SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE; OR, THE MYSTERIES OF MAN. By R. T. TRALL, M. D., ’ **•+ MEMBER OF THE NEW YORK SOCIETY FOR THE ADVANCEMENT OF SCIENCE AND ART, ETC. REVISED EDITION. FULLY ILLUSTRATED. New York: M. L. HOLBROOK & CO. COPYRIGHT BY M. L. HOLBROOK & CO. 1885. PREFACE. Since this work was first published, now nearly twenty years ago, it has had a sale of about 50,000 copies, and the demand for it from every part of the globe where the En- glish language is spoken, seems to be on the increase. In order to embody in it whatever is of recent discovery it has been most carefully revised and much new matter added. Indeed, it is safe to say that nearly two thirds of the work has been entirely re-written. More than forty new illustrations have been added, making it the best illustrated work of the kind ever given to the public. It claims to be, so far as anatomical and physiological problems are concerned, rigidly scientific, embracing all the discoveries of this rapidly advancing age, so far as they come within the scope of its plan and purpose, its style, arrange- ment and application are addressed to the popular rather than to the professional reader. Its sole object is to in- struct the masses of the people on those subjects which have hitherto been to them, in great part, a sealed book. So far as the author is aware, this was the first attempt to popularize, in a scientific work, the subject of Sexual Physiology. The public has too long ignored as indelicate, or as too intricate and mysterious to be comprehended ex- cept by those who are educated in all the branches of the medical profession, the subjects which lie at the very foun- dation of their earthly well-being; while the medical pro- fession has wrapped its knowledge, vague and unsatisfactory as it is, in so many folds of technicalities, that the non-pro- fessional readers find little for them in the standard works. That this revised edition may be kindly received as the earlier ones is the desire of the revisor. III CONTENTS. CHAPTER I. MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. PAGE. The Penis—Gians Penis—Corpora Cavernosa—Corpus Spongiosum— Urethra—Meatus Urinarius—Prostate Gland—Cowper’s Glands— Testes—Scrotum—Tunica Vaginalis—Tunica Albuginea—Tunis Vas- culosa 17 Structure of the Testes—Vasa Recta—Vas Deferens—Spermatic Cord 23 Vesiculje Semin ales—Ejaculatory Ducts-Semen—Seminal Granules —Spermatozoids, their nature and properties 2 "i CHAPTER II. FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. Mons Veneris—Labia Majora 35 Labia Minora ! 37 Clitoris—Meatus Urinarius—Hymen 38 Glands of Bartholine—Bladder 39 Urethra—Vagina 41 Mucous Membrane—Uterus, its cavity and structure fully illustrated.. 42 Fallopian Tubes 50 Ovaries 51 Graafian Vesicles 54 Ovum; its origin, nature and structure 66 Corpus Luteum 57 Mammary Glands 53 Secretion of Milk 61 CHAPTER III. THE ORIGIN OF LIFE. Vital and Chemical Actions 63 Properties of Living Matter 64 Motion in Living-and Dead Matter; its differences—Living Matter in Plants and Animals essentially the same 65 Origin of Living Matter 67 Commencement of Life on the Globe—Living Matter at first formless.. 68 Spontaneous Generation 69 VI CONTENTS. CHAPTER IY. SEXUAL GENERATION. Reproduction in Animals and Plants—Sexual and Asexual Generation —Reproduction by Division and Fission 71 Reproduction by Budding 73 Simplest Forms of Sexual Generation 73 Outline of Reproduction in the Animal Kingdom, from the simplest form of life to the most complex 74 Reproductive Power of various Animals 78 Comparison of Generative Organs in Birds and Reptiles 78 Mammals 79 Sexuap Organs of Plants 80 Variations of Reproduction in Different Animals 86 Reproduction in Bees fully described 86 CHAPTER Y. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE OF MENSTRUATION. Age of Beginning and Ending of Menstruation 93 Menstruation and Ovulation 94 Rationale of the Menses 96 Amount of Menstrual Secretion 97 CHAPTER VI. THE CONTESTS BETWEEN THE MALES OF ANI- MALS AND MAN FOR THE FEMALE. Differences in Nature of Males and Females 103 Pursuit of the Female by the Male—The Female not adapted to pur- suing- the Male—Constant Struggle among Animals for the Female —The Contest not always one of brute strength, but often of skill, cunning, song or power of display-Care cf the Female Spider for her Eggs 103 Contests between Male Flies for the Female— Bug3 calling their mates —Locusts’ Love Song 104 Crickets’ and Grasshoppers’ Love Caresses—Male Bees and Wasps Fighting for a particular Female 105 Male Beetles’ Contests for the Female—Contentions of Male Butterflies for the Female —Male Fishes fight for the Female—Polygamy among Fishes 106 Courtship of Fishes in confinement 110 Crocodiles Fighting for Females—Male Rattlesnakes calling the Fe- males—Rivalry among Male Lizards for Females 113 Male Birds Charming Females by their Song 113 Pugnacity of Male Birds 114 The Male Peacock as a Warrior 118 CONTENTS. vii Wild Male Turkeys in their long and furious combats for mates 127 Law of Battle of Male Mammals to win Females 132 Graphic description of a Fight between Wild Bulls for mastery in a herd of Females 133 Interesting description of two Bulls fighting for Cows on the Plains of Colorado 134 Description of the way a Stallion manages a herd of Females 135 War among Savages for Females 136 CHAPTER VII. IMPREGNATION. The Nature of the Ovum.—Description of a Hen’s Egg in all its parts 139 Constitution and arrangements of the Mammalian Ovum 142 Ovum of the Rabbit 143 Ovarium of a domestic Fowl 145 Human Ovarium 147 The Corpus Luteum of Menstruation 148 The Corpus Luteum of Pregnancy 150 Nature of Impregnation 152 The Action of the Male 152 Action of the Female 155 The Spermatozoids of the Male and how they are brought to the Ovum 156 Vitality of the Spermatozoids and Ovum 157 The Mechanism of Fecundation 158 Where Impregnation Occurs 159 Spermatozoids not all equally vigorous 161 Number of Spermatozoids required to impregnate an Ovum 162 CHAPTER VIII. PREGNANCY. Conception 163 Signs of Pregnancy—Suppression of Menstruation—Nausea 164 Salivation—Enlargement of Breasts 165 Milk in the Breasts—Enlargement of the Abdomen—Edema of the Extremities 166 Quickening 167 Duration of Pregnancy 168 Viability of the Child 169 Decidua 169 CHAPTER IX. EMBRYOLOGY. Development of the Germ 179 Segmentation of the Vitellus. 181 Blastodermic Membrane 183 CONTENTS. Incubation 187 Umbilical Vesicle 188 Embryo, first day—Egg third day after incubation 189 Development of Nervous System—Early Uterine Ovum 191 Human Ovum, second month 192 Development of the Spinal Cord—Egg five days after incubation 193 Development of Head—Muscles 198 Development of Skin 199 Position of Fetus 201 Fetal Dependencies 203 Chorion—Amnion 203 Placenta 205 Umbilical Cord 207 Umbilical Vesicles 208 Fetal Peculiarities 208 Thymus Gland 209 Thyroid Gland—Lungs—Digestive Organs 210 Liver—Bladder—Genital Organs—Descent of the Testes 211 Circulation of the Fetus 213 CHAPTER X. PARTURITION. Rationale of Labor 219 Abortion or Miscarriage 220 Rationale of Labor Pains 222 Natural Labor 225 CHAPTER XI. LACTATION. Secretion of Milk 229 Constituents of Milk 232 Quantity and Quality of Milk 233 Lactation and Pregnancy, 235 CHAPTER XII. THE LAW OF SEX. Theorizing 239 Proportion of the Sexes agree with the conditions of life—Conditions which act on the parents—Deviation from the average—Result of 1,000,000 observations of colts 240 Parthenogenetic Eggs—Lack of one Sex rectifies itself 241 Fertility and Subsistence 242 Scarcity of Food and its Influence on Sex—Difference in number of each sex under varied conditions—Birth-rate of boys and girls in towns and country 243 CONTENTS. Ratio of Births of boys and girls at different seasons 244 Production of Sex in Wild and Domestic Animals 246 Influence of abundant or insufficient food 248 In reproduction the female is the conservative factor 249 Effect of greater vitality in either sex—Effect of improving woman’s condition on production 252 Effect of Age on production of Sex 354 Darwin’s Opinion on Inheritance 257 Inheritance Transferred to the Opposite Sex 261 Valuable Facts 262 Production of Sex at will 263 M. Thury’s Experiments on Cattle 264 Effects of Early and Late Impregnations on the Production of Sex, and their explanation 265 CHAPTER XIII. EFFECT OF PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION ON THE FEMALE. Effects on Horses 270 Effects on Cows 271 Effects on Dogs—Agassiz’ Experiment on a Bitch 272 Influence of Previous Impregnation on Woman 273 Injurious Effects of Excessive Use of the Procreative Organs 275 CHAPTER XIY. REGULATION OF THE NUMBER OF OFFSPRING. Woman’s Rights concerning Offspring 277 The Science of Propagation 281 Sound Germs produce Healthy Progeny 283 Regulation of Births 286 Checks on Reproduction—The Passions of Men—The cool Judgments of Women—Births in Excess of Nature’s Requirements 287 Breeding Healthy Children 288 Children a Necessity to a Happy Life 289 A Beautiful Story 291 Number of Children required to fill the Life of a Parent—Best Age and Time for Parentage 293 CHAPTER XY. THE LAW OF SEXUAL INTERCOURSE. The Primary Question 295 The Social Vice 300 Effects of Food and Drink on Sensuality 301 The Solitary Vice—Shakerism 302 X CONTENTS. M ormonism 30* Celibacy 306 Infirm Health of Girls 308 Frequency of Sexual Intercourse 309 Pleasure of Sexual Intercourse 311 CHAPTER XVI. HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. Rights of Offspring 315 Vagrant Children 318 Beautiful Children 319 Good Children 325 Children of Drunken Parents—Mental Influences 327 Hints to Mothers 328 Influence of the Mothers’ Imagination over-rated 330 Unsatisfied Longings—How Deformities in the Child Originate 331 Discoloration of the Skin—Cases Investigated 332 Dr. Hunter’s Opinions 333 Deformities in Chickens 334 Rules for the Production of Good Children 335 Danger of Procreation when Tired or Sick—Signs of Progress 336 Cursing the Ignorance of Parents—Woman’s Dress 337 CHAPTER XVII. SEXUAL HYGIENE. Injurious Habits—The Pleasures of Pure Love 339 Righteousness brings Happiness 339 Premature Development of Sexual Appetite 340 The Mother’s Duties 341 Her Tact 342 School Dangers—Puberty 343 Chastity 343 Unchastity—Effects of Foods and Drinks on Sexual Life 344 ILLUSTRATIONS. FIG. PAGE. 1. Viscera of the Male Pelvis 18 2. Bladder and Urethra 20 8. Testis in situ 23 4. Testicle and Epididymis of the Human Subject 24 6. Section of the Testis of a Calf 25 6. “ “ “ “ “ 25 7. Vas Deferens, Vesioulae Seminalis and Ejaculatory Ducts 28 8. Vasa Deferentia and Vesiculae Seminales 27 9. Human Spermatozoa 28 10. Spermatozoa of the Sheep 29 11. Spermatozoa in the Mammal 29 12. Spermatozoa of various Animals 31 13. Vulva 38 14. External Erectile Organs 37 15. Viscera of the Female Pelvis '40 16. Uterus, Fallopian Tubes and Ovaries 43 17. Muscular Fibers of the Uterus 45 18. Superficial Muscular Fibers of the Anterior Surface of the Uterus 46 19. Muscular Fibers of the Uterus, Inner Layer 47 20. Blcod-vessels of the Uterus and Ovaries 48 21. Virgin Uterus 49 22. Fallopian Tube, dissected 50 23. Ovary 51 24. Ovary of the Rabbit 52 25. Ovary of an Old Bitch 53 26. Graafian Vesicle 54 27. Chains of Follices from the Ovary of a Calf 55 28. Section of Mammary Gland 69 29. Mammary Gland 60 30. Mammary Gland from a Mature Fetus 61 31. Degenerated Mammary Gland 61 32. Gland Vesicles 62 33. Milk 62 34. Stamen and Pistil 62 35. Section of Hawthorn Blossom 82 36. Section of Cherry Blossom ; 83 ILLUSTRATIONS. 