explanation that can be given to show that they are not is to note that their properties are entirely different. By far the greater majority of acids belong to the second class and all contain oxygen. They are therefore termed oxy CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 43 acids. These are divided into groups or families and are then named by the use of certain prefixes and suffixes together with the name of the middle element. For example: HC1OHypochlorous acid. HCIO2Chlorous acid. HC1O3Chloric acid. HC1O4Hyper or perchloric acid. Also H2SO2Hyposulphurous acid. H2SO3Sulphurous acid. H2SO4..-Sulphuric acid. H2SO5Hyper or persulphuric acid. The usual method is to drop the name hydrogen and to employ the name of the middle element with the addition of the prefixes hypo and per and the suffixes ic and ous. The most common of the family is distinguished by the suffix ic and the one containing the next lower amount of oxygen by the ending ous. If there is an acid containing more oxygen than the most common one it is distinguished by the prefix per and the one lower than the ous form, is designated by the prefix hypo. It would seem, from the foregoing explanation that the amount of oxygen determines the kind of acid. Oxygen is one of the main constituents of the oxy acids. It unites readily with non metals such as sulphur and phos- phorus forming oxides. These oxides are known as acid oxides or anhydrids as they readily unite with water to form acids. An anhydrid is a substance which is capable of uniting with water to form an acid. When sulphur burns in oxygen sulphur dioxid is formed: If this is conducted into water it unites with it and forms sulphurous acid: S-|-O2-so2. so2+h2o=h2so3. 44 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Now by passing sulphur dioxid and oxygen over finely divided platinum, sulphur trioxid is formed which also unites with water to form an acid: When phosphorus is burned in oxygen it forms P2O5 (phosphorus pentoxid), which unites readily with water forming phosphoric acid: so8+h2o=h2so4. P2O5+3H2O=2H3PO4. In certain acids prefixes other'than those already men- tioned are used to designate various peculiarities. Some of these are pyro, ortho, para, meta and thio. A pyro acid is an acid formed by heating the ic acid. Pyrophosphoric acid (H4P2OT) obtained by heating phosphoric acid 213 degrees C. An ortho acid is one that contains hydroxyl groups equal in number to the valancies of the acidulous elements. Ortho- phosphoric acid P(HO)5. The valency of phosphorus is five and the acid contains five hydroxyl groups. A para acid is one that is formed by a double substitution. A meta acid is an acid formed by two substitutions, also the one that obtains after some other in the series. Metaphos- phoric acid (HPO3). A thio acid is one in which the oxygen has been replaced by sulphur. Thiocarbonic acid (H2CS3), where sulphur oc- cupies the place of oxygen. A monobasic acid is one that contains one replaceable hydrogen atom. Example: HC1. A dibasic acid is one that contains two replaceable hydro- gen atoms. Example: H2SO4. A tribasic acid is one that contains three replaceable hydrogen atoms. Example: H3PO4. A strong acid is one possessing a strong acid reaction. A weak acid is one that has a weak acid reaction. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 45 Salts A salt is a compound composed of a positive element, not hydrogen, usually a metal, united with a negative element or radical. It is a neutral compound resulting from the inter- action of an acid and a base or a compound formed when the hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal. Salts may be formed by the direct union of base-forming with acid-forming elements, thus: Na+'Cl=NaCl. This same salt like all other salts may also be derived by the action of sodium hydroxid (NaOH) upon hydrochloric acid (HC1). The above action is commonly spoken of as the neutraliza- tion of an acid with a base and other examples may be given as follows: NaOH4-HCl=NaCl+H2. 2NaOH4-H2SO4=Na2SO4+2H2O, KOH=HNO3=KNO3+H2O. The first equation illustrates the action of sodium hydroxid upon sulphuric acid, resulting in the formation of sodium sulphate and water. The second shows the action of potassium hydroxid and nitric acid resulting in potassium nitrate and water: In many cases the salt is formed by the direct action of a metal on an acid, thus: 2Na+'H2SO4=Na2SO4+H2, Ag+HCl=AgCl+H. Salts are also the result of the direct union of a basic oxid with an acid oxid, thus: Na2O-}-SO3=Na2SO4, CaO-J-CO2=CaCO3. Salts, like the acid's, are divided into two main classes, viz.: oxy and non-oxy. Those of the first class are formed by 46 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY the direct union of basic and acid oxides; by the direct action of a metal upon an acid; and by the interaction of an acid and a base. The ones belonging to the second class are formed by the direct union of basic and acid elements; and by the interaction of an acid and a base. The salts of the first class are named by combining the names of the acid and basic elements with the addition of certain prefixes and suffixes much the same as in the naming of oxyacids. The most common salt of each group or family is designated by adding the suffix ate. This usually denotes the presence of three oxygens. The one lower in amount of oxygen is named by adding the suffix ite. Salts lower in the oxygen content or lower than the ite salts are given the prefix hypo, and those containing more oxygen than the ate salts have the prefix per. NaClOSodium hypochlorite. NaClO2Sodium chlorite. NaClO3Sodium chlorate. NaClO4■Sodium perchlorate. K2SO2Potassium hypochlorite. K,SO3Potassium chlorite. K2SO4Potassium chlorate. K2SO5Potassium perchlorate. Salts of the second class are named by uniting the names of the basic and acid elements and adding the ending id, thus: NaClSodium chlorid. KBrPotassium bromid. AgClSilver chlorid. KIPotassium iodid. The compounds belonging to the oxy class are ternary, being composed of a combination of three elements, while CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 47 those of the non-oxy class are binary, being composed of two elements. There are the so called acid salts. These contain some replaceable hydrogen and are formed when only a part of the hydrogen of an acid is replaced by a metal, thus: In the above equation the positive element potassium has re- placed only one atom of hydrogen contained in the sulphuric acid thus forming acid potassium sulphate (KHSO4). This is commonly called monoacid potassium sulphate, it having only one atom of hydrogen remaining. A diacid salt is one that contains two replaceable hydro- gen atoms, thus: k+h2so4=khso4+h. Na+H3PO4=NaH2PO4+H. Here sodium has replaced one hydrogen atom of phosphoric acid forming diacid sodium phosphate (NaH2PO4). A double salt is one formed by replacing the hydrogen of an acid by two positive elements. The elements posassium and sodium here replace the two atoms of hydrogen making potassium sodium sulphate (KNaSOJ. Double salts are formed by two complete salts uniting as one definite compound, thus: K+Na+H2SO4=KNaSO4+H2. K2SO4+Al2(SO4)3=K2SO4, Al2 (SO4)3. Potassium aluminum sulphate. FeSO4+'(NH4)2SO4=FeSO4, (NH4)2SO4. Ammonium ferrous sulphate. A basic salt is a salt which contains some replaceable hydroxyl groups. Sb(OH)3+HCl=Sb(OH)2Cl+OH, Sb(OH);!+2HCl=Sb(OH)Cl2+(OH)2. Basic salts are formed by the interaction of the base and an acid. The negative element of the acid replaces the hydroxyl 48 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY group. Dibasic stibium chlorid Sb(OH)2Cl contains two re- placeable hydroxyl groups. Monobasic stibium chlorid Sb(OH)Cl2 contains only one replaceable hydroxyl radical. Thus we see that the acidity of a salt is determined by the number of replaceable hydrogens still remaining, and the basicity by the number of replaceable hydroxyl groups re- maining. A normal salt is one in which the hydrogen of the acid is replaced by a single element as in sodium chjorid (NaCl). Salts are solids, salty to the taste, burn when in contact with open surfaces and have no action on litmus paper. Bases A base is a substance which will react with an acid form- ing salt and water. Bases are hydroxides or oxides of metals and are ternary compounds capable of entering into double decomposition with acids. This double decomposition is a chemical reaction in which both of the substances become de- composed to form new compounds. NaOH+HCl=NaC14-H2O. The double reaction of sodium hydroxid and hydro- chloric acid results in the formation of the two new com- pounds, sodium chlorid and water. Bases are compounds containing the hydroxyl group or radical, caustic in action and turn red litmus paper blue. The turning of red litmus paper blue is termed an alkaline reaction and since nearly all the bases possess this action they are commonly called alkalies. An alkali is a substance which possesses a strong alkaline reaction and saponifies fats. The most important ones of these compounds are composed of a combination of the oxid of a basylous element and water. The principal basylous ele- CHIROPRACTIC - CHEMISTRY 49 ments are lithium, sodium, potassium, silver, calcium, barium, magnesium, zinc, aluminum, copper and mercury. HgO+H2O=Hg(HO)2. Some alkalies are formed by a direct combination of the basylous element and water, thus: K4-H2O=KOH4-H. Na4-H2O=NaOH+H. A monoacid base is one that contains one replaceable hydroxyl group. NaOHSodium hydroxid. KOHPotassium hydroxid. LiOHLithium hydroxid. NH4OHAmmonium hydroxid. A diacid base is a base containing two replaceable hy- droxyl groups. Ca(OH)2Calcium hydroxid. Ba(OH)2Barium hydroxid. Mg(OH)2Magnesium hydroxid. A triacid base contains three replaceable hydroxyl groups. Sb(OH)3Stibium hydroxid. The atomicity of a base is indicated by the number of hydroxyl groups which it contains. They are therefore mon- atomic, diatomic and triatomic as shown by the above ex- amples. Bases are also grouped according to the strength of their action into the strong and the weak. NaOH, KOH and LiOH are strong bases. Ca(OH)2 and NH4OH are weak bases. NH4OH is often known as a volatile alkali, while NaOH and KOH are known as caustic alkalies. ELECTROLYSIS Electrolysis is the process of electrical conduction accom- panied by the separation of the constituents of the electrolyte. Conductors of electricity are of two kinds: those which conduct the electric current and show no chemical change, and those which conduct the current and are disassociated by it. To the first class of conductors belong all the metals and alloys; to the second class belong the acids, bases and salts. Such substances as the acids, bases and salts are known as electrolytes and form particularly good conductors in aqueous solutions. There is no reason to suppose that non- aqueous solutions are nonconductors, as it is proven by ex- periment that they do conduct electricity, in some cases, just as well as those wherein water is the solvent. There is abso- lutely no way of telling except by actually employing the electric current whether or not a substance will prove to be a conductor. In the process of electrolysis two plates are used, termed the electrodes. The plate from which the positive current passes into the electrolyte is called the anode, that by which the current leaves the electrolyte is the cathode. The primary products of electrolysis which are continually moving toward the electrodes are known as ions. Those which separate at the positive electrode are known as the anions, and those which collect at the negative electrode are termed the cations. The anions are designated by the minus sign, and cations by the plus sign. The dissociation of any substance into its ions is known as the process of ionization. It is assumed that every com- pound consists of the union of positive and negative particles and when in solution these particles become separated by the electric current. Suppose we take potassium chlorid (KC1) in solution and turn on the electric current. We will find that 50 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 51 KC1 will be separated into K and Cl. The particles of potas- sium will be found at the negative electrode showing them to be positive, and the particles of chlorin will be collected at the positive pole showing them to be negative. From the theory of electrolytic dissociation an acid would be defined as the compound yielding hydrions, a base as the compound yielding hydroxidions, and a salt as that compound formed by the union of the anion of an acid and the cation of a base. It was also from this same theory that the idea of electrons first had its inception. The fundamental law of electrolysis is the Law of Fara- day. The passage of the electric current thru an electrolyte is always accompanied by the appearance of decomposition products at the electrodes, and the amount of such decomposi- tion is proportional to the current. Faraday further states that chemically equivalent amounts of substances are sepa- rated out from different electrolytes by the same amount of current. SYNONYMS Muriatic acid Spirits of salts HC1 Wood alcohol Methyl alcohol CH3OH Ordinary alcohol Ethyl alcohol C2HgOH Fusel oil Amyl alcohol C5HllOH Borax Sodium borate Na2B4O- Carbon dioxid Carbonic acid gas CO2 Nitrous monoxid Laughing gas N,O Rochelle salt Potassium sodium tartrate. KNaC4H4O6 Tarter emetic Potassium stibium tartrate K(SBO)C4H4O8 Cream of tartar Potassium acid tartrate.. .KHC4H4O8 Phenylic acid Phenyl alcohol..Carbolic acid.C6H5OH Ether Ethyl oxid ; (C2HS)2O Marsh gas Methane.... Fire damp CH4 Milk of magnesia Magnesium hydrate Mg(OH)2 Oil of vitriol Sulphuric acid H2SO4 Blue vitriol Copper sulphate CuSO4 Green vitriol Iron sulphate FeSO4 White vitriol Zinc sulphate ZnSO4 Mercurous iodid Yellow iodid Hg2I2 Mercurous chlorid Mild chlorid... .Calomel... .Sweet mercury Hg2Cl2 Mercuric chlorid Corrosive sublimate Bichlorid HgCl2 Sugar of lead Lead acetate Pb(C2H3O2)2 Silver nitrate Lunar caustic AgNO3 Magnesium sulphate. .Epsom salt MgSO4 Lead sulphate Plumbum sulphate PbSO4 Sodium sulphate Glauber salt Na2SO4 Potassium cyanid Prussiate of potash KCN Sodium cyanid Prussiate of soda NaCN Hydrocyanic acid Prussic acid HCN 52 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 53 Hydrogen peroxid Dioxygen H2O2 Sodium carbonate Washing soda....Sal soda. . . .Na2CO3 Sodium bicarbonate... Baking soda NaHCO3 Potassium nitrate Saltpeter Niter KNO3 Calcium carbonate. .. .Lime stone CaCO3 Calcium oxid Quick lime.... Lime. .. .Unslacked Lime CaO Sodium nitrate Chili salt NaNO3 Ammonium hydrate... Caustic ammonia NH4OH Ammonium chlorid... .Sal ammoniac NH4C1 Lead oxid Litharge PbO Carbamid Urea CON2H4 Carborundum Silicon carbid SiC Carbonyl chlorid Phosgene COC12 Saleratus Acid potassium carbonate... ,KHCO3 Pearl ash Potassium carbonate K2CO3 Arsenous oxid White arsenic As2O3 Hydrogen arsenid Arsin AsH3 Calcium fluorid Fluorspar CaF„ Hydrogen fluorid Hydrofluoric acid HF ELEMENTS AND COMPOUNDS Hydrogen Hydrogen is a positive monovalent element and is used as the basis of valency or chemical affinity. Its atomic weight is I and therefore is used as a standard to which the atomic weights of all other elements are compared. Occurrence.-Hyrdogen is found in both the free and com- bined states. In the free state it is found in small quantities in meteoric iron, fire damp, volcanic gases and other minerals. Certain metals have the power of absorbing large quantities of hydrogen which are said to be occluded. It occurs in gases of the intestines in human beings and animals, and is emitted from living plants. In some forms of fermentation the hydro- gen gas is also present. Hydrogen, especially in the nascent state, is very active and combines with nearly all the elements forming compounds. In the combined state it is therefore found in very large quantities. The statement is made that hydrogen is likely the most widely distributed element in the universe. Preparation.-Hydrogen may be prepared by electrolysis of water and for all purposes where pure hydrogen is required this is the best process. By passing the electric current thru water acidulated with sulphuric acid, the ions of oxygen are separated from the ions of hydrogen. The oxygen ions, being negative, collect at the positive electrode, and those of hydro- gen, being positive, collect at the negative electrode. By this process two volumes of hydrogen are produced to every volume of oxygen. When sodium acts on water the result is the formation of sodium hydroxid and hydrogen, thus: Na+H2O=NaOH4-H. 54 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 55 It may also be produced by the action of a metal upon an acid, thus: Zn-]-H2SO4=ZnSO44-H2. k+hno3=kno3+h. Fe+2HCl=FeCl2+H2. The acids ordinarily used are hydrochloric and sulphuric. The metals best suited for this process are zinc and iron. The last method is the one usually employed if the gas is desired in any quantity. Gas so produced is nearly always contam- inated with other gases due to impurities in the metal and acid used, but these impurities may be readily removed by passing the gas through some absorbent. Properties.-Hydrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas, and the lightest of all known substances. On account of its extreme lightness it diffuses very readily. It is only slightly soluble in water, but is readily absorbed by many solid substances in large quantities. Hydrogen is very inflam- mable, but does not serve as a supporter of combustion. It burns in air or oxygen with a blue flame and the product formed is water. Hydrogen is not poisonous, but is not a sup- porter of life, and in it, without oxygen, animals cannot live. Hydrogen is a powerful deoxidizing or reducing agent. When certain oxides, as those of iron or copper, are heated in hydrogen, the oxygen has a greater affinity for the hydrogen; thus the oxid is decomposed, water is formed and passes off as steam and the metal remains. Hydrogen is the necessary constituent of all acids and bases. CuO +'H2 = H2O + Cu. Oxygen Oxygen is a negative, divalent, non-metallic element. Its symbol is O and the atomic weight is 16. In the process of electrolysis its ions are collected at the positive electrode. 56 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Occurrence.-Oxygen exists in nature in both the free and combined form. In the free state it is found in the atmos- phere to the extent of 20 percent by volume. In combination, oxygen exists in a great number of different substances. Water contains about 88 percent and rocks about 45 percent of it. It is present in all animals and plants where it is usually found in combination with carbon and hydrogen. Oxygen is very abundant, making up about half the matter composing the earth. Preparation.-Oxygen may be prepared by the electrolysis of water as described in the preparation of hydrogen. By heating certain oxides such as those of mercury and silver, these compounds are decomposed, yielding oxygen; also by the action of sulphuric acid upon compounds rich in oxygen. Oxygen is liberated when hydrogen peroxid is treated with potassium permanganate. This is the method most employed in preparing oxygen in the laboratory. The method most commonly employed for the preparation of oxygen in large quantities is the heating of salts rich in oxygen which readily yield all or a part of it. The salt ordinarily used is potassium chlorate. Following is the equation expressing the reaction: When manganese dioxid is used the liberation of oxygen takes place at a lower temperature, but care must be taken that the manganese compound is not adulterated, else an ex- plosion might occur. The gas must also be washed by passing it thru a solution of potash. Properties.-Oxygen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. It is heavier than air and sparingly soluble in water. It is very active chemically, combining with all elements except fluorin and the gases of the argon group. Its union with other ele- ments forms oxides and the process by which this combination obtains is known as oxidation. This process takes place slowly as a rule, and is accompanied by the liberation of heat. The KClO34-MnO24-Heat=KCl-(-MnO24-O3. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 57 rusting of iron is a good example. When oxygen unites rapid- ly with other substances, as in the burning of coal or phos- phorus, the process is known as combustion and is attended by the liberation of heat and light. Phosphorus is a combustible substance, as it readily unites with oxygen, burning with great brilliancy. Oxygen is a supporter of combustion, as it makes combustion possible. Some other gases also act as supporters of combustion. Oxygen is a supporter of life and is the only substance which maintains this state for any length of time. For purposes of respiration oxygen must be diluted with some inert gas such as nitrogen. Oxygen is carried to the different tissues where oxidation takes place and heat is liberated. Oxygen is capable of uniting with certain elements to form anhydrids which in turn unite with water to form acids, thus SO3 is a sulphuric anhydrid which, when united with water, forms sulphuric acid. SO3TH2O=H2SO4. It also forms basic oxides capable of uniting with water to form bases. CaO-|-H2O=Ca(OH)2. A glowing stick thrust into free oxygen bursts into flame. Nitrogen dioxid mixed with free oxygen produces a brown gas. Ozone Oxygen is capable of condensing into a peculiar form known as ozone. This has the formula O3 and a molecular weight of 48. This may be formed by passing an electric spark thru dry air or oxygen, also by the action of concen- trated sulphuric acid upon barium dioxid. BaO2-f-H2SO4=BaSO4-f-H2O+O. In the pure state ozone is a bluish liquid which evaporates to a bluish gas. It is a powerful oxidizing agent. 58 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Compounds of Hydrogen and Oxygen There are two compounds of oxygen and hydrogen, name- ly water and hydrogen peroxid. Water will be discussed under the head of Physiological Chemistry. Hydrogen Peroxid Hydrogen peroxid or oxygenated water is a colorless, syrupy liquid soluble in water and having a disagreeable metallic taste. It is a powerful oxidizing agent prepared by the action of dilute acid on sodium peroxid. Na2O2+2HCl=2NaCl+'H2O2. It is used as an antiseptic, disinfectant and bleaching agent. HALOGENS The elements chlorin, fluorin, bromin and iodin are salt forming elements and hence known as the halogens. They are all monovalent positive substances possessed of disinfect- ing and bleaching powers. Chlorin Chlorin is a positive monovalent element. Its symbol is Cl, atomic weight 35.5, molecular weight 71. Occurrence.-Chlorin does not exist in the free state, but is found combined with other substances in great abundance. The principal compounds in which it occurs are sodium chlorid, potassium chlorid and calcium chlorid. It is also found as an important constituent in plant and animal life. Preparation.-Chlorin may be prepared by the action of sulphuric acid upon a mixture of common salt and manganese dioxid; by electrolysis of hydrochloric acid; and by the action CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 59 of manganese dioxid on hydrochloric acid. The last process may be illustrated by the following equation: MnO2+4HCl=MnCl2+2H2O+'Cl2. Properties.-Chlorin is a greenish yellow gas 2% times as heavy as air. It is very penetrating and possesses a suffocat- ing odor. It is soluble in water which it decomposes under the influence of light, forming hydrochloric acid and liberat- ing oxygen, thus: 2H2O+2C12=4HC1+O2. It unites directly with all other elements except fluorin. oxygen, carbon and nitrogen; chlorides of these elements are formed indirectly by the process of double decomposition. Chlorin as a bleaching agent will not act on a perfectly dry substance, but decomposes the water present, setting free the oxygen which in the nascent state is very active. Hydrochloric Acid When chlorin and hydrogen unite the result is hydro- chloric acid. These substances unite directly in equal volume under the influence of light. In the dark no combination of these elements takes place. Hydrochloric acid may, as above indicated, be prepared by the direct union of chlorin and hydro- gen. It may also be prepared by the dissolution of chlorin in water and by the action of sulphuric acid upon sodium chlorid. The equation illustrating the formation of the acid by the second method is given under the properties of chlorin and that illustrating the last method is given as follows: H2SO4+2NaCl=Na2SO4+2HCl. Hydrochloric acid is a colorless gas giving off dense white fumes when in contact with moist air. It has a sharp pene- trating odor and is exceedingly soluble in water. Different varieties of the acid are described. Commercial.-A yellow liquid containing about 32 per- 60 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY cent of HC1, contaminated with iron and chlorides of sodium and arsenic. Pure.-A colorless liquid composed of HC1 dissolved in water. About 32 percent pure. Dilute.-A 10 percent solution of HC1 in water. Hydrochloric acid is a mineral acid and is a strongly cor- rosive. In direct contact with bodily tissues it is capable of producing great injury, even death. Its effects on the human body will be further discussed under the head of poisons. Three parts of hydrochloric acid mixed with one part of nitric acid form aqua regia. As a result of this combination chlorin is set free and will unite with gold or platinum if these are present. The name aqua regia is derived from its action upon gold which is considered as the king of metals. The mixture is also called nitromuriatic acid. Hydrochloric acid forms a white flocculent precipitate with silver nitrate which is insoluble in nitric acid, but readily soluble in ammonium hydroxid. With mercurous nitrate HC1 forms a white precipitate which turns black on addition of ammonium hydroxid. Hydrochloric acid decomposes metallic oxides and hydroxides, forming salts and water. CaO+2HCl=CaCl2+H2O. KOH+'HC1=KC1+H2O. Metals dissolve in HC1 with the liberation of hydrogen: Zn4-2HCl=ZnCl2+H2. Sulphides combining with HC1 from hydrogen sulphid: FeS+2HCl=FeCl,+H2S. Other Compounds of Chlorin There are many othei' compounds of chlorin; some of the most important ones are those of lead, silver and mercury. These may be distinguished from each other by the addition CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 61 of ammonia. If the substance be silver chlorid it becomes dis- solved, if it is mercurous chlorid it turns black, and if lead chlorid it remains unchanged. Compounds of chlorin and oxygen are very unstable, de- composing readily under slight influences. They are three in number known as chlorin monoxid (C12O), chlorin dioxid (C1O2) and chlorin heptoxid (C12O7). The first is formed by the action of chlorin upon mercury oxid: 2HgO+2Cl2=HgO+HgCl2+Cl2O. It is a highly explosive gas of a brownish yellow color. The second is the result of sulphuric acid acting on potas- sium chlorate: KC1O3+H2SO4^KHSO44-HC1O3. 3HC1O3=HC1O4H-H2O4-2C1O2. It is a yellowish gas of a highly explosive nature and a power- ful oxidizing agent. The third is a colorless, highly explosive oil made by the elimination of water from hyperchloric acid: 2HC1O4=H2O+C12O7. Fluorin Fluorin is a monovalent positive element, valency 1, symbol F, atomic weight 19. It is the most active of all elements. Occurrence.-Fluorin is found widely distributed in large quantities but always in combination with other elements. It is found chiefly in combination with calcium as calcium fluorid or fluorspar (CaF2). , It is found in small quantities in siliceous minerals, sea water, plant ashes and bones of animals. Preparation.-Fluorin may be prepared by the electrolysis of hydrofluoric acid (HF). Combining as readily as it does 62 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY with other elements fluorin is one of the hardest substances to isolate. Properties.-Fluorin is a yellowish-green gas possessing a strong pungent odor. It decomposes water with the formation of hydrofluoric acid and ozone: Many substances such as silicon, arsenic, antimony, sulphur and iodin ignite in it spontaneously. 3H2O+3F2=6HF+O3. Hydrofluoric Acid Hydrofluoric acid is a colorless, corrosive gas soluble in water. It is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid on calcium fluorid: CaF2+H2SO4=CaSO4+2HF. This acid is used for etching glass and is extremely pois- onous. When inhaled it causes death. Bromm Bromin is a positive univalent element having the symbol Br, atomic weight 80 and molecular weight 160. Occurrence.-Bromin is found widely distributed in na- ture but nowhere is it found in very large quantities. It occurs only in combination with other elements, principally as sodium bromid. It is also found in small quantities in sea water, mineral springs and combined with potassium and magnesium. Preparation^-Chlorin readily replaces bromin and so the latter may be prepared as follows: 2NaBr+Cl2=2NaCl+Br2. It may also be prepared by the action of sulphuric acid upon a mixture of sodium bromid and manganese dioxid: 2NaBr+3H2SO4+MnO2=2NaHSO4+MnSO4+2H2O+Br2. Properties.-Bromin is a dark-brown liquid, slightly solu- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 63 ble in water and having a strong disagreeable odor. It is the only non-metallic element which is a liquid at ordinary tem- peratures. It is a bleaching agent and disinfectant. Its prop- erties and the compounds it forms are analogous to those of chlorin. Bromin, with silver nitrate, forms a yellowish-white precipitate, insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in excess of ammonium Jiydroxid. Hydrobromic Acid Hydrobromic acid is a colorless gas possessing a strong pungent odor. It is readily soluble in water and attacks many metals, forming bromid and liberating hydrogen. It may be made by the direct union of hydrogen and bromin, thus: Zn-}-2HBr=ZnBr2-|-H2. Or by the action of sulphuric acid on sodium bromid, thus: H2+'Br2=2HBr. NaBr+H2SO4=NaHSO4+HBr. This does not result in the formation of pure hydrobromic acid, because a portion of the acid when liberated at once reacts with sulphuric acid, forming water and sulphur dioxid and setting bromin free, thus: H2SO44-2HBr=SO2+2H2O+Br2. Pure acid results when water acts on phosphorus tribromid: At high temperatures hydrobromic acid decomposes into hydrogen and bromin and these products, if left together, will again unite to form the original substance as the pressure or temperature are varied. Such an action is termed reversible and the process by means of which the compound is broken up is known as dissociation. No oxid-s of bromin have thus far been discovered, but two oxyacids, namely, hypobromous and bromic, have been PBr34-3H2O=H3PO3+'3HBr. 64 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY prepared. Hypobromous acid by its action forms hypobrom- ites and bromic acid forms bromates. The hypobromites are very unstable and readily yield their oxygen. lodin lodin is a univalent positive element, having, the atomic weight of 127, molecular weight of 245 and the symbol I. Occurrence.-lodin is reported to have been found in the free state in spring water near Lincoln, Nebraska. It occurs in combination with other elements. Its chief association is with sodium and its less important combinations are with potassium, calcium and magnesium. It is found in minute quantities in sea water, sea animals; sea plants, coal and the thyroid glands of animals. Small amounts exist in combina- tion with silver, copper and lead. The chief source of iodin is Chili saltpeter, where it is found to the extent of two per cent in form of sodium iodate (NaIO3). Preparation.-lodin is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid and manganese dioxid upon sodium iodid, thus- 2NaI + 3H2SO4 + MnO2 = 2NaHSO4 + MnSO4 + 2H2O+I2. This is similar to the process by which chlorin and bromin are liberated from their chlorids or bromids. lodin may be liberated by the action of chlorin upon sodium iodid in the same manner that bromin is liberated from bromid, thus- In liberating iodin from sodium iodate, in wfiich it occurs in greatest abundance, sodium bisulphite is employed as ex- pressed by the equation- 2NaI -J- Cl2 = 2NaCl + I2. 2NaIO3 + 5NaHSO = 2Na2SO4 + 3NaHSO4 + H2O + I2. Properties.-lodin is a bluish-gray solid having a metal- lic lustre. It is sparingly soluble in water, but readily dis- solved in chloroform and carbon disulfid. It crystallizes in CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 65 flakes, rhomboidal in shape. The odor of iodin is peculiar, but not nearly as intense as that of chlorin or bromin. Its name is derived from the fact that it forms beautiful violet- colored vapors. Silver nitrate mixed with iodids forms a yellow precipitate insoluble in nitric acid or ammonium hy- droxid. It turns starch paste blue. lodin is corrosive in Ma- ture and turns the skin brown. It possesses antiseptic quali- ties. Hydriodic Acid Hydriodic acid is a colorless gas, very soluble in water. It is readily decomposed by chlorin, bromin, sulphuric acid and oxidizing agents. When exposed to the air, oxygen unites with the hydrogen of the acid, forming water and setting free the iodin. This in turn dissolves in the acid until the acid becomes saturated when the remainder of the iodin is precipi- tated in solid form. The acid may be prepared by the direct union of the ele- ments hydrogen and iodin. The reaction, however, is a reversible one and hence the acid readily decomposes- Since hydriodic acid readily decomposes sulphuric acid, it cannot be made by the action of sulphuric acid on an iodid, thus- H24-I2 = 2HI. 2KI + 3H2SO4 = 2KHSO4 + SO2 + 2H2O + 21. It may be prepared by the action of hot, concentrated phos- phoric acid on potassium iodid as follows: KI + H3PO4 = KH2PO4 + HI. Hydriodic acid may also be made by the action of iodin on hydrogen sulphid: The best method of preparing the acid is by the action of water on phosphorus iodid, thus- H2S +' I2 = 2HI + S. PI3 + 3H2O = H3PO3 +' 3HI. 66 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Hydriodic acid acts upon metals producing iodids, which, with the exception of those of mercury, lead and silver, are soluble in water. It is a strong reducing agent. There is only one known oxid of iodin, namely, iodin pentoxid, expressed by the formula I2O6. It is a white crys- talline solid prepared by heating iodic acid, thus- lodin forms three oxy-acids, namely, hypoiodus, iodic and hyperiodic. Salts analogous to these acids also exist and are called hypoiodites, iodates and hyperiodates. The halogen elements are capable of combining with each other and forming certain compounds. Four of these have been produced and have the following names and formulae: iodin monochlorid (IC1), iodin trichlorid (IC13), iodin mono- bromid (IBr), iodin pentafluorid (IFB). 2HIO3 = H2O = I2O5. Nitrogen Nitrogen has the symbol N, atomic weight 14 and the molecular weight 28. It acts either as a trivalent or pen- tavalent element. Nitrogen was so named because it is an essential constituent of niter or saltpeter. Occurrence.-Nitrogen is found free in the air to the ex- tent of about 80 per cent by volume. In combination with carbon, hydrogen and oxygen it is an essential constituent of plants and animals. Through the process of disintegration of bodies of plants and animals, it passes into simpler com- pounds of ammonia, nitrites and nitrates. It is found in small quantities in granite rocks and iron and in extremely large quantities in saltpeter. Preparation.-Impure nitrogen may be prepared by re- moving the oxygen from the air. This may be accomplished by several different methods. (1) By burning phosphorus in CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 67 the air. (2) By passing air over red hot copper. (3) By re- moving oxygen from the air with pyrogallic acid. Pure nitrogen is obtained best from compounds in which it occurs, thus: By the action of chlorin on ammonia resulting in the formation of hydrochloric acid and nitrogen: Heating ammonium nitrites results in water and nitrogen: 2NH3 + 3C12 = 6HC1 +' N2. NH4NO = 2H2O 4-N2. By the interaction of sodium nitrite and ammonium sulphate: By heating ammonium bichromate: 2NaNO2 + (NH4)2SO4 = Na2SO4 + 4H2O +'2N2. (NH4)2Cr2O7 = Cr2O3 + 4H2O + N2. By the action of hypochlorous acid on urea: CO(NH2)2 + 3 HC1O = 2H2O + 3HC1 + CO2 + N2. Properties.-Nitrogen is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas slightly soluble in water, but readily soluble in alcohol. It is non-combustible and a non-supporter of combustion. Though not a poison, it does not support life. It does not unite with other elements directly, being very inert at ordi- nary temperatures. At higher temperatures it combines with lithium, silicon, calcium, barium and few other elements form- ing nitrides. Air Atmospheric air consists of nitrogen and oxygen, together with small quantities of ammonia, argon, carbon dioxid and water vapor. The two chief constituents are nitrogen and oxygen and their amount is determined by passing air, free from carbon dioxid and water vapor, over red hot copper. The copper does not absorb nitrogen, which is collected and weighed. The increase in the weight of the copper determines the amount of oxygen absorbed. This experiment, like others, made for the same purpose, shows that nitrogen makes up 68 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY about 76.8 per cent and oxygen 23.2 per cent of the air by weight. All the other constituents are quiet variable. In ordinary country air three volumes of carbon dioxid are found in every 10,000 volumes, in city air there are as many as 6 and 7 volumes for every 10,000. This is due to the fact that in the city large amounts of fuel are consumed, while in the country most of the carbon dioxid is consumed by plant life. In closed rooms the carbon dioxid may be as high as 55 volumes to every 10,000. This is due to contamination through respiration and the combustion of illuminating gas. Air containing 7 or more volumes of carbon dioxid is harm- ful for continuous respiration. The amount of carbon dioxid may be determined by passing a known amount of air through barium hydroxid and weighing the barium car- bonate formed. Ammonia occurs in the air only to the extent of 1 part in 10,000. It is a product of organic decomposition. Does not exist in the free state, but combines with nitric and nitrous acids (which are formed by lightning), to form nitrites and nitrates. These salts are washed from the atmosphere during rain and become the chief source of nitrogen in the soil. The amount of water vapor varies greatly in different localities and with the change in temperature. At 0 degrees saturated air contains 4.87 grams of water vapor per cubic meter, at 20 degrees it contains 17.16 grams. Air under ordi- nary conditions is but two-thirds saturated. The ratio be- tween the amounts of moisture the air is capable of holding at different temperatures is commonly called relative humidity. Air is a mixture and not a compound. This may be as- certained by the following facts: (1) Its solubility in water. (2) The variable proportion of its constituents. (3) The lack of any existing proportion between the atomic weights of its component parts; (4) There exists no chemical action, no Ba(OH)2 4- CO2 = BaCO3 + H2O. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 69 change of volume or temperature obtains, when nitrogen and oxygen are brought together in proper proportion. Air is very soluble in water, but as oxygen is more soluble than nitrogen the air which is dissolved consists of 67 parts of nitrogen and 33 parts of oxygen and not of 76.8 parts of nitrogen and 23.2 parts of oxygen, as would be sup- posed. It is from the air held in solution that aquatic animals obtain their oxygen. Ammonia Ammonia is a colorless gas having a caustic taste and a pungent irritating odor. It is very soluble in water and alcohol. It is prepared by heating a solution of ammonium hydroxid, thus- (NH4)OH = H2O+'NH3. From the equation we see that the formula of ammonia is NH3. Though this is composed of two distinct substances, it is usually classed as an element. The reason for this is that the quantity acts as an element, combining with other sub- stances forming compounds. Ammonia does not burn in air nor does it support com- bustion. In free oxygen it burns slowly with a pale yellow flame. In combination with hydrochloric acid it forms dense bluish-white fumes of NH4C1. It turns copper sulphate paper blue and mercurous nitrate paper black. Nessler's reagent detects one part of ammonia in 100,000,000 parts of water. Ammonium hydroxid NH4OH and ammonia NH3 are both called ammonia for the reason that the former readily gives up water to form the latter, while the latter readily dis- solves in water to make the former. Ammonium hydroxid or hydrate is prepared by the action of a strong base upon one of its salts, thus- NH4NO + KOH = KNO3 + NH4OH. Ammonium hydroxid is the result of destructive distillation 70 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY of coal. Great quantities are formed in the manufacture of illuminating gas and also in the preparation of coke in the iron regions. This liquor usually contains some (NH4)2S, (NH4)2CO3, etc., and when treated with HC1 results in the formation of NH4C1. Other acids such as sulphuric or nitric may be used as well as hydrochloric in the production of am- moniacal salts. Salammoniac (NH4C1) and calcium hydroxid, Ca(OH),, because of their cheapness, are employed in the production of ammonium hydroxid, as illustrated by the equation: 2NH4C1 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCl2 + 2NH4OH. In the production of ammonium hydroxid an intermediary substance is formed having the formula NH2OH. This is known as an amin, a compound of ammonium hydroxid formed by replacing the hydrogen or part of the hydrogen by a hydroxyl group. This compound is commonly called hy- droxylamine and may be made by the action of nascent hydrogen upon nitric acid or oxid: HNO3 + 6H = 2H2O + NH2OH. NO+'3H = NH2OH. It consists of white needle-like crystals readily soluble in water and possesses a marked reducing power. It decomposes readily into ammonia, nitrogen and water: 3NH2OH = NH3 + N2 + 3H2O. Hydrazine. This compound has the formula N2H4. It forms white crystals soluble in water and possessing a marked corrosive action. It reacts with acids forming salts and may be prepared by the oxidation of urea or by the reduction of hyponitrous acid, thus- (NH2)2CO + O = N2H4 + co2. 2HNO + 6H = N2H4 + 2H2O. Hydrazoic acid. This is a colorless liquid having a dis- agreeable penetrating odor. It is monobasic in character, forming a series of unstable salts. It explodes readily, form- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 71 ing nitrogen and hydrogen, liberating a great amount of heat. 2N3H = 3N2+'H2. It is best prepared by passing nitrous oxid over sodium amid and treating the result with sulphuric acid, thus- NaNH2 + N2O = H2O + NaN3. 2NaN3 +' H2SO4 = Na2SO4 + 2N3H. Oxids and Oxy-acids of Nitrogen Nitrogen oxids. There are five oxids of nitrogen and oxygen with the following formulae and names: N2ONitrogen monoxid, nitrous oxid, laughing gas. NO or N2O2Nitrogen dioxid, nitric oxid. N,O3Nitrogen trioxid, nitrous anhydrid. NO2 or N2O4 ....Nitrogen tetroxid, nitrogen dioxid. N2O5Nitrogen pentoxid, nitric anhydrid. Nitrogen monoxid. Nitrogen monoxid is a colorless, odorless gas having a sweetish taste. It is slightly soluble in water, but readily soluble in alcohol. Next to oxygen it is the best known supporter of respiration. It also supports combustion quite as readily as oxygen. Though it is respir- able it will not maintain life for any continued length of time, the animal finally dying of asphyxia. When inhaled, it pro- duces hysterical laughter and a tendency to muscular con- traction. If the inhalation of the gas is continued the in- dividual becomes very aggressive and ultimately becomes un- conscious and completely anaesthetized. It is made by the action of heat upon ammonium nitrate, thus- NH4NO3 = N2O + 2H2O. If this gas is to be used for respiration, care must be taken not to allow the temperature to rise above 250 degrees, lest higher oxids of nitrogen be formed. The ammonium nitrate 72 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY used must be absolutely free from ammonium chlorid or else the N2O gas will be contaminated with chlorin. Nitrogen dioxid is a colorless gas sparingly soluble in water. When it comes in contact with air it readily absorbs oxygen, forming NO2. It is made by the action of copper on nitric acid, thus- It is said to be the most stable oxid of nitrogen. Nitrogen trioxid is a bluish liquid which readily decom- poses into nitric oxid and tetroxid, as indicated by the re- versible equation- 8HNO3 +' 3Cu = 3Cu(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO. N2O,3^NO+NO2. Nitrogen tetroxid is a brownish gas, having a disagreeable odor, colors the skin yellow, and is an energetic oxidizing agent. It is made by the heating of metallic nitrates as fol- lows : Nitrogen pentoxid forms colorless, prismatic crystals which readily melt, forming a dark yellow liquid. It may be prepared by treating nitric acid with phosphorous pentoxid or silver nitrate with chlorin, thus- 2Cu(NO3)2 = 2CuO + O2 +'4NO2. 2HNO3 + P2O5 = 2HPO3 + N2O5. 4AgNO3 + 2CI2 = 4AgCl + 2N2O5 +' O2. Oxy-acids of nitrogen and oxygen are three in number, corresponding to the three oxids of nitrogen possessing un- even atoms of oxygen. Nitric Acid Nitric acid is a colorless liquid possessing powerful acid properties and fumes in the air. It is a strong oxidizing agent converting many of the non-metals into their highest oxida- tion products. It decomposes under the influence of light into NO2, H2O and O. The acid is very poisonous and has a CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 73 sour taste. It is monobasic in character. Several varieties of this acid are as follows: Commercial. A yellow liquid contaminated with oxids of nitrogen, arsenic and other impurities. Commercial nitric acid of 32 per cent strength is known as single aqua fortis while that double this strength or 64 per cent is termed double aqua fortis. Fuming. An acid of deep yellow color, highly concen- trated and a powerful oxidizing agent. Chemically pure. A colorless liquid very sensitive to light. Acidum nitricum. A colorless acid 70 per cent pure. Dilute. The 70 per cent acid diluted to 10 per cent strength. Nitric acid is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid upon sodium or potassium nitrate as shown by the following equations: NaNO3 + H2SO4 = NaHSO4 + HNO3. KNO3 + H2SO4 = KHSO4 +' HNO3. It is also formed by the direct union of nitrogen pentoxid with water. N2O5 + H,O = 2HNO3. When nitric acid is neutralized with bases, nitrates are formed. These salts are all readily soluble in water. HNO3 + KOH = KNO3 + H2O. HNO3 +' NaOH = NaNO3 + H2O. Nitric acid attacks metals, few of which become oxidized, but most of them are converted into nitrates, thus- 3Zn -p8HNO3 = 3Zn(NO3)2 + 4H2O + 2NO. The effects of nitric acid on the human economy will be taken up under the subject of poisons. Nitrous acid is very unstable and under ordinary condi- tions is a reducing agent, having the power of taking up oxygen. It may be prepared by the direct combination of nitrogen trioxid and water: N2O3 + H2O==2HNO2. 74 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Or by the action of sulphuric acid on potassium nitrite, thus- 2KNO, + H2SO4 = K2SO4 +' 2HNO2 + O2. HNO2 is unstable and breaks up into nitrogen trioxid and water- 2HNO2 = H2O + N,O3. The quantity N2O3 in turn breaks up into nitrogen dioxid and tetroxid- N2O3 = NO + NO2. Hyponitrous acid may be made by dissolving nitrogen monoxid in water: It is best prepared by the action of nitrous acid upon hy- droxylamine, thus- N2O + H2O = 2HNO. NH2OH +' HNO2 = 2HNO + H,O. The compounds of nitrogen with the halogens are very unstable. They are, nitrogen trichlorid, nitrogen tribromid, nitrogen iodid and triazoiodid. Nitrogen trichlorid is a thin yellowish oily substance pos- sessing a pungent odor. It is highly explosive and may be prepared by treating salammoniac with chlorin: NH4C1 + 3C12 = 4HC1 + NC13. This action is a very peculiar one, as the substances so formed readily revert back to the original, thus- NC13 + 4HC1 <=> NH4C1 + 3C12. Nitrogen trichlorid can also be decomposed by the action of ammonium hydroxid as follows: NC13 + 4NH4OH = 3NH4C1 + 4H2O + N2. Nitrogen tribromid is a reddish colored, oily, highly ex- plosive substance produced by the action of potassium bromid on nitrogen chlorid- NC13 +' 3KBr = NBr + 3KC1. Nitrogen iodid is a brown powder having the composition CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 75 N,H3I3. It is not explosive when wet, but highly explosive when dry. Triazoiodid is a yellow, extremely explosive powder made by the action of iodin on silver hydrazoate, thus- AgN3 + I2 = Agl + IN3. Sulphur Sulphur is a negative, divalent element having the sym- bol S, atomic weight 32 and molecular weight 64. Occurrence.-Sulphur occurs in the free state in the vicinity of extinct volcanoes where it is undoubtedly produced by the action of sulphur dioxid on hydrogen sulphid. 2H2S + SO2 = 2H2O +'3S. It is found in deposits produced by the decay of certain organ- isms which possess the power of storing it up in their bodies in minute quantities. Here it is most likely formed by the direct oxidation of hydrogen sulphid. H2s + O = H2O +' s. In combination sulphur is found in sulphids and sulphates. Many of the protein substances in the body are found to con- tain it. As sulphid it obtains in combination with metals as lead, iron, zinc and mercury forming PbS, FeS2, ZnS and HgS. As a sulphate it is found in combination with many metals such as iron, lead, barium, calcium, etc., forming FeSO4, PbSO4, BaSO4, CaSO4, etc. Preparation.-First a crude mass containing about 90 per cent of sulphur is made by melting it out of some native deposit out of contact with air. This crude mass is placed into a retort and melted. The sulphur vapors enter brick chambers upon the walls of which they are condensed in fine powderlike form, known as flowers of sulphur. After the process has gone on for a length of time the walls become hot, the sulphur melts and is deposited at the bottom of the 76 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY chamber from whence it is drawn off and cast into molds. This form is then called brimstone or roll sulphur. It is also prepared by heating iron pyrites and condensing the product. 3FeS2 = Fe3S4 + 2S. Properties.-Sulphur is a yellow crystalline solid, white when finely divided. It possesses no perceptible odor or taste, is insoluble in water, but soluble in carbon disulphid. It is non-poisonous. Sulphur burns in air with a blue flame, uniting with oxygen and forming sulphur dioxid. Metals will burn in sulphur vapors resulting in sulphids, and sulphur burns in atmosphere of hydrogen, making hydrogen sulphid. Sulphur obtains in several different forms and hence is known as a polymorphous substance. It is sometimes spoken of as a dimorphous substance because it is able to crystallize in two different systems. Sulphur, when melted and cast into molds, is called roll sulphur. This as well as native sulphur, crystallizes into yel- low rhomboidal shaped crystals, hence is often named rhombic sulphur. This melts at 114.5 degrees to a mobile light yellow liquid, but gradually becomes dark-brown and more viscid as the temperature increases. When the temperature reaches 200 degrees the viscosity is so great that the sulphur will not run out if the container is turned bottom upward. Heating beyond 200 degrees the viscosity again diminishes. At 400 degrees there obtains a mobile liquid which boils at 450 de- grees, giving off dense dark brown vapor. If sulphur is melted and then allowed to cool till a crust is formed over the top of the liquid, and if the crust is punctured and the liquid mass poured out, the walls of the crucible are found to be lined with white, needle-like crystals belonging to the monoclinic system. This crystallized portion is called mono- clinic sulphur. These needle-like crystals are unstable and change readily to the rhombic variety. The rhombic variety CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 77 is stable at ordinary temperatures, while the monoclinic ob- tains at high temperatures. The transition from the rhombic to the monoclinic takes place at a temperature 96.5 degrees. If sulphur that has been heated to about 400 degrees is poured into cold water, it results in an elastic mass known as plastic sulphur. This soon becomes hard, but remains non- crystalline or amorphous. After some time the amorphous gradually changes into the rhombic form. Precipitated sulphur is a finely divided grayish-white pow- der formed by the decomposition of a sulphid. Flowers of sulphur, as before stated, are formed when the sulphur vapor mixes with cold air. These are small feathery crystals. Hydrogen Sulphid Hydrogen sulphid is the most important combination of hydrogen and sulphur. It has the formula H2S. Occurrence.-It is found in volcanic gases and certain mineral springs. It occurs as a product of decomposition of any organic matter existing in sewer gas and decaying al- buminous matter to which it imparts its characteristic odor. It exists in combination with many metals forming sulphids. Preparation.-It is prepared by passing hydrogen through boiling sulphur, thus- S+' H2 = H2S. Or by the action of hydrogen upon certain sulphids, thus- Ag2S + H2 = 2Ag +!H2S. The most common way of preparing the gas is by the action of an acid upon a sulphid, particularly iron sulphid, thus- FeS + H2SO4 = FeSO4 + H2S. FeS + 2HC1 = FeCl2 +' H2S. Another method is by the reduction of sulphurous acid with nascent hydrogen H2SO3 + 6H = 3H2O + H2S. 78 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Properties.-Hydrogen sulphid is a colorless gas possess- ing a very disagreeable odor and taste. It is very soluble in water and possesses an acid reaction. It burns with a blue flame producing water and sulphur dioxid. 2H2S + 302 = 2H2O + 2SO2. Hydrogen sulphid will act upon salt solutions resulting in the formation of metallic sulphids and regeneration of acid, thus- CuSO4 + H,S = CuS + H2SO4. This property is very valuable and is used to determine the presence in solution of certain metals by the various colored, soluble or insoluble precipitates. Hydrogen sulphid turns paper moistened with lead acetate solution to a dark brown color. It is very poisonous, which property will be discussed in the subject of poisons. Hydrogen persulphid. When sulphur is added to certain sulphids such as those of potassium, sodium, calcium, etc., it dissolves, forming polysulphids as K2S3, Na2S5, etc. These polysulphids, when added to weak hydrochloric acid, give rise to a thick yellow oil possessing a disagreeable odor and hav- ing the composition H2S5. This substance is a bleaching agent, but being unstable, gradually decomposes into hydro- gen sulphid and sulphur. 2K,S3 + 4HC1 = 4KC1 +' H2S + H2S5. H2S5 = H2S4-4S. Sulphur and the halogens. Several compounds resulting from the combination of sulphur with the halogens have been isolated. They are sulphur hexafluorid, monochlorid, di- chlorid, tetrachlorid, monoiodid and hexaiodid. Sulphur hexafluorid has the formula SFG and is formed by the direct union of the two elements. It consists of white crystals which melt readily, forming a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas. Sulphur monochlorid is formed by passing dry chlorin CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 79 over molten sulphur. It is a yellowish red liquid having the formula S,C12. It dissolves sulphur very readily, often con- taining over 60 per cent of it in the solution. For this reason it is used in preparing vulcanized rubber. It is decomposed by water into hydrochloric acid, sulphur dioxid and sulphur. 2S.C1. + 2H2O = 4HC1 +' SO. + 3S. Sulphur dichlorid is an oil of reddish-brown color, having the formula SC12. It is made by saturating monochlorid with chlorin in the cold. This compound is also readily decom- posed by water: 2SC12 + 2H2O = 4HC1 +' SO2 + S. Sulphur tetrachlorid SC14 is formed by saturating the dichlorid with chlorin at low temperature. It is crystalline in nature and decomposes very readily. Sulphur monobromid is a brownish liquid represented by the formula S2Br2. Sulphur monoiodid S2I2 and sulphur hexaiodid SI6 are substances in form of dark crystals. The latter decomposes readily on standing, yielding free iodin. Sulphur Oxids Sulphur in combination with oxygen gives rise to two oxids, namely, sulphur dioxid SO2 and sulphur trioxid SO3. Sulphur dioxid or sulphurous anhydrid is a colorless gas having a suffocating odor and a disagreeable taste. It pos- sesses bleaching, disinfecting and reducing qualities. In con- centrated form it is poisonous. It is made by burning sulphur in air or oxygen, thus: S -|- O2 - so2. Also obtained by decomposing sulphuric acid with charcoal or metallic copper: 2H2SO4 + C = 2SO2 + CO2 + 2H2O. 2HsSO4 +' Cu = CuSO4 + 2H2O + SO2. 80 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY It dissolves readily in water, forming sulphurous acid, thus: so2 + H2O = H2SO3. Sulphur trioxid or sulphuric anhydrid is in the form of colorless transparent prisms which melt easily, forming an oily liquid. It gives off dense white fumes when exposed to the air. It unites readily wjth water, making sulphuric acid and from the violence with which it combines produces a hissing noise. It is produced by the action of heat upon sulphates of the heavy metals, thus: Also by heating fuming sulphuric acid or potassium pyro- sulphate, thus: Fe2(SO4)3 = Fe2O3 + 3SO3. H2S2O7 = H2SO4 4" SO8. K2S2O7 = K2SO4 -p SO3. Sulphur sesquioxid S2O3 is prepared by the action of pul- verized sulphur on molten sulphur trioxid. The product con- sists of bluish-green crystals, which are readily decomposed into sulphuric acid and sulphur. Sulphuric Acid Sulphuric acid or oil of vitriol is a dibasic, dense, oily, colorless liquid. Preparation.-The acid is formed by the direct union of sulphur trioxid and water, thus: SO3 4-' h2o = H2SO4. The above statement is really erroneous, as there are several steps which actually obtain and may be shown as follows: (1) The burning of sulphur to sulphur dioxid or by heat- ing native sulphids, such as pyrite FeS2, galenite PbS or zinc blende ZnS. (2)The oxidation of the dioxid by water in the presence of nitric acid. S -|- O2 - so,. 3SO2 + 2H2O +' 2HNO3 = 3H2SO4 + 2NO. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 81 (3) The oxidation of the nitric oxid formed by the re- duction of nitric acid and NO2. 2NO + H2O + 30 = 2HNO3, and NO + O = NO2. (4) The concentration of sulphuric acid. The nitric oxid (NO) so formed is in turn oxidized into sul- phurous acid, with the later formation of sulphuric acid. Properties.-Sulphuric acid, as already stated, is a color- less, dibasic, dense, oily liquid. It is also odorless and pos- sesses great affinity for water. For this reason the acid must be diluted by gradually pouring same into excess of water. The acid is very acid in taste and reaction and highly cor- rosive. Metals like mercury, copper, silver, etc., act on it readily, decomposing it and forming sulphur dioxid. The varieties of sulphuric acid are four in number. Commercial-An oily, brownish liquid about 95 per cent pure, containing some organic matter. Pure-A chemically pure, colorless, oily liquid. Dilute-A substance diluted with water, containing about 10 per cent of sulphuric acid. Glacial-An acid which readily crystallizes, having the formula H2SO4; H2O. Nordhausen-An acid obtained by distilling iron sulphate. It is a brown liquid composed of a mixture of sulphur trioxid and pyrosulphuric acid. Other acids of this family are those containing different amounts of oxygen. The one containing two oxygens is known as hyposulphurous acid, formula H2SO2. That con- taining three oxygens is called sulphurous acid and is prepared by the action of sulphur dioxid on water, thus- SO2 + H2O + NO2 = H,SO4 +' NO. Persulphuric acid is one containing five oxygens, formula H2SOb. SO2 + H2O - H2SO3. 82 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY In the study of sulphur certain compounds are named by prefixing the syllables thio and sulpho. The former denotes that some of the oxygen has been replaced by sulphur and the latter denotes compounds containing the sulphur dioxid group. Selenium Selenium belongs to the class of rare elements though it is quite widely distributed in nature. It has been found in the free state in Mexico, but usually occurs in combination with metals like lead, copper, iron and silver. There are three known forms: a red amorphous, a red monoclinic, and bluish gray metallic substance. The first two varieties are soluble in carbon disulphid; the latter is insoluble. Selenium forms compounds with hydrogen, chlorin, oxygen and sulphur. Hydrogen selenid is a poisonous gas having the smell of horseradish. It is prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on ferrous selenid, thus: FeSe+2HCl=FeCl2+'H2Se. Selenium monochlorid is a brownish yellow oil having the formula Se2Cl2. Selenium tetrachlorid is a light yellow crystalline solid, formula SeCl4. Selenium dioxid is a white crystalline solid formed by burning selenium in air or oxygen. When this substance is heated in sulphur it results in sulphur dioxid and selenium, thus: Selenious acid is formed by oxidizing selenium by nitric acid: S 4~ SeO2 = SO2 + Se. It is reduced by sulphur dioxid: Se+2HNO3=H2SeO3+N2O3. H2SeO3+2SO24-H2O=2H2SO4+Se. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 83 Selenyl chlorid is formed by the reaction of selenium dioxid and selenium tetrachlorid, thus: Selenic acid is the result of oxidation of selenious acid: SeO2H-SeCl4=2SeOCl2. H2SeO3+H2O+Cl2=2HC14-H2SeO4. Selenium sulphid SeS is a yellow solid resulting from passing hydrogen sulphid thru a solution of selenious acid. Tellurium Tellurium is a silvery white crystalline element having a metallic lustre. It has been found in the free state, but exists largely in combination with gold, silver, zinc, lead and bis- muth forming tellurides. It forms several different compounds with other elements, as follows: Hydrogen tellurid is a colorless, poisonous, combustible gas, quite soluble in water. Formed by the action of hydro- chloric acid on zinc tellurid: ZnTe4-2HCl=ZnCl2+H2Te. Tellurium dichlorid TeCL is formed by passing a limited amount of chlorin over hot tellurium. It is a black crystalline substance readily decomposed by water. Tellurium tetrachlorid TeCl4 obtains by passing large amount of chlorin over hot tellurim. This substance forms white, shining crystals which are readily decomposed by water. Tellurium sulphur trioxid results when sulphur trioxid acts on tellurium. It is a red amorphous solid readily decom- posed by heat. Formula TeSO3. Tellurium monoxid is a black amorphous solid repre- sented by the formula TeO. Tellurium dioxid TeO2 is a white crystalline solid pre- pared by heating tellurium or tellurium monoxid in air. Tellurium trioxid TeO3 is a yellowish crystalline sub- 84 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY stance. It is the substance which obtains when water is re- moved from telluric acid. Telluric acid H2TeO4 is a weak acid capable of combining with bases and metals to form compounds known as tellurates. Tellurous acid, H2TeO3 is a white powder slightly soluble in water. It is prepared by the action of nitric acid on tellur- ium, and with strong alkalies it forms normal and acid tellurites. Both of the above acids are basic in character when acting with strong acids such as the mineral acids. Certain other compounds of tellurium are also known. These are tellurium dibromid (TeBr2), tellurium tetrabromid (TeBr4), tellurium diiodid (Tel2) and tellurium tetraiodid (Tel4). Phosphorus Phosphorus is a negative element collected at the positive pole in electrolysis. Its symbol is P, atomic weight 31 and molecular weight 124. It acts as a trivalent element in some of its combinations while in others its valency is five. Occurrence.-Phosphorus is never found in the free state because of its great affinity for oxygen. In combination it is found widely distributed. It obtains in plant life, being par- ticularly necessary in the development of certain kinds of seeds. In the animal body it obtains in combination with carbon, nitrogen, hydrogen, oxygen and sulphur, compounds of which exist in the brain, nerves, muscles, blood and bone. In the mineral kingdom it occurs in combination with iron, calcium, aluminum, lead and other metals, forming with these a series of compounds called phosphates. Preparation.-Phosphorus is best prepared by destructive distillation of bones, where it exists to the extent of 55 to 60 percent. This process consists of several steps. The bones are first burned, or distilled, by which process a certain CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 85 amount of ammonia, water and carbon dioxid are driven off. The ash that remains consists largely of calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2. This is treated with sulphuric acid and results in the formation of a soluble acid calcium phosphate, thus: Ca3(PO4)2+2H2SO4=H4Ca(PO4)2+2CaSO4. The calcium sulphate is precipitated and removed by filtration. The liquid is then evaporated and the solid residue is further heated, giving Ca(PO3)2. H4Ca(PO4)2=Ca(PO3)2+2H2O. Carbon is now added and the mixture again heated when a certain amount of phosphorus is obtained, thus: 3Ca(PO3)2+10C=Ca3(PO4)2+10CO-HP. To obtain all of the existing phosphorus, silica in form of sand is added with the following result: 2Ca(PO3)2+2SiO2+10C=2CaSiO3+'10CO+4P. This phosphorus so obtained must be redistilled to remove carbon and sand particles. Properties.-Phosphorus is a yellowish, translucent, crystalline, waxy solid. It possesses the odor of garlic and is very poisonous. It is insoluble in water, but readily soluble in carbon disulphid. In contact with air it is slowly oxidized, emitting fumes. In the dark it is luminous, from which property it derives its name. Between temperatures of 35 to 50 degrees phosphorus ignites spontaneously. Because of this property and the fact that it produces severe burns, which are slow to heal and may produce poisoning of the entire system, it should always be handled with forceps and under water. It exists in four allotropic forms-black, white,.red and yellow. The last two forms are the most important. Red phosphorus is produced when the yellow variety is heated from 250 to 300 degrees out of contact with the air. When the red variety is heated to about 260 degrees in a current of carbon dioxid or nitrogen it is again converted into yellow phosphorus. It does not ignite spontaneously and 86 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY need not be preserved under water. It has no odor or taste and does not dissolve in substances in which the yellow variety is soluble. The red phosphorus is not poisonous nor is it lu- minous in the dark. Light, acting upon yellow phosphorus produces the red, hence the reason why the sticks of yellow phosphorus are often dark brown or red in color. Yellow phosphorus is exceedingly poisonous, possesses the odor of garlic and ignites spontaneously in air. It must be preserved under water. It is readily soluble in carbon disul- phid, from which it separates in the form of crystals. Phosphorus combines readily with oxygen, forming oxids, and with water, forming acids. It combines directly with elements like chlorin, bromin and iodin. It is not acted on by HC1 or cold H2SO4, but is rapidly oxidized by nitric acid. It acts as a powerful reducing agent. The poisoning effects of phosphorus on the human economy are described in the study of poisons. Compounds of Phosphorus When combined with hydrogen, phosphorus forms a gas- eous hydrogen phosphid having the formula PH3. It is pre- pared by heating phosphorus in a concentrated solution of potassium hydroxid. P4+3KOH+3H2O=3KH2PO2+'PH3. The vapors of this substance are spontaneously inflammable in the air. The gas is extremely poisonous, possessing the odor of rotten fish. It is colorless, insoluble in water, but easily soluble in alcohol or ether. The gas may also be ob- tained by treating calcium phosphid with water or hydro- chloric acid, thus: Ca3P24-'6H2O=3Ca(OH)2+2PH3. Ca3P2+6HCl=3CaCl2+2PH3. Or by heating phosphorus or hypophosphorus acid: 4H3PO3=3H3PO4+PH3. 2H3PO2=H3PO4+PH3. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 87 And by the action of sodium hydroxid or water on phosphon- ium iodid, thus: PH4I+NaOH=NaI4-H2O-FPH3. phj+h2o=hi+h2o4-ph3. Liquid phosphin P2H4 is a colorless liquid to the pres- ence of which phosphin gas owes its property of igniting spontaneously in contact with air. Solid phosphin, P4H2 is a yellowish, odorless, tasteless powder insoluble in water. Phosphorus forms compounds with all the halogen ele- ments, of which the most important are the chlorids. Phosphorus trichlorid is a colorless liquid formed by passing chlorin thru phosphorus. It has the formula PC13, and is easily decomposed by the action of water: Phosphorus pentachlorid PC15 is a light yellow, finely crystalline solid, formed by treating phosphorus trichlorid with chlorin or by passing an excess of chlorin over phos- phorus, thus: PC13+3H2O=3HC14-P(OH)3. PC13+'C12=PC15. P4+1OC12=4PC15. It is easily dissociated by heat as indicated by the reversible equation PC16<=±PC13+C12. With water it forms hydrochloric acid and phosphorus oxy- chlorid, PC15+H2O=2HC1+POC13. On further treatment with water the oxychlorid yields hydro- chloric acid and phosphoric acid: POC13+'3H2O=3HC1+H3PO4. Phosphorus trifluorid, PF3, is a colorless gas. Phosphorus pentafluorid, PF5, has also been produced. Both of the fluorids are easily decomposed by water and are analogous to the chlorids. 88 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Phosphorus tribromid is a colorless liquid having the formula PBr3. Phosphorus pentabromid, PBr5, forms yellow crystals which are easily dissociated by heat into phosphorus tribromid and bromin. Phosphorus triodid, PI3, is in form of dark red prismatic crystals. Other compounds of phosphorus and the halogens are phosphorus oxyfluorid POF3, diphosphorus tetraiodid P2I4 and phosphorus oxybromid POBr3. Oxids of Phosphorus The oxids of phosphorus are three in number: phosphorus trioxid, phosphorus tetroxid and phosphorus pentoxid. Phosphorus trioxid, P2O3, is a white crystalline solid ob- tained when phosphorus is burned in insufficient oxygen. When in contact with moisture it ignites by the heat produced by its union with water and forms phosphorus acid. Phosphorus tetroxid is a white solid formed together with red phosphorus when the trioxid is heated. Its formula is P2O4. * Phosphorus pentoxid, P2O5, is a light, white powder unit- ing easily with water to form metaphosphoric acid, thus: P2O54-H2O=2HPO3. In combining with other amounts of water it forms two more acids: P2O64~2H2O=H4P2O7, and P2O6+3H2O=2H3PO4. Acids df Phosphorus Hypophosphorus acid, H3PO2, is a monobasic acid, crys- talline in character and a strong reducing agent. It is pre- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 89 pared by the action of sulphuric acid on barium hypophos- phite, thus: Ba(H2PO2)2+H2SO4==BaSO4+2H3PO2. On heating, the acid is dissociated into phosphin and phos- phoric acid. Metaphosphoric acid, HPO3, is a glassy semitransparent mass transformed into phosphoric acid by the action of water. It is monobasic in character, coagulates albumin and forms white precipitates with chlorids of calcium and barium. It may be prepared by heating phosphoric acid to 400 degrees: or by the direct union of phosphorus pentoxid and water; H3PO4=H2O+HPO3; P2O5+'H2O=2HPO3; also by the heating of ammonium phosphate; (NH4)2HPO4=2NH3+'H2O+HPO3. This acid is also called glacial phosphoric acid. Hypophosphoric acid, H4P2O6, is formed by slow oxida- tion of phosphorus sticks in contact with moist air. It is a tetrabasic acid. Pyrophosphoric acid, H4P2O7, is formed by heating phos- phoric acid: 2H3PO4=H4P2O7+H2O: or by the action of water on phosphorus pentoxid; It is distinguished from phosphoric acid by the color of its silver salt and from metaphosphoric in that it does not coagu- late albumen. Phosphorus acid, H3PO3, is a dibasic acid of a crystalline nature. It is prepared by the action of water on phosphorus trioxid; P2O54-2H2O=H4P2O7. On heating it decomposes into phosphin and phosphoric acid; 2P2O3+6H2O=4H3PO3. 4H3PO3=3H3PO44-PH3. 90 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Orthophosphoric or phosphoric acid, H3PO4, is a tribasic acid forming primary, secondary and tertiary phosphates. Solutions of the acid may be evaporated to a thick colorless syrup, which on cooling produces crystals. These crystals are deliquescent, dissolving in water with great readiness. The acid is prepared by the action of water on phosphorus pentoxid, thus: P2O5-f-'3H2O=2H3PO4; or by the action of sulphuric acid on calcium phosphate; also by the oxidation of phosphorus by means of nitric acid; Ca3(PO4)2+3H2SO4=2H3PO4+3CaSO4; 12HNO3+P4=4N2O4+4NO+'4H3PO4. The action of red phosphorus upon sulphur results in the formation of a series of compounds called phosphorus sul- phids. These are P4S3, P2S3, P3S6 and P2S5. The pentasulphid forms yellow crystals. Arsenic Arsenic is a positive element, its symbol is As, atomic weight 75, molecular weight 300. It acts either as a trivalent or pentavalent substance. Occurrence.-Arsenic is rarely found in the free state, but as a combination it obtains quite abundantly in compounds of sulphur, iron and cobalt. The three most important com- pounds of sulphur in which it is found are realgar, orpiment and mispickel. The last is a compound of sulphur, arsenic and iron and contains arsenic in the greatest abundance. Preparation.-Arsenic is usually prepared by heating mis- pickel, or by the action of carbon on arsenolite, thus: FeAsS=FeS4-As. 2As2O3-|-6C=As44-6CO. Properties.-Arsenic is a steel-gray solid possessing metallic lustre. When pure it is odorless and tasteless. It is a good conductor of electricity and sublimes without being CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 91 melted. It condenses readily, and when cooled rapidly, forms yellowish crystals. Under ordinary temperatures it remains unchanged in dry air, but at high temperatures it unites with oxygen, burning with a lavender flame and gives off fumes having a garlicy odor. When pure it is insoluble in water. In damp air it gradually oxidizes and its oxid is soluble in water. Compounds of Arsenic Hydrogen arsenid is a colorless gas having odor of garlic. It is also named arsin or arseniureted hydrogen, and has the formula AsH3. When heated out of contact with air it is decomposed into a brilliant metallic solid and free hydrogen: 4AsH3=As4-|-6H2. When burned in air it is decomposed into water and arsenious oxid; 2AsH3+3O2=3H2O+As2O3. Arsin is extremely poisonous and great care must be taken in experimenting with it. It is prepared by the action of hydro- chloric acid on zinc arsenid, or by the action of hydrogen on arsenic trioxid; Zn3As,+:6HCl=3ZnCl2+2AsH3; As2O3+ 12H=3H2O-J-2AsH3. When arsin is passed thru a solution of silver nitrate the solution is decomposed and elementary silver is deposited. Arsenic trioxid known sometimes as white arsenic is the most common and most important compound of arsenic. It possesses a sweetish disagreeable odor and is very poisonous. It occurs as a heavy, white, crystalline powder known as flowers of arsenic, or a yellowish translucent amorphous mass. It is slightly soluble in pure water, but the presence of alka- lies or tartarates increases its solubility. Presence of fats and other organic substances decreases the solubility. When heated out of contact with air it volatilizes and condenses in 92 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY form of. small octahedral crystals in the cooler parts of the tube. When heated in the presence of charcoal it gives up its oxygen with the formation of carbon dioxid and the deposit of elementary arsenic. In combination with hydrogen sulphid, both substances become decomposed and arsenic trisulphid is deposited as an insoluble yellow powder. Arsenic pentoxid is formed by heating meta-arsenic acid; 2HAsO3=H2O-|-As2O5. It is a very unstable substance and readily decomposes into arsenic trioxid and oxygen. It is a white, heavy, solid, readily soluble in water, forming arsenic acid H3AsO4. Arsenious acid is represented by the formula H3AsO3. Its salts are known as arsenites. We have potassium arsenite, which when dissolved in water forms Fowler's solution. Cop- per hydrogen arsenite CuHAsO3 is called Scheele's green. Paris green or Schweinfurt green is a double salt of cupric acetate Cu3As2Oc :Cu(C2H3O2)2. Arsenic acid is prepared by the action of chlorin upon a solution of arsenic trioxid in water; As2O34-2C124-'5H,O=2H3AsO4+4HC1. The acid is in form of rhombic crystals containing water of crystallization. When heated to about 100 degrees the water is driven off. Pyroarsenic acid, H4As2O7, is formed when arsenic acid is heated to about 180 degrees. Meta-arsenic acid, HAsO3, is formed by heating pyro- arsenic acid. It is itself split up into arsenic pentoxid and water. Arsenic bisulphid, As2S2, exists naturally as realgar in form of translucent reddish crystals. Artificially it is prepared by mixing arsenic trioxid and sulphur. When so prepared it forms odorless, tasteless, dark red amorphous masses. Both sulphids are non-poisonous except as they may be contami- nated with arsenic trioxid. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 93 Arsenic trisulphid, As2S3, is found naturally as orpiment. Its crystals are in form of yellowish, gold-like scales. It may be obtained in the pure state by passing hydrogen sulphid thru an acid solution of arsenic trioxid and washing the de- posit. It is usually made by combining sulphur and arsenic trioxid. In this form it always contains some arsenic trioxid and hence is quite poisonous. It is used as a pigment under the name of King's yellow. Arsenic trisulphid is soluble in ammonium sulphid forming ammonium sulpharsenite (NH4)3 AsS3. When ammonium sulphid contains an excess of sulphur and the arsenic trisulphid is dissolved in it, it forms ammonium sulpharsenate (NH4)3AsS4. ■ Arsenic pentasulphid, As2S5, is a yellow solid prepared by melting together sulphur and arsenic in proper propor- tions, or by the action of hydrochloric acid on ammonium sulpharsenate as illustrated by the equation: 2(NH4)3AsS4+6HC1=As2S5+6NH4C1+3H2S. Arsenic trichlorid, AsC13, is the most important compound that arsenic forms with the halogen elements. It is a color- less, very poisonous, fuming liquid prepared by conducting chlorin over powdered arsenic or by the action of hydrochloric acid upon arsenic trioxid. The last may be illustrated as follows: As2O3+6HC1=2AsC134-3H2O. It is decomposed by water, in which event the equation just given is reversible, thus : 2AsC13+3H2O=As2O3+6HC1. The other compounds of arsenic with halogen elements are: arsenic trifluorid, AsF3, arsenic tribromid AsBr3, arsenic di-iodid Asl2, arsenic tri-iodid Asl3, and arsenic pentaiodid AsI6. Antimony Antimony is a positive element acting with a combining 94 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY power of three or five. Its symbol is Sb, from the Latin name stibium. The atomic weight is 120. Occurrence.-It is rarely found in the free state. In the combined form it exists in the native sulphids of lead, copper, silver, iron and arsenic, particularly in the mineral stibnite Sb2S3. Preparation.-Antimony is best prepared by heating stibnite with iron: Sb2S34-3Fe=3FeS-]-2Sb. It is also prepared by heating stibnite in air, thus forming a tetroxid, which is then reduced by means of carbon, thus: Sb2S34-5O2==3SO2+Sb2O4. Sb2O4+4C=4CO+2Sb. Properties.-Antimony is a white, hard, brittle, crystalline solid having a metallic lustre. It is easily pulverized, melts in the air at a temperature of 450 degrees and crystallizes on cooling. It burns in the air with a bluish-white flame and out of contact with air when strongly heated it becomes distilled. It is used chiefly in the making of alloys. Compounds of Antimony Hydrogen antimonid or stibin, SbH3, is analogous to ammonia, phosphin and arsin. It is colorless, slightly poi- sonous, and resembling hydrogen sulphid somewhat in its odor. It is prepared by treating an alloy of antimony with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. By heat it is readily dissociated into stibium and hydrogen, thus: 2SbH3=2Sb+3H2. It is soluble in water and burns in the air with a bluish-white flame, forming stibium trioxid and water. Silver nitrate is decomposed by it and a precipitate of silver antimonid, SbAg3, results. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 95 Antimony trioxid, Sb2O3, is a white, crystalline dimor- phous substance formed by burning antimony in the air, or by oxidizing the metal with nitric acid. It is practically insoluble in water, nitric or sulphuric acids, but soluble in hydrochloric acid and strong alkalies, thus: Sb2O3+6HCl=2SbCl3+3H2O. Sb2O3+2KOH=2KSbO2+H2O. Several salts of antimony, such as potassium metantimo- nite KSbO2, potassium antimonyl tartrate (C4H4Oe): SbO :K, potassium arsenyl tartrate (C4H4O6) :AsO :K, potassium boryl tartrate (C4H4O6) :BO :K, antimony nitrate Sb(NO3)3, and antimonyl sulphate Sb2(SO4)3, are known. These salts are nearly always basic in properties. Antimony tetroxid, Sb2O4, is a white powder made by burning antimony in oxygen, or by heating antimony trioxid in air. It is insoluble in water. Antimony pentoxid, Sb2O5, is a yellow powder formed by heating antimonic acid. It is soluble in hydrochloric acid. At high temperatures it decomposes into tetroxid and oxygen. Antimony trisulphid, Sb2S3, is an orange red powder pre- cipitated from salts of antimony by means of hydrogen sul- phid. It occurs naturally as stibnite. In ammonium sulphid it is dissolved, forming ammonium sulphantimonite: Sb2S3+3(NH4)2S=2(NH4)3SbS3. Antimony pentasulphid, Sb2S5, is a yellow amorphous powder, dissociated by heat into the trisulphid and sulphur. It is soluble in hot hydrochloric acid, also in soluble sulphids of metals, with which it forms salts. Antimony trichlorid, SbCl3, is a colorless crystalline mass, soft in consistency and hence often known as butter of anti- mony. With water it forms insoluble oxy-chlorids. It is de- liquescent, absorbing moisture from the air, and possesses caustic properties. 96 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Antimony pentachlorid, SbCl5, is a yellow fuming liquid decomposed by hot water. In cold water it forms crystalline hydrates. It may be prepared by burning antimony in excess of chlorin, or by introducing chlorin into antimony trichlorid. Antimony trifluorid, SbF3, is a deliquescent crystalline solid. Antimony pentafluorid SbF5 is a gummy amorphous solid. Antimony tribromid SbBr3 is a white crystalline solid, readily decomposed in water. Antimony triiodid Sbl3 is a polymorphous crystalline solid. The most common crystals are red in color. Antimony pentiodid Sbl5 is a dark brown crystalline solid. Antimonic acid H3SbO4 is an insoluble white powder formed by the action of concentrated nitric acid upon anti- mony, or by the action of water on antimony pentachlorid. Other acids of antimony are antimonious H3SbO3, metanti- monious HSbO2, and pyroantimonious H4Sb2O7. Salts of these acids are also known and are analogous to those of phosphorus and arsenic. Bismuth Bismuth is a positive element having the formula Bi, atomic weight 207. It acts either as a trivalent or a pentaval- ent substance. Occurrence.-Bismuth is not found in any great abun- dance, generally obtained in the free state in fairly pure con- dition. In the combined state it occurs usually as a sulphid or oxid, but these compounds, as well as the native bismuth, are usually found contaminated with arsenic, lead, iron, anti- mony, copper or sulphur. Preparation.-It is obtained by roasting the sulphid and removing the oxygen by means of charcoal. Directly by the action of carbon and the oxid of bismuth. The impurities are oxidized and removed as a slag which floats on the surface. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 97 Properties.-Bismuth is a white, brittle, crystalline metal. It is a poor conductor of heat and electricity. It burns in air with a bluish-white flame, producing the trioxid Bi2O3. Nitric acid dissolves bismuth readily, forming the nitrate salt. It forms no combination with hydrogen. It is used widely in the making of alloys, which for the most part are readily fusible at rather low temperatures. Compounds of Bismuth Bismuth trichlorid, BiCl3, is made by the action of chlorin on bismuth, by dissolving bismuth in nitro-hydrochloric acid; by dissolving the trioxid in hydrochloric acid. It combines with water, forming bismuth oxychlorid, thus: BiCI3+H2O=BiOCl+2HCl. Bismuth fluorid BiF is a grayish powder formed by the action of hydrofluoric acid on bismuth trioxid, thus:- Bi2O3 + 6HF = 2BiF3 + 3H2O. When treated with water the oxyfluorid results; BiF3 + H2O = BiOF +' 2HF. Bismuth bromid BiBr3 consists of orange-colored crystals which, when treated with water, form the oxybromid BiOBr. Bismuth iodid Bil3 consists of black crystals which are dissolved by water, forming the oxyiodid BiOI. Bismuth dioxid Bi2O2 is a brown precipitate resulting from the action of a mixture of stannous chlorid and bismuth chlorid on caustic potash solution. Bismuth trioxid Bi2O3 is a yellow powder formed when the metal is burned in the air. It is the most important of bismuth oxids. Bismuth tetroxid Bi2O4 is a reddish-yellow powder. Bismuth pentoxid Bi2O5 is an unstable brown powder formed when chlorin is passed through a solution of potas- sium hydroxid containing bismuth trioxid. 98 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Bismuth trisulphid Bi2S3 may be made by melting to- gether sulphur and bismuth in proper proportions. It occurs in nature as bismuth glance. The trisulphid may also be prepared by the action of hydrogen sulphid on a bismuth salt, thus:- It is insoluble in sulphids or alkalies, which property dis- tinguishes it from the sulphids of arsenic and antimony, both of which are readily soluble. 2BiCl3 + 3H2S = 6HC1 + Bi2S3. Potassium Potassium is a positive univalent element. Its symbol is K (from the Latin name Kalium), and its atomic weight is 39. Occurrence.-Potassium occurs widely distributed, though in no large quantity except in a few places. It is not found free, but in combination it obtains in many salts. Potassium salts are taken up by plants, the ashes of which, when treated with water, yield large quantities of potassium carbonate. Potassium is found in nearly all the animal tissues, obtaining here through the consumption of plants as food. Preparation.-Potassium is prepared by the electrolysis of potassium chlorate or potassium hydroxid. It can be made by the action of carbon upon potassium carbonate:- K2CO3 +' 2C = 2K +3CO. Properties.-Potassium is a silvery white, metallic solid. At ordinary temperatures it is of a soft waxy consistency; at high temperatures it boils with the formation of green vapors; below 0 degrees it becomes hard and brittle. Potassium acts on water with great energy, decomposing it with the forma- tion of potassium hydroxid and hydrogen, thus:- K2 + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2. With oxygen, when dry, potassium unites to form potassium CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 99 oxid, K,O. When exposed to the air potassium tarnishes very readily. This is due to the great affinity it possesses for the moisture of the air. Potassium Compounds Potassium hydroxid KOH is otherwise known as com- mon caustic, potash or potassium hydrate. It may be made by dissolving potassium in water or by the action of calcium hydroxid on potassium carbonate, thus:- K2 + 2H2O = 2KOH + H2. K2CO3 + Ca(OH)2 = CaCO3 +'2KOH. It is sometimes prepared by electrolysis of potassium chlorid. The current enters the solution through a carbon electrode and leaves the solution by means of a mercury surface. The chlorin is liberated at the carbon electrode, from whence it is conveyed through pipes. The potassium unites with the mercury, forming an amalgam. This amalgam is then acted on by water. The equations showing the reaction are:- 2KC1 = 2K + Cl2; 2K + 2H2O = 2KOH +' H2. Potassium hydroxid is a hard, brittle, white solid, very deliquescent and readily soluble in water. It melts at a dull red heat, has a strong soapy taste and a corrosive action upon animal and vegetable tissues. It is in shape of sticks about 80 per cent pure. It readily absorbs carbon dioxid and forms potassium carbonate and must, therefore, be protected from air. Chemically it acts as a powerful base, attacking acids and forming salts and water. It is stronger than other bases and hence also reacts with them. It readily dissolves such elements as sulphur, phosphorus, chlorin, bromin and iodin, forming compounds soluble in water. The hydroxid possesses a strong alkaline reaction and decomposes most metallic salts as shown by the following equation:-- CuSO4 + 2KOH = K2SO4 + CuH2O2. 100 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY It dissolves proteins, oxidizes carbohydrates and decomposes fats. It is used as a test solution, as many hydroxids possess a characteristic color and are insoluble in water. Potassium hydrid KH is formed by passing hydrogen over potassium heated to 360 degrees. It is crystalline in nature and catches fire when exposed to the air. Water decomposes it, resulting in potassium hydroxid and hydrogen:- 2KH 4- 2H2O = 2KOH + 2H2. Carbon dioxid unites with it to form potassium formate:- KH 4-' CO2 = HCOOK. Potassium chlorid KC1 is the most common combination of potassium with the halogens. It is found widely distributed in the mineral, vegetable and animal nature. It forms double salts, the most important one (the chief source of potassium compounds) is carnallite MgCl2 ;KC1 ;6H2O. Potassium chlorid is easily soluble in water. Potassium bromid KBr is in form of white cubes con- taining no water of crystallization. It is made by the action of bromin on potassium hydroxid:- 6KOH + 3Br2 = KBrO3 + 5KBr +' 3H2O. It is very soluble in water and does not change when exposed to the air. Potassium bromid possesses a peculiar salty taste and no odor. Chlorin acts upon it, forming potassium chlorid and liberating bromin, thus:- Potassium bromid acts upon salt solutions of mercury, lead and silver, forming corresponding bromids, which are in- soluble. Potassium iodid KI crystallizes in cubes and is even more soluble in water than bromin. It is prepared by the action of iodin on potassium hydroxid:- Cl2 + 2KBr = 2KC1Br2. 6KOH + 3I2 = KIO8 + 5KI + 3H2O, CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 101 or by the action of potassium carbonate upon iodin mixed with iron filings :-■ Fe3I8 + 4K2CO3 +' 4H2O = 8KI + Fe3(OH)8 + 4CO2. Potassium fluorid KF is a deliquescent white salt form- ing cubical crystals. It is made by the action of hydrofluoric acid on potassium hydroxid or carbonate. Potassium oxid K2O is an unstable white powder. It unites readily with water, forming potassium hydroxid. When exposed to the air it absorbs oxygen resulting in potassium peroxid KO,. Potassium oxid is made by melting together potassium and potassium hydroxid, thus:- 2KOH +' 2K = 2K,O + H2, or by heating potassium with potassium nitrate:- 2KNO3 + 1OK = 6K2O + N2. Potassium chlorate KC1O3 consists of monoclinic crystals soluble in water. It melts at 350 degrees, yielding oxygen. It is prepared by electrolysis of potassium chlorid. It crystal- lizes out when the hot solution is stirred. It may also be obtained by passing chlorin into a hot solution of potassium hydroxid, thus:- 6KOH +' 3C12 = KC1O3 + 5KC1 + 3H,O. It is used in making oxygen, and manufacturing of matches, fireworks and explosives. Potassium perchlorate KC1O4 forms rhombic crystals less soluble in water than the chlorate. It decomposes at 400 de- grees into potassium chlorid and oxygen:- KC1O4 = KC1+'2O2. It is prepared by heating potassium chlorate:- Potassium bromate KBrO3 is formed by the action of bromin upon potassium hydroxid, thus:- 8KC1O3 = 5KC1O4 +' 3KC1 + 2O2. Potassium iodate KIO3 is made similar to the bromate. Both the iodate and bromate are analogous to the chlorate. 6KOH + 3Br2 = KBrO3 + 5KBr + 3H2O. 102 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Potassium nitrate KNO3 is also called niter or saltpeter. It is found widely distributed in nature in the soil resulting from the decay of organic substances.- It was formerly pre- pared by the action of potassium salts on nitrogenous organic bodies. At present it is prepared by treating sodium nitrate with potassium chlorid or potassium carbonate, thus:- NaNO3 + KC1 = KNO3 + NaCl, 2NaNO3 + K2CO3 = 2KNO3 +' Na2CO3. It crystallizes in form of rhombic prisms. When heated it gives up some of its oxygen, resulting in potassium nitrite, KNO2. It is used largely in the manufacture of gun powder, also as a fertilizer, preservative for meats and as an oxidizing agent in the laboratory. Potassium cyanid KCN is prepared by passing nitrogen over a mixture of carbon and potassium carbonate, thus:- On a large scale it is made by heating potassium ferrocyanid with potassium carbonate:- K4Fe(CN)6 +' K2CO3 = 5KCN + KCNO + Fe + CO2. When thus prepared there is always formed a small amount of potassium cyanate KCNO as shown by the equation. Potassium cyanid is a white deliquescent solid, readily dissolved in water yielding potassium hydroxid and hydro- cyanic acid, thus:- K2CO3 +' 3C + N2 = 2KCN + CO + CO2. KCN + H2O = KOH +' HCN. In the presence of carbon dioxid the cyanid decomposes into potassium carbonate and hydrocyanic acid: 2KCN + CO2 + H2O = K2CO3 +' 2HCN. The salt is extremely poisonous and is a powerful reducing agent. It is used for extracting gold from its ores, in electro- plating and photography. Potassium carbonate K2CO3 was first prepared by leach- ing out wood ashes. At present it is prepared on the large scale as indicated by the following reactions:- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 103 (1) Potassium chlorid is treated with sulphuric acid, 2KC1 +' H2SO4 = KC1 + KHSO4 + HC1. (2) The potassium chlorid and acid potassium sulphate are then heated, KC1 + KHSO4 = K2SO4 + HC1. (3) The hydrochloric acid is absorbed in water and the potassium sulphate is mixed with charcoal and calcium car- bonate and heated in a rotating cylindrical furnace resulting first in the formation of potassium sulphid, which reacts with calcium carbonate and thus yields potassium carbonate and calcium sulphid:-• K2SO4 + 4C = K2S + 4CO, K2S + CaCO3 = CaS +' K2CO3. Potassium carbonate crystallizes from concentrated solutions in form of monoclinic crystals, possessing three molecules of water of crystallization. The solutions of this salt are strongly alkaline. Potassium bicarbonate KHCO3 is formed by passing car- bon dioxid into solutions of potassium carbonate. It is a white crystalline solid used in effervescing mixtures. It is readily decomposed by heat into potassium carbonate, carbon dioxid and water. Potassium sulphate K2SO4 is a white crystalline solid containing no water of crystallization. It is used as fertilizer and in making hard glass and potassium carbonate. It is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid on potassium chlorid or by the action of potassium chlorid on potassium magnesium sulphate:- 2KC1 + H2SO4 = K2SO4 + 2HC1, K2SO4: MgSO4 + 2KC1 = 2K2SO4 + MgCl2. Acid potassium sulphate KHSO4 is made by the action of sulphuric acid on potassium sulphate. It is very soluble in water. Potassium pyrosulphate K2S2O7 is made by melting acid 104 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY potassium sulphate. By heat it decomposes into the normal sulphate and sulphur trioxid. Potassium sulphite K,SO3 consists of monoclinic crystals containing two molecules of water of crystallization. It is formed by passing sulphur dioxid into a solution of potassium carbonate. Acid potassium sulphite KHSO3 is formed by saturating potassium sulphite with sulphur dioxid. It forms needle-like crystals. Potassium sulphid K2S is a flesh-colored crystalline solid readily soluble in water. It is made by fusing potassium sul- phate with charcoal:- Potassium thiosulphate K2S2O3 results when oxygen com- bines with potassium sulphid, thus:- K2SO4 + 4C = K2S + 4CO. Potassium sulphydrate KSH is formed when potassium hydroxid is saturated with hydrogen sulphid:- 2K2S + H2O + 2O2 = 2KOH + K2S2O3. A series of compounds known as polysulphids are formed by dissolving sulphur in potassium sulphid or potassium sul- phydrate. Potassium silicate K2SiO3 is a glassy deliquescent mass soluble in water, yielding a syrupy solution commonly called potassium water glass. The silicate is obtained by fusing silica with potassium carbonate:- KOH + H2S = KSH + H2O. K,CO3 + SiO2 = K,SiO3 +CO2. Potassium phosphates are three in number and known as the primary KH2PO4, the secondary K2HPO4, and the tertiary K,PO4. All are white solid salts readily soluble in water. Sodium Sodium is a positive univalent element having the sym- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 105 bol Na (from the Latin word Natrium) and the atomic weight of 23. Occurrence.-It is not found in the free state, but in com- bination, it is widely distributed in large quantities. The chief combination is sodium chlorid. It obtains in sea water, spring water and in plant and animal life. Preparation.-Sodium is prepared by the electrolysis of sodium hydroxid. It is deposited at one of the electrodes and the hydroxyl radical at the other. The hydroxyl immediately decomposes into water and oxygen. Other methods are used for the preparation of sodium and are analogous to those used in the preparation of potassium. Properties.-Sodium is a wax-like silvery white solid, very similar in properties to potassium. It oxidizes on exposure to moist air and decomposes water with great readiness. At 20 degrees below 0 it is hard and crystallizes in cubes. Its vapor is colorless. It decomposes water with the formation of so- dium hydroxid and the liberation of hydrogen, thus:- Sodium dissolves in mercury, forming sodium amalgam, which is decomposed by water yielding mercury, sodium hydroxid and hydrogen. Na2 +' 2H2O = 2NaOH + H2. Compounds of Sodium Sodium hydrid NaH is formed by passing hydrogen over hot sodium. It is a crystalline substance readily decomposed by water into sodium hydroxid and hydrogen: - Sodium chlorid NaCl is the main source of sodium and its compounds. It obtains in large quantities in the United States and several other countries. It is found as rock salt in the solid form and also in sea water and certain inland waters as a brine solution. In the latter case it is obtained by evaporation. 2NaH + 2H2O = 2NaOH + 2H2. 106 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Ordinary sodium chlorid is not pure, but contains small amounts of sodium sulphate, calcium chlorid and magnesium chlorid. The last two substances are deliquescent and their presence in common salt causes it to attract moisture. Sodium chlorid is very soluble in water and crystallizes in cubes having hollow pyramidal sides. It aids in the process of osmosis throughout the body and tends to hold certain proteins in solution. It is undoubtedly the source of hydro- chloric acid in the stomach. Humans and animals must have salt and it is estimated that the consumption of it by the human individual equals in amount one-tenth the weight of his body. Sodium chlorid is used in preserving meats and fish, in glazing pottery, manufacturing sodium compounds, hydro- chloric acid, chlorin and bleaching powder. Sodium bromid NaBr is more volatile then sodium chlorid, dissolves in water more readily and in properties is much the same as the bromid of potassium. Sodium iodid Nal is also very soluble and analogous to potassium iodid. Sodium fluorid NaF corresponds to the like salt of potas- sium. Sodium oxid Na2O is obtained together with sodium peroxid when sodium is burned in the air. It may also be made by the action of sodium on sodium hydroxid. When treated with water it again forms the hydroxid. Sodium peroxid Na2O2 is a white powder formed when heating of sodium in air is prolonged or when sodium oxid is further heated. At high temperatures it decomposes into so- dium oxid and oxygen. It dissolves in water very readily, forming sodium hydroxid and in dilute acids forming hydro- gen peroxid. It is used principally for oxidizing and bleaching purposes. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 107 Sodium hydroxid NaOH is prepared by electrolysis of sodium chlorid similar to the preparation of potassium by the same method, or by the Acker process. This consists of the process of electrolysis, only a molten lead cathode is used in place of mercury. The chlorin is conducted off through pipes and used in making bleaching powder and the sodium forms an alloy with the lead. A jet of steam is then directed on this alloy which reacts with the sodium, forming sodium hy- droxid and liberating hydrogen, which is immediately burned. The molten hydroxid is drawn off into proper containers. Sodium hydroxid is a hard, white amorphous solid, readily soluble in water, forming intensely alkaline solutions. It is strongly corrosive and powerfully basic in reaction, neutraliz- ing acids and forming salts. On exposure to air it absorbs carbon dioxid and is converted into a carbonate. Sodium carbonate Na2CO3 is commonly called soda. It is a white crystalline solid used extensively in the making of glass, soap, sodium hydroxid, and other sodium compounds. It is manufactured on the large scale by the LeBlanc process as described under the preparation of potassium. The Solvay process for making sodium carbonate is as follows: (1) By conducting ammonia and carbon dioxid into a cold saturated solution of sodium chlorid. First ammonium bicarbonate is formed which reacts with sodium chlorid, pro- ducing a precipitate of sodium bicarbonate, thus:- NaCl + NH4HCO3 = NH4C1 + NaHCO3. (2) The bicarbonate is then heated and converted into carbonate:- 2NaHCO3 = Na2CO3 + CO, + H2O. The ammonium chlorid remains in solution from which am- monia may be recovered by heating with lime or magnesia. Remaining after the removal of ammonia are the chlorides of calcium and magnesium and the latter by heating is broken 108 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY up into magnesia (which is used over again) and hydrochloric acid:- MgCl2 + H2O = MgO + 2HC1. Sodium carbonate may also be made by the electrolysis of caustic soda and treating the solution with carbon dioxid. Sodium carbonate crystallizes out in form of monoclinic prisms, containing quite a good deal of water of crystalliza- tion, which readily efflorescence. The salt may be completely dehydrated at about 100 degrees and melted into a clear liquid at red heat. Sodium bicarbonate NaHCO3 is made by the Solvay proc- ess as shown under the preparation of the carbonate. By heat it is decomposed into carbon dioxid and sodium carbon- ate. It is used in baking powders and effervescing mixtures. Its action is due to the sudden evolution of a large volume of carbon dioxid. Sodium nitrate NaNO3 obtains in large quantities as Chili saltpeter. It crystallizes in form of cubes, possessing hygroscopic properties. It is used as a fertilizer and in the making of nitric acid. Sodium nitrite NaNO2 is formed when sodium nitrate is heated with lead or iron. It is used in the dyestuff industry. Disodium phosphate Na2HPO4 is prepared by the action of phosphoric acid on sodium hydroxid or carbonate. It con- sists of efflorescent crystals soluble in water, forming an al- kaline solution. Trisodic phosphate Na3PO4 results when more sodium hydroxid is added to disodium phosphate and evaporating to dryness. Monosodic phosphate NaH2PO4 solutions have an acid reaction. On heating, water is given off, resulting in sodium metaphosphate NaPO3. Sodium sulphate Na2SO4 consists of monoclinic efflores- cent crystals. Sodium sulphate or Glauber's salt melts in its CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 109 water of crystallization at 32.4 degrees. This solution may be cooled to room temperature and is termed a supersaturated solution, for it contains more salt than would be taken up at the lower temperature in the presence of an excess of the solid salt. Sodium sulphate is formed as one of the products in the LeBlanc process, and aside from this may be made by the action of magnesium sulphate upon sodium chlorid at low temperatures, thus:- MgSO4 + 2NaCl = Na2SO4 + MgCl2. Sodium bisulphate NaHSO4 results from the action of sulphuric acid on sodium sulphate. It contains water of crystallization, which it loses when heated to 50 degrees. In properties this salt is similar to potassium bisulphate. Sodium sulphite Na2SO3 is made by passing sulphur dioxid into a concentrated solution of sodium hydroxid or carbonate. Sodium bisulphite NaHSO3 is formed by saturating a strong solution of sodium sulphite with sulphur dioxid. Sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3 is prepared by boiling sul- phur in a solution of sodium sulphite. It is used in photog- raphy for dissolving the excess of silver bromid on the plate after it has been exposed to light and developed. Sodium silicate Na2SiO3 is often called silex or sodium water glass. It is made by fusing silica with sodium hydroxid or sodium carbonate. It obtains in form of monoclinic crys- tals containing 8 molecules of water of crystallization. So- dium silicate is used in the production of artificial stone, in making fabrics and wood fireproof, as a preservative for wood, and as a cement for asbestos, glass and mineral wool. Sodium cyanid NaCN is very similar to potassium cyanid. It is prepared by the action of ammonia gas upon a mixture of carbon and sodium and is very soluble in water. 110 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Sodium borate Na2B4O7; 10H2O is commonly called borax. It crystallizes in large monoclinic prisms below a temperature of 50 degrees. Above this temperature its crys- tals are octahedral and contain only five molecules of water of crystallization. When borax is heated it loses its water and swells, and by additional heat it finally turns to a clear liquid, which solidifies into borax glass. It obtains in borax lake of California, in certain marshes of Nevada and several other places. Borax is used in making glazes and enamel for pottery, softening water, dyeing fabrics, welding and brazing metals and as a preservative. It is prepared by boiling boric acid with sodium carbonate and crystallizing:- Na2CO3 + 4H3BO3 = CO2 + 6H2O +' Na2B4O7. Sulphides of sodium are the same as those of potassium. Ammonium Ammonium is not an element, but bears very close re- semblance to potassium and sodium. Ammonium is repre- sented by the formula NH4, which combination acts as a single element, where valency is 1 and action positive. The combination NH3 is commonly used to represent ammonia gas. Ammonium and some of its compounds have been de- scribed on page 69, others will be given here. Ammonium Compounds The compounds of ammonium are very similar to those of potassium and sodium and are all of them very volatile, being decomposed by heat into ammonia and some other products of greater or less complexity. Ammonium chlorid NH4C1 is a crystalline substance read- ily soluble in water and possessing a sharp salty taste. It is CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 111 used generally for the manufacture of ammonia, in making electric batteries, and in the dyestuff industry. Ammonium bromid NH4Br is a deliquescent crystalline salt. Ammonium iodid NH4I is similar to the bromid. Ammonium sulphate (NH4)2SO4 is made by treatment of the ammonia liquor, made as a by-product in the destructive distillation of coal, with sulphuric acid. It is a crystalline salt soluble in cold water. It is used as a source for the making of many other ammonium compounds and as a fertilizer. Ammonium disulphate NH4HSO4 and ammonium hyper- sulphate (NH4)2S2O3 also exist, the last one is crystalline solid used as an oxidizing agent. Ammonium sulphid (NH4),S is prepared by passing hy- drogen sulphid into a solution of ammonia until same is partly saturated:- 2NH3 + H2S = (NH4)2S. It is a form of colorless crystals which readily give off am- monia and form the hydrosulphid. Solution of the sulphid, when freshly prepared, is colorless, but on exposure to air turns yellow on account of oxidation. It possesses a disagree- able odor, due to the formation of ammonia and hydrogen sulphid by hydrolysis. Ammonium sulphydrate NH4SH results when the solu- tion of ammonia is completely saturated with hydrogen sul- phid :- (NH4)2S + H2S = 2NH4SH. This is a valuable reagent in analysis, and in other properties resembles sulphid. Ammonium nitrate NH4NO3 is a crystalline solid soluble in water. It is used in producing low temperatures and in the manufacture of explosives in the place of potassium nitrate. Ammonium nitrite NH4NO2 is a deliquescent crystalline solid which easily breaks up into water and nitrogen. 112 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Ammonium carbonate (NH4)2CO3 is a crystalline solid formed by passing carbon dioxid into a concentrated solution of acid ammonium carbonate and ammonium carbamate. The latter mixture is made by heating ammonium chlorid with calcium carbonate. Ammonium carbonate readly loses am- monia and forms crystals of acid salt NH4HCO3, which in turn decompose into ammonia, water and carbon dioxid. Ammonium salts, when heated with potassium hydroxid, give off ammonia gas, which is recognized by its odor, by its turning of red litmus paper blue and the formation of dense white clouds in the presence of hydrochloric acid. Lithium Lithium is a positive univalent element having the symbol Li and the atomic weight 7. It is found widely distributed, though in very small quantities. It is found in soils from where it is taken up by certain plants. It is also found in minerals and the so-called lithia waters. Its compounds are readily detected by the spectroscope and impart a character- istic red color to the flame. In its metallic form it is usually obtained by the electrolysis of lithium chlorid and its prop- erties are like those of potassium and sodium. Several compounds of lithium are known, among which are lithium chlorid, lithium carbonate and lithium phosphate. Lithium chlorid, LiCl, is a deliquescent solid extremely soluble in water. Lithium carbonate, Li2CO3, is the most important of the salts and is but slightly soluble. It combines with uric acid, forming a soluble lithium urate. Lithium phos- phate, Li3PO4, is practically insoluble. Cesium Cesium is a positive metallic substance. Its atomic weight is 132.9 and its symbol is Cs. It was first discovered by the CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 113 spectroscope and named cesium because it exhibited striking blue lines. Cesium occurse widely distributed in nature, but in extremely small quantity. Its salts are usually associated with those of potassium and are in a general way analogous, except that cesium may exhibit the valency of three or five and hence form halogen compounds, which do not exist with potassium. Cesium may be prepared by electrolysis of the cyanid CsCN, or by heating its oxid or carbonate with magnesium. It forms the strongest base known. Rubidium Rubidium has the symbol Rb, atomic weight 85.5, and the combining power of 1. With the halogens it forms combina- tions where it exhibits the valency of three or five similar to cesium. It forms a base stronger than that of potassium. Rubidium was also discovered by means of the spectroscope, where it gives distinctly red lines. It is found widely distrib- uted in nature in slightly larger quantities than is cesium. Its salts, like those of cesium, are analogous to potassium and the mode of preparation is the same. Carbon Carbon is a tetravalent element having the symbol C and the atomic weight of 12. Occurrence.-It occurs in nature in large quantities and widely distributed. In the crystalline form it obtains as dia- mond and graphite; in the amorphous form as coal, coke, char- coal, soot, lampblack and bone black. It is a very necessary constituent of plant and animal life and occurs in natural gas and petroleum in combination with hydrogen. In form of car- bon dioxid it is found in the air and many natural waters, and 114 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY as a carbonate of calcium it exists in large quantities in chalk, limestone and marble. It is also found in extremely large quantities in magnesium limestone. Carbon obtains in three allotropic forms, namely, dia- mond, graphite and amorphous carbon. Diamond is a crystalline form of carbon. It is colorless when pure, but often obtains in large dark-colored or black masses known as carbonado. Due to the small amounts of foreign substances that diamonds often contain, they may be blue, red, green or yellow. Diamond is extremely hard and is, therefore, used in cutting glass and in form of carbonado, for boring rocks. Diamond is a non-conductor of electricity, possesses high refractive powers, and is unchanged by acids. If heated to a high degree out of contact with air, it changes to graphite, and when highly heated in oxygen it burns with great brilliancy and forms carbon dioxid. Graphite obtains naturally in form of small flakes in vari- ous granite rocks. It is grayish-black in color and possesses a metallic lustre. It crystallizes in small hexagonal plates, which are very soft and may readily be crushed to a fine powder. Graphite conducts electricity, possesses high refrac- tive powers, burns with great difficulty and, as a rule, is not attacked by chemical reagents. Graphite is used as a lubricant, in making lead pencils, in electrotyping, in the making of stove polish and in the manufacture of carbons for batteries and arc lights. Graphite is often called plumbago because of the fact that it was thought it contained lead. Graphite is formed artificially when carbon is dissolved in molten iron and crystallizes out, or when coke is heated to a high degree in an electrical furnace out of contact with air and slowly cooled. The latter is known as the Acheson process and by it large quantities of graphite are manufactured. The coke is first ground up and then mixed with coal tar or heavy CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 115 molasses. This mixture is placed into proper molds and then baked in ovens. In this way carbons for various purposes are obtained. These carbons, if heated in the electric furnace, are converted into graphite. Amorphous carbon is obtained when various compounds of carbon are heated when air is totally or partially excluded. Charcoal is produced when wood is heated and the excess of air almost wholly shut off. It is a highly porous substance when freshly prepared and possesses a great power of absorb- ing gases. It thus absorbs from 50 to 100 times its own vol- ume of such gases as ammonia, bromin vapor and hydrogen sulphid, also many other gases. It is often used as a deodorant. Bone black is made by heating bones in closed iron re- torts. It is much the same as charcoal in its properties. It is used as a decolorizing agent for different solutions and in removing the coloring matter in the refining of sugar. Bone black consists of about 75 per cent of calcium phosphate, some calcium carbonate and sulphate, and only about 10 to 12 per cent of carbon. By treatment with acids the pure carbon can be obtained. A pure variety of carbon may be made by charring sugar. When in the pure powdered state it possesses great affinity for oxygen and may catch on fire when thrown into the open air. This is then called pyrophoric carbon. Lamp black or soot is produced by burning certain hydro- carbons such as oil or turpentine, and is deposited on cold surfaces in almost the pure state. It is used as a pigment for paints and inks. Coke is produced by destructive or dry distillation of coal. Hard coal contains in the neighborhood of 95 per cent of car- bon and is less volatile than soft coal. The latter burns with a sooty flame and gives off greater quantities of hydrocarbon gases. Coal is produced by the gradual absorption of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen in form of water or marsh gas from vegetable remains. 116 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Carbon is not attacked by chemicals at room temperatures, but when heated in the air it unites with oxygen and burns. When the supply of oxygen is insufficient the product of com- bustion is carbon monoxid CO, and when the supply of oxygen is sufficient the product is carbon dioxid CO2. Carbon does not unite with hydrogen except at very high temperatures, but many combinations of these two elements result by in- direct methods. Carbon unites directly with fluorin, but not with any of the other halogen elements, with these it forms indirect combinations. With sulphur it unites directly at high temperatures, also with calcium, aluminum, silicon and iron, forming carbids. Many compounds of nitrogen and carbon are formed through indirect means. It thus goes to show that carbon is a chemically inert substance, but when once its combinations are formed they are very stable. At high temperatures it acts as a divalent and at low temperatures as a tetravalent element. Its com- pounds are very numerous and its atoms have a great tendency to unite with each other, forming complex molecules. The study of carbon compounds and their derivatives, since carbon is an essential constituent of all living things, is properly termed organic chemistry and will be further discussed under that subject. Carbon monoxid is a constituent of illuminating gas and gases from furnaces where metallic oxids are being reduced. It also occurs in volcanic gases. The monoxid is easily pre- pared by passing carbon dioxid over red hot carbon or by burning carbon in insufficient supply of oxygen. It results in ordinary coal fires where the dioxid passes upward through the hot coals. Carbon monoxid is produced on the large scale by passing air through incandescent coke in special furnaces and this gas is converted by steam into a mixture of carbon monoxid and hydrogen known as w,ater gas:- c 4- H2O = CO 4-' H2. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 117 Carbon monoxid is also formed by heating carbonates with carbon or zinc, thus:- CaCO3 4- C = CaO + 2CO. MgCO3 + Zn = ZnO MgO CO. It may be further prepared by the action of sulphuric acid upon organic acids, thus:- (COOH )2 + H2SO4 = H2SO4: H2O + CO2 + CO. HCOOH + H2SO4 = H2SO4: H2O + CO. Carbon monoxid is a colorless, odorless, tasteless gas which burns in the air, or oxygen with a blue flame, forming carbon dioxid:- 2CO 4-O2 = 2CO2. It is a strong reducing agent, capable of breaking up metallic oxids into the elemental metal and carbon dioxid:- CuO + CO = Cu -|- CO2. Fe2O3 +' 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2. Some substances, such as magnesium and aluminum, are stronger reducing agents than is carbon monoxid and will break up the latter substance, thus:- 3CO + 2A1 = A12O3 + 3C. CO+'Mg=MgO+C. In the latter two reactions carbon monoxid plays the part of an oxidizing agent, thus showing that there is an existing relation between the processes of reduction and oxidation. Carbonyl chlorid or phosgene COC12 is an addition prod- uct formed when carbon monoxid unites with chlorin under the influence of sunlight. It is readily decomposed by water:- Carbon oxysulphid COS is formed by heating sulphur vapor with carbon monoxid. It is a colorless inflammable gas, with an odor resembling that hydrogen sulphid. When burned it yields sulphur'and carbon dioxids, thus:- COC12+H2O==CO24-2HC1. COS 4- 30 = CO2 + SO2. 118 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Carbon monoxid unites with iron and nickel, forming the carbonyl compounds Ni(CO)4 and Fe(CO)5. Carbon dioxid CO2 results when carbon is burned in suffi- cient supply of oxygen and is the final oxidation product of carbon. It is colorless gas possessing a slightly acid taste and a feeble pungent odor. Carbon dioxid dissolves in its own bulk of water and this solubility is increased by pressure. It is a non-supporter of life and does not support ordinary combustion. A lighted candle introduced into the gas is im- mediately extinguished and this becomes a test for determin- ing the presence of the gas. It is heavier than air and conse- quently sinks to the bottom of mine shafts and fermenting vats. Certain substances undergoing active combustion will continue to burn in carbon dioxid and form a deposit of carbon, thus:- Mg2 + CO2 = 2MgO + C. 3CO2 + 4K = C + 2K2CO3. Carbon dioxid is liquified by pressure at a temperature of 31 degrees or below. When the liquid is rapidly evaporated in the air solid carbon dioxid is formed. This is flakelike in appearance and is used in securing low temperatures. It is mixed with ether and produces very rapid evaporation. Both the natural and artificially prepared carbon dioxid is bottled in steel cylinders and placed on the market. It is used for effervescing mixtures and the making of soda water. Carbon dioxid is widely distributed in nature, dissolved in all natural waters, contained in gases issuing from the earth in volcanic regions and results as one of the products of dis- integration of animal or vegetable matter. It is constantly being exhaled as a product of respiration in both plants and animals. It exists in form of carbonates, salts of carbonic acid. Carbon dioxid is produced in many different ways:- (1) By the oxidation of carbon in air or oxygen, C + O2 - CO2; CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 119 (2) By the fermentation of sugar, CgH12O6 = 2C2H5OH + 2CO2; (3) By the action of an acid upon a carbonate, CaCO3+2HCl=CaCl2+'H2O+CO2. Na2CO3+H2SO4=Na2SO4+H2O+CO2. When carbon dioxid is passed into a solution of lime- water the liquid becomes turbid and hence lime water is used to detect the presence of the gas. If the gas is in sufficient quantity a white precipitate is formed:- If the process is continued the calcium carbonate is dissolved and the solution becomes clear. Calcium bicarbonate is formed by the action, thus:- Ca(OH)2 + CO2 = CaCO3 +' H2O. CaCO3 +' H2O + CO2 = Ca(HCO3)2. When this solution is boiled the carbon dioxid is expelled and calcium carbonate is reprecipitated:- Ca(HCO3)2 = CaCO3 + H2O + CO2. Carbonic acid H2CO3 exists in aqueous solutions of carbon dioxid. It is not obtained directly by the action of an acid upon a carbonate, but exists as H,O and CO2. Any of the acids decompose carbonates readily, but owing to the cheapness, hydrochloric acid and calcium carbonate in form of marble are most employed. Carbon disulphid CS2 is a colorless, volatile liquid, and when pure, possesses an ethereal odor. On the market it is usually yellowish and has a disagreeable odor, due to im- purities that it contains. These impurities result by decom- position of the disulphid, especially in the presence of mois- ture. Carbon disulphid is very inflammable, its vapors catch fire when heated in the air to 232 degrees. It is very danger- ous to handle and when mixed with air its vapors are very explosive. It burns in air with a blue flame, forming carbon and sulphur dioxids :- CS2 + 30, = CO2 + 2SO,. 120 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Carbon disulphid is a good solvent of fats, oils, rubber and sulphur and hence used extensively as a solvent for these sub- stances and for the vulcanizing of rubber. Its vapors act as an anesthetic, producing in large quantities intoxications and serious disturbances of the nervous system. The compounds of carbon disulphid are analogous to those of carbon dioxid:- CaO + CO2 = CaCO3. CaS + CS2 = CaCS3. Trithiocarbonic acid, H2CS3, is an unstable oil analogous to carbonic acid and readily decomposed into carbon disulphid and hydrogen sulphid, thus: H2CO3=H2O+CO2. H2CS3=H2S4-CS2. Cyanogen, CN, is a colorless, extremely poisonous gas having a characteristic odor. It is easily soluble in water and alcohol and burns with a purple flame. Cyanogen forms a series of blue compounds hence its name cyanogen, meaning blue. It is produced by the action of heat upon a cyanid, thus: Hg(CN)2=Hg+(CN)2. Carbon and nitrogen do not unite directly, but at high tem- peratures and in the presence of carbonates or oxids of alkaline substances form a series of compounds known as cyanids. Potassium cyanid KCN results when nitrogen is passed over a mixture of carbon and fused potassium carbonate: K2CO3-F3C+'N2=2KCN+CO+CO2. When nitrogen is passed over a mixture of calcium oxid and carbon, calcium cyanid Ca(CN)2 is formed: CaO4-3C+N2=Ca(CN)2+CO. Ammonium cyanid NH4CN is made by passing ammonia over red hot carbon: 2NH3+C=NH4CN+H2. Hydrocyanic acid HNC is a colorless, mobile, extremely poisonous liquid, readily soluble in water and alcohol. It is 121 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid upon potassium cyanid: KCN+HC1=KC1+HCN, or by treating potassium ferrocyanid with dilute sulphuric acid: 2K4Fe(CN)8+3H2SO4=6HCN+'3K2SO4+K2Fe:Fe(CN)a. Cyanic acid HCNO is a liquid which easily decomposes, when treated with water, into ammonia and carbon dioxid: HCNO+H2O=NH34-CO2. Potassium ferrocyanid K4Fe(CN)0 is in form of lemon- yellow crystals. It is prepared by heating blood, horns, hoofs, etc., with iron and potassium carbonate. Potassium cyanate KCNO is made by heating lead oxid with potassium cyanid, thus: KCN+'PbO=Pb+KCNO. Potassium sulphocyanate KCNS is made by fusing sulphur with potassium cyanid: KCN+'S=KCNS. Boron Boron is a non-metallic element. Its atomic weight is 11, and the symbol is B. It acts as a trivalent element in all its combinations and in this respect is analogous to the phos- phorus and aluminum groups. Its main properties, however, resemble those of carbon and silicon. Occurrence.-Boron occurs in nature in form of boric acid and its salts, known as the borates. Of the latter sodium and calcium borate are the most important. Preparation.-Boron may be obtained by reducing its oxid by means of potassium, sodium, magnesium or aluminum, thus: or by passing the vapors of boron chlorid over heated sodium: B2Os+3Mg=3MgO+B2. BCl3+3Na=3NaCl+B. 122 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Other methods for its preparation are also analogous to those by which silicon is made. Properties.-Boron exists in two varieties, the amorphous and crystalline. The former results when the oxid is reduced with potassium or when borax is heated with magnesium. It is a brown powder which burns when heated in the air form- ing the oxid B2O3 and the nitrid BN. By the action of sul- phuric or nitric acids it is converted into boric acid and when fused with alkalies it forms borates. Amorphous boron dissolves in molten aluminum and when cooled crystallizes out in form of transparent tetragonal crystals. These crystals are somewhat colored due to im- purities and resemble diamond in their hardness. Boric acid H3BO3 occurs in steam jets issuing from the earth in volcanic regions. The vapors are condensed in small natural or artificial basins then by evaporation the acid crys- tallizes out. The acid is also prepared by treating a hot con- centrated solution of borax with hydrochloric or sulphuric acid: Na2B4O7+H2SO4+'5H2O=Na2SO4+4H3BO3. Na2B4O7+2HCl+5H2O==2NaCl+'4H3BO3. The acid is in form of white, shining flake-like crystals soapy to the touch. These crystals are odorless, have a slight- ly bitter taste and are readily soluble in water. The acid is weak, non-poisonous and non-corrosive. It is a valuable anti- septic and is further used in glazing pottery and as a preserva- tive for meat, fish and other foods. It is injurious to health, hence its use as a preservative is condemned. Metaboric acid HBO, is formed by heating boric acid to 80 degrees. Tetraboric or pyroboric acid H2B4O7 is formed by further heating of boric acid. It ignites forming boric anhydrid B.,O3 which fuses at a high temperature and on cooling congeals CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 123 into a glassy mass. This, when treated with water forms boric acid. Borax, one of the most important compounds of boron is described with the compounds of sodium. Boron hydrid BH3 is a gas formed by the action of hydro- chloric acid upon magnesium borid. Boron nitrid BN is formed by the direct union of boron and nitrogen at high temperature. It is a white solid decom- posed by water into boric acid and ammonia. Boron trifluorid BF3 is a colorless, pungent gas formed by the heating of calcium fluorid with boron trioxid: 3CaF2+2B2O3=Ca3B2O6+'2BF3. Boron trichlorid BC13 is a colorless liquid decomposed by water into hydrochloric and boric acids: BC134-3H2O=3HC1+H3BO3. Boron sulphid B2S3 is white crystalline solid formed by heating sulphur and boron. It is readily decomposed by water. B2S3+6H2O=2B (OH )3+3H2S. Silicon Silicon is a tetravalent element having the symbol Si, and the atomic weight 28. Occurrence.-It is never found in the free state, but in combination it obtains in great abundance and widely dis- tributed. It occurs in combination with oxygen as the oxid SiO2, and with oxygen and metals in the salts known as silicates. Next to oxygen it is. the most abundant element found in the earth's crust forming about one-fourth thereof. Sand is almost pure silicon oxid while clay consists largely of the silicates. Preparation.-Silicon may be prepared by heating sand with finely divided magnesium : SiOJ!4-2Mg=2MgO+Si, 124 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY or by heating sodium or aluminum in a current of silicon tetrachlorid: SiCl4+4Na=4NaCl+Si, 3SiCl4+4Al=4AlCl34-3Si On the large scale silicon is made by heating a mixture of quartz sand and coke in the electric furnace: It is run into molds forming pigs weighing from 600 to 800 pounds and varying in purity from 90 to 99 percent. Properties.-Silicon exists in several forms somewhat an- alogous to those of carbon. Its compounds are also very similar to those of carbon. It exists as an amorphous brown powder which burns in the air when highly heated producing silicon dioxid SiO2. When the amorphous variety is dis- solved in molten zinc and cooled, it separates out in form of crystals. These consist of dark shining plates of the isometric system. The zinc may be removed with hydrochloric acid. The crystalline variety of silicon is very hard and oxidizes with difficulty in air or oxygen. Nitric and hydrofluoric acids dissolve it quite readily. Fluorin unites with it under ordinary temperatures with the evolution of heat and light: SiO24-2C=2CO4-Si. Si+4F=SiF4. It is also dissolved by hot potassium hydroxid: 2KOH+H2O4-'Si=K2SiO3+2H2. Silicon is used mainly as a reducing agent in the steel industry. Silicon dioxid SiO2 is by far the most important compound of silicon. It is the chief constituent of sandstones and sand. In crystalline form it occurs as quartz and amethyst. As an amorphus body it occurs as agate, opal, flint, carnelian and chalcadony. The pure variety is colorless, other varieties are discolored by impurities. Quartz is very hard and is used as an abrasive material in the grinding of glass and metals. It is used in the making of sand paper and owing to the peculiarity that its crystals CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 125 bear to the rotating of polarized light it is used in making certain kinds of optical instruments. Quartz changes but slightly with alterations of temperature and is therefore used in making flasks, crucibles and evaporating dishes. Cold water may be poured into a white-hot quartz crucible without injuring it. Silica is found also in feathers, hair, stalks of grass, cereals, bamboo and other canes giving to these a certain amount of stability. It is used in the manufacture of glass and in making mortar, cement and porcelain. Orthosilicic acid Si(OH)4 is formed when silicon tetra- chlorid is treated with water: Metasilicic acid or silicic acid H2SiO3 results when orthosilicic acid loses a molecule of water or when a solution or sodium silicate is treated with hydrochloric acid: SiCl4+4H2O=4HCl+Si(OH)4. Na2SiO34-2HCl=2NaCl+H2SiO3. Disilicic acids are formed by removing one, two and three molecules of water from two molecules of orthosilicic acid and have the formulae H6Si2O7, H4Si2O6, and H2Si2O5 respectively. Trisilicic acids H8Si3O10 and H4Si3O8 are formed by the loss of two or four molecules of water from three molecules of orthosilicic acid. Sodium and potassium silicates known as sodium and potassium water glass have been described under the subjects of sodium and potassium. Hydrogen silicid SiH4 is a colorless gas which burns in the air under diminished pressure or in the presence of silicoe- thane which it usually contains. The products formed by the combustion of SiH4 are water and silica. The latter forms a white smoke. In the presence of chlorin gas hydrogen silicid takes fire readily. It is prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid on magnesium silicid: Mg2Si+4HCl=2MgCl24-SiH4. 126 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Silicoethan Si2HG ignites spontaneously on exposure to air and obtains in combination with hydrogen silicid. Silicon tetrafluorid SiF4 is a colorless gas possessing a very pungent odor. Water decomposes it with the formation of silicic acids: Silicon tetrafluorid may be made by the direct union of silicon and fluorin: 3SiF4+3H2O=H2SiO3+2H2SiF6. Si + 2F2 = SiF4. or by the action of hydrofluoric acid on silica; SiO2+4HF=2H2O+SiF4, also by the action of sulphuric acid on calcium fluorid and silica; 2CaF2+SiO2+2H2SO4=2CaSO4+2H2O+SiF4. Silicon tetrachlorid SiCl4 is a pungent liquid decomposed by water: It is formed by heating silicon in chlorin; SiC14_|_4H2O=4HC1+H4SiQ4 Si+2Cl2=SiCl4, or by the action of chlorin upon a mixture of silica and carbon; SiO,+2C4-2Cl2=2CO+SiCl4. Silicon tetrabromid SiBr4 and silicon tetraiodid Sil4 are analogous to silicon tetrachlorid and prepared in the same manner. Silicon carbid SiC is formed by fusing silica and carbon with sodium chlorid in an electric furnace. It is next to dia- mond in hardness and is used as an abrasive material, also in the making of grinding wheels and whetstones. Its com- mon name is carborundum. Calcium Calcium is a positive metallic substance belonging to the class of elements known as alkaline earth metals. Its atomic weight is 40, symbol Ca, and valency 2. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 127 Occurrence.-Calcium is never found in the free state, but as a combined substance is obtained in large quantities and widely distributed. It is found in large masses as marble, chalk and limestone. It occurs in combination as sulphate, phosphate, fluorid and silicate as well as numerous other com- pounds. Calcium salts are found in plants, bodies of animals and nearly all natural waters. Preparation.-Metallic calcium is obtained by heating calcium iodid with sodium or by heating calcium oxid with carbon in an electric furnace. It is best prepared by elec- trolysis of calcium chlorid. The chlorid is placed into a carbon container, the walls of which serve as the anode. The other electrode is made of iron or copper. The heat developed by the process is sufficient to keep the salt in a molten state. Calcium is light and rises to the top and collects on the metal cathode in form of a rough stick. Properties.-Calcium is a silvery-white metal crystallizing in hexagonal shapes. It is tough and malleable and decom- poses water with great readiness. It is therefore kept under petroleum or in air tight glass containers. At 760 degrees it catches fire in the air and results in the oxid CaO and the nitrid Ca3N2. Calcium is very active chemically, uniting with all elements except those of the argon group. Calcium oxid CaO is commonly known as lime or quick- lime. It is a white amorphous solid made by heating calcium carbonate above 600 degrees. With water it unites with great readiness forming calcium hydroxid Ca(OH),. A clear solu- tion of the hydroxid in water is termed limewater, but when the hydroxid is in excess the solution formed is somewhat turbid and is then known as milk of lime. Calcium oxid readily absorbs water from the air and is thereby converted into calcium carbonate or air-slacked lime. It is used in the making of mortar, in the tanning industry, in purifying coal, gas and sugar, as a disinfectant, and in the making of bleach- 128 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY ing powder, glass, sodium and potassium hydroxids, oxalic, tartaric and citric acids. Calcium carbonate CaCO3 is by far the most abundant of all calcium compounds. It obtains as limestone in large quantities, though this is not a pure form. As chalk, which is almost pure calcium carbonate, it exists in great abundance. In the crystalline form it occurs as marble. Calcium carbonate is practically insoluble in pure water, but water that containsi carbon dioxid dissolves it readily. Calcium carbonate in form of limestone and marble is used extensively as building stones, in the manufacture of glass, in the reduction of iron ores, in the making of lime and cement, and many other products. When mixed with linseed oil it forms putty. Calcium sulphate CaSO4 occurs in nature in large quanti- ties as gypsum, selenite, anhydrite and alabaster. It obtains as a crystalline solid soluble in water and nitric and hydro- chloric acids. Gypsum CaSO4: 2H2O, when heated to about 110 degrees, loses its water of crystallization and becomes a white powder. This powder is known as plaster of Paris and is used extensively in the making of casts and surgical band- ages. It is also used as a fertilizer in which case it acts upon ammonium carbonate forming non-volatile ammonium sul- phate which is utilized by the plants. Calcium sulphite CaSO3 is a crystalline solid slightly soluble in water. It is formed by passing sulphur dioxid into calcium hydroxid. Calcium phosphate Ca3(PO4)2 is a necessary constituent of plant and animal life. It is found in soils whence it is available to all plants and in the animals it is the main con- stituent of bones. It is slightly soluble in water, but readily soluble in acids and salts of alkalies. It is used extensively as a fertilizer. Calcium phosphid Ca2P2 is a brown solid decomposed by CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 129 water into calcium hydroxid and phosphine. It is prepared by heating together lime and phosphorus: 14CaO-|-14P=2Ca2P2O74-5Ca2P2. Calcium sulphid CaS when exposed to sunlight emits a faint light visible in the dark and hence is used in the making of luminous articles such as clock faces. It is prepared by heating carbon with calcium sulphate: CaSO44-4C=CaS-HCO. Calcium fluorid CaF2 is a crystalline solid insoluble in water. It occurs naturally as a fluorite and is used in making hydrofluoric acid and other compounds of fluorin. Calcium chlorid CaCl2 is a deliquescent salt used exten- sively as a drying agent. From solutions it crystallizes in hexagonal prisms. It occurs naturally in combination with magnesium chlorid and may be prepared artifically by the action of lime on ammonium chlorid or by the action of hydrochloric acid upon calcium carbonate. It occurs as one of the by-products in the manufacture of soda by the Solvay process. Chlorid of lime Ca(OCl)Cl is of a slight yellowish color. It possesses great affinity for carbon dioxid and water, both of which it absorbs from the air. It is used extensively as a bleaching agent in the manufacture of cotton and linen goods and in the making of paper. Chlorid of lime is made in large quantities by passing chlorin into calcium hydroxid. Calcium carbid CaC2 is a white solid and when treated with water yields acetylene for the manufacture of which it is extensively used. The carbid is made by heating lime with carbon, thus: CaO4-3C=CaC24~CO. Calcium silicid CaSi2 occurs in form of hexagonal crystals, produced by heating a mixture of lime and silicon in the electric furnace. Calcium silicate CaSiO3 is a salt insoluble in water, but 130 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY soluble in hydrochloric acid by which it is broken up into cal- cium chlorid and silicic acid. It occurs naturally in complex silicates as mica, feldspar and garnet, and is artificially pre- pared by the action of sodium silicate on calcium chlorid: CaCl24-Na2SiO3=CaSiO3+2NaCl. A mixture of sodium and calcium silicates is used in the mak- ing of the so-called soda-lime glass. Thi is used for window glass, plate glass, glass utensils, glass tubing, etc. All these articles must be annealed by cooling gradually in suitable furnaces. Glass that is cooled rapidly is very brittle and breaks easily. Potash-lime glass is made by using potassium instead of sodium carbonate and is used in making the finer glassware of harder variety. Bohemian glass and crown glass are of this variety. Flint glass is made from a mixture of silica, potash and lead oxid. Cut glass is made by grinding and polishing flint glass. Jena glass contains boric anhydrid. Colored glass is made by the addition of various metallic oxids to glass in the molten state. Milk glass is made by the addition of cal- cium phosphate. Strontium Strontium is an element similar in properties to those of calcium. Its symbol is Sr, valency 2 and atomic weight 87. Occurrence.-Strontium occurs in the combined form as sulphate and carbonate. It never obtains in the free state. Preparation.-The metallic form is best obtained by elec- trolysis of molten strontium chlorid SrCl2. Properties.-Strontium is a silvery white metai somewhat plastic in consistency. In its general properties it bears re- semblance to the compounds of calcium. When exposed to the air it becomes slowly oxidized. It acts upon water, form- ing strontium hydroxid and liberating hydrogen. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 131 Compounds of Strontium Strontium chlorid SrCl2 is a crystalline solid containing six molecules of water of crystallization. It absorbs water quite readily, but not to the same degree as does the chlorid of calcium. Strontium sulphate SrSO4 is formed as a precipitate when soluble sulphate solution is added to solutions of strontium salts. Strontium nitrate Sr(NO3)2 consists of efflorescent crys- tals readily soluble in water. By heat it is decomposed, yield- ing the oxid. Strontium oxid SrO forms the hydroxid Sr (OH), when treated with water. The hydroxid is used in extracting sugar from molasses. Strontium dioxid SrO, and strontium carbonate SrCO3 are also known. The salts of strontium impart a brilliant color to the flame and are used extensively in the sugar industry. Barium Barium is a divalent, positive, metallic substance having the symbol Ba, and the atomic weight of 137. Occurrence.-Barium occurs in nature as the carbonate BaCO3 and as the sulphate BaSO4. It never obtains in the free state. Preparation.-Metallic barium is best obtained by the process of electrolysis of molten barium chlorid. Properties.-Barium is a silvery white metal having prop- erties analogous to those of calcium and strontium. Compounds of Barium Barium nitrate Ba(NO3)2 is obtained by adding sodium nitrate to a concentrated solution of barium chlorid, or by the 132 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY action of nitric acid upon calcium carbonate, hydroxid or sul- phid. It forms anhydrous crystals readily decomposed by heat into barium oxid, oxygen and nitrogen oxids. Barium carbonate BaCO3 occurs in form of rhombic crys- tals. It is made by heating the sulphate or sulphid with sodium carbonate. By heating it with carbon it is reduced to barium oxid. Barium sulphate BaSO4 occurs in nature in form of rhombic crystals, insoluble in water and dilute acids. It is the chief source of barium and is prepared by treating a solution of barium salt with soluble sulphate. Barium sulphate is used as a white pigment. Barium sulphid BaS is produced by heating barium sul- phate with carbon. Barium oxid BaO is prepared by heating the carbonate. On treatment with water it forms barium hydroxid Ba(OH)2 and on heating it in air or oxygen it forms barium dioxid BaO2. Barium chlorid BaCl2 possesses a bitter taste and is strongly poisonous. It is prepared by the action of hydro- chloric acid on the carbonate or sulphid. Barium fluorid BaF2, barium bromid BaBr2 and barium iodid are also known. Radium Radium Ra is found in very small quantity in the minerals pitchblend and uraninite. These compounds constantly emit several forms of emanations possessing high photographic activity. These emanations are transmitted through many substances opaque to ordinary light and are termed radio- activity. Radium is bivalent and has the atomic weight of 226. It has never been isolated as a free metallic substance. Several compounds of radium have been prepared, among which the chlorid RaCl2 is the best known and most im- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 133 portant. All these compounds are radio active, luminous in the dark and emit heat continually. Magnesium Magnesium, Mg is a positive divalent element. Its atomic weight is 24.3. Occurrence.-It occurs in large quantities and widely dis- tributed in the mineral world. It obtains in spring water and different soils, also in the bodies of plants and animals. Preparation.-Magnesium is prepared by electrolysis of molten carnalite MgCl2 :KC1:6H2O. This is put into an iron receptacle which serves as the cathode and the metallic sub- stance is deposited upon the carbon anode. Properties.-Magnesium is a hard, light, ductile, silver- white metal. It burns in the air with a brilliant white light with the formation of the oxid MgO. It acts powerfully on photographic plates and is therefore used in the making of flash light powders. Compounds of Magnesium Magnesium oxid MgO is commonly called magnesia; It is a light, amorphous, white powder sparingly soluble in water. It is used in the making of fire brick and electric furnaces. Magnesium hydroxid Mg(OH)2 is formed from water and magnesium oxid. Magnesium sulphate MgSO4 forms rhombic crystals, soluble in water. It possesses a bitter taste and is found in waters of mineral springs. It is commonly known as epsom salt and is used in the making of potassium and sodium sul- phates. Magnesium carbonate MgCO3 is commonly known as magnesia alba. It obtains in form of hexagonal crystals soluble in water charged with carbon dioxid. 134 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Magnesium chlorid MgCl2 consists of monoclinic crystals decomposed by heat: Phosphates of magnesium are similar to those of calcium. MgCl2:6H2O=MgO4-2HCl+5H2O. Zinc Zinc, Zn, is a bivalent metal with the atomic weight of 65.4. Occurrence.-Zinc occurs in nature mainly as a carbonate ZnCO3, or sulphid ZnS, usually associated with lead. In other combinations it exists as a silicate Zn2SiO4, and as oxid ZnO. Preparation.-The ore is first converted into oxid by roasting, thus: ZnCO3=ZnO-f-CO2. ZnS-|-3O=ZnO-|-SO2. The zinc oxid so formed is then reduced by heating it with carbon: ZnO4-C=Zn+CO. At a red heat the zinc is converted into a vapor which is then condensed in iron receivers into sine dust. This is then liquified like sulphur flowers and poured into molds forming crude impure zinc called spelter. Pure zinc is obtained by redistillation; by the action of pure carbon upon pure zinc carbonate or by the electrolysis of pure zinc salts. Properties.-Zinc is a bluish-white metal which crystal- lizes in hexagonal shapes. It possesses a metallic luster which on exposure to moist air becomes dimmed by oxidation. At ordinary temperatures the metal is rather brittle and when heated to about 110 degrees it becomes malleable and ductile, that is, it can be rolled out into thin sheets or drawn out into fine wire. At 200 degrees it becomes very brittle and can be easily pulverized. At high temperatures zinc burns in CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 135 the air with a bluish-white flame, giving off dense white fumes of zinc oxid ZnO. It has no action upon water, but when steam is passed over hot zinc, zinc oxid and hydrogen are formed. When it acts upon an acid it is dissolved and liberates the hydrogen: Zn+2H2SO4=ZnSO4+SO2+2H2O. Zn4-2HCl=ZnCl2+H2. If both the metal and the acid used are pure, scarcely any action takes place. Alkalies also dissolve zinc, forming zinc- ates and hydrogen: Many of the salts are broken up by zinc and the metal of the salt deposited as finely divided powder: Zn+2NaOH=Na2ZnO2+H2. CuSO4-J-Zn=ZnSO4-|-Cu. Zinc is used in making galvanic batteries and for prepar- ing hydrogen in the laboratory. In sheets it is used for roofs and architectural ornaments. It is employed in the making of brass and other alloys and for the galvanizing of iron. Compounds of Zinc Zinc oxid ZnO is a white powder obtained by burning zinc in air or by heating zinc carbonate. That prepared by the first method is yellow and when hot and on cooling forms into white flocculent masses. That prepared by the second method is of a pale yellow color. The white flocculent masses are known as zinc white and used extensively in the making of white paints. \ Zinc chlorid ZnCI2 is a white solid readily soluble in water. It is prepared by burning zinc in chlorin, or by the action of hydrochloric acid upon zinc, zinc carbonate, zinc oxid or hydroxid. This compound is used in preserving wood, also as a disinfectant or antiseptic. 136 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Oxychlorids are formed by mixing zinc chlorid solutions with zinc oxid. Zinc bromid ZnBr2, zinc iodid Znl2 and zinc fluorid ZnF2 are also known. The last of the three substances is but slightly soluble in water, but the first two dissolve very readily. Zinc carbonate ZnCO3 is a crystalline solid existing as such in nature. It is soluble in excess of ammonium car- bonate. Zinc sulphate ZnSO4 consists of colorless rhombic prisms which effloresce on exposure to air. The substance is easily dissolved in water and is prepared by the oxidation of zinc sulphid or by the action of sulphuric acid upon zinc, zinc oxid or zinc carbonate. Zinc sulphate is used as an antiseptic. Zinc sulphid ZnS is a white crystalline solid and exists as such in nature. It may be prepared by the action of zinc salt upon the sulphid of an alkali. Mercury Mercury is a positive divalent element, symbol Hg, atomic weight 200. It is commonly known as quicksilver and is the only metal that is liquid at ordinary temperatures. Occurrence.-In the free state it obtains in form of minute drops in certain natural rocks. Its chief source is cinnabar, the sulphid HgS. Preparation.-Metallic mercury is prepared by heating the sulphid: HgS+'O2=Hg+SO2. The vapors are condensed and the metal then purified by re- distillation. Mechanical impurities are removed by filtration. Properties.-Mercury is a silvery white liquid, possessing a brilliant metallic lustre. It crystallizes at low temperatures and becomes malleable. It boils at 350 degrees. In the air it remains unchanged at ordinary temperatures. Sulphuric and CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 137 hydrochloric acids have but little effect upon it, but nitric or hot sulphuric acids dissolve it readily. It combines directly with sulphur, chlorin, bromin and iodin at slightly elevated temperatures. Mercury is used in making mirrors, thermomoters, barom- eters and amalgams. Large quantities of it are also used in ex- tracting gold and silver from their ores. Alloys of mercury with their other metals are known as amalgams. These are usually in nature of solutions of metals in mercury or made by introducing metals into solutions of mercury salts. When the mercury predominates in the com- bination the amalgam is liquid, whereas when the other metal is in relatively greater abundance the- amalgam is' solid. Mercury forms amalgams with all the metals with the excep- tion of iron and platinum. Sodium amalgam is used as a reducing agent, tin amalgam in the making of mirrors, while tin and silver mixed with small amounts of copper, cadmium and gold form alloys with mer- cury that are widely used in dentistry. Compounds of Mercury Mercurous oxid Hg2O is an odorless, tasteless black pow- der. When heated or exposed to light it decomposes into mercuric oxid and mercury. It is quite unstable and may be prepared by adding a solution of mercurous salt to an excess of potassium hydroxid. Mercuric oxid HgO obtains as a bright red crystalline powder or as a yellowish-red amorphous finely divided precipi- tate. The first variety is obtained when mercury is heated in the air or by heating a mixture of mercuric nitrate and mer- cury. The yellow variety is more active than the red and is prepared by adding a solution of sodium hydroxid to a solution of mercuric chlorid. 138 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Mercurous chlorid HgCl is commonly called calomel. It is a yellowish crystalline solid prepared by heating mercury with mercuric chlorid: or by the reduction of mercuric chlorid with sulphur dioxid or stannous chlorid: Hg+HgCl2=2HgCl, 2HgCl2+2H2O+'SO2=2HCl+H2SO4+2HgCl, 2HgCl2+SnSl2=SnCl4+2HgCl. It may also be made by the action of mercury and sodium chlorid upon mercuric sulphate or by the action of sodium chlorid upon mercurous nitrate, thus: HgSO4+Hg+2NaCl==Na2SO4+'2HgCl, HgNO3+NaCI=NaNO3+HgCl. Mercurous chlorid is obtained in the crystalline form by sub- limation and as an amorphous powder by precipitation. It is insoluble in water and when exposed to light it gradually de- composes into mercury and mercuric chlorid. Mercuric chlorid HgCl2 is otherwise known as corrosive sublimate. It is a heavy, white, crystalline solid soluble in water. When pulverized it forms a white odorless powder. It is a powerful poison possessing a styptic taste. When exposed to light, mercuric chlorid solution decomposes into mercurous chlorid with the formation of hydrochloric acid and the libera- tion of oxygen: 4HgCl24-2H2O=4HgCl+4HCl+O2. When mercuric chlorid is treated with lime water mercuric oxid results: HgCl24-Ca(OH)2=HgO+'CaCl2+H2O Mercuric chlorid is prepared by heating mercuric sulphate with sodium chlorid: HgSO4+2NaCl=Na2SO44-HgCl2, or by the action of hydrochloric acid on mercuric oxid: HgO+2HCl=HgCl2+'H2O. Mercuric chlorid is used as a disinfectant only in very di- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 139 lute solutions, as strong solutions are very corrosive. It is also used in preserving specimens of wood, herbaria, and animals. Mercurous iodid Hgl is otherwise known as yellow iodid of mercury. It is an odorless, tasteless, greenish-yellow pow- der sparingly soluble in water. It is prepared by treating a mercurous salt with sodium or potassium iodid. Mercurous iodid decomposes into mercury and mercuric iodid very read- ly as shown by the following equation: Mercuric iodid Hgl2 when freshly prepared is of a yellow color, but on standing it soon becomes a bright red. It is colorless, odorless, sparingly soluble in water and does not change when exposed to the air. It is prepared by the direct union of mercury and iodin or by the action of potas- sium iodid upon a solution of mercuric chlorid. Mercurous nitrate HgNO3 is prepared by the action of nitric acid upon an excess of mercury. It is in form of mono- clinic crystals. Mercuric nitrate Hg(NO3)2 obtains in form of deliquescent crystals which easily undergo hydrolysis, forming a series of basic salts. These salts vary with the amount of water present and if boiled with excess of water are decomposed into nitric acid and mercuric oxid. Mercuric nitrate is prepared by the action of nitric acid upon mercuric oxid, or by excess of hot nitric acid upon mercury. It coagulates albumins and is therefore used as Millon's reagent in testing for them. Mercurous sulphate Hg2SO4 consists of colorless crystals sparingly soluble in water. It is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid upon an excess of mercury and is used for mak- ing standard cells. Mercuric sulphate HgSO4 is made by treating mercuric oxid with an excess of sulphuric acid. It is obtained as a white crystalline mass which on treatment with water becomes 2HgI=Hg+HgI, 140 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY hydrolized, forming sulphuric acid and a basic salt of mercury. Mercuric sulphid HgS is prepared by the direct union of sulphur and mercury or by conducting hydrogen sulphid into a solution of mercury salt. It is a black Amorphous powder soluble in aqua regia. When sublimed it forms dark red crystals used as a pigment under the name vermilion. Mercuric cyanid Hg(CN)2 is made by the action of hydro- cyannic acid upon mercuric oxid. It forms prismatic crystals which when heated yield mercury and cyanogen. Mercuric fulminate HgC2O2N2 is a highly explosive, white powder used in making percussion caps. It is made by the action of nitric acid on mercury in the presence of alcohol. Cadmium Cadmium is a silvery white crystalline metal. Its symbol is Cd, valency 2 and atomic weight 112. Cadmium is a rare element and obtains in small quantities in connection with zinc ores and also as a native sulphid, CdS. It is usually obtained as one of the products in the reduction of zinc ores. Under ordinary temperatures it is malleable and ductile. In the air it becomes coated with a thin layer of oxid and when strongly heated in air or oxygen it burns, yielding a brown oxid. Its chief use is in the preparing of certain alloys. Compounds of Cadmium Cadmium oxid CdO is a brown powder produced by burning cadmium in the air. It is readily reduced by the action of carbon or hydrogen. Cadmium hydroxid Cd(OH)2 is formed by the action of water upon the oxid. Cadmium chlorid CdCl2 is an efflorescent crystalline salt. Cadmium bromid CdBr, is an anhydrous salt soluble in water and alcohol. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 141 Cadmium iodid Cdl2 is a salt used in photography. It is made by the direct union of cadmium and iodin in the presence of water. Cadmium nitrate Cd(NO3)2 is made by the action of nitric acid upon cadmium, cadmium hydroxid or carbonate. It is a deliquescent salt. Cadmium sulphate CdSO4 is an efflorescent, crystalline salt readily soluble in water. Cadmium sulphid CdS is a bright yellow precipitate formed by the action of hydrogen sulphid upon a solution of cadmium salt. It is used as a pigment. Copper Copper is a metal of high specific gravity and forms two series of compounds. In one series the copper acts as a univalent substance and the compounds thus formed are known as cuprous compounds. In the other series copper acts as a bivalent element, forming cupric compounds. Its symbol is Cu and the atomic weight 63.6. Occurrence.-Copper is found in both the free and com- bined states. In the free state it exists in large quantities in the mineral world, principally near Lake Superior. In the combined state it obtains in several different substances large- ly copper glance Cu2S. Small quantities of copper compounds are also found in plant and animal life. Preparation.-Copper is prepared by heating the oxid with carbon: Cu2O+C=2Cu-FCO. Copper ores that contain sulphur or sulphids are heated and the sulphur and iron become transformed into oxids. These oxids are then mixed with carbon and silicates and heated in a blast furnace. The iron combines with the silicate and floats on top. This is then drawn off. The copper oxids are 142 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY formed into sulphids which form a heavy liquid that collects at the bottom. This liquid is then run into water and forms a copper matte which consists of iron and copper sulphids. This product is again heated with carbon and silicates and more iron is thereby removed. The substance left is heated in a current of air, thereby oxidizing such metals as iron, antimony and arsenic, which either pass off as vapors or float on the surface whence they can be removed. Some of the copper is also oxidized and reacts with the sulphid, forming metallic copper and sulphur dioxid. If any copper oxid remains it is further reduced by the addition of carbon. Ores that contain small amounts of copper are heated with common salt, thus forming a chlorid of copper. Iron is then added, combining with the chlorin and precipitating the cop- per :- CuCl2-|-Fe=FeCl2+Cu. Pure copper is obtained by the process of electrolysis. Properties.-Copper is a reddish brown substance posses- sing a metallic luster. It is tough, hard and very malleable and ductile. In dry air it remains unchanged, but in moist air it becomes coated with a film of green oxid. Copper oxidizes very easily when heated in the air and when in the molten state it absorbs such gases as hydrogen, carbon monoxid and sulphur dioxid. Copper acts energetically upon nitric acid, forming cupric nitrate and nitrogen dioxid, thus: 8HNO34-3Cu=3Cu(NO3)2-|-'4HO2-|-2NO. With sulphuric acid it forms copper sulphate and sulphur dioxid: 2H2SO4+Cu=CuSO4+2H2O+SO2. Many other acids are decomposed by copper with the forma- tion of copper salts. Ammonia water slowly dissolves copper in presence of air. Copper is used in the making of wire and cables. Its chief use is in the making of alloys such as brass, bronze, CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 143 Dutch metal and gun metal. It is also used for architectural ornaments and for electroplating. Compounds of Copper Cuprous oxid Cu2O is a bright red crystalline powder obtained by incomplete oxidation of copper in the air. Another way of making cuprous oxid is by heating sodium carbonate with cuprous chlorid, thus: Na2CO3+2CuCl=Cu2O+CO24-2NaCl. Cuprous oxid is unchanged by exposure to air, but in the pres- ence of acids is converted into cupric salts and copper: Cu2O+H2SO4==CuSO4+H2O+Cu. Cupric oxid CuO is a black powder obtained by heating copper in oxygen or air. It gives up its oxygen when heated with carbon or any of its compounds. Cupric hydroxid Cu(OH)2 is formed by adding caustic alkali to a solution of cupric salt. It is soluble in ammonia, yielding a blue solution known as Schweitzer's reagent. When treated with acids it forms cupric salts. Cuprous chlorid CuCl is a white crystalline powder in- soluble in water or alcohol. It is made by heating cupric chlorid with copper: Cupric chlorid CuCl, is an anhydrous salt of a brown color formed by the action of hydrochloric acid upon cupric oxid, hydroxid or carbonate. It may be made by burning copper in chlorin. Aqueous solutions of cupric chlorid are greenish in color. These yield green prismatic crystals readily soluble in water. When mixed with ammonia the chlorid forms a dark blue unstable powder. Cuprous bromid CuBr is a white incoluble powder which fuses without decomposition. Cuprous iodid Cui is a white crystalline powder insoluble CuC12+Cu=2CuC1. 144 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY in water. It is made by heating a mixture of copper and iodin or by the action of potassium iodid upon cupric salt: CuSO4+2KI=K2SO4+CuI+I. Cuprous fluorid CuF is a bright red, crystalline, insoluble powder. Cuprous cyanid -CuCN is a white precipitate formed by adding potassium to a solution of copper sulphate and sulphur dioxid. Cupric cyanid Cu(CN)2 is formed when a solution of cupric salt is treated with potassium cyanid. It is very un- stable and decomposes into cupric cuprous cyanid and cyanogen: CuSO4+2KCN=Cu(CN)2+K2SO4. 3Cu(CN)2=Cu(CN)2:Cu2(CN)24-(CN)2. Copper Sulphate CuSO4 is commonly called blue vitriol It consists of efflorescent crystals which lose their water of crystallization at 100 degrees, forming a grayish-white powder. The latter is very hygroscopic and is therefore used in the laboratory as a drying agent. Copper sulphate is made by heating copper with sulphuric acid, or by heating copper pyrites in a current of air. It is soluble in water and is used in copperplating, dyeing and as a source of other copper compounds and as a germicide. It forms double salts with alkaline sulphates. Copper nitrate Cu(NO3)2 obtains in form of deliquescent crystals which easily decompose, yielding cupric oxid. It is formed by dissolving copper, cupric oxid, hydroxid or car- bonate in nitric acid. Copper arsenite Cu3(AsO3)2 is a green precipitate formed by the action of potassium arsenite upon copper sulphate. It is a green pigment known as Scheele's green. Cuprous sulphid Cu2S obtains in form of black crystals formed when cupric sulphid or a mixture of copper and sul- phur is burned in a current of hydrogen. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 145 Cupric sulphid CuS obtains as a black precipitate when hydrogen sulphid is passed into a solution of copper salt. Silver Silver is a monovalent, positive, metallic substance hav- ing the symbol Ag and the atomic weight 108. Occurrence.-Silver occurs in nature in the free state. It is usually found in small amounts, but instances are known where it has been found in masses weighing over a hundred pounds. In combination silver is found in form of sulphids of silver, arsenic and antimony. It also obtains as a chlorid. Preparation.-There are several processes by means of which silver is obtained in metallic form. These processes vary in different localities and also with the kind of ore from which the silver is to be extracted. Silver ores rich in lead are reduced by the Parke process. The ore is first heated to get rid of the sulphur and the residue is then mixed with carbon and suitable fluxes and heated in the blast furnace. Thus a molten mass of lead containing the silver settles to the bottom and is drawn off. To this molten mass zinc is added and as zinc possesses a great affinity for silver (more so than lead) it combines with it and forms a foamy floating mass. This is then skimmed off and treated with superheated steam, thus oxidizing the zinc and leaving the metallic silver. The amalgamation process consists in extracting silver from ores by dissolution in mercury. The silver ore is first heated with sodium chlorid, forming a silver chlorid. The chlorid is then treated with water and iron. The iron thus combines with the chlorin, forming ferrous chlorid and the silver is precipitated. The precipitate is then treated with mercury, washed and strained through canvas. 146 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY The Pattinson process is used for the removing of silver from combination with lead. When a mixture of lead and silver cools some of the lead crystallizes and is removed. On further cooling more lead is crystallized and is likewise re- moved. This process is repeated until a great deal of the lead is removed and an alloy of lead very rich in silver re- mains. From this alloy the silver is removed by heating in a current of air in a closed furnace. The lead is in this way oxidized and the silver remains. This latter process is com- monly termed cupellation. Pure silver is obtained by electrolysis or by the sulphuric acid method. In purifying of silver by electrolysis the impure substance forms the anode. Thin silver plates are used for the cathode. The electrolyte consists of silver nitrate acidified with nitric acid. When the electric current is turned on pure silver in crystal form is deposited upon the silver cathode from where it is scraped off and falls to the bottom of the container. After the electrolyte is removed the crystals are washed, re- sulting in pure elemental silver. The sulphuric acid method consists of dissolving silver in hot concentrated sulphuric acid and diluting the solution with water. In this way metals like gold and platinum remain be- hind and a silver sulphate is formed. The sulphate is treated with iron and the pure silver is precipitated. Properties.-Silver is a white metal, capable of high polish and possessing a metallic luster. It is the most abundant of noble metals in existence. Silver is very malleable and ductile and is the best known conductor of heat and electricity. It is harder than gold and softer than copper. In ordinary air silver is unchanged, but when hydrogen sulphid is present the bright surface is tarnished by the formation of black silver sulphid. In the presence of ozone silver ozidizes to AgO. Silver unites with chlorin, bromin, iodin and sulphur at ordinary temperatures. It is not attacked by caustic or car- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 147 bonated alkalies and only slightly by hydrochloric acid. It is dissolved by hot sulphuric acid, but most readily by nitric acid. These reactions are shown thus:- 2Ag + 2H2SO4 = Ag2SO4 + 2H2O + SO2. 3Ag + 4HNQ3 = 3AgNO3 +' 2H2O + NO. Compounds of Silver Silver oxid Ag2O is a dark brown amorphous precipitate formed when sodium or potassium hydroxid is added to a solution of silver nitrate. It decomposes readily, by heating, into elemental silver and oxygen. Silver peroxid AgO, as before stated, is a black oxid formed by the action of ozone upon metallic silver. Silver chlorid AgCl is formed by the action of hydro- chloric acid upon silver nitrate. It is a white curdy precipi- tate, gradually turning violet and finally black, on exposure to light. It is insoluble in water or nitric acid, but dissolves in concentrated hydrochloric acid and alkaline chlorids. Its chief use is in analytical chemistry. Silver bromid AgBr is obtained by the addition of a solu- ble bromid to a solution of silver nitrate. It is a yellowish precipitate, and like the chlorid, is decomposed on exposure to light. Silver iodid Agl is produced when a soluble iodid is added to a solution of silver nitrate. It is a yellowish precipitate practically insoluble in water and becoming decomposed on exposure to light. Silver fluorid AgF obtains in form of deliquescent crys- tals, very soluble in water. It is made by the action of hydro- fluoric acid upon silver oxid. From the peculiar action that light has upon the above halides, they are used extensively in photography. The film or plate is covered with a layer of gelatin containing finely 148 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY divided silver bromid in suspension. When the plate is ex- posed to light the silver bromid is acted upon differently in different places, according to the reflected light from the image focused upon the plate. The plate is then treated with developing solutions and the silver from the bromid is de- posited in direct ratio to the action of intensity of light upon different parts of the plate. This produces a dark place where light was most intense and a light place where the light was the weakest. The product is known as a negative. When sharp outlines in the picture have been secured by the developing agents, the process is arrested by immersion into a solution of sodium thiosulphate Na2S2O3, commonly called hypo. Thus the hypo dissolves the remaining silver bromid, forming soluble sodium bromid and sodium silver thiosulphate, which are washed off. Thus the plate becomes fixed and is no longer sensitive to light. The picture is then printed by placing this negative plate over sensitive silver chlorid, silver iodid or silver bromid paper, and exposing same to light. This print is known as the positive. When sharp outlines are secured in the positive the process is arrested by fixing. The prints are then washed and dried and made ready for use. Silver nitrate AgNO3 is the most important silver com- pound and from it, practically all other compounds of silver are directly or indirectly obtained. It is commonly called lunar caustic. It is prepared by dissolving silver in nitric acid and obtains in form of transparent, rhombic crystals readily soluble in water. Silver nitrate is poisonous, has a disagree- able metallic taste and possesses strong caustic qualities. In contact with animal matter silver nitrate is rapidly decom- posed, metallic silver being deposited, which forms the char- acteristic black stain, while nitric acid is liberated. It is to the liberation of nitric acid that silver nitrate owes its action as an escharotic. Silvei' nitrate is cast into sticks. These are 149 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY either pure silver nitrate or a mixture of it and potassium nitrate. The latter forms what is known as mitigated caustic. In the stick form the nitrate is used as a cauterizing agent. Silver nitrite AgNO2 is used in the analysis of water. It obtains as a crystalline precipitate from the addition of potas- sium nitrite to a solution of silver nitrate. Silver sulphate Ag2SO4 consists of rhombic crystals solu- ble in water. It is prepared by dissolving silver or silver carbonate in concentrated sulphuric acid. Silver sulphid Ag2S obtains as a dark brown precipitate when hydrogen sulphid is passed into solution of silver salt. Silver cyanid AgCN is made by adding potassium cyanid to a solution of silver nitrate. When potassium cyanid is in excess the nitrate is soluble and forms the double cyanid of silver and potassium KAg(CN)2. This latter salt is used in silver plating. The articles'to be plated are immersed in a solution of the salt in which they serve as the cathode. The anode consists of a thick plate of silver. When the current is turned on the articles to be plated are covered by a dense white deposit of silver. Silver cyanid is used in the making of hydrocyanic acid, thus:- AgCN +' HC1 = AgCl + HCN. Silver carbonate Ag2CO3 is a yellowish precipitate formed when a soluble carbonate is added to a solution of silver salt. It is soluble in water containing carbon dioxid, and when heated, it decomposes into metallic silver, carbon dioxid and oxygen, thus:- Ag2CO3 - 2Ag -f- C02 + O. Silver phosphate Ag3PO4 obtains as a yellow amorphous precipitate when sodium phosphate is added to a solution of silver salt. Gold Gold has the symbol Au derived from the Latin word 150 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY aurum. It forms two series of compounds known as the aurous and the auric. In the first series it acts as a monovalent and in the second as a trivalent substance. Its atomic weight is 197. Occurrence.-Gold usually obtains in the free state in quartz veins and as small particles in certain sands and gravels. More frequently it is found alloyed with silver, cop- per, lead and iron. In the combined state it has been found with tellurium and also a combination of tellurium and silver. Preparation.-Gold obtaining in sands is removed by washing with water, which carries away the light material and leaves the heavier particles behind. From this residue the gold is removed with mercury. The amalgam of gold so formed is then distilled in iron retorts and what little may not separate is removed by the cyanid process. This consists in treating the ore with dilute potassium cyanid solution in which gold dissolves, thus: 4Au + 8KCN -4- 2H.O + O, = 4KOH -f- 4KAu(CN)2. The solution of potassium gold cyanid is then subjected to electrolysis or else the gold is removed by treating the solu- tion with zinc, thus: In removing the gold from quartz the latter is first pulver- ized and these fine particles conveyed by water over copper plates amalgamated with mercury. The mercury arrests the gold particles forming an amalgam which is distilled and then treated with cyanid. Gold obtained by either of the above processes usually contains some silver from which it has to be separated. This is done by treating the alloy, in form of granulated particles, with hot concentrated sulphuric acid, which dissolves the silver and leaves the gold in form of a dark powder. This powder is then melted with potassium nitrate or borax to remove any further impurities. 2KAu(CN)2 + Zn = K2Zn(CN)4 + 2Au. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 151 Properties.-Gold is a soft, bright yellow metal possessing a high metallic luster. It is a good conductor of heat and elec- tricity and is the most malleable and ductile of all the metals. In air or oxygen it remains unchanged even at high tempera- tures. It is most easily dissolved by potassium cyanid and also readily soluble in aqua regia. It is not attacked by nitric, hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. Gold is alloyed with such metals as copper, silver, cad- mium, tin and lead. The alloy of gold with copper is most im- portant. These alloys are used in the making of coins, jewelry and various kinds of ornaments. Pure gold is readily con- densed by hammering and is in this way used by dentists in the filling of teeth. Compounds of Gold Aurous oxid Au,O is formed by the action of caustic alkalies upon aurous chlorid. It is a violet powder which when heated readily decomposes into gold and oxygen. Auric oxid Au2O3 is a brown powder. When treated with ammonia it forms a precipitate known as fulminating gold. This substance when dry is highly explosive. Aurous chlorid AuCl is formed by heating auric chlorid. It consists of white crystals. When boiled with water it de- composes into auric chlorid and gold. Auric chlorid AuC13 is made by dissolving gold in aqua regia or by treating gold with chlorin. It consists of reddish- brown crystals readily decomposed by heating. Aurous cyanid AuCN is a yellow crystalline powder. It is readily soluble in potassium cyanid forming the double salt potassium aurous cyanid KAu(CN),. This as well as potas- sium auric cyanid KAu(CN)4 is used in solutions for the pro- cess of gold plating. Aurous sulphid Au2S is a 'steel-gray precipitate formed by 152 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY passing hydrogen sulphid into solutions of aurous salts. It is soluble in water. Auric sulphid Au2S3 obtains as a brownish-black precipi- tate when hydrogen sulphid is passed into cold solutions of auric salts. Lead Lead is commonly known as plumbum and from this Latin name its symbol Pb is derived. The atomic weight of lead is 207. In most of its combinations it acts as a bivalent element, in some as tetravalent. Occurrence.-Lead is rarely found in the uncombined state. It occurs chiefly as sulphid PbS known as galena. It obtains also in form of carbonates, sulphates and phosphates. Preparation.-Lead is obtained by heating the sulphid thus oxidizing it partly to oxid and partly to sulphate as indi- cated by the following reactions :- 2PbS +' 3O2 = 2PbO + 2SO2, PbS + 20, = PbSO4. By then heating the mixture of unchanged sulphid, oxid and sulphate out of contact with air the metallic substance is ob- tained, thus:- 2PbO4-PbS = SO2 + 3Pb. PbSO4 +' PbS = 2SO2 + 2Pb. It may also be prepared by treating the sulphid with iron. The ferrous sulphid formed is lighter than lead and floats on top. The molten lead is drawn off from below. The reaction is represented thus:- PbS + Fe = FeS + Pb. Properties.-Lead is a bluish white metal presenting bright surfaces when freshly cut. These surfaces readily tarnish when exposed to the air because of the formation of a thin film of oxid. It is a fairly good conductor of heat, but a poor conductor of electricity. It is soft and pliable but not CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 153 readily malleable or ductile. When heated in the air it is readily converted into the oxid. Lead is readily dissolved by nitric or acetic acid, but only slightly attacked by hydro- chloric or sulphuric acids. By hydrochloric acid it is partly dissolved, especially if the acid is heated, forming PbCl2. Concentrated sulphuric acid dissolves lead but slightly, form- ing lead sulphate which is precipitated as a white powder when water is added. Dilute sulphuric acid .forms a white coating of lead sulphate over the surface of the metal. Lead is used extensively in the making of lead pipes, roofs, gutters and storage batteries. It is employed in the sulphuric acid industry for lining chambers, making evapor- ating dishes and pipes. Alloyed with tin it forms solder, pewter and Britannia metal all of which are extensively used. Alloyed with antimony it is used in the making of type metal and as an alloy of antimony and tin it forms babbitt used for lining bearings of heavy machinery. Compounds of Lead Lead suboxid Pb2O is a black powder formed by the ac- tion of air or oxygen on lead, or by the heating of lead oxalate, thus:- 2PbC2O4 = Pb2O + 3CO2 + CO. Lead oxid PbO is otherwise known as plumbic oxid. It is prepared by heating lead in a current of air or oxygen. The direct union of lead and oxygen takes place and results in the formation of a yellow amorphous powder known as massicot. When this is heated to redness it fuses and on cooling forms coppery crystalline scales which when powdered are termed litharge. Litharge is somewhat soluble in water and this solution absorbs carbon dioxid from the air resulting in a pre- cipitate of lead carbonate. Lead oxid is used in the manufacture of glass, in giving 154 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY drying power to oils, in glazing pottery and in the preparation of lead compounds, particularly white lead, red lead and lead acetate. Lead sesquioxid Pb2O3 is an orange yellow powder formed by the action of a hypochlorite upon a solution of plumbite. Red lead Pb3O4 is a bright red powder obtained by heating plumbic oxid in the air. It is a mixture of two substances in varying proportions having the composition PbPbO3 + PbO. Lead peroxid PbO2 is a brown powder formed by the action of hypochlorites upon lead salts. When acted upon by sulphuric or hydrochloric acids it forms the sulphate and chlorid respectively:-. 2PbO2 + 2H2SO4 = 2PbSO4 + 2H2O + O2. PbO2 +' 4HC1 = PbCl2 + 2H2O + Cl2. It dissolves in hot concentrated alkalies forming plumbates:- 2NaOH + PbO2 = Na2PbO3 +' H2O. Lead hydroxid Pb(OH)2 is formed when a caustic alkali is added to a solution of lead salt. Lead chlorid PbCl2 is made by adding a soluble chlorid to a solution of lead salt. It is a white salt slightly soluble in water and when ignited in the air forms the oxychlorid Pb2OCl2. Lead tetrachlorid PbCl4 is formed when lead peroxid is dissolved in cold concentrated hydrochloric acid. It is a yellow oily substance which readily congeals into a crystalline mass. Lead bromid PbBr2 is analogous to the chlorid. Lead iodid Pbl2 is a lemon yellow powder sparingly soluble in cold water. It is soluble in hot water from the solution of which it separates in form of hexagonal scale-like crystals. It is made by the action of potassium iodid upon lead nitrate, thus:- Pb(NO3)2 + 2KI = 2KNO3 + Pbl2. Lead nitrate Pb(NO3)2 is a crystalline solid readily soluble CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 155 in water. It is formed by dissolving lead oxid in nitric acid:- PbO + 2HNO3 = Pb(NO3)2 + H2O. Lear carbonate PbCO3 occurs as a mineral, but is made aitificially on a large scale for the use in paints. It obtains as a white precipitate when lead nitrate is added to a solution of ammonium carbonate. White lead is a basic carbonate formed by the action of sodium or potassium carbonate upon lead salt. Lead sulphate PbSO4 is a white insoluble powder formed by adding sulphates to solutions of lead salts. Lead sulphid PbS obtains in nature in form of cubical lead colored crystals. Artificially it is produced by adding hydrogen sulphid to a solution of lead salt. The natural sub- stance is known as galena. Lead acetate Pb(C2H3O2)2 consists of large, colorless, crystalline prisms readily soluble in water and possessing a sweetish taste. Lead arsenate Pb3(AsO4)2 is a white powder slightly soluble in water. It is formed by the action of sodium arsenate upon lead acetate solution. Tin Tin. has the symbol Sn from the Latin name stannum. Its atomic weight is 119. It forms two series of compounds, in one it has the valency of two and in the other it acts as a tetravalent substance. Occurrence.-It occurs mainly as a dioxid or tin stone, SnO2. This is a crystalline solid possessing a brown color due to the presence of oxids of manganese and iron. Preparation.-The ores containing tin are first roasted to remove sulphur and arsenic with which they are usually con- taminated, The product is then treated with hydrochloric acid for the purpose of removing the iron, copper and other sub- 156 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY stances present. The finely divided ore is then mixed with carbon and heated in a furnace. The molten tin is then drawn off at the bottom and purified by remelting. Properties.-Tin is a silvery-white, soft, lustrous metal of a crystalline character. It is very malleable and ductile. At a temperature of 200 degrees tin becomes very brittle and may be powdered. At low temperatures it changes slowly to a gray brittle variety. At ordinary temperatures it remains unchanged in the air, but when strongly heated it forms SnO2 burning with a white flame. It is soluble in hot hydro- chloric acid, the reaction being represented by the following equation:- It is also soluble in sulphuric acid forming sulphur dioxid and stannous sulphate, thus:- Sn + 2HC1 = SnCl2 + H2. Tin is used extensively for protecting iron from the action of air and moisture. The process consists in the dipping of clean sheets of iron into molten tin and the product is known as tinned iron. Tin is also used in the manufacture of tinfoil and in the silvering of looking glasses. Its most important use is in the making of alloys. Solder consists of one part of tin and one part of lead. Britannia metal consists of ninety percent of tin, eight percent of antimony and two percent of copper. Pewter consists of seventy-five percent of tin and twenty-five percent of lead. It is also used, as stated under the discussion of cop- per, in the making of bronzes. Mixtures of silver and lead are employed with mercury, forming amalgams used in the filling of teeth. Sn + 2H2SO4 = SnSO4 +' 2H2O + SO2. Compounds of Tin Stannous chlorid SnCl2 is formed by dissolving tin in hydrochloric acid. From this solution it may be obtained in monoclinic crystals very soluble in water. It is a very strong CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 157 reducing agent and is used in the laboratory for the reduction of gold and mercury and also in the dyeing of different fabrics. Stannic chlorid SnCl4 is a colorless fuming liquid used by dyers under the name of nitro-muriate of tin. It is made by the action of chlorin on tin or stannous chlorid, also by treat- ing stannic oxid with hydrochloric acid. It is readily soluble in water forming hydrates. It forms double salts with great readiness and is easily dissolved in many organic and inor- ganic liquids in all proportions, thus forming a long series of compounds. When boiled with water it yields a precipitate of stannic acid, thus:- SnCl4 + 3H2O = 4HC1 + H2SnO3. Stannous oxid SnO results when stannous hydroxid is heated out of contact with air. It is a black powder posses- sing a feeble basic reaction and burns in the air forming stannic oxid. Stannic oxid SnO2 is formed when tin or stannous oxid are burned in air or oxygen. It exists naturally in crystalline form as one of the principal ores of tin. When artificially pre- pared it is a yellowish powder insoluble in water and weak acids. Stannous hydroxid is formed by adding sodium carbonate to a solution of stannous chlorid:- SnCl2 + Na2CO3 + H2O = 2NaCl+' Sn(OH)2 + CO2. It is soluble in potassium or sodium hydroxid, thus:- When the solution so obtained is heated the stannite is con- verted into stannate, tin is precipitated and hydroxid is re- covered, thus:-■ Sn(OH)2 + 2KOH = K2SnO2 + 2H2O. 2K2SnO2 + H2O = K2SnO3 + 2KOH + Sn. Stannic hydroxid Sn(OH)4 is formed as a gelatinous preci- pitate when stannic chlorid is boiled with water. It is very unstable, easily giving off a part of its water and forming stannic acid H2SnO3. This acid is readily soluble in sul- 158 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY phuric, nitric or hydrochloric acids, forming stannates which are soluble and from these, stannates of other metals are formed by precipitation. Stannous sulphid SnS is a dark brown precipitate result- ing from the introduction of hydrogen sulphid into a solution of stannous salt. It is insoluble in dilute acids, but when heated wtih alkaline polysulphids it forms sulpho-stannates. These latter compounds are soluble in hydrochloric acid, yield- ing hydrogen sulphid and stannic sulphid. Stannic sulphid SnS2 is a yellow amorphous powder ob- tained by passing hydrogen sulphid into solutions of stannic salts. When heated it decomposes into stannous sulphid and sulphur. Stannic sulphid may be obtained by heating together finely divided tin, sulphur and ammonium chlorid. Form this mixture it obtains as a crystalline golden yellow mass called Mosaic gold, which is used in bronzing. Aluminum Aluminum is a trivalent, basic element. Its symbol is Al, and the atomic weight is 27.1. It is noted for its great light- ness. Occurrence.-Aluminum is found widely distributed, making up about 8 percent of the earth's crust. It is found in all silicious rocks particularly feldspars, micas, granites, slates and clays. It obtains naturally as an oxid and also as a double salt of sodium and aluminum. It is not found in animal life and only to a very limited extent in the plants. Preparation.-Aluminum may be prepared by heating the double chlorid of sodium and aluminum with metallic sodium, but on the large scale it is obtained by the process of elec- trolysis. The containing vessel, which is made of graphitic carbon, is filled with molten cryolite (double fluorid of sodium and aluminum) and acts as the cathode. The anode consists CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 159 of vertical sticks of carbon placed into the electrolyte. The molten cryolite is overlayed with aluminum oxid. As the cur- rent passes oxygen is evolved on the carbon anode and passes off and aluminum is deposited at the bottom of the container and is tapped off from time to time. As the aluminum oxid becomes disintegrated, more is added and the heat of the electric current is sufficient to keep the electrolyte in the molten state. Properties.-Aluminum is a white metal, slightly lus- trous and not very readily tarnished by air or moisture. It is the lightest of all metals, being only a third as heavy as iron. It is very malleable and ductile and is a good conductor of heat and electricity. It melts at a temperature of 660 degrees and slightly below this it congeals and becomes very brittle. It is so brittle that it crumbles when shaken. At still lower temperatures it again becomes pliable and can be worked into desired form. When rolled or hammered it becomes harder, which is also true of all metals generally. It burns in the air when strongly heated giving very brilliant light and forming aluminum oxid. In caustic alkalies it dissolves forming alum- inates and hydrogen. It is also soluble in hydrochloric acid resulting in the formation of soluble aluminum chlorid and hydrogen. Sulphuric and nitric acids have practically no ac- tion upon aluminum, but when the sulphuric acid is concen- trated and hot it does dissolve the metal with the formation of aluminum sulphate and sulphur dioxid. Aluminum being so light is used in manufacturing parts where lightness and durability are necessary. It is used for the making of cables and wires for the conduction of elec- tricity and in the making of cooking utensils and other valu- able articles. In finely divided form it is used in the making of paint. It is also employed in removing oxids from iron and in the making of various different kinds of alloys. Its great affinity for oxygen makes it valuable for removing oxids from 160 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY surfaces and preparing them for welding, in this connection the mixture of aluminum used is known as thermite. Compounds of Aluminum Aluminum oxid A12O3 occurs in nature as corundum which when finally crushed constitutes emery. When in crystalline form it obtains as the ruby, sapphire and emerald. Artificially the oxid may be prepared by heating ammonium alum in which instance it obtains as a white powder. It can also be made by strongly heating aluminum hydroxid. It is insoluble in water, alkalies and acids, but may be fused with caustic alkalies and then dissolved in water, forming a series of compounds known as aluminates. Aluminum hydroxid A1(OH)3 is a gelatinous white mass easily soluble in acids or alkalies and is prepared by the action of an alkaline hydroxid upon solution of aluminum salt, thus:- A1C13 +' 3KOH == 3KC1 + A1(OH)3. By replacing the hydrogen atoms of aluminum hydroxid or dissolving the hydroxid in caustic alkalies, compounds known as aluminates are formed. Aluminum hydroxid has a strong affinity for organic material and with organic colors it forms precipitates called lakes. Many colors will not unite directly with cotton fibers and hence aluminum hydroxid is first used to combine with the cotton fiber and the coloring matter in turn unites with the hydroxid. Its great affinity for organic matter is also utilized in the filtration of water. The hydroxid combines with the organic matter forming a flocculent mass which permits of rapid filtration. Aluminum chlorid A1C13 is prepared by heating alumi- num in chlorin or by passing a mixture of aluminum oxid and chlorin over heated carbon: Al2 4- O3 + 3C + 3C12 = 2A1C1S +'3CO. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 161 By dissolving aluminum or a hydroxid of it in hydrochloric acid and then evaporating the solution a mass of deliquescent crystals having the composition A1C13; 6H2O which on heat- ing give off water and hydrochloric acid leaving the oxid or alumina behind. Aluminum chlorid is very hygroscopic and is used in the synthesis of organic compounds. Aluminum sulphate A1,(SO4)3 is prepared by dissolving the hydroxid in sulphuric acid. It is prepared on a large scale by treating hydrated oxid with sulphuric acid. It obtains in form of monoclinic crystals which are readily soluble in water. Aluminum sulphate is used in sizing paper. Rosin is first dissolved in caustic soda and added to the pulp, which is then treated with aluminum sulphate. In this way sodium sulphate and insoluble aluminum resinate are formed and the latter becomes melted under the hot roller and pressed upon the fibers binding them together and giving a smooth surface. Aluminum sulphid A1,S3 is formed by heating a mixture of aluminum and sulphur. It is a yellowish amorphous mass dissolved in water forming the hydroxid and hydrogen sulphid. Alums.-The sulphate of aluminum forms double salts with ammonium sulphate and the sulphate of alkaline metals, they are easily made by adding the sulphate of an alkali to the sulphate of aluminum and evaporating crystals of a regu- lar octahedral form are thus obtained. Potassium alum K2SO4 :A12(SO4)3:24H2O is known as common alum and is prepared on a large scale by calcining the mineral alunite exposing the material to the action of air then extracting the mass with water, the solutions of potassium alum are very astringent and possess an acid reaction. When heated it melts and loses water and sulphur trioxid, leaving behind an alu- minum potassium sulphate which is commonly called burnt 2A1C13 + 6H2O = A12O3 + 6HC1 +' 3H2O. 162 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY alum. Ammonium alum (NH4)2SO4 :A12(SO4)3:24H2O is made in a similar manner and widely used because it is cheaper. The aluminum of the alums may be replaced by other trivalent elements like iron, chromium and manganese. The compounds so obtained are analogous with the alum and are called alums, though they contain no aluminum. Aluminum silicates occur in nature in large quantities and very widely distributed. Potash feldspar KAlSi3O8, soda feld- spar NaAlSi3O8, and line feldspar CaAl2Si2O8 are found in granite rocks together with mica and quartz. Quartz and mica are also silicates of aluminum and contain potassium, magnesium and calcium. Pure aluminum silicate obtains as Al2SiO5. This obtains in crystalline form and found only in small quantity. By the action of air and moisture, these silicates lose their alkali content and leave a white clay known as kaolin. A pure variety of kaolin is used in the making of porcelain. Ordinary clay besides containing kaolin also contains ferric hydroxid, sand and various other silicates. When mixed with water, it forms a plastic mass which can be molded into any desired shape. On heating the mass becomes dense and hard. The above facts form the basis of making porcelain, earthenware and bricks. The various colors are due to the presence or absence of different elements in the clay used. Glazing is accomplished by covering the surface of articles to be glazed with a fusible silicate and firing. Chromium Chromium is a positive tetravalent element. It has the atomic weight of 52.1 and the symbol Cr. Occurrence.-Chromium is never found in the free state, but generally occurs as chrome iron Fe(CrO2)2. It was first CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 163 discovered in crocoisite PbCrO4 in which form it obtains only in small quantity. Preparation.-Chromium may be obtained by treating the oxid with carbon in the electric furnace, but is usually prepared by the Goldschmidt process. This consists in ignit- ing a mixture of chromic oxid and finely divided aluminum by a magnesium fuse. Properties.-Chromium is a steel-gray, brittle metal possessing high metallic luster. It is extremely hard and re- quires the electric furnace to melt it. At ordinary tem- peratures it remains unchanged in air or oxygen, but at high temperatures it burns with a brilliant light forming chromic oxid Cr2O3. Nitric acid has no effect upon chromium, but hydrochloric and sulphuric acids dissolve it, with the evolu- tion of hydrogen. It is a very active oxidizing agent and medicinally is used as an escharotic. In the steel industry it is used for making chrome steel and in the histological labora- tories it is used in dilute form as a hardening agent. Compounds of Chromium Chromic oxid or sesquioxid Cr2O3 obtains in form of green powder which is readily soluble in acids. It is used as a pigment in paints. A dark green crystalline variety of chromic oxid is obtained by passing chromyl chlorid through a red hot tube, thus:- 2CrO2Cl2 = Cr2O3 + 2C12 + O. Chromium trioxid CrO3 results when concentrated sul- phuric acid is added to a cool solution of sodium or potassium bichromate. It obtains as dark red deliquescent needle like crystals. It is a powerful oxidizing agent and destroys or- ganic tissues as well as reducing many chemical compounds. Chromic hydroxid Cr(OH)3 is a bluish gray precipitate resulting from the addition of ammonia to a solution of chro- 164 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY mium salt. It is soluble in excess of sodium or potassium hydroxid, forming chromites, which are decomposed by boil- ing and the hydroxid is reprecipitated. Chromous hydroxid Cr(OH)2 is a yellow precipitate formed when a caustic alkali is added to a solution of chrom- ous chlorid. Chromic chlorid CrCl3 consists of scale-like violet col- ored particles. It is insoluble in water, but on continued boil- ing it forms a green solution from which by evaporation, green deliquescent crystals of the composition CrCl3: 6H2O are obtained. It is prepared by the action of chlorin upon chromium or upon a red-hot mixture of chromic oxid and carbon. Chromous chlorid CrCl2 is prepared by heating chromic chlorid in oxygen. It is a strong reducing agent, but very unstable and when left passes over into chromic chlorid. Chromyl chlorid CrO2 :C12 is a dark red, fuming liquid readily decomposed by water. It is prepared by distilling a mixture of sodium chlorid, sodium bichromate and sulphuric acid. Potassium chromate K2CrO4 obtains in form of lemon yellow, rhombic crystals readily soluble in water. It is formed by treating calcium chromate with potassium sulphate. Potassium bichromate K2Cr2O7 results when potassium chromate is treated with sulphuric acid. This forms large, red crystals which are readily soluble in water. It is decom- posed by heat into potassium chromate, chromic oxid and oxygen, thus:- 2K2Cr2O7 = 2K2CrO4 +' Cr2O3 + 30. When potassium bichromate is heated with sulphuric acid it forms chrome alum and liberates oxygen, thus:- K2Cr2O7 +'4H2SO4 = 2KCr(SO4)2 + 4H2O + 30. The chrome alums are double salts having the same general formula as do other alums and are isomorphous with them. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 165 Potassium bichromate is a strong oxidizing agent and as such is used in laboratories. It is also used in the dyeing and tanning industries. Sodium chromate Na^CrO4 is a yellow crystalline solid similar to potassium chromate and made in the same way. Its properties are also analogous with those of potassium chromate, but the latter being more expensive is not used as extensively. Sodium bichromate Na2Cr2O7 is analogous to potassium bichromate. Lead chromate PbCrO4 is made by adding a soluble chromate or bichromate to a solution of lead salt. It is a bright yellow precipitate used as a pigment for paints under the name of chrome yellow. It oxidizes organic compounds with great readiness and hence is used in analyzing them. There are several other chromates known, but their com- position, physical properties and uses are very similar to those already discussed. Barium chromate BaCrO4 is a yellow pre- cipitate. Silver chromate Ag2CrO4 and mercurous chromate Hg2CrO4 are red precipitates. Manganese Manganese is a positive, metallic element which is capa- ble of forming a wide variety of compounds. Its symbol is Mn, and the atomic weight is 55. It is basic in character and generally bivalent. Occurrence.-Manganese has been found in the free state in meteoric iron, but as a general rule it obtains in combina- tion with other substances. It is found chiefly as an oxid and occurs also as sulphid and carbonate. In small quantities it is widely distributed in soils and in traces it exists in bodies of plants and animals. Preparation.-Manganese is prepared by fusing its oxids 166 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY with carbon in the electric furnace, but on the large scale it is made by igniting the oxids with aluminum. Properties.-Manganese is a grayish-white, brittle, hard metal. It resembles cast iron in its outward appearances. In ordinary air it suffers no change, but when the air is moist there is formed over the surface of the metal a reddish film of oxid. It dissolves in acids with great readiness, giving off hydrogen and forming manganous salts. Manganese is used in the making of spiegeleisen, an alloy consisting of 10 to 20 parts of manganese mixed with 80 to 90 parts of iron. An alloy of manganese and copper known as manganese bronze contains about 30 parts of manganese. Compounds of Manganese Manganous oxid MnO is formed by the burning of higher oxids in hydrogen. It is a green powder and absorbs oxygen with great readiness. Manganese sesquioxid Mn2O3 is a brown powder pro- duced by igniting manganic hydroxid after the latter loses a molecule of water. Manganese dioxid MnO2 is also known as black oxid or peroxid of manganese. It is the chief ore of manganese and is used in the production of chlorin by the decomposition of hydrochloric acid:- It is frequently employed for making anodes in batteries and also in the making of oxygen. Manganese trioxid MnO3 is a dark red solid. It is very unstable. Manganese heptoxid Mn2O7 is a reddish-green, oily liquid. It is an anhydrid, the salts of which, known as permanganates, are of great importance. It is made by the action of sulphuric acid upon potassium permanganate. Manganous hydroxid Mn(OH)2 obtains as a white pre- MnO2 + 4HC1 = MnCl, + 2H2O + Cl2. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 167 cipitate when a caustic alkali is added to a solution of man- ganous salt. Manganic hydroxid Mn(OH)3 is a brown precipitate re- sulting from the oxidation of manganous hydroxid. It readily loses water becoming MnO :OH from which substance man- ganese sesquioxid is made. Manganous chlorid MnCl, consists of pink, deliquescent crystals readily soluble in water. It is obtained when hydro- chloric acid is treated with manganese dioxid. Manganic chlorid MnCl3 has never been isolated, but is thought to exist as a brown liquid when manganese dioxid is dissolved in cold hydrochloric acid. Manganous sulphate MnSO4 is a rose colored solid, soluble in water. It forms double salts with alkaline sulphates and is used in the dyeing industry. Manganic sulphate Mn2(SO4)3 is a dark green unstable powder produced by heating manganese dioxid with concen- trated sulphuric acid. It is very unstable and changes readily into manganous sulphate, yielding sulphur dioxid and oxygen. Manganous carbonate MnCO3 is found existing naturally in form of reddish crystals. Artificially it is produced when soluble carbonates are added to solutions of manganous salts. Potassium manganate K2MnO4 consists of green, rhombic crystals produced when manganese dioxid is treated with caustic potash, the mass treated with water and evaporated. 3MnO2 + 2KOH = Mn2O3 +' K2MnO4 + H2O. Potassium permanganate KMnO4 consists of purple col- ored, needle-like prismatic crystals. These possess a sweetish astringent taste and are readily soluble in water. It is used as an oxidizing agent and disinfectant. It is the basis of many oxidizing fluids. Iron Iron is one of the common widely used metals. It has the symbol Fe from the Latin name Ferrum, and the atomic 168 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY weight is 55.9. It forms two series of compounds known as the ferrous and ferric. In the former it is divalent and in the latter trivalent. Few instances are known where it acts as a hexavalent element. Occurrence.-Iron is found very widely distributed. In some localities it obtains only in minute quantity, while in other places it is very abundant. The most important ores of iron are the oxids and the carbonate. It also occurs as sulphid and silicate. Iron is found in the chlorophyll of plants and in the hemoglobin of the blood of animals. It is a neces- sary constituent of all living plants and animals. Preparation.-The ore containing the iron is crushed and then placed into a furnace properly mixed with coke or lime- stone. The furnace is lined inside with fire brick, about 80 to 100 feet in height and 20 feet in diameter. It is first heated and then charged from the top with the mixture of iron ore and the flux. Hot air is forced up through the mixture by openings at the bottom of the furnace and makes rthe con- tents of the furnace very hot. Carbon dioxid forms in the lower part of the furnace due to the combustion of the coke. As this gas rises through the several layers of coke above, it is reduced to carbon monoxid, which attacks the ferric oxid, reducing it to iron, thus:- Fe2O3 + 3CO = 2Fe + 3CO2. The slag and iron settle to the bottom of the furnace where they form into two layers, the iron at the very bottom and the lighter slag floating on the molten iron. The iron is tapped off and run into molds forming bars of cast iron known as pigs. The slag escapes through openings at the sides of the furnace. All cast iron contains carbon and various other impurities. Properties.-Iron is a soft, white, malleable, ductile metal. It is easily attracted by magnet and becomes magnetic. This property it soon loses. Iron remains unchanged in dry air, CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 169 but in the presence of moisture it soon oxidizes (rusts). Iron dissolves readily in hydrochloric or sulphuric acids, forming ferrous chlorid or sulphate and hydrogen. When iron is dipped into concentrated nitric acid and then rinsed, it will no longer dissolve in the acid nor will it precipitate copper from solutions of its salts. The iron so treated is said to be passive. It seems that it becomes covered with an invisible oxid, for when it is scratched with a hard point it loses its passive property and readily dissolves in the acid. Pure iron may be made by the ignition of ferric oxid in a current of hydrogen. The iron so produced contains some hydrogen and is known as pyrophoric iron, because it burns spontaneously upon exposure to air. Pure iron may also be produced by the electrolysis of ferrous sulphate, using a thick wrought iron anode and a very thin iron cathode. This form of iron also contains some hydrogen, which makes it very brittle, and being produced by the process of electrolysis, it is known as electrolytic iron. Cast iron is practically the same as pig iron and contains from 2 to 5 per cent of carbon and other impurities like silicon, sulphur, manganese and phosphorus in varying amounts. When slowly cooled the carbon crystallizes out in form of small leaflets of graphite, leaving a dark gray mass known as gray cast iron. Gray cast iron is used in the making of castings. It is soft, has a low melting point and when cooled contracts uni- formly. It can be readily worked with tools. It contains about 2 to 3 per cent of graphitic carbon and about 1 to 2 per cent of combined carbon. White cast iron is very hard and brittle and, therefore, not used for castings, but is converted into wrought iron. It is produced by cooling cast iron rapidly and hence retains all of the carbon in combination. Wrought iron is nearly pure and is made so by the process 170 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY of puddling. The cast iron, together with iron oxid, is heated in a current of air on the hearth of a reverberatory furnace Most of the impurities in this way become oxidized. The carbon escapes as carbon monoxid, the silicon and other im- purities form a slag. The molten mass, on continued heating, becomes more and more viscous and is continually stirred to admit more air until it becomes so thick that it can be rolled up into a ball. It is then taken from the furnace and ham- mered or rolled to remove the slag. The product is a mal- leable, ductile mass which contains less than 0.2 per cent of carbon. Malleable iron is produced by heating iron castings cov- ered with pulverized iron ore, for about 48 hours. This proc- ess removes some of the carbon leaving a product sufficiently malleable for ordinary purposes. This is much cheaper than wrought iron and is often used in place of it. Steel is a form of iron that contains less carbon than cast iron, but more than wrought iron. Steel which contains the least amount of carbon is known as mild steel, while that which is relatively rich in carbon is commonly called tool steel. Steel used for building purposes is known as structural steel. Steel may be hardened by heating and then suddenly cooling and softened by heating the hard mass to redness and then allowing it to cool slowly. By proper heating and cooling any desired hardness may be imparted and this process is termed tempering. Cast iron that contains a considerable amount of man- ganese has the property of taking up large amounts of carbon. Its fracture is coarsely crystalline and hence the mass is known as spiegeleisen. Sulphur and phosphorus make iron very brittle hence their presence in different castings is very ob- jectionable. A piece of wrought iron when broken can be mended by the process of welding. The surfaces to be joined are heated CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 171 to redness and borax is then sprinkled over them. The parts are again heated and the borax forms a slag with the oxids of iron on the surface and protects the iron from further oxida- tion. The surfaces are then hammered together, the slag flies off and the clean surfaces coming into contact become joined or welded. Compounds of Iron Ferrous oxid FeO is a black powder produced by heating ferric oxid in hydrogen or carbon monoxid. Ferric oxid Fe2O3 obtains naturally as the most impor- tant of iron ores. Artificially it may be prepared by ignition of ferrous sulphate in the air. It is also prepared by the igni- tion of ferric hydroxid. Ferric oxid crystallizes in hexagonal, dark red prisms and hence is known as red oxid of iron. When finely divided it is used as a pigment in paints and for polish- ing purposes under the names of rouge, red ocher or Venetian red. It is often known as the sesquioxid or peroxid of iron. Ferrous ferric oxid Fe3O4 is commonly known as mag- netic iron. It is formed by continued ignition of any oxid of iron in the air. It exists in nature as a magnetic ore known as lodestone. 1 | ; Ferrous hydroxid Fe(OH)2 is a white precipitate pro- duced when a caustic alkali is added to a solution of ferrous salt. It deteriorates on exposure to air. Ferric hydroxid Fe(OH)3 is a brown flocculent precipi- tate. It dissolves in concentrated ferric chlorid, forming a basic ferric chlorid from which the chlorin may be removed by dialysis, leaving a brown solution of ferric hydroxid known commonly as dialyzed iron. Ferrous chlorid FeCl2 is obtained as a white mass when iron filings are heated in a current of hydrochloric acid gas. On exposure it becomes readily oxidized. Ferric chlorid FeCl3 is prepared by heating iron in a 172 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY current of chlorin. It may also be prepared by dissolving iron in hydrochloric acid and then boiling with nitric acid. It is known as the sesquichlorid or perchlorid of iron and consists of dark green hexagonal crystals. The crystals are very deliquescent and soluble in water. Ferrous and ferric bromids having the formulae FeBr2 and FeBr3 and are similar to the corresponding chlorids. Ferrous iodid Fel2 obtains in form of bluish needle-like crystals and is formed by heating together iron filings and iodin under water. Ferrous sulphid FeS is prepared by heating together sul- phur and iron filings and is used in the laboratory for the production of hydrogen sulphid. It may also be prepared by the action of ammonium sulphid upon ferric chlorid, thus:- 2FeCl3 + 3(NH4)2S = 6NH4C1 +' 2FeS + S. The sulphid produced by fusion is black and brittle and on cooling becomes crystalline. The precipitated sulphid is black and amorphous. Ferric sulphid Fe2S3 obtains as a greenish-yellow mass when sulphur and iron are fused or when ferrous sulphid and sulphur are mixed in proper proportions. It cannot be pre- pared by precipitating ferric salts with ammonium sulphid. Iron disulphid FeS2 occurs naturally as pyrite. It ob- tains in form of gold and yellow crystals having a metallic luster. It is made artificially by heating together iron and sulphur in proper proportions. When heated it yields sul- phur dioxid and ferric oxid. On exposure to air it gradually oxidizes, forming the sulphate. Ferrous sulphate FeSO4 is also known as copperas or green vitriol. It is formed by dissolving iron in dilute sul- phuric acid and evaporating the solution. It may also be pre- pared by heating pyrite to ferrous sulphid and allowing the latter to oxidize in moist air. Ferrous sulphate consists of apple green crystals containing seven molecules of water of CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 173 crystallization, it is odorless, possessing a sweetish styptic taste, is very soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. It is used as a reducing agent and disinfectant and also in the making of ink. Ferrous sulphate in combination with alkaline sulphate forms double salts of which ferrous ammonium sul- phate, commonly known as Mohr's salt, is used in making chemical analysis. Ferric sulphate Fe2(SO4)3 is a white mass readily soluble in water, yielding a brownish colored solution, it is formed by dissolving ferric hydroxid in sulphuric acid or by the oxida- tion of ferrous sulphate. Ferrous carbonate FeCO3 is formed as a white precipitate when ferrous salts are treated with alkaline carbonate. It is soluble in water, charged with carbon dioxid, forming the bicarbonate. It exists naturally in rhombic crystals which on exposure to air turn dark because of the formation of ferric oxid. Potassium ferrocyanid K4Fe(CN)8 is made by fusing to- gether potash, scrap iron and animal refuse. When the mix- ture cools it is treated with water and forms a yellowish solu- tion from which lemon-yellow needle-like crystals containing three molecules of water of crystallization are deposited. These crystals are very unstable, readily losing their water of crystallization and yielding potassium cyanid. Potassium ferricyanid K3Fe(CN)6 consists of dark red prisms readily soluble in water, forming a greenish solution. It is formed by the action of chlorin upon potassium ferri- cyanid, thus:- 2K4Fe(CN)6 + C12 = 2KC1 +'2K3Fe(CN)6. Potassium ferrocyanid is commonly known as yellow prus- siate of potash, while the ferricyanid is known as the red prus- siate of potash. When potassium ferricyanid is treated with hydrochloric acid it yields ferrocyanic acid, having the for- mula H3Fe(CN)6. 174 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Prussian blue is a ferric ferrocyanid produced by adding ferric salt to a solution of potassium ferrocyanid. Turnbowl's blue is ferrous ferricyanid produced by the action of ferrous salt upon potassium ferricyanid. Nickel Nickel is a positive divalent element having the formula Ni and the atomic weight of 58.7. Occurrence.-Nickel occurs principally in combination with arsenic and sulphur. It is also found alloyed with meteoric iron. Preparation.-Nickel is obtained by reducing the oxids with carbon or by igniting them in a current of hydrogen. Properties.-Nickel is a malleable ductile silver white lus- trous metal. It does not tarnish on exposure to air and like iron possesses the property of magnetism. It is readily dis- solved by nitric acid, its principal use is in the making of alloys. Compounds of Nickel Nickelous hydroxid Ni(OH)2 is made by adding caustic alkali to a solution of nickel salt. It obtains as a green amor- phous precipitate which is easily converted by heating into nickelous oxid NiO. Nickelic oxid Ni2O3 is a black powder obtained by the ignition of nickelous nitrate Ni(NO3)2, the latter consists of deliquescent, green, needle-like crystals. Nickelous sulphate NiSO4 consists of green prismatic crystals readily soluble in water and effloresce on exposure to air. Cobalt Definition.-Cobalt is a positive divalent element having the formula Co and the atomic weight 59. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 175 Occurrence.-Cobalt occurs in combination with arsenic and sulphur and is usually found in places where nickel, iron and manganese exist. It is also found as an alloy in meteoric iron. Preparation.-Cobalt is obtained by reducing the oxid or oxalate in a current of hydrogen or it may be produced by the Goldschmidt process. Properties.-Cobalt is a silvery white malleable metal. When exposed to air it turns to a reddish color. It is soluble in nitric acid and possesses magnetic properties. Its main use is in the coloring of glass and porcelain. Compounds of Cobalt Cobaltous hydroxid Co(OH)2 is produced when a caustic alkali is added to a solution of cobaltous salt. It obtains as a rose red precipitate. Cobaltous oxid CoO is a greenish powder formed when cobaltous hydroxid or carbonate is heated out of contact with air. Cobaltous chlorid CoCl2 is obtained by heating cobalt in chlorin or by dissolving cobaltous carbonate in hydrochloric acid, it consists of small bluish crystalline particles. From aqueous solutions it is obtained in needle-like prisms of a deep red color. Cobaltous nitrate Co(NO3)2 consists of red deliquescent monoclinic crystals. Cobaltous sulphate CoSO4 is like all other vitriols, on heating it readily loses its water of crystallization and the red anhydrous salt is very stable and not easily decomposed. Cobaltous sulphid CoS is obtained as a black precipitate when alkaline sulphid is added to solution of cobalt salts. 176 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Platinum Platinum is a positive tetravalent element possessing the atomic weight of 194. Some divalent combinations of the element also exist. Occurrence.-Platinum occurs as a native element in form of small grains and some instances are noted where it has been found in nuggets of considerable size. It usually obtains alloyed with the elements silver, gold, iron and copper. Preparation.-The ores containing the metal are first freed from adhering sand particles and then treated with aqua regia. This dissolves the metals with which the platinum is alloyed and leaves the platinum group of elements as a residue. Concentrated aqua regia is then added and dissolves the metals platinum, ruthenium, palladium, rhodium and irid- ium. From this solution the elements platinum and iridium are precipitated with ammonium chlorid. This alloy of platinum and iridium produced- by ignition of the precipitate is a spongy mass, and being stronger than platinum is used, with- out further purification, in the making of crucibles. Properties.-Platinum is a white, hard, very heavy metal. It is malleable and ductile. It resists the action of moist air and most all chemicals. It does not oxidize even at very high temperatures. It is readily dissolved in aqua regia and when heated in the reducing flame, takes up carbon and becomes very hard and brittle. Platinum is used in the making of crucibles and various other utensils. It is also employed in the making of sulphuric acid and its salts are used in photog- raphy. Electric connections are also made of platinurh. Compounds of Platinum Platinum tetrachlorid also known as platinic chlorid con- sists of brownish red crystals. Its formula is PtCl4 and its main use is in chemical analysis. With potassium and am- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 177 monium compounds it forms yellow, insoluble precipitates. It has no effect upon compounds of sodium and is therefore used in the separation of sodium and potassium. Platinous chlorid PtCl2 is a grayish-green insoluble solid formed by passing chlorin over platinum sponge. In the foregoing pages descriptions of a number of ele- ments have been omitted for reason that little is known about them and that chemically they have but limited application. Their names, symbols and atomic weights are given in the table of elements and also in the outline illustrating the law of octaves. TESTS Hydrogen tests.-(1) Hydrogen mixed with oxygen, ex- plodes on contact with the flame and produces water. (2) It burns in the air with a bluish flame and deposits water on cold Surfaces brought in contact with the flame. Oxygen tests.-(1) A glowing splinter thrust into free oxygen bursts into flame. (2} When oxygen is brought in contact with nitrogen dioxid the result is the formation of dense brown fumes. Ozone tests.-(1) Ozone is detected by its peculiar odor. (2) Ozone turns potassium iodid paper to a blue color. (3) It blackens metallic silver. Hydrogen peroxid.-Add to the peroxid a little sulphuric acid and a few drops of potassium dichromate and agitate with ether. The ether in the presence of hydrogen peroxid assumes a brilliant blue color. Tests for chlorin.-(1) The presence of chlorin is de- tected by ozone paper. This paper is prepared by covering it with a mixture of 1,000 parts of water, 50 parts of starch and 5 parts of potassium iodid. (2) Chlorin possesses marked char- acteristic properties by which it is easily recognized. Hydrochloric Acid tests.- (1) Hydrochloric acid gives with silver nitrate a white flocculent precipitate readily soluble in ammonium hydroxid. (2) With mercurous nitrate, hydro- chloric acid forms a white precipitate which is turned black upon the addition of ammonium hydroxid. Tests for Bromin.-(1) Bromin turns starch paste yellow, lodin test.-lodin turns starch paste to a deep blue color. Tests for Nitric Acid.-(1) Add to the solution suspected of containing nitric acid, an equal volume of sulphuric acid and overlay with a solution of ferrous sulphate. The lower layer gradually turns brown or black, the change beginning at the 178 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 179 top. (2) Put two or three cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid into a test tube and add enough indigo to color it blue. Add to this the suspected specimen and boil. If the suspected solution contains nitric acid the color disappears. (3) To a suspected solution add sulphuric acid and a few pieces of copper and heat to boiling. If nitric acid be present dense brown fumes will be given off. Hydrofluoric Acid tests.-(1) Barium chlorid precipitates white barium fluorid insoluble in water and only slightly solu- ble in hydrochloric and nitric acids. (2) Calcium chlorid pre- cipitates white calcium fluorid insoluble in water and acids. (3) A fluorid mixed with concentrated sulphuric acid to form a thick paste will evolve a gas of the composition HF which is easily detected by its corrosive properties or etching of glass. Tests for Hydrobromic Acid.-(1) Solutions ot bromid in the presence of silver nitrate form yellowish white precipi- tates which change on exposure to light. These are insoluble in nitric acid, slightly soluble in ammonium hydroxid and easily soluble in potassium cyanid. (2) Add to a solution con- taining bromid some chlorin ether. By this process bromin will be liberated, imparting a deep yellow color to the solution. Add to this a few drops of carbon disulphid and shake it violently. When the solution is at rest, carbon disulphid is colored yellpw from the bromin present. Hydriodic Acid Tests.-(1) Silver nitrate in the presence of iodid solutions forms a yellow precipitate which blackens on exposure to light. It is insoluble in nitric acid, slightly soluble in ammonia and easily soluble in potassium cyanid. (2) Dissolve some nitrogen tetroxid in concentrated sulphuric acid and add this to the solution suspected of containing iodin. If iodin is present it will be liberated and impart a reddish black color to the solution. If chlorin water be added to the suspected solution, iodin will be liberated and impart a red- dish yellow color to the solution. (3) If clear starch paste is 180 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY added to a solution of an iodid and then a few drops of nitrous acid, or chlorin water, are added the mixture will turn a deep blue, owing to the formation of blue starch iodid. Chloric Acid Tests.-(1) Add to the suspected solution some indigo and a little sulphuric acid and then a few drops of sodium sulphite, upon the addition of which the blue color disappears. (2) If a dry chlorate is heated in a test tube with concentrated sulphuric acid the tube becomes filled with a dense greenish yellow gas, C12O4. Test for Ammonia.-Take the suspected specimen and put it into a test tube. Add to this some Nessler's reagent. If ammonia or ammonium salts be present the solution will turn to a yellowish brown color. Nessler's solution consists of mercuric potassium iodid made alkaline with potassium or sodium hydroxid, Tests for Hydrogen Sulphid.-(1) Hydrogen sulphid has the odor of rotten eggs. (2) Lead acetate paper is turned brown or black in the presence of hydrogen sulphid. Sulphuric Acid.-(1) Barium chlorid precipitates from solutions containing sulphuric acid or sulphates, a white pulverulent barium sulphate insoluble in dilute acids or alkalies. (2) Lead acetate precipitates heavy white lead sul- phate insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in boiling hydro- chloric acid. The precipitate is also easily soluble in ammo- nium or sodium acetate. Phosphorus tests.-(1) Phosphorus is detected by its pe- culiar garlicy odor. (2) Phosphorus is detected by its lumin- osity in the dark. (3) The Mitscherlich's process is sometimes used but fails to work when such substances as alcohol, ether or oil of turpentine are present. The suspected substance is first made fluid by dilution with water and then acidulated with sulphuric acid and placed into a flask. The flask is placed on a sand bath and connected with Liebig's condenser which condenser is placed in darkness. When the flask is CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 181 heated phosphorus is volatilized and condenses in the tube in form of luminous rings. Tests for Phosphoric Acid.-(1) To the suspected solu- tion add some ammonium chlorid and then magnesium sul- phate ; if phosphoric acid is present there will be formed a white, crystalline precipitate. (2) Add to the suspected solu- tion some dilute nitric acid and then a solution of ammonium molybdate; if phosphoric acid is present a yellowish precipi- tate is formed. (3) Ferric chlorid precipitates yellow ferric phosphate readily soluble in acids. (4) Silver nitrate preci- pitates silver phosphate, white in color, insoluble in water, but readily soluble in nitric acid. Tests for Arsenic.-(1) Reinch's test. Add to the sus- pected fluid one-sixth of its volume of pure hydrochloric acid. Suspend in the fluid a piece of bright electrotype copper and boil. If a steel gray deposit forms on the copper, remove the copper with its adhering deposit, wash in pure water and dry between folds of filter paper, being careful not to rub off the deposit. Coil up the copper and put into a clean dry tube open at both ends, holding the tube at such an angle that the copper does not slip out. Apply heat at the part containing the copper. If antimony, mercury, bismuth, gold or platinum be present, they may also be distinguished by Reinch's test. If the deposit be arsenic it will form on the sides of the test tube in form of white or brownish octahedral crystals. If the deposit is antimony the deposit is almost entirely amor- phous and nearer the heat than in case of arsenic. Mercury when present is deposited in form of small brilliant globules. Bismuth, platinum or gold give no sublimate. (2) Marsh's test. Place into a large bottle some pieces of zinc free from arsenic and pour over these some water acidulated with sulphuric acid. Seat the cork containing a fun- nel tube and a delivery tube, draw out to a fine point. After allowing the generation of hydrogen to go on until all the air 182 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY from the bottle has been expelled, light the gas at the de- livery end and hold in it a clean porcelain. No black stain is produced if materials are free from arsenic. Pour into the bottle, through the funnel, the suspected solution and again light the gas, holding the porcelain in it. If arsenic or an- timony be present, there is left a black or brown stain. If the stain is produced by arsenic it is soluble in chlorin- ated soda, if antimony the stain will be insoluble. Moisten the stain with nitric acid and it will disappear. Evaporate the acid, moisten with water and then hold it over a dish con- taining hydrogen sulphid prepared by the action of sulphuric or hydrochloric acid upon potassium or sodium sulphid. If the stain is due to arsenic then it will turn lemon yellow, if antimony the color will be an orange. Allow the escaping gas to pass into a container of silver nitrate for about an hour, after which time pour over the silver nitrate a weak solution of ammonium hydroxid and if arsenic be present a yellow pre- cipitate will be formed at the contact point of the two fluids. If the substance to be tested for the presence of arsenic is in the solid form, a bit of it placed upon glowing charcoal will give off an odor resembling garlic. Tests for Antimony.-(1) Hydrogen sulphid precipitates from acid solution red amorphous sulphid readily soluble in concentrated yellow ammonium sulphid and boiling hydro- chloric acid and then precipitated by dilute acid. (2) Sodium hydroxid precipitates white bulky antimonous hydrate readily soluble in excess. (3) Antimony may also be differentiated by the use of Reinch's or Marsh's tests, as given under the tests for arsenic. Bismuth tests.-(1) Hydrogen sulphid precipitates from dilute acid solutions brown black bismuth sulphid, insoluble in dilute acids or potassium cyanid, but soluble in boiling con- centrated nitric acid. (2) Sodium hydroxid precipitates white bismuth hydrate insoluble in excess. (3) Potassium chromate CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 183 precipitates yellow bismuth chromate soluble in nitric acid and insoluble in potassium hydroxid. (4) Bismuth with Reinch's test gives no sublimate. Tests for Potassium.-(1) The presence of small quanti- ties of potassium is detected by the spectroscope. (2) Potas- sium imparts a violet color to the flame. (3) Platinum chlorid with concentrated solutions of potassium chlorid forms a heavy precipitate of potassium platinum chlorid, slightly solu- ble in water and insoluble in alcohol. (4) Platinic chlorid forms insoluble precipitates with potassium and ammonium, but not with sodium and in this way the separation of sodium and potassium is accomplished. Tests for Sodium.- (1) Sodium imparts a yellow color to the blue Bunsen flame. (2) Sodium salts give a white crystal- line precipitate with potassium pyroantimonate solution. (3) Potassium and sodium are differentiated by platinic chlorid, as stated in number four, under the test for potassium. Test for Lithium.-Lithium imparts a bright red color to the blue Bunsen flame. Tests for Carbon Dioxid.-(1) If carbon dioxid is present to exceed 12 percent, a lighted taper is extinguished by it. (2) Lime water will absorb carbon dioxid from the air and render it cloudy from the precipitation of barium or calcium carbonate. Tests for Cyanides.-(1) Silver nitrate forms a white curdy precipitate of silver cyanid insoluble in cold nitric acid. (2) A glass rod moistened with silver nitrate is rendered milky when held in the vapors of cyanid. Tests for Borates and Boric Acid.- (1) To the suspected solution add a few drops of hydrochloric acid and then alcohol in excess. On igniting the alcohol the flame is colored a bright green. (2) A piece of litmus paper dipped into an acidified solution and then dried remains a reddish brown if the solution contains boric acid. 184 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Tests for Calcium.-(1) Sodium carbonate precipitates white calcium carbonate soluble in acetic and mineral acids. (2) Amonim oxalate precipitates white calcium oxalate in- soluble in excess of acetic acid, but soluble in hydrochloric acid. Tests for Strontium.-(1) Sodium carbonate gives a pre- cipitate of strontium carbonate soluble in acetic and mineral acids. (2) Sodium phosphate precipitates strontium phos- phate soluble in hydrochloric acid. (3) Potassium chromate precipitates from concentrated solution yellow, strontium chromate soluble in hydrochloric acid. Tests for Barium.-(1) Sodium carbonate gives a preci- pitate of barium carbonate soluble in acetic and mineral acids. (2) Sulphuric acid precipitates white pulverulent barium sul- phate insoluble in water, alkalies or dilute acids. (3) Potas- sium chromate yields a bright yellow precipitate of barium bromate soluble in hydrochloric acid. Tests for Magnesium.-(1) Ammonium hydroxid precipi- tates white magnesium hydroxid soluble in ammonium chlorid. (2) Ammonium oxalate precipitates white magnesium oxalate easily soluble in excess. Tests for Zinc.-(1) Ammonium sulphid precipitates from neutral or alkaline solutions white zinc sulphid insoluble in excess or acetic acid, but soluble in hydrochloric acid. (2) Alkalin hydroxids precipitate zinc hydroxid from solutions of zinc salts soluble in excess. (3) Potassium ferrocyanid precipitates white zinc ferrocyanid insoluble in hydrochloric acid. (4) Sodium hydroxid precipitates white zinc oxid easily soluble in excess. (5) Zinc oxid is white in color when cold and yellow when hot. If moistened with cobolt nitrate and then heated on charcoal the oxid yields a green mass known as Rinmann's green. Tests for Mercury.-(1) Reinch's test as given in connec- tion with arsenic, may also be used to detect the presence of CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 185 mercury. (2) Mercury compounds, when mixed with soda and heated, give up their mercury, which condenses in drops in the cooler parts of the tube and with iodin these drops form red iodid of mercury. (3) Hydrochloric acid with mercurous com- pounds precipitates white mercurous chlorid insoluble in hydrochloric or nitric acid, but soluble in aqua regia. (4) Stan- nous chlorid, with hydrochloric acid in the presence of mer- curous compounds, precipitates gray metallic mercury which rapidly collects in globules at the bottom and can be collected by decanting the liquid and boiling with hydrochloric acid. (5) Hydrogen sulphid gives with acids solutions of mercur- ous compounds a black precipitate insoluble in dilute acids or ammonium sulphid. This if boiled with nitric acid, gives a white precipitate readily soluble in aqua regia. (6) Hydrogen sulphid precipitates from acid solution of mercuric compounds black mercuric sulphid readily soluble in aqua regia, but in- soluble in acids or ammonium sulphid. If the hydrogen sul- phid is added a little at a time, the precipitate is first white, then red and finally black. (7) Potassium iodid in the pres- ence of mercuric compounds forms a bright scarlet precipitate of mercuric iodid soluble in excess. (8) If a bright strip of copper is introduced into a solution of mercury salt, it becomes coated with metallic mercury. Cadmium tests.-(1) Hydrogen sulphid precipitates from acid, alkalin or neutral solutions yellow cadmium sulphid in- soluble in ammonium sulphid, but soluble in boiling sulphuric acid. (2) Sodium hydroxid gives white precipitate of cad- mium hydroxid insoluble in excess. (3) Ammonium hydroxid precipitates white cadmium hydroxid readily soluble in excess. (4)Potassium cynid precipitates white cadmium cyanid readily soluble in excess. From this solution cadmium sulphid is readily precipitated by hydrogen sulphid. (5) Zinc precipitates cadmium from its solution as a white metal. Tests for Copper.-(1) Hydrogen sulphid precipitates 186 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY from acid solutions black copper sulphid insoluble in dilute hydrochloric or sulphuric acids, slightly soluble in ammonium sulphid and readily dissolved by warm nitric acid, or potas- sium cyanid. (2) Sodium hydroxid precipitates light blue copper hydroxid which turns black on boiling owing to the formation of copper oxid. (3) Ammonium hydroxid precipi- tates a greenish-blue basic salt soluble in excess to an azure blue solution owing to the formation of cupro-ammonium com- pounds. (4) Potassium ferrocyanid precipitates reddish brown copper ferrocyanid insoluble in dilute acids. On boil- ing with sodium hydroxid it is decomposed with the formation of black copper oxid. (5) Potassium cyanid precipitates greenish-yellow copper cyanid easily soluble in excess. Tests for Silver.-(1) Hydrogen sulphid precipitates from acid solutions black silver sulphid insoluble in dilute acids or alkalies dissolved in boiling nitric acid. (2) Sodium hydroxid precipitates grayish-brown silver oxid insoluble in excess, but soluble in ammonia. (3) Ammonium hydroxid precipitates white silver hydroxid easily soluble in excess. (4) Hydro- chloric acid forms a white precipitate of silver chlorid which turns violet and finally black on exposure to sunlight. It is insoluble in nitric acid, but soluble in ammonia. (5) Potas- sium chromate forms a brick red silver chromate soluble in nitric acid and ammonium hydroxid. Tests for Gold.-(1) Oxalic acid gives with solutions of gold salts a brown pulverulent precipitate. (2) Hydrogen sulphid forms in neutral or acid solutions a dark brown preci- pitate insoluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid, but soluble in aqua regia. (3) Stannous chlorid and chlorin water produce with auric compounds a purple-red precipitate insoluble in hydrochloric acid. (4) Gold compounds ignited with soda on charcoal yield a globule of gold. (5) Ferrous sulphate forms a dark brown precipitate with auric compounds. (6) Stan- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 187 nous chlorid forms with auric chlorid a brownish-purple pre- cipitate known as the Purple of Cassius. Tests for Lead.-(1) Hydrogen sulphid in acid solution forms a black precipitate of lead sulphid insoluble in dilute acid or alkalies. (2) Hydrochloric acid forms with concen- trated solutions a white precipitate of lead chlorid sparingly soluble in cold water, readily soluble in hot water. On cooling the chlorid separates out in long glistening crystals. (3) Potassium chromate forms a yellow precipitate of lead chromate slightly soluble in dilute nitric acid, but readily soluble in sodium hydroxid. (4) Sulphuric acid forms a white precipitate of lead sulphate insoluble in water, slightly soluble in dilute acids and soluble in concentrated alkaline ammonium or sodium acetate. (5) Potassium iodid forms a precipitate of lead iodid soluble in hot water and re-precipitated on cool- ing. Tests for Tin.-(1) Hydrogen sulphid precipitates from neutral and acid solutions dark brown stannous sulphid solu- ble in concentrated yellow ammonium sulphid and concen- trated hydrochloric acid. It is reprecipitated by dilute acids. (2) Sodium hydroxid precipitates white tin hydroxid soluble in excess. (3) Hydrogen sulphid with stannic compounds precipitates from acid solutions yellow stannic sulphid, read- ily soluble in concentrated yellow ammonium sulphid and reprecipitated by dilute acids. (4) Solutions of tin that are subjected to the action of nascent hydrogen are precipitated as a black powder. Tests for Aluminum.-(1) Ammonium hydroxid precipi- tates white aluminum hydroxid soluble in excess with dif- ficulty. (2) Sodium hydroxid forms with solutions of alum- inum a white precipitate readily soluble in excess and reprecipitated by ammonium chlorid. (3) Ammonium sulphid forms a white precipitate of aluminum hydroxid readily soluble in hydrochloric acid. 188 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Tests for Chromium.-Sodium hydroxid forms a bluish- green precipitate of chromium hydroxid reprecipitated by ammonium chlorid. (2) Ammonium hydroxid also forms a bluish-green precipitate of chromium hydroxid partly soluble in excess and reprecipitated on boiling. (3) Ammonium sul- phid forms with solutions of chromium a bluish-green hydroxid. Tests for Manganese.