37. Pistil of Stone-crop 83 38. Ovule magnified 84 39. Pollen Grain 84 40. Plan of a Stamen 84 41. “ “ “ 84 43. Plan of Pistil 85 43. “ “ 85 44. Pistil of Larch Cone 85 45. “ “ “ “ 85 46. New-laid Egg with its Molecule, etc 140 47. Ideal Section of a Hen’s Egg 141 48. Graafian Vesicle containing an Ovum 141 49. Constituent parts of Mammalian Ovum 143 50. Mature Ovum of Mammal, covered with Radiating Cones 143 51. Ovum of the Rabbit 143 52. Mature Follicle 144 53. Ovarium of the Rabbit 144 54. Ovarium of a Hen 145 55. Verticle Section of the Ovary of a Human Fetus 32 weeks old 146 56. Human Ovarium 147 57. Cells forming the Corpus Luteum 148 58. Stages of the Corpus Luteum 149 59. Corpora Lutea of Pregnancy 151 60. Penetration of the Spermatozoids through the Vitelline Mem- brane of th e O v um 159 61. Segmentation of the Vitellus 160 63. Primitive Trace of the Embryon 161 63. Decidua Uteri 179 64. Uterine Cavity 170 65. Ovum entering Uterus 177 66. Uterus nearly filled with the Ovum 173 67. Extra-uterine Pregnancy 173 68. Segments of Human Decidua 174 69. Section of the Mucous Membrane of the Human Uterus at the Commencement of Pregnancy 175 70. Extra-uterine Pregnancy 176 71. Section of a Hen’s Egg 179 72. Cleaving of the Yelk after fecundation 180 73. Duplication of Cells 183 74. Segmentation of Mammalian Ovum 183 75. Later Stage of Segmentation 183 76. Germinal Membrane of the Ovum of a Bitch 184 77. Embryonic Rudiments, from the Ovum of a Bitch 185 78. Vascular Area in the Chick thirty-six hours after incubation 188 79. Egg thirty-six hours after incubation 189 80. Egg three days after incubation 189 81. Embryon of the Chick at the commencement of the third day .... 190 82. Development of the Nervous System of the Chick 191 83. Early Uterine Ovum 191 84. Formation of the Amnion 193 85. Human Ovum in second month 193 ILLUSTRATIONS. xiii 86. Development of the Spinal Cord and Brain of the Human subject 193 87. Egg five days after incubation 193 88. Embryon from a Bitch at the twenty-fourth or twenty-fifth day 194 89. Umbilical Vesicle and Allantois , 195 90. Egg ten days after incubation 195 91. Ovum fourteen days old 196 93. Ovum and Embryon fifteen days old 196 93. Ovum and Embryon three weeks old 196 94. Human Embryon, third week 197 95. Fetus at forty-five days 197 96. Fetus at two months 197 87. Fetus at three months in its membranes 198 98. Full Period of Utero-gestation 301 99. Maternal Surface of the Placenta 304 100. Fetal Surface of the Placenta 305 101. Knotted Umbilical Cord 307 103. Section of Thymus Gland 309 103. Descent of the Testicle 313 104. Circulation of the Fetus 214 105. Diagrammatic figure showing the Placenta and Decidua 316 106. Normal Position 335 107. Case of Twins 336 108. Ducts of Human Mamma 330 109. Origin of Milk Ducts 331 110. Ultimate Follicles of Mammary Glands 231 111. Mammary Gland of the Human Female 333 Valuable Books on Hygiene, Physical Culture, Food and Diet, Government of Children, Marriage and Parentage, etc. THE HERALD OF HEALTH. Monthly, $1.00 a year; 10 cents a number. “The Herald of Health contains more sensible articles than any other magazine that comes to our sanctum.”—The Scientific American. HYGIENE OF THE BRAIN AND THE CURE OF NERVOUS- NESS. By M. L. Holbrook M. D. 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A perfectly printed book and charmingly written. A line Gift Book. Price, $1.50. We will furnish this book, “Emerson as a Poet,” and The Herald of Health one year for $2.00. Mrs. Horace Mann writes: “Every book you print is pure gold and deserves wide circulation.” AGENTS WANTED. CATALOGUES FREE. ADDRESS, M. L. HOLBROOK, 13 & 15 Laight St., New York. CHAPTER I. MALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. The Viscera of the Male Pelvis, of the Urinary Bladder, Prostate Gland, Seminales and the Rectum, or lower part of the Bowel. The cut and explanations given on the next page show the relation between the pelvic viscera and the generative organs. The male organs of generation are the penis and testes, with their appendages. The Penis.—The penis is the organ of copulation, and is divided by anatomists into a root, body and extremity, or glans penis. The root is broad and firmly connected to the rami of the pubes by two fibrous processes, termed the crura, and to the front of the symphysis pubis by a fibrous membrane, the suspensory ligament. The extremity, or Gians Penis, resembles an ob- tuse cone, with a vertical slit in its apex, termed the meatus urinarius, orifice of the urethra. At the back part of this orifice is a fold of mucous mem- brane, passing backward to a depressed raphe, termed the frcenum preputii. The rounded project- [IT 18 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. ing border of the base of the glans is termed the corona glandis; behind the corona is a deep con- striction, the cervix. On each of these parts are Fig. 1. 1. Divided surface of the os pubis. 2. Divided surface of the sacrum. 3. Body of the bladder. 4. Its fundus; from its apex is seen passing upward the ureters. 5. Base of the bladder. 6. Ureter. 7. Neck of the bladder. 8, 8. Pelvic fasciae. 9. Prostate gland. 10. Membranous portion of the urethra. 11. Triangular ligament. 12. One of Cowper’s glands lying be- neath the membranous portion of the urethra. 13. Bulb of corpus spongi- osum. 14. Body of corpus spongiosum. 15. Right crus penis. 16. Upper part of the first portion of the rectum. 17. Recto-vesical fold of peri- toneum. 18. Second portion of the rectum. 19. Right vesicula seminalis. 20. Vas deferens. 21. The rectum covered by the descending layer of the pelvic fascia. 22. Part of the levator ani muscle investing the lower part of the rectum. 23. External sphincter ani. 24. Interval between the superficial perineal fascia and triangular ligament. SIDE VIEW OF THE VISCERA OF THE MADE PEIVTS. numerous lenticular glands, the glandulce Tysonii seu odoriferce, which secrete a sebaceous matter of a peculiar odor. THE MALE ORGANS. 19 The body of the penis is covered by integument remarkable for its thinness and the absence of adi- pose tissue. When erect it becomes somewhat tri- angular in form, with rounded angles, the broadest side, called the dorsum, being upward. At the neck of the glans the integument leaves the surface of the penis and becomes folded on itself, forming the prepuce. The penis is composed of erectile tissue inclosed in three cylindrical fibrous compartments. Two of these compartments, the corpora cavernosa, are ar- ranged side by side along its upper part; the third, the corpus spongiosum, is placed below and incloses the urethra. The Corpora Cavernosa consist of two fibrous cylindrical tubes forming the chief part of the body of the organ, separated by a fibrous septum. The Corpus Spongiosum is situated in a groove on the under surface of the corpora cavernosa, and, like the corpora cavernosa, is largely composed of erectile tissue, which consists essentially of an in- tricate venous plexus capable of receiving a large amount of blood in states of excitement or conges- tion. The arteries of the penis are derived from the internal pudic; its nerves from the internal pudic nerve and the hypogastric plexus. The organ has two sets of lymphatic vessels, one superficial and the other deep. The male Urethra extends from the neck of the bladder to the meatus urinarius. Its length in the 20 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. 1. Interior of bladder. 2. Urethra, its spongy portion, 3. Corpus Cavernosum. 4. Fossa navicularis. 5, 5. Gians penis. 6, 6. Septum of corpus cavernosum. 7. Crus penis. 8, 8. Prostate gland. 9, 9. Cowper’s gland. 10, 10. Ureters. 11. Meatus urinarius. 12. Orifices of ureters. 13. Orifices of ducts of Cowper’s gland. Bladder and Urethra. Fig. 8. THE MALE ORGANS. 21 adult is usually eight or nine inches; its course has a double curve in its flaccid state, but in the erect condition it forms a single curve, the concavity of which is directed upward. It is divided into three portions, the prostatic, membranous and spongy. The Prostatic portion is the widest and most dilatable part, and passes through the prostate gland. It is about an inch and one quarter in length. Upon the floor of the canal is a narrow ridge, the veru montanum or caput gallinaginis, formed of mucous membrane and its subjacent tissue. When distended it serves to prevent the passage of the semen backward into the bladder. A fossa or depression on each side of the veru mon- tanum is called the prostatic sinus, the bottom of which is perforated with numerous apertures, the orifices of the prostatic ducts. The Membranous portion of the urethra extends between the apex of the prostate and the bulb of the corpus spongiosum. The Spongy portion is the longest part of the urethra, and is contained in the corpus spongi- osum. It is about six inches in length, and extends from the membranous portion to the meatus urin- arius. The Meatus Urinarius is a vertical slit about three lines in length, and is the most contracted part of the urethra. The Urethra is composed of three coats, a mucous, muscular and erectile. 