-(1) Ammonium sulphid precipi- tates flesh-colored manganese sulphid from neutral solutions, insoluble in excess, but soluble in hydrochloric acid. (2) Potassium ferrocyanid forms with solutions of manganese a reddish-white precipitate of manganese ferrocyanid soluble in hydrochloric acid. Tests for Iron.- (1) Ammonium sulphid from neutral solutions of ferrous compounds precipitates black ferrous sul- phid insoluble in excess, but soluble in mineral acids. (2) Sodium hydroxid forms with ferrous solutions a white precipi- tate which quickly turns green and finally brown due to the absorption of oxygen from the air. (3) Potassium ferrocyanid precipitates bluish-white potassium ferrous ferrocyanid which turns blue on absorbing oxygen from the air. (4) Hydrogen sulphid in acid solutions forms ferric salts. (5) Ammonium sulphid with ferric solutions forms a black precipitate of ferrous sulphid readily soluble in hydrochloric acid. It is insoluble in excess. (6) Ammonium hydroxid forms a red- dish-brown precipitate with ferric solutions, insoluble in excess, but soluble in mineral acids. (7) Potassium ferro- cyanid with ferric solutions forms a blue precipitate of ferric ferrocyanid, insoluble in hydrochloric acid, but decomposed by sodium hydroxid. Tests for Nickel.-(1) Ammonium sulphid from neutral solutions of nickel precipitates black nickel sulphid, insoluble in excess and in acetic acid, but easily soluble in aqua regia. (2) Sodium hydroxid precipitates green colored nickel CHIROPRACTIC chemistry 189 hydroxid insoluble in excess, soluble in ammonium carbonate. (3) Sodium hydroxid precipitates from solutions of nickel mixed with ammonium hydroxid a green hydroxid of nickel. Tests for Cobalt.-(1) Ammonium sulphid precipitates from neutral solutions black cobalt sulphid insoluble in excess or acetic acid, readily soluble in aqua regia. (2) Potassium nitrate and acteic acid produce a crystalline precipitate of tripotassium cobalt nitrite. (3) Sodium hydroxid precipitates blue cobalt salts insoluble in excess. On boiling the salts turn to a reddish color. PART II Organic Chemistry DEFINITIONS Organic Chemistry is that branch of chemistry which deals with carbon compounds and their derivatives. Isomeric substances are different in their nature and properties, but have the same percentage composition. Polymeric substances have the same percentage com- position, but the molecular weight of one is a simple multiple of the other. A carbohydrate is a substance composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen; the latter two in proportion to form water. A pentose is a sugar containing five atoms of carbon in its molecule. A hexose is a sugar containing six carbon atoms in its molecule. A monosaccharide is a sugar which will not unite with water under the influence of dilute acid and yield other sugars. A disaccharide is a sugar which under the influence of dilute acid will take up one molecule of water and yield two sugars. A trisaccharide is a sugar which will take up two mole- cules of water and form three sugars. A polysaccharide is a sugar which will take up three, or more, molecules of water and yield four or more sugars. Amylose is a starch found widely distributed in the animal kingdom consisting of an external layer of cellulose and an in- ternal larger part of granulose. Glycogen is an animal starch found in functionating cells in the body especially those of the liver. 190 191 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Glycerol is a monotomic alcohol and found as a constitu- ent of all true fats. Lecithin is a phosphorized fat found particularly in the tissue of the brain and nerve fibers. Cholesterol is a monotomic alcohol found chiefly in the bile, but obtains in the brain, seeds of plants and elsewhere. Proteins are substances constituting the greater part of the animal and vegetable tissues. They are very complex and composed of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen and oxygen, together with other elements like sulphur, phosphorus and iron. Albumins are bodies readily coagulated by heat and char- acterized by their solubility in water and weak acids or alkalies. Fibrinogen is a protein contained in the blood to which the latter substance owes its property of spontaneous coagula- tion. Histones are simple proteins possessing relatively large amounts of nitrogen, low sulphur contents and no phos- phorus. Protamines are the simplest of all naturally occurring proteins. They are very rich in nitrogen, contain no sulphur and a relatively small amount of carbon. Albumoses are derived through the process of protein digestion. They are very soluble and do not coagulate on heating. Peptones are secondary proteins derived as a result of gastric and pancreatic digestion. They are soluble in water and not coagulable by heat. Hemoglobin is the coloring matter of the blood and ob- tains as a conjugated protein and has great affinity for various kinds of gases. Collagen is an albuminous substance found in bone, car- tilage and in connective tissue fibers. 192 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Keratin is an insoluble protein found principally in hair and nails. Elastin is a protein rich in carbon and low in sulphur. It is found in the elastic fibers of the body. Amyloid is a protein found in tissue degeneration, par- ticularly that of the liver and kidney. A hydrocarbon is a substance containing only carbon and hydrogen. Paraffins are hydrocarbons showing slight tendency to enter into chemical combination. Methane is a hydrocarbon commonly known as fire damp. Chloroform is a colorless, volatile liquid produced by sub- stituting three atoms of chlorin for three atoms of hydrogen in methane. An alcohol is the hydroxid of a hydrocarbon radical capable of reacting with an acid to form an ester. An aldehyde is a substance produced thru the oxidation of primary alcohols by the removal of hydrogen. Chloral is an aldehyde in which three atoms of hydrogen have been replaced with three atoms of chlorin. A ketone is a substance formed by the oxidation of second- ary alcohols. An ether is a substance produced by the action of an acid upon an alcohol. An ester is a salt of an acid in which the hydrogen has been replaced by a hydrocarbon radical in place of a metal. An amin is a substitution product formed by replacing the hydrogen of ammonia with an oxidized radical. Phenol is an alcohol produced by replacing one hydrogen atom of benzene with the hydroxyl radical. Indol is a disintegration product resulting from bacterial putrefaction of proteins, due to pancreatic digestion. Skatol is a product of protein putrefaction found in the feces. ORGANIC CHEMISTRY Organic Chemistry is the chemistry of carbon compounds. These compounds consist chiefly of carbon, hydrogen, oxygen and nitrogen. Many other important organic compounds also contain sulphur and phosphorus and may contain any other of the chemical elements. Any compound containing carbon, whatever its composition and wherever found, or whatever its properties, is considered an organic compound. The properties of carbon have been described in connec- tion with general chemistry and in viewing these properties we find that this element possesses the peculiar property of being able to assume different valencies and also that its atoms are capable of interchanging valencies or combining with each other. It is on account of this last property that so many compounds of carbon are possible. In the study of different combinations, organic in nature, we meet with substances possessed of similar properties and differing in nature by the absence consecutively of the CH2 group. These compounds form what is termed a homologous series. Other compounds of carbon possessing the same per- centage composition, but differing in their nature and proper- ties, are said to be isomeric. Thus, methyl formate and acetic acid are isomeric because they are two very different sub- stances, yet each is composed of 40 parts of carbon, 53.4 parts of oxygen and 6.67 parts of hydrogen for every 100 parts. Isomeric substances that have the same composition are further possessed of the same molecular weight and are there- fore known as metameric. Polymeric substances have the same percentage composition, but the molecular weight of one is a simple multiple of the molecular weight of the other. Thus, acetic acid is polymeric with glucose in that the molecular weight of the former is 60 while that of the latter is 180. The 193 194 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY difference in the properties of these compounds is due to the different arrangement of their atoms in the molecules. Organic substances are classified into groups, the mem- bers of which are similar in chemical properties. The hydro- carbons form the basis of this classification and other bodies are said to be derived from them by substitution of atoms, or radicals, for those of hydrogen or carbon. The main classes are the alcohols, ethers, aldehydes, esters and acids. CARBOHYDRATES Carbohydrates are compounds composed of carbon, hydrogen and oxygen with the latter two elements in propor- tion to form water. In their chemical behavior they resemble aldehydes and ketones, and like the latter are often strong reducing agents. For this reason they are often considered as derivatives of polyhydric alcohol. Some carbohydrates exist naturally, but most of them are artificially prepared. The most important of these bodies are divided into four classes known as monosaccharides, disaccharides, trisaccharides and polysaccharides. Monosaccharides Monosaccharides, or monoses, are sugars, which will not unite with water and thereby split up into two or more sugars. Among these there are a number of substances which are divided into two main groups, known as pentoses and hexoses. Other sugars of this series also obtain and are named according to the number of carbon atoms that they contain, as dioses, trioses, tetroses, heptoses, octoses and nonoses. All the sugars of this series are neutral in reaction, sweet, white in color, odorless, soluble in water, sparingly soluble in alcohol and insoluble in ether. They are readily oxidized and therefore act as strong reducing agents. This last property CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 195 serves as the basis for the many reduction tests used in this connection. Pentoses are sugars derived from pentosans by the process of hydration. Of this class of substances only two are of any importance and exist in nature in only small amounts. These are arabinose and xylose. Arabinose, commonly known as pectin sugar is derived by treating wheat bran, gum arabic or cherry gum with dilute acids. Xylose, otherwise known as wood sugar is made by boiling wood gum with sulphuric acid. It is non-fermentable and a strong reducing agent. All the sugars of the pentose group are distinguished from sugars proper in that they yield large quantities of furfuraldehyde when distilled with sulphuric or hydrochloric acid. The hexoses are sugars widely distributed in nature and found particularly in ripe fruits. They are sweet, soluble in water and insoluble in alcohol. They are all of them reducing agents and readily undergo fermentation. Under the influ- ence of yeast they yield alcohol and carbon dioxid. Lactic acid is formed when these sugars are acted upon by the proper digestive ferments. By partial and continued oxidation they yield a series of organic acids. Some sugars of the hexose group have been artificially prepared and these as well as the naturally existing substances are represented by the gen- eral formula C6H12O6. The hexoses when combined with one molecule of phenyl hydrazine yield a soluble substance known as hydrozone. When phenyl hydrazine is in excess the re- sult is a yellow crystalline insoluble solid called osazone. This substance is very important in determining different sugars. The most important compound of the hexoses series is known as glucose. It is otherwise known as dextrose, grape sugar, diabetic sugar, or liver sugar. It obtains in yellowish or white crystals soluble in water and alcohol. It is not as 196 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY sweet as cane sugar and undergoes fermentation very readily. For this reason it cannot be used with any degree of satisfac- tion in the preparation of syrups or in canning and preserving of foods. Glucose exists in honey and fruit juices, often asso- ciated with levulose. It is prepared artificially by boiling cane sugar or starch with a dilute mineral acid or by treating the starch or cane sugar with diastase, a ferment formed in the germination of grain. On the large scale it is prepared by the former method, the acid used being sulphuric. Other acids may also be employed, but with these the action is slower and the reaction less complete. Hydrochloric acid is em- ployed in the making of a commercial glucose. Fructose is another sugar of the hexose group. It is also known as fruit sugar or levulose. This form obtains in honey and various sweet fruits but is not easily obtained in the pure state, because it is very soluble and does not crystallize with great readiness. Fructose and glucose are very similar, the only real difference is that the specific rotation of the latter is to the right and that of the former is to the left. Galactose is a hexose of but little importance. It does not exist naturally, but obtains by the action of weak acids, upon different gums or milk sugar. It is fermentable and very soluble in water. Disaccharides A disaccharide is a sugar which under the influence of dilute acids will take up one molecule of water and break up into two sugars. This process is known as inversion. We note that by this process cane sugar breaks up into glucose and fructose, milk sugar into glucose and galactose and malt sugar into glucose and glucose. By the above examples we find that the disaccharides break up into hexose molecules, some of which are alike and others different. The most important CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 197 examples of this group of sugars are saccharose, lactose and maltose, and these are all represented by the general formula Saccharose is commonly known as cane sugar and under the influence of dilute acids, as above stated, it breaks up into glucose and fructose. This sugar is different from grape sugar because it is not directly fermentable and does not react with reagents of the different reduction tests. It is found in the juices of beets, canes, saps of trees and in many seeds and nuts. The commercial product is prepared principally from beets and canes and to a certain extent from maple sap. Being non-fermentable, this sugar is used in the canning and pre- serving of fruits. Lactose is also known as milk sugar and is a characteristic sugar in practically all kinds of milk. Under the influence of dilute acids, in the presence of water, it splits up into the two sugars. Of all known sugars, lactose is the least soluble in water and is also insoluble in alcohol. It crystallizes in hard, white prisms, being produced mainly as a by-product in the manufacture of cheese. In its primary state it is non-ferment- able, but when broken up into its hexose molecules it ferments very rapidly. It possesses a slightly sweetish taste and reacts readily with the different reduction tests. Maltose, the sugar of malt, is produced by the action of malt diastase on starch. It obtains in germinating seeds and grains. It ferments only when split up into hexose molecules. It possesses marked reducing qualities and under the influence of pancreatic and intestinal juices, it changes so rapidly that for a long time it was considered in the class of fermenting sugars. Trisaccharides A trisaccharide is a sugar which under the influence of dilute acids is capable of taking up two molecules of water and 198 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY splitting up into three sugars. Only one sugar of this group, namely raffinose, is of any great importance. Raffinose is represented by the formula C18H32O16. It is more soluble than cane sugar and therefore obtains in the last crystallizations from beet juices. When acted upon by acids it is converted into the monosaccharide fructose and the dis- accharide meliboise. Polysaccharides Polysaccharides are substances which, under the influence of dilute acids take up three or more molecules of water and change into four or more sugars. These bodies are related to sugars by similarity of properties. As naturally existing sub- stances they are insoluble in water and by certain treatment they may be readily converted into simple sugars. The com- pounds belonging to this division are the starches, gums and celluloses. Amylose or starch is found more or less abundantly in all plants particularly seeds, grains and tubers. It exists as a white shining powder and when dry, and in bulk, obtains in columnar masses. Microscopically it is found to consist of minute elliptical granules differing in size with the source from which they are obtained. These granules are built up of concentric layers of homogeneous composition. The outer layers consist of cellulose and the inner ones of granulose. When heated the layers are split apart and, if soaked in water, swell and form a gelatinous mass known as hydrated starch or starch paste. Starch is converted into soluble compounds if boiled with dilute acids. The reaction obtains in several steps with the final formation of glucose. Different acids have dif- ferent effects upon starch. Hot concentrated nitric acid con- verts it into oxalic acid, sulphuric acid produces a destructive action resulting in the formation of sulphurous acid, carbon CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 199 dioxid and water. Cold nitric acid dissolves starch and forms a highly explosive nitro-compound. When starch is treated with a solution of iodin the result is a dark violet-blue color which disappears on warming and reappears on cooling. Dry heat ruptures the granules and converts starch into dextrin. Diastase, ptyalin and pancreatic juice convert starch into a soluble mass which later decom- poses into dextrin and maltose. The maltose is then converted into glucose. Glycogen is an animal starch found in the liver, placenta, white blood corpuscles, musclar tissue and in many embryonic tissues. It resembles starch in its chemical and physiological properties and in some respects is like the simple sugars. In physical properties it is a white, odorless, tasteless amorphous powder. It does not react with any of the reduction tests, but is readily transformed into glucose. Glycogen is a reserve material resulting as a transformation product of sugar ab- sorbed in the process of digestion. It is again converted into sugar as it is needed for oxidation in the body. The amount of glycogen in the- liver and the other bodily tissues is in- creased by eating food rich in carbohydrates and diminished by muscular exercise and also by the introduction into the body of certain chemicals such as strychnin, arsenic, anti- mony and phosphorus. Gums.-Certain gums occur as naturally existing prod- ucts related to the pentose group of sugars and others are related to starch which upon transformation finally yield hexoses. This group further includes the dextrins produced by subjecting starch to dry heat or by heating starch to 90 degrees with dilute sulphuric acid. Dextrin is a yellowish- w'hite powder soluble in water producing mucilagenous solu- tions. It is insoluble in alcohol. True dextrins are unfer- mentable substances slightly sweetish in taste. They possess a marked reducing power and yield osazones on treatment 200 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY with phenyl hydrazine. In the process of transformation of starches many authorities have attempted to define all the. various steps which take place and the bodies formed in these various steps. Some of the bodies so formed are erythrodex- trin, achroodextrin and amylodextrin. The former are col- ored red by iodin, easily attacked by diastase and readily transformed into sugars. The second class does not show any color with iodin is acted on very slowly by the enzyme diastase and not very readily converted into sugars. The third class is said to show purple color with iodin and is claimed to be a product of diastatic action upon starch in the presence of diluted weak acids. Cellulose.-The cell walls of the vegetable substances consist of a peculiar form of starch known as cellulose. It is a body which resists the action of oxidizing agents. It is insoluble in water, weak acids, alkalies and alcohol. Its per- centage composition is the same as that of starch and is a basis for the formation of all vegetable fibers. Absorbent cotton consists of nearly pure cellulose. The naturally exist- ing bodies of this class are divided into three groups: (1) those which resist hydrolitic action and do not serve as food stuffs for animals. (2) Those which are partially hydrolized and contain active CO groups. (3) The substances of this group are known as the false celluloses and undergo hydrolitic action quite readily. They are easily digested by enzymes and also broken up by weak acids and alkalies. By the action of weak acids they are converted into fermentable sugars. FATS AND RELATED SUBSTANCES Fats used as food stuffs are quite as important as carbo- hydrates. In structure they are all alike but differ widely in their physical properties. At ordinary temperatures some are liquid while others are hard solids. They are present in nearly all vegetable substances in greatly varying amounts. They are also present to a certain extent in all living organ- isms. In physical properties they are lighter than water with which they do not mix. When shaken with water they form globules of varying size possessing strong refractive powers. They are soluble in ether and slightly soluble in alcohol and also in solutions of alkalies with which they form soaps. Fatty Acids are of the saturated and non-saturated varieties. The non-saturated are unimportant and occur as glycerides in castor oil, peanut oil and in many other oils. Of the saturated acids there are a great many. Some of the more common are formic, acetic, caprocic, palmitic, stearic and butyric. The greater number of the above acids occur in edible fats, the three most important of which are stearin, oelin and palmitin. Fats are easily broken down into soaps and glycerol and the process is known as saponification. Fats subjected to the action of alkalies and heat or those treated by superheated steam change into soaps; certain enzymes, mainly pancreatic steapsin, produce much the same change, that is the forma- tion of soaps as a result of digestive action upon foods in the alimentary canal. This process of digestion is taken up in detail in the chapter on chemistry of digestion. Fats in the human body become oxidized which oxidation is accom- panied by the liberation of force and heat. They serve to maintain the bodily temperature in two ways, first,-by the 201 202 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY liberation of heat, and second,-by preventing its escape from the body. As a rule, fats are insoluble in water, but a mixture of the two is sometimes in form of an emulsion. In this case the two do not separate into layers, but the fat is suspended in form of minute globules which may be passed through filter paper without any separation, this process of emulsifi- cation is very important in the digestion of fats and is largely due to partial hydrolysis by certain enzymes. Naturally existing fats obtain in the amorphous state, but in separated condition they may assume a more or less crystal- line form. The origin of fats has been a subject of much discussion and it was thought that they were all obtained from the vegetable kingdom but this assumption is not true for now we know that fats are made elsewhere. The fact that sugars are said to be of a fattening nature is not due to their storage as such, but rather the preservation of the fat and the oxidation of the sugar for the supply of the necessary bodily energy. Were it not for the sugar, fats would be oxidized to supply this necessary energy. Through this oxidization fats form a reserve material storing up necessary potential energy which in cases of wasting diseases or mal- nutrition supply the needs of the body and preserve, from oxidization, the muscular tissue. As long as no subluxations exist in the spinal column and there is no impingement upon the spinal nerves which emit through the intervertable foramina, no incoordination exists and the material which is taken into the body as food under these normal conditions is properly digested, absorbed and assimilated under the supervision of Innate Intelligence. In cases where no impingement obtains just the right amount of fat, which is to be used in the metabolism of the body, is taken from the food. Under Innate's supervision there is no deficiency or surplus of fat ever present in the human body. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 203 Physiological important fats are there in number, namely, olein, stearin and palmitin. The formula of stearin is C8H5(C18H35O2)3; that of palmitin C3H5(C16H31O2)3. Both are solid in nature and always found together and difficult to separate. They differ slightly in their melting points and somewhat in the form crystallization. Olein has the formula C3H5(C18H33O2)3 and is of an oily liquid nature. The liquid consistency of other fats is usually due to the presence of olein. Fats in general consist of fatty acids united with the glycerol radical. Glycerol is a monotomic alcohol, having the formula C3H8O3. It is a colorless, odorless, syrupy liquid, neutral in reaction and sweetish in taste. It has the specific gravity of 1.266 at 15 degrees centigrade. It is a food only in limited quantities, but if present in excess it fails to be assimilated and produces digestive disturbances. If no subluxations ob- tain in the body Innate Intelligence would cause only those quantities of glycerol to be absorbed which could without any difficulty be assimilated and serve as food, thereby result- ing in no ill effects. Lecithin is a phosphorized fat found in the brain and nerve tissue, also in blood, milk and bile. It is not a true fat, but is closely related so that it is considered with this class of substances. Several forms of lecithin are known, all of which undergo saponification, forming fatty acids, glycero- phosphoric acid and chlorin. It is found in a limited extent in the vegetable kingdom, but principally in the tissues of the animal. Its function is unknown, but its wide distribution tends to suggest that it is a substance of marked importance. Waxes. The waxes are substances closely related to the fats and consist principally of esters of high monohydric alcohol, they are not easily saponified and very little is known as to their composition. Cholesterol is a monotomic alcohol closely allied to the 204 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY fats. Its exact composition, though not known, is repre- sented by the formula C27H45OH. It is insoluble in water, slightly soluble in cold alcohol, but readily soluble in hot alcohol or ether. It is a white solid, crystallizing in form of tiny flakes or needles. Cholesterol possesses no taste or odor and exists normally in practically every animal tissue in minute quantities. It is found most abundantly in the liver, nerve tissue and the intestines. Pathologically it obtains in biliary calculi, pus, fluids of cysts and in cancers and tumors. When treated with nitric acid and then evaporated almost to dryness a brick red color obtains upon the addition of am- monium hydroxid. When cholesterol is treated with sul- phuric acid and chloroform a purple color obtains which gradually changes to blue, then green and finally yellow. It does not saponify very easily, although its esters form stable emulsions with water. In the vegetable kingdom cholesterol is distributed widely, but only in limited quantity. PROTEINS Protein or albuminous substances as they are usually termed differ from the carbohydrates and fats in that they are largely found in the vegetable kingdom, the animal not being capable of building them from simpler bodies, but able to modify them to a certain extent. The approximate quantitative composition of some well known proteins is as follows:-C 50%, H 20%, O 20%, N 15% and S 0.3%. In certain other bodies we find phosphorus, and some few contain iron so that the qualitative composition might be given as carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, sul- phur, CHONS. The alcove -bodies are closely associated with fats, carbo- hydrates and certain mineral substances, so that their separa- tion from them without altering the composition of the pro- tein body is almost impossible. The molecules are so complex that they are only written empirically to show the great com- plexity. Example, egg albumin C239 H38G N58 S2O78. No method in the process of analysis is quite adequate to give any satisfactory results regarding their structure. It has always been deemed necessary to classify sub- stances for sake of study, but here we have bodies that are hard to classify. Many good classifications exist, but even the authors of them do not make claims that they are per- fect. Sometimes the division is made into four classes and again only into three with the proteids not a separate division. Following'is the classification of some of the most im- portant protein bodies: 205 206 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Albumins proper. Serum albumin, egg albumin. Globulins. Serum globulin, egg globulin, cell globulin. Coagulating albumins. Fibrinogen, myosin. Histones. Protamines. True or native albumins. Derived or transformation products. 'Modified albumin. Acid and alkali albumin. Albumoses. Peptones. Proteids. 'Hemoglobins. Glucoproteids. Lecithoproteids. Collagen. Gelatin, glue. Keratin. Horns, hair, nails. Elastin. Elastic tissue. Amyloid. Pathological conditions. Albumoids. Protein bodies all contain nitrogen which can be liberated by subjection to the soda-lime test. This test cannot be known as positive, since all ammonium salts respond as well, nevertheless it serves as a preliminary identification. Test.-Mix equal portions of soda-lime and wheat flour in a dry test tube and apply heat. The odor of fumes given off is that of ammonium, which vapor will change moist red litmus paper to a blue color. Nearly all protein substances except the transformation products undergo coagulation when heated. The coagulation General Reaction of Protein Bodies CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 207 is usually followed by precipitation, but in many cases the precipitation may occur without coagulation. The coagulated protein is one that cannot be brought back to its original state by reagents, but the precipitated substance or precipitation, may be brought about by addition of certain inorganic salts without changing its character and brought back by dilution with water. Many protein bodies precipitate upon the addition of certain inorganic salts with- out changing in character and are brought back by dilution with water. Many protein bodies precipitate upon the addi- tion of a certain amount of salt and have what is known as as a precipitation limit. Test.-A coagulate is formed upon the application of heat to neutral white of egg solution, but when alkali or acid is present, albumin must be added to the point of neutrality. Certain mineral acids bring about coagulation. Nitric is commonly used, especially in the analysis of urine. Alcohol in excess will produce coagulation, but when diluted, there is no action. Many salts of heavy metals such as mercuric or ferric chlorid and copper sulphate also give rise to coagulation. Analysis of Proteins There is no one method which will answer for the de- termination of the amount of protein in various substances and in fact the combination of several methods is not always satisfactory. Most of the simple proteins are determined by complete coagulation and weighing of the precipitate. This consists of the steps of washing and drying, but does not begin to be accurate. The Kjeldahl process is very often used but is unsatisfactory because of the changing value of the factor. The process consists in converting of the nitrogen into am- monia by use of sulphuric acid and the separation and weigh- 208 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY ing of ammonia and multiplying 14/17 of the product by the factor 6.25. Structure of the Protein Molecule The composition of the molecule is uncertain, yet a great deal may be learned by observing the products formed by dif- ferent chemical agents. Since it is true that certain bodies are always obtained no matter what kind of an agent is used, we conclude that these bodies are not the result of combin- ing a certain part of the protein with the agent, but rather the isolation of them by the action of such agent. For example: leucin is formed abundantly by treatment of proteins with HC1, HNO3 and H2SO4; by bromin water under pressure, and by alkaline solutions or prolonged pancreatic digestion. De- composition by steam under pressure produces the same effect. In the use of such alkalies as BaOH, KOH and NaOH many products have been identified, mainly leucin, tyrosin, ammonia, acetic acid, oxalic acid, butyric acid and others. By the steam decomposition, coagulation results followed by hydration and solution. Some of the substances form albumose or peptone. At a later stage ammonia and hydrogen sulphid are given off, followed at a still higher temperature by the formation of leucin and tyrosin. The action of acids upon protein substances is very marked and many important products are in this way isolated. The acid best fitted for this purpose is hydrochloric as it has a high hydrolyzing power. By the action of this acid a group of substances known as hexone bases have been isolated. They are widely distributed and crystalline in nature. Glycin is obtained abundantly from gelatin, is very solu- ble in water, combines with benzoic acid to form hippuric acid which is often present in the urine. Leucin, which has been discussed before, is found in CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 209 large quantities in all proteins, very often exceeding thirty percent. Tyrosin also occurs very abundantly in most pro- teins except in gelatin. Ammonia is found in varying and relatively large amounts in protein bodies. Sulphur com- pounds are found in small quantities and among these we have such as hydrogen sulphid and cystin, the latter being probably the most important and found in certain calculi or concretions. All the foregoing discussion has a strong tendency to show the composition of protein, but as yet it is quite impos- sible to say anything about the combination or rather how these different substances in the molecule are combined. Cer- tain combinations have been noted and as a result of these one may readily see why the bodies show double action, namely basic and acid. However, the fact that they show a greater tendency to combine with acids, would mean that they are more strongly basic in character. We will consider next, according to the outline given in the preceding pages, some of the most important of the proteins in their proper order. Albumins Albumins are soluble in water, easily coagulated by ap- plication of heat and though usually amorphous have been ob- tained in crystalline form. Serum albumin is present in blood to the extent of four percent by weight and is associated with globulin, fibrinogen, mucoid, salts and certain bodies from which it is impossible to completely separate it. Serum albumin contains large quan- tity of sulphur and possesses a high specific rotation. It is not exactly known whether serum albumins of different animals are the same, though they closely nesemble each other. Egg albumin differs from serum albumin, in rotation, has 210 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY a much lower coagulating temperature, and if injected into the blood stream passes unchanged through the kidney. Globulin Globulins differs from albumins because they are in- soluble in pure water, but require dilute salt solutions to dissolve them. It is*just as difficult to obtain globulin in pure form as albumin, because both exist in combination with other substances. Serum globulin is found in blood to the extent of four percent by weight and may be detected by dilution with water. The most important of other globulins is cell globulin. It has been obtained from the liver, pancreas, muscle and the crystalline lens of the eye. In the last structure it is known as crystallin. Coagulating Proteins Under the subject of coagulating albumins we consider several bodies which are of great importance. They are all included under this common head, because of the property of spontaneous coagulation. In nature they usually exist in the dissolved form, but under certain conditions, which conditions are rarely understood, they pass into the solid state. Though substances coagulate by the use of heat the coagulation is not as profound in its character as is that of the above class of substances. We consider two important bodies under this heading, namely fibrinogen and myosin. Fibrinogen is that peculiar body present in blood which presents the property of spontaneous coagulation, the product of which is known as fibrin. The nature of the factors which bring about these peculiar changes have been subjects of much discussion, and nothing quite definite has been dis- covered about them. As a chemical substance, fibrinogen is not obtainable in perfectly pure condition, since various and CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 211 many agents are necessary to hold it in proper solution. The product of fibrinogen, namely fibrin, has well established properties and is doubtless a result of fermentation. It is usually an elastic stringy substance insoluble in water, par- tially soluble in certain salt solutions. Myosin is considered to be the result of a pre-existing body, myosinogen of living muscle, similarly as fibrin is the product of fibrinogen in living blood. It is contained in mus- cle plasma and has the property of spontaneous coagulation and a peculiar solidification after death. Like fibrinogen it is quite impossible to separate it from other complex structures which hold it in solution, and hence its property is not thoroughly established. The coagulation temperature of it is given as 47 degrees, and receives the name of myosin-fibrin after it has solidified. Under the head of true or native albumins we have the peculiar class of relatively simple bodies known as histones. They are basic in reaction and precipitated by solutions of alkalies, principally ammonia. They are also peculiar in that they yield upon dissociation large amounts of nitrogen and small amounts of sulphur. They yield in the breaking up of their complex molecule, very little or no phosphorus and exist in several sources. Globin is the most important, most readily obtained and exists to the extent of 96% in the haemoglobin of the red blood corpuscles, existing in combination with hematin which is the iron containing constituent of blood. Nucleo histone is the name given to the product separated from the substance of the thymus gland. Protamines are possibly the simplest of all naturally existing proteins. They do not exist in the free state, but are largely found in the combined form; they contain no sul- phur, are very rich in nitrogen and low in the percentage of carbon. They do not coagulate by the action of heat and 212 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY represent more simple bodies than the histones, and hence it is possible to believe that the histone represents a higher stage of development since it is largely found in mature organisms. Protamines are very easily precipitated by alka- line solutions and unaltered by peptic digestion, though by action of trypsin they may be reduced to crystalline products. Derived or Transformation Products Under the heading of transformation products we find bodies which represent modified forms of all the foregoing substances. The two most important ones under this class are the albumoses and peptones. Different classes of albu- moses may be obtained from native proteins, which are classed under the head of proteoses. Albumoses are bodies that are recognized by different degrees of digestion, and are given under the head of primary and secondary. The secondary represent a more advanced stage and a prolonged period of contact with the digestive agents, and are often assumed to pass from here into the peptone stage. The amount of real peptone in protein substances is usu- ally very small as is also the amount produced by peptic digestion. The largest amount being produced by the action of pancreatic enzymes, largely trypsin. The term antipeptone is usually given as the name of the product of pancreatic di- gestion, but its exact nature is very uncertain, as it was stated that any form of prolonged digestion would not alter its quantitative composition. The name kyrin has been given to certain kinds of peptones which resist hydrolitic action and are basic in character. Proteids The name proteid is used to designate the third group of protein bodies. Its use is only arbitrary, as the term may well CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 213 be dropped and all bodies included under it might be classed as conjugated proteins. Under this head we will consider only one substance, namely haemoglobin. It is a body which is composed of hematin, the iron containing body, combined with globin: The properties are not always constant as many slightly varying compounds have been obtained in its dis- sociation. The great importance of haemoglobin depends upon its power as given in ratio of carrying capacity to gas. Of this capacity oxygen seemingly is the most important and hence the name oxyhaemoglobin. The gas carried by this body may be very easily driven out. Its carrying capacity is de- pendent entirely upon the amount of iron present. The oxy- haemoglobin may be obtained in crystalline form reddish in color and soluble in water. The solubility varies in different kinds of blood as noted by various experiments wherein the isolation of it is attempted. Albumoids The fourth class of substances consists of albumoids, namely collagen, keratin, elastin and amyloid. The best known of all these substances is collagen, being found in large quan- tities in bone, cartilage, fibres of connective tissue, tendons, fish scales and elsewhere. It is insoluble in cold water, but upon boiling assumes a gluey appearance where it is known as glutin. Preparations of glutin are used in making of photographic plates, gelatin paper, and certain of them for joiners' glue. Its final cleavage products are known as glyco- coll and glutamic acid. It has the power of undergoing de- struction, thus preserving certain albumins in the human body from katabolism. Keratin is the substance largely found in horns and hoofs of cattle, finger nails, hair and feathers; it is not easily broken down by hot water, weak acid, alkaline solutions or digestive 214 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY juices. It contains a great amount of sulphur, some of which is easily separated from it in form of hydrogen sulphid. Elastin differs from keratin largely in its high carbon content and low sulphur content; in both cases of elastin and keratin, large quantities of lucin are produced and the one great difference between the above two bodies is that the latter is slowly dissolved when subjected to prolonged peptic or pancreatic digestion. Amyloid is a pathological substance largely found in degeneration of the liver and kidney. It is characterized by a reddish brown color that it assumes when brought in contact with potassium iodid; further analysis of it shows that it con- tains a large amount of carbon and some sulphur. It is in- soluble in cold water and partially soluble when subjected to long heating, giving the usual protein reactions when brought in contact with alkaline solutions. HYDROCARBONS Hydrocarbons are compounds composed only of carbon and hydrogen. Some of these substances are known as satis- fied hydrocarbons and are bodies in which no free valencis exist. Others are known as saturated hydrocarbons and these possess a maximum number of hydrogen atoms. Hydrocar- bons are divided into the open chain or acyclic compounds and the closed chain or cyclic compounds. Those of the open chain series are substances where the carbon atoms are so arranged that two or more of the atoms are linked to but one other atom. The compounds of the cyclic series are composed of bodies in which each carbon atom is linked to two or more carbon atoms, or their equivalent. Paraffins are saturated hydrocarbons possessing little affinity and bear only slight tendency to enter into chemical reaction. They are very stable and not easily attacked by chemical reagents such as alkalies or acids. They obtain in petroleum and occur as products of dry distillation of coal and other organic substances. The lower forms of paraffin exist as gases insoluble in water. The intermediary bodies are liquid in form and the higher substances are solids. Those of the second class are readily soluble in alcohol. Those of the first are slightly soluble and those of solid consistency dissolve with difficulty. Their boiling and melting points, as well as the specific gravity, increase as the number of carbon atoms increases. Methane, also known as marsh gas or fire damp, is represented by the formula CH4. It is a colorless, tasteless gas. It is lighter than air, sparingly soluble in water and burns in air with a bluish flame. When mixed with air or oxygen, it forms explosive mixtures, discharging by explosion a large quantity of carbon dioxid, which is commonly known as after 215 216 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY damp. Methane is irrespirable, but non-poisonous. It is al- ways present as a product in spontaneous decomposition of vegetable matter in the presence of water and occurs to a certain extent in the intestines of all animals. Methane is prepared by heating a mixture of sodium acetate and am- monium hydroxid, the reaction being expressed by the follow- ing equation:- NaC2H3O2 + NaOH = Na2CO3 + CH4. Natural gas consists of small quantities of nitrogen and carbon dioxid together with 90 to 95% of methane. Ethane is a gas produced when crude petroleum is heated. It does not obtain in the pure state, but is mixed with pro- pane and butane. It occurs as a constituent in some natural gas wells in the locality of which it is used for heating and lighting. The gases ethane, propane and butane when con- densed yield a liquid which is known as cymogene used ex- tensively in the production of artificial ice. At ordinary temperatures ehtane is a gas and burns in the air with a slightly luminous flame. It is somewhat soluble in alcohol and water. Petroleum is a natural dark brown oily liquid and is the chief source of all naturally occuring hydrocarbons. It is highly inflammable and when distilled gives rise to such prod- ucts as cymogene, rhigolene, petroleum ether, gasoline, naphtha, benzene and kerosene. Kerosene, or coal oil distills at a temperature of 150 to 220 degrees centigrade and is refined by treatment with sul- phuric acid, which removes the unsaturated hydrocarbons. Olefins The olefins are unsaturated compounds insoluble in al- cohol and ether and as a rule insoluble in water. The fact that they are unsaturated compounds and possess marked chemical CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 217 affinity makes them different from the paraffins. Small quan- tities of olefins are found in petroleum. Quite a number of substances belong to this group and are known as ethene, C2H4, propene C3H6, butene C4H8, pentene C5H10, etc. They are represented by the general formula CnH2n. The olefins combine with the hydra acids and also with sulphuric and nitric acids. Ethene is the most important body of this group and is found in illuminating gas and upon its presence the illuminat- ing power of the gas depends. Ethene is a colorless gas, having a pungent odor and may be separated from other sub- stances with which it exists by treatment with sulphuric acid in which it readily dissolves. It burns readily in the air with a bright luminous flame. Ethene combines directly with chlorin forming a thick, oily liquid commonly known as olefiant gas. It also unites directly with iodin and bromin. Acetylenes Acetylenes form the third group of hydrocarbons and are represented by the general formula CnH2n.2. To this series belong such substances as ethine C2H2, and propine C3H4. Certain other bodies of less importance such as butine C4H6, pentine C5HS and hexine C6H10 also belong to this group. Ethine or acetylene, as it is commonly called, is the only important substance of this entire series. It may be prepared by. the direct union of its elements or by the action of water on calcium carbid. Acetylene combines directly with chlorin, bromin and iodin and is readily converted into ethane by nascent hydrogen. It is found principally in coal gas and possesses high illuminat- ing properties. One peculiar feature about acetylene is that its hydrogen can be readily replaced by metals forming a series of substances known as the acetylids. CaC2 ff- H2O - CaO T C2H2. 218 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Haloid Substitution Products Substitution is the process of replacing an atom or atoms of one element for the same number of atoms of another ele- ment in a compound. The bodies of this series are derived by substituting chlorin, bromin and iodin in the place of one, two or three or all of the hydrogen atoms of methane, thereby giving rise to the so-called haloid derivatives. If one atom of hydrogen form the methane group is replaced by chlorin the result is methyl-chlorid, CH3C1; when two atoms of hydrogen are replaced the substance formed is known as dichlor- methane. CH2C12; when three atoms are replaced the sub- stance formed in trichlormethane CHC13; if all the hydrogen is replaced tetrachlormethane, CC14 is formed. In a similar manner as above indicated bromin and iodin may be used to replace the hydrogen atoms and thereby form different sub- stances possessing different properties. Methyl-chlorid is a colorless gas slightly soluble in water and possesses a sweetish taste and odor. It burns in the air with a green flame. It is used mainly in freezing machines. Trichlormethane is commonly known as chloroform. It is a colorless, volatile liquid possessing strong antifermenta- tive properties. It has an agreeable etheral odor and possesses a sweetish taste. It is somewhat heavier than water with which it will not mix. In the air it is uninflammable and is a good solvent for fats, resins, gutta-percha, sulphur and phos- phorus. It mixes in all proportions with alcohol and ether. Chloroform is prepared on a large scale by the action of chlorid of lime upon acetone. 2CH3; CO ; CH3 + 3C12 = 3HC1 + 2CH3; CO; CC13. 2(CH3; CO ; CC13) + Ca(OH)2 = 2CHC13 + Ca(C2H3O2)2. It is obtained in the pure state by the action of potassium hydroxid upon chloral hydrate:- C2HC13(OH)8 + KOH = CHC13 + HCOOK + H2O. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 219 The effects of chloroform upon the human economy and the antidotes therefor will be considered with the subject of poisons. Ethyl-chlorid C2H5C1 is a colorless liquid and when mixed with methyl-ether is employed as a local anesthetic. Ethyl-bromid C2H5Br is a colorless liquid possessing slight anesthetic properties. Alcohols An alcohol is a hydroxid of a hydrocarbon radical capable of reacting with an acid to produce an ester. The different alcohols are formed by the substitution of the hydroxyl radical for one or more hydrogen atoms of a hydrocarbon radical and resemble in structure the bases of inorganic chemistry. Alcohols are classified as monatomic, diatomic and triatomic depending upon the number of hydroxyl groups contained in the molecule. A monatomic alcohol is one that contains only one hydroxyl group. A diatomic alcohol contains two hy- droxyl groups and a triatomic alcohol contains three hydroxyl groups. Different groups of alcohols are isomeric and to dis- tinguish these series the groups are known as the primary, secondary and tertiary. A primary alcohol is one wherein the hydroxyl radical is attached to a carbon atom which in turn is united with but one other carbon atom. This group of al- cohols is characterized by the quantity CH2OH. A secondary alcohol is one in which the hydroxyl group is attached to a carbon atom which in turn unites with two other carbon atoms and is characterized by the group CHOH. A tertiary alcohol is one where the hydroxyl group is joined to a carbon atom which in turn is united with three carbon atoms and is char- acterized by the COH group. These three groups of alcohols are further distinguished by their behavior with oxidizing agents. The primary alcohols on oxidation first form an aldehyde and finally an acid; the secondary alcohols form a 220 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY ketone and no acid; the tertiary alcohols are oxidized into a ketone and an acid or into two or more acids. Monatomic Alcohols Methyl-alcohol is commonly known as wood alcohol or methyl-hydroxid and is represented by the formula CH3OH. It is one of the products produced in the process of destructive distillation of wood. It is a transparent colorless liquid, burns in the air with a bluish flame and is miscible with water in all proportions. Methyl-alcohol is oxidized into formic acid, and with acids acting upon it, it produces esters and other sub- stitution products. Columbian spirit is a deodorized pure methyl alcohol. Methylated spirit is a mixture of 90 parts of ethyl-alcohol and 10 parts of methyl-alcohol. It possesses a disagreeable taste and odor. Ethyl-alcohol, or common alcohol is represented by the formula C2Hr,OH. It is the result of fermentation of saccharine liquids and is a colorless, mobile fluid possessing a peculiar odor, a sharp burning taste and is very volatile. The chief source of ethyl-alcohol is starch, which must first be con- verted into a sugar before the process of fermentation takes place. The method for obtaining it consists in the malting of grain, which by the formation of diastase changes the starch into a dextrin and finally into maltose and glucose. This is then taken and combined with yeast which produces fer- mentation resulting in the formation of alcohol and carbon dioxid. The alcohol is then separated by fractional dis- tillation. Absolute alcohol is a colorless liquid possessing an agree- able odor and a burning taste and does not contain over one percent of water. It possesses a great tendency to absorb water with which it mixes in all proportions. It burns in the air with a faintly luminous flame. The only difference between CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 221 this alcohol and common alcohol is the proportion of water which they contain. Alcohol (U.S.P.) has a specific gravity of 0.820 and is 94% pure. Alcohol dilutum is 53% pure. Tinctures are solutions of medicinal nonvolatile sub- stances and are known according to the liquid employed as ammoniated, etheral and alcoholic. Spirits are volatile solutions of different substances in alcohol. Propyl-alcohol C3H7OH is produced in the latter part of the process of fractional distillation of crude alcohol. Butyl-alcohol C4H9OH is formed in the process of fer- mentation of sugar. It is a colorless liquid, more poisonous than ethyl or methy alcohols. Amyl-alcohol is a colorless, oily liquid possess- ing an irritating odor and a burning taste. It will not mix with water, but does so with alcohol and ether. It is formed during the fermentation of barley, corn and potatoes and does not obtain in the pure state, but generally mixed with amylic alcohols. Diatomic Alcohols Ethylene alcohol is represented by the formula C2H4 (OH)2 and is commonly known as glycol. It is a colorless, transparent, odorless liquid possessing a sweetish taste. It mixes with water and other alcohols in all proportions and is prepared by the action of potassium carbonate upon ethylene dibromid. There are several other alcohols belonging to this group, but they are of no particular importance. Triatomic Alcohols The most important alcohol of this group is known as glycerol and results as a by-product in the manufacture of soaps. This body has been fully described under the subject of fats. 222 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Ethers Ethers are compounds produced by the action of sul- phuric acid upon corresponding alcohols. They are colorless liquids possessing a characteristic odor and a burning taste. In the pure state, they are volatile and soluble in water, al- cohol, chloroform and benzene. Ethers are highly inflam- mable and burn with a luminous flame. They are capable of dissolving resins, oils and other organic bodies. In them such substances as iodin, bromin, sulphur and phosphorus dissolve very readily. Ethers are used in medicine for producing local and general anesthesia. The term ether is generally defined as any substance which is produced by the action of an acid upon an alcohol. The most important of the ethers, as above described, is known as ethyl-ether or sulphuric ether, which, as stated, is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid upon ethyl-alcohol and the process is illustrated by the following two equations: C2H5OH + H2SO4 = H2O + C2H5 :HSO4. c2h5hso4 + C2H5OH = H2SO4 + (C2H5)2O. Methyl-ether is a colorless gas possessing an ethereal odor. It is soluble in water, alcohol and sulphuric acid, and is prepared by the action of sulphuric acid upon methyl- alcohol. It is an ether of the paraffin series and has the formula (CH3)2O. Esters An ester is a substance resembling a salt and represents a body which is derived by partial or complete replacement of the hydrogen of an acid by a hydrocarbon radical. The ordinary salt is made by replacing the hydrogen of an acid by a metal. All esters are known as compound ethers and undergo saponification when treated with strong alkalies. Ethyl-sulphate is a yellow, oily liquid prepared by the action of sulphuric acid upon ethyl-alcohol. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 223 Ethyl-nitrite is prepared by a distillation of a mixture of alcohol, potassium nitrite and sulphuric acid. It is a mobile liquid insoluble in water and readily soluble in alcohol. Ethyl-acetate is prepared by distilling a mixture of sul- phuric acid, alcohol and sodium acetate. It is a colorless liquid possessing a fruity odor. It dissolves oils, resins and nearly all other substances soluble in simple ethers. It mixes with alcohol and ether in all proportions. There are several other esters which belong to this class and others that are derived by the interaction of fatty acids and glycerol. One of the latter class is known as lecithin and is described under the subject of fats. Aldehydes Aldehydes are compounds produced by the oxidation of primary alcohols resulting in the removal of a part of the hydrogen. They are colorless, mobile liquids possessing a suffocating odor. They mix in all proportions with water, alcohol and ether. The vapor of aldehydes is very irritating to the eyes and when inhaled produces asphyxia. Several different bodies are considered under this heading and some are of a great deal of importance. Formaldehyde is a gas produced by the oxidation of methyl-alcohol; it is a gas of pungent irritating odor and is very readily soluble in water. It becomes readily transformed into a polymeric substance of a white crystalline variety known as paraformaldehyde. Formalin is a 40 per cent solution of formaldehyde in water. It is used as an antiseptic and disinfectant and also in the preserving and hardening of specimens for the prepara- tion of microscopic slides. Acetic aldehyde is a colorless, mobile liquid possessing a strong, suffocating odor. It is soluble in all proportions in water, alcohol and ether. It is a by-product produced in the 224 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY manufacture of alcohol and becomes readily converted into polymeric paraldehyde. Paraldehyde is prepared by the action of hydrochloric acid upon aldehyde. It is a colorless liquid possessing an ethereal odor and a burning taste. It is slightly soluble in water and miscible in all proportions with ether and alcohol. Metaldehyde is a white, crystalline solid, insoluble in water and readily soluble in hot ether or alcohol. It is pre- pared by the action of sulphuric acid or hydrochloric acid upon an aldehyde. Sulphaldehyde, C2H4S, is an oily liquid possessing a dis- agreeable odor. It is prepared by the action of hydrogen sulphid upon an aldehyde. Chloral is a colorless, oily liquid, possessing a penetrating odor and an acrid, caustic taste. It is very soluble in water, alcohol and ether. Chloral is an aldehyde produced by re- placing the three atoms of hydrogen of an aldehyde by the same number of chlorin atoms. By the action of alkaline hy- droxids chloral is converted into a pure chloroform, which unites with water to form chloral hydrate. Chloral hydrate, is a colorless crystalline solid, possessing a pungent odor and an acrid taste. It is readily soluble in water and under the influence of sunlight decomposes into potassium chlorate and chloral. Acetals are compounds produced when aldehydes are warmed with alcohol in the presence of hydrochloric or acetic acid. They are compounds produced by replacing the oxygen of an aldehyde with two oxyalkyl radicals. Ketones Ketones are hydrocarbons derived by the oxidation of secondary alcohol. The monoketones are substances con- taining one CO group and the diketones possess two CO groups. Ketones which possess two similar alkyl radicals CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 225 combined with the CO group are termed symmetrical, while those which contain unlike radicals are known as unsym- metrical. Aldehydes and ketones both contain the CO group, but the difference is that in the ketone there are two alkyl radicals, combined to one CO group, whereas in the aldehyde there is one alkyl radical and one hydrogen united with the CO group. By the addition of hydrogen the aldehydes form primary alcohols, while the ketones form secondary alcohols. Organic Acids Organic acids are commonly known as carboxyl acid? because they contain the COOH group. They are produced by replacing the hydrogen atoms, that are linked with oxygen, with the carboxyl group. Most organic acids are produced by the oxidation of primary alcohols or aldehydes, but many other organic bodies through oxidation are also converted into organic acids. Organic acids are known as monobasic, dibasic and tri- basic according to the number of carboxyl groups that they contain. A monobasic acid contains one carboxyl group, a dibasic acid contains two and a tribasic acid contains three. Monobasic Acids The monobasic acids are known as volatile or basic acids and to this class belong acetic, formic, butyric, valeric, steric, palmitic, and many others that are of no particular im- portance. Acetic acid is one of the most important of this group and obtains in form of acetates in vegetable and animal fluids. It is produced by alcoholic fermentation or by the process of dry distillation of wood and starch. Pure acetic acid is known as glacial acid. It possesses a pungent odor and a pure acid taste. Dilute acetic acid contains about 94% of water. It dissolves resins, fibrin and coagulated albumin. It possesses 226 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY a styptic action and when applied to the skin causes blisters. Vinegar is a dilute acetic acid prepared by the oxidation of alcohol, molasses, wine and cider. Formic acid is a colorless liquid possessing a pungent odor and a strong acid reaction. It possesses strong reducing qualities and obtains in pine needles and the stinging-nettle. Butyric acid obtains in milk, butter, contents of the stomach and intestines, muscle fibers, perspiration and fecal material. It obtains pathologically in urine, blood and sputum. It is formed in the process of decomposition of animal and vegetable substances, particularly by the process of butryic fermentation of carbohydrates in the presence of proteins. Valeric acid is prepared by the oxidation of amylic al- cohol. In consistency it is a thin, oily liquid possessing a sour taste and the odor of old cheese. It obtains in angelica and valerian roots and pathologically in the feces and urine of patients suffering with smallpox or typhus fever. Stearic acid obtains in solid animal fats and in many oils. It is insoluble in water, but soluble in ether and alcohol. It is prepared by dissolving fatty acids in alcohol, which are produced by the action of hydrochloric acid upon soap re- sulting from the action of potassium carbonate on tallow. It burns in the air with a yellowish luminous flame and is used in the manufacture of soaps and candles. Palmitic acid obtains in fatty acids of animal and vege- table fats and with alkalies forms true soaps. Palmitic acid when cooled forms a white crystalline solid used in the manu- facture of candles. It is soluble in ether and alcohol, but in- soluble in water. Its formula is C15H31COOH. Oleic acid is a monobasic unsaturated acid and obtains in most fats and oils. It is a yellowish, oily liquid possessing the odor and taste of lard. It is insoluble in water, soluble in alcohol, benzene, turpentine and many other oils. When ex- posed to the air it becomes darker in color and readily ab- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 227 sorbs oxygen. The acid is prepared by the action of potassium carbonate upon olive oil. The solution is decomposed by hydrochloric acid forming a mixture of oleate, palmitate and lead stearate. The oleate is dissolved in ether which is then distilled and the distillate dissolved in ammonia and pre- cipitated by barium chlorid. This precipitate is then treated with alcohol and decomposed by tartaric acid. The formula for oleic acid is Lactic acid is a strong monobasic acid and contains two extra-radical atoms of hydrogen. It is a clear, syrupy liquid possessing a slight odor and a sour taste. It is soluble in water, ether and alcohol. Lactic acid is produced by lactic fermenta- tion of sugars, milk and other fermented products. It obtains in the stomach during the digestion of carbohydrates. Sarcolactic acid is found in the blood and urine, especially after violent muscular exercise. It obtains in the spleen, lymphatic glands, thymus, thyroid, bile, and the urine of patients suffering with yellow atrophy of the liver or phos- phorus poisoning. It is also known as paralactic or dextro- lactic acid. Dibasic Acids Oxalic acid, C2H2O4, occurs in combination with potas- sium, sodium, calcium and magnesium in the juices of many plants. It is obtained by oxidation of wood, sugar, starch and other organic materials by potassium hydroxid or nitric acid. It is a colorless, odorless, crystalline solid and possesses a sour taste. It is strongly acid in reaction, poisonous in nature and possesses a corrosive action. It is soluble in water and quite readily dissolves in alcohol. Its toxic action will be described with»the subject of poisons. Tartaric Acid C4H6O8 crystallizes in large transparent prisms. It is odorless and possesses a sour taste. It is very soluble in water and also soluble in alcohol. There are four 228 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY tartaric acids known which are as follows: dextro-tartaric, laevo-tartaric, meso-tartaric, and para-tartaric. The tartarates which are the chief source of the different tartaric acids are found in many fruits, particularly in grapes, and are obtained from argol which is produced as a by-product in the manufac- ture of wine. Tribasic Acids There are a number of tribasic acids of which citric is the only one of any great importance. It occurs in the juices of beets, lemons, limes, currants and gooseberries. The acid is readily soluble in water and alcohol and is not a poison. It forms many well defined salts which are known as citrates. Nitrogen Derivatives of Hydrocarbon Amins are substances formed by replacing the hydrogen atoms of ammonia by hydrocarbon radicals and are classed as primary, secondary, etc., depending upon the number of hydrogen atoms that have been replaced. If one atom of hydrogen is replaced the amin is known as primary; if two atoms of hydrogen are replaced the substance is known as a secondary amin, while if three atoms are replaced the sub- stance is known as a tertiary amin. They are further classed as monamins, diamins and triamins accordingly as they con- tain one, two or three atoms of nitrogen. Amids are substances produced by substituting one or more hydrogens of ammonia with an oxidized radical. They are known as monoamids, diamids and triamids, depending upon the number of nitrogen atoms which they contain. They are classed as the primary, secondary and tertiary amids, depending upon the number of hydrogen atoms that are re- placed by the oxidized radical. Urea or carbamid is one of the most important bodies of this class and is described under the subject of physiological chemistry. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 229 Leucin is a product produced by the disintegration oi proteins, by the action of caustic alkalies, pancreatic digestion, or putrefactive fermentation. It occurs in plant and animal life. In the animal it is found in such glands as the salivary, pancreas, liver, spleen, thymus and thyroid. It consists of brownish needle-like crystal soluble in water, insoluble in ether and only slightly soluble in alcohol. Tyrosin is a product of pancreatic digestion and obtains in company with leucin. It forms colorless, odorless, tasteless crystals of a fine needle-like variety collected together in masses and these crystals are slightly soluble in water and ether, but insoluble in alcohol. Normally tyrosin obtains in the pancreas and abnormally it occurs as a sediment in the urine in cases of phosphorus poisoning and yellow atrophy of the liver. Aromatic Hydrocarbons Aromatic hydrocarbons are compounds which possess characteristic strong aromatic odors. The most important one of this class is benzene represented by the formula C6H6. In the pure state it is obtained by decomposing benzoic acid, by heating it with slacked lime. It is commonly known as benzol. It is a colorless liquid which burns with a smoky flame and does not mix with water. It is soluble in alcohol, ether and acetone, and possesses an aromatic odor and a pun- gent taste. It dissolves sulphur,' phosphorus, iodin, resins and fats. With chlorin, bromin and iodin it forms various sub- stitution or addition products. With sulphuric acid it unites to form sulphobenzene and with nitric acid it forms nitro- benzene. Phenols Phenols are substances produced by substituting the OH radical in the place of hydrogen in benzene. They differ from alcohols in that they do not form aldehydes or acids by oxida- 230 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY tion. They do not react with acids to produce esters, but combine directly with chlorin and bromin to produce substitu- tion products. The phenols are divided into classes and named according to the number of hydroxal radicals used to replace the hydrogen, as the monotomic, diatomic and triatomic phenols. The phenols exhibit acid properties and form stable compounds with metallic elements in this way differing from true alcohols. Phenol, or carbolic acid, is a crystalline solid consisting of long, colorless needles. It has a peculiar odor and a bitter taste. Soluble in water, alcohol and ether. It is a powerful antiseptic agent and prevents fermentation. It is produced by the destructive distillation of coal and wood and in small quantities obtains in human urine. Picric acid occurs in yellow crystalline flakes. It possesses a slight odor, an acid reaction and is intensely bitter in taste. It is very soluble in alcohol, ether and benzene and slightly soluble in water. It is produced by the action of nitric acid on phenol and is used as a dye for silk and wool. Lysol is a brown, oily, clear liquid possessing an aromatic odor. It mixes in all proportions with water, benzene, chloro- form and alcohol. It is produced by dissolving coal-tar oil, which is distilled between 190 and 200 degrees centigrade, in fat, and then saponified with alkali and the addition of alcohol. Lysol is not very poisonous, possesses non-caustic properties and acts as a very good disinfectant. Hydrazins The hydrazins are compound bodies resembling the amins. They differ from the amins in that they contain two nitrogen atoms instead of one. The hydrazins are bases of a liquid character in which the hydrogen atoms may be re- placed by the hydrocarbon radical. If one hydrogen atom is CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 231 replaced the result is a primary hydrazin, while if two atoms are replaced it is a secondary hydrazin. Phenyl-hydrazin is a colorless crystalline solid possessing a strong reducing power. It is sparingly soluble in water, but soluble in ether and alcohol and is used as a test solution for aldehydes and ketones, forming with them a peculiar class of substances known as hydrazones and osazones. Indol and Skatol Indol is an aromatic amin produced by bacterial de- composition of proteids or by the action upon them of potas- sium hydroxid. It is a crystalline body, soluble in water, al- cohol and ether and obtains normally in the alimentary canal as a result of putrefactive decomposition of proteids. Skatol occurs in connection with indol and is also the result of putrefactive decomposition. It is commonly known as methyl-indol. TESTS There are a great many tests used for the detection of various sugars. Many of these are very similar in their action and are all dependent upon the reducing power of sugar. The Eureka Reagent Test for Sugar.-Place one drachm of the Eureka reagent into a test tube and heat to boiling. Add the suspected solution drop by drop heating the specimen after the addition of each drop. If sugar is present the blue color of the solution will fade out and the solution then re- sembles water. If sugar is not present the color remains con- stant except as it grows lighter in shade as diluted by the addition to the specimen. This same test is also quantitative as the number of drops that it takes to fade out the color of the solution determines the quantity of sugar present in the suspected specimen. The more concentrated the specimen, the less number of drops will it require to fade out the color. When the color fades out on using only one drop of the specimen it is said to contain 16 grains of sugar to the ounce or 3.33 percent. If two drops are required, there are present 8 grains per ounce or 1.67 percent; three drops 5.33 grains or 1.11 percent; four drops 4 grains or 0.83 percent; five drops 3.2 grains or 0.67 percent; six drops 2.67 grains or .36 percent; seven drops 2.29 grains or .48 percent; eight drops 2 grains or .42 percent; nine drops, 1.78 grains or .37 percent; ten drops 1.6 grains or .33 percent. Haine's Test for Sugar.-Place two or three cubic centi- meters of Haine's solution into a test tube and bring to boil- ing, then add by means of a dropper the suspected specimen, repeating the boiling after the addition of each drop. If sugar is present the color of the solution which is originally blue will change to a brown and finally to an orange yellow. To make this test accurate the solution should be freshly pre- 232 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 233 pared and consists of a mixture of one-half an ounce of water, one-half an ounce of glycerin, thirty grains of copper sulphate and five ounces of potassium hydrate. Trommer's Test for Sugar.-Prepare this solution by mix- ing five cubic centimeters of potassium hydrate with as much of copper sulphate as will dissolve in it and boil this for about a minute. To the boiled solution add suspected specimen, drop by drop, and if sugar is present the blue color will turn to yellow and if the suspected specimen is sufficiently con- centrated there will be formed a yellowish precipitate of cuprous oxid. Fehling's Test. Take equal parts of solutions one and two and add four times as much water. Apply heat and boil the upper part of the solution and then add the suspected solution, drop by drop, and if sugar is present an orange or orange-yellow precipitate will result. Solution No. 1 consists of 34.62 grams of copper sulphate dissolved in enough water to make five hundred cubic centi- meters. Solution No. 2 consists of 173 grams of sodium potassium tartarate dissolved in 500 cubic centimeters of potassium hydroxid. Parvy's Test.-Place two or three cubic centimeters of Parvy's solution into a test tube and bring to boiling, then by means of a dropper run in drop by drop the suspected solution. If sugar is present the blue color of the solution will change to a yellowish or an orange. The solution consists of 320 grains of copper sulphate, 640 grains of potassium tartarate, 1,280 grains of caustic potash and 20 ounces of water. Benedict's Test for Sugar.-Boil five cubic centimeters of the reagent in a test tube and add eight or ten drops of the suspected specimen and boil again for about two or three minutes. If sugar is present, a red, yellow or green precipitate 234 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY is formed. If the quantity is very small the precipitate does not form until the mixture cools. The solution consists of 17.3 grams of copper sulphate, 173 grams of sodium citrate, 200 grams of sodium carbonate and 1,000 grams of water. Bismuth Reduction Test.-Add to the suspected specimen some potassium hydroxid and then add to this a few drops of bismuth subnitrate, place this into a test tube and heat to boiling. A black precipitate will result which consists of a mixture of metallic bismuth and oxid. Phenyl Hydrazine Test.-Take about 20 cubic centimeters of the suspected solution and add to this about one gram of phenyl hydrazine and about two grams of sodium acetate, heat this on a water bath and allow to cool. If sugar is present there will be formed a yellow crystalline precipitate. Test for Starch.-Starch paste in the presence of iodin will turn to a blue color which disappears on heating and re- turns on cooling. Tests for Glycogen.-(1) Glycogen in the presence of iodin turns to a wine-red color, which disappears on heating and returns on cooling. (2) Solutions of glycogen dissolve cupric hydroxid, but do not reduce it. Tests for Cholesterol.-(1) Mix a little cholesterol with nitric acid and evaporate nearly to dryness. Add ammonium hydroxid and a brick-red color will be the result. (2) In the presence of sulphuric acid and chloroform, cholesterol gives a purple color which changes to blue, then green and finally to yellow. Tests for Proteins.- (1) Mix portions of soda lime and wheat flour in a dry test tube and apply heat. The odor of fumes given off is that of ammonia, which vapor will change moist blue litmus paper to a red color. (2) Nearly all pro- teins, except the transformation products, undergo coagula- tion when heated. The coagulation is usually followed by CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 235 precipitation, but in many cases the precipitation may obtain without coagulation. (3) A coagulate is formed upon the application of heat to neutral white of egg solution, but when alkali or acid is present albumin must be added to the point of neutrality. (4) Certain mineral acids will bring about coagulation. Nitric is commonly used, especially in the an- alysis of urine. (5) Alcohol in excess produces coagulation of proteins, but when diluted there is no action. (6) Many salts of heavy metals, such as mercuric or ferric chlorid and copper sulphate also give rise to coagulation. Tests for Chloroform.-(1) Add a mixture of sodium hydroxid and alcohol together with a little anilin to the sus- pected solution. If chloroform is present the mixture will give off a strong odor of phenylisocyanid. (2) Chloroform in the presence of Fehling's solution produces a precipitate of cuprous oxid. (3) Chloroform when heated with potassium hydroxid in alcohol is decomposed into potassium chlorid and potassium formate. Tests for the detection of Alcohol.