22 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. The Prostate Gland is a small glandular body- surrounding the neck of the bladder and commence- ment of the urethra. In shape and size it very- much resembles a horse-chestnut. Its secretion is a milky fluid, having an acid reaction, and present- ing, on microscopic examination, molecular matter. This gland is frequently enlarged, and its ducts filled with concretions, especially in old age. Cowper’s Glands are two lobulated bodies of a yellowish color, about the size of peas, situated be- neath the forepart of the membranous portion of the urethra, between the two layers of the deep perineal fascia, and lying close behind the bulb. The excretory duct of each gland is nearly an inch in length, and passes obliquely forward beneath the mucous membrane, opening by a minute orifice on the floor of the bulbous portion of the urethra. They diminish in size in advanced age. These glands and the prostate are accessory organs, and produce mucous mainly. The Testes are the glandular organs which secrete the semen. They are situated in the scrotum, being suspended by the spermatic cord. Lying upon the posterior border of each testis is a narrow, flattened body, termed the epididymis. Attached to the upper end of the testis, or the epididymis, is a small, pedunculated body, the use of which is unknown. The Scrotum, which contains the testes and part of the spermatic cord, is a cutaneous pouch, divided into two lateral halves, by a medium line or raphe, and consisting of two layers, the integument and the dartos muscle. The Tunica Vaginalis, the serous covering of the testis, is a pouch of serous membrane, derived from the peritoneum during the descent of the testis in the foetis, from the abdomen into the scrotum. The Tunica Albuginea is the fibrous covering of the testis. It surrounds the glandular structure of the organ, and, at its posterior and upper border, is re- flected into the interior of the gland, forming an in- complete vertical septum, called the corpus Highmor- ianum or mediastinum testis. The Tunica Vasculosa, or pia mater testis, is the vascular layer of the testis, consisting of a plexus of blood vessels, held together by delicate areolar tissue. Structure of the Testes. The testes are com- pound tubular glands with numerous lobules, esti- mated at 250 to 400. Each lobule is of a conical shape, the base being directed toward the circum- THE MALE ORGANS. Fxo. 3. 1. Testis. 2. Head of epididy- mis. 3. Body of same. 4. Tuni- ca vaginalis, parietal layer. 5. Cremaster. 6. Artery of sperm- atic cord. 7. Spermatic cord. 8. Tail of epididymis. THE TESTIS IN SITU. 24 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. ference of the organ, the apex toward the medias- tinum. The tubes may be separately unraveled, by careful dissection under water. Their diameter Fig. 4. a. Testicle, b, b, b, b. Lobules of the testicle, c, c. Vasa recta, d, d. Rete testis, e, e. Vasa efferentia. /, /, /. Cones of the globus major of the epididymis, g, g. Epididymis, h, h. Vas deferens, i. Vas aberrans. m, m. Branches of the spermatic artery to the testicle and epididymis, n, n, n. Ramification of the artery upon the testicle, o. Deferential artery, p. Anastomosis of the deferential with the spermatic artery. TESTICLE AND EPIDIDYMIS OF THE HUMAN SUBJECT. varies from one two-hundredth to one one-hundred- and-fiftieth of an inch. They consist of a basement membrane, lined by epithelium, consisting of nu- MALE ORGANS. 25 cleated granular corpuscles, and are inclosed in a delicate plexus of capillary vessels. In the apices of the lobules the tubuli become convoluted, and unite together so as to form 20 to 30 larger ducts, of Fig. 5. a. Seminiferous tubules in profile; b. in transverse section, c. Blood vessels, d, Lymphatics. FROM THE TESTIS OF A CALF. Fig. 6. FROM THE TESTIS OF A CALF. 1. Transverse section of a seminiferous tubule, a, b. Wails of the lat- ter. c. Capillary network, d. Connective-tissue framework, e. Lymph- atic canals. 2. Side view of the wall of a seminiferous tube, a, b. Wall. about one-fiftieth of an inch in diameter, which, from their straight course, are called vasa recta. The Vasa Recta enter the fibrous tissue of the mediastinum, and pass upward and backward, SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. forming a network of tubes with very thin parieties, constituting the rete testis. The vessels of the rete testis terminate at the upper end of the mediast- inum in a number of ducts, varying from 12 to 20, which are termed vasa efferentia. They carry the seminal fluid from the testis to the epididymis. Fig. 7. VAS DEFERENS, VESICULiE SEMIN ADIS AND EJACULATORY DUCTS. a. Yas deferens, ft. Seminal vesicle, c. Ejaculatory duct. d. Termin- ation of the ejaculatory duct. e. Opening of the prostatic utricle. f,g. Veru montanum. h, l. Prostate. The Vas Deferens, the continuation of the epidid- ymis, is the excretory duct of the testis. It ascends along the inner side of the testis and epididymis, through the spermatic canal, to the internal abdo- minal ring. Its walls are thick and dense, but its canal is very small, measuring but half a line. THE MALE ORGANS. The Spermatic Cord is composed of arteries, veins, nerves, lymphatics and the vas deferens, connected by areolar tissue, and invested by its proper cover- s ings. It extends from the internal abdominal ring to the back part of the testicles. The left cord is usually longer than the right, which occasions the left testicle to hang somewhat lower than the right. Fig. 8. VASA DEFERENTIA AND VESICTTL.® SEMINALES. 1. Base of bladder. 2. Line of reflection of peritoneum. 3. Triangular space. 4. Yas deferens. 5. Vas deferens dissected. 6. Vesicula seminalis duct. 7, 7. Ureters. 8. Yesicula seminalis unraveled duct. 9. Right ejacu- latory duct. 10. Urethra. 11. Prostate gland. Seminales. The Seminal Vesicles are two membranous pouches between the base of the 28 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. bladder and the rectum. They serve as reservoirs for the semen, and secrete a fluid which is mixed with that of the testicles. Each vesicula consists of a single tube coiled upon itself, and giving off several irregular diverticula. The Ejaculatory Ducts, one on each side, are formed by the junction of the duct of the vesicula seminalis with the vas deferens. The Semen is a thick whitish fluid, having a peculiar odor. It consists of a fluid portion called the liquor seminis, and solid particles termed sem- inal granules and spermatozoa. The Seminal Granules are round corpuscles, meas- uring one four-thousandth of an inch in diameter. The Spermatozoids are the essential elements of impregnation, and deserve more than a brief notice. They were discovered in the male semen, in 1G77, by a Ger- man student named Von Ham- men, and he first showed them to Leeuwenhoek, who made as thorough a study of them as he could with the imperfect microscopes of that period. For a long time the sperma- tozoa were regarded as living animalcules, though at present they are considered as peculiar anatomical elements composed of proto- plasm, endowed with life and capable of motion. They are very similar in form in different animals. Fig. 9. a. View of the broad sur- face. b. In profile. HUMAN SPERMATOZOA. THE MALE OKGANS. 29 We shall describe them as they* are found in man. If we place a minute quantity of the seminal fluid taken from the seminal vesicles of a healthy man who has died suddenly, or of ejaculated semen, on a glass slide, cover it with a thin piece of glass and place it under a microscope we will find innumerable bodies moving over the field of the microscope with a serpentine, wriggling motion, with considerable apparent rapid- ity. They present a flattened conical head and a long filament- ous tail. If the glass be kept warm this motion continues for some time, but finally ceases, when they are supposed to be dead, in which condition they would be incapable of fecundat- ing the ovum, even if it were possible to bring them in con- tact with it. Under favorable conditions, and especially in the generative passages of the fe- male, these movements no doubt continue for several days. Microscopic examinations re- veal a very distinct reticular structure in the spermatozoids. The head is about one five-thou- Fig. 10. SPERMATOZOA OF THE SHEEP. a. Head. ft. Middle portion, c. Tail. fig. n. SUPPOSED MODE OF FORM- ATION OF SPERMATOZOA IN THE MAMMAE. 1. Head. 2. Middle portion. 3. Terminal fil- ament. 30 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. sandth of an inch long, one eight-thousandth of an inch broad, and one twenty-five-thousandth of an inch thick. The tail is about one five-hundredth of an inch in length. Water arrests their movements speedily; but they may he restored by strong saline fluids. All the alkaline animal fluids seem to favor their powers of motion, while even very dilute acids act on them most unfavorably. Cold also suspends their motion, but warmth restores it. Before the male has reached the age of puberty the seminal tubules are smaller than in the adult. They are lined with rows of epithelia, or cells, in the same manner as the uriniferous tubules of the kidney. As puberty approaches the tubules en- large and the cells expand in size. The capillary blood vessels form a network around the tubules and supply the epithelia with nourishment. It is from these epithelia that the spermatozoids are developed. The manner of their formation is not yet fully explained; but my own researches with the microscope go to show that a single epithelia enlarges and divides, throwing off a portion of it- self, which soon takes the form in which we find them in the seminal fluid. It is, so to speak, repro- duction by division; a method almost universal in the lowest forms of life and retained here in per- fection. The seminal fluid with its varied contents is found during adult life, and sometimes in advanced THE MALE ORGANS. 31 1. Spermatozoa, Triton Crestatus; 2. Human, one of which exhibits the so-called spermatozoal membrane; 3. of a rat; 4. of a field-mouse; 5. of a rabbit; 6. of a goldfinch; 7. of a blackbird; 8. of a woodshrike ; 9. of a coleopterous insect; 10. of a frog; 11. of a perch; 12. spermatic cyst of a rabbit with five globules; a, separate globule; 13. spermatic cyst of the common creeper- bird containing a bundle of spermatozoa; o. separate globule; 14. spermatic cyst of creeper-bird containing a bundle of sperm- atozoon. The larger figures show the number of times the spermatozoa are magnified. SPERMATOZOA OP VARIOUS ANIMALS, ETC. Fig. 12. 