- (1) Shake the sus- pected liquid for a few minutes with a small quantity of powdered guaiacum, filter and add a few drops of dilute hy- drocyanic acid and a drop of weak copper sulphate. If alcohol is present a blue color results which can be readily seen by holding the tube over a sheet of white paper. (2) Add to 10 cubic centimeters of the suspected liquid a few drops of a ten percent solution of sodium hydroxid and warm gently; add to this a saturated solution of potassium iodid drop by drop until the liquid turns slightly yellow. If alcohol is present, iodoform is deposited in yellow crystals. Tests for Acetone.-Add to the suspected liquid a few drops of freshly prepared solution of sodium nitroprussid and then a little potassium hydroxid solution. If acetone is present the liquid assumes a ruby-red color, which on hypersaturation with acetic acid changes to a purple. 236 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Tests for Aldehydes. (1) Aldehydes are compounds which reduce Fehling's solution. (2) Add to the suspected solution a liquid prepared by adding an excess of potassium hydroxid to silver nitrate and then sufficient ammonium hy- droxid until the precipitated silver oxid is dissolved. If alde- hyde is present the silver is reduced and is deposited in form of flake-like mirrors on the sides of the tube. Test for Chloral.-Mix the suspected substance with potassium hydroxid and heat on a water bath. Conduct the vapors through a red hot tube and then allow them to bubble through a solution of silver nitrate. If chloral is present it decomposes, giving off chloroform which in turn is broken up into hydrochloric acid and free chlorin. Both of the latter substances are then tested, as described in connection with general chemistry. Tests for Oxalic Acid.-(1) Add to the suspected solu- tion some calcium chlorid neutralized with ammonium hy- droxid. In the presence of oxalic acid there will be formed a white crystalline precipitate, soluble in hydrochloric acid and insoluble in acetic acid. (2) Silver nitrate with neutral solu- tions of oxalic acid forms a white precipitate which is soluble in nitric acid. Test for Lactic Acid.-Dissolve one gram of crystallized phenol in 75 cubic centimeters of water, to this add five drops of ferric chlorid and a blue color obtains. Add to the above mixture a few drops of the suspected solution and the blue color will turn yellow, if lactic acid is present. Tests for Phenol.-(1) Add to the suspected solution one- fourth of its volume of sodium hydroxid and two or three drops of potassium hypochlorite and heat gently. If phenol is present a blue or green color will result, which turns red upon the addition of hydrochloric acid. (2) Add a few drops of the suspected substance to a little hydrochloric acid and then add one drop of nitric acid. If phenol is present a purple CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 237 red color will result. (3) Add to the suspected substance some nitric acid and heat to boiling. Neutralize this with potassium hydroxid and if phenol is present a yellow crystalline pre- cipitate will be formed. (4) Phenol is detected by its peculiar odor. (5) With iron sulphate, solutions of phenol produce a lilac color. PART III Physiological Chemistry DEFINITIONS Physiological Chemistry is that branch of science which treats of the chemical compounds making up the living or- ganism. An enzyme is a colloid material prepared by the proto- plasm of living cells under the influence of Innate Intelligence, soluble in water and weak alkaline solutions and possessing the property of producing chemical changes in organic ma- terial. A ferment is a microorganism which by its rapid growth is capable of producing definite chemical changes in organic substances in which it develops. Fermentation is the process through which disintegration of organic substances takes place under the influence of en- zymes and ferments. Saponification is the process of converting fats into soaps. An emulsion is the suspension of finely divided fat in a liquid. A hormone is a chemical messenger manufactured in one part of the body to be utilized in the physiological processes in another part. Bile is a ropy viscid fluid manufactured by the liver cells. Blood is a red fluid which circulates in the arteries, veins and capillaries and carries oxygen and other reconstructive material to the different tissues and removes from them the carbon dioxid and other waste products. Serum is a thin, watery fluid obtaining in all parts of the body, especially in blood and over the surface of serous mem- branes. 239 240 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Lymph is a clear, yellowish, straw-colored fluid found in lymph spaces and lymphatic vessels of the body. The optimum temperature is that temperature at which the different enzymes are capable of maximum work. A lipolytic enzyme is an enzyme that is capable of chang- ing fats into fatty acids and glycerol. A proteolytic enzyme is one that is capable of breaking down proteins and albumins into proteoses and peptones. Coagulating enzymes are bodies which are capable of bringing about the formation of fibrin and the coagulation of casein. Coagulation is a process whereby a substance solidifies out of solution under the influence of heat or the action of some enzyme, but is unable to return to its original state. Spontaneous coagulation is the process through which substances solidify of themselves without the application of heat. An amphoteric substance is one that is possessed of a double reaction. It is capable of acting as a base or as an acid. Enterokinase is an activating substance found in the in- testines. It is related to the enzymes. Chyme is a partly digested mass of food produced by salivary and gastric digestion and emptied into the duodenum. Chyle is a white, creamy fluid taken up by the lacteal ves- sels during the process of digestion. Osmosis is the process by which various fluids and solu- tions pass through membrane and other porous substances. COMPOSITION OF THE HUMAN BODY The living human body is composed of about 35 to 40 percent of solids and about 60 to 65 percent of water. In adults the solids are in excess while in infants they are not over 30 percent. The chemical elements largely present are carbon (C), oxygen (O), hydrogen (H), nitrogen (N), phosphorus (P), sulphur (S), chlorin (Cl), potassium (K), sodium (Na), cal- cium (Ca), magnesium (Mg), and iron (Fe), Traces of iodin (I), fluorin (Fl), bromin (Br) and other substances are found. The following outline will answer approximately for the composition: Water 65% Protein Substance 15% Fats 14% Organic Extracts 1% Minerals 5% Percent- Element Amount Occurrence Oxygen 66.0 In water of the body, fats, proteins. Carbon 17.5 Fats, proteins and compounds pro- duced by the body. Hydrogen 10.2 Water, fats, proteins, products of metabolism. Nitrogen 2.4 Mainly in proteins. Calcium 1.6 Bones, blood and secretions. Phosphorus 0.9 Bones, complex organic molecules. Potassium 0.4 Chlorid, carbonate, phosphate. Sodium 0.3 In combination as K. Chlorin 0.3 HC1 and with K and Na. Sulphur 0.2 Protein compounds. Magnesium 0.05 Phosphate and carbonate in bones. Iron 0.004 Hemoglobin of blood principally. Elemental composition of the body: 241 242 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Element Amt. Occurrence lodin traces Thyroid gland. Fluorin traces In teeth. Silicon traces Hair. Percentage of ash in different tissues. Percent. Bone 33 Cartilage 2 Liver and Spleen 1.5 Muscles 1.3 Kidney 1.2 Percent. Pancreas and Brain. ... 1.0 Lung and Heart 0.95 Blood 0.93 Skin 0.75 Milk 0.70 Inorganic Substances in the Body The elements given on a previous page are variously united into organic and inorganic compounds which go to make up the human body. The most important of these com- binations is water, which will be described in succeeding pages and *aside from this common compound there occur in the human body inorganic combinations known as phosphates, chlorides, carbonates, sulphates and bases. The percentage of these in the residue or ash of different tissues is given in the outline above. The inorganic compounds, with the exception of water, are made by combination of phosphoric, hydrochloric, carbonic and sulphuric acid with the four metallic elements magnesium, calcium, sodium and potassium. Phosphates.-The phosphates found in the different ani- mal tissues are principally those of calcium and potassium. Calcium phosphate exists as a tertiary compound of calcium in the bones of the human body, together with tertiary mag- nesium phosphate. Acid calcium phosphate occurs in many of the body fluids and also in urinary excretion. Potassium phosphate obtains as a constituent in different cells, either in soluble form or else forming complex organic compounds. These salts obtain in the body as salts of orthophosphoric acid, of which the larger part of phosphorus obtains from complex CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 243 organic compounds such as lecithin and nuclein. The latter compounds, through the process of oxidation, yield phos- phates and phosphoric acid. Chlorides.-The most important chlorid found in the hu- man body is that of sodium obtained through the ingestion of various foods, and may, by double decomposition, result in the formation of potassium chlorid. Hydrochloric acid is found in the free state in gastric juice. Sodium chlorid is found in the gastric juice, pancreatic juice and in the blood. Potassium chlorid exists mainly in different cell structures. The element chlorin is found in the animal body only in combination as chlorid and does not obtain in the free state. Carbonates.-The carbonates in the human body are pro- duced mainly by the action of tissue oxidation. Some car- bonates, especially those of calcium and magnesium, exist in hard water, but these, when taken into the stomach, are par- tially decomposed, giving rise to the formation of carbon dioxid. This carbon dioxid, erroneously known as carbonic acid gas, decomposes sodium chlorid, thus producing sodium carbonate and free hydrochloric acid. Alkaline carbonates are found in lymph, chyle, saliva, blood and bile. Sodium bi- carbonate gives to the blood its peculiar alkaline reaction. Ammonium carbonate is found in blood, but only to a limited extent. Sulphates.-Sulphuric acid is produced in the human body by the oxidation of proteins, which contain a good deal of sulphur and this acid may in turn act upon the four metallic substances: calcium, sodium, potassium and magnesium, thus producing sulphates. Sulphur may enter the body in a great variety of different combinations, and most of it, after these different substances are oxidized, is excreted in form of sul- phate found in the urine. Sulphur exists in the body to the extent of one-fourteenth of one per cent by weight of the 244 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY body and is found principally in the protein, keratin, existing in the hair and nails. Bases.-These occur in ordinary foodstuffs and it is necessary that such substances that contain them should be ingested in the proper proportion in order that bases may be properly utilized and assimilated. Many different substances are essential foi* the growth of the human body and must be provided in such amounts as are necessary. Most of the basic material that the body utilizes has its source in complex salts of organo-metallic combination. WATER Water exists in the human body to the extent of 65 per cent and is found widely distributed in all of the important tissues in varying amounts as shown by the following table: Dentine 10 per cent. Adipose tissue 20 " Bones 50 " Elastic tissue 50 " Liver 70 " Muscles 75 " Spleen 76 " Pancreas 78 " Blood 79 " Kidney 83 " Brains 86 " Vitreous humor 98.5 " Saliva 99.5 " " Water is physiologically very important, as shown by the fact that it is present in all the different tissues. It serves as a general solvent for all the different foodstuffs of a solid nature that are taken into the body and assists in the removal of waste material. In the process of digestion, especially of starches, sugars and proteins, water acts as a very important agent. This action brought about by its solvent power is known as hydrolitic action. Another very important function of water is to remove a certain amount of the heat of the body. It is necessary that nearly six hundred units of heat are dis- sipated to evaporate one gram of water and thus 22 per cent of heat dissipation in the body is accounted for. Water obtains in all three states, namely, solid, liquid and gaseous, and is very widely distributed. In the solid 245 246 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY form it is found as ice and obtains so below zero degrees centi- grade. At one hundred degrees centigrade it is in the form of a gas or vapor, but obtains in this form in the air at ordinary temperatures. Between the zero and one hundred degree limits it is a liquid as commonly known. It is found in all plants and animals as well as many minerals, where it forms the necessary constituent of crystals and is known as the water of crystallization. Water, when pure, is a colorless, -odorless, tasteless, mobile liquid. It presents a bluish color when viewed in large bodies. At zero degrees, as before stated, water is solid and hence this is known as its freezing point. At one hundred degrees it forms a vapor and this is, therefore, known as its boiling point. At 4 degrees centigrade water is taken as a basis for specific gravity of liquids and solids. Though it is commonly stated that the boiling point of water is one hundred degrees centigrade, there is quite a bit of variation depending upon atmospheric pressure and also the fact is true that water is constantly evaporating at all temperatures, especially when the air is dry. Also it is stated that water solidifies at zero degrees, but it is quite possible to lower the temperature much more than this, if the container is kept absolutely still. Agitation, therefore, favors water solid- ification. Pure water does not exist in nature because of its great solvent power for different solid materials. Only a very few substances are known which do not partially or totally dis- solve in it. Wishing absolutely pure water, one must resort to the process of distillation and even then being very careful that the process is very carefully conducted. The composition of water may be determined either by analysis or synthesis. To determine its composition by an- alysis, place the water in a U tube provided with platinum electrodes and turn on the electric current. By the process of .electrolysis water is separated into two gases, one of which CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 247 collects at the positive pole and the other at the negative pole. By applying different tests to the gases it is proven that the one collected at the positive pole is oxygen, while that col- lected at the negative pole is hydrogen. The experiment also shows that the proportion of gases by volume is different, there being twice as much hydrogen as there is oxygen and by weight there is eight times as much oxygen as there is hydrogen. If equal volumes of oxygen and hydrogen gas are mixed they will combine with an explosion, after which there will remain one-fourth as much gas as was originally used, which on being tested is proven to be oxygen. By the above two tests, the former of which is analytical and the latter syn- thetical, we show that the formula for water is H2O, which is sometimes named as hydrogen oxid or hydrogen monoxid. Water unites directly with metallic oxides to form bases and with anhydrids to form acids. SO3+'H2O = H2SO4. CaO + H2O = Ca(OH)2. It enters into combination with metallic salts in solution, separates them into their ions, and when they crystallize, it separates with them as the water of crystallization. It com- bines readily with calcium chlorid and sulphuric acid, for which reason these substances are used in the chemical labora- tory as drying agents. Water may be prepared by the direct union of the gases hydrogen and oxygen, as shown previously in synthetic an- alysis. It is also produced by burning hydrogen in the air or by any other combustible substance that contains hydrqgen. It is further prepared by the action of hydrogen upon a metallic oxid, or the action of an acid upon a base. The equa- tions illustrating its preparation in the above four ways are as follows: 2H2 + O2 = 2H2O CH4 +'2O2 = CO2 + 2H2O 248 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY HgO 4- H2 = Hg H2O NaOH + HC1 = NaCl +' H2O. Water is commonly classed as hard and soft. That which falls to the earth as rain washes out the particles of dust and gases suspended in the air and after this is accomplished, rain water is almost chemically pure, being contaminated with a small amount of carbon dioxid. After rain water comes in contact with the soil it percolates through the various strata and dissolves various substances that it comes in contact with. If, as it percolates through the soil, it passes through sub- stances which are insoluble, it remains unchanged and is, therefore, known as soft water. Soil consisting of sand and quartz is insoluble in water. If it passes through limestone or soluble substances, it becomes hard and the degree of hard- ness depends upon the amount of solid dissolved. Some sub- stances, such as calcium and magnesium carbonate, are preci- pitated on boiling and water containing these is said to be temporarily hard. Other substances like the sulphate and chlorid of calcium are not precipitated by boiling and the water containing these is said to be permanently hard. Certain waters are known as mineral waters, so named because they have dissolved in them various different sub- stances. Carbonated water is that which contains carbon dioxid. Sulphur water contains sulphides of hydrogen or al- kaline metals. Lythia water contains a considerable quantity of the alkaline metal lithium. Other alkaline waters contain alkaline carbonates or bicarbonates of sodium and potassium. Chalybeate water is that which contains iron. Saline waters contain neutral salts of chlorin, bromin, and iodin of the al- kalies or alkaline earths. Acid waters are those which con- tain free hydrochloric or sulphuric acid. Mineral matters present in water in moderate amounts are rather preferable for drinking purposes, but along with these there are taken up many organic substances of animal CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 249 and vegetable nature, which are injurious to the body and, therefore, water for drinking purposes must be either nat- urally or artificially purified. Natural purification is brought about by water passing through various strata of the soil in the course of which the impurities are taken out and water in wells and springs is, in most instances, practically pure. Artificial purification is brought about by distillation or filtration. The process of filtration obtains in passing water through porous substances like sand, clay, charcoal and brick. If it contains too much sediment the process of coagulation or precipitation is first carried out by the addition of such sub- stances as alum, iron or lime. Surface water comprises that of the sea, rivers and lakes, and as this is the usual source of supply for large cities, con- tamination is removed by the process of filtration, as pre- viously described. Spring and well water consists of rain and snow water, which has percolated through various strata of the soil and in this manner becomes naturally purified. Potable waters are those which are fit to drink and are such as well water, spring water and water from lakes and rivers that has been artificially purified. Potable water is a clear, colorless, odorless fluid. It is preferable when it con- tains certain amount of mineral substances dissolved in it, which give it a better taste. Drinking water should be free from organic matter and should not contain an excess of sub- stances which give it a great degree of hardness. Water that is cloudy, greenish in color or possessing an odor of putrefac- tive animal material should be avoided. Tests for Drinking Water Tests for Chlorides.-Take 200 cubic centimeters of water and add to it a few drops of neutral potassium chromate and 250 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY then run in with constant stirring a tenth normal solution of silver nitrate until a faint reddish precipitate of silver chromate appears. The chromate acts as an indicator and at the time the color appears the addition of silver nitrate should be stopped. Each cubic centimeter of silver nitrate solution precipitates 3.54 milligrams of chlorin or chlorid and after all of the chlorin or chlorid has been precipitated the silver begins to precipitate as the chromate. By measuring the amount of silver nitrate used, one is able to determine the amount of chlorin or chlorid present. Test for Ammonia.-Take about fifty cubic centimeters of water in a tall narrow beaker and add to this amount two cubic centimeters of Nesler's reagent. If ammonia is present a yel- lowish-brown color will obtain which is visible by placing the beaker on a white sheet of paper and looking down through it. If ammonia is present in more than traces a precipitate will be formed. Oxidation Test.-Pure water absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere, but will not break down any particular compound containing oxygen to obtain the desired amount. Impure water also absorbs oxygen from the atmosphere and the or- ganic matters which it contains are capable of decomposing salts to secure more oxygen. Potassium permanganate is a salt which gives up its oxygen very readily and is, therefore, used in making the different tests. The test is as follows: Take one hundred cubic centimeters of distilled water and pour into a clean beaker, adding five cubic centimeters of sulphuric acid, boil the contents and add a few drops of dilute potassium permanganate solution and boil for about five min- utes. The pink color will remain. Now take common hydrant water to which albumin or urea has been added and add to this a few drops of potassium permanganate and boil. The color will gradually fade out until a sufficient amount of per- manganate has been added, at which time the pink color will CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 251 persist. The amount of potassium permanganate necessary to oxidize the ingredients with which the water is contaminated shows roughly the degree of contamination. Tests for Nitrites.-To about fifty cubic centimeters of water add two cubic centimeters of a solution prepared by dis- solving one-half a gram of sulphanilic acid in one hundred and fifty cubic centimeters of 25 per cent strength acetic acid mixed with one-tenth of a gram of pure naphthylamine in two hundred cubic centimeters of dilute acetic acid. If nitrite is present a pink color obtains and if the quantity of nitrite is large the color will be a deep rose-red. Test for Nitrate.-Evaporate fifty cubic centimeters of water to dryness and add to the residue one cubic centimeter of phenolsulphonic acid and then add a few drops of dilute sulphuric acid, heat for a few minutes and add twenty-five cubic centimeters of water. A faint yellow color appears, which upon addition of ammonia becomes much deeper. There is first the formation of picric acid if any nitrate is present, and the ammonia forms ammonium picrate, which gives rise to the deeper color. ENZYMES AND FERMENTS A ferment is a microorganism which by its rapid growth is capable of producing changes in certain substances in which it is developed. The process by which this change obtains is known as fermentation and is either an inherent function pos- sessed by the protoplasm of living cells or a function possessed by substances manufactured by these cells. A limited amount of fermentative processes is due to the inherent property of the protoplasm and is, therefore, of an intracellular nature. Such fermentation as this is exemplified by the changes which take place in alcoholic fermentation of ripe fruits. The greater share of changes obtains as a result of the action of substances manufactured by the cells. The bodies so manufactured are known as enzymes. These are a group of colloid substances, soluble in water and weak alkaline solutions and possess the power of producing changes in organic bodies with which they come in contact. The enzymes possess certain characteristics which are very important. They are capable of producing great changes in large quantities of material without themselves undergoing any change. They are very easily affected by environment and are bodies possessing an unknown composition. They have never been isolated in the pure state. For each enzyme there is a definite temperature at which its action is most ener- getic. This temperature is known as the optimum temper- ature and varies a few degrees for each enzyme. As this tem- perature is decreased or increased the action of the enzyme becomes less energetic and a point is reached when the tem- perature is so high or so low that the action of the enzyme is completely retarded or the substance itself may become en- tirely destroyed. Each of the enzymes acts best in a certain medium which is either neutral, alkaline or acid. Each acts 252 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 253 best upon certain substances and the action is retarded by the accumulation of products produced by this action. Prolonged contact with alcohol destroys the action of these bodies. Since the process of cleavage goes on slowly, even when there is no enzyme present, the statement is made that these bodies simply act as catalytic agents to accelerate the disintegration. Enzymes are most conveniently classified according to their action and the substances they act upon. Formerly they were known as the organized ferments and the unorganized ferments or enzymes. To the first class belong those sub- stances which produce fermentation by protoplasmic activity. These are inherent properties of the cell, and as before stated, are exemplified by alcoholic fermentation obtaininging in ripe fruits. The second class consists of the true enzymes, manu- factured by the cells to be used elsewhere for breaking down organic bodies. Amylolitic Enzymes Amylolitic enzymes hydrolize starch and convert it into sugar. These are commonly known as diastases or amylases. In a broad sense the term diastase is used to include all en- zymes that act upon the starches and the sugars produced from the starches. The term amylase is used in a more restricted sense and applies to those substances which change starch to malt sugar. The above two classes of enzymes are widely distributed and produce changes during the growth of plants, ripening of fruits and the germination of seeds. In the animal body they constitute the ptyalin of saliva and the amylopsin of pancreatic juice. By some authorities the view is held that the transfor- mation of animal starch, glycogen, is the work of an enzyme diastase found in the liver, others claiming that it is the result of an inherent property of the liver cells themselves. Some other ferments mentioned in this class are cytase, 254 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY inulase, pectinase and pectase. Cytase is the substance found in many vegetable compounds and possesses the power of changing cellulose into sugar. Inulase is said to exist in some vegetable substances and acts upon a starch known as inulin, converting it into fructose. Pectinase acts upon jelly-like pectin substances, converting them into reducing sugars. Pec- tase is a coagulating enzyme which acts upon the fruit sugar, converting it into pectin. Invertases are enzymes which hydrolize the disaccharides and convert them into monosaccharides. To this class of sub- stances belong the enzymes maltase, lactase and surcase. Maltase is that enzyme found in the saliva possessing the peculiar property of converting malt sugar into glucose. It is also found in the pancreatic secretion and acts upon bodies that have escaped salivary digestion. Maltase is also found in malt extract, yeast and other vegetable compounds. It obtains in small amounts in the blood and the liver. Lactase acts upon lactose, converting it into glucose and galactose. It obtains as an important enzyme of the intes- tines and small amounts of it exist in gastric juice; also in pancreatic juice. It is found in yeast and several other well- known vegetable bodies. Surcase is found particularly in the intestinal juice. It acts upon the sugar surcose and converts it into an invert sugar. Its presence in yeast and other plants has been de- termined for some time. In the gastric juice it obtains in limited amount and inverts the cane sugar. Lypolytic Enzymes The lypolitic enzymes are those which saponify fats and convert them into fatty acids and glycerol. Lipase is the only important substance of this group. It is found in various vegetable substances, viz.: in the blood, liver, kidney and pancreatic juice. It acts upon the fats, converting CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 255 them into fatty acids and glycerol. It acts most energetically in the presence of large quantities of water. Proteolytic Enzymes Proteolytic enzymes act upon proteins and albumins, con- verting them into proteoses and peptones. The proteolytic enzymes are pepsin, trypsin, erepsin and rennin. Pepsin is secreted as pepsinogen by the chief or central cells in the glands of the stomach mucosa. When the pepsin- ogen is acted upon by acid, it is then converted into the true enzyme. Pepsin acts upon proteins and albumins, which action results in the formation of the end products of gastric digestion known as proteoses and peptones. It acts best in acid media and, in fact, in the presence of alkaline or neutral media its action is materially retarded and in most instances entirely destroyed. Hydrochloric acid is present in the stom- ach to assist gastric digestion, but other acids such as lactic and oxalic could be used with the same degree of success. Trypsin in action is very similar to pepsin, but it pos- sesses a wider range of action. Pepsin produces the end prod- ucts, proteoses and peptones, while trypsin carries on this process to the extent of producing simple bodies like amino acids and hexone bases. Pepsin acts in an acid medium and trypsin is most energetic in an alkaline medium. It is, there- fore, very necessary that a sufficient amount of bile be present to convert the acid chyme into an alkaline medium. Erepsin is found in the juices of the intestines. It acts upon the proteoses and peptones very much in the same man- ner as does trypsin. The action results in almost complete hydrolysis. Rennin is found in the juices of the stomach and the pan- creas. It obtains also in a number of vegetable compounds. It acts upon casein, producing a coagulate. Rennin acts best 256 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY in an acid medium and, therefore, its presence in the pan- creatic juice is often denied for the reason that, were it pres- ent, it could not do any work on account of the alkilinity of the food in the intestines. Glucosid Splitting Enzymes Glucosid splitting enzymes. Only one enzyme of this class is possessed of any great importance, namely, emulsin. It obtains in sweet and bitter almonds. This enzyme is capa- ble of converting amygdalin into sugar. When mixed with water it readily decomposes, yielding lactic acid. Oxidases Oxidases are enzymes capable of producing oxidation. They are said to occur in certain fruits and vegetables. Very little is known about this class of enzymes and only two have thus far been definitely named. These are: laccase and tyro- sinase. Laccase is an enzyme found in the saps of certain trees, and when exposed to the air, produces a darkening effect. Tyrosinase acts upon tyrosin and causes it to become oxidized. Coagulating Enzymes The coagulating enzymes bring about the formation of fibrin and the coagulation of casein. One enzyme of this class, namely, rennin, is very often classed with the proteolytic en- zymes and has been considered with that division. The other two enzymes mentioned with this group are thrombase and the muscle-enzyme. The enzyme thrombase produces the formation of fibrin and results further in the clotting of the blood. It does not exist in the circulating blood, but obtains when the blood CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 257 leaves the vessels. This enzyme is said to be produced by the disintegration of the blood-plates. The coagulation of myosin of muscle is brought about by a muscle-enzyme. It is this substance which is said to pro- duce the rigidity of muscles after death. Urease Urease is an enzyme present in urine. It causes the hy- drolysis of urea with the formation of ammonia and carbon dioxid. This change obtains in urine exposed to the air and the action is most energetic when the medium is alkaline. FERMENTATION Alcoholic fermentation is brought about by an active agent known as yeast. This exists in different forms and pos- sesses a wide range of action. In some instances the fermen- tation is carried on at low temperatures, while in others the temperature is relatively high. The action of this agent is materially hindered by the accumulation of the products that it produces and a point is reached when the products have accumulated to the extent that the action is completely ar- rested. Acetic fermentation is the process by which weak alcohol is converted into an acid and the active principle concerned in this action is known as mother of vinegar. This active agent is in the form of a scum and microscopic examination has revealed that it consists of minute cells of plant nature. Lactic fermentation obtains in the souring of milk. For a long time it was thought that this was brought about by the mere formation of lactic acid, but later investigations have proven that the formation of the acid was due to a ferment produced by microorganisms. This process also obtains in the fermentation of bread, making of pickles and the manu- 258 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY facture of cheese and butter. Lactic acid is found in the stomach, but since the presence of any mineral acid destroys its power, very little lactic fermentation takes place in the stomach because of the presence of hydrochloric acid. Butyric acid fermentation may obtain upon prolonged fer- mentation of milk. First there is the formation of lactic acid and if the process is carried on it results in the formation of butyric acid. This fermentation, like the preceding ones, is the result of the presence of some microorganisms. Butyric fermentation would obtain in the stomach if it were not for the presence of hydrochloric acid which destroys the active fermentative principle. CHEMISTRY OF THE LIVER The liver plays a very important part in the general nutri- tion of the body. It possesses many functions which all de- pend, directly or indirectly, upon the properties of liver cells. Each cell in structure consists of the nucleus and the sur- rounding protoplasm. These cells throughout the liver are uniform in structure, but since it is a known fact that they fulfill different functions, it must be that their anatomical re- lations with one another and with the various vessels, ducts and nerves makes this difference in function possible. Some of the cells receive blood from the portal vein, which is laden with nutritive materials absorbed from the alimentary canal. Other cells receive blood through the hepatic arteries, which contains ingredients that are different from those supplied by the portal vein. These different products brought to the tiny work shops of the liver, which are supervised and guided in their work by Innate Intelligence, are transformed, as Innate wills. Some of the products are utilized in the formation of bile, others in the production of glycogen, still others are disintegrated, forming urea, and some are made to be used in metabolistic processes in different parts of the human body. The cells cannot be separated in any definite manner from the tissues in which they are found and yet certain prop- erties which they possess can be determined by minute exami- nation. The nucleus is found to consist of a complex protein known as nuclein. It is a white amorphous substance which can be separated by digestion of the cell with pepsin and hydrochloric acid. It further contains such elements as iron, potassium and traces of sodium. Nuclein on decomposition yields the basic substances xanthin and purin. Xanthin is considered important because of its relation to uric acid and traces of it are found in muscular juices. The purin bodies 259 260 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY exist in various different substances in the human body and are said to give rise to uric acid as they undergo disintegration. The protoplasm surrounding the nucleus is a soft spongy mass and consists of water, albumin and neucleo-proteids. Aside from these it contains lecithin, cholestrol, glycogen and fat. These different substances are transformed into such bodies as are necessary for metabolistic processes in various parts of the body. The liver cells come in contact with the greater part of all the products of digestion and are instrumental in taking these products and altering them as seems necessary. They also arrest materials of the non-food variety, break them down, and prepare them as an excretion to be voided through various excretory channels of the body. The liver on examination is found to contain many dif- ferent substances, albumin and nucleo proteids, fats and lecithin, cholestrol and glycogen are mentioned as component parts of the protoplasm of the cell. Iron, potassium, sodium, xanthin and purin are found on examination of the nucleus. Beside all these the liver contains globulin and large amounts of nitrogenous extractives. The chief ones of these are urea, uric acid, leucin and cystin. Glycogen is undoubtedly the most important constituent of the liver. It is retained as a reserve product resulting from the accumulation of sugar and to a slight extent also from the accumulation of fats. The increase in amount of glycogen present in the liver at different times may be due to the in- gestion of greater amounts of these different substances and hence a greater amount retained in the liver, or it may be that the amount of glycogen which is disintegrated to be con- sumed in the body, varies at different times. Under normal conditions the glycogen of the liver disappears after its accu- mulation and its consumption is hastened by muscular exer- cise or the lowering of the bodily temperature. Before it can CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 261 be utilized as a food glycogen must be reconverted into a sugar. Whether this is the action of the cell or some enzyme, is not definitely known, but there is no question that it is properly carried on as long as 100 per cent of mental impulses are furnished to the organ. The liver, like every other organ in the body, when re- moved, will undergo self-digestion, which is known as auto- lysis. In this process there are produced such acids as acetic, butyric, lactic and others, and along with these are produced large quantities of leucin, tyrosin and xanthin. The above products of autolysis suggest the possibility that the liver undergoes digestive changes in pathological con- ditions. As it does so, the products of disintegration would naturally obtain in excretion of the body and their presence might be viewed as an aid to diagnosis. Bile is a ropy, viscid fluid manufactured by the liver cells. It is straw-colored and alkaline in reaction. It is secreted by the liver cells continuously and intermittently emptied into the duodenum. From various experiments it has been approxi- mately determined that from five hundred to eight hundred cubic centimeters are secreted daily. The color of bile varies somewhat according to the pres- ence of a greater or less quantity of bile pigments, the most important of which are biliverdin and bilirubin. These two bile pigments are said to originate through disintegration of hemoglobin. Bilirubin results from hematin involving the splitting off of its iron. This iron is then retained in the liver and used again in the process of metabolism. Biliverdin is said to be an oxidation product of bilirubin. These pigments are carried into the intestines and in some instances are found in the feces. Ordinarily, they are reduced in the intestines into simpler bodies and these under the names of urobilin and stercobilin formed in the large intestine, are found in the fecal material. 262 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY In some of the preceding paragraphs we have noted the many different kinds of organic and inorganic substances that are present in the structure of the cell and its nucleus, and so a chemical analysis of the bile which is manufactured by these cells shows that it contains water, salts, bile pigments, acids, cholestrin, lecithin, fats, soaps, traces of urea and uric acid. The percentage of these different substances varies under different conditions. Most of these bodies have been described in preceding paragraphs with possibly the exception of the bile acids. The acids of bile are known as glycocholic and tauro- cholic and are always present as important constituents. The amounts of these acids present vary at different times and are largely dependent upon the kind and amount of food in- gested. Both of these acids are the result of the action of cholic acid upon glycin and taurin. There is no question that these acids are the result of protein disintegration in the liver and that they are not made elsewhere in the human body, for if the liver is extirpated no traces of these acids are found in the blood or urine. The acids are carried into the intestines with the bile and are again reabsorbed and carried back to the liver. This reabsorption is of physiological value in that it is claimed that the bile acids act as stimulants to the liver cells, producing further secretion. Bile is extremely important physiologically and possesses several different functions. As an excretion it removes waste products of metabolism. In the intestines it acts as an anti- septic and prevents excessive putrefaction; by its liquid con- sistency, due to the amount of water that it contains, it pos- sesses a hydrolytic action. As before stated, bile is alkaline in reaction and changes the acid chyme into alkaline chyle. This is very necessary because the enzymes of pancreas require an alkaline medium in which to do their work. The most impor- tant function of bile is undoubtedly its action upon the fats. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 263 By the process of saponification it splits up the fat into fatty acid and glycerol and makes it ready for further digestion by the lipase of pancreatic juice. Aside from all these functions of the bile the liver itself is said to possess an additional func- tion to those already given. It is claimed that as the blood circulates through the liver the cells of this organ take from it the active substance thrombin and thereby prevent it from inducing coagulation. UREA Urea is commonly known as carbamid and is one of the chief nitrogenous constituents of the urine, found in this ex- cretion to the extent of two and one-half to three and one-half per cent. It is found in minute quantities in the blood, serum, lymph and perspiration. In the liver it obtains quite abun- dantly. Urea in the pure state crystallizes in thin needle- shaped glistening crystals. It is very soluble in water, in- soluble in ether and slightly soluble in alcohol. It possesses a bitter taste resembling that of niter. Urea may be prepared in several ways, the most convenient method being to mix equal quantities of ammonium sulphate and potassium cya- nate ; this results in the formation of ammonium cyanate, which, when evaporated to dryness, forms urea. It can also be prepared from concentrated urine, by boiling the same with alcohol and evaporating. Urea forms many well defined salts of which the most important is the combination with mercuric nitrate, which salt is used in the quantitative estimation of urea. Tissue metabolism produces great quantities of nitrogen and of this from 83 to 90 per cent escapes from the body in the form of urea. This quantity is very variable, being increased by the consumption of nitrogenous food and muscular exercise and decreased by vegetable diet and lack of exercise. The estimation of the amount of urea in the urine is very impor- 264 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY tant because it shows the degree of nitrogenous metabolism and also the eliminating power of the kidneys. The amount of urea voided in twenty-four hours varies from thirty to thirty-five grams. It makes up nearly one-half of the total solids voided with the urine. The presence of urea is also increased in febrile diseases, diabetes mellitus, chorea, epilepsy, gastro-intestinal disorders and various other conditions. It is also increased abnormally in cases of poisoning from phosphorus or antimony and by the introduction into the body of different alkaline salts. The amount is diminished by nearly all chronic diseases not at- tended by fever. It is further diminished by diseases of the liver, rheumatism, chronic nephritis, osteomalacia, lead poison- ing, etc. Urea may be detected in one of several different ways and one of the best methods is as follows: Evaporate a few drops of urine on a watch glass and moisten the residue with nitric acid. The result will be the formation of crystals of urea nitrate, which are then examined by the microscope. The quantity of urea is best determined by using the Doremus urinometer. Fill the tube with a solution of hypo- bromid and introduce one cubic centimeter of urine by means of a pipette. Urea is decomposed and the nitrogen gas rises to the closed end of the tube. By reading the graduation, after complete decomposition has taken place, the amount of urea is thus determined in milligrams per cubic centimeter. The hypobromid solution is prepared by dissolving one hun- dred grams of sodium hydroxid in two hundred and fifty cubic centimeters of water and adding to this twenty-five cubic centimeters of bromin. Urea is the result of the disintegration of nitrogenous sub- stances resulting largely from the decomposition of muscular tissue. The immediate forerunners, or so-called antecedents of'urea, are uric acid, leucin, ammonia, creatin, etc. These CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 265 latter substances are said to undergo their final conversion into urea in the substance of the liver. Some of the urea is also formed in the renal cells, which line the tubules of the kidneys. If the liver or the kidneys do not functionate prop- erly the amount of daily excretion of urea is diminished, as may be determined by the quantitative test. Also by noting the presence of leucin and tyrosin that have escaped conver- sion we are able to determine the presence of functional in- activity of liver cells. Before making any conclusions it is very necessary that we estimate the amount of nitrogenous food ingested, for it is a known fact that this amount has a great deal to do in controlling the formation and excretion of urea. If through chemical analysis we should determine the presence of bodies in the urine that have escaped conversion, or if we should find that the percentage of urea present was much below the normal amount, even though the proper amount of nitrogenous foods has been ingested, we would con- clude that there existed some incoordination in the liver or in the kidney, giving rise to these disturbances. The Chiro- practor would make a spinal analysis and find a subluxation, either at liver place or at kidney place, and determine which of the two organs, the liver or the kidney, was the cause of the prevailing disturbance. He would adjust the subluxation found and restore the proper quota of mental impulses to the affected part, producing coordination in the functioning cells and restoring health to the tissue. The healthy tissue would then perform its work and on later examination the normal amount of ingredients would again be present in the excretion. URIC ACID Uric acid exists in the urine in the free state, but more often it is found in combination with potassium, sodium and ammonia. It is best examined by the microscope and con- 266 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY sists of small lozenge-like crystals. The crystals are usually of a yellowish or reddish color, due to the presence of uroery- thrin and are readily soluble in water. Uric acid belongs to a class of,substances known as the purins of which from 0.3 to 1.0 gram are excreted daily. Uric acid forms the greater share of this amount. The amount of uric acid excreted runs a close parallel to the excretion of urea. The proportion in adults subsisting upop mixed diet is one part of uric acid to forty or fifty parts of urea. Tests for Uric Acid.-(1) Add to the urine some sodium or potassium carbonate until it is decidedly alkaline. Filter paper moistened with this solution and touched with a glass rod dipped in silver nitrate will turn gray if uric acid is pres- ent. (2) Evaporate a few drops of urine to dryness and moisten the residue with nitric acid and evaporate again, add to this residue some ammonium hydroxid and, if uric acid is present, a purple-red color will be formed. (3) Take two or three cubic centimeters of Fehling's solution and put into a test tube, add to this some urine and heat to boiling. If uric acid is present there will be formed a white precipitate of copper urate. CHEMISTRY OF THE PANCREAS The pancreas is a compound tubular gland similar to the salivary glands. It consists of many ducts, all of which ter- minate in one main duct, known as the duct of Wirsung, which empties into the duodenum. These ducts originate from al- veoli lined with secreting cells. Histological study of the gland shows there is a difference in these cells if studied after active secretion and compared with those studied in the rest- ing state. Preceding the secretion the cells contain many little granules which are said to be the antecedent material from which the enzymes are finally formed. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 267 The secretion of the pancreas in a fluid possessing an al- kaline reaction is of a clear watery consistency and has the specific gravity of 1.007. Its alkaline reaction is due to the presence of sodium carbonate and it contains besides this sub- stance a small amount of coagulable protein and a number of other organic substances in traces. The most important con- stituents of pancreatic fluid are the enzymes known as the trypsin, amylopsin, steapsin and pancreatic rennin. The di- gestive action depends largely upon the first three enzymes. Trypsin exists in the pancreatic juice as trypsinogen and upon activation, causes hydrolitic action of the protein mole- cule. It acts in neutral and alkaline mediums and slightly in acid mediums. Its marked action is carried on in alkaline solution. Trypsin acts upon the proteoses and peptones, which are end products of peptic digestion and converts these into a number of simpler bodies such as leucin, tryosin, asparatic acid, glutamic acid, tryptophan, lysin, arginin and histidin. The number of these products depends upon the time that trypsin is allowed to act in the processes of digestion. Amylopsin acts upon starchy food in a similar manner as does the ptyalin of saliva. It hydrolizes starch, producing maltose and achroddextrin. Preceding the final absorption of these products, they are further acted upon by maltase of the intestinal juice and are converted into dextrose. Thus the starchy food which escapes salivary digestion is further broken down by the action of amylopsin and finally by mal- tase. Steapsin or lipase is the third enzyme of pancreatic juice and exerts a hydrolizing or saponifying action upon neutral fats. This process consists of two steps: first, the splitting up of the fat into fatty acids and glycerol, and second, the emul- sification, which produces a permanent emulsion of the oil globules and makes them ready for absorption. Lipase acts best in alkaline mediums and, therefore, the 268 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY presence of bile in the intestine is very necessary for it to carry on its work in the most effective manner. There is present in the pancreatic secretion a small amount of the enzyme rennin. This is known as the milk curdling or protein coagulating enzyme and acts upon those substances which have escaped a similar action by coming in contact with the rennin of gastric juice. CHEMISTRY OF THE SPLEEN The spleen is a gland belonging to the ductless system and doubtless has a very important function in the metabolism of the body. This function, however, has not as yet been definitely determined. The most important fact is that the spleen increases in size during the ingestion of food and begins to decrease at about the fifth hour, following the beginning of the meal. It is, therefore, assumed that it must have some function in the process of digestion. In the chemical analysis of this organ it is noted that it contains a marked percentage of iron, also fatty acids, fats and nitrogenous extractives such as xanthin and uric acid. The presence of these as well as other important bodies would again suggest that some changes necessary in the metabolism in the body obtain in the spleen. It is also stated that the spleen is the seat of manufacture of red blood corpuscles, and that it does this is undoubtedly true in foetal life and shortly after birth, but whether it retains this function in later life is not definitely known. The presence of a large percentage ot iron would indicate that the spleen had something to do in the preparation of hemoglobin of the red blood corpuscles. It is also stated that the spleen is that gland of the body in which the disintegration of red blood corpuscles takes place to a marked degree and to substantiate this argument we find upon microscopic examination that many disintegrated cells are CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 269 found here and that the blood through its brush work of capallaries comes in direct contact with the splenic pulp. Uric acid is found in the spleen and, therefore, it has been stated by different authorities that this substance is produced di- rectly by the action of the splenic tissue. There are yet other authorities who claim that the spleen manufactures an en- zyme which is carried by the blood stream into the pancreas and acts upon the trypsinogen converting it into trypsin. It would, therefore, be known as an activating agent. This theory, like many of the others above mentioned, cannot be substantiated by facts to any marked degree and, therefore, very little is known about the definite function of the spleen. Chiropractors have observed in their work that subluxa- tions of the ninth and tenth dorsal vertebrae produce incoordi- nations in the spleen and that these incoordinations are fol- lowed by a series of metabolistic disturbances. They are not concerned in knowing the exact function of the spleen, but are concerned in knowing that the spleen is receiving one hundred per cent of mental impulses and is thereby capable of functionating properly and carrying on its function in every detail whatever this function or functions may be. The Chiro- practor adjusts the subluxation as found, restores coordina- tion in the spleen, thereby relieving any disturbances which might arise from the inability of the spleen to perform its different duties. CHEMISTRY OF THE SALIVARY GLANDS The salivary glands are known as the parotid, submax- illary and sublingual. They are compound racemose glands producing a secretion known as saliva. This secretion consists of a mixture of the secretions from all three pairs of these glands together with the secretions from small mucous and serous glands that open into the cavity of the mouth. 270 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY The parotid gland empties its secretions into the mouth thru Stenson's duct, which, enters opposite the second molar tooth in the upper jaw. The submaxillary gland, lying below the lower jaw, empties its secretion through Wharton's duct at the side of the frenum of the tongue. The sublingual gland lies in the floor of the mouth and opens into the mouth by many small ducts known as the ducts of Rivinus. Some of these ducts unite before reaching their termination and by their union form what are known as the ducts of Bartholin. The secreting portions of the salivary glands are tubular in shape and are lined with secreting epithelial cells differing somewhat in their histological characteristics. These glands possess definite secretory nerves, which carry the mental im- pulses to their tissue cells from the cells in the brain. As long as no subluxation exists, 100 percent of mental impulses reaches the secreting epithelium and produces at all times sufficient secretion of such quality as is necessary to carry on salivary digestion. The secretion of these various glands is known as saliva. It is a colorless, turbid liquid possessing weak alkaline re- action and a specific gravity of 1.003. Upon examination of the constituents there are found present such substances as mucin, traces of protein and inorganic salts of potassium and sodium chlorid; also potassium sulphate, sodium and calcium carbon- ate and calcium phosphate. The most important of the con- stituents of saliva are the enzymes ptyalin and maltase. Ptyalin is the most important of the salivary enzymes and acts upon starches converting them into sTigar and dextrin. The action of ptyalin upon starch is hydrolitic and the end products are maltose and dextrin. There is no doubt that intermediary products are also formed, but these are of no par- ticular importance. After the starches are converted into dextrose by the action of the enzyme ptyalin the second enzyme maltase is CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 271 utilized in carrying on this action and splitting up the sugar maltose into simpler sugar known as glucose. The action of ptyalin as well as other enzymes is very susceptible to changes in temperature. At zero degrees centigrade the ptyalin is entirely inactive and from this point its action increases and reaches its maximum at forty de- grees (C) temperature. As the temperature rises beyond this point the action of ptyalin again decreases until the point of sixty to seventy degrees is reached when the enzyme is entirely destroyed. Ptyalin acts best in a neutral medium and very well in a weak alkaline medium. When the medium is strongly alkaline the action of the enzyme is retarded and if acid is present the action stops entirely and the enzyme is destroyed. Ptyalin acts best upon starch in the boiled state. This is due to the fact that the outer envelope of cellulose is partially dissolved and also that the starch by the action of water is partially hy- drated and responds to the action of the enzyme more readily. Aside from the functions of saliva thus far given it also serves to liquify the food and prepare it for swallowing. It moistens the tissues of the larynx and esophagus thus acting as a lubricant. By dissolving the solid foods it makes it possible for them to reach the cells of special sense of taste thereby producing more copious secretion. CHEMISTRY OF THE GASTRIC DIGESTION In ordei' to study the digestion that goes on in the stomach it is only necessary to study such glands which are instru- mental in performing this function. The glands in the stomach which manufacture the secre- tion used in the digestive processes are of two kinds, namely: The pyloric and fundus. Those of the pylorus are character- ized by being lined with only one variety of cells known as the 272 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY chief or peptic cells. Only a very few parietal cells obtain in these glands and these are usually found at the outer extrem- ities of the ducts. The fundus glands contain the central cells which are known as the peptic cells as well as the parietal cells, known as the oxyntic or acid-forming cells. The chief or central cells are concerned with the manu- facture of the digestive enzymes pepsin and rennin, while the parietal cells produce the free hydrochloric acid. Pepsin is known as a proteolytic enzyme and acts upon the proteins breaking them up into proteoses and peptones. At low temperatures this enzyme is practically inert and acts best at the temperatures of 37 to 40 degrees centigrade. When the temperature is elevated to 80 degrees centigrade the action of the enzyme is entirely suspended and the enzyme itself may be completely destroyed. Gastric rennin possesses the property of curdling milk and coagulating proteins. It is formed by the chief cells in the glands of the stomach as is also the enzyme pepsin. Its action upon the proteins is not positive and therefore the only value that it possesses is in the digestion of milk. It does not do anything more than to produce the curd which is broken down by the action of pepsin and later by trypsin of the pancreas into proteoses and peptones. The acidity of gastric juice is due to the presence of free hydrochloric acid. This is produced by the oxyntic or parietal cells of the stomach glands. The amount of acid present varies according to the duration of the process of digestion. Its action is slowly neutralized by the presence of alkaline saliva. The percentage of acid normally is estimated to be about 0.3 percent, but during digestion the amount is somewhat increased. A condition where the acid is present in excess is known as hyperchlorhydria and that where the acid is abnor- mally low is known as hypochlorhydria. These conditions as well as other abnormalities of secretion and digestion are CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 273 controlled by gastric nerves. In the event that any incoordi- nation exists the Chiropractor would look for a subluxation of the sixth, seventh or eighth dorsal vertebrae which when adjusted would allow the transmission of one hundred per- cent of mental impulses to the tissues of the stomach, re- sulting in coordination and ease. The amount of gastric juice secreted in twenty-four hours varies with the kind and quantity of food ingested, but there is no means of determining just what this amount would be. The specific gravity of gastric juice varies between 1.001 and 1.010. Aside from the enzymes pepsin and rennin there is present at times a third enzyme in the secretion of the stomach. This is known as lipase, or the fat splitting enzyme. It possesses slight activity when the gastric juice is of normal acidity, but its principal action is noted where the acidity is low due to existing physiological or pathological conditions. INTESTINAL DIGESTION The intestinal enzymes are of great importance and are known as erepsin, surcase, lactase and enterokinase. Erepsin acts upon the proteoses and peptones splitting them into amino acids. It possesses its greatest activity in alkaline solutions, but is not entirely inactive in acid mediums. The three invertases are also important enzymes secreted by the intestinal mucosa. Surcase acts upon surcose and produces an invert sugar. Some authorities make the state- ment that surcase is also present in the saliva and gastric juice, but its secretion is largely due to pathological conditions. The greatest activity of this enzyme is exhibited in acid solution. Lactase is an enzyme which inverts lactose and forms dextrose and galactose. It is formed in the mucosa of the in- testines of only certain animals. 274 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Maltase is described in connection with salivary diges- tion and enterokinase with pancreatic digestion. The normal digestive ferments all depend upon normal glands to secret them, which glands are in turn responsible for the proper amounts and quality of secretions made possible only through the supply of 100 percent of mental impulses. Under normal conditions, after the digestive processes previously described have taken place, nothing but a residue of a non-nutritive nature should be left in the intestines. All the sugars and starches up to this point should have become broken down into monosaccharides and absorbed; all the fats thru the processes of saponification and emulsification should have reached the lacteal vessels; all proteins to have been broken down into albumoses and peptones and likewise ab- sorbed. The above conditions, however, obtain only to a degree. In the foods one eats, there are more or less mineral sub- stances and partially digestible organic compounds so that aside from the normal residue these substances are likewise present. Outside of the digestive processes that take place normal- ly in the intestines there are many other chemical reactions determined largely by the nature of foods eaten. Fermentative changes usually produce quantities of carbo- hydrates, and are occasioned by the formation of a great deal of lactic, butyric and acetic acids. If these acids were not always present to a certain extent in the lower part of the small intestine, below the zone of enzymic action, there would be invasion of bacteria from the large intestine set- ting up putrefactive processes. These putrefactive processes generally take place in the large intestine and are due to the presence of undigested protein. Were the intestines devoid of all bacteria, digestion and absorption would almost reach the ideal condition, but the presence of these organisms robs CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 275 the body of a share of the food. The acid forming bacteria that decompose the carbohydrates are usually in the lower two- thirds of the intestines, though the boundary where this action begins is not at all exact. It is conceded that the zones of enzymic and acid produc- ing bacteria overlap to a certain extent and hence the action is said to be, in certain cases, a simultaneous one, though largely dependent, as before stated, upon the length of time which elapses since digestion has taken place and also upon the character and kind of food present. The slow neutralizing power of bile and pancreatic juice upon the acids present gives the bacteria a chance to act, as such action is favored in neutral conditions. The farther down the food proceeds the greater is its neutrality and the greater, therefore, is the action of bacteria. In certain animals the food is of such a nature that it contains an excess of pen- toses and starches, furthering the action of fermentation to such an extent that little or no putrefaction obtains. The greater part of absorption takes place in the small intestines, some in the stomach, while that in the large in- testines is mostly the absorption of water. In the small in- testines the food is very liquid in nature, becoming more solid in the large intestine through loss of water, but even here it contains between 70 and 80 percent of it. As the greater share of carbohydrates are carried away by the process of absorption the putrefactive process sets in any many complex reactions follow. As the result of these actions we have formed the substances indol and skatol, denoting characteristic disintegration products of the protein molecule. Aside from the above two bodies we have formed phenol, glycocoll, hydrogen sulphid, marsh gas, carbon dioxid fatty acids and many other substances. All the above bodies seem to be the result of putrefaction of albumoses, peptones, 276 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY lucin, tyrosin and proteins that have escaped enzymic diges- tion. As we stated above, water is greatly diminished in the large intestines and this greatly interferes with putrefaction, and, aside from this, the products of bacterial action also tend to check the process and so we find that not all of the sub- stance undergoes putrefaction. Aside from the water that is absorbed in the large intes- tine, many bacterial products undergo the same course. Here the excessive production of idol shows increased bacterial ac- tion which may obtain as a pathological phenomenon. Part of the indol so formed may escape with the feces, but a large por- tion is absorbed and oxidized in the tissues, mainly in the liver, from whence it passes into the blood and later into the urine, where it may be detected as indican by the use of Heller's ring test. The amount of indican present would tend to show the extent of putrefaction which takes place in the large in- testines. Phenol is another product of putrefaction that is readily absorbed and passes thru similar channels of the body and shows finally in the urine as an ethereal sulphate. Other substances aside from the above two follow the same course r and after undergoing slight changes, are finally found as con- stituents of the urine. In the tissues of the body they are not absorbed to the extent that they become poisonous, but if found readily and in measurable quantity in the urine, show to a marked extent the existing condition in the intestines. If the lower intestine becomes clogged, thus checking the passage of the intestinal contents, prolonged putrefactive ac- tion may give rise to disintegration products readily detected in the urine. Even though the statement is made that the absorption of indol and phenol has no poisonous effect, yet there are such products formed by the bacteria that possess a toxic character. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 277 Such poisons may be absorbed into the system and give rise to peculiar symptoms far remote from the infected intestines. Many such products of which little is known are detected by urine tests. The analysis of the feces consists in determining the qual- ity and quantity of various substances present, but these sub- stances being very complex in nature are therefore very hard to determine. In normal conditions the litmus reaction is usually neutral, may be alkaline due to the putrefactive proc- esses in the lower intestines, or even acid due to the fermen- tation and production of the aforementioned acids. The nor- mal specific gravity is from 1.045 to 1,070, but this varies much in pathological conditions being as low as 0.935 in fatty stools. Specific gravity is only approximately correct, due to the occluded gas that interferes with the test. Fecal matter contains bacteria, bacterial products, remains of digestive ferments, epithelium and mucus of the intestinal walls, and food residues. Fat is present in the normal feces as are also fatty acids, lecithin and cholesterol. Fat is increased in pathological conditions and also in such cases where there is a lack of bile or pancreatic secretion. In cases where coarse diet is ingested, which is difficult to digest, starch is found in the feces quite extensively, which, when it is present in fine granules is readily absorbed. Sugar is found but seldom and obtains only in pathological con- ditions. Very few gums are used, as foods and hence obtained but seldom in fecal material. Protein substances such as albumen, albumose, peptone, mucin, etc., exist to quite a marked degree and by tests which are used to determine their presence the quality and quantity suggests the lack or excess of digestion and in many cases their presence is a test of exist- ing abnormal conditions and hence becomes an aid in diag- nosis. CHEMISTRY OF DIGESTION SUMMARIZED Before going into the discussion of the action of digestive ferments, we must concede that they act normlily only under normal conditions of the human body. The normal digestive ferments all depend upon normal glands to secrete them, which glands are in turn responsible for the proper amounts and quality of secretions made possible only thru flow of 100 percent of mental impulses. In order to study the chemistry of the various digestive ferments, we must ascertain the glands they are secreted by. Digestion may be divided into three main divisions, namely- salivary, gastric and intestinal. The intestinal may be further said to consist of the billiary and pancreatic. Saliva is secreted by three pairs of glands, namely: sub- maxillary, sub-linguinal and parotid, also influenced by minor buccal glands situated in the cheeks. Saliva secreted by the various glands possesses definite characteristics peculiar to the gland from which it is secreted. In man the parotid ordinarily secrets a thin, watery fluid. The sub-maxillary a thicker mucin-like fluid, while the sub-linguinal is still more mucil- agenous in character. The saliva as collected from the mouth is then a mixture of all the above fluids. Saliva may be in- duced to flow by many forms of stimuli, such as thermal, mechanical, electrical, chemical and physical. The amount of saliva secreted by an adult in twenty-four hours varies be- tween one thousand and fifteen hundred cubic centimeters. Ordinarily it is weakly alkaline, but becomes acid at times. Its alkalinity is due to disodium hydrogen phosphate. Its specific gravity is 1.005 and it contains 0.5 percent of solid matter. In the solid matter we find albumin, globulin, mucin, urea, ptyalin, maltase and phosphates. Potassium thiocynate 278 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 279 (KSCN) is generally present in small quantities. The so- called tartar formation is composed of calcium phosphate, calcium carbonate and mucin. Mucin is particularly influen- tial in developing the local condition favoring the onset of dental decay. The principal enzyme of saliva is ptyalin, and possesses the property of transforming complex carbohydrates, such as starch and dextrine, into simpler bodies. First there is the formation of soluble starch (amidulin), and then the forma- tion of dextrines, followed by iso-maltose, and finally, maltose. In connection with this process there is formed a small amount of dextrose, through the action of maltase. It is true that the salivary digestion goes on in the stomach especially at the pyloric end, due to the slowness with which the contents come in contact with the gastric juice. Maltase is the second enzyme of saliva, and is sometimes known as glucase. Its main function is the splitting of maltose into dextrose. Gastric digestion takes place in the stomach and is pro- moted by the gastric juice which is secreted by the glands of the stomach mucosa. These glands are of two kinds, the fundus and the pyloric. The principal foods acted upon by gastric digestion are the proteins, and become so changed that they are prepared for further intestinal digestion and final absorption. Gastric juice is secreted as a result of stimuli. The volume secreted varies with the quantity of food and the kind of food. Normal gastric juice is thin, light colored, with an acid reaction and specific gravity varying between 1.001 and 1.010. It contains two-thirds percent solid matter, which is made up principally of hydrochloric acid, sodium chlorid, potassium chlorid, earthly phosphates, mucin and the enzymes pepsin, renin and lipase. The acidity of the gastric juice is due to the free hydrochloric acid. Former belief was 280 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY that this acid was secreted by parietal cells and chief cells of the fundus and pyloric glands, but it is now plain that the chief seat of formation is in the parietal cells. Hydrochloric acid is generally present in gastric juice of man to the extent of 0.2 percent to 0.3 percent. Where the amount of hydrochloric acid varies to any considerable degree from the above we have a condition of hypo or hyper acidity resulting. Hydrochloric acid has the power of combining with the proteins to form the so-called combined hydrochloric acid. In this stage it is less potent than the free hydrochloric acid, and has not the power to destroy salivary digestion in the stomach. When free hydrochloric acid is treated with a protein, the latter acts as a base metal and a salt is formed. Then, instead of having hydrochloric acid, we have a protein salt of hydrochloric acid. The hydrochloric acid of gastric juice forms a medium in which the pepsin can satisfactorily digest protein food, and at the same time acts as an antiseptic, preventing putrefactive processes in the stomach. A condition of hypoacidity very often gives rise to fermentation, and hence the formation of large amounts of lactic and butyric acids. The most important enzyme of the gastric juice is the pepsin. It is not formed by the gastric cells as pepsin, but as pepsinogen, which is in distinction to pepsin a more resist- ant substance to alkalies. Upon coming in contact with hydro- chloric acid the pepsinogen is immediately transformed into pepsin. Pepsin is not active in neutral or alkaline solutions, but requires a certain acidity to act on proteins and dissolve or digest them. The percent of hydrochloric acid facilitating rapid peptic action is 0.08 percent to 0.1 percent for fibrin and 0.25 percent for coagulated egg white. Acidity to promote peptic digestion is not necessarily dependent upon hydro- chloric acid, but other acids will.answer as well. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 281 Pepsin acts best at 38 to 40 degrees centigrade, and its digestive power decreases as the temperature is lowered, being only very slightly active at zero degrees. Gastric digestion, if permitted to go on long enough, will produce, in addition to proteoses and peptones, a list of protein cleavage products, such as lucin, tyrosin, alanin, asparatic acid, glutamic acid, porlin, valin and lysin. The above list of products, of course, depends largely upon the kind and character of protein ma- terial. We must not be led to believe that such a class of prod- ucts is formed under normal condition in the organism, but only by prolonged hydrolysis. Gastric rennin, the second in importance of gastric en- zymes, is known as the milk curdling or protein coagulating enzyme. It acts upon caseinogen of milk and splits it into proteose and soluble casein. This soluble substance in pres- ence of calcium salts forms calcium casein which is insoluble. It is not certain which medium the rennin is most powerful in, but it will act in neutral, acid and alkaline solutions, rather more under acid condition. It is usually present normally in gastric juice, but under certain pathological conditions, such as atrophy of mucosa, chronic catarrh of the stomach, or in carcinoma it may be absent. Gastric lipase is known as the fat splitting enzyme, and possesses slight activity when the gastric juice is of normal acidity, but its principal action is noted in cases of low acidity, due to physiological or pathological conditions. Bile is secreted continuously by the liver and passes into the intestines thru the common bile duct near the pylorus. In fasting animals no bile enters the intestines, but it begins to flow upon ingestion of foods. Fats, extractives of meats, and protein products cause a copious secretion of bile. A carbo- hydrate diet causes no increase in the bile secretion, but tends to diminish it. Bile may well be called an excretion as well as a secretion, and in the performance of its excretory function 282 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY it passes such bodies as licithin, metallic substances, choles- terol, etc. Bile assists in the absorption of fats by its action on fatty acids, formed by the action of pancreatic juice. Bile is a ropy viscid substance, alkaline in reaction and ordinarily possesses a bitter taste. It varies in color in dif- ferent animals, being either yellow, brown or green. It is difficult to ascertain the normal amount of this secretion, but it is variously estimated from 500 to 1,100 cubic centimeters for twenty-four hours. The specific gravity of bile is 1.010 to 1.040, and the freezing point is 0.55 degrees C. It is a clear, limpid fluid and contains very little solid matter. After it reaches the gall bladder it is coupled with continuous absorp- tion of water and becomes highly concentrated. The principal constituents of bile are: salts or bile, acids, bile pigments, neutral fats, lecithin, phosphatides, cholesterol, also iron, copper, calcium and magnesium. Zinc has been found in traces. Bile acids are glycholic and taurocholic. The former predominates and contains nitrogen, but no sulphur. Bile pigments are bilirubin, biliverdin, bilifucin, biliprasin and bilicyanin. The first two are by far the most abundant, and to them is largely due the color of the bile. Billiary calculi or concretions, commonly called gallstones, are frequently formed in the gall bladder. These deposits may be divided into three classes, namely: cholesterol, pigment and inorganic calculi. The last is principally carbonate and phosphate, rarely found in man. The pigment calculus ordinarily consists of calcium and bilirubin. The cholesterol is the most frequently found in man. Pancreatic digestion. As soon as the food leaves the stomach it comes in contact with the bile and pancreatic juice. Both are alkaline in reaction, and after they are mixed with the chyme and have neutralized the acidity of gastric juice there can be no further peptic digestion. The pancreatic juice reaches the intestines thru the duct of Wirsung near the CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 283 pylorus. Normally the secretion is brought about by the stimulation produced by the acid chyme as it enters the duo- denum, and hence any increase in the flow of gastric juice will produce increased flow of pancreatic juice. This stimulation is largely due to secretin. This agent is not changed by the action of heat, and hence is not classed with the enzymes. It is of very low molecular weight and belongs to the substances properly known as hormones, or chemical messengers. The average daily secretion of pancreatic juice is 650 cubic centi- meters. Its specific gravity is 1.008, and contains 1.3 percent of solid matter, and has a freezing point of 47 degrees C. It contains at least four distinct enzymes, namely : trypsin, amylase (amylopsin), lipase or (steapsin) and pancreatic ren- nin. Lactase is very often present. The most important of the pancreatic enzymes is trypsin. It resembles pepsin, as re- gards properties of breaking down protein products, but it is a much stronger agent and possesses a more powerful action for complete decomposition. The products of tryptic digestion are proteoses, peptones, peptides, lucin, tyrosin, aspartic acid, glutamic acid, alanin, cystin, serin, prolin, arginin, and histin- din. Trypsin does not exist in the pancreas as such, but rather as trypsinogen, in the same relation as pepsin and pepsinogen. It is most active in alkaline solutions, but slightly active in neutral and also, acid solution. In pancreatic diges- tion the material does not swell, but becomes more or less honeycombed and finally disintegrates. In the intestines there exists a body known as enterokinase, which, by the process of activation, changes trypsinogen into trypsin, and makes it active. This substance is only present in the intestines upon the entrance of the pancreatic secretions. It is generally classified with the enzyme, in that its activity is destroyed by heat. The second pancreatic enzyme is amylopsin, and possesses a greater digestive power than salivary amylase. Its activity 284 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY is confined mainly to starches, and the products resulting are dextrines and sugars. If then, starch should escape being di- gested by salivary action, it becomes readily transformed by pancreatic amylase. The third enzyme of pancreatic juice is steapsin, the fat splitting agent. It forms fatty acids and glycerol. The fatty acids thus formed become saponified and then dissolved in the bile. It is a known fact that lipase acts best in dilution, hence fat is better utilized when large quantities of water are taken with meats. Steapsin is very unstable and rendered inert by the action of an acid. Pancreatic rennin is very similar to gastric rennin. Intestinal enzymes are of great importance. They are erepsin, surcase, lactase and enterokinase. Erepsin acts on proteoses, peptones and peptides, splitting them into amino acids. It possesses the greatest activity in alkaline solutions, though active in acid also. The three invertases are very important enzymes of in- testinal mucosa. Surcase acts on surcose and inverts it into invert sugar. Some claim that surcase is present in saliva and gastric juice, but its secretion is largely due to pathological conditions. Its greatest activity is exhibited in acid solutions. Lactase is an enzyme which inverts lactose and forms dextrose and galactose. It is formed in the mucosa of intes- tines of certain animals. Maltase has been spoken of in connection with salivary digestion, and enterokinase in connection with pancreatic di- gestion. CHEMISTRY OF INTERNAL SECRETION The chemistry of the secretion of the liver, spleen, pan- creas, salivary glands, stomach and intestines has been de- scribed in connection with the processes of digestion and we will now take up the chemistry of internal secretions of vari- ous other glands. The Thyroid The thyroid gland is a bi-lobed body situated in the region of the trachea. It possesses no ducts and its tissues are com- posed of minute vesicles lined with a single layer of cubical epithelium and containing in their center a material which is known as colloid. This gland manufactures a secretion which is commonly termed thyroiodin. This secretion is considered to be a specific hermone which possesses a definite function in carrying on the metabolism of the body. The removal of the thyroid gland is followed by the development of a state of slow chronic malnutrition. There seems to be present an increase in the excretion of nitrogen and carbon dioxid, as well as an increased consumption of oxygen. Two views are held regarding the secretion of the thyroid, one is that the iodin present is an active agent assisting in the general meta- bolism of the body and the other is that it is a poison neutral- ized by the action of the thyroid cells. It is generally con- ceded that the first of these two supposed functions is the one which obtains as a result of the functionating thyroid cells. The exact manner in which this secretion is utilized in the body is not definitely known, but the fact that it is of great importance still remains, for we note that the removal of the thyroid and the absence of its secretion produces incoordina- tions in the general metabolism of the body. The Chiropractor is not vitally concerned in knowing the exact function of the secretion, but is concerned in knowing 285 286 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY that the gland is manufacturing its proper amount of secretion, because he knows that any incoordination of this gland results in defective metabolism. The Chiropractor is not particularly interested in knowing the exact condition of the thyroid gland other than that it is in the state of health or disease. If symptoms, which obtain, point to an existing incoordination, the Chiropractor looks for a local subluxation in the lower cervical region and at stomach place. Finding this he adjusts the subluxated vertebra, thereby relieving the pressure upon nerve fibers leading to the thyroid body and allowing one hundred percent of mental impulses to reach the thyroid cells and reestablishing coordination, which results in the manu- facture and secretion of the proper amount of thyroid fluid to carry on its specific function. Parathyroid Glands The parathyroid glands, usually four in number, are sit- uated two above and two below the thyroid. They consist of masses of cells permeated by a great many blood vessels. The exact chemical consistency of their secretion has not, as yet, been determined. It is a known fact, however, that their ex- tirpation or removal is followed by muscular convulsions or tetany. This condition is followed by other and very serious symptoms and death usually results from the inability of the glands to functionate and produce their secretion. Such con- ditions as infantile tetany and gastro intestinal tetany, as well as others, in which there is the inability of the muscles to produce coordinated movements, are said to be the result of insufficient active parathyroid secretion. As long as no sublaxation exists in the spine and Innate Intelligence is not hindered in furnishing these glands with the proper amount of mental impulses, the glands perform their function properly and no incoordination obtains. If a CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 287 sublaxation does exist the Chiropractor adjusts the misalinged vertebra, thereby relieving pressure upon nerves supplying the parathyroids, and coordination, which results in proper function, is again reestablished. Thymus Gland The thymus gland possesses rather obscure physiology and very little is known as to its function. It is a single gland located in the mediastinal space below the thyroid. It is a bi-lobed body, which reaches its maximum development about the second year of life, remains so until the age of puberty, following which time it gradually atrophies and in adult life remains only as a rudimentary mass of connective tissue. It is stated that the removal of the thymus gland hinders the de- velopment of bony tissues and induces conditions very similar to rickets. It is also suggested that there exists a reciprocal relation between the thymus and the reproductive organs; removal of the testes causes the atrophy of the thymus gland and the removal of the thymus hastens the development of the testes. The Chiropractor advances the further idea that the thymus gland is not only concerned in its reciprocal relations with the reproductive organs and the development of bony tissue, but that by its secretion it aids in the growth and de- velopment of every cell in the human body. Suprarenal Glands The suprarenal glands are small ductless glands situated upon the upper anterior surfaces of the kidneys. Each con- sists of an outer cortical and an inner medullary portion. Their function is to manufacture an internal secretion known as adrenalin, which offers itself as an agent to. preserve tonicity of muscular fibers, particularly those of the vascular system. 288 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY The absence of this secretion or the removal of the glands is followed by great prostration and muscular weakness, re- sembling the symptoms occurring in Addison's disease. These glands are supplied by nerve fibers emitting from the spinal cord in the region of the tenth dorsal vertebra and as long as no subluxation in this region obtains, Innate controls the action of the secreting cells and the secretion is carried on and supplied in proper quality and quantity to the various muscle fibers of the entire body. Pituitary Body The pituitary body is commonly known as the hypophysis and is found located in the cella turcica of the sphenoid bone. It manufactures an internal secretion which is carried to all parts of the body by the serous circulation and assists in the general metabolism of various cells, especially those concerned in the building of the bones of the face and hands. Thru postmortem examination of the brain of subjects suffering from acromegally, which is characterized by an over de- velopment of the bones of the face and hands, we find existing in the pituitary body various pathological changes that would materially interfere with the production of the normal amount and quality of its secretion. The Chiropractor finds that the cause of this abnormality is a subluxation producing pressure upon the nerves which supply mental impulses to the pituitary body, which is then unable to produce its secretion that is necessary in maintaining normal development of the different tissues. The Pineal Gland The pineal gland is known as the epiphysis. It is located in the brain posterior to the corpus collosum and in structure consists of small follicles lined with secreting cells. These cells produce a secretion which is very essential in the develop- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 289 ment of different tissues of the body, particularly those of the brain. Any disease of the pineal gland produces symptoms manifesting a lack of physical and mental development. The pineal gland, like every other structure in the human body, is supplied by mental impulses through nerves enervating its tissue. A subluxation which produces pressure upon nerves supplying these mental impulses, is the direct cause of every disease of the gland and results in the lack of proper quality and quantity of secretion. By adjusting the subluxated ver- tebra, and restoring to the affected part a normal amount of mental impulses, coordination results and the gland is again able to produce such secretion as is necessary in the proper development of all the different cells. Organs of Reproduction The organs of reproduction, both in the male and female, are thought to manufacture an internal secretion used in gen- eral bodily metabolism. The exact nature of the secretion is not known and the fact that the removal of these organs is not followed by any immediate serious results would point to the fact that its importance could in no way be compared with secretions of glands previously described. The testes, aside from manufacturing the spermatic fluid, which is an external secretion, are also said to produce an in- ternal secretion. This is carried by the serous circulation to all parts of the body and possesses marked action upon the muscular and nervous tissues. The ovaries, aside from manufacturing the external secre- tion, containing the ova, are said to produce an internal secre- tion as well. The effect of this secretion is more marked than that of the internal secretion of the testes. It is found that the removal of the ovaries results in premature menopause, and in cases where all the tissue is removed menstruation is ar- 290 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY rested. The removal of the ovaries in early life retards the development of the uterus, and their removal after the uterus has attained full development, causes the organ to undergo a fibrous degeneration. CHEMISTRY OF BLOOD Blood is considered as one of the connective tissues and is found to be of a very complex composition. It is not de- rived directly from the absorbable products of digestive proc- esses, but is- made up of such substances that have been fur- ther converted by various glands in the human body. The seat of absorption of all substances to be utilized in the gen- eral bodily metabolism is in the small intestine, although some few products of digestion are also absorbed through the walls of the stomach and the large intestines. The absorbed prod- ucts find their way through the lacteal vessels and portal vein into the thoracic duct and thence into the blood. The fats are carried essentially through the lacteal vessels, while the carbo- hydrates and proteins are carried by minute capillaries to the portal vein which leads to the liver where further changes obtain and the products of these changes are then carried into the blood through the hepatic veins. Other glands aside from the liver also exercise their func- tion upon the absorbed products and change them further into substances to be used in various parts of the body as well as to assist in the composition of the blood. The seat of all these reactions is not definitely known, nor is it known how the various processes are carried on. It is almost impossible to give the constant composition of blood, as it is constantly undergoing changes, but on chem- ical analysis it is found that it contains water, solids, fibrin, hemogloblin, albumin, globulin, cholesterol, fat and salts in varying proportions. The liquid portion of blood is known as plasma, in which are found a vast number of blood cor- puscles. The blood corpuscles are of three varieties, known as the red, white and the blood plates. The plasma, when separated from the corpuscles, is a 291 292 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY thin colorless fluid and forms about two-thirds of the entire volume. This should not be confused with blood serum, though in appearance they are very similar. When the blood escapes from the vessels it produces a clot and as this forms, it gradually shrinks, producing a clear fluid known as the serum. The serum, though being the same in appearance, differs from plasma in its chemical composition. The chem- istry of the formation of fibrin resulting in the coagulation of blood will be described later. Blood normally possesses a weak alkaline reaction, but upon investigation it is proven that its reaction is really am- photeric, that is, it is able at one time to act as an alkaline fluid and at other times possesses an acid reaction. This peculiar property of blood is ascribed to the existing proteins serum albumin and serum globulin and in many respects is of very great importance. If, for example, the invading poison is of an alkaline character, the blood in possessing the ability of becoming acid, is capable of neutralizing this poison, if on the other hand the invading poison is of an acid nature, the blood by its alkalinity is capable of likewise neutralizing this poison. The specific gravity of normal blood varies between 1.055 and 1.070 and the specific gravity of plasma is given as 1.030. The total volume of blood makes up approximately seven to eight per cent of the entire weight of the body and of this weight about 60 per cent consists of plasma and 40 per cent of corpuscles. Blood is identified by the presence of a peculiar iron- containing compound known as hemoglobin; this substance is very complex and belongs to the group of conjugated pro- teins. Upon examination it is found to consist of globin, com- bined with a pigment known as hematin. The globin forms in the neighborhood of 90 per cent and the hematin 4 per cent of the entire molecule. Under the influence of heat, acids or CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 293 alkalies, the molecule is easily broken up into its component parts. Upon further examination hemoglobin is found to con- sist of carbon, hydrogen, nitrogen, oxygen, sulphur and iron. The amounts of these different elements vary in different animals, and it becomes quite interesting to note their com- bining power with different gases, especially that of oxygen. The combination of oxygen with hemoglobin is known as oxy- hemoglobin. The oxygen is loosely held and can be easily separated from its carrying agent, the iron of the hematin. The amount of this gas carried is two atoms for every molecule of hemoglobin, or two atoms for every atom of iron. It is pos- sible to obtain oxy-hemoglobin in crystalline form and note that the crystals of it from different animals are different in size and shape and also soluble in different substances and possess varying degrees of solubility. There is also a differ- ence in the color due to the amount of oxygen carried and this difference is easily noted in the venous blood, which is dark colored, due to the lack of oxygen, and the arterial bright red blood due to the presence of oxygen. In cases of gas poisoning there is a combination of carbon monoxid with hemoglobin. This gas seemingly possesses a greater affinity for the iron, displaces the oxygen and produces suffocation. Illuminating gas is very poisonous because it contains anywhere from two to twenty-five per cent of carbon monoxid. There are some other substances which form stable com- binations with hemoglobin and among them are nitric oxid, hydrogen sulphid and acetylene. Certain reagents are capable of acting upon blood and transforming the oxy-hemoglobin into a modified form known as methemoglobin. The substance thus formed is more stable and does not give up its oxygen and hence decreases the carry- ing capacity of the blood for oxygen. The poisonous proper- ties ascribed to certain drugs are due to the fact that they are 294 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY capable of producing- the above mentioned reaction. Other substances exist which are capable of acting as antidotes and possess the power of gradually converting the methemoglobin into oxy-hemoglobin. The red blood corpuscles are biconcave, circular discs about eight micro-millimeters in diameter. They consist of an elastic net work known as stroma supporting the hemo- globin. The stroma is a delicate, colorless substance which forms a spongy meshwork and gives shape to the corpuscle. These meshes are filled with hemoglobin which makes up about 32 per cent by weight of the entire corpuscle. Aside from the network and the hemoglobin the corpuscles also contain a small amount of water, lecithin, cholesterin and small amount of salts. Their main function is to carry oxygen to the different tissues and their color is due to the presence of the iron-containing compound called hematin. These cor- puscles are manufactured by the red marrow found in bones and vary in number according to different conditions. The average number of corpuscles per cubic millimeter of blood is said to be 5,000,000. The white blood corpuscles are known as the leucocytes and these are divided into several classes, according to their difference in microscopic structure and reaction. Under nor- mal conditions the total number of white blood corpuscles shows considerable variation. There are present between 8,000 to 10,000 per cubic millimeter of blood. One of the characteristic features of these corpuscles is their ability to migrate through the walls of the capillaries into surrounding tissues. This power is known as the ameboid movement. Their main function is to protect the body against the in- vasion of foreign substance, and this they do by surrounding such substance and neutralizing or destroying its poisonous action. Leucocytes are claimed to be the cells that are in- strumental in giving rise to the antibodies found in the blood CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 295 stream. Among the substances so produced are mentioned the precipitins, agglutinins, cytotoxins, etc., each possessing a specific function and only one kind of action. The antibodies present in the blood are said to immunize the individual from invading poisons. The nature and amount of these substances is not defin- itely known, but as long as the metabolism of the body is per- fect the blood obtains in normal quality and quantity and is capable under these conditions of manufacturing such anti- toxins as are necessary for the neutralization of the different poisonous substances. On this, as a basis, originated the vac- cination theory. The followers of this, and believers in in- oculation, claim that by introducing a poison into the body, by repeated doses, the blood will ultimately produce such sub- stances as will then be able to neutralize these poisons. By this process they claim to immunize the individual against the ravages of disease, the poisonous elements of which are said to be similar in nature to poisons used to produce the anti- bodies. This is another one of those cases where the followers of this far fetched theory are trying to patch up the effects with- out even giving thought to the cause of the inability of a physical body to produce its own antitoxin. The Chiroprac- tor considers that the body in a normal, healthy state, is capa- ble of combating these different poisons and he concerns him- self only with the fact of knowing whether the body is in a state of health or disease. By adjusting the subluxated ver- tebrae, which are the cause of defective metabolism, he re- stores coordination, which results in the proper secretion of such ingredients that are necessary in normal blood and capa- ble of neutralizing the invading poisons. White blood corpuscles possess the further functions of assisting in the absorption of fats and peptones and help to maintain the normal composition of blood plasma. It is also 296 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY stated that they take part in the process of blood coagulation. The blood plates are small elliptical bodies very much smaller than are the red blood corpuscles. Their structure is not definitely known, because they possess a great tendency to agglutinate and dissolve. By various experiments it has been noted that the average number of these small cells is about 500,000 per cubic millimeter. These little corpuscles are the main bodies which take part in the formation of thrombin and in the production of the blood clot. The fibrinogen that is present in the blood normally is in the soluble state, but upon exposure to air, the soluble sub- stance forms insoluble fibrin. This property of fibrin is com- monly known as spontaneous coagulation and results in the formation of the blood clot. We have mentioned that the blood plates are instrumental in bringing about coagulation of blood and the process may be given as follows: When the blood leaves the vessel it comes in contact with air and this ruptures the blood plate, which discharges a substance known as thrombokinase. The thrombokinase in turn acts upon the blood plasma, particularly upon the thrombogen of the plasma and produces a ferment known as thrombin. The thrombin acts upon fibrinogen that is found in the blood and produces fibrin, which results in the formation of the blood clot. There are many different agents, that are capable of pre- venting coagulation and among these are oxalates, acids, al- kalies, sugar and glycerol. Venous blood containing a great deal of carbon dioxid is very slow to coagulate and so we class CO2 among the agents preventing coagulation. Blood coming in contact with smooth surfaces coagulates slowly, while rough surfaces become mechanical agents, bringing about more rapid coagulation. Injury to the lining endothe- lium and the throwing of waste products into the blood stream brings about clotting in the blood vessels. Thus we may say CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 297 in conclusion, that, whenever the equilibrium of the solution is destroyed the process of coagulation obtains. The proteins found in the blood are serum albumin and serum globulin. They make up about 7 or 8 per cent of the entire composition and are easily separated by dilution with water or precipitation with salt solutions. Both substances are peculiar and are doubtless the results of changes and transformations occurring in the body far remote from the blood stream. These substances have been mentioned as being the main factors in imparting to blood its peculiar amphoteric reaction. The various substances contained in the blood possess what are known as optical properties, that is, they produce certain spectra by which their presence is easily determined. The instrument used to determine these properties is known as the spectroscope. Osmotic pressure is a peculiar and important phenomenon of blood and is governed by the law that solids in solutions exert pressure in all directions and the amount of this pres- sure is in ratio to the degree of concentration. This pressure of blood is due to the presence of mineral salts, which make up approximately one percent of the entire composition and not to the solid particles of organic matter which are present in blood to the extent of 20 per cent. The osmotic pressure of blood is constant even though the quantity is greatly al- tered. In all these cases of osmotic pressure the red blood corpuscle is looked upon as the indicator. If mixed with solu- tions, whose pressure is weaker, the corpuscles swell, if the solution is stronger the corpuscles shrink, while if the pres- sure of the solution is the same the size of the corpuscles re- mains unchanged. 298 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY CHEMISTRY OF LYMPHATIC NODES The lymphatic glands, or lymph nodes, are very widely distributed in the body and vary in size in different parts from a hemp seed to that of a large olive. They are arranged singly or in groups and principally along the course of large blood vessels. Each gland consists of a mass of lymph tissue sur- rounded by a fibrous capsule which sends in prolongations that form a supporting framework for the gland. Each of the lymph nodes or glands is provided with afferent and efferent vessels. The afferent enter the gland by the convex portion and after the lymph has passed through the gland it is gathered up by radicles of the efferent vessels which leave the hilus, join to form one main trunk, and carry the lymph on its jour- ney to other glands. Lymph is a clear fluid, slightly lower in specific gravity than the serum. Its chemical composition is very similar to that of blood plasma. It contains inorganic salts such as sodium chlorid, calcium and magnesium phosphate and also salts of potassium. Lymph also contains protein, fat, sugar and cholesterin. As one of the functions ascribed to the lym- phatic system is the manufacture of white blood corpuscles, we find, therefore, that the lymph contains great numbers of these cells in the process of making known as lymphocytes. Small amounts of red blood corpuscles and fibrinogen are also found in the lymph. Lymph possesses a number of different functions. The corpuscles present in it are very active in destroying complex products produced in the process of tissue waste. It carries nutrition to different parts of the body, acting as an inter- mediary system between the serous and blood vascular circu- lations. It offers itself as a medium to regulate the composi- tion and various other changes in the blood, thereby prevent- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 299 ing the inability of the latter fluid to reach all the different tissue elements. The amount of lymph produced daily is relatively high, but is subject to great variation depending upon the amount furnished through the lacteal vessels. Some foods contain a greater share of those ingredients which are necessary in the production of lymph and hence, upon the ingestion of these foods, the amount produced would be greater. Some sub- stances, such as salts and sugars, have the power of increas- ing lymph production and these, as well as others, possessing similar power, are known as the lymphogogues. More lymph is produced during the process of muscular activity, because it is necessary in supplying the tissue waste and also in carry- ing off the products of disintegration. Haemolymph Glands The haemolymph glands are very much similar to the lymphatic glands, being about the same in size, structure and shape. They obtain in various parts of the body, but are most common in the abdominal cavity anterior to the lumbar ver- tebrae. Their function is very similar to the lymphatic glands in that they manufacture lymphocytes to be supplied to dif- ferent parts of the body. Carotid Glands The carotid glands are two small glands located in the bifurcations of the common carotid arteries. They are com- posed of small follicles lined with epithelial cells and are sim- ilar in function to the lymph nodes because they too manu- facture lymphocytes. Coccygeal The coccygeal gland is a small nodule of lymphoid tissue situated at the tip of the coccyx. This gland, like other lymph nodes, possesses the function of manufacturing lymphocytes. 300 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY The removal of any of the lymph nodes does not in any material way affect the metabolism in the body. There being so many units in the system that the removal of any one unit is not particularly felt, as the many other glands still re- maining throughout the body are capable of manufacturing the secretions in sufficient amount. GASEOUS EXCHANGE IN THE LUNGS It is impossible to determine the exact composition of alveolar air because this becomes mixed with the air of the bronchi during the process of expiration. The total amount of carbon dioxid present in expired air is estimated to be 4.4 per cent. The air in the bronchi, which is the same as at- mospheric air, contains carbon dioxid to the extent of little more than 3 per cent, and so the alveolar air has been vari- ously computed to contain about 6 per cent of carbon dioxid. The lungs are, therefore, classed with the excretory or- gans and are concerned with the expulsion of the carbon dioxid, as well as other gases from the body. Aside from the gases eliminated in this manner there are also certain quan- tities of water vapor voided from the body with the expira- tion of air from the lungs. The amount of vapor varies a great deal, but the percentage of it in expired air is always greater than that of inspired atmospheric air. The exchange of oxygen of the air for the carbon dioxid of the blood takes place through the tissues of the lungs and it is considered that this process obtains because of existing higher and lower tensions. When the gas tension of carbon dioxid in the blood is greater than the gas tension of oxygen in the inspired air, then the carbon dioxid will flow to the point of lower tension. In this manner the tension in the blood ves- sels is decreased and oxygen, being found in a medium now possessing a higher tension, enters the blood. The affinity that hematin possesses for oxygen is much greater than that for carbon dioxid and this would also account for the change which obtains in the process of exchange. From the above we might conclude that the exchange of gases in the lungs would take place because of the existing difference in the tension of the air and yet, it is absolutely 301 302 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY necessary to consider herein the vital factor which makes the degrees of tension and hence the exchange of gases possible. Innate Intelligence controls all of these vital processes and without it even the chemical laws governing the exchange of gases would not obtain. SKIN The skin is also considered as one of the main organs of excretion and through the action of its sweat and sebacious glands it voids many poisonous substances from the body. The sweat or perspiration is a secretion formed by the sweat glands found located over the entire cutaneous surface of the body. They are particularly abundant in the palms of the hands and soles of the feet. In structure they are simple tubular and the terminal portions of their ducts are lined with secreting columnar cells. These ducts, especially those of the larger glands, possess a muscular coat which is used in the voiding of the secretion. The amount of the secretion formed by these glands varies with atmospheric conditions of tem- perature and humidity and also with different physical states of the human body. The average amount is computed to be between 700 and 900 grams. The exact chemical composition of sweat is not definitely known, for when it is obtained it is usually mixed with the secretion of the sebacious glands. Usually, it is a thin fluid of low specific gravity and possesses an alkaline reaction. On chemical examination it is found to contain sodium chlorid, alkaline sulphates and phosphates, urea, uric acid, albumin and various other organic and inorganic substances. A great deal of elimination is in this way brought about. When the kidneys are not functionating normally, sweating is usually more profuse and contains the ingredients mentioned in larger quantities. It is stated that when the kidneys are acting improperly and not voiding the necessary amount of CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 303 urea from the body that this is then voided through the pores of the skin and may be in such pronounced quantity as to make itself visible in crystalline form on the surface of the body. The sebaceous glands are either simple or compound racemose and obtain associated with the hairs over the entire cutaneous surface of the body. The ducts of these glands are lined with cuboidal epithelial cells and secrete an oily, semi- liquid material known as sebum. As it is impossible to determine the exact composition of sweat, because it is mixed with sebacious secretion, so it is also impossible to determine the composition of the latter, because of it being mixed with sweat. Some of the sub- stances which occur in the sebacious secretions are fats, soaps, cholesterin, albumin, epithelial cells and inorganic salts. The secretion of sebacious glands located in different parts of the body is very much different and obtains also in variable quantity. This secretion, aside from assisting in the process of eliminating certain poisons from the body, is said to be of great physiological importance. By its oily consist- ency it is able to keep the skin and the hairs soft. It forms an oily covering for the body and prevents the escape of heat therefrom and also prevents a too rapid evaporation of the sweat. The skin is also said to eliminate a certain amount of car- bon dioxid and to absorb oxygen. The amount of this gaseous exchange is only very limited. KIDNEYS The kidneys are two compound tubular glands comprising the two main excretory organs of the human body. They are composed of masses of uriniferous tubules and Malpighian corpuscles, and are richly supplied with blood vessels. Each Malpighian corpuscle consists of a tuft of blood ves- 304 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY seis known as the glomerulus, surrounded by an expanded portion of the uriniferous tubule called the capsule of Bow- man. The glomerulus consists of an afferent artery which enters the capsule and is broken up into a number of small capillaries. By the division of the afferent vessel into so many radicles the area of the blood stream is greatly increased and the velocity is thereby diminished. This glomerulus offers itself as a filter and it is here that a great many waste ma- terials are extracted and thrown into the cavity produced by the expanded portion of the uriniferous tubule. From here such materials are conducted through the uriniferous tubules into the pelvis of the ureters, thence through the ureters into the bladder, from which they are voided to the external. The convoluted portion of the uriniferous tubule includes all of the different divisions of the tubule with the exception of the straight collecting portion and the ascending and decending limbs of Henle. The convoluted tubule is lined with a layer of epithelial cells, which cells possess a selective influence and are capable of extracting from the fluid passing through them, certain ingredients which may be of value if retained in the body. Then again it is possible to suppose that the epithelial cells of the uriniferous tubules may be instru- mental in removing different substances from the blood as it circulates through the kidney and thereby assist in the proc- ess of elimination rather than possessing the property of selec- tion. The kidneys, aside from acting as filters for the removal of waste products from the body, are also supposed to manu- facture an internal secretion used in the process of general metabolism. It is claimed that this secretion is emptied into the blood of the renal veins and by the blood carried to dif- ferent parts of the body where it is capable of producing vasoconstriction. The statement is also made that there is a substance manufactured in the kidney which is used gener- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 305 ally for processes of metabolism and that when the kidneys are removed the absence of this secretion produces uremia. It would be more probable to suppose that the lack of elimi- nation due to the absence of the kidney was the cause of this condition rather than the absence of a secretion caused by the extirpation of the kidney. URINE Urine is the excretion produced by the kidneys. Nor- mally it is an amber colored, clear fluid, possessing an aro- matic odor. Its chief constituent is water, of which there is found to be about 96 per cent. The four remaining percent are composed mainly of urea and chlorid, which are classed as the solid constituents. The normal quantity of urine voided in twenty-four hours is about 1.500 cubic centimeters or approximately three pints. This amount varies a great deal both normally and abnor- mally. The variations obtaining and the conditions producing them are given in the outline on page 311. Urine under normal conditions possesses an amber color and this as well as the amount is also affected by different conditions as shown in the outline on page 313. The normal coloring agents found present in the urine are known as urobilin and urochrome. Urobilin is said to be de- rived from the bile pigment bilirubin, which it resembles. Urochrome, or uroerythrin, is also derived from biliary color- ing matters. When urobilin exists in excessive quantity it colors the urine a dark brownish-red and this usually obtains when the liver cells do not function properly. In such cases the conjunctiva, skin and other tissues may also show the presence of the coloring agent. Excess of normal coloring agents is also to be found in the urine in cases of all febril diseases, due to the rapid destruction of blood cells. The ab- normal coloring agents that are usually present are blood, bile and indican. When blood is present the urine possesses a deep red color; with bile a yellowish-brown or green and with indican, which obtains in cholera or typus fever, the color is a blue, due to the presence of indigo. Certain drugs, such as turpentine, creosote and quinine 306 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 307 impart a dark red color. Others, as cascara, aloes and mag- neta produce a red color. Yellow obtains through the pres- sence of rhubarb or senna. Blue is due to the presence of in- digo or methylene blue. In certain cases the abnormal coloring agent melanin is present as a result of melanotic tumors. This imparts a brown- ish-red color to the urine. Normal urine varies in specific gravity from 1.015 to 1.028. depending upon the degree of concentration or dilution; ab- normally, it may be a great deal lower or higher than either of the former quantities. Generally speaking, the urine in cases of diabetes mellitus and in acute fevers possesses the high specific gravity, while that in cases of Bright's disease is very low. The specific gravity is determined by the urinom- eter, which is an instrument so graduated to show all of the different variations. Specific gravity is clinically very important and shows in a marked degree the conditions existing in the general bodily metabolism. It is also used to determine the amount of solids present. Normal urine is slightly acid in reaction and this is due to the presence of diacid sodium phosphate. Upon standing the urine undergoes acid fermentation and the acidity grows less and less, the urine developing the odor of ammonia and finally changing to an alkaline reaction. The rapidity with which this change obtains is due to the quality of the urine and also the temperature of the solution. When certain sub- stances are present the fermentation also obtains very readily. The odor of normal urine is aromatic and may become changed both normally and abnormally, as indicated by the outline on page 314., Upon standing a putrid odor obtains, due to the decomposition of such substances as mucus, albumin and pus. The odor of ammonia obtains after the urine has decomposed and passed from a normal acid to an alkaline re- 308 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY action. Various substances taken as food, among which are asparagus, onions and garlic, impart to the urine a character- istic odor. Normal urine contains several different inorganic sub- stances, such as chlorid, sulphates, phosphates and oxalates. The principal chlorid present is that of sodium. It obtains in the urine as a result of the ingestion of salted food and the reason why most of it is voided with urine and not with the fecal material is because the chlorid is very soluble. The compounds of calcium and magnesium are found in urine to a limited extent. They obtain in the body through the ingestion of water and various kinds of food. Only a small fraction of these substances is voided with the urine, the greater share of them being converted into insoluble phos- phates, sulphates and carbonates in the intestines and passed with the feces. There is no way, therefore, to determine the percentage of these substances actually taken into the body by the examination of the urine. Sulphuric acid obtains in the urine in combination with metals forming the mineral sulphates, and in combination with certain putrefactive substances forming the etheral sulphates. By far the greater part of sulphuric acid obtains in combina- tion with metals. The etheral sulphates are derived from the putrefaction of proteins in the body and their presence in the urine is of clinical importance because it shows increased intestinal putrefaction. These sulphates are decomposed on boiling with dilute mineral acids, yielding sulphuric acid and aromatic compounds. The excretion of nitrogen with the urine is a subject of much importance because it shows by the amount present, just to what degree destructive metabolism, in the human body, has taken place. Nitrogen in urine is found in the form of urea, ammonia, uric acid, creatinin and purin and these different substances can be readily measured by several dif- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 309 ferent methods. Urea and uric acid have already been de- scribed, so that now we will consider the subjects of am- monia, creatinin and purin. The normal amount of ammonia present in the urine is usually less than one gram and its presence should be de- termined while the urine is fresh, because large quantities of it are formed by the process of putrefaction. Ammonia is present to a marked degree and may obtain to the extent of several grams daily in such conditions as cystitis and ad- vanced stages of diabetes. Ammonia is the result of the dis- integration of protein and usually obtains in combination with mineral acids. If these acids are present in excess then am- monia is split oft' from the protein molecule in sufficient quan- tity to neutralize the acid. For this reason the estimation of the amount of ammonia is important, because it is a measure of the production of acids and acid excretion. The purin substances are found as related bodies in differ- ent tissues and secretions. The determination of the amount of these substances present in the urine is important because of the relation they bear to the general metabolism of the body. The two substances of this class found in the urine that we will consider here are xanthin and hypoxanthin. Uric acid is also classed with the purin bodies, but this has already been described. Xanthin is found as a normal constituent of muscle, liver, thymus gland, spleen and urine. It is found in large quan- tities in meat extracts and to a certain extent in some vege- tables. In the pure state it is a colorless powder insoluble in water or alcohol; readily soluble in dilute acids or alkalies. Hypoxanthin is a colorless crystalline substance soluble in water and obtains in the urine in combination with xanthin. It combines with acids, bases and salts and forms crystalline precipitates. Creatinnin is found in normal urine, particularly of those 310 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY individuals who subsist on a vegetable diet. It consists of colorless crystals which are easily separated from the urine with zinc chlorid. Its formula is given as C4H7N3O. This sub- stance is found in muscle extractives. Its amount in the urine does not vary to any great extent and the ingestion of pro- tein or the lack of any kind of food does not seem to have any effect upon its quantity. It seems to be entirely independent of muscular action. It obtains from creatin by the loss of one molecule of water. Creatin occurs in muscles and meat extracts in variable amounts. It is also found in other tissues of the body, as well as in urinary excretions. In the pure state it forms colorless, transparent crystals, soluble in alcohol and water, but in- soluble in ether. It is usually neutral in reaction, but may be slightly alkaline. It is considered to be one of the sources of urea. Hippuric acid is found in the urine in small quantity and forms large rhombic crystals soluble in hot water and in al- cohol, but insoluble in ether. It is found particularly in the urine of herbivorous animals. There are several other normal constituents present in the urine, but these are of minor importance and will not be discussed. Aside from the normal constituents there are a great number of substances found in the urine abnormally and these will be considered with the tests by which their presence is ascertained. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 311 Volume of Urine Normally increased. Vegetable diet. Ingestion of liquids. Nervous excitement. Renal arterial tension. Normally decreased. Perspiration. External heat. Lack of liquid foods. Abnormally increased. Diabetes mellitus. Diabetes insipidus. Hypertrophy of the heart. Hardening of the kidney. Nervous diseases. Convulsions. Chronic interstitial nephritis. Amyloid degeneration. Abnormally decreased. Disease of the blood. Disease of the liver. Acute nephritis. Febrile diseases. Onset of dropsy. Renal congestion. The normal, average amount of urine voided in twenty- four hours is three pints, but under abnormal conditions the amount of eight to ten quarts may be reached. 312 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Specific Gravity Increased normally. Excessive diet. Excessive perspiration. Small amount of vegetable or liquid food. Decreased normally. Large amount of liquid food. Starvation. Chilling. Increased abnormally. Fevers. Renal congestion. Onset of dropsy. Diarrhea. Diabetes mellitus. Leukemia. Tuberculosis of the lungs. Decreased abnormally. Diabetes insipidus. Cardiac hypertrophy. Chronic interstitial nephritis. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 313 Color of Urine Normally increased. By decrease in quantity. Increase in the amount of pigment. Normally decreased. By decrease in quantity. Decrease in solids. Decrease in pigment. Abnormally decreased. Diabetes mellitus. Diabetes insipidus. Polyuria. Anemia. Abnormally increased. Haematuria. Jaundice. Febrile diseases. The normal color of urine is a yellowish amber, due to the normal coloring agents urochrome and uroerythrin. 314 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Odor Normally increased. By ingestion of certain kinds of foods such as: Asparagus. Onions. Garlic. After standing for a certain length of time urine may de- velop, due to putrefaction, the odor of ammonia. Abnormally increased. Diabetes mellitus (sweetish). Cancer Pus Gangrene Putrid or foul. Fistula (Fecal). Cystitis (Ammonia). Normally urine possesses an aromatic odor which does not decrease only as the urine becomes diluted. Neither do the many different pathological conditions have any tendency to change this normal odor except for the few mentioned above. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 315 Urea Normally increased. Meat diet. Ingestion of water. Outdoor exercise. Normally decreased. Pregnancy. Vegetable diet. Lack of liquid foods. Perspiration. Fasting. Sedentary habits. Abnormally increased. Ammonia. Arsenic. Alcohol. I?ebrile diseases. Diabetes mellitus. Diabetes insipidus. Gout. Epilepsy. Abnormally decreased. Liver diseases. Lack of excretion. Biliary colic. Bright's disease. 316 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Uric Acid Normally increased. Excess of nitrogenous foods. Diminished oxidation. Normally decreased. Vegetable diet. Exercise. Large quantities of liquid foods. Abnormally increased. Rheumatism. Liver diseases. Acute fevers. Dyspnoea. Cachexia. Abnormally decreased. Chronic Bright's disease. Diabetes. Arthritis. Gout. (Use of Quinine). CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 317 There are several diseases that do not only increase or decrease the specific gravity or volume alone, but many are found that effect changes in several of the primary consider- ations. Not only is this true, but in many instances the in- crease or decrease in volume, color, etc., may be due to an existing combination of conditions. The former idea may be illustrated as follows: Fever Increases Sp. gr. Decreases volume, color urea uric acid Diabetes mellitus " sp. gr. " color, volume uric acid, urea odor Diabetes insipidus , volume " sp. gr. urea color, uric acid Renal conjection " sp. gr. " volume. Dropsy " sp. gr. " volume. 318 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Constituent Amount Increase. Decrease. Sulphuric Acid h,so4 23-28 Occurs same as urea and sul- phuric esters. Phosphoric Acid 46-54 Diseases of Spinal Cord. Chlorosis. Fevers. Insanity. Diseases of lungs. Nervous exhaustion. Mania. Nephritis. Oxalic Acid (free form) 0.1-0.3 Catarrhal jaundice. Dyspepsia. Mental depression. Phosphate of Lime Magnesium Phosphate MgPO4 4-5 7-11 Osteomalacia. Rickets. Carcinoma of bone. Scrofula. Long standing suppuration. Fever. Sodium Chlorid NaCl 150-250 With reabsorption of dropsical Dropsy. fluids. Typhus. Cholera. Inflammation. Forming stage of pneu- monia. Composition of Urine-Inorganic Alteration in Pathological Conditions. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 319 Constituent Amount Increase. Decrease. Oxalic Acid (combined form) 30-60 Fevers. Diseases affecting nutri- Potassium 38-48 tion. Sodium 140-180 Calcium 4-5 Magnesium 2-3 Constituent Amount Increase Decrease. Urea 450-500 Eating meat. Fever. Diabetes mellitus. Congestion of liver. Hepatic abscess. Nephritis. Wasting diseases. Uric Acid 4-15 Pernicious anemia. Gout. Rheumatism. Organic diseases of the heart, lungs, or skin. Excessive meat diet. Chronic kidney diseases. Vegetable diet. - ■■ Hippuric Acid 5-15 Vegetable diet. Benzoate. Meat diet. Composition of Urine-Inorganic-Continued Composition of Urine-Organic 320 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Constituent Amount Increase. Decrease. Creatinin 8-15 Meat diet. Fluctuation of urea and uric acid. Xantin O.5-2.O Splenic diseases. Carbolic Acid 0.015 Constipation. Indoxyl O.O7-O.O5 Cancer of stomach and liver. Acetone Traces Diabetes mellitus. Diacetic Acid « Not diagnostic. Albumin Present in Nephritis, pregnancy, rheuma- tism. Albumose u << Not diagnostic. Peptone « « « « Lactose During lactation. Bile it it Malaria, bile duct obstruction, typhoid, yellow atrophy of liver. Blood " Ci Hemorrhages. Pus IC It Suppuration. Mucus ct ci Acute fever, irritation, catar- rhal inflammation. Composition of Urine-Organic-Continued URINALYSIS The specimen of urine used in making an analysis should be taken from that voided during the entire twenty-four hours. A single specimen is best when taken about three hours after a meal or the first voided in the morning. In making a uri- nalysis we should take note of what are commonly known as the primary considerations, namely, quantity, quality, specific gravity, color, odor, reaction, consistency, and lastly, to de- termine by various tests the constituents normally and ab- normally present. In making a urinalysis by which to deter- mine conditions existing in the human body we are interested only with the abnormal constituents and it is for the determi- nation of these that the tests which follow are particularly given. URINE TESTS The Eureka Test for Sugar.-Place one drachm of the Eureka reagent into a test tube and heat to boiling. Add the suspected solution by means of a dropper and heat the speci- men upon the addition of each drop. If sugar is present the blue color of the solution will gradually fade out until it re- sembles water. This test is quantitative as well as qualitative, as the number of drops of urine necessary to fade out the color determine the quantity of sugar present. If sugar is present in large quantity it takes very little of the urine for the color to fade out and in some specimens the urine has to be diluted with water because one drop of the specimen is too concentrated and the percentage of sugar cannot in this way be determined. When the color fades out with one drop, the specimen is said to contain 16 grains of sugar to 1 ounce of urine or 3.33 per cent. If 2 drops are required then sugar is present to the extent of 8 grains per ounce or 1.67 per cent; 321 322 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 3 drops indicate the presence of 5.33 grains or 1.11 per cent; 4 drops show the presence of 4 grains or 0.83 per cent; 5 drops, 3.2 grains or 0.67 per cent; 6 drops, 2.67 grains or 0.56 per cent; 7 drops, 2.29 grains or 0.48 per cent; 8 drops, 2 grains or 0.42 per cent; 9 drops, 1.78 grains or 0.37 per cent; 10 drops, 1.6 grains or 0.33 per cent. Haine's Test.-Place two or three cubic centimeters of Haine's solution into a test tube and bring to boiling, then add by means of a dropper the suspected specimen of urine, re- peating the boiling upon the addition of each drop. If sugar is present the blue color of the solution will change to a brown and finally to an orange-yellow. The number of drops re- quired and the rapidity with which the color change obtains is indicative of the amount of sugar present. In order that the test be accurate the solution should be freshly prepared and consists of a mixture of one-half an ounce of water, one- half ounce of glycerin, 30 grains of copper sulphate and 5 ounces of potassium hydroxid. - Trommer's Test.-Prepare this solution by mixing five cubic centimeters of potassium hydroxid with as much copper sulphate as will dissolve in it and boil this mixture for about one minute. To the boiled solution add urine drop by drop and if sugar is present the blue color of the solution will change to a yellow and if the specimen is sufficiently concen- trated there will be formed a yellowish precipitate of cuprous oxid. Fehling's Test.-Prepare the solution in two parts. Solu- tion No. 1 is made by dissolving 34.62 grams of copper sul- phate in enough water to make 500 cubic centimeters. Solution No. 2 consists of 173 grams of sodium potassium tartrate dis- solved in 500 cubic centimeters of potassium hydroxid. Take equal parts of solutions one and two and add four times as much water. Apply heat and boil the upper part of the solution and then add urine drop by drop. If sugar is CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 323 present an orange or orange-yellow precipitate will be formed. Parvy's Test.-Put into a test tube two or three cubic centimeters of Parvy's solution and bring to boiling, then by means of a dropper run in the suspected urine drop by drop. If sugar is present the blue color of the solution will change to yellow or orange. The solution consists of 320 grains of copper sulphate, 640 grains of potassium tartrate, 1,280 grains of caustic potash and 20 ounces of water. Benedict's Test.-Boil 5 cubic centimeters of the reagent in a test tube and add 8 or 10 drops of urine, then boil again for about two or three minutes. If sugar is present, a red, yellow or green precipitate is formed. If the quantity of sugar present is very small the precipitate does not form until the mixture is cooled. The solution consists of 17.3 grams of copper sulphate, 173 grams of sodium citrate, 200 grams of sodium carbonate and 1,000 grams of water. Bismuth Reduction Test.-Add to the urine suspected of containing sugar, some potassium hydroxid, and then add to this a few drops of bismuth subnitrate. Place this into a test tube and heat to boiling. A black precipitate will result which consists of a mixture of metallic bismuth and oxid. Phenyl Hydrazine Test.-Take about 20 cubic centimeters of the suspected urine and add to this about one gram of phenyl hydrazine, and then add 2 grams of sodium acetate. Heat this on a water bath and allow to cool. If sugar is present there will be formed a yellow crystalline precipitate. Nylander's Test.-Put about two or three cubic centi- meters of the suspected urine in a test tube and heat to boiling. Add a few drops of Nylander's solution and continue to boil. If sugar is present the mixture will turn to a black color. The solution is made by mixing 2 grams of bismuth sub- 324 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY nitrate, 4 grams of Rochelle salts, 8 grams of sodium hydrate and 100 cubic centimeters of distilled water. Moore's Test.-Place about 2 cubic centimeters of urine into a test tube, add to this one cubic centimeter of sodium hydroxid and heat to boiling. If sugar is present a dark yellow, brown or chocolate color obtains. Indigo Carmine Test.-Mix one part of indigo-carmine with 30 parts of dry sodium carbonate. Take about 5 cubic centimeters of urine and add to this enough of the above mix- ture to form a blue transparent solution and heat to boiling. If sugar is present there will obtain a violet, cherry red, and finally a yellow color. Ammoniacal Copper Solution Test.-Prepare a solution by mixing 8.166 grams of copper sulphate, 15 grams of sodium hydroxid, 25 cubic centimeters of glycerol, 350 cubic centi- meters of ammonia water and adding sufficient water to make one liter of solution. Take 50 cubic centimeters of this solution and add to it 50 cubic centimeters of water. To prevent the escape of ammonia it is well to overlay the mixture with paraffin. In- sert the tip of the burette containing the suspected urine through the layer of paraffin and slowly run this into the ammoniacal solution and heat gently. When the copper is all reduced the color of the solution will fade out. By noting the amount of urine used to completely discharge the color we are able to determine the exact amount of sugar present. One milligram of sugar is necessary to discharge the color of one cubic centimeter of solution, or rather that every cubic centi- meter of the ammoniacal copper solution is capable of oxidiz- ing one milligram of glucose. Robert's Specific Gravity Method.-Take about 50 cubic centimeters of a 24 hour specimen of urine and by use of the hydrometer determine its specific gravity at a certain tempera- ture. Now take about 2 grams of compressed yeast, place into CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 325 the urine and set aside in a warm room to ferment. When fermentation is complete the yeast settles to the bottom and to be positive that no sugar is present it is well to filter a por- tion of the fermented specimen and test it with Fehling's solution. If no sugar is present, again take the specific grav- ity, being careful that the temperature of the specimen does not vary more than one degree from that at which the specific gravity of the unfermented specimen was taken. Subtract the specific gravity of the fermented from the specific gravity of the unfermented urine and multiply the difference by the factor 234. This will give the number of grams of sugar present. Tests for Albumin Heat Test.-Place into a test tube two or three cubic centimeters of the suspected specimen and heat to boiling. If albumin or mucus or earthy phosphates be present, the urine is rendered cloudy, or coagulation takes place. Add to this a few drops of nitric or acetic acid and if the coagulate is the result of the presence of albumin it will remain, while, if it consists of mucus or earthy phosphates it will dissolve. Heller's Ring Test.-Place into a test tube about two or three cubic centimeters of strong nitric acid and overlay this with a clear specimen of urine. If the specimen is not clear filter same before using. Albumin coagulates when brought in contact with strong nitric acid, so, if albumin is present in the specimen there will be formed a dense white ring at the contact point of the two liquids, and if a great deal of albumin is present in the specimen a precipitate may result. Sometimes it is necessary to warm the mixture in order that the test may obtain. The Picric Acid Test.-Take about two or three cubic centimeters of the suspected specimen of urine and acidify with acetic acid, add to this by means of a dropper the picric acid 326 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY drop by drop. If albumin is present a yellowish color will obtain, and if the specimen is sufficiently concentrated a yellow precipitate is formed. Tanret's Test.-Take about 20 cubic centimeters of a 24 hour specimen of urine and make this strongly acid in reaction by the use of acetic acid. If a precipitate forms or if the urine becomes turbid due to the action of acetic acid upon mucin, filter it until clear. Take ten cubic centimeters of the filtered urine and add to this a few drops of the reagent. If albumin is present a white cloud or white precipitate will be formed. The reagent is made by dissolving 33.1 grams potassium iodid in distilled water and to this gradually adding 13.5 grams of mercuric chlorid. Dilute this with distilled water to make 800 cubic centimeters and then add 100 cubic centimeters of strong acetic acid. If the solution becomes turbid or a slight precipitate is formed decant it carefully and dilute with dis- tilled water to 1,000 cubic centimeters. Acetic Acid and Potassium Ferrocyanid.-Acidulate the suspected specimen of urine with acetic acid and if a precipi- tate is formed filter it out and then add a few cubic centimeters of potassium ferrocyanid solution. If albumin is present there will be formed a white gelatinous precipitate, and if albumose is present there is a similar precipitate, but the latter dissolves in excess of acetic acid. Robert's Ring Test.-Take two or three cubic centimeters of a mixture of 1 volume of nitric acid and 5 volumes of a saturated solution of magnesium sulphate, place into a test tube and overlay with urine. In the presence of albumin a white ring will form at the contact point df the two fluids. Esbach's Test for Quantity of Albumin.-Take Esbach's urinometer and fill it up to the mark U with a clear specimen of urine and then add Esbach's solution up to the mark R, insert the cork and shake the tube until the reagent and urine are thoroughly mixed. Then allow the tube to rest for 24 327 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY hours in which time a yellowish precipitate is formed, the amount of which is read by the graduated scale in grains per liter at the bottom of the tube. Blood Tests Heller's Test.-To the suspected specimen of urine add a solution of potassium or sodium hydroxid and heat to boiling. A precipitate of earthy phosphates will result carrying with it the coloring matters present in urine. Precipitation may be hastened by adding a few drops of magnesia. If hemoglobin is present it is decomposed and settles to the bottom of the tube imparting to the mixture a characteristic red color. Guaiacum Test.-Mix equal volumes of fresh tincture of guaiacum and turpentine (about 2 cubic centimeters of each) and add to this a few cubic centimeters of the suspected urine drop by drop. If hemoglobin is present a precipitate of guaiacum will result, which is first of a greenish color finally turning to a blue. Struve's Test.-To the suspected specimen of urine add a solution of sodium hydroxid until it becomes slightly alkaline and then add to this a mixture of tannic and acetic acid in sufficient quantity to give an acid reaction. If hemoglobin is present a dark brown precipitate obtains. To further confirm the presence of hemoglobin take a portion of the precipitate, place it upon a microscopic slide and add a small crystal of sodium chlorid and then a drop of glacial acetic acid and cover with a cover glass. Warm the slide gently and allow to cool. If hemoglobin is present small rhombic crystals of hemin will result and are readily detected by the microscope. Blood corpuscles in the urine may be readily recognized under the microscope, providing the specimen is fresh and disintegration has not obtained. They show a clear outline and are distinctly bi-concave. If the specimen is alkaline in 328 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY reaction the corpuscles are reddish in color, while if the specimen is acid in reaction the color is much darker. When the urine is old a certain amount of disintegration has obtained and the corpuscles appear as little granulated spheres. Urea Evaporate a few drops of urine on a glass slide and moisten the residue with nitric acid. If urea is present crystals of urea nitrate are formed, which are easily detected by the microscope. Doremus Ureometer.-Prepare a solution by dissolving 100 grams of sodium hydroxid in 250 cubic centimeters of water and add to this when cold, 25 cubic centimeters of bromin. Fill the long arm of the Doremus tube with the above solution and introduce by means of a pipette one cubic centi- meter of urine. If urea is present it will decompose and the nitrogen gas will rise to the closed end of the tube, and, after decomposition is complete, the amount is determined by read- ing the graduated scale. Hiifner's Method.-This method is rather inaccurate for the determination of the exact amount of urea and is really better for the estimation of the total amount of nitrogen. In the method is employed what is termed as Heinz's modifica- tion of the Doremus tube together with Rice's bromin solu- tion. The solution is made in two parts. Solution No. 1 consists of 40 grams of sodium hydroxid dissolved in 100 cubic centimeters of water. Solution No. 2 consists of 10 cubic centimeters of bromin mixed with 10 grams of potassium bromid and 80 cubic centimeters of water. These solutions, like the two solutions of the Fehling's test, should be kept separate until used, at which time equal volumes of the two are mixed. The tube is so arranged that when the urine and the solution come in contact the gas is liberated and collects CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 329 at the upper end of the J-tube, where, by the scale provided, it gives the number of grams of urea present in each cubic centimeter of urine. Uric Acid Silver Carbonate Test.-Moisten a filter paper with urine made alkaline by the addition of sodium carbonate. Touch the moistened paper with a glass rod dipped in silver nitrate and a distinct gray stain will obtain if uric acid is present. Uric acid in the free state can be detected by the use of the microscope. It obtains in form of crystals of a yellowish color, sometimes sufficiently large to be seen with the naked eye. The Murexid Test.-Evaporate a portion of the suspected specimen over a water bath and moisten the residue with nitric acid, and, after a second evaporation moisten with am- monium hydroxid. If uric acid is present a purple-red color obtains due to the formation of murexid. Take the suspected specimen of urine and treat it with Fehling's solution, and heat almost to the boiling point, at which time a white precipitate of copper urate is formed if uric acid be present. Continued boiling precipitates red cuprous oxid. Precipitation test to determine quantity.-Take 200 cubic centimeters of urine and add to this 20 cubic centimeters of strong hydrochloric acid, mix the two thoroughly and set in a cool place for about 48 hours. At the end of this time filter the mixture through paper previously weighed, wash with cold water, allow to dry and weigh. The result is not ex- actly accurate, but by adding to the weight obtained 4.8 milli- grams of each 100 cubic centimeters of filtrate a fairly accurate result is thus obtained. If the urine examined contains albumin it must be first coagulated by heating with acetic acid and filtered out. The 330 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY urine may contain a sediment of urate when cold and must be warmed before the test is set, and to prevent the precipita- tion of phosphates while the urine is being warmed a few drops of hydrochloric acid are added. Ammonium Sulphate Test.-Take 75 cubic centimeters of a reagent prepared by mixing 500 grams of ammonium sul- phate, 5 grams of uranium acetate and 6 cubic centimeters of absolute acetic acid with enough water to make one liter, and add this to 300 cubic centimeters of urine. Mix thoroughly and allow to stand for about five minutes. There is formed a precipitate of phosphate which is filtered out. Take two por- tions of 125 cubic centimeters each and add 5 cubic centimeters of strong ammonia to each portion. Allow this to stand for 24 hours and a precipitation of ammonium urate takes place. Collect the two precipitates and wash with water containing ten percent solution of ammonium sulphate. Dissolve the precipitates in 100 cubic centimeters of hot water, add 15 cubic centimeters of strong sulphuric acid and titrate with potassium permanganate. After sufficient amount of potas- sium permanganate has been added to oxidize all of the uric acid, any further addition will produce a pink color. At this time further addition of the test solution must be stopped. Each cubic centimeter of potassium permanganate precipitates 3.75 milligrams of uric acid. By multiplying this quantity by the number of cubic centimeters of solution used we are then able to determine the amount of uric acid present. To this a correction of 3 milligrams of uric acid for each 100 cubic centi- meters of urine is added and thus a fairly accurate result is obtained. The other portion of the filtrate is used as a dupli- cate and the result obtained is a means of checking the cor- rectness obtained in the first portion. Bile Pigments Gmelin's Test.-Place 2 cubic centimeters of nitric-nitrous CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 331 acid into a test tube and carefully overlay this with the sus- pected specimen. If bile pigment, particularly bilirubin is present, different colors are observed at the contact point of the two fluids. These are green, blue, violet, red and yellow from above downward? The green is particularly noticeable, and this, as well as the other colors, may be readily seen by holding a sheet of white paper behind the test tube. Hupert's Test.-Take about 20 cubic centimeters of urine and add sodium carbonate until it is strongly alkaline, and following this add calcium chlorid until precipitation ceases. Filter this and wash the precipitate with water, transfer it to a porcelain evaporating dish, add acid alcohol and heat to boil- ing. If bilirubin is present the alcoholic solution will be turned to a blue or green color. Trousseau's Test.-Take about 2 cubic centimeters of urine, put into a test tube and float over this a few drops of tincture of iodin. If bile pigments are present a green color will appear at the contact point of the two liquids. Rosenbach's Test.-Acidify the suspected specimen with hydrochloric acid and pass several times through a small filter paper. Remove this paper and blot it with dry paper. Touch the stain produced by filtration with a drop of nitric acid and in the presence of bile pigment the colors will obtain in a similar manner as those found with Gmelin's test. Foam Test.-The foam of urine produced by vigorous shaking, presents a distinct color, in the presence of bile pigment. • Hammarsten's Test.-Take 2 or 3 cubic centimeters of the reagent and pour into this a few drops of the suspected speci- men of urine, and if bile pigments are present to any extent, a green or bluish-green color obtains when the mixture is strongly agitated. If only traces of bile pigment are present it is necessary to proceed in the following manner: Take 10 cubic centimeters of neutral or acid urine and add a 10 per cent solu- 332 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY tion of barium chlorid until precipitation ceases. Filter out the precipitate and add one cubic centimeter of the reagent and shake vigorously. Allow this to stand, and after the sedi- ment settles to the bottom, a green, violet, red or yellow color will obtain in the supernatant fluid. * Ammonia Folin's Method.-Measure out 25 cubic centimeters of urine into a tall narrow cylinder and add to this a gram of dry sodium carbonate and overlay with light petroleum to prevent foaming in the operation which is to follow. Connect this first cylinder with a second containing 25 cubic centimeters of a tenth normal sulphuric acid diluted with distilled water to cover the end of the mixing tube. Attach a suction pump to the cylinder and as the air is drawn out, the ammonia from the first tube, which is liberated by the addition of sodium car- bonate, is drawn into the second cylinder and neutralizes a part of the acid therein contained. When the process is com- pleted the acid is poured into a flask and the cylinder rinsed with distilled water which is also added to the acid. This is now titrated with a tenth normal solution of sodium hydrate containing about two drops of alizarin red in 200 or 300 cubic centimeters of the fluid. This sodium hydrate is added to the acid until a red color appears. The difference between the number of cubic centimeters of acid and alkali used shows the number of cubic centimeters of acid neutralized by the am- monia. Since it requires 0.0017 grams of ammonia to neu- tralize one cubic centimeter of tenth normal acid, then the amount of ammonia contained in 25 cubic centimeters is de- termined by multiplying this quantity by the number of cubic centimeters of acid neutralized. Shaffer's Vacuum Distillation.-Take 50 cubic centi- meters of urine and put into a flask. Add to this an excess of sodium chlorid and about 50 cubic centimeters of methyl CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 333 alcohol. Connect the flask with a bottle containing 25 cubic centimeters of one tenth normal sulphuric acid diluted with a little water. Connect the first bottle with a second containing a similar solution and then connect the second bottle with an empty flask. Place the flask containing the urine into water, the temperature of which is maintained at 50 degrees centigrade. Place the empty flask into a bath the temperature of which is also maintained at 50 degrees. Attach a suction pump unto the empty flask and when the apparatus is thus constructed introduce one gram of sodium carbonate into the first flask and reduce the pressure by pumping. Ammonia will be liberated and arrested by the acid in the two bottles. The amount is determined in the same way as in the Folin method and alizarin red is also used as the indicator. If any acid should escape it may be recovered by rinsing the vacuum flask. Ronchese Formalin Method.-Take 10 cubic centimeters of a 24 hour specimen of urine and place this into a flask. Add to this 100 cubic centimeters of water which has been pre- viously boiled to drive off the carbon dioxid and then a drop or two of 0.5 percent alcoholic phenolphthalein. Under con- stant stirring of this mixture add a solution of tenth normal sodium hydrate until the mixture assumes a pale rose color. Now add 20 cubic centimeters of 20 percent strength of form- alin and again add the sodium hydrate solution until the pale rose color appears. To the last quantity of hydrate add a cor- rection of 0.1 cubic centimeter for every 3 cubic centimeters of solution used is added as a correction. Acetone Legal's Test.-Take 25 cubic centimeters of urine and add to this a small amount of sodium nitroprussid solution and a few drops of potassium hydroxid solution. In the pres- 334 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY ence of acetone, a ruby-red color appears which gradually turns to yellow. Upon the addition of acetic acid the color changes to a purple or violet-red. Lange's Test.-Place about 15 cubic centimeters of urine into a test tube and add 1 cubic centimeter of glacial acetic acid. Add a small quantity of sodium nitroprussid solution, not enough to color the urine. Overlay the mixture thus produced by a solution of ammonium hydrate. In the presence of acetone a violet ring appears at the contact point of the two fluids. Denniges's Test.-To about 5 cubic centimeters of urine add the reagent drop by drop until a permanent precipitate remains after agitation and then add a few drops more. Filter and add to the filtrate 3 cubic centimeters of the acid and boil for about a minute. Tn the presence of acetone or diacetic acid, present in traces, a cloudiness will shortly develop. If the substances mentioned are present in appreciable quantity there is formed a heavy, white precipitate. Lieben's Test.-In this test as well as other tests for acetone better results are accomplished if the urine is first distilled. Take about 200 or 300 cubic centimeters of urine and add to this about 2 cubic centimeters of hydrochloric acid and distill. To about 5 cubic centimeters of the distillate add a few drops of a solution of iodin in potassium iodid and then enough sodium or potassium hydrate to make it alkaline. Upon warming, there will be formed, in the presence of acetone a yellowish-white precipitate, which on standing, becomes crystalline and more deeply colored. If only small amount of acetone is present, it may take several hours for the crystals to form. This same test also obtains in the presence of alcohol or aldehyde, and other tests must be used to differentiate these three substances. Gunning's Test.-Take about 5 cubic centimeters of the distillate and add a few drops of ammonium hydroxid and then CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 335 add Lugol's solution (a solution of iodin in potassium iodid) until the black precipitate, which is formed, no longer dis- solves. The precipitate so formed gradually becomes yel- lowish in color and crystalline in nature due to the formation of iodoform crystals. Diacetic Acid Ferric Chlorid Test.