32 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. age, to contain spermatozoids; but in old persons and in those of middle age who have been addicted to excesses they may be absent. In 1852 Duplay examined the seminal fluid of a number of old men and found spermatozoids in about half of them, though they were rather scanty in number. M. A. Dieu also examined 156 men of advanced years. In 25 persons 60 years old he found 68 per cent, con- tained spermatozoids ; in 76 persons 70 years old he found them in 59 per cent. ; in 51 men between 80 90 years old he found them in 48 per cent. ; four who were over 90 gave negative results. The highest age which gave positive results was 86 ; but older persons have, we believe, become parents. These observations were made by examining the contents of the generative passages shortly after death, which, probably, would not give the best results. If sexual intercourse is very frequent the sperm- atozoids diminish in number and may be absent altogether. The same is true when a person has been exhausted by disease or starvation. Not many years ago I had an opportunity to examine the seminal fluid from a drunken man who had lived a life of sensuality. He was finally sent to the hospital in a broken-down and exhausted con- dition. The spermatozoids were very few in num- ber, and had little living matter in them. If such men propagate their species they beget idiots and invalids. From a chemical point of view the spermatozoids 33 THE MALE ORGANS. are very rich in lime. They withstand for a long time putrefaction, and are not easily soluble in mineral acids, but they yield slowly to caustic alkalies. Owing to the large amount of mineral matter in them they preserve their form when sub- jected to a red heat, just as a piece of paper does when laid on the glowing coals, if the motion of the air about it is very slight. The dry substance of the spermatozoa contains over four per cent, of a yellow matter like butter, probably containing phos- phorus and other allied substances. The pure seminal fluid of the horse contains 18 per cent, of solid matter; that of the bull, 17.94 per cent. ; that of man, 10 per cent. CHAPTER II. FEMALE ORGANS OF GENERATION. The sexual organs of woman are the Mons Veneris, the Labia Majora and Minora, the Clitoris, which, with the orifice of the Vagina, constitute the Vulva or Pudendum, and the Vagina, Uterus, Fallopian Tubes and Ovaries. The Mons Veneris is the prominence in front of the pubes, surmounting the vulva, and, at the period of puberty, covered with hair. It consists of a collection of adipose matter beneath the in- tegument. The Labia Majora are the longitudinal cutaneous folds extending from the mons veneris to the peri- neum, and inclosing the urino-sexual opening. They are formed externally of integument covered with hair, and internally of mucous membrane. Their junction above and below constitute the an- terior and posterior commissures. The interval be- tween the posterior commissure and the anus is called the perineum. Within the posterior commis- sure is a small transverse fold called frcenulum pu- dencli or fourchette, and which is commonly rup- 36 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Fig. 13. THE VUEVA. 1, 1. Labia minora. or Nympbse. 2, 2. Labia majora. 3. Clitoris pre- puce. 4. Gians clitoris. 5, 5. Caruncula myrtiformes. 6. Orifice of vagina. 7. Fourchette. 8. Fossa navicularis. 9. Poster!or commissure. 10. Peri- neum. 11. Anus. 12. Mons veneris. 15. The vestibule. 16. Meatus urinarius. 37 THE FEMALE ORGANS. tured in the first parturition. The labia are anal- agous, in structure, to the scrotum in the male. The Labia Minora, or Nymphce, are two small folds of mucous membrane within the labia majora, extending from the clitoris downward and outward for about an inch and half on each side of the Pig. 14. ANOTHER VIEW, DISSECTED, SHOWING EXTERNAL ERECTILE ORGANS. A. Pubis. B, B. Ischium. C. Clitoris. D. Gland of the clitoris. E. Bulb. F. Constrictor muscle of the vulva. G. Left pillar of the clitoris. H. Dorsal vein of the clitoris. I. Intermediary plexus. J. Vein of com- munication with the obturator vein. K. Obturator vein. M. Labia minora. orifice of the vagina, on the sides of which they are lost. They are provided with numerous large mucous crypts which secrete sebaceous matter in abundance. Though anatomists and physiologists say little or nothing of the function of the nymphse, the structure and situation seem very clearly to 38 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. indicate that it is to press the clitoris more firmly upon the dorsum of the penis in the act of coition, and also, perhaps, to compress, in some degree, the male organ. Sexual pleasure, therefore, especially on the part of the female, if this view be correct, is, to a great extent, dependent on the vigor and in- tegrity of its tissue. The Clitoris, the analogue of the male penis, is an erectile structure, and the principal organ of sexual pleasure in the female, for which purpose it is profusely supplied with nerves. It is situated a little back of the meatus urinarius, beneath the an- terior commissure, and is partly hidden between the anterior extremities of the labia minora. Its body is short and concealed beneath the labia; its free extremity, termed glans clitoridis, is a small rounded tubercle, consisting of spongy erectile tis- sue, and is highly sensitive. Like the penis, it is provided with two small muscles, the erectores clitoridis, and a suspensory ligament. The tri- angular smooth surface between the clitoris and the entrance of the vagina, and bounded on each side by the nymphse, is the vestibule. The Meatus Urinarius, or orifice of the urethra, is situated at the posterior part of the vestibule, about an inch below the clitoris and near the mar- gin of the vagina. It can readily be distinguished by the prominent elevation of mucous membrane which surrounds it. The Hymen is a thin fold of mucous membrane THE FEMALE ORGANS. 39 extending across the lower part of the orifice of the vagina. Occasionally the hymen forms a circular septum closing the orifice of the vagina, constitut- ing what is termed imperforate hymen, preventing the discharge of the menstrual fluid, and proving a successful barrier to sexual intercourse and preg- nancy. The hymen is, however, often destroyed by disease, and is occasionally absent altogether. Its presence is not a proof of virginity, nor is its absence any evidence of unchastity. The rudi- mentary condition of the hymeneal membrane, as well as its rupture, explain certain small rounded elevations which surround the opening of the va- gina, the carunculce myrtiformes. The Glands of Bartholine, analogues of Cowper’s Glands in the male, are round oblong bodies, of a reddish-yellow color, one of which is situated on each side of the commencement of the vagina. Each gland is of the size of a horse-bean, and opens by means of a long single duct upon the inner side of the nymphse, external to the hymen. A plexus of veins inclosed in a thin layer of fibrous mem- brane, constituting two oblong bodies about an inch in length, extend from the clitoris along either side of the vestibule, termed by Kobelt, who considers them analagous to the bulb of the corpus spongi- osum in the male, the bulbi vestibuli. In front of these bodies is a smaller plexus of veins called the pars intermedia. The Bladder is situated in the anterior part of the 40 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Fia. 15. 1. Vagina. 2. Bladder. 3. Interior of rectum. 4. The Uterus: a, fun- dus; ft, cervix; c, c, os uteri; d, posterior portion; e, anterior portion. 5. Rectum, here covered by peritoneum. 6, 6, 6. Sacrum. 7. Coccyx. 8. Labia minora. 9. Labia majora. 10. Urethra. 11. Symphysis pubis. 12. Clitoris. 13. Mons Veneris. 14. Ureter. 15. Section of peritoneum. 16. Last lumbar vertebra. 17. Broad ligament. 18. Ovary. VTSCEBA OF THE FEMALE PELVIS. THE FEMALE ORGANS. 41 pelvis, with the os pubis in front and the uterus behind. It is larger in the female than in the male, and very broad in its transverse diameter. The Urethra is a narrow membranous canal, about one and a half inches in length, extending from the neck of the bladder to the meatus urinar- ius. Its diameter, when undilated, is about a quar- ter of an inch. It consists of three coats, muscular, erectile and mucous. The Vagina is a membranous canal in the center of the pelvis, extending from the vulva to the uterus. Its direction is curved forward and down- ward. Its length is about four inches along its anterior wall, and five or six inches along its pos- terior wall. It is narrow and constricted at its commencement, but becomes dilated near its uter- ine extremity. It is attached to the neck of the uterus a little above the os uteri, so that the mouth of the womb projects a short distance into the vaginal canal. It is one of the chief supports of the uterus, and its weakness and relaxation is one of the principal causes of prolapsus and other uter- ine displacements. Its structure consists of an ex- ternal muscular coat, a layer of erectile tissue, and an internal mucous coat or lining ; the erectile tis- sue is more abundant at the lower than at the upper part of the vagina. Its posterior surface is con- nected with the anterior wall of the rectum, for the lower three-fourths of its extent, the upper fourth being separated from that tube by the recto-uterine 42 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. fold of peritoneum, which forms a cut de sac be- tween the vagina and rectum. The Mucous Membrane of the vagina is continu- ous, above, with that which lines the inner surface of the uterus, and below, with the integument which covers the labia majora. Along the anterior and posterior walls its inner surface presents a longitudinal ridge, called the column of the vagina, and numerous transverse ridges or rugae extend outward from the column on each side. These rugae are more prominent near the orifice of the vagina, especially in females before childbirth. They serve to facilitate the dilation of the part during parturition. The mucous membrane is covered with conical and filiform papillae, and pro- vided abundantly with mucous glands and follicles, which are especially numerous in its upper part, and around the cervix uteri. The Uterus is properly the organ of gestation. Its office is to retain and support the fecundated ovum during the development of fetal life. In the virgin state it is pear-shaped, occupying the cavity of the pelvis between the bladder and rectum, meas- uring two and a half or three inches in length, |wo inches in breadth at its upper part, about one inch in thickness, and weighing from one ounce to two ounces and a half. Its upper broad extremity is called the fundus, and its lower rounded and con- stricted portion the cervix or neck. The body of the organ gradually narrows from the fundus to THE FEMALE ORGANS. 43 the cervix. At its vaginal extremity is a transverse aperture called the os uteri, or mouth of the womb, bounded by an anterior lip which 1. Ovaries. 2,2. Fallopian tubes. 3, 3. Fimbriated extremity of the left Fallopian tube seen from its concavity. 4. Opening of the left tube. 6. Fimbriated extremity of the right tube, posterior view. 6,6. Fimbriae which attach the extremity of each tube to the ovary. 7, 7. Ligaments of the ovary. 8, 8, 9,9. Broad1 ligaments. 10. Uterus. 11. Cervix uteri. 12. Os uteri. 13,13,14. Vagina. UTERUS, FALLOPIAN TUBES AND OVARIES; POSTERIOR VIEW. Fig. 16. is thick, and a posterior one, long and narrow. There are six ligaments of the uterus, all of which are formed of peritoneum. The two anterior liga~ 44 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. merits (vesicouterine) are two semi-lunar folds ex- tending between the neck of the uterus and the pos- terior surface of the bladder. The two posterior ligaments (recto-uterine) extend between the sides of the uterus and rectum. The two lateral or broad ligaments form a septum across the pelvis, dividing the cavity into two portions, the anterior of which contains the bladder, urethra and vagina; the pos- terior part contains the rectum. The Cavity of the Uterus is comparatively very small, the upper portion, corresponding to the body of the organ, being triangular, with a small open- ing at its inferior extremity, the ostium internum (internal orifice), which leads to the cavity of the cervix. Each wall of the uterine canal presents a longitudinal column, from which extend small ob- lique columns somewhat resembling branches from the stem of a tree, hence this arrangement is termed arbor vitae, uterinus. After parturition these folds are much less distinct. The structure of the uterus consists of three coats, the external of which is serous, the middle muscular and the internal mucous. The chief bulk of the organ is constituted of its muscular coat, which is remarkably firm and dense. In the impregnated state the muscular tissue becomes more developed and disposed in three distinct layers. The muscular walls of the uterus are composed of fibers of the involuntary variety, arranged in several layers. These fibers are spindle-shaped, THE FEMALE ORGANS. 