-Take about 2 or 3 cubic centimeters of urine and add Io this the ferric chlorid, a few drops at a time. In the presence of diacetic acid a reddish color will appear. Since there are several coal tar products which also give the same reaction with ferric chlorid it is therefore neces- sary that the test be performed in a different manner. Take 20 cubic centimeters of fresh urine and enough ferric chlorid to precipitate the phosphates present. Filter and add a few more drops of ferric chlorid. A red color will obtain in the presence of diacetic acid. Now divide the liquid into two portions. Boil one portion, and if the color is due to the presence of diacetic acid, it will disappear in a few minutes. Set the other portion aside, and if the color is due to diacetic acid it will remain for about twenty-four hours. This test is commonly known as Gerhardt's Test. Arnold's Test.-Prepare the test solution in two parts. Solution No. 1 consists of 1 gram of paramidoacetophenon dissolved in about 80 cubic centimeters of distilled water by the aid of hydrochloric acid. The acid is added drop by drop during vigorous shaking, until the yellow color of the solution is discharged. An excess of acid should be avoided. Solution No. 2 is a 1 percent solution of sodium nitrate. Take two parts of solution No. 1 and mix with one part of solution No. 2. Add to this an equal volume of the sus- pected specimen of urine and then add 2 or 3 drops strong ammonia and shake vigorously. If diacetic acid is present in appreciable quantity a brownish red precipitate will obtain. A 336 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY portion of the fluid is placed into a test tube and an excess of hydrochloric acid is added. The mixture in the presence of diacetic acid assumes a purplish-violet color. If the acid is present in large quantity the violet color predominates, while if smaller quantities are present the red color is more noticeable. Urine that is free from diacetic acid will only give a yellow color with this test. Oxybutyric Acid Oxybutyric acid obtains in company with diacetic acid, and if urine does not contain the latter it is useless to make the test. Oxybutyric acid obtains in connection with sugar in diabetes and it is necessary to first remove the sugar before the test can be made. Evaporate about 50 cubic centimeters of urine, free from sugar, to about one third or one fourth of its original volume. Mix the residue with an equal volume of strong sulphuric acid and distill again, collecting the distillate in a test tube. In the presence of oxybutyric acid a crystalline mass will obtain. To obtain the characteristic crystals, it may be necessary to extract the distillate with ether and allow to evaporate. Black's Test.-Take about 10 cubic centimeters of urine and evaporate to about one third or one fourth its original volume. Acidify the residue with a few drops of concentrated hydrochloric acid and make into a paste with plaster of Paris and allow to stand until it begins to set. Break this up by stirring and decant twice with ether. Evaporate the ether extract, dissolve in water and neutralize with barium carbon- ate. Pour this fluid into a test tube and add 2 or 3 drops of hydrogen peroxid. If oxybutyric acid is present it will be oxidized into diacetic acid. Now add a few drops of a ferric chlorid solution containing a trace of ferrous chlorid and a rose-red color obtains which is first gradually intensified and CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 337 then begins to fade slowly owing to the further oxidation of diacetic acid. Indican Take two or three cubic centimeters of nitric acid in a test tube and overlay with the suspected specimen. If indican be present, there will be formed a blue ring at the contact point of the two fluids. Obermayer's Test.-Take equal parts of urine and rea- gent, put into a test tube and allow to stand for a few minutes. Add a small amount of chloroform and invert the tube several times. In the presence of indican, the chloroform assumes a faint blue color; if the substance is present in excess a dark blue color obtains. Put equal parts of urine and hydrochloric acid into a test tube and add a little chloroform, then add nitric acid drop by drop and in the presence of indican the chloroform will assume an indigo-blue color. Jaffe's Test.-Mix equal quantities of urine and strong hydrochloric acid in a test tube and add about 2 cubic centi- meters of chloroform and a few drops of a strong aqueous solution of calcium hypochlorite. Invert the tube several times and indigo will produce a discoloration of the chloroform as in the above tests. Skatol will give a similar test except that the color in this case is red instead of blue. If iodin is present a violet color will be present with the above tests and to differentiate between this and the darker indigo color of indican, remove the chloroform into another test tube and add potassium hydrate. By shaking this mixture the violet color is discharged and the blue remains. Codein will impart a purplish-red color to the chloroform. 338 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Chlorides Put about 10 cubic centimeters of urine into a test tube and acidify with strong nitric acid, and then add 1 or 2 drops of dilute silver nitrate. In the presence of much chlorid a white precipitate is formed which soon settles to the bottom. If chlorides are present in small quantity only a cloudy effect obtains. Dilute 10 cubic centimeters of urine with about 50 cubic centimeters of water and add a few drops of a strong solution of potassium chromate. Now add to this, from a graduated burette, a tenth normal solution of silver nitrate until all of the chlorin has been precipitated and silver chromate begins to form. This imparts a reddish color to the solution or forms a reddish precipitate. If urine is highly colored to begin with, it should be diluted so as not to confound its color with that which obtains upon the formation of silver chromate. One cubic centimeter of the silver nitrate solution is capable of precipitating 3.54 milligrams of chlorin and knowing the amount of silver nitrate used we are able to compute the amount of chlorin, present. Volhard's Quantitative Test.-Place 5 cubic centimeters of a 24 hour specimen of urine into a small beaker and add about 20 cubic centimeters of distilled water. Now add from a graduated pipette, 10 cubic centimeters of silver nitrate. (The silver nitrate solution is prepared by dissolving 29.042 grams of chemically pure silver nitrate in one liter of distilled water.) Next add to the mixture about 2 cubic centi- meters of the indicator which is made by mixing 30 cubic centimeters of distilled water and 70 cubic centimeters ot nitric acid saturated with ferric ammonia sulphate and filter. After adding the indicator run in the ammonium thiocyanate solution with constant stirring until a red color obtains throughout the mixture. The solution of ammonium thio- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 339 cyanate is made by dissolving the substance in a sufficient amount of water, the strength of which is measured by titra- tion with 10 cubic centimeters of silver nitrate solution. The amount of chlorid present is then determined by dividing the. number of cubic centimeters of thiocyanate solution used by 2 and subtracting the result from 10 cubic centimeters, which is the amount of silver nitrate originally used. This gives the number of cubic centimeters of silver nitrate necessary to precipitate all of the chlorin in the mixture and as one cubic centimeter of the silver solution is equivalent to 0.01 grams of chlorid then by multiplying the number of cubic centimeters of silver nitrate used, by this quantity, we are able to deter- mine the amount of chlorid present. Acidity of Urine To determine the acidity of urine place 10 cubic centi- meters of it into the acidimeter and add to this 2 drops of phenolphthalein and then add solution of caustic soda, of one- tenth normal strength, until the mixture becomes a permanent pink. Read the degree of acidity on the graduated scale. Folin's Method.-Place 25 cubic centimeters of urine into a small flask and add to this 2 drops of phenolphthalein and then 15 to 20 grams of powdered potassium oxalate. Shake this for about one minute and titrate with tenth normal solu- tion of sodium hydrate until a distinct pink color appears throughout the solution. The amount of acid present is de- termined by multiplying the number of cubic centimeters of sodium hydrate used by 4, which gives the acidity in terms of one-tenth normal alkali. Specific Gravity The specific gravity of urine is determined by the use of the urinometer. The normal specific gravity is 1.020 and this varies, subject to the presence of different substances, much 340 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY below or above the normal point. The urinometer is so grad- uated as to give readings directly of all the different variations that might obtain. • Solids in Urine To determine the total number of grams of solids in urine multiply the last two figures of the specific gravity by Haser's coefficient (2.33). The result is the number of grams of solids in 1,000 cubic centimeters of urine. Xanthin A few cases have been noted where xanthin crystals have been found in human urine, and these are so much like the crystals of uric acid that a differential test is necessary. Evaporate the urine containing crystals (on a water bath) to dryness and add chlorin water and a trace of nitric acid. In the presence of xanthin the residue will assume a reddish or purplish-violet color when subjected to the fumes of am- monia. Tyrosin To obtain tyrosin crystals, which are sometimes found in urinary sediment, the specimen is treated with basic lead acetate as long as a precipitate forms. The excess of lead is then precipitated by hydrogen sulphid and removed by filtra- tion. The filtrate is then concentrated by boiling and the crystals of tyrosin obtain as a crystalline deposit. Piria's Test.-Dissolve the tyrosin crystals obtained by the above process in sulphuric acid, allow the solution to cool, and dilute with water and neutralize with barium carbonate. Filter the mixture and add ferric chlorid solution to the filtrate. In the presence of tyrosin a violet color will obtain. Hofmann's Test.-Into a test tube containing about 5 cubic centimeters of water place a few crystals of tyrosin and CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 341 add a few drops of Millon's reagent and boil. A beautiful red color will obtain in the presence of tyrosin, and, if sufficient amount of it is present, a red precipitate will be formed. Millon's reagent is made by dissolving one part of mer- cury in two parts of weight of nitric acid and after gently warming the mixture in two volumes of water allow to stand for several hours and obtain the clear supernatant fluid. Leucin Leucin obtains in the urine in connection with tyrosin and may be obtained in a similar manner as the crystals of tyrosin. Dissolve some of the crystals of leucin in water and add sodium hydrate to make it strongly alkalin and then a few drops of copper sulphate solution. There is formed, at first, a precipitate of copper hydroxid which redissolves, giving rise to a bluish colored solution containing leucin and copper. To a small quantity of the crystalline residue containing leucin add a few drops of water and then 2 or 3 grams of potassium hydroxid. Place this mixture into a test tube and heat until the hydroxid melts. The leucin is decomposed and gives off the odor of ammonia. The mass is then allowed to cool and enough water is added to dissolve the residue, also adding dilute sulphuric acid to make the mixture strongly acid in reaction. On applying heat leucin is oxidized and yields valeric acid. Cystin Cystin obtains in the urine in the form of colorless hexa- gonal plates and is often confused with uric acid which crystal- lizes in a similar form. The two substances may be distin- guished by the fact that cystin is easily soluble in hyrdochloric acid and ammonia and produces no reaction with the murexid test. To isolate cystin it is necessary to follow the same 342 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY method of procedure as is used for obtaining tyrosin with lead acetate. The crystals of cystin are then separated by the addi- tion of excess of acetic acid and prolonged standing. Boil a portion of the filtrate with sodium hydrate and lead acetate and a black color will obtain in the presence of cystin. If albumin or other proteins are present they must first be removed from the urine before the test for cystin can be made. Bile Salt Place 30 or 40 drops of a reagent consisting of a mixture of 2 parts of water, 1 part of peptone and 1 part of acetic acid into the large side of the albuminoscope and add urine in the funnel side. If bile salt is present a white ring will form at the contact point of the two fluids. Hippuric Acid Take about 200 cubic centimeters of urine and add enough sodium corbonate to make it strongly alkaline in reaction and filter. Evaporate this to almost dryness and extract by shak- ing with alcohol four or five times and then distill off the alcohol. Acidify the residue with hpdrochloric acid and ex- tract several times by shaking with pure acetic ether. Hippuric acid becomes dissolved and is then washed with water and the acetic ether is evaporated to dryness by gentle heat. The residue is further washed with petroleum ether, which re- moves nearly all the impurities and those left are removed by dissolving in hot water and heating with animal charcoal. A crystalline residue of hippuric acid remains. Mucin Acetic Acid Test.-Add to the suspected specimen an ex- cess of acetic acid and, if mucin is present, a white flocculent precipitation will obtain. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 343 Citric Acid Test.-Place in a test tube about 2 or 3 cubic centimeters of concentrated citric acid solution and overlay with the suspected specimen. In the presence of mucin a white cloud appear at the contact point of the two fluids. Nitrogen The Kjeldahl's Method.-Put 5 cubic centimeters of a 24- hour specimen of urine into a Kjeldahl flask of about 800 cubic centimeter capacity, add to this 15 cubic centimeters of concentrated sulphuric acid and about 0.2 grams of copper sul- phate crystals, and finally add to this 10 grains of potassium sulphate. Place the flask under a hood and heat over a low Bunsen flame until the foaming has ceased. Continue the heating until the fluid in the flask becomes pale green or color- less and then heat for about 15 minutes longer to be sure that complete oxidation has taken place. By this method all of the nitrogenous compounds are converted into ammonia which unites with the sulphuric acid to form ammonium sulphate. The fluid is then allowed to cool and about 300 cubic centi- meters of distilled water is added. After complete solution has obtained add a teaspoonful of talc powder and finally enough of a 40 percent sodium hydrate solution to make it strongly alkaline. When putting in the alkali incline the flask and pour it down the side to prevent mixing and also to prevent the loss of ammonia. Connect the flask with a distilling apparatus provided with a Hopkin's bulb and heat the contents to boiling. The sodium hydrate being stronger liberates the ammonia from the distillate and this is received into an Erlenmeyer flask, which contains 25 to 50 cubic centimeters of one-tenth normal sulphuric acid. Con- tinue the process of distillation until the distillate is no longer alkaline in reaction and then wash the condensing tube with distilled water and pour this into the distillate. 344 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Titrate this distillate with tenth normal sodium hydrate in the presence of 2 drops of alizarin red. When the point of neutral- ization is reached a red color is obtained. Since one cubic centimeter of tenth normal sulphuric acid is equivalent to 0.0014 grams of nitrogen, and, knowing the number of cubic centimeters of the acid which have been neutralized in the process, it is very easy to calculate the amount of nitrogen in the 5 cubic centimeters of urine employed in the test and finally to calculate the total amount present in the 24 hour specimen. Ehrlich Diazo Reaction The reagent used in this reaction is prepared in two separate solutions. Solution No. 1 consists of 0.5 grams of sodium nitrate dissolved in 100 cubic centimeters of water. Solution No. 2 consists of 5 grams of sulphanilic acid, 50 cubic centimeters of concentrated hydrochloric acid and enough dis- tilled water to make one liter of solution. Test.-Take 1 part of solution No. 1 and mix with 50 parts of solution No. 2 and add to the mixture an equal quantity of urine in a test tube. Overlay this with ammonium hydrate and a red ring will obtain at the contact point of the two fluids. Seal the tube and shake it vigorously. If the foam is of a pink color the reaction is said to be positive. This reaction does not obtain in normal urine, but is most noticeable in cases of febrile diseases and obtains in rare cases not attended by fever. Pus Urine which contains pus is turbid in appearance and readily deposits a white or greenish-white sediment. This sediment is not discharged by heat as is the case with urates. It does not dissolve in dilute acids, as does the precipitate of earthy phosphates and, therefore, a sediment that is whitish CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 345 in appearance, insoluble by heat or dilute acids, is usually a sediment of pus. Donne's Test.-Add to the suspected sediment some po- tassium or sodium hydroxid and stir with a glass rod. If the sediment consists of pus the alkali converts it into a thick viscid mass resembling the white of an egg. It is often so thick that the test tube can be inverted without spilling the contents. Take the suspected sediment and add to it a solution of hydrogen peroxide and if the sediment consists of pus it will undergo rapid effervescence. Chyluria Chyle is occasionally found in urine and gives to it a milk-like, turbid appearance. On shaking the solution with ether, separating and evaporating the ether, the fat remains behind. The detection of chyluria is usually quite easy. The fat very often separates on standing and may be examined with the microscope. Urinary Deposits Urinary deposits are divided into two main classes, namely: those of the crystalline variety and those of the organized variety. To the first class belong such substances as uric acid, urates, phosphates, carbonates, oxalates, cystin, leucin, tyrosin and several others. To the second class belong such substances as mucus, blood, pus, epithelium, fungi, bacteria and casts. Uric acid obtains in the urine in the form of crystals and various tests have been given in the preceding pages for its determination. The crystals vary in form and size and are usually of a brownish-yellow color. Ordinarily it is necessary to employ the microscope for the examination of these crys- 346 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY tals, but sometimes they are sufficiently large to be seen with the naked eye. Calcium oxalate occurs in the sediment of urine in form of regular octahedrons and may occur in form of small dumb- bell-shaped bodies. The crystals are readily soluble in hydro- chloric acid and insoluble in acetic acid. When these obtain in small quantities they are of no clinical significance and may be greatly increased after eating such foods as tomatoes, beans, beets, apples and grapes. Pathologically they obtain as a result of defective oxidation of carbohydrates and fermen- tative processes in the intestinal canal. If the excretion of ox- alate crystals continues for any length of time it may result in albuminuria and lead ultimately to the formation of renal calculi. Phosphates of magnesium and calcium obtain as urinary deposits. The crystals of magnesium phosphate usually ac- company those of ammonia. These may obtain as large trans- parent prisms or in form of star shaped groups. They are colorless in nature and are frequently of such a size as to be visible to the naked eye. Crystals of calcium phosphate are wedge shaped prisms obtaining either singly or in clusters. These are readily soluble in acetic or hydrochloric acid. Calcium carbonate obtains in urine in form of minute spherical granules. These are only seen through the use of the microscope. Cystin crystals obtain as a result of decomposition of protein material and may be obtained in form of calculi. They appear as contiguous hexagonal plates which in some instances may be superimposed one on the other. The crystals are soluble in ammonia and insoluble in acetic acid. Leucin crystals obtain in combination with tyrosin. In the pure form they obtain as delicate plates and may obtain as CHIROPRACTIC CH EM ISTR Y 347 small spheres. They usually obtain in urine in the latter form. Tyrosin occurs as small bundles or sheaves of very fine crystals in urinary sediment in company with leucin. Mucous casts are long threadlike bodies, but do not possess the rounded extremities which ars usually character- istic of all true casts. They are usually associated in the sediment with epithelial cells and are not regarded as bodies of any clinical significance. Blood casts are masses of sediment having imbedded in them blood corpuscles. These obtain in urine in cases of acute inflammation of the kidney and escape from the blood vessels into the uriniferous tubules. Pus corpuscles are found as globular shapes in the sedi- ment of urine and are distinguished from those of mucus by the difference in their nuclei. Under the microscope the proto- plasm is found to consist of very fine granules. The cells in acid urine retain their characteristic morphology but in alka- line urine they are soon disintegrated, forming a ropy mass in which the individual cell can no longer be recognized. The epithelial cells found in urine obtain in a variety of different shapes and are distinguished from the pus corpuscles in possessing but one distinct nucleus. They obtain as a result of the process of desquamation in the uriniferous tubules, uterers, urethra and bladder. Aside from the mucous and blood casts several other varieties are found in urinary deposits. These are known as epithelial casts, hyaline casts, granular casts, fatty casts and waxy casts. The epithelial casts have imbedded in their sur- faces, cells from the lining of the uriniferous tubules. Their presence usually indicates a rapid shedding of cells and obtains in secondary stages of inflammation. Hyaline casts are in form of transparent cylinders and obtain as a result of catar- rhal inflammation of the tubules and renal congestion. They 348 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY are best detected by adding to the urine a few drops of some staining agent such as eosin, methyl-green or fuchsin. Granu- lar casts are so named because they contain granular matter and are said to be the result of disintegration of blood cor- puscles or epithelial cells. Fatty casts upon examination are found to contain small droplets of oil. They obtain in cases of chronic nephritis attended by fatty degeneration. These cells are said to remain in the tubules until they undergo granular or even fatty degeneration. The waxy casts are very similar to the hyaline variety and possess a greater refractive power. They are further distinguished from the hyaline casts in that they are soluble in acetic acid while those of the hyaline variety are not. PART IV Poisons and Antidotes DEFINITIONS Toxicology is the study which teaches of the nature, prop- erties and effects of poisons and the means by which their presence is detected. A poison is a substance which acts chemically upon the blood, serum or any other tissue of the body and is capable of producing serious bodily injury or death. A corrosive poison is one that is capable of producing injury or death by a chemical action on the tissue with which it comes in contact. An irritant poison is one that produces local irritation and severe inflammation in localities where it is administered and by its destructive action upon tissue, induces severe con- vulsions, collapse and death. A neurotic poison is one that affects particularly the brain and nervous system. A simple irritant is a poison which does not destroy tis- sues directly but does so by setting up inflammation and certain other effects. / A specific irritant is one that produces local inflammation and possesses specific properties differing for each poison. The local effect of a poison is the action of the poison produced in the specific locality where such poison is intro- duced. The remote effect of a poison is its power to produce in- coordination in organs or tissues far removed from the point at which the poison is administered. 349 350 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY A narcotic is a neurotic poison which acts upon nervous tissue and is capable of producing sleep. An anesthetic is a poison which acts upon the nervous system and produces a loss of sensation. An inebriant is a neurotic poison which acts upon the nervous system and produces intoxication. A deliriant neurotic is a poison which acts upon the brain and produces delirium. A convulsant is a neurotic poison which through its action upon the nervous system produces muscular contrac- tions resulting in convulsions. A paralysant neurotic is one that acts upon the nerves and produces the loss of motor function. A syncopant is a neurotic poison which produces syncope and usually a fatal termination. A depressant is a poison which by its action upon the nervous system is capable of reducing functional activity. It is commonly known as a sedative. An emetic is a substance which is capable of producing vomiting. An antidote is an agent which is capable of neutralizing a poison and thereby making it inert and harmless. POISONS CONSIDERED GENERALLY In the study of poisons there necessarily arise two ap- parently conflicting phases. The first is that toxins continu- ally administered to the human metabolism give rise to dis- ease and second that subluxations causing nerve impinge- ment are the primary cause of all disease. This apparent con- tradiction however can be readily explained. All diseases of the body are caused by nerve impinge- ments which cut off the supply of mental impulses, but it must be remembered that if the proper substances are not supplied for Innate to act upon, then the coordinated action of the tissue is impossible. For instance, if the act of respira- tion is discontinued, for a material length of time, the blood becomes laden with carbon-dioxid instead of oxygen and the cells are not capable of utilizing the impulses which may be freely supplied. On the other hand, if a poison is intrqduced which has a destructive influence upon the tissues, with which it comes in contact, then it acts to the individual cell, the same as any traumatic condition acts to the body as a whole. We could not assume that if the finger were continually being crushed by heavy external objects, that reparation could take place rapidly enough to ultimately produce a state of normality. On the other hand, if poisons are continually being introduced they act by destroying and tearing down the individual cells with which they come in contact and thus have the same ef- fect here as traumatic agents have on the external surface nf the body. In no way does this conflict with the basis upon which Chiropractic is founded because our science concedes that certain nutritive elements are essential, that a certain quan- tity of oxygen is necessary and that other necessary sub- 351 352 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY stances must be taken into the body before Innate can prop- erly act upon the cells; that all of these things are essential and that the action of each one is interdependent upon the action of every other one. It is our endeavor in this subject, especially in dealing with the antidotes for the various poisons, to point out the most advisable methods for neutralizing the effects of these internal traumatic agents in shorter time than it would be possible for Innate to repair the damage done. A poison, as generally considered, includes any substance which is capable of injuring health or producing death when administered into or developed within any of the tissues of the body. Any substance, such as this, is capable of producing a local or remote or systemic effect. The local effect usually obtains as an irritation or inflammation of tissue in that local- ity where the poison is administered. Some of these local effects are further termed as specific because they are capable of producing definite and characteristic actions which are al- ways the same. Such, for example, is the effect of opium, which causes the contraction of the pupil, or the action of belladonna, which causes dilatation of the pupil by producing paralysis of the ciliary nerves. Certain other poisons, when introduced into the body, may produce local inflammation and aside from this, affect other tissues and organs far remote from this point and are, therefore, said to possess a remote action. This remote effect obtains through the absorption of the poison into the serous, lymphatic or blood vascular system and effects such tissues as are weak, due to the lack of im- proper nerve supply resulting from subluxations in the spine. The amount of the poison introduced has a great deal to do with the symptoms that follow. Some poisons, when ad- ministered in large doses, produce a deleterious effect and when in small doses produce no particular bad effects. The state in which the poison is administered has also a great deal CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 353 to do with its ability to produce greater or less amount of destruction. Some are found in the solid state and their effect upon the body depends entirely upon how readily they are soluble and their action is less energetic than that of poisons in the liquid or gaseous state. Those of the liquid and gaseous form are more readily absorbed and hence produce action in the tissues much more speedily. The condition of the body, both mentally and physically, also has a great deal to do with the effect the poison is able to produce. If the body is in a good physical condition the tissues are not particularly sus- ceptible to the invading poison, as the strength of the organs and tissues is capable of warding off the effects of the poison and in many instances is able to produce complete neutraliza- tion. It has been noted that certain poisons, when adminis- tered to ordinary individuals, might produce serious results, whereas if administered to others possessing deranged men- tality would produce no particular serious results. By the introduction of repeated small doses of poisons into the body the individual forms a habit in the course of which the tissues of the body so reconstruct their fluids that they are capable of acting as neutralizing agents and no immediate serious effects follow and gradually the doses may be increased and in most instances have to be increased to produce the desired effect. Such is the case in the practice of opium eating and smoking. Poisons may be introduced into the human body in one of several ways. They may be administered by the mouth, vagina, rectum, lungs, nose, ears and skin, and as already stated, may be given in the solid, liquid or gaseous state. The poison which is introduced directly into the circulation of blood or lymph, or serum, if at all diffusable, is very rapidly fatal. Poisons that are readily soluble in the fluids of the body, especially when introduced by the mouth, and when the stomach is empty, are also much more energetic, diffuse rap- idly and speedily produce ill effects. Certain kinds of poisons, 354 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY when introduced through one of the channels above men- tioned, are very poisonous, while if introduced through other channels, are practically harmless. Such is the case with snake poison. This, when introduced into the blood or serum, is very deadly, but when introduced through the mouth seems to undergo some sort of digestion and no particular bad ef- fects obtain. To enumerate the conditions which seem to favor the activity of poisons we would say that those are most energetic when taken in solution; when the stomach is empty; when vomiting does not obtain; when the person is active after the introduction of the poison and where the system is already weakened by an existing incoordination. The conditions which retard the activity of poisons are: the introduction of them in insoluble form; rest or sleep after the poison has been introduced; plenty of food in the stomach, particularly of a solid consistency; the presence of copious vomiting; the existence of conditions resulting from habitu- ated use; the physical and mental coordination of the body and the presence of drugs or other substances which act as partial antidotes. The symptoms attending a case of poisoning possess cer- tain characteristics. They usually obtain suddenly, or within a short time after the poison has been taken, the individual up to that time being in a state of health. These symptoms pro- gress steadily and uniformly and tend to prove rapidly dis- tressing and fatal. These symptoms may vary greatly, de- pending upon the amount and kind of poison introduced, as already stated, and may also be retarded or assisted by pre- existing conditions previously enumerated. The symptoms which would tend to suggest the presence of a poison intro- duced by the mouth would be a burning pain accompanied by dryness of, or a metallic taste in, the throat. There obtain, more or less severe, vomiting, purging and convulsions. The CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 355 individual has the expression of fear and great concern. There obtains at first a condition of drowsiness followed by delirium, great prostration of the vital powers and the rapid interven- tion of coma and speedy death. In some instances it is very difficult to diagnose a case of poisoning from the existing symptoms, because there are a number of diseases wherein similar symptoms obtain. In cases of cholera, internal hemorrhage, intestinal obstruction, ulceration and perforation of the bowels in latent typhoid fever, or the inflammation of the stomach and intestines re- sulting from improper food may all be mistaken for poisoning, as the symptoms obtain very suddenly, increase with regularity and rapidly approach a fatal termination. It is especially hard to determine by symptoms the presence of neurotic or narcotic poisons because the symptoms which obtain are sim- ilar to those existing in apoplexy, tetanus, epilepsy, convul- sions and various other forms of disease having a direct effect upon the brain substance. In cases where death ensues, and it is presumed that poison has been introduced into the body with criminal in- tent, it is necessary as a further proof of the cause of death, to make a postmortem examination. To conduct an examina- tion of this sort it is necessary to preserve and test different portions of the cadaver, together with their contents. The substances and parts necessary for a thorough examination are: vomitus; the alimentary canal from the cardia to the mid- dle of the rectum, the contents being enclosed by ligatures at the esophagus, duodenum, and the middle of the rectum; the liver and the gall bladder; the spleen; one kidney; the brain and any urine which may be contained in the bladder. Each of the above portions must be placed in a clean glass jar provided with a glass or cork stopper, these stoppers are then tied down by tapes and held secure by sealing wax bearing the impression of a seal so that no access to these 356 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY parts can be had except as the seal is broken and the tapes cut. In taking care of a case of poisoning an antidote is ad- ministered which has the power of rendering the poison inert and harmless. The antidote may be chemical, mechanical or physiological and of such a nature as to produce a rapid neu- tralization of the poison. As the poison in most cases is taken by the mouth, it is very essential that vomiting obtain in order that the contents of the stomach, together with the poison, may in this way be voided to the external. If vomit- ing does not obtain it is advisable to produce it by mechanical means and then to administer large quantities of lukewarm water to further dilute the poisons still retained in the stom- ach. If vomiting does not obtain by mechanical means it is then necessary to administer an emetic, which is an agent possessing the power of producing vomiting. Poisons are grouped according to their origin as mineral, vegetable and animal, and these are all classed under three common headings known as corrosive, neurotics and irritants. The last class' is further subdivided into the simple and spe- cific irritant poisons. THE CORROSIVE POISONS The poisons which belong to this class exert a local action upon tissues with which they come in contact. The symptoms follow immediately after the poison is taken, ob- taining as an acid alkaline or metallic taste, burning in the mouth, throat and stomach, usually producing vomiting by which the pain is not relieved. Shortly after the poison is taken, the pain extends over the entire abdomen followed by symptoms of shock or collapse. To this class of poisons be- long such substances as corrosive sublimate; the concentrated mineral acids, namely, sulphuric, hydrochloric and nitric; oxalic acid; the hydroxides and carbonates of potassium, so- dium and ammonia; chlorides of zinc and antimony; silver nitrate; carbolic acid and certain corrosive salts. Some of these possess simple or specific irritant action and will be taken up under the poisons termed as simple and specific irritants. Corrosive Mineral Acids Sulphuric Acid Sulphuric acid is a poison both in its concentrated and dilute form. Because of its power of corrosion a small dose of the concentrated acid is usually much more dangerous than a great deal larger dose of the acid in dilute form. The small- est dose which has proven fatal is one drachm, though in many instances recovery has obtained where a much greater quan- tity of the acid has been taken. The symptoms present in sulphuric acid poisoning are, the staining of the mouth and throat, which may at first be white, but soon turns to brown. Pain obtains immediately, is of a severe type and usually extends from the mouth to the stomach. Vomiting usually obtains, the vomitus containing 357 358 CHIROPRACTIC C H EM ISTRY shreds of mucus and blood. It may have a coffee-ground appearance and when matters first vomited are examined, they are found to be strongly acid in reaction. There is great prostration and death may result within twenty-four hours from shock or asphyxia. In some cases death occurs in several months after the introduction of the poison, due to the forma- tion of scar tissue and malnutrition resulting from the de- structive action the acid has produced upon the linings of the stomach. Death in sulphuric acid poisoning may also be caused by the destruction of the membrane lining, the air tubes or the closure of the glottis. Postmortem examination shows a destruction obtaining in the membranes of the mouth, pharynx, esophagus and stomach. The wall of the stomach may become perforated and its contents are black, due to the altered composition of the blood. The blood in the vessels is hardened and dark in color and other surrounding tissues are found to be soft and blackened by the acid. Similar conditions may be observed in the air passages if the acid has entered there. The presence of the acid may be detected by its action upon litmus paper. In the presence of sulphuric acid there is formed a white precipitate with barium chlorid, and although other acids give rise to a like precipitate, the previous addi- tion of a few drops of hydrochloric acid prevents their forma- tion. The antidotes used in sulphuric acid poisoning are pow- dered chalk, and baking soda, given in milk or water. Wash- ing soda, oatmeal gruel and diluted starch also act as anti- dotes. Nitric Acid Nitric acid is poisonous in the concentrated as well as in diluted state. It is known to have caused death in as small a dose as 2 drams and even less than this, if it affected the windpipe. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 359 The symptoms obtaining in nitric acid poisoning are very similar to those occurring with sulphuric acid, except that the stain first produced is white, becoming yellow and finally a brownish-red. The vomited material is also of the same color and the symptoms occurring are continuous and per- sistent. Death may occur in a very short time, the average being within twenty-four hours. Postmortem examination shows the characteristic dis- coloration and the membranes lining the upper part of the digestive tract are soft. The lining of the stomach is yellow- ish in color and the blood vessels contain hardened and black- ened blood. Perforation of the organ obtains rarely in nitric acid poisoning. The presence of nitric acid may be detected by pouring the substance containing it over copper filings. This produces effervescence, gives off a red vapor and leaves behind a blue solution of copper nitrate. It is also detected by its action upon litmus paper; by producing a red color in the presence of morphine or narcotin, and when mixed with hydrochloric acid it forms aqua regia, which will dissolve gold. It does not form any precipitate with barium chlorid, as do sulphuric and hydrochloric acids, and so by neutralizing the suspected substance with potassium hydroxid and evaporating, there are obtained prismatic potassium nitrate crystals, which in the presence of sulphuric acid will give off fumes that have the power of turning iron sulphate solution to a black or dark brown color. The antidotes in cases of nitric acid poisoning are similar to those used for sulphuric acid and, in addition to the sub- stances mentioned as antidotes for sulphuric acid, we might add white magnesia, soap, olive oil and barley water. These should be given in sufficient quantity to produce complete neutralization. 360 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Hydrochloric Acid There are no cases on record where dilute hydrochloric acid has proven fatal, but in the concentrated form it is known to have caused death. The symptoms obtaining in hydrochloric acid poisoning are the discoloration (white) and softening of the membrane of the mouth and throat, severe burning pain in the esophagus and stomach, vomiting of shreddy brown material and great weakness and prostration. Death occurs within the first twenty-four hours and the smallest dose known to have pro- duced it is one-half an ounce. Postmortem examination reveals conditions very similar to those obtaining in poisoning from sulphuric or nitric acid, the only difference being the appearance of the discoloration and the difference in the amount of corrosion or actual tissue disintegration. Hydrochloric acid is not nearly as corrosive as the other two acids mentioned and hence there is produced but little erosion of the tissues. Hydrochloric acid may be detected by heating the sus- pected substance, and the fumes therefrom, in the presence of ammonia, will produce dense white clouds of smoke. With silver nitrate hydrochloric acid forms a white precipitate which is insoluble in nitric acid and potassium hydroxid and soluble in ammonia. Hydrochloric acid, when heated in manganese dioxid, will liberate chlorin, which is distinguished by its bleaching properties and by turning paper dipped in a solu- tion of starch or potassium iodid to a blue color. The antidotes for poisoning from the introduction of hy- drochloric acid are like those used with the two preceding acids, but the quantity of the antidote need not be as great, since the strength of the acid does not compare with the other mineral acids and neutralization is more easily produced. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 361 Corrosive Vegetable Acids The corrosive vegetable acids are oxalic, acetic and tar- taric. Oxalic acid is by far the strongest poison, tartaric acid is not particularly corrosive and acetic acid is only poisonous when administered in very concentrated solution and large doses. The symptoms present in the poisoning from the in- troduction of any of these three acids are very similar and obtain as burning pain in the throat and stomach, a sense of constriction of the throat or suffocation and usually vomiting. The countenance presents a livid appearance and the ex- tremities are usually cold and clammy. Oxalic Acid Oxalic acid is a very strong vegetable poison and in ap- pearance is very much the same as Epsom salts. The dose of oxalic acid, which is capable of producing fatal results is comparatively large, but instances are known wherein very small quantities have caused serious effects and death. The symptons produced are severe, hot sensations during the act of swallowing, burning pain in the lower part of the esophagus and stomach and, in most cases, vomiting obtains immediately. The vomitus is strongly acid in reaction, of a dark brown color and contains altered mucus and blood. There is present a sense of constriction in the throat, or suffo- cation. The countenance is livid and there is great pain and prostration. The pulse is slow and feeble and cold perspira- tion obtains followed by convulsions speedily terminating in death. The above symptoms obtain when doses of the acid are large and the substance is concentrated. When small doses are taken, or when the poison is greatly diluted, its cor- rosive properties are practically destroyed, but cramps and numbness obtain as very marked symptoms. In some cases where recovery has obtained the symptoms of tenderness in 362 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY the mouth and abdomen and diarrhea have persisted. In- stances have occurred where the tongue remained swollen and there have been present the loss of voice and muscular twitch- ings of the face and extremities. Postmortem findings reveal a whitish discoloration of the lining of the pharynx, esophagus and stomach. These mem- branes are very soft and may be possessed of a brownish dis- coloration due to the presence of discharged mucus. The tissues of the stomach, though seldom perforated, are very soft and the organ contains a black coffee-ground-like material of blood. In cases where the symptoms are prolonged post- mortem examination may show signs of congestion and in- flammation in the small intestines. The crystals of oxalic acid are recognized as colorless four sided prisms and do not change when exposed to the air. By this latter property they may be distinguished from those of magnesium or zinc sulphate. The crystals melt easily when heated and leave no residue, as is the case with other crystals of similar appearance. In the presence of oxalic acid, calcium sulphate produces a white precipitate which is soluble in nitric or hydrochloric acid, but insoluble in vegetable acids. Silver nitrate also forms a white precipitate with oxalic acid, which is soluble in nitric acid, and this precipitate if dried and heated on platinum, dissipates into a white vapor. If oxalic acid is found in the presence of strong mineral acids it is then necessary to evaporate the solution to crystallization, then re- dissolve the crystals in water aud apply tests, as above given. The antidotes administered are such as chalk, magnesia and whiting. The plaster from the wall or mortar in any form is a good remedy in the absence of agents previously men- tioned. If vomiting does not obtain it is often necessary to administer emetics or produce the act by tickling the fauces. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 363 Acetic acid is highly corrosive in strong concentrated solution and very few cases are on record where the intro- duction of this substance into the body has proven fatal. The symptoms obtaining are burning pain, constriction in the throat and usually vomiting. The countenance is livid, the extremities cold and there may be present cold clammy perspiration. The antidotes used in acetic acid poisoning are the same as for the mineral acids and that most effectively employed is magnesia, or its carbonate. Mucilaginous drinks arc very often employed as neutralizing agents. Acetic Acid Tartaric Acid Tartaric acid, though not corrosive, is known to have caused death in some few instances. The symptoms obtaining in tartaric acid poisoning arc similar to those which obtain with the other corrosive veg- etable acids and the antidotes used are also the same as used for other acids of this group. Corrosive Organic Derivatives Under this subject heading are discussed such bodies as creasote and carbolic acid. These possess very marked poison- ous properties and have been taken by mistake and with criminal intent. Carbolic acid or phenol, as it is commonly called, is much the stronger of the two poisons and is used more commonly. Carbolic Acid Carbolic acid is found as an impure liquid and also in the pure state in form of crystals. It is a derivative of coal tar and possesses a very strong characteristic odor. It is said to 364 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY possess a two fold action acting as a corrosive in some in- stances while in others it produces a direct effect upon the nervous system. The symptoms which result in carbolic acid poisoning are: white discoloration of the lips and mouth; intense pain in the stomach ; the characteristic acid odor of the breath ; con- tracted pupils; lowering of the pulse and temperature; coma followed by death, anywhere from a few minutes to ten hours. Postmortem examination shows a whitish discoloration of the mouth, throat and stomach. The mucus membrane is soft and loose and may be readily removed. The blood vessels in the brain are found to be greatly congested and their contents possess the characteristic carbolic acid odor. The contents of the stomach and fluids of other tissues in the body may also give off this characteristic odor. The urine when exposed to the air becomes rapidly greenish in color and finally turns to almost a black. One of the main ways of detecting carbolic acid is by its characteristic odor. By mixing the suspected specimen with ammonium hydroxid solution and adding sodium hypochlorite a blue or green color will obtain in the presence of phenol, which turns red upon the addition of hydrochloric acid. Bromin water in the presence of phenol produces a dense yellowish precipitate. The best antidote in cases of phenol poisoning is alcohol When the injury caused by the acid is superficial, very strong alcohol may be used and the effect of the poison rapidly neutralized. If the poison has been taken by the mouth, alcohol in diluted form, or whiskey is a very effective neutral- izing agent. Other substances such as albumin and soluble sulphates may also be administered. It is necessary in such in- stances, however, to remove the diluted acid from the stomach 365 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY and prevent its absorption. To do this vomiting is produced by the administration of emetics. Death in phenol poisoning may come so rapidly that it is almost impossible to have any time in which the different antidotes can be given, but the one essential thing is to get rid of the poison or to neutralize it as rapidly as possible. Lysol Lysol is a solution of cresols in water and sodium hydroxid and is used as an antiseptic, particularly in obstetric procedure. The symptoms obtaining in lysol poisoning when it is administered in sufficient doses are: whittish discoloration and local corrosion, cyanosis, contraction and immobility of the pupils, a general decline of physical powers followed by stupor and collapse. Vomiting may or may not be present. A number af different antidotes have been administered in different cases of lysol poisoning, but without success, so there seems to be but one way of proceeding and that is by removing the contents of the stomach. Caustic and Carbonated Alkalies The compounds of this class are potassium hydroxid and carbonate, sodium hydroxid and carbonate and ammonium hydroxid and carbonate. Poisoning by these agents is of rare occurrence but when it does obtain there are present the fol- lowing symptoms: an acid burning taste in the mouth, throat, esophagus and stomach, hoarseness, vomiting of bloody mucus, cold, clammy skin, accelerated pulse, pain over the abdomen and pronounced diarrhea. The neutralizing agents that may be used to combat this form of poisoning are such as dilute vegetable acids, oils and mucilaginous drinks. 366 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Potassium Hydroxid Potassium hydroxid obtains on the market in the solid state, as well as in solution. It possesses an acrid taste and is soapy to the touch. It is very strongly alkaline in reaction and is molded into cylinders and used as a caustic, hence its name, caustic potash. The symptoms which obtain from this poison are an acrid burning sensation in the mouth, throat, esophagus and stomach, particularly during the act of swallowing. There is hoarseness and dyspnoea. Swallowing obtains with difficulty because of the swelling of the tongue, mouth and fauces. The pulse is rapid and very feeble and the surface of the body be- comes cold and clammy. There is a diffuse tenderness present over the entire abdomen, which is particularly pronounced in the epigastric region and is more severe on pressure. When recovery from the immediate effects of the poison takes place, death may later result from stricture of the esophagus or pylorus. Postmortem examination, shows the membrane of the mouth, esophagus and stomach swollen and inflammed and parts of these linings may be found detached. This inflamma- tion in many cases is found to extend into the small intestines. They appear to be dark in color and, in some cases, ulcera- tion has taken place. The examination may also show an in- flammation and swelling of the glottis, which in many cases is found completely occluded after death. The presence of caustic potash is determined by its strong alkaline reaction and other specific tests applicable to it, which are cited in connection with the study of inorganic chemistry. The antidotes used are well diluted vegetable acids such as vinegar, lemon juice, tartaric and citric acids. Fixed oils, such as castor oil, linseed oil, olive oil and cod liver oil may 367 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY also be used. Mucilaginous drinks are employed freely, but emetics must not be used, as the walls of the stomach may be perforated. Potassium Carbonate Potassium carbonate obtains on the market as a white granular solid or an alkaline solution in water. The symptoms, postmortem appearances and antidotes used are similar as in cases of caustic potash poisoning. The character- istic tests are the marked alkaline reaction and others specific- ally applicable to this compound, as considered in inorganic chemistry. Sodium Hydroxid Sodium hydroxid obtains in form of white crystals or as a solution of these crystals in water, forming a strong alkaline solution. The poisonous action of this body is similar to that of potassium hydroxid and carbonate. The symptoms and postmortem findings which obtain are the same and the characteristic tests by means of which its presence is determ- ined is its strong alkaline reaction. Sodium Carbonate Sodium carbonate is very similar to potassium carbonate, except that its crystals are efflorescent rather than deliques- cent upon exposure to air. All the conditions met with in cases of poisoning from, this substance are similar to those previously described with preceding carbonate and alkalies. Ammonium Hydroxid Ammonia in its pure state exists as a colorless gas posses- sing a pungent odor, but this gas is usually dissolved in water forming an alkaline ammonium hydroxid. Aside from the symptoms which obtain in connection with other alkalies and their carbonates, there is found in ammonium hydroxid pois- 368 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY oning, a marked corrosion in the throat and gullet and the lobstruction of the throat by the formation of a false mem- brane. The esophagus may be completely disintegrated at its point of union with the stomach and the poison may prove fatal in a very few minutes because of its action upon the air passages. Other facts as considered with other alkalies obtain also in connection with ammonia and ammonium hydroxid poisoning. Ammonium Carbonate Ammonium carbonate is distinguished from the other carbonates by its strong alkaline reaction, its very pungent odor and the fact that the substance is very volatile. IRRITANTS The irritant poisons produce a burning sensation in the stomach which usually comes several minutes or even a num- ber of hours after the poison is taken, and in this way they differ from corrosive poisons. The pain produced by the irri- tant poison is usually accompanied or followed by vomiting, faintness, purging and tenesmus. The pulse is irregular and weak and in most cases there obtains a severe headache. There obtains *a marked physical weakness followed by collapse and convulsion or the poison may induce inflamma- tions which ultimately result in death. Some of the irritant poisons only possess the power of setting up inflammation, but are incapable of direct tissue destruction. These are known as the simple irritant poisons. Other irritant poisons, aside from being able to produce local inflammation, are capable of causing a specific physiological action differing in the case of each poison. Such irritants as these are known as the specific irritant poisons. Simple Irritants Potassium Nitrate Potassium nitrate, commonly known as niter or saltpeter, obtains in nature as a crystalline solid and may be prepared artificially by the decomposition of sodium nitrate. It is a poison when taken in large doses and is known to have caused death in a very short time. The symptoms which obtain are burning and irritation of the alimentary canal followed by vomiting and diarrhea. There is severe pain at the pit of the stomach, urine is scanty; there is a rapid and general loss of physical powers followed by collapse. Postmortem examination shows extreme inflammation of 369 370 CHIROl'RACTIC CHEM 1STRY the mucous membrane of the stomach and along the entire intestinal tract. Potassium Sulphate Potassium sulphate, though not a very strong poison, Is known to have produced death when taken in sufficient quan- tity. The symptoms obtaining in this form of poisoning are a severe irritation of the esophagus and pain in the stomach, fol- lowed by general weakness and collapse. Postmortem examination reveals a discoloration of the mucous membrane and a condition of hyperemia. Acid Potassium Tartrate Acid potassium tartrate, commonly known as cream of tartar, is known to have caused death. The symptoms pre- valent are like those caused by any other irritant poison, and those particularly existing are found to be a general muscular weakness and a paralysis of the lower extremities. No antidotes are found which would neutralize the effect of any of the above potassium salts and it is, therefore, neces- sary to administer such emetics which would produce vomiting and thereby remove the poisons from the stomach. Ordinary lime, though feeble in action, is an irritant poison, and when taken by the mouth it produces burning pain in the abdomen, occasioned by excessive thirst and followed by obstinate constipation. The inhalation of unslacked lime produces inflammation of the throat and trachea. Some cases are reported where this inflammation has resulted in death. Zinc Sulphate Zinc sulphate, otherwise known as white vitriol, is a crystalline solid resembling Epsom salt. It is a mild irritant and in small doses acts as a useful emetic. When taken in large doses it is known to have caused death. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 371 The symptoms present in zinc sulphate poisoning are, severe pain in the stomach, vomiting, a gradual loss of strength and prostration. In cases where the immediate action of the poison is arrested the case develops a stubborn gastritis and recovery obtains only after a long period of convalescence. The antidote used is strong tea, and vomiting is encour- aged by the use of milk and albuminous liquids. Zinc Chlorid Zinc chlorid is a strong irritant poison, and, if taken in sufficient quantity, or when concentrated, it acts as a corrosive. The symptoms which obtain are, a burning sensation in the mouth and throat followed by nausea, vomiting and ex- treme weakness. Purging obtains to a marked degree, some- times with cramps and convulsions. Postmortem examination shows the lining membrane of the throat and stomach shriveled and hard. The blood vessels in the brain appear distended and congestion of the lungs is very noticeable. Congestion obtains also in different parts of the small intestines. In the presence of hydrogen sulphid, zinc forms a white precipitate. It also forms a white precipitate in the presence of potassium ferrocyanid and ammonium hydrate, in alkaline or neutral solutions. The precipitate does not obtain when the solution is acid in reaction. The antidotes to be given in poisoning from zinc chlorid are milk, white of egg and drinks which contain tannin. Silver nitrate is commonly known as lunar caustic, and is prepared by dissolving silver in nitric acid, heating the crys- talline residue until it fuses and then casting it into molds. It is a very powerful irritant poison. In contact with animal tissue, silver nitrate is rapidly de- Silver Nitrate 372 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY composed, depositing metallic silver which produces a char- acteristic black stain and free nitric acid is liberated. The irritant action of lunar caustic is due to the liberation of the acid and it is to this that it owes its action as an escharotic. Silver nitrate in the presence of hydrochloric acid pro- duces a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid and soluble in ammonium hydroxid. With hydrogen sulphid it produces a black precipitate insoluble in alkaline sulphid. The antidote given in cases of silver nitrate poisoning is common salt. This is administered in large quantities, fol- lowed by emetics to remove the substance from the stomach. Tin Chlorides Tin chlorides are strongly irritant in nature, but are read- ily neutralized by the action of baking soda, magnesia, milk and white of egg, which substances are therefore used as antidotes. Potassium Bichromate Potassium bichromate possesses severe irritant properties. In contact with animal tissue, particularly where some abra- sion exists, it produces ulcerative decomposition. Antidotes for this poison are magnesia and powdered chalk. The symptoms obtaining in potassium bichromate pois- oning are, violent purging, painful vomiting of yellowish ma- terial, the pupils are dilated, there are cramps in the lower extremities, great muscular weakness obtains followed by a general depression and subsequently a complete collapse. Iron Sulphate Iron sulphate, otherwise known as green vitriol or cop- peras, is a powerful irritant poison and when administered in large doses is capable of causing death. Magnesia is the best known antidote for this poison and should be freely ad- ministered. 373 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Vegetable Irritants There are a great many substances of vegetable origin which possess a marked irritant action and the chief ones of these substances are aloes and colocynth. When taken in sufficient doses they set up severe irritation in the intestinal canal. There are present the symptoms of nausea and vomit- ing, diarrhea and tenesmus. There is a gradual loss of strength, the surface of the body is cold and clammy and cold perspira- tion obtains. There may be a complete collapse followed by periodic convulsions. If vomiting does not obtain it should be encouraged by the use of emetics and diluents. In cases where the poison has passed into the intestines it is necessary to ad- minister purgatives to carry the poison out of the body as rapidly as possible. Animal Irritants The chief substances of this class which often give rise to poisoning are such as poisonous fish, meat, lobsters, etc. The symptoms attending the poisoning in cases of this kind are nausea and vomiting, following two or three hours after the food has been taken; gastro intestinal irritation and a sense of great depression obtain. There is present an irritation of the eyes and the pupils may be either contracted or dilated. A scarlet rash appears quite frequently over the entire body and particularly over the abdomen. Convulsions obtain in some instances particularly in young subjects. To counteract the action of these poisons it is necessary to encourage vomiting by administering copious draughts of luke warm water. Where great prostration obtains it is ad- visable to counteract the existing depression by the use of diluted brandy or whisky. Recovery usually obtains in nearly all cases of this form of poisoning. 374 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Irritant Gases Among the irritant gases are such as sulphuric acid, hydrochloric acid, nitric oxid and chlorin, and these even in a very dilute condition are exceedingly poisonous and irritating when inhaled. Of this group, chlorin is undoubtedly the most poisonous. Chlorin Chlorin is a gas of highly irritant quality possessing a greenish-yellow color and a powerfully suffocating odor. When inhaled it produces extreme irritation in the air passages, setting up cough and inflammation and producing difficulty in breathing. It is often fatal, even in very dilute state and when concentrated proves rapidly fatal by causing closure of the glottis and asphyxia. The best way of overcoming the effects of chlorin gas is to remove the patient into pure air. The inhalation of ammonia, water vapor and hydrogen sulphid is also very bene- ficial. Specific Irritants The specific irritant poisons are divided into three classes known as the mineral, animal and vegetable irritants. By far the greater number and the most important of these substances belong to the first class. The common symptom which obtains with these poisons is local inflammation or irritation, and aside from this there are specific signs characteristic of the poison employed. lodin Tincture of iodin when taken in large quantities is known to have proven fatal. The symptoms obtaining are those of acrid taste, a sense of constriction in the throat, pain in the epigastric region, vomiting and purging. Following these there obtains exces- CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 375 sive thirst, general weakness, headache and syncope. Vomit- ing should be encouraged and starch or flour in water given as the antidote. Potassium Iodid Potassium iodid is extremely poisonous even in very small doses. Cases are known where as small an amount as one-half a grain has proven fatal. The symptoms present are those of irritation in the mouth, throat, esophagus and stomach; an eruption in form of acne or of a measly appearance obtains over the surface of the body; frontal headache; sense of dryness in the throat; run- ning from the nose; watering of the eyes and a reddening of the eyelids and nostrils. The presence of iodin or potassium iodid is readily de- tected by the blue color produced with starch or by the pro- duction of a yellow precipitate in the presence of lead acetate. The best antidotes for use in potassium iodid poisoning- are starchy substances such as oatmeal gruel, arrowroot, boiled starch, and flour and water. These should be continued until the vomitus is of natural color for as long as iodin is present the starchy material vomited will present a bluish discolora- tion. Bromin Bromin possesses an acrid taste and when taken in suffi- cient quantity produces irritation in the alimentary tract. Postmortem examination shows a softening of the tissues of the stomach and reveals further that the poison has passed thru the walls of the organ and produced discoloration of sur- rounding tissues. Potassium Bromid Potassium bromid produces symptoms similar to those met with in cases of potassium iodid poisoning, except that there is not the presence of coryza. In some cases there is 376 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY present an eruption like that which obtains in connection with potassium iodid, except that the spots are not nearly as numerous. Phosphorus poisoning obtains in the acute and chronic form. The acute form is consequent upon the ingestion of a poisonous dose of the substance, and the chronic form, com- monly called lucifer disease, occurs principally among those engaged in the manufacture of matches. The symptoms obtain immediately upon the ingestion of the poison and are as follows: The eructation of gas having the odor of garlic and the breath may also possess a garlicy smell; the mouth or the vomited material when viewed in the dark is frequently luminous; the vomited material is green or bloody; there is great prostration, the abdomen is tender and there are diarrhea and colicky pains; stools are frequently bloody. All the above symptoms may cease remaining only as pain in the back and lower extremities and a feeble pulse, or they may cease completely, to recur suddenly after the lapse of several days. The symptoms that make their appearance following the fourth or fifth day are, jaundice, dry skin, severe headache, bloody discharges from the nose, mouth and rec- tum ; the liver becomes enlarged and there is retention or sup- pression of urine. The patient becomes delirious; convulsions set in and finally the patient becomes comatose and dies. Upon postmortem examination, small fragments of phos- phorus may be detected in the stomach or intestines by their luminous appearance, the membranes of the esophagus, stomach and intestines are soft and ecchymotic, the blood is very fluid and the red corpuscles transparent. Fatty degenera- tion obtains in the liver, kidneys, heart and muscular tissue. The presence of phosphorus is detected by the garlicy odor and the phosphorescence of the mouth and the vomited mat- Phosphorus 377 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY ters. The only really satisfactory method is based upon the property of unoxidized phosphorus becoming luminous in the dark. This is known as the Mitscherlich process. The sus- pected material is diluted with water and acidulated with sulphuric acid. This mixture is placed into a flask upon a sand bath and connected with a Leibig condenser which is placed in absolute darkness. The contents of the flask are heated and any phosphorus present is volatilized and condenses in form of a luminous ring. This is proof positive of the presence of phosphorus. The best method of combating the poison is by removing it from the stomach. There is no specific antidote, but mag- nesia, given in mucilaginous drinks, is benefical. French oil of turpentine has also been used with good effect. If vomiting does not obtain it should be encouraged by the use of an emetic. Copper sulphate and apomorphin are emetics used for this purpose. Chronic or slow phosphorus poisoning as before stated obtains in individuals engaged in the manufacture of matches. The patient develops a toothache and the teeth gradually undergo molecular decay, become thin, friable and dark in color. The jaw becomes exposed and the process of caries spreads to the jaw bone. Arsenic Arsenic is a very deadly poison and exists in several forms, all of which produce,symptoms that are very similar, and the methods of combating the poison are the same for its different combinations. Arsenical poisoning obtains as a result of taking the poison by the mouth or injecting it into the rectum, urethra or vagina. Numerous cases of poisoning have resulted as a result of rubbing arsenical preparations into the scalp or scrotum. By inhabiting rooms, the walls of which are covered with paper colored with arsenical preparation, or 378 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY the use of clothing dyed with them, or by the eating of con- fectionery of green color, or articles of food containing prep- arations of arsenic, have also resulted in severe symptoms of poisoning. Arsenical poisoning may obtain either in the chronic or acute form. The symptoms present in acute arsenical poisoning begin very shortly after the ingestion of the poison. There are present nausea and faintness, violent burning pain obtains in the stomach, which becomes more and more intense and is more severe upon pressure. Vomiting of a distressing nature obtains and the vomitus is grey or green in color and may be streaked with blood. The pain is first noticeable in the epigastric region, but shortly extends over the entire abdomen. There is purging and diarrhea. Frontal headache obtains, and a sense of constriction of the throat and great thirst are present. The respiration is painful and the pulse is rapid and feeble. More or less severe cramps obtain in the lower ex- tremities and the surface of the body is cold and clammy. Death usually ensues within twenty-four hours. The prominent symptoms present in chronic form of arsenical poisoning are the loss of appetite ; the tongue coated ; there are present thirst and nausea; colicky pains; diarrhea and frontal headache. Irritation of the skin obtains and is accompanied by cutaneous eruptions. The conjunctiva is in- flamed and intolerant to light and the edges of the eyelids are sore. There is great weakness and emaciation. Exfolia- tion of the cuticle and falling of the hair are also present as marked symptoms. The patient is very irritable and nervous and very often unable to sleep. There may be local paralysis. Sometimes these symptoms abate for a short time only to recur subsequently in a more severe form. On postmortem examination it is found that the stomach is inflamed and the mucous membrane is coated with a layer of mucus, tinged with blood or bile. Particles of arsenic may 379 C HIROP R A CT IC C H E MI ST R V be found adhering to the walls of the stomach. The inflam- mation may extend through the entire length of the small in- testines, but is usually confined to the duodenum. To detect the presence of arsenic it is best to use either Marsh's or Reinsch's test, which are fully described on pages 181 and 182. The best antidote to be used in arsenical poisoning is freshly prepared ferric hydroxid, which is made by adding an excess of ammonium hydroxid to a solution of ferric sulphate and collecting the precipitate upon muslin and washing with water. It should be freshly prepared, administered while moist and in large doses. If vomiting does not obtain it should be encouraged by tickling the fauces or the administration of a mild emetic, such as zinc sulphate. Albuminous drinks such as raw eggs and milk are very beneficial Lime water makes the poison less soluble and is also very useful. Potassium Antimony Tartrate Potassium antimony tartrate, commonly known as tartar emetic, may be administered in small doses without any se- rious effects, and because of the fact that it produces vomiting so speedily after it is swallowed, thereby being removed from the body, the ingestion of the poison does not prove fatal in ordinary cases. The symptoms obtaining in acute cases are, metallic taste, nausea, violent vomiting, burning heat and pain in the stomach, purging, cramps, cold perspiration and great de- bility. In cases where the poison proves fatal death is pre- ceded by insensibility, difficult respiration, convulsions and prostration. In the chronic cases of poisoning there are present symptoms of constant nausea, frequent vomiting, a feeble, slow pulse rate, loss of physical powers and exhaustion, and the surface of the body is clammy and covered with cold perspiration. 380 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Postmortem examination shows the presence of inflam- mation of the throat, stomach and intestines. The mucous lining of the stomach is soft and streaked with blood. The blood vessels of the brain and the capillaries in the lungs appear to be greatly congested. The presence of tartar emetic may be determined by evap- orating the suspected material upon a glass slide which leaves a residue of cubical shaped crystals. Tartar emetic in the presence of hydrogen or ammonium sulphid produces an orange-red precipitate soluble in hydrochloric acid. With nitric acid, tartar emetic forms a white precipitate soluble in excess. Marsh's and Reinsch's tests previously described may also be used for determining the presence of antimony. In taking care of a case of this kind of poisoning, assist the vomiting by administering draughts of warm water and mucilaginous drinks. The use of tea or an infusion of oak bark, or liquids containing tannin, should also be freely used. Antimony Chlorid Antimony chlorid is commonly known as butter of anti- mony. It is a powerful corrosive liquid capable of producing violent symptoms of poisoning. The symptoms obtaining are inflammation and corrosion of the alimentary canal, obtaining shortly after the poison is ingested. There are present drowsiness and insensibility, loss of physical power, nausea, tenesmus and a tendency to sleep. Other symptoms present with tartar emetic poisoning are also present and generally the action of antimony chlorid is more caustic. Postmortem examination shows an existing inflamma- tion of the entire alimentary canal, and the mucous membrane is soft and blackened. In some cases the lining is completely destroyed. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 381 The tests used for the detection of this substance arc similar to the ones used in connection with tartar emetic. The antidotes used are magnesia, administered with milk and water, baking soda, tannin, and others similar to those used for tartar emetic. Mercury Mercury in several of its combinations possesses injuri- ous properties. Such compounds as mercuric chlorid, mer- curous chlorid, red oxid, red sulphid, cyanid and nitrate, are met with in different instances of poisoning. Poisoning from the four last named substances is of rare occurrence, but many cases are met with where corrosive sublimate, or calomel have been used. Mercuric Chlorid Mercuric chlorid, commonly known as corrosive subli- mate, obtains as a white powder possessing an acrid metallic taste and is a powerful corrosive poison capable of producing specific effects. * The symptoms obtain immediately following the inges- tion of the poison and occur first as a metallic taste and a sense of constriction and burning in the throat and a burning sensation in the stomach. The pain gradually extends over the entire abdomen and is particularly noticeable in the epi- gastric region and much increased upon pressure. A feeling of nausea obtains and vomiting of the contents of the stomach follows: The vomitus is streaked with blood and mixed with a stringy mucus. The mouth and tongue are whitened and shriveled. There is diarrhea, with blood in the stools and the abdomen is swollen. The countenance may be flushed or pallid and the patient may have an anxious expression. The pulse is rapid and feeble. Death sometimes occurs very early from collapse accompanied by convulsions and coma, but in many cases life may be prolonged for several days. 382 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Where this obtains there is a swelling of the gums and salivary glands, the breath is foul and profuse salivation obtains. This last symptom is usually most prominent in cases of chronic poisoning. Postmortem examination shows the salivary glands en- larged and swollen. The tongue, mouth, esophagus and the mucous membranes are usually shriveled and grayish-white in color. They may be inflamed and reddened. The intes- tines appear highly congested and the urinary bladder is con- tracted and empty. Tests.