45 always nucleated, the nucleus presenting one or two large granules, which have been taken for nucleoli. They are closely bound together, so that they are isolated with great difficulty. In addition A. Fibers of the uterus of the fetus at term. B. Of a woman 30 years of age. C. Of a woman just delivered. MUSCULAR FIBERS OF THE UTERUS. FlO. 17. to an amorphous adhesive substance between the muscular fibers, we find numerous rounded and spindle-shaped cells of connective tissue of the variety called embryonic, and a few elastic fibers. 46 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. The muscular tissue of the uterus is remarkable from the fact that the fibers enlarge immensely during gestation, becoming, at that time, ten or fifteen times as long and five or six times as broad as they are in the unimpregnated state. Fig. 18. SUPERFICIAL MUSCULAR FIBERS OF THE ANTERIOR SURFACE OF THE UTERUS. a, a, Round ligaments, b, b. Fallopian tubes, c, c, c, c, Transverse fibers, d, /. Longitudinal fibers. The Mucous Membrane of the uterus is continuous through the Fallopian tubes with the peritoneum, and through the os uteri with the mucous coat or lining of the vagina. Around the os uteri are THE FEMALE ORGANS. 47 numerous mucous follicles and glands. Small vesi- cular elevations are often found within the os and cervix uteri, caused by the closure of the mouths of of these follicles, and their distension with their proper secretions. They are termed the ovula Na- bothi (ovula of Naboth). Fig. 19. INNER LAYER OF MUSCULAR FIBERS OF THE UTERUS. a, a. Rings around the openings of the Fallopian tubes, b, b. Circular fibers of the cervix. The arteries of the uterus are remarkable for their tortuous course and frequent anastomoses in the substance of the organ. The veins are very large, and correspond in arrangement with the arteries. In the impregnated state the veins are termed the 48 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. uterine sinuses, which consist of the lining mem- brane of the veins attached to the walls of canals extending through the substance of the uterus and terminating in uterine plexuses. T, T. Fallopian tubes. O, O. Ovaries. TJ. Uterus. Y. Vagina. P. Pubis. L. Anterior round ligament. 1, 2. Muscular fibers of the vagina. 3, 4. Ligament of the ovary. 5. Superior round ligament. 6. Ovarian artery. 7. Ovarian vein. 8. Uterine artery. 9. Uterine vein. 10,11. Uterine plexus. 12. Vaginal plexus. Fig. 20.—Blood vessels of the Uterus and Ovaries; posterior view. During the menstrual period the uterus is en- larged and more vascular; and during pregnancy it increases in weight to two and sometimes three pounds. After parturition it soon returns to nearly THE FEMALE ORGANS. 49 its former size, weighing only from two to three ounces. The appendages of the uterus are the Fallopian tubes, the ovaries and their ligaments, and the _ A. Anterior view. 1. Body. 2,2. Angles. 3. Cervix. 4. Rite of the os internum. 5-Vaginal portion of the cervix. 6. External os. 7, 7. Vagina. B. Median section. 1,1. Profile of the anterior surface. 2. Vesico-uterine cul de \3- /roflle of the posterior surface. 4. Body. 5. Neck. 6. Isthmus. 7. Cavity ot the body. 8. Cavity of the cervix. 9. Os internum. 10. Anterior lip of the os ex- ternum. 11. Posterior lip. 12,12. Vagina. . L. Transverse section. 1. Cavity of the body. 2. Lateral wall. 3. Superior wall. S’ Cornua. 5. Os internum. 6. Cavity of the cervix. 7. Arbor vitae of the cervix. 8. Os externum. 9, 9. Vagina. Fig. 21.—Virgin Uterus. round ligaments. They are inclosed between two folds of peritoneum, which constitute the broad ligaments. 50 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. The Fallopian Tubes, or oviducts, each of which is about four inches in length, extend from each FALDOPIAN TUBE, DISSECTED, SHOWING FIMBRIATED EXTREMITY AND THE ENTRANCE OF THE TUBE INTO THE UTERUS. Fig 22. superior angle of the uterus to the ovaries; their office is to convey the ova from the ovaries to the THE FEMALE ORGANS. 51 cavity of the uterus. Each tube consists of a serous, muscular and mucous coat. Its canal is exceedingly small, hardly admitting a fine bristle. Its uterine orifice which is very contracted, is termed the ostium internum, and its external orifice the ostium abdominalis. Near the ovary the tube widens into a trumpet-shaped extremity. Its ovarian orifice is surrounded by fringe-like processes termed fimbriae, and one of these processes is connected with the ovary. This part of the tube is called its fimbriated extremity; it has also been termed morsus diaboli, from the manner in which it closes around and embraces the ovary during sexual excitement. The Ovaries are oval-shaped, and in structure quite analogous to the male testicles. Each ovary is about an inch and a half long, three-quarters of an inch in width, about one-third of an inch in thick- ness, weighs from one-eighth to one- fourth of an ounce and is connected by its anterior margin with the broad ligament; by its inner ex- tremity to the uterus by the ligament of the ovary} Fig. 33. a. Stroma. 6. Mature Graafian follicle, c. A larger one. d. A fresh corpus luteum with thick lining, e. An old corpus luteum. g. Veins with their first branches; /. within the organ. THE OVAKY. SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. and by its outer end to the fimbriated extremity of the Fallopian tube by a short ligamentous cord. In structure the ovary is composed of a spongy fibrous parenchyma or stroma, containing a num- ber of small cells traversed by blood vessels, and inclosed in a capsule, one of which, the external or Fig. 24. o. Germinal epithelium (supposed serosa). b. Cortical or external fibrous layer, c. Youngest follicles, d. A somewhat better developed and older one. OVARY OP THE BABBIT. serous, is derived from the peritoneum; the other, the internal or fibrous, termed also tunica albuginea and tunica propria, is analogous to the fibrous coat of the testis. The inner surface of the fibrous tunic blends with the substance of the ovary. The parenchyma is very abundantly supplied with blood THE FEMALE ORGANS. 53 Fig. 25. a. Ovarian epithelium, b, b. Ovarian tubes, c, c. Younger follicles. d. Older follicle, e. Discus proligerus, with the ovum. /. Epithelium of a second ovum in the same follicle, g. Fibrous coat of the follicle, h. Proper coat of the follicle, i. Epithelium of the follicle (membrana gran- ulosa). k. Collapsed, atrophied follicle. 1. Blood vessels, m, m. Cell- tubes of the parovarium, divided longitudinally and transversely, y. Tubular depression of the ovarian epithelium in the tissue of the ovary, z. Beginning of the ovarian epithelium close to the lower border of the ovary. portion op A sagittal section op the ovary op an old bitch. 54 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. vessels. In the meshes of its substance are many small round, transparent vesicles in different stages of development, which are the ovisacs containing the ova, and are termed Graafian vesicles. In women who have not borne children, they vary in number from 10 to 20; in size, they vary Fig. 26. GRAAFIAN VESICLE. 1,1. Stroma of ovary. 2, 2. Convoluted corkscrew blood vessels. 3. Fibrous wall. 4. Membrana granulosa. 5. Cumulus proligerous. 6. Zona pellucida. 7. Vitellus of ovum. 8. Germinal vesicle and spot. from that bf a pin's head to that of a pea. Some physiologists, however, think, as Dr. M. Barry has apparently shown, that numerous microscopic ovi- sacs exist in the stroma of the ovary, few of which produce ova. During their early development the Graafian THE FEMALE ORGANS. 55 vesicles are deeply seated in the substance of the organ; enlarging as they approach the surface, they form, when mature, small projections on the exterior of the ovary beneath the peritoneum. Each Ovisac, Follicle, or Graafian Vesicle, con- sists of an external mem- brane and fluid contents. The membrane has an external coat, the tunica fibrosa, theca folliculi of Von Baer, which is high- ly vascular; and an in- ner lining, epithelium, which consists of poly- gonal cells with large nuclei, and fatty gran- ules. After death the cells very soon lose their definition, when the epi- thelium assumes the ap- pearance which has caused it to be denom- inated membrana granu- losa, meaning a granular layer with numerous nuclei. The membrana granu- losa forms a uniform lin- ing to the ovisac, excepting on the side nearest the surface of the ovary, where the cells are accumu- Fig. 27. CHAINS OF FOLLICLES FROM THE OVARY OF A CALF. 1. Containing' ova in process of development. 2. Showing gemma- tion to form Graafian follicles. 