-(1) Mercury in the presence of sodium hydroxid solution produces a yellow precipitate, and this precipitate, if washed, dried and heated in a test tube, results in form of minute globules of metallic mercury gathered in the cool part of the tube. (2) Potassium iodid in the presence of solutions of mercury will result in the formation of a bright-scarlet pre- cipitate soluble in excess. (3) Take a drop or two of the sus- pected solution, acidulate with hydrochloric acid and place this upon a gold coin. By touching the solution with an iron key, mercury will be deposited as a bright silvery stain upon the gold. (4) Reinsch's test, described on page 181, is also used to detect the presence of mercury. The best known antidote to be used in mercury poisoning is the white of egg. Too much of this should not be given at any one time lest the precipitate be dissolved in excess. Emetics should be administered to remove the poison from the stomach. To differentiate between the symptoms present in arsen- ical and mercurial poisoning we have the following: The symptoms in arsenical poisoning begin about twenty minutes after the poison is ingested and the pain is confined to the throat and stomach. There is usually no taste and, if it does obtain, it is very faint, sweetish and metallic. The mouth and the tongue are normal and the urine contains arsenic. The CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 383 symptoms in mercurial poisoning begin immediately, followed by severe pain in the mouth. The taste is intensely metallic and nauseous and the mouth and tongue are whitened and the urine contains mercury. Mercurous Chlorid Mercurous chlorid, commonly known as calomel, obtains as a white, heavy powder, and when given in large doses, proves to be an irritant poison. It is distinguished from corrosive sublimate by giving a black precipitate with potas- sium hydroxid and by being insoluble in water. Lead Lead in its metallic state is not particularly injurious to the body, but because of its ready conversion into poisonous compounds it proves to be an irritant poison. The compounds of lead known to have produced poisoning are, lead acetate, lead subacetate and lead carbonate. Lead Acetate Lead acetate, commonly known as sugar of lead, is in form of crystalline masses or a glistening white powder. It is very soluble in water and possesses a sweetish, metallic taste. The chief symptoms attending a case of lead acetate pois- oning are a sense of constriction in the throat, pain in the stomach, a stiffness of the abdominal muscles and paralysis of the lower extremities. Vomiting and purging may obtain with great prostration, cramps and convulsions. Constipation, scanty urine and the formation of a deep blue line along the gums are particularly noticeable in lead poisoning. Postmortem examination shows an inflammation and softening of the mucous lining of the stomach and intestines. Lead subacetate is a more powerful irritant poison than lead acetate, and has proven fatal in some cases because of its Lead Subacetate 384 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY ready conversion into insoluble carbonate by the action of car- bon dioxid. Lead Carbonate Lead carbonate, commonly known as white lead, has proven fatal in a great number of cases. Two forms of pois- oning obtain and these are known as the acute and chronic. The symptoms which obtain prominently in a case of acute lead poisoning are, metallic taste, dryness of the throat, thirst, severe colicky pains in the abdomen, particularly in the umbilical region, which are relieved upon pressure, a feeble, slow pulse, great prostration, constipation, scanty red- dish urine, violent cramps, paralysis of the lower extremities, convulsions and tetanic spasms. Hydrogen sulphid in the presence of lead, and the addi- tion of a few drops of ammonium sulphid gives a black pre- cipitate. Dilute sulphuric acid with lead produces a white precipitate insoluble in nitric acid. Potassium iodid in the presence of lead forms a bright yellow precipitate of lead iodid. The best antidote in acute lead poisoning is magnesium sulphate which results in the formation of an insoluble sul- phate and by the administration of an emetic, this insoluble substance is removed from the stomach. Sodium sulphate produces the same results. Chronic lead poisoning obtains as the result of drinking water from lead pipes, the ingestion of food contained in leaden vessels and from the constant handling of lead com- pounds such as the acetate, nitrate and carbonate. It also occurs among white-lead manufacturers and painters in which instances it obtains in the body by absorption from the diges- tive tract, the lungs or the skin. It also results from the use of lead-containing hair dyes. When it results among white- lead manufacturers or painters it is termed as painter's colic, CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 385 and when absorbed in sufficient quantity produces the char- acteristic wrist drop. The most prominent symptoms in chronic lead poisoning are blue spots on gums, emaciation, anemia, rapid and feeble pulse, obstinate constipation, colicky pains relieved on pres- sure, rheumatic pains and a marked decrease in the amount of urine. There is a slow weakening of the hands, wrists and arms, ending in the paralysis of the extensor muscles produc- ing lead palsy and subsequently the characteristic wrist drop. The best way of combating the disease is by administer- ing saline purgatives with dilute sulphuric acid. Copper Copper and its salts, with the exception of copper arsenite, are not particularly poisonous and cases resulting fatally are comparatively rare. Elemental copper is not poisonous in itself, but may prove a poison by the action of gastric juice upon it. Copper sulphate, or blue vitriol, is a powerful irritant in large doses. It is used, however, as a successful emetic. Copper subacetate has also proven fatal in some instances. It is produced by the action of greasy foods allowed to stand in copper utensils and has a metallic taste. It is also a powerful astringent. Copper Arsenite Copper arsenite is known as Scheele's green, and is used in the manufacture of green wall paper, artificial flowers and colored confectionery. The symptoms resulting from any of the above are sneezing, watering of the eyes, frontal headache, nausea, loss of appetite, thirst and colicky pains. In Certain individuals engaged in the manufacture of some of the above articles there result patches of ulceration in the nose, axilla and groin and other places wherever dirt, containing particles of copper arsenite may lodge. The symptoms attending a case of acute copper arsenate 386 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY poisoning are pain in the epigastric region, which gradually extends over the entire abdomen, severe vomiting and diarrhea. There is great depression, the extremities are cold and slight convulsions may obtain. There is supression of urine, and jaundice obtains frequently. Cases are reported where stupor, coma and paralysis have obtained and in some instances there is the formation of a distinct purple line along the margin of the gums, and this is very distinct from the blue line which appears as one of the prominent symptoms in lead poisoning. Postmortem examination reveals the inflammation of the stomach and intestines and a mucous membrane which is of a bluish-green color and often ulcerated. In some instances perforation of the intestines has obtained. There are several tests by means of which the presence of copper may be ascertained. (1) A solution of copper in the presence of ammonium hydroxid produces a bluish precipi- tate soluble in excess. (2) A polished knife introduced into the slightly acidulated suspected solution is covered with a bright red coating of copper. (3) Hydrogen sulphid in the presence of copper salts yields a precipitate of a deep brown color. (4) Take the suspected solution, add a few drops of acid and place the mixture on platinum foil. Upon touching this with a strip of zinc, metallic copper will be deposited on the platinum. The best antidote for copper poisoning is albumin and should be freely administered. Vomiting may be encouraged by the use of copious draughts of warm water. Barium Barium chlorid is a specific irritant poison and few cases are known where it has proven fatal. The symptoms present are the irritation and inflammation in the stomach and intes- tines. dizziness, convulsions and paralysis. The antidotes CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 387 given are sodium or magnesium sulphate, which convert the poison into an insoluble sulphate and by the administration of an emetic it is removed from the stomach. Rare instances are known where the nitrate and acetate of barium have proven fatal and the symptoms attending the ingestion of these poi- sons are similar to those present in barium chlorid poisoning. Specific Vegetable Irritants Several different plants of a poisonous nature belong to this class and among these the most commonly known are black hellebore and laburnum. The symptoms attending poi- soning resulting from the ingestion of hellebore are vomiting, dizziness, cold perspiration and collapse. In cases where laburnum is ingested the symptoms obtaining are those of vomiting and purging with dilation of the pupils and contrac- tion of the muscles, particularly those of the lower extremities. Specific Animal Irritants The best known poison belonging to this class is Spanish fly and this is known to have caused death in cases where even a limited amount has been introduced into the body or where it has been used as an external application. It produces symptoms of vomiting and sometimes the vomitus contains little shining particles of the poison. Purg- ing is present and a sensation of burning heat obtains in the stomach. Marked faintness obtains, the muscles of the limbs become rigid and there are present delirium and convulsions. Postmortem examination shows marked inflammation in the alimentary canal and also in the kidneys and the bladder. The presence of the poison is detected by the vesication which it produces when applied to the surface of the body. There is no specific antidote for this poison and vomiting should, therefore, be encouraged to remove same from the stomach. NEUROTIC POISONS Narcotics Narcotics are poisons which act directly upon brain sub- stance producing drowsiness and sleep. They are such as opium, morphin, laudanum and paregoric. The symptoms obtaining following the ingestion of any of these poisons ap- pear in about twenty to thirty minutes and commence with giddiness, drowsiness, stupor and insensibility. There is present a slow stertorous breathing, pulse is weak and the pupils contracted. The surface of the body is covered with cold perspiration and the countenance presents a livid appear- ance. Vomiting and convulsions may obtain preceding death. Opium Opium owes its principal properties to morphin, of which it contains about 16 per cent. The symptoms attending a case of opium poisoning are the same as those given above. The postmortem appearances in case of poisoning from opium are not at all characteristic. The most prominent con- dition is the swelling of vessels in the brain and the effusion of serum into the ventricles. The capillaries of the lungs are engorged with blood and the air sacs may contain a viscid bloody fluid. The best antidote for use in opium poisoning is potassium permanganate, but the first thing to do is to remove the poison from the stomach. A solution of opium in alcohol gives rise to the formation of laudanum and this substance has proven fatal in a great many cases. This poison, when kept for a long time, is much stronger than when freshly prepared and its poisonous quali- ties are much more pronounced. Morphin, as before stated, is the active principle of opium 388 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 389 and exists in form of colorless crystals insoluble in water and possessing a bitter taste. Its presence is detected by the use of iodic acid. Morphin decomposes the acid, setting free the iodin, which produces a blue color in the presence of starch. Morphin in the presence of nitric acid produces an orange-red color, the intensity of which depends upon the concentration of the morphin solution. The symptoms obtaining in poisoning from laudanum or morphin are similar to those that obtain with opium and the means of combating all three of these poisons is by first re- moving the contents of the stomach by the use of emetics, and keeping the patient awake by forced walking or cold douches. Strong coffee given in abundance proves very beneficial. Anesthetics The anesthetic poisons belonging to this class are such as chloroform, ether, chloral, methyelene dichlorid, nitrous oxid, etc. They are substances which when administered are capable of producing loss of sensation. Chloroform Chloroform is a colorless heavy liquid possessing an etheral odor and a pungent taste. It is slightly soluble in water and very soluble in alcohol. The conditions which obtain upon the inhalation of chlo- roform vapor are first, slight stimulation; second, a period of excitement with the mental functions impaired, increased sali- vation, rigidity and spasmodic contraction of muscles and in- coherent talk; thirdly, there obtains a stage of complete in- sensibility and if the inhalation is continued, breathing be- comes stertorous, the muscles relax and the pupils dilate and ultimately the breathing stops and the heart action is com- pletely arrested. The symptoms which obtain as a result of introducing 390 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY chloroform by the mouth are similar to those produced by its inhalation, but there may be present in addition to these a burning sensation in the throat and epigastric region and also pronounced tympanites. In either case the breath possesses a strong odor of chloroform. In cases of chloroform poisoning the patient should at once be removed into pure air and cold douches and artificial respiration be employed until the poison is removed. If the poison has been administered in liquid form by the mouth the first essential is to remove it from the stomach by mechanical means. Chloral Chloral is readily converted into chloroform by the action of alkalies and is widely used for the purpose of relieving pain. Its use is largely due to the fact that it does not produce nausea and headache present through the use of opium. The symptoms which obtain are those of excitement and delirium followed by insensibility, stertorous breathing, which gradually becomes very feeble and the heart beat is almost imperceptible. The countenance presents a livid appearance and the surface of the body may be cold and covered with perspiration. The best method of combating the poison is by fresh air and artificial respiration. The poison should be removed from the stomach and emeiics and stimulants are to be freely given. Ether Ether is a colorless liquid, very soluble in alcohol and somewhat soluble in water. It is very inflammable and is produced by distilling alcohol with sulphuric acid. The ef- fects produced by the inhalation of ether are similar to those resulting with chloroform, only that a larger quantity is re- quired and a longer period of time elapses before the effects become manifest. This substance, however, produces a greater 391 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY irritation of the air passages and more profuse insalivation. Death has occurred in cases under the influence of ether. Nitrous Oxid Nitrous oxid, commonly known as laughing gas, possesses the property of producing brief anesthesia. In several in- stances it has been employed to produce anesthesia for con- siderable length of time by administering it consecutively just before the patient returns to sensibility. Inebriants The inebriants are poisons which are capable of acting di- rectly upon the brain substance and producing intoxication. The best known of these substances is alcohol and others are such as cocculus indicus, nitrobenzene, anilin, etc. Alcohol Alcohol is a colorless volatile liquid and when taken in sufficient quantity has proven fatal in several instances. The symptoms obtaining in acute poisoning from the use of alcohol come on very suddenly, the individual appearing greatly confused and unable to walk steadily. Stupor and coma obtain rapidly and if vomiting does not ensue a complete collapse soon results. The symptoms may abate for a number of hours to recur subsequently and with greater degree of severity. There is present the characteristic odor of alcohol. The face is flushed and the pupils are dilated. The poison should be removed from the body as quickly as possible by mechanical means, or emetics. Mustard is considered to be particularly beneficial. Diluted ammonia or ammonium carbonate may also be administered. Cocculus Indicus The active principle of this poison is known as picrotoxin and obtains in the berry of the Menispermun cocculus. The 392 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY poison produces a sense of intoxication, followed by vomiting and purging. The patient is in a condition of stupor and pos- sesses consciousness of what is going on about him. There is complete loss of muscular power and in some cases convul- sions obtain. An eruption may obtain over the surface of the body similar to that of scarlatina. Nitro Benzene Nitro benzene is a coal-tar product of a poisonous nature. It does not show any effects upon the economy for about two hours after it has been ingested and in this way can be dis- tinguished from the effects produced by the oil of almonds. It imparts a characteristic odor to the breath and produces symp- toms of drunkeness, stupor and coma. Death results in a period of from eight to twelve hours. It may be distinguished from the oil of almonds by sulphuric acid, which reddens the almond essence, but does not effect nitro-benzene. Emetics are used to remove the unabsorbed poison and the narcosis is treated in a similar manner as with opium. Anilin Anilin is a colorless, poisonous liquid. It possesses an acrid taste and is derived by destructive distillation of coal. The symptoms obtaining in cases of anilin poisoning are sim- ilar to those which obtain with other inebriants and in addi- tion to these there is present a blue or purple discoloration of the body, particularly of the lips and nails. The mode of combating the destructive action of this poison is similar to that employed for alcohol, cocculus indicus and nitro-benzene. Deliritants The poisons belonging to this class are known as neu- rotics and produce a direct effect upon the brain substance resulting in delirium. To this class belong such substances as belladonna, stramonium, henbane, atropin, cocain, etc. CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 393 Belladonna is commonly known as deadly nightshade, the roots, leaves and berries of which are all poisonous, due to the presence of atropin. The symptoms obtaining in belladonna poisoning are dry- ness of the fauces, thirst, flushing of the face, dilatation of the pupils, double vision, giddiness, indistinct vision, nausea and vomiting, palpitation of the heart, physical and mental depres- sion, loss of the sense of taste, delirium and stupor. The sur- face of the body may be covered with rash similar to that present in scarlatina and there may be muscular twitching and convulsions. The symptoms appear in about one-half an hour after the poison has been taken and death results in a period of from three to six hours. Postmortem examination shows a congested condition of the blood vessels in the brain and lungs. The pupils appear dilated and the mucous membrane of the alimentary canal presents patches of purplish discoloration. The best way of neutralizing the effects of the poison is by the administration of stimulants and emetics. Castor oil and animal charcoal have been used with great success. Mor- phin is also useful in some cases. Belladonna Stramonium Stramonium obtains as a poison in the thorn apple and Jamestown weed. The fruit, seeds and leaves are the most poisonous parts of the plant. The active principle is known as daturin and possesses properties similar to those of atropin. The symptoms which obtain upon the ingestion of stra- monium are the same as those obtaining with belladonna and to combat the injurious effects of this poison a similar method of procedure as with belladonna is to be followed. 394 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Henbane The seeds of this plant are extremely poisonous and owe their poisonous property to the active alkaloid known as hyoscyamin. All other parts of the plant are similarly poison- ous though not to the same degree. The symptoms attending a case of henbane poisoning are giddiness, excitement, sense of weight in the head, general loss of physical power, trembling of the limbs, drunkeness, delir- ium, dilated pupils, double vision and coma. In the course of the symptoms there may also be present the loss of speech and profuse cold perspiration. To combat the effects of the poison emetics and stimulants should be administered, among which the best known is zinc sulphate. Castor oil should be given in full doses. Atropin Atropin, as before stated, is the active principle of bella- donna and it is through the ingestion of the latter poison that prominent symptoms have developed. Atropin, when intro- duced by subcutaneous injection, has resulted fatally and produced symptoms similar to those obtaining with belladonna and similar precautionary measures are advised as used with the latter poison. Cocain is a colorless crystalline alkaloid possessing a bit- ter taste and is insoluble in water and alcohol, but readily soluble in ether. It is commonly used as a local anesthetic in minor surgical operations. In small doses it obtains as a stimulant, but in large doses it has proven fatal in many in- stances. The ingestion of the poison produces a rapid feeble inter- mittent beating of the heart. The respiration is slow and feeble. There is delirium and dilatation of the pupils. Death Cocain CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 395 occurs from spasm of the muscles of the heart and respira- tion. Morphin is the best known physiological antidote. Convulsants The poisons of this class are nux vomica, brucin and strychnin. They are alkaloid derivatives of certain plants and exercise their effect directly upon the substance of the spinal cord, producing violent convulsions. Nux vomica contains both the active principles of brucin and strychnin. Nux Vomica This poison is the chief constituent of the plants contain- ing the active principles of brucin and strychnin. It obtains on the market as a white powder or as an alcoholic extract. When ingested in sufficient doses it produces serious symp- toms terminating fatally in a very short time. Repeated small doses of the poison possess cumulative effect and continued use of the poison in this manner has also proven fatal. The symptoms obtaining are: intense bitter taste, diffi- cult breathing, stiffness of the neck, muscular twitchings and a quivering of the entire body. There is present a ringing in the ears, drowsiness and imperfect speech. The face appears to be drawn, tetanic convulsions set in and death obtains through exhaustion. Emetics should be administered freely to produce vomit- ing, which should be followed by the ingestion of tannin, tea or infusion of oak bark. Chloroform is given to control the spasms. Brucin Brucin is a poison which when taken in sufficient doses produces symptoms similar to those present in morphin poi- soning. It is distinguished from morphin by its inability to decompose iodic acid. In the presence of nitric acid the crys- tals of brucin assume a red color. The same methods used in 396 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY combating the poisonous effects of morphin are also recom- mended for brucin pojsoning. Strychnin Strychnin is a very deadly poison and when ingested the symptoms result almost immediately and terminate fatally in a very short time. As small a dose as one-sixteenth of a grain of the poison is known to have proven fatal. The symptoms which obtain immediately or very shortly following the ingestion of the poison occur first as a severe bitter taste, particularly pronounced during the act of swollow- ing and shortly followed by difficult breathing and a sense of suffocation. The neck becomes stiff, muscular twitchings ob- tain and a quivering of the entire body soon sets in. The head is drawn back and the body is stiffened and arched back- ward. The face becomes dusky, the eyeballs protrude and the lips assume a livid appearance. Thirst is very apparent, but the patient is unable to drink because of existing spasms of the jaws. The poison does not seem to affect the brain and hence the patient retains full consciousness and possesses the sense of impending death. The interval of quiet between the attacks gradually decreases and soon the spasms succeed each other with such rapidity that the individual becomes entirely exhausted. Postmortem examination reveals a congested condition in the vessels of the brain, spinal cord and lungs and the vessels appear to be filled with blackened very liquid blood. The body stiffens very quickly after death and the rigor mortis may persist for a considerable number of days. The hands may be clenched and the soles of the feet arched and inverted. In the presence of potassium dichromate or ferrocyanid, strychnin dissolved in sulphuric acid, will result in the forma- tion of blue, violet and red color. By drying the skin of a frog and applying to it a few drops of the suspected solution, 397 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY strong tetanic convulsions will result every time that the ani- mal is irritated. Combat the effects of the poison by inducing vomiting through the use of emetics and then give strong tea, tannin or oak bark infusion. Keep the patient quiet and warm and administer chloroform or chloral to control the muscular spasms. Paralysants There are a great number of poisons which in the course of their symptoms frequently produce paralysis of the volun- tary muscles. The paralysants represent a number of poisons, the marked symptom of which is complete muscular paralysis. The most common of this class of poisons are curare, calabar and conium. Curare Curare is an extract of various poisonous plants. Inter- nally it is practically inert and harmless, but when subcu- taneously injected it produces paralysis of voluntary muscles. This poison is used chiefly in physiological experiments on various animals. When injected subcutaneously it gradually produces a slowing down of the heart action and diminished respiration. Death results from the ultimate contraction of the respiratory muscles. Calabar Calabar is the name given to the poison found in the calabar bean growing in certain regions of western Africa. This poison is sometimes known as physostigma and contains the active principle known as eserin. This poison, like curare, produces paralysis of the voluntary muscles with a slowing down of heart action and diminished respiration. The most characteristic effect of the poison is the contraction of the 398 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY pupils. Death results from the paralysis of the muscles of respiration. Conium Conium is a poison which obtains in the seeds, leaves and roots of poison hemlock and is employed as a sedative or antispasmodic. The active principle of the poison is a color- less, odorless fluid known as conin. It is a very poisonous substance and produces symptoms of delirium, stupor, coma and convulsions. Its chief effect is upon the substance of the spinal cord, through which action it produces motor paralysis and death results from the inability of the patient to get his breath, due to the paralysis of the muscles of respiration. The effects of the above three poisons may be overcome by the use of artificial respiration, thereby prolonging the action of the heart and tiding over the effects of the poison. In the last two of these poisons vomiting may obtain as one of the symptoms, and should it not obtain, emetics are freely to be employed. Syncopants The poi-sons of this class are such as aconite, prussic acid, potassium cyanid, gelsemium, peach, cherry and plum pits, etc. These poisons are very potent and produce death by syncope. Aconite Aconite is said to be the most deadly of all known poi- sons and cases are reported where one-fiftieth of a grain has resulted fatally. The active principle of the poison is an al- kaloid known as aconitin. The symptoms obtaining are heat, numbness and tingling in the mouth and throat, giddiness, loss of muscular power and sometimes delirium or purging. The skin is cold and the pulse extremely feeble. Breathing is oppressed and the pa- tient is in dread of approaching death. Though there is the CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 399 loss of muscular power, the individual is perfectly conscious until death, which results by collapse or asphyxia. Emetics must be given promptly and freely and if vomit- ing does not obtain the poison should be removed as quickly as possible by mechanical means. Castor oil, animal charcoal and strong coffee are very beneficial. Brandy or ammonia are given as stimulants, as is also nitrite of amyl and nitroglycerol. Artificial respiration in most cases is very necessary. Potassium Cyanid Potassium cyanid is a white deliquescent mass easily fusible and having the smell of cyanogen. Its solution is very poisonous and though its effects upon the human economy are not certain, they are probably the same as those obtaining in connection with hydrocyanic acid. The first condition which arises after the ingestion of potassium cyanid is to hurriedly evacuate the contents of the stomach. Hydrogen Cyanid Hydrogen cyanid is commonly known as hydrocyanic, or prussic acid. It is a limpid colorless liquid possessing an acrid taste and odor of bitter almonds. It is among the most formidable of all known poisons and its action is very rapid and energetic. The symptoms which obtain in cases of poisoning from prussic acid vary a great deal, depending largely upon the size of the dose or the state in which the poison is taken. Inhala- tion of the vapor of anhydrous, prussic acid produces death immediately, as does also a small dose of the concentrated acid or a large dose of the acid in dilute form. In any of the above three cases it is, therefore, impossible to determine the symp- toms which might obtain. A small dose of the acid produces the symptoms of faintness, insensibility, difficult breathing, muscular weakness and temporary paralysis. With proper care in these cases recovery has obtained. 400 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY When the acid is taken in dilute form and in large quan- tity the symptoms which obtain are insensibility, gasping, loss of muscular power, cold clammy skin, fixed and glistening eyes, dilated pupils, spasmodic closure of the jaws, impercept- able pulse and convulsions. These symptoms obtain very quickly after the poison is taken, although in some cases sev- eral minutes elapse before the insensibility obtains. Postmortem examination shows the veins greatly con- gested and the vessels of the brain, lungs, heart, liver and kid- neys are gorged with dark colored, fluid blood. The body presents a livid appearance, the jaws are firmly closed and the hands clenched. The eyes are prominent and glistening and there may be present blood or froth about the mouth. The odor of prussic acid may obtain about the body and is particularly pronounced when the stomach is opened. There is no specific antidote which can be relied upon, but substances like ferrous sulphate, sodium carbonate, per- oxid, ammonia and cobalt compounds possess some value. The method of combating the immediate effects of the poison is by cold affusions, warmth and stimulating frictions of the chest and abdomen, and should this obtain in recovery, eme- tics are then used, after which strong coffee and brandy are to be administered. Gelsemium Gelsemium obtains in gelsemium sempervirens, a climb- ing plant found growing in some of the southern states. It contains the active principle gelsemin, which acts as a motor depressant, producing paralysis and loss of sensibility by its action upon the spinal cord. The symptoms which obtain are vertigo, drooped eyelids, dilated pupils, impaired speech, and staggering gait. Death results from the paralysis of the muscles of respiration. No chemical antidote is known. There are a number of other vegetable substances such as CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 401 found to yield prussic acid and the ingestion of these has, in many cases, produced marked and distressing symptoms. Other substances possessing similar properties are apricot pits, cherry laurel, bitter almonds and pits of apples and pears. Depressants There are a great many substances of vegetable origin whose seeds, leaves and roots contain a poison which when administered into the body is capable of producing marked depression in the action of the heart. Some of the more com- mon of these substances are digitalis, tobacco, lobelia, colchium and white hellabore. Digitalis, or purple foxglove, contains the active prin- ciple digitalin, and when taken in sufficient doses, produces such symptoms as vomiting, purging, colic, headache, dimness of vision, dilated pupils, irregularity and slowness of the heart, prostration, convulsions and coma. Postmortem examination shows inflammation of the lining of the stomach and a congestion of the vessels in the brain. The best known antidote is strong tea of which the tannin renders the poison inert and harmless. Emetics should be given followed by strong coffee, with brandy to lessen the ex- treme depression. Tobacco contains the active principle nicotin, which is an oily, volatile, amber-colored liquid and in poisonous proper- ties as deadly as prussic acid. The use of tobacco by individ- uals not habituated to it, produces symptoms of nausea, vomit- ing, great prostration, headache and insensibility, and in other cases many more and very severe effects. Evacuate the contents of the stomach by the use of mus- tard emetics and use stimulants and purgatives freely. Lobelia, or Indian tobacco, possesses poisonous properties and when administered produces symptoms of nausea, vomit- ing, unconsciousness, slow feeble pulse, contraction of the 402 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY pupils, great prostration and exhaustion. Its active principle is similar to that found in ordinary tobacco. Colchium or meadow saffron possesses the active princi- ple colchicin. This poison has proven fatal in a number of in- stances producing symptoms similar to those obtaining with the other vegetable substances of this class. White hellebore owes its poisonous properties to the al- kaloid veratrin. When taken internally it produces purging, cold perspiration, slowing down of the heart's action, dilation of the pupils, great prostration, convulsions and death. In this, as well as other poisons of this class, emetics, purgatives and stimulants are the best means of combating the effects of the poison. Asphyxiants The chief among this class of substances are sulphuretted hydrogen, chlorin, bromin, nitrous fumes, illuminating gas and carbon monoxid and dioxid. These poisons produce their ef- fects upon the body by poisoning the blood and thereby de- stroying its power of carrying oxygen which ultimately re- sults in asphyxiation. Sulphuretted hydrogen, or hydrogen sulphid, is a very poisonous gas and possesses the offensive odor of rotten eggs. It results from the putrefaction of organic material and when inhaled in small quantities it produces dizziness, debility and anemia. In larger quantities there obtain the symptoms of headache, vertigo, giddiness, nausea, weak pulse, sweating and prostration. The best method of combating the effects of the poison is by fresh air, rest and stimulants. Artificial respiration should be resorted to when necessary. Illuminating gas is extremely poisonous and owes this property principally to carbon monoxid. Other poisonous ingredients which it contains are carbon dioxid and sulphur CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 403 dioxid. The symptoms produced by this gas are those of asphyxia, and if the individual is aroused before a fatal quan- tity has been inspired, there will obtain the symptoms of severe headache, labored respiration, quickened action of the heart and great weakness and depression. The poisonous effects of this gas are treated in a similar manner as those of hydrogen sulphid. Carbon monoxid is a colorless, tasteless, odorless and very poisonous gas. It possesses the power of combining with the hemoglobin of the blood, forming a combination known as methemoglobin and expelling the oxygen. It produces symp- toms of dizziness, headache, nausea and convulsions. If suffi- cient quantity has been inhaled to saturate all of the hemo- globin recovery seldom takes place. Postmortem examination shows the blood to be of a light red color and when exposed to the air does not coagulate. The spectroscope shows characteristic absorption bands in the spectrum. If the hemoglobin is partially saturated, re- covery may take place very slowly, but debility, anorexia and weakness remain for a number of days. Fresh air, rest and mild stimulation are the only means which possess any bene- ficial effect. Artificial respiration is of little or no account. Carbon dioxid is a colorless, odorless, transparent gas pos- sessing very marked poisonous properties. The effects that it produces when inhaled depend upon the concentration of the gas and its dilution with other gases. When inhaled in the pure state carbon dioxid produces death instantly by asphyxia, resulting from the spasm of the glottis. In the dilute form it gives rise to giddiness, irritation of the throat, ringing in the ears, headache, vomiting, loss of muscular power, tendency to sleep, rapid pulse and respiration and convulsions. The coun- tenance becomes livid, respiration stertorous. The person sinks down without any struggle and complete insensibility, coma and death rapidly ensue. 404 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Miscellaneous There are a number of poisons which possess the char- acteristic property of directly affecting the muscle of the uterus and producing powerful contraction. Among these are such substances as ergot, yew and oil of tansy. They are known as abortive poisons, but their use is extremely danger- ous, as they often produce fatal inflammation without procur- ing the intended abortion. Poisoning often results from the bites of venomous rep- tiles or rabid animals. When this obtains the first thing to do is to suck the poison from the wound and tie a ligature above the wound if possible, to keep the poison from spread- ing. If the wound is in a situation where a ligature cannot be used, it is well to compress the tissues about it. Wash the wound thoroughly and then paint with iodin, carbolic acid or nitric acid. In some instances the tissue surrounding the wound is excised or destroyed by a cauterizing agent. Stings of insects have in some cases resulted fatally, but usually the effects are only slight and rapidly pass away. The best remedy is to wash the wound with ammonia or apply mud, soap, or paste made from baking soda, or some other weak alkaline substance. Kerosene and gasoline, on being taken by the mouth or their vapors inhaled, have produced symptoms of severe in- toxication and insensibility. If vomiting does not obtain it should be encouraged by the use of mild emetics and copious draughts of hike warm water. Cases of poisoning from the use of formaldehyde have occurred in a number of instances. The symptoms obtaining are those of violent pain in the stomach, labored respiration, watering of the eyes and greatly increased mucus secretion. The pulse becomes gradually weaker, there is marked cya- nosis, the pupils become dilated'and death ensues within an CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 405 hour after the poison has been taken. Postmortem examina- tion shows the lining of the esophagus and stomach dark in color and leathery in texture. Various substances are recom- mended for use as remedies, among which are raw eggs, al- kaline solutions of peroxid and strychnin. 407 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY INDEX Page Hypophosphoric 89 Hypophosphorous 88 Hyposulphurous 81 Lactic 227 Metaboric 122 Metantimonious 96 Metaphosphoric 89 Metarsenic 92 Metasilicic 125 Monobasic 44 Nitric 358 Nitrous 73 Oxalic 208, 227, 361 Oleic . 226 Orthophosphoric 90 Orthosilicic 125 Palmitic 226 Persulphuric 81 Picric 230 Phosphoric 90 Phosphorous 89 Pyroarsenic 92 Pyroantimonious 96 Pyroboric 122 Pyrophosphoric 89 Sarcolactic 227 Selenic 83 Selenious 82 Silicic 125 Stannic 157 Stearic 226 Sulphuric 80, 357 Sulphurous 81 Tartaric 227, 363 Taurocholic 262 Telluric 84 Tellurous 84 Tetraboric 122 Tribasic 44, 228 Trisilicic 125 Trithiocarbonic 120 Uric 265, 316, 345 Valeric 226 Acid Oxids 43 Acid potassium tartrate poi- soning Antidotes for 370 Symptoms of 370 Page Acetal 224 Acetic acid 208, 225, 363 Dilute 225 Glacial 225 Acetic acid poisoning Antidotes for 363 Symptoms of 363 Acetic acid test 342 Acetone Dennige's test for 334 Gunning's test for 334 Lange's test for 324 Legal's test for 333 Lieben's test for 334 Tests for 235 Acetylenes Definition of 217 Acetylids 217 Acheson process 114 Achroodextrin 200 Acid 13 Acetic 208, 363, 225 Antimonic 96 Antimonious 96 Arsenic 92 Arsenious 92 Boric 122 Butyric 208, 226 Carbolic 230, 363 Carbonic 119 Carboxyl 225 Cholic 262 Cyanic 121 Dibasic 44, 227 Disilicic 125 Fatty 201 Ferrocyanic 173 Formic 226 Glutamic 213 Glycocholic 262 Hippuric 310, 342 Hydrazoic 70 Hydriodic 65 Hydrobromic 63 Hydrochloric ....59, 360, 272, 280 Hydrocyanic 120 Hydrofluoric 62 Hyponitrous 74 408 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Acid potassium sulphate 47 Acid reaction 42 Acid salts 47 Acidum Nitricum 73 Acids 21, 42 Aconite 398 Aconite poisoning 398 Activation 283 Adhesion 14 Adrenalin 287 After damp 215 Air 67 Amomnia of 68 Carbon dioxid of 68 Water vapor of 68 Air slacked lime 127 Alabaster 128 Albumins 209 Definition of 191 Esbach's test for 326 Heat test for 325 Heller's ring test for 325 Picric acid test for 325 Robert's test for 326 Tanret's test for 326 Albumoids 213 Albumose 208, 212 Alcohol 219, 221, 391 Absolute 220 Amyl 221 Butyl 221 Common 220 Definition of 192, 219 Diatomic 219, 221 Ethyl 220 Ethylene 221 Isomeric 219 Methyl 220 Monatomic 219, 220 Primary « 219 Propyl' 221 Secondary 219 Tertiary 219 Tests for 235 Triatomic 219, 221 Alcohol poisoning Symptoms of 391 Aldehydes 223 Acetic 223 Definition of 192, 223 Page Tests for 236 Alkali 48 Caustic 48 Volatile 49 Alkaline earths 39 Alkaline reaction 48 Alkaline metals 39 Allotropy 14 Alloy 13 Aloes 373 Aluminum 158 Chlorid of 160 Compounds of 160 Hydroxid of : 160 Occurrence of 158 Oxid of 160 Preparation of 158 Properties of 159 Silicates of 162 Sulphate of 161 Sulphid of 161 Tests for 187 Aluminum group 39 Alums 161 Amalgam 13, 99 Amalgamation process 145 Amids 228 Amins 70, 228 Ammonia 69, 208 Definition of 69 Folin's test for 332 Ronchese test for 333 Shaffer's test for 332 Tests for 180, 250 Ammonium 110 Alum of 162 Bromid of Ill Carbonate of 112, 368 Chlorid of 110 Cyanid of 120 Definition of 110 Disulphate of Ill Hydroxid of 69, 367 lodid of Hl Nitrate of Ill Nitrite of Ill Sulphate of Ill Sulphid of Ill Sulphydrate of Ill Ammonium carbonate poisoning 368 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 409 Page Ammoniacal copper 'solution test * 324 Ammonium hydroxid poisoning 367 Ammonium sulphate test 330 Amorphous 14 Amphoteric 240 Amylase 253 Amylodextrin 200 Amyloid 214 Amylopsin 257, 283 Amylose 198 Analysis 11, 15 Anesthetic ✓ 350, 389 Anhydrid 43, 128 Anilin 392 Anilin poisoning 392 Animal irritants 373 Animal poison 356 Antidote 350 Antimony 93 Butter of '. 95 Chlorid of 380 Compounds of 94 Nitrate of 95 Occurrence of 94 Pentachlorid of 96 Pentafluorid of 96 Pentasulphid of 95 Pentiodid of 96 Pentoxid of 95 Preparation of 94 Properties of 94 Tests for 182 Tetroxid of 95 Tribromid of 96 Trichlorid of 95 Trifluorid of 96 Triiodid of t6 Trioxid of 95 Trisulphid of 95 Antimony chlorid poisoning Antidotes for 381 Postmortem appearances in. 380 Symptoms of 380 Antimonic acid 96 Antimonious acid 96 Antipeptone 212 Aqua regia 60 Arabinose 195 Argol 228 Page Argon group 39 Arnold's test 335 Aromatic hydrocarbon 229 Arsenic 90, 377 Bisulphid of 92 Compounds of 91 Diiodid of 93 Flowers of 91 Occurrence of 90 Pentaiodid of 93 Pentasulphid of 93 Pentoxid of 92 Preparation of 90 Properties of 90 Tests for 181 Tribromid of 93 Trichlorid of 93 Trifluorid of '.. 93 Triiodid of 93 Trioxid of 91 Trisulphid of 93 Arsenic acid 92 Arsenic poisoning Antidote for 379 Postmortem appearances in. 378 Symptoms of 378 Arsenious acid ..: 92 Arsin 91 Asphyxiants 402 Atom 11, 27 Atomic and electron theories. . 27 Atomicity 7» 49 Atomic weight 11 Table of 40 Atropin 393 Auric chlorid 151 Auric oxid 151 Auric sulphid 152 Aurous chlorid 151 Aurous cyanid 151 Aurous oxid 151 Aurous sulphid 151 Avogadro's hypothesis 31 Barium 131, 386 Bromid of 132 Carbonate of 132 Chlorid of 132, 386 Chromate of 165 Compounds of 131 410 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Definition of 131 Fluorid of '. 132 lodid of 132 Nitrate of 131 Occurrence of 131 Oxid of 132 Preparation of 131 Properties of 131 Sulphate of 132 Sulphid of 132 Tests for 184 Barium chlorid poisoning Antidotes for 386 Symptoms of 386 Base Atomicity of 49 Diacid 49 Diatomic 49 Monoacid 49 Monotomic 49 Triacid 49 Triatomic 49 Basic salt 47 Base metals 37 Bases 14, 42, 48, 244 Benedict's test 233, 323 Benzol 229 Belladonna 393 Belladonna poisoning Postmortem appearances in. 393 Symptoms of 393 Bile , 261, 281 Acids of 262 Definition of 239 Salt of 342 Bile pigments Foam test for 331 Gmelin's test for 330 Hammarsten's test for 331 Hupert's test for 331 Rosenbach's test for 331 Trousseau's test for 331 Biliverdin 261 Binary compounds 19, 47 Bismuth 96 Bromid of 97 Compounds of 97 Definition of 96 Dioxid of 97 Fluorid of 97 Page lodid of 97 Occurrence of 96 Pentoxid of 97 Preparation of 96 Properties of 97 Tests for 182 Tetroxid of 97 Trichlorid of 97 Trioxid of 97 Trisulphid of 98 Bismuth reduction test 234, 323 Bites of rabid animals 404 Black's test 336 Blood 291 Antibodies of 294 Blood plates of 296 Chemistry of 291 Coagulation of 296 Definition of 239 Fibrin of 296 Guaiacum test for 327 Heller's test for 327 Hemoglobin of 292 Methemoglobin of 293 Optical properties of 297 Osmotic pressure of 297 Oxy-hemoglobin of 293 Plasma 291 Proteins of 292, 297 Reaction of 292, 297 Red blood corpuscles of.... 294 Specific gravity of 292 Struve's test for 327 Tests for 327 Thrombin of 296 Thrombogen of 296 Thrombokinase of 296 White corpuscles of 294 Bone black 115 Borates Tests for 183 Borax 110, 123 Borax glass 110 Boric acid 122 Tests for 183 Boron 121 Hydrid of 123 Nitrid of 123 Occurrence of 121 Preparation of 121 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 411 Page Properties of 122 Sulphid of 123 Trichlorid of 123 Trifluorid of 123 Britannia metal 156 Bromin 62, 375 Occurrence of 62 Preparation of 62 Properties of 62 Test for 178 Bromin poisoning Postmortem appearances in. 375 Bronze 156 Brucin 395 Butyric acid208, 226 Cadmium 140 Bromid of 140 Chlorid of 140 Compounds of 140 Definition of 140 Hydroxid of 140 Todid of 141 Nitrate of 141 Oxid of 140 Sulphate of 141 Sulphid of 141 Tests for 185 Calabar 397 Calcium 126 Acid phosphate of 242 Carbid of 129 Carbonate of128, 346 Chlorid of 129 Cyanid of 120 Fluorid of 129 Hydroxid of 127 Occurrence of 127 Oxalate of 346 Oxid of 127 Phosphate of128, 242, 346 Phosphid of 128 Preparation of 127 Properties of 127 Silicate of 129 Silicid of 129 Sulphid of 129 Sulphite of 128 Tests for 184 Calcium group 39 1 Page Calomel 138 Cane sugar 197 Carbamid 228 Carbohydrate 190, 194 Carbolic acid230, 363 Carbolic acid poisoning Antidotes for 364 Detection of 364 Postmortem appearances in. 364 Symptoms of 364 Carbon 113 Allotropic forms of 114 Amorphous 114, 115 Definition of 113 Dioxid of118, 403 Disulphid of 119 Monoxid of116, 403 Occurrence of 113 Oxysulphid of 117 Carbon, pyrophoric 115 Carbon dioxid tests 183 Carbon group 41 Carbon monoxid poisoning Postmortem appearances in. 403 Symptoms of 403 Carbonado 114 Carbonates 243 Carbonic acid 119 Carborundum 126 Carboxyl acids225 Carbonyl chlorids 117 Carotid glands 299 Casts 347 Caustic alkalies 49 Caustic and carbonated alkalies 365 Catalytic agent 253 Cellulose 198, 200 Cesium 112 Charcoal 115 Chemistry of Blood 291 Carotid glands 299 Coccygeal 299 Digestion summarized 278 Gastric digestion 271 Hemolymph glands 299 Internal secretion 285 Kidneys 304 Liver 259 Lymphatic nodes 298 412 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Organic 116 Pancreas 266 Parathyroid 286 Pineal gland 288 Pituitary body 288 Reproductive organs 289 Salivary glands 269 Sebaceous glands 303 Spleen 268 Suprarenal glands 287 Sweat 302 Thymus gland 287 Thyroid 285 Chemical changes 15 Chemical equations 12 Chemical phenomena 15 Chili saltpeter 108 Chloral 224, 390 Definition of 192 Hydrate of 224 Tests for 236 Chloral poisoning symptoms... 390 Chloric acid test 180 Chlorid of lime 129 Chlorids 243 Tests for 249 Volhard's test for 338 Chlorin 58, 374 Compounds of 60 Occurrence of 58 Preparation of 58 Properties of 59 Tests for 178 Chlorin group 41 Chloroform 218, 389 Tests for 235 Chloroform poisoning symp- toms 389 Cholesterol 203 Definition of 191 Tests for 234 Chrome iron 162 Chromic chlorid 164 Chromic hydroxid 163 Chromic oxid 163 Chromium 162 Compounds of 163 Definition of 162 Occurrence of 162 Preparation of 163 Page Properties of 163 Sesquioxid of 163 Tests for 188 Trioxid of 163 Chromous chlorid 164 Chromous hydroxid 164 Chromyl chlorid 164 Chyle 240, 262 Chyme 240, 262 Chyluria 345 Citric acid test 343 Classification of elements 37 Coagulation 249 Definition of 240 Spontaneous 240 Coagulated protein 207 Coagulating enzymes 256 Coagulating proteins 210 Cobalt 174 Compounds of 175 Occurrence of 175 Preparation of 175 Properties of 175 Tests for 189 Cobaltous chlorid 175 Cobaltous hydroxid 175 Cobaltous nitrate 175 Cobaltous oxid 175 Cobaltous sulphate 175 Cobaltous sulphid 175 Cocain 394 Cocculus Indicus 391 Coccygeal gland 299 Codein 337 Coefficient 14, 17 Cohesion 14 Coke 115 Colchium 402 Collagen 191, 213 Colocynth 373 Calomel 383 Columbian spirit 220 Combustion12, 57 Common caustic 99 Composition of the human body 241 Compounds 11 Compounds of Aluminum 160 Barium 131 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 413 Page Cadmium 140 Chlorin i 60 Chromium 163 Cobalt 175 Copper 143 Gold 151 Hydrogen and oxygen 58 Iron 171 Lead 153 Magnesium 133 Manganese 166 Mercury 137 Nickel 174 Phosphorus 86 Platinum 176 Potassium 99 Silver 147 Sodium 105 Strontium 131 Tin 156 Zinc 135 Conium 398 Conium poisoning symptoms:. 398 Convulsant 350, 395 Copper 141, 385 Arsenite of 144, 385 Compounds of 143 Cupric compounds of 141 Cuprous compounds of 141 Definition of 141 Nitrate of 144 Occurrence of 141 Preparation of 141 Properties of 142 Subacetate of 385 Sulphate of 144, 385 Sulphid of 144 Tests for 185 Copper arsenite poisoning Antidote for 386 Postmortem appearances in. 386 Symptoms of 385 Copperas ... 172 Corrosive mineral acids 357 Corrosive organic derivatives.. 363 Corrosive poisons 349, 356, 357 Corrosive sublimate 138, 381 Corrosive vegetable acid poi- soning Symptoms of 361 Page Creatin 310 Creatinnin 309 Crystallization 12 Cupellation 146 Cupric chlorid 143 Cupric cyanic! 144 Cupric hydroxid 143 Cupric oxid 143 Cupric sulphid 145 Cuprous bromid 143 Cuprous chlorid 143 Cuprous cyanid 144 Cuprous fluorid 144 Cuprous iodid 143 Cuprous oxid 143 Curare 397 Cyanic acid 121 Cyanids, test for 183 Cyanid process 150 Cyanogen 120 Cymogene 216 Cystin 209, 341, 346 Cytase 253, 254 Decomposition 15 Definition of Acetylenes 217 Acid • 13 Adhesion 14 Albumin 191 Albumose . 191 Alcohol 192, 219 Aldehyde 192, 223 Allotropy 14 Alloy 13 Amalgam 13 Amin 192 Amorphous 14 Amyloid . 192 Amylose 190 Anaesthetic 350 Analysis H Anhydrid 43 Antidote 350 Atom 11 Atomic weight 11 Base 14, 18 Bile 239 Blood 239 Carbohydrate 190, 194 414 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Chemical equation 12 Chemistry 11 Chloral 192 Chloroform 192 Cholesterol 191 Chyle 240 Chyme 240 Coagulation 240 Coefficient 14 Cohesion 14 Collagen 191 Combustion 12 Compound , 11 Convulsant 350 Corrosive poisoning 349 Crystallization 12 Deliquescence 13 Deliriant 350 Depressant 350 Desiccation 13 Diffusion 12 Disaccharide 190, 196 Dissolution 12 Distillation 12 Ductile 14 Effervescence 13 Efflorescence 13 Elastin 192 Electrolysis 14 Electrolyte 14 Element 11 Emetic 350 Enterokinase 240 Enzyme 239 Ester 192 Ether 192 Expoent 14 Exsiccation 13 Ferment '. 239 Fermentation 239 Fibrinogen 191 Formula 12 Fusion 13 Glycerol 191 Glycogen J 90 Gravitation 12 Hemoglobin 191 Hexose 190 Histone 191 Page Hormone . 239 Hydrocarbon ...... 192, 215 Hydroxid 14 Hydrozin 230 Indol 192 Inebrient 350 Ion 14 Ionization 14 Irritant poison 349 Isomeric substance 190 Keratin 192 Ketone 192, 224 Lecithin 191 Local effect 349 Lymph 240 Malleable 14 Matter 11 Melting 12 Metal 13 Methane 192 Mobility 12 Molecule 11 Molecular weight 11 Monosaccharide 190, 194 Narcotic 350 Neurotic poison 349 Organic chemistry 190, 193 Osmosis 240 Oxid 12 Oxidation 12 Oxidizing agent 14 Paraffin 192 Paralysant 350 Pentose 190 Peptone 191 Phenol 192, 229 Phosphorescence 13 Physiological chemistry 239 Poison 349 Polarity 12 Polymeric substance 190 Polysacchride 190, 198 Precipitation 12 Protamines 191 Proteins 191 Radical 13 Reaction 12 Reagent 12 Reducing agent 14 Reduction 13 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 415 Page Remote effect 349 Salt 13, 45 Saponification 239 Science 11 Serum 239 Simple irritant 349 Skatol 192 Specific irritant 349 Sublimation 12 Symbol 11 Syncopant 350 Synthesis 11 Toxicology 349 Trisaccharide 190 Valency 11 Volume ' 12 Deliquescence 13 Deliriant350, 392 Dennige's test 334 Depressant350, 401 Derived and transformation products 212 Desiccation 13 Destructive distillation 115 Dextrin Ill Dextrose 195 Diabetic sugar 195 Diacetic acids Arnold's test for 335 Ferric chlorid test for 335 Diacid base 49 Diacid salt 47 Diads 23 Dialyzed iron 171 Diamond 114 Diastase 253 Diatomic 49 Dibasic acid 227 Dibasic stibium chlorid 48 Dichlormethane 218 Diffusion 12 Digitalis 401 Digitalin poisoning Postmortem appearances in. 401 Symptoms of 401 Diphosphorus tetraiodid 88 Disaccharides 196 Disilicic acid 125 Disodium phosphate 108 Dissolution 12 Page Distillation 12 Donne's test 345 Doremus' test 328 Double salt 47 Ductile 14 Effervescence 13 Efflorescence 13 Egg albumin 209 Ehrlich Diazo reaction 344 Elastin213, 214, 192 Electrolysis 14 Electrolyte 14, 50 Electrons 29 Electron theory 28 Element 11, 37 Elements Classification of 37 Table of 40 Elements and compounds..... 54 Emetic 350 Emulsion 202 Enterokinase 240, 273, 284. Enzyme Amylase 253 Amylolitic 253 Amylopsin ....'267, 283 Coagulating 240, 256 Cytase 253, 254 Diastase 253 Enterokinase 273, 274, 284 Erepsin 255, 273, 284 Glucosid splitting 256 Inulase 254 Invertase 254 Laccase 256 Lactase154, 273, 284 Lipase 254, 273, 281 Lypolytic 240, 254 Maltase 254, 270, 274 Oxidase 256 Pectase 254 Pectinase 254 Pepsin 255, 272, 280 Proteolytic 240, 255, 272 Pytalin 270, 279 Rennin 255, 267, 272, 284 Secretin 283 Steapsin 267, 284 Surcase 254, 273, 284 Thrombase 256 416 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Thrombin 296 Thrombokinase 296 Trypsin 255, 267, 283 Tyrosinase 256 Urease 257 Optimum temperature of.... 252 Ergot 404 Erythrodextrin * 200 Esbach's test 326 Esters 222 Ethane 216 Ethene 217 Ether 222, 390 Definition of 192 Methyl 222 Sulphuric 222 Ethine , 217 Ethyl acetate 223 Ethyl chlorid 219 Ethyl nitrite 223 Ethyl sulphate 222 Eureka reagent 232 Exponent 14, 17 Exsiccation 13 Fact 29 Fats and related substances... 201 Fatty acids 201 Fehling's test 233, 322 Feldspar 13') Ferment 239 Fermentation 252, 257 Acetic 257 Acid 307 Alcoholic 257 Butyric 258 Definition of 239 Lactic 257 Ferment Organized and unorganized. 253 Ferric bromid 172 Ferric chlorid 171 Ferric chlorid test 335 Ferric hydroxid ' 171 Ferric oxid 171 Ferric sulphate 173 Ferric sulphid 172 Ferrocyanic acid 173 Ferrous bicarbonate 173 Ferrous bromid 172 Page Ferrous carbonate 173 Ferrous chlorid 171 Ferrous ferric oxid 171 I''err ous hydroxid ■ 171 Ferrous iodid 172 Ferrous oxid 171 Ferrous sulphate 172 Ferrous sulphid 172 Fibrin 210 Fibrinogen 191, 210 Fire damp . 215 Fluorin 61 Occurrence of 61 Preparation of 61 Properties of 62 Fluorspar « 51 Foam test 331 Folin's test ; 332, 339 Formaldehyde 223, 404 Formaldehyde poisoning Postmortem appearances in. 405 Symptoms of 404 Formalin 223 Formic acid 226 Formula 12, 16 Empirical 18 Graphic 18 Rational 18 Structural 18 Fowler's solution 92 Fundus glands 271, 279 Fusion 13 Fructose 196, 198 Galactose 196 Galena 155 Garnet 130 Gaseous exchange in the lungs 301 Gasolene 404 Gastric juice 279 Gelsemium 400 Gelsemium poisoning symptoms 400 Glass 130 Glacial phosphoric acid 89 Globin 211, 292 Globulin 210 Glucose 195 Glucosid splitting enzyme 256 Glutamic acid 213 Glutin 213 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 417 Page Glycerol 202, 221 Definition of 191 Glycin 262 Glycocoll 213 Glycogen 199, 260 Definition of 190 Test for 234 Glycol 221 Gmelin's test 330 Gold 149 Compounds of 151 Definition of 149 Mosaic 158 Occurrence of 150 Preparation of 150 Properties of 151 Tests for 186 Granulose 198 Grape sugar • 195 Graphite 114 Gravitation 12 Green vitrol 172 Group Aluminum 39 Argon 39 Calcium 39 Carbon 41 Chlorin 41 Iron 41 Nitrogen 41 Oxygen 41 Potassium 39 Triad 38 Guaiacum test 327 Gums 198, 199 Gunning's test 334 Gypsum 128 Haemolymph glands 299 Haine's test 322, 232 Halogens 41, 42, 58 Haloid substitution products... 218 Hammarsten's test 331 Hard coal 115 Heat test 325 Hellebore 387 Heller's test 325, 327 Hematin 292 Hemoglobin 191, 213 Henbane 394 Page Henbane poisoning symptoms. 394 Hexose 190, 194, 195 Hippuric acid 310, 342 Histones 191, 211 Hofmann's test 340 Homologous 193 Hormone 239, 285 Hufner's test 328 Huperfs test 331 Hydrated starch 198 Hydrazoic acid 70 Hydrazins ..70, 230 Definitions of 230 Primary 231 Secondary 231 Hydriodic acid 65 Tests for 179 Hydrobromic acid 63 Tests for 179 Hydrocarbons Aromatic 229 Closed chain series of 215 Definition of 192, 215 Open chain series of 215 Satisfied 215 Saturated 215 Hydrochloric acid 59, 272, 360 Hydrochloric acid poisoning Antidotes for 360 Detected by 360 Postmortem appearances in. 360 Symptoms of 360 Hydrocyanic acid 120 Hydrofluoric acid 62 • Tests for 179 Hydrogen 54 Antimonid of 94 Arsenid of 91 Cyanid of 399 Definition of 54 Monoxid of 247 Nascent 54 Occurrence of 54 Oxid of 247 Preparation of 54 Properties of 55 Selenid of 82 Silicid of 125 Sulphid of 77, 402 Tellurid of 83 418 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Tests for . 178 Hydrogen cyanid poisoning Postmortem appearances in. 400 Symptoms of 399 Hydrogen peroxid 58 Test for 178 Hydrogen sulphid 208, 209 Occurrence of 77 Preparation of 77 Properties of 78 Tests for 180 Hydroxid 14 Hydrozone 195 Hyperchlorhydria 272 Hypochlorhydria 272 Hyponitrons acid 74 Hypophosphoric acid 89 Hypophosphorous acid 88 Hyposulphurous acid 81 Hypoxanthin 309 Illuminating gas 402 Illuminating gas poisoning Symptoms of 403 Indican Jaffe's test for 337 Obermayer's test for 337 Indigo carmine test 324 Indol 192, 231, 275 Inebriant 350, 391 Inorganic chemistry 11 Inorganic substances in the body 242 Intestinal digestion 273, 284 Intestinal putrefaction 276 Inulase 254 Invertase 254 lodin 64, 374 Occurrence of ....: 64 Preparation of 64 Properties of 64 Test for 178, 337 lodin poisoning Symptoms of 374 Ionization 14, 50 Ions 14, 50 Iron 167 Cast 169 Compounds of 171 Definition of 167 Disulphid of 172 Page Electrolytic 169 Gray cast 169 Malleable 170 Occurrence of 168 Pig 169 Preparation of 168 Properties of 168 Pyrophoric 169 Sulphate of 372 Tests for 188 White cast 169 Wrought 169 Iron group 41 Iron sulphate poisoning Antidote for 372 Irritant gases 374 Irritant poison 349, 356 Isomeric substances 190, 193 Jaffe's test 337 Kaolin 162 Keratin 192, 213, 244 Kerosene 216, 404 Ketones 192, 224 Symmetrical 225 Unsymmetrical 225 Kidneys 303 Chemistry of 304 Structure of 304 King's yellow 93 Kjeldahl's test 343 Laburnum 387 Laccase 256 Lactase 254, 273, 284 Lactic acid 227 Test for 236 Lactose 197 Lakes 160 Lamp black 115 Lange's test 334 Laudanum 388 Laudanum poisoning Symptoms of 389 Law of Absolute weight 34 Berthelot 34 Boyle 36 Charles 36 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 419 Page Definite proportion 27, 30 Definition of 30 Diffusion 36 Dulong and Petit 32 Faraday 36, 51 Gay Lussac 31 Gravitation 33 Henry 34 Hess 34 Isomorphism 32 Lavoisier and Laplace 34 Mass action 33 Mass conservation 33 Multiple proportion........28, 30 Octaves 34 Periodic 39 Reciprocal proportion 28, 31 Specific gravity 30 Thermoneutrality 36 Valency 33 Lead 152, 383 Acetate of 155, 383 Arsenate of 155 Bromid of 154 Carbonate of 155, 383, 384 Chlorid of 154 Chromate of 165 Compounds of 153 Definition of 152 Hydroxid of 154 lodid of 154 Nitrate of 154 Occurrence of 152 Oxid of 153 Peroxid of 154 Preparation of 152 Properties of 152 Sesquioxid of 154 Subacetate of 383 Suboxid of 153 Sulphate of 155 Sulphite of 155 Tests for 187 Tetrachlor id of 154 Lead acetate poisoning Postmortem appearances in...383 Symptoms of 383 Lead carbonate poisoning Antidote for 384 Symptoms of 384, 385 Page Lead palsy 385 Lead subacetate poisoning 383 LeBlanc process 107 Lecithin 203 Definition of 191 Legal's test 333 Leucin 208, 229, 341 Levulose 196 Lieben's test 334 Lime 127 Lime water 127 Lipase 254, 273, 281 Liquid phosphin 87 Litharge 153 Lithium 112 Carbonate of 112 Chlorid of 112 Definition of 112 Phosphate of 112 Test for 183 Liver Chemistry of 259 Glycogen of 260 Pigments of 261 Lobelia 401 Local effect 349, 352 Lucifer disease 376 Lucin 214 Lunar caustic 148 Lymph 298, 240 Lymph nodes 298 Lymphogogues 299 Lypolytic enzyme 254 Lysol 230, 365 Lysol poisoning Antidotes for 365 Symptoms of 365 Manganese ■ 165 Compounds of 166 Definition of 165 Dioxid of 166 Heptoxid of 166 Occurrence of 165 Preparation of 165 Properties of 166 Sesquioxid of 166 Tests for 188 Trioxid of 166 Manganic chlorid 167 420 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Manganic hydroxid 167 Manganic sulphate 167 Manganous carbonate 167 Manganous chlorid 167 Manganous hydroxid 166 Manganous oxid 166 Manganous sulphate 167 Magnesia alba 133 Magnesium 133 Carbonate of133 Chlorid of134 Compounds of 133 Definition of 133 Hydroxid of 133 Occurrence of133 Oxid of 133 Phosphates of134, 346 Reparation of 133 Properties of 133 Sulphate of 133 Tests for184 Maltase 254, 270, 284 Maltose 197 Marsh gas 215 Marsh's test 181 Massicot 153 Matter 11 Melanin 307 Melibose 198 Melting 12 Mercuric chlorid138, 381 Mercuric chlorid poisoning Antidotes for 382 Postmortem appearances in.. 382 Symptoms of 381 Tests for 382 Mercuric cyanid 140 Mercuric fulminate 140 Mercuric iodid 139 Mercuric nitrate 139 Mercuric oxid 137 Mercuric sulphate 139 Mercuric sulphid 140 Mercurous chlorid138, 383 Mercurous chromate 165 Mercurous iodid 139 Mercurous nitrate 139 Mercurous oxid 137 Mercurous sulphate 139 Mercury136, 381 Page Compounds of 137 Definition of 136 Occurrence of 136 Preparation of 136 Properties of 136 Tests for 184 Meta-arsenic acid 92 Metaboric acid 122 Metaldehyde 224 Metaloids 38 Metals 37, 13 Metals of the earths 39 Metameric 193 Metantimonious acid 96 Metaphosphoric acid 89 Metasilicic acid 125 Methane 192, 215 Methemoglobin 293 Methylated spirit 220 Methyl chlorid 218 Mica 130 Milk of lime 127 Milk sugar 197 Million's reagent 139 Mineral poison 356 Mobility 12 Mohr's salt 173 Molecular weight 11 Molecule 11, 27 Monads 23 Monatomic 49 Monoacid base 49 Monobasic acid 44 Monobasic stibium chlorid 48 Monosaccharides 190, 194 Monosodic phosphate 108 Moore's test 324 Morphin 388 Mucin Acetic acid test for 342 Citric acid test for 343 Murexid test329 Myosin 210, 211 Myosinogen 211 Narcotic,.350, 388 Narcotic poisoning Symptoms of 388 Natural gas 216 Neurotic poison349, 356, 388 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 421 Page Nickel • 174 Compounds of 174 Definition of 174 Occurrence of 174 Preparation of 174 Properties of 174 Tests for 188 Nickelic oxid 174 Nickelous hydroxid 174 Nickelous nitrate 174 Nickelous sulphate 174 Nicotin 401 Niter 102 Nitrate, test for 251 Nitric acid 72, 73, 358 Tests for 178 Nitric acid poisoning Antidotes of 359 Detection of 359 Postmortem appearances in. 359 Symptoms of 359 Nitrites, test for 251 Nitrobenzene 229, 392 Nitrobenzene poisoning Symptoms of 392 Nitrogen 66 Dioxid of 72 lodid of 74 Kjeldahl's test for 343 Monoxid of 71 Occurrence of 66 Oxids of 71 Oxy-acids of- 71 Pentoxid of 72 Preparation of 66 Properties of 67 Tetroxid of 72 Tribromid of 74 Trichlorid of 74 Trioxid of 72 Nitrogen derivatives of hydro- carbon 228 Nitrogen group 41 Nitro-muriate of tin 157 Nitrous acid 73 Nitrous oxid 391 Noble metals 37 Nomenclature •... 19 Non metals 37 Nordhausen acid 81 Page Notation 16 Notation and nomenclature.... 15 Nucleo histones 211 Nux Vomica 395 Nux Vomica poisoning Symptoms of 395 Nylander's test 323 Obermayer's test 337 Olefins 216 Oleic acid 226 Olein 201 Opium 388 Opium poisoning Antidote for 388 Postmortem appearances in. 388 Symptoms of 388 Optimum temperature 340 Organic acids 225 Dibasic 225 Monobasic 225 Tribasic 225 Organic chemistry 116, 190, 193 Organs of reproduction 289 Ovaries 289 Tests 289 Orthophosphoric acid 90 Orthosilicic acid 125 Osazone 195, 199 Osmosis 240 Oxalic acid 208, 227, 361 Tests for 236 Oxalic acid poisoning Antidotes for 362 Detection of 362 Postmortem appearances in. 362 Symptoms of 361 Oxid 12 Oxidases 256 Oxidation 12, 56 Oxidation test 250 Oxidizing agent 14 Oxybutyric acid Black's test for 336 Oxygen 55 Occurrence of 56 Preparation of 56 Properties of 56 Tests for 178 Oxyhemoglobin ..213, 293: 422 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Ozone 57 Tests for 178 Painters colic 384 Palmitic acid 226 Palmatin 201 Pancreas Enzymes of 267 Pancreatic digestion 282 Paraffins 215 Definition of 192 Paraformaldehyde 223 Paraldehyde 224 Paralysant 350, 397 Parathyroid glands 286 Paris green 92 Parke process 145 Parvy's test 233, 323 Pattison process 146 Pectase 254 Pectinase 254 Pentose 190, 194, 195 Pepsin 255, 272, 280 Pepsinogen 255, 280 Peptones 191, 208, 212 Periodic law 39 Persulphuric acid 81 Petroleum 216 Pewter 156 Phenols 192, 229 Diatomic 230 Monotomic 230 Tests for 236 Triatomic 230 Phenyl hydrazin 231 Phenyl hydrazin test 234, 323 Phosgene 117 Phosphates 242 Phosphorescence 13 Phosphoric acid 90 Tests for 181 Phosphorous acid 89 Phosphorus 84 Acids of 88 Compounds of 86 Definition of 84 Occurrence of 84 Oxids of 88 Oxybromid of 88 OxyfluoVid of 88 Page Pentabromid of 88 Pentachlorid of 87 Pentaflorid of 87 Pentoxid of 88 Preparation of 84 Properties of 85 Tests for 180 Tribromid of 88 Trichlorid of 87 Trifluorid of 87 Triiodid of 88 Triiodid of 88 Phosphorus poisoning Postmortem appearances in. 376 Symptoms of 376 Photography 147 Physical change 15 Physical and chemical change. 15 Physical phenomenon 15 Physiological chemistry 239 Picric acid 230, 325 Pineal gland 288 Piria's test 340 Pituitary body 288 Plaster of Paris 128 Platinous chlorid 177 Platinum 176 Compounds of 176 Occurrence of 176 Preparation of 176 Properties of 176 Tetrachlorid of 176 Plumbago 114 Poison 349 Acetic acid 363 Acid potassium tartrate 370 Alcohol 391 Aloes 373 Ammonium carbonate 368 Ammonium hydroxid 367 Anconite 398 Anassthetic 350, 389 Anilin 392 Animal 356 Animal irritant 373 Antimony chlorid 380 Arsenic 377 Asphyxiant 402 Atropin 394 Barium chlorid • 386 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 423 Page Belladonna 393 Black hellebore 387 Bromin 375 Brucin 395 Calabar 397 Carbolic acid 363 Carbon dioxid 403 Carbon monoxid 403 Chiropractically considered.. 351 Chloral 390 Chlorin 374 Chloroform 389 Cocain 394 Cocculus Indicus 391 Colchium 402 Colocynth 373 Conium 398 Convulsant 395 Copper arsenite 385 Copper subacetate 385 Copper sulphate 385 Corrosive 349, 356, 357 Corrosive mineral acid 357 Corrosive vegetable acid 361 Curare 397 Deliriant 350, 392 Depressant 350, 401 Digitalis 401 Emetic 350 Ergot 404 Ether 390 Formaldehyde 404 Gelseminum 400 Generally considered351, 352 Henbane 394 How introduced 353 Hydrochloric acid 360 Hydrogen cyanid 399 Hydrogen sulphid 402 Illuminating gas 402 Inebriant 350, 391 lodin 374 Iron sulphate 372 Irritant 349, 356, 369 Irritant gas 374 Laburnum 387 Laudanum 388 Lead 383 Lead acetate 383 Page Lead carbonate 384 Lead subacetate 383 Lobelia 401 Local effect of 352 Lysol 365 Mercuric chlorid 381 Mercurous chlorid 383 Mercury 381 Morphin 388 Narcotic 350, 388 Neurotic 349, 356, 388 Nicotin 401 Nitric acid 358 Nitrobenzene 392 Nitrous oxid 391 Nux Vomica 395 Opium 388 Oxalic acid 361 Paralysant 397 Phosphorus 376 Potassium bichromate 372 Potassium bromid 375 Potassium carbonate 367 Potassium cyanid 399 Potassium hydroxid 366 Potassium nitrate 369 Potassium sulphate 370 Remote effect of349, 352 Sedative 350 Silver nitrate 371 Simple irritant349, 356, 369 Sodium carbonate 367 Sodium hydroxid 367 Spanish fly 387 Specific animal irritant 387 Specific irritant.349, 356, 369, 374 Specific vegetable irritant.... 387 Stramonium 393 Strychnin 396 Syncopant 350, 398 Tartaric acid 363 Tin chlorids 372 Vegetable 356 Vegetable irritant 373 White hellebore 402 Yew 404 Zinc chlorid 371 Zinc sulphate 370 424 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Poisoning Conditions favoring 353 Conditions retarding 354 Postmortem in 355 Symptoms of 354 Poisons and antidotes 349 Poisons considered generally.. 351 Polarity 12 Polymeric 193 Polysaccharides 198 Definition of 190, 198 Potash 99 Potassium 98 Acid sulphate of 103 Acid sulphite of 104 Alum of 161 Auric cyanid of 151 Aurous cyanid of 151 Bicarbonate of 103 Bichromate of 164, 372 Bromate of 101 Bromid of 100, 375 Carbonate of 102, 367 Chlorate of 101 Chlorid of 100 Chromate of 164 Compounds of 99 Cyanate of 102, 121 Cyanid of 102, 120, 399 Definition of 98 Ferric cyanid of 173 Ferrocyanid of 121, 173 Fluorid of 101 Hydrate of 99 Hydrid of 100 Hydroxid of 366 Iodate of 101 Iodid of 100, 375 Manganate of 167 Nitrate of 102, 369 Occurrence of 98 Oxid of 101 Perchlorate of 101 Peroxid of 101 Permanganate of 167 Preparation of 98 Phosphate of 242 Properties of 98 Pyrosulphate of 103 Silicate of 104, 125 Page Sulphate of 103, 370 Sulphid of 104 Sulphite of 104 Sulphocyanate of 121 Sulphydrate of 104 Tests for 183 Thiosulphate of 104 Water glass of 104 Potassium bromid poisoning... 375 Antidotes for 372 Symptoms of 372 Potassium carbonate poisoning- Antidotes for 367 Postmortem appearances in.. 367 Symptoms of 367 Potassium group 39 Potassium hydroxid poisoning- Antidotes for 366 Postmortem appearances in.. 366 Symptoms of 366 Potassium iodid poisoning- Antidotes for 375 Symptoms of 375 Potassium nitrate poisoning- Postmortem appearances in.. 369 Symptoms of 369 Potassium sodium sulphate.... 47 Potassium sulphate poisoning- Postmortem appearances in.. 370 Symptoms of 370 Precipitation 12, 249, 329 Prefixes 20, 43, 46, 82 Protamines 211 Proteids 212 Proteolytic enzymes 255 Protein : 205 Analysis of 207 Coagulating 210 Definition of 191 Reaction of 206 Structure of 208 Table of 206 Tests for 206, 207, 234 Proteoses 212 Prussian blue 174 Ptyalin 270, 279 Puddling 170 Purin bodies 259, 309 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 425 Page Pus 344 Donne's test for 345 Corpuscles of 347 Putty 128 Pyloric glands271, 279 Pyroantimonious acid 96 Pyroarsenic acid 92 Pyroboric acid 122 Pyrophosphoric acid 89 Quicklime 127 Radicals 13, 25 Radioactivity 132 Radium 132 Raffinose 198 Reaction 12 Acid 42 Alkaline 48 Reagent 12 Rearrangement 15 Red phosphorus 85 Reducing agent 14 Reduction 13 Reinch's test 181 Relative humidity 68 Remote effect349, 352 Rennin, 255, 267, 281 Robert's ring test 326 Robert's specific gravity method 324 Rock salt 105 Ronchese test333 Rosenbach's test331 Rubidium 113 Saccharose 197 Saliva 269, 270 Salivary digestion278 Salt 13, 21, 42, 45 Acid 47 Basic 47 Double 47 Mohr's 173 Saltpeter 102 Saponification 201, 239 Saturated substance 13 Saturation 24 Sarcolactic acid 227 Scheele's green92, 144 Science 11 Page Sebaceous glands303 Secretion 283 Sedative 350 Selenic acid 83 Selenite 128 Selenious acid 82 Selenium 82 Definition of 82 Dioxid of 82 Monochlorid of 82 Sulphid of 83 Tetrachlorid of 82 Selenyl chlorid 83 Serum 239 Serum albumin209, 292, 297 Serum globulin210, 292, 297 Schaffer's test332 Silex 109 Silicic acid 125 Silicoethane 126 Silicon 123 Amorphous 124 Carbid of126 Definition of 123 Dioxid of 124 Occurrence of 123 Preparation of 123 Properties of 124 Tetrabromid of 126 Tetrachlorid 126 Tetrafluorid of 126 Tetraiodid of 126 Silver 145 Bromid of147 Carbonate of 149 Chlorid of 147 Chromate of 165 Cyanid of 149 Compounds of 147 Definition of145 Fluorid of 147 lodid of 147 Nitrate of148, 371 Nitrite of 149 Occurrence of 145 Oxid of147 Peroxid of 147 Phosphate of 149 Preparation of 145 Properties of 146 426 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Sulphate of 149 Sulphid of 149 Test for 186 Silver carbonate test 329 Silver nitrate poisoning- Antidote for 372 Simple irritant 349, 356, 369 Starch test 234 Stearic acid 226 Stibin 94 Skatol 192, 231, 275, 337 Skin 302 Sodium 104 Amalgam of 137 Bicarbonate of 108 Bichromate of 165 Bisulphate of 109 Bisulphite of 109 Borate of 110 Bromid of 106 Carbonate of 107, 367 Chlorid of 105 Chromate of 165 Compounds of 105 Cyanid of 109 Fluorid of 106 Hydrid of 105 Hydroxid of 367 lodid of 106 Metaphosphate of 108 Nitrate of 108 Nitrite of 108 Occurrence of 105 Oxid of 106 Peroxid of 106 Preparation of 105 Properties of 105 Silicate of 109, 125 Sulphate of 108 Sulphid of 110 Sulphite of 109 Test for 183 Thiosulphate of 109 Water glass of 109 Sodium carbonate poisoning... 367 Sodium hydroxid poisoning- Postmortem appearances in.. 387 Symptoms of 367 Solid phosphin 87 Solder 156 Page Solvay process 107 Spanish fly 387 Spanish fly poisoning- Postmortem appearances in.. 396 Symptoms of 387 Specific animal irritants 387 Specific irritant 356, 369, 374 Specific vegetable irritants 387 Speigeleisen 170 Spirits 221 Spontaneous coagulation • 210 Stannic acid 157 Stannic chlorid 157 Stannic hydroxid 157 Stannic oxid 157 Stannic sulphid 158 Stannous chlorid 156 Stannous hydroxid 157 Stannous oxid 157 Stannous sulphid 158 Starch paste 198 State of aggregation 15 Steapsin 267, 284 Stearin 201 Steel 170 Stercobilin 261 Stings of insects 404 Stramonium 393 Stramonium poisoning- Symptoms of 393 Strontium 130 Carbonate of 131 Chlorid of 131 Compounds of 131 Definition of 130 Dioxid of 131 Nitrate of 131 Occurrence of 130 Oxid of 131 Preparation of 130 Properties of 130 Sulphate of 131 Tests for 184 Struve's test 327 Strychnin 396 Strychnin poisoning- Postmortem appearances in.. 396 Symptoms of 396 Sublimation 12 Substitution 218 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 427 Page Suffixes 20, 21, 42, 46 Sugar- Ammoniacal copper solution test for 324 Benedict's test for 323 Bismuth reduction test for.. 323 Fehling's test for 322 Haine's test for 322 Indigo carmine test for 324 Moore's test for 324 Nylander's test for 323 Parvy's test for 323 Phenyl hydrozin test for.... 323 Roberts sp. gr. test for 324 Trommer's test for 322 Sugar of malt 197 Sulphaldehyde 224 Sulphates 243 Sulphobenzene 229 Sulphur 75 Amorphous 77 Definition of 75 Dichlorid of 79 Dimorphous 76 Dioxid of 79 Flowers of 75, 77 Hexafluorid of 78 Monobromid of 79 Monochlorid of 78 Monoclinic 76 Monoiodid of 79 Occurrence of 75 Oxids of 79 Plastic }... 77 Polymorphous 76 Precipitated 77 Preparation of 75 Properties of 76 Rhombic 76 Roll 76 Sesquioxid of 80 Tetrachlorid of 79 Sulphuric acid 80, 357 Commercial 81 Dilute.... 81 Glacial 81 Preparation of 80 Properties of 81 Pure 81 Tests for 180 Page Sulphuric acid poisoning- Antidotes for 358 Postmortem appearances in.. 358 Symptoms of 357 Sulphuric anhydrid 80 Sulphurous acid 81 Sulphurous anhydrid 79 Suprarenal glands 287 Surcase 254, 273, 284 Sweat 302 Sweat glands 202 Symbol 11, 15, 16 Table of 40 Syncopant 350, 398 Synonyms 52, 53 Synthesis 11, 15 Table of- Atomic weights 40 Elements 40 Symbols 40 Valencies 40 Tanret's test 326 Tartar emetic 379 Tartar emetic poisoning- Postmortem appearances in.. 380 Symptoms of 379 Tartaric acid 227, 363 Tartaric acid poisoning symp- toms 363 Taurin 262 Tellurates 84 Telluric acid 84 Tellurites 84 Tellurium 83 Definition of 83 Dibromid of 84 Dichlorid of 83 Diiodid of 84 Dioxid of 83 Monoxid of 83 Sulphur trioxid of 83 Tetrabromid of 84 Tetrachlorid of 83 Tetraiodid of 84 Trioxid of 83 Tellurous acid 84 Tempering 170 Ternary compounds 20, 46 428 Page Test- Acetic acid 342 Ammoniacal copper solution. 324 Ammonium Sulphate 330 Arnold's 335 Benedict's 233, 323 Bismuth reduction234, 323 Black's 336 Citric acid343 Dennige's 334 Donne's 345 Doremus 328 Esbach's 326 Eureka 232, 321 Fehling's 233, 322 Ferric chlorid 335 Foam 331 Folin's 332, 339 Gmelin's 330 Guaiacum 327 Gunning's 334 Haine's232, 322 Hammarsten's 331 Heller's 325 Hofmann's 340 Hufner's 328 Hupert's 331 Indigo carmine342 Jaffe's 337 Kjeldahl's 343 Lange's 334 Legal's 333 Lieben's 334 Moore's 324 Murexid 329 Nylander's 323 Obermayer's 337 Oxidation 250 Parvy's 233, 323 Phenyl hydrazin234, 323 Picric acid 325 Piria's 340 Precipitation 329 Robert's 326 Robert's sp. gr. method324 Ronchese 333 Rosenbach's 331 Shaffer's 332 Silver carbonate329 Struve's 327 Tanret's 326 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Trommer's 233, 322 Trousseau's 331 Volhard's 338 Tests for- Acetone 235 Alcohol 235 Aldehydes 236 Aluminum 187 Ammonia 180, 250 Antimony 182 Arsenic 181 Barium 184 Bismuth 182 Borates 183 Boric acid 183 Bromin 178 Cadmium 185 Calcium 184 Carbon dioxid 183 Chloral 236 Chloric acid180 Chlorides 249 Chlorin 178 Chloroform 235 Cholesterol 234 Chromium 188 Cobalt 189 Copper 185 Cyanids 183 Glycogen 234 Gold 186 Hydriodic acid 179 Hydrobromic acid 179 Hydrochloric acid 178 Hydrofluoric acid 179 Hydrogen 178 Hydrogen peroxid178 Hydrogen sulphid180 lodin 178 Iron 188 Lactic acid236 Lead 187 Lithium 183 Magnesium 184 Manganese 188 Mercury 184 Nickel 188 Nitrate 251 Nitric acid 178 ' Nitrites 251 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY 429 Page Oxalic acid 236 Oxygen 178 Ozone 178 Phenol 236 Phosphoric acid 181 Phosphorus 180 Potassium 183 Proteins 206, 207, 234 Silver 186 Sodium 183 Starch 234 Strontium 184 Sugar 232, 321 Sulphuric acid 180 Tin 187 Uric Acid 266 Urine 321 Water 249 Zinc 184 Tetraboric acid 122 Tetrachlormethane 218 Theory 29 Thrombase 256 Thrombin 296 Thrombokinase 296 Thymus gland 287 Thyroid gland 285 Colloid of 285 Thyroiodin of 285 Tin 155 Amalgam of 137 Chlorid of 372 Compounds of 156 Definition of 155 Occurrence of 155 Preparation of 155 Properties of 156 Tests for .... 187 Tincture *.... 221 Toxicology 349 Triad base 49 Triad groups 38 Triads 23 Triatomic 49 Triazoiodid 75 Trichlormethane 218 Trisaccharides 197 Trisilicic acid. 125 Trisodic phosphate 108 Trithiocarbonic acid 120 Page Trommer's test 322 Trousseau's test 331 Trypsin 255, 283 Trumbowls blue 174 Tyrosin 208, 229, 267, 340 Hofmann's test for 340 Piria's test for 340 Tyrosinase 356 Urea 228, 263, 315 Doremus test for 328 Hiifner's test for 328 Urease 257 Uric acid 265, 316, 345 Ammonium sulphate test for 330 Murexid test for 329 Precipitation test for 329 Silver carbonate test for.... 329 Tests for 266 Urinalysis 321 Urine 306 Acidity of 339 Albumin test of 325 Ammonia of 309 Analysis of 321 Changes in 317 Color of 313 Coloring agents of 306 Constituents of 308 Deposits of ; 345 Inorganic composition of.318, 319 Melanin of 307 Nitrogen excreted with 308 Odor of 307, 314 Organic composition of..319, 320 Primary considerations of... 321 Pus in 344 Reaction of 307 Solids of 340 Specific gravity of..307, 312, 339 Sugar tests of 321 Urea of 315 Uric acid of 316, 345 Volume of 311 Urobilin 261, 306 Urochrome 306 Vaccination theory 295 Valency 11, 22 Table of .24, 40 430 Page Valency and radicals 22 Valeric acid226 Vegetable irritant poisoning- Symptoms of 373 Vegetable irritants 373 Vegetable poison 356 Volatile alkali 49 Volhard's test338 Volume 12 Water 245, 249 Water gas 116 Water, hydrolytic action of... 245 Water of crystallization 246 Waxes 203 Welding 170 White hellebore 402 White lead 384 Xanthin 259, 309, 340 Xylose 195 Yellow phosphorus 86 Yew 404 CHIROPRACTIC CHEMISTRY Page Zinc 134 Bromid of 136 Carbonate of 136 Chlorid of135, 371 Compounds of 135 Definition of 134 Fluor id of 136 lodid of 136 Occurrence of 134 Oxid of 135 Oxychlorids of 136 Preparation of 134 Properties of 134 Sulphate of136, 370 Sulphid of 136 Tests for 184 White 135 Zinc chlorid poisoning- Antidotes for 371 Postmortem appearances in.. 371 Symptoms of 371 Zinc sulphate poisoning- Antidotes for 371 Symptoms of 371