56 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. lated into a small eminence called cumulus pro- ligerus or germinal eminence. The Ovulum (the future ovum), which is a minute globular nucleated vesicle, is contained in this germinal eminence. The contents of the ovisac, liquor folliculi, are a clear, yellowish fluid resem- bling serum, and a few free nuclei detached from the epithelium. The Ovum is exceedingly minute, measuring from one two-hundred-and-fortieth to one one-hundred- and-twentieth of an inch in diameter, consisting externally of an transparent envelope, the zona pel- lucida or vitelline membrane, and internally of the yelk or vitellus, a small vesicular body, imbedded in the substance of the yelk, is the germinal vesicle, and this contains a minute substance called the germinal spot. The germinal vesicle is a fine trans- parent membrane, about one seven-hundredth of an inch in thickness; the germinal spot is opaque, of a yellow color, and measures one three-thousand-six- hundredth to one two-thousand-four-hundredth of an inch in diameter. The development of the Graafian vesicles and ova continue uninterruptedly from infancy to the end of the fruitful period. The ova are immature and incapable of impregnation before puberty. The Graafian vessels gradually approach the sur- face of the ovary, whence the ovum and fluid con- tents of the vesicles are passed into the Fallopian tube. In most mammalia the maturation and dis- THE FEMALE ORGANS. charge of ova occur at regular periods, which are indicated by a peculiar discharge, or by a hemor- rhage from the vagina. In the human female the process of ovulation occurs once in about 28 days, and is usually attended with more or less hemor- rhage. This process of ovulation is properly men- struation, although the term menstruation is fre- quently erroneously applied to the hemorrhage itself. Sexual desire is always greater in females during the menstrual period, which usually extends through about one-third of each month; and it is during this period that the female is most liable to impregnation. There are many cases, however, in which, from disease or debility of the uterine sys- tem, the process of ovulation occupies one-half, and in a few cases two-thirds of the time of each month, rendering the female liable to become pregnant during that length of time. The Corpus Luteum is a small yellowish body perceived in the ovarium after the rupture of the Graafian vesicle and the escape of its ovum. Its existence was formerly, but erroneously, regarded as an evidence of previous pregnancy. A corpus luteum may be found in every follicle from which an ovum has been discharged, but its appearance and the changes it undergoes will be different in cases of impregnation or non-impregnation. The corpus luteum of pregnancy has been termed true, while that of the unimpregnated state has been called false. The true corpora lutea are of large 58 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. size, often as large as a mulberry, of a rounded form, projecting from the surface of the ovary. The false corpora lutea are of small size, do not pro- ject from the surface, and do not, in the early period of their existence, contain any central cavity as do the true. The corpora lutea which are independent of pregnancy, disappear in the course of one or two months, leaving scarcely a perceptible trace of their existence, while the true corpora lutea are said to retain their obvious vascular and plicated structure to the second or third month of pregnancy, when they slowly diminish in size, and some months after parturition are entirely obliterated or reduced to very small whitish or dark-colored masses termed corpora albicans vel nigrum. The Mammary Glands (mammae) belong to the re- productive system. Their office is to supply the offspring with food in a fluid form, until its teeth are sufficiently developed to enable it to masticate solid aliment. They exist in a rudimentary state in the male, and when excited by peculiar circum- stances, have been known to secrete milk. They have sometimes become enlarged after the loss or atrophy of the testicles. They are situated in the pectoral region, corresponding to the interval be- tween the sixth and seventh ribs, and extending from the side of the sternum (breast bone) to the axilla or armpit. They are of small size before puberty, but enlarge as the. generative organs be- come more developed. They increase in size dur- THE FEMALE ORGANS. 59 ing pregnancy, enlarge rapidly soon after delivery and become atrophied in old agR Near and a little below the center of each mamma, its outer surface presents a small conical prominence, the mam- milla or nipple, which is sur- rounded by an areola having a colored tint. Before impreg- nation the color is of a crim- son or delicate pink; after impregnation it deepens, and assumes a brownish hue, which, after the birth of a child, continues through life. The nipple consists of numer- ous vessels, which form a kind of erectile tissue, intermixed with muscular fibers. The areola is provided with sebaceous glands, which secrete a substance of a fatty consistence for the protection of the delicate integument around the nipple. During the nursing period these glands are greatly enlarged in size, and appear like pim- ples projecting from the skin. The mamma is a conglomerate gland composed of lobes, lobules and gland vesicles. The lobes, 15 to 25 in number, have each a separate system of lobules and gland vesicles, and a distinct excretory duct. The lobes are irregular in form and size. Fig. 28. SECTION OB' MAMMARY GRAND. 1, 1. Galactophorous ducts. 2, 2. Lobuli. 60 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. and made up of smaller lobes (lobules) and the lobules of other lobules still smaller, the smallest Dig. 29. 1. A lobule, from the interior of the gland of a pregnant woman. 2. a, Vesicle; b. Gland-cells. 3. Ducts from an infant. 4. Galactophorous duct from a boy nine years old. 6. The same from a girl of 15. 6. The same from a grown man. THE MAMMARY GLAND. lobules consisting of round or pyriform gland vesi- cles. The gland vesicl-es are about one two-hun- THE FEMALE ORGANS. 61 dredth of an inch in diameter; they are constituted of a structureless membrane (membrana propria) lined with an epithelium of nucleated cells. They communicate with an ex- cretory duct, and the ex- cretory ducts of all the lobules unite to form a common excretory duct for each lobe, the ductus lactiferous or ductus galactophorous. This duct passes beneath the areola, dilates into an elongated sac or ampul- la, saculus or sinus lac- tiferus, and at the base of the mammilla contracts in size, and bends outward to that process, terminat- ing at its extremity by a small aperture. There are 15 to 25 ducts in the nip- ple, corresponding with the number of lobes composing the gland. The secretion of Milk is effected by means of the formation of oil globules in the epitheleal cells of Fig. 30. MAMMARY GLAND FROM A MATURE FETUS. a. Central knobbed mass with smaller internal, b and c, larger external buds. Fig. 31. DEGENERATED MAMMARY GLAND. From a woman 90 years of age. SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Fig. 32. the gland vesicles. As the epitheleal cells are perfect- ed, they are pushed out- ward and displaced by a new formation of similar cells beneath them, and are thus carried forward into the lacteal ducts, where the cell bursts and discharges its oil globules, which have now become milk globules, after which the cell membrane and nucleus disappear. Milk is constituted of these milk globules suspended in a fluid, the milk plas- ma. Before concep- tion the mammary glands secrete only a yellowish mucus; and at the commencement of lactation the milk is imperfect, or but slightly nutritious ; in its composition are a number of cells filled with yellow fat glob- ules, termed colos- trum corpuscles. GLAND VESICLES. From suckling woman, show- ing cells and capillary vessels, magnified. Fig. 33. Milk globules and Colostrum corpuscles, the latter being the largest. MILK. CHAPTER III. THE ORIGIN OF LIFE. Vital and Chemical Actions.—Organized or liv- ing beings are distinguished from the inorganic world by the nature or quality of the actions which they perform. The actions which take place in masses of matter are mechanical—mere changes of place. Particles of matter combine and separate, according to innate and reciprocal affinities, consti- tuting chemical actions or changes. But in the organic domain all actions are in obedience to more complex laws, and entirely different from chemical or mechanical changes. In the living system elements are transformed and disintegrated. The vegetable kingdom trans- forms simple or primary elements into its own tissues, structures and organs. But the animal kingdom can only employ, in the construction, de- velopment and replenishment of its tissues, struc- tures and organisms, with the exception of atmos- pheric gases and water, only the proximate ele- ments of the vegetable kingdom. While, therefore, the vegetable kingdom, so to speak, feeds on the SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. animal kingdom, the animal kingdom, directly or indirectly, feeds on the vegetable kingdom. And this fact, which is but the statement of a law of Nature, points to important considerations in dietetics and agriculture. It is true that masses of inorganic matter may in- crease or decrease in bulk; but it is by the accretion or separation of particles. In chemistry, acids and alkalies, for example, combine and form salts—a third substance unlike either of the ingredients, and the salts may be decomposed and the ingredi- ents reproduced. There is nothing like nutrition, growth, development and disintegration in inor- ganic matter. But living organisms change and transform other elements and substances without being themselves changed. They convert food into bone, muscle, nerve, etc.; use them as force mater- ial, reduce them to ashes, and expel the ashes in the form of bile, sweat, feces, urine and carbonic acid gas, through the emunctories—the liver, skin, bowels, kidneys and lungs. Nothing analogous to these processes occurs in the organic world; nor can the chemical laboratory either construct a vital organ or tissue, or analyze it so as to determine of what elements or materials it was composed. The chemist can only give us the product of his analy- sis, and he only analyzes dead matter. The Properties of Living Matter.—The genera] properties of living matter are those of contraction THE ORIGIN OF LIFE. or motion and reproduction. These properties are seen in every moving and growing organism, be it animal or vegetable. We consider matter alive only so long as it exhibits, or can exhibit, these properties; when the power to move, to grow and reproduce cease, we call it dead. In speaking of motion we wish to convey a very different idea from what we understand by motion in other substances. The earth has its motions, and yet is not alive. Heat, light and electricity are forms of motion as seen in non-living matter. The motions of living matter are properties which it possesses from its nature. A living body moves by virtue of these properties. Its tissues have con- tractibility and irritability of a very different kind from the crystal. Living matter can go against gravity. Its motion is spontaneous or automatic. It may change its shape, we call this amoeboid motion; it may change its place, we call this loco- motion; it may increase in size, we call this growth; it may give birth to new individuals, we call this reproduction. When it ceases to grow, there is a period of action and reproduction, after which comes death. The living matter of plants and animals are essentially the same, and the boundary between the animal and vegetable world has gradually faded away, so that in the lowest organisms it is difficult to say which belongs to one and which to to the other kingdom. It has been urged that 66 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. vegetables live on inorganic matter and animals on organic, and that this distinguishes the one from the other. But we now know that animals of a high grade of organization may appropriate inorganic matter to a small extent, and it is not known to what degree the lower forms of animal life may do this. We also know that there are plants which are carniverous and capable of ab- sorbing nourishment from flesh foods. The chemical composition of living matter is com- plex. Carbon, hydrogen, oxygen, nitrogen, united with a large proportion of water, form its chief constituents, to which a small amount of sulphur may be added. No living matter has yet been found destitute of any of the first four of these elements. By virtue of its constant loss on ac- count of its activity, new matter must as con- tinually be supplied, which can be converted into the same substance. If the living matter increases beyond the loss, there is growth; if the loss is greater than the supply, then there is a diminu- tion of weight, and, finally, death. This happens in old age when the living matter of the body is almost nothing. Living matter depends on moisture for its activities. A certain amount of drying arrests its property of motion. In the lower forms of life, however, it may become perfectly dry and dessi- cated and yet recover its life when moistened. It is also intimately related to heat. All vital activity, THE ORIGIN OF LIFE. 67 growth and nutrition cease both above and below certain temperatures. The action of heat and cold destroy and coagulate the structure of the proto- plasm, without which life is impossible. A mass of living matter is simply an organized machine of great complexity, the results of the working of which depend on its structure and upon the energy supplied to it from either within or with- out. Origin of Living Matter.—The origin of living matter is shrouded in mystery. There was a time when our globe was a fiery ball, like a huge glowing spark from the sun, careering through space, and for countless ages so hot that no life was possible upon its surface. Little by little it radiated its heat into space and became cool enough for low forms of organisms. When the earth was first fit for living beings there could have been no living thing upon it. There were rocks, solid and disintegrated; water; air rich in plant food; a warm and brilliant sun—a world only waiting to become a garden—but no life. Living matter must have appeared at a very remote time, since we find its remains far down in ancient rocks. How did it make its appearance ? According to an opinion advanced by Sir William Thompson, it may have been by the accidental falling on our planet of a “ moss-grown fragment from the ruins of another world.” We know that 68 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. the meteorites that fall on the earth contain fossil plants, dead, of course; but at some time a fresh fragment may have come with living matter upon it. This theory, however, shirks the question of the origin of life and gives the honor to some other globe; puts it back farther and farther until it is lost in the darkness of the past. Darwin says, speaking of the probable commence- ment of life on the globe: “I believe that animals have descended from at most only four or five pro- genitors, and plants from an equal or less number. Analogy would lead me one step further, namely, to the belief that all animals and plants have descended from some one prototype. There is grandeur in this view of life, with its several powers having been originally breathed by the Creator into a few forms or into one, and that whilst this planet has gone cycling on according to the laws of gravity from so simple a beginning, endless forms most beautiful and most wonderful have been and are being evolved.” Herbert Spencer teaches distinctly that living matter must have been at first formless; that multiplication probably took place as in the lowest forms of living matter to-day; and adds, “Every kind of being is conceived as a product of modifi- cations wrought by insensible gradations on a pre-existing kind of being, and this holds fully of the commencements of organic life, or of all subsequent developments.” He also says, “that THE ORIGIN OF LIFE. the formation of living matter and the evolution of life in its lowest forms may go on on the globe in its present condition ; yet it is more likely that its first appearance took place at a time when the heat of the earth’s surface was falling through those ranges of temperature at which the higher forms of life are unstable.” The opinions of Professor Huxley and Professor Tyndal do not differ much from that of Spencer. They teach that living matter came into being originally as the result of natural causes, that is, by the unhindered play of affinities operating on matter of a certain kind in solution, after it had acquired a certain degree of complexity, very similar to the way that crystalline matter comes into being at the present time ; but they insist that we have no evidence, as yet, that such processes occur to-day. Bastian, who, during the present century, has been the most able advocate of spontaneous gener- ation, believes that the lowest forms of life come into being spontaneously to-day as readily as in former times, whenever the proper material at the proper temperature is found in solution, as in the warm water of our brooks and pools in summer, when they are rich in vegetable infusions. He says, “ Living matter is constantly being formed de novo in obedience to the same laws and ten dencies as those which determine all the more simple chemical combinations. The qualities which 70 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. we summarize under the word t life ’ are in all cases due to the combined molecular actions and proper- ties of the aggregate that displays them, just as the properties which we include under the word magnetism are due to particular modes of arrange- ment that have been assumed by the molecules of iron. Living matter is especially characterized by the complexity of its molecules and their state of continual internal movement, and it is to this molecular inability which makes an aggregate of living matter, in the form of a simple organism, very prone to undergo changes in its intimate constitution either spontaneously or under the the effect of external forces. Some new conditions may not visibly affect it; others may cause its death and still bring about a modification of its constitution.” For the purposes of this work, however, it makes little difference which of the theories prevail. We know that life originates from life, and that it has not yet been proved that it originates in any other way. If it should be proved at some future time, it will only add another glory to the world and, make the universe grander then we supposed it to be. On the other hand, it is quite sufficient to account for all the life on the globe; that far back in its history living matter came into being; and it matters little whether its first appearance was in a single minute speck in a favored locality, or spontaneously over the entire earth. CHAPTER IV. SEXUAL GENERATION. Reproduction in plants and animals goes on by two principal methods with many modifications. One method is called sexual and the other asexual. The former is by the conjunction of two individuals of different sexes; the latter is without such con- junction, and will be explained first. The method by which the multiplication of in- dividuals takes place asexually proceeds in two ways, one is by the division of one organism into two parts: each of these again dividing into two others, and so on; this method is termed repro- duction by fission. The other mode of increase consists in the formation of a bud at some part of the body of the plant or animal. The bud gradually develops to the form of the parent from which it springs; its petiole, or stem, slowly disappears, and the bud, finally liberated, becomes an independent being, resembling in every particular the parent from which it came. This is called reproduction by gemmation. Reproduction by fission is next illustrated by SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. what takes place in the infusoria. It may occur by longitudinal division, as in the vorticella, or by transverse, as in the stentor, or by both methods, as in the chilodon, paramecium, etc. The joints of the tape worm multiply by division, and when sufficiently developed become free. Some of the worms have a modified form of reproducing by fission. Muller observed this first and considered it accidental; but more recent researches show it to have far more significance than he supposed. There are some animals which may be divided artificially, and each part will produce a head and tail and enlarge until a perfect organism is the result. All are familiar with the reproduction of plants by artificial division, as, for instance, the willow, a branch of which removed from the parent tree and set in a moist place grows into an independ- ent tree. Reproduction by buds is very common in both the vegetable and animal kingdoms. There are modifications of these methods, as, for instance, when a plant reproduces by a bulb or a tuber, and, also, where only a single cell is detached from the parent and develops into its likeness. Generation by fission and gemmation are not confined to the simplest forms of life, but both modes of multiplication are common, not only in plants, but among animals of considerable com- plexity of structure. In all these cases of reproduction by division there is no influence from other living matter. SEXUAL GENERATION. 73 The segment does not need fructification, being perfect of itself. This method, common as it is in the lower forms of life, becomes more and more rare among the higher animals and ceases altogether in the highest. Throughout almost the entire series of animal and vegetable beings we find, in connection with the process of asexual generation, another method in which the development of the germ into an organism resembling the parent depends on the influence exerted by living matter different from the germ, and this brings us to the subject of sexual generation. In the lowest organisms sexual generation is absent, or, at least, it has not been ob- served. In the highest organisms a sexual gener- ation is wanting. In many of the lower forms of life asexual generation is the predominant mode of reproduction, while sexual generation occasion- ally takes place. In many of the higher, on the contrary, sexual generation is most common, while asexual takes place exceptionally. The simplest form of sexual generation consists in the coalescence of two similar masses of living matter, derived from different parts of the same organism, or from two organisms of the same species. The reunited mass after the fusion de- velops into a new being. In most cases, however, there is a marked difference in the two factors in the process, and we call one factor the male and the other the female element. The female element SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. is larger than the male and undergoes but little change of form. In all the higher plants and animals it is a nucleated organized lump or mass of living protoplasm, to which a small amount of nutriment for the first stage of development—which we call the yelk—may be added. The male element, on the other hand, is comparatively small. It may be conveyed to the female element in various ways, as all who have observed carefully the structure of the flowers of plants, and the very interesting manner in which the male and female elements are brought in contact, know. In true sexual generation in the higher animals two special organs are required : a female organ for producing an ovum or egg, and a male organ for producing the spermatozoa. Each form of generative apparatus consists of two parts, of which one is a formative organ, in the female termed the ovarium, and in the male the testis, in which the reproductive cells are formed, and which are essen- tial, and an efficient duct by which the products of secretion are carried off. The male and female organs may exist in separate individuals or coexist in the same individual, giving rise to what is known as hermaphroditism. The following brief outline of reproduction in the classes of the animal kingdom, beginning with the lowest, will be of interest. The protozoa reproduce by all three modes: fission, gemmation and an impregnated ova; but SEXUAL GENERATION. fission is the principal method, and it is only in the infusoria that we have undoubted evidence of true sexual generation. In the echinodermata, fission has been observed in some classes, which have at the same time sexual organs combined in the same individual. In the other classes the sexes are separate, and generation only takes place by the union of the germs or ova and spermatozoa. In the annelida, sexual generation occurs, and there is also sometimes multiplication by fission. In the lower mollusca, generation takes place by gemmation and true generation. In the higher mollusca, multiplication occurs only by true genera- tion. In the articulata, insects and crustaceans, genera- tion is sexual, and, except in one class, the cirrho- poda, the sexes are separate. In the vertebrate, we have the most complex form of generation, and, except in a few genera of fishes, the sexes are always separate. The osseous and cartilaginous fishes present important differences in their reproductive organs and modes of reproduction. In the osseous fishes, the essential female organ, the ovary or roe, consists of a large membranous bag, usually in two lobes, but some- times single. When extended with ova this organ fills the greater part of the abdominal cavity. The lining membrane is arranged in folds to give greater surface, and make the retention of the 76 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. ova, until sufficiently ripe for expulsion, more easy; they then escape into the abdominal cavity and are expelled in enormous numbers through an opening between the anus and urinary canal. In most cases the eggs of fishes are impregnated after their expulsion; and in order that a sufficient num- ber of them may be impregnated, the male secretion, or milt of fishes, which contains the spermatozoa is very abundant, being nearly equal to the roe of the female. In a very few classes of fishes the young are hatched in the ovary, and are of con- siderable size before they are born, and in these cases impregnation must have taken place intern- ally. In the cartilaginous fishes, the sharks and rays, we have a higher type of generative organs. The eggs are always impregnated within the body of the female, the male having special organs by which sexual congress is effected. The ovaries of the female are in the form of two glandular bunches on either side of the spine. The eggs are of large size and few in number. As they escape from the ovary they pass into an oviduct, which secretes about them a horny shell, shaped like a pillow case, with long tendrils at each corner, which entwine about the seaweed in the water and thus maintain their position. As remarked, the shell is horny; were it brittle like an egg-shell it would soon be broken by the continuous beating of the waves. In order that the embryo may escape from this tough envelope, there is an opening at one extremity, SEXUAL GENERATION. 77 and the slightest exertion of the living embryo within separates this opening, when the young escapes by its own efforts—a form of parturition which gives no pain, and is full of simplicity as well as interest, and gives us a grand impression of the curious ways in which nature provides for every emergency, and triumphs over the greatest obsta- cles. In the batrachia or frogs, the sexes are more closely associated than in the osseous fishes, and the eggs are usually impregnated by the male as they escape from the female. In one batrachia, the Saurian toad, the impregnated eggs are seized by the male and deposited in a sort of pouch in the skin on the back of the female, where they develop until of considerable size, when they escape. It was formerly supposed that this was a true case of viviperous birth, until a careful study resulted in this discovery. In the true reptiles the sexual organs are still more highly evolved, and the male has organs for the impregnation of the female by sexual congress, which now becomes essential to fecundation. All reptiles are oviperous, though a few species retain the egg in a sort of cavity formed by a dilatation of the oviduct until they are considerably developed, when they are brought forth alive. The eggs of reptiles are quite large, and abundantly supplied with nutriment for the young animal. The shell is somewhat like parchment—soft and 78 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. flexible, but very tough, and contains a very small portion of lime-salts. The eggs are usually de- posited in warm, dry places, where the heat of the sun or the heat of putrefactive matter, as, for instance, dung-hills, will facilitate the development of the embryo. In a rough way reptiles have fore- stalled the invention of the incubator, now so extensively used in the hatching of chickens and other birds. The reproductive power of different species of reptiles varies : Lizards lay from 8 to 12 eggs; ser- pents from 10 to 50; tortoises from 20 to 30; croco- diles from 20 to 60. The reptile has little maternal instinct; but its dawn and slight development has been observed in crocodiles and lizards, which sometimes watch the places chosen for depositing the eggs, and the python in captivity surrounds its eggs and imparts to them such heat as its low temperature will permit. In birds the generative organs present a clear analogy to the higher reptiles. There is only one ovary, and that is on the left side. There is, how- ever, a rudimentary ovary on the right side which is atrophied. This is a curious instance of the violation of symmetry. It would be exceedingly difficult for birds so constantly on the flight to give birth to living young, and so incubation with them has its most perfect development: sufficient nutriment is stored up in the egg to develop the SEXUAL GENERATION. 79 young bird, so that all which is required from the mother is a warm nest and animal heat for a not very extended period. In mammals, a new organ for the first time appears for the secretion of milk to nourish the young, till they are sufficiently grown to live on the food of the adult. There is also a temporary placenta from which the fetus is nourished during its uterine existence. The sexual organs and their modifications, which we have been considering, are all primary or lead- ing sexual characters; but there are secondary sexual characters in animals and in man, which are necessary to reproduction, though not directly connected with it. For instance, the male possesses certain organs and instincts which the female is destitute of, or he has them developed in a higher degree in order that he may find her or maintain her securely. These instincts and organs vary in differ- ent animals, and are often complex, as is seen in the appendages at the apex of the abdomen of male insects. The female differs from the male in having an organ for nourishing its young. The marsupials have a sack in which to deposit them until sufficiently grown to go off by themselves. Some varieties of male fishes and frogs have a receptacle for receiving the ova of the female. The females of most bees have a special apparatus for collecting pollen, and their oviposita is modified into a sting with which to defend itself, its larva 80 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. and the colony to which it belongs. These dif- ferences, however, are of small account compared with others; as any one may observe the greater size, strength and ferocity of the male, his weapons with which to punish his rival, his gaudy coloring, beautiful ornaments, gift of song, and such other characters. The females of certain flies have an apparatus for sucking blood, which the male has not. The males of certain moths have closed mouths and never feed. The female glow-worm has no wings, and this is also the case with some moths which never leave their cocoons. In some birds the male differs from the female; these differ- ences are not always directly connected with re- production, though they generally are. The male insect always requires more perfect wings and a better muscular development than the female, to secure and hold her, and the female requires better organs for securing food, as she must nourish her larva; the male dies after fecundat- ing the female, and, consequently, organs for securing food which it never eats would be useless. The Sexual Organs of Plants.—The flowers of the vegetable kingdom, whose fragrance pleases and whose beauty charms us, are nothing more nor less than their generative apparatus. And the various fruits which afford the animal kingdom and the human family so much substantial food and so many luxuries, are but the seeds which SEXUAL GENERATION. 81 result from sexual congress and subsequent growth; the pulp in which the seeds are nourished and protected. Some plants, however, do not produce seeds or flowers. They are called flowerless plants (Cryptogamia). But they produce minute bodies termed spores, which answer the purpose of seeds. These bodies are of inconceivable minuteness, and in all probability, if our powers of vision, with microscopic assistance, were sufficient, we should be able to discover in them all the elements of the sexual organism which are so apparent in the flowering plant. Phenogamous, or flowering plants, produce blossoms and seeds, each seed consisting essentially of an embryo or germ which has only to grow and unfold its parts to become a plant resembling its parent. The essential organs of the sexual apparatus of plants are the stamens and pistils. The stamens are the male organs, and the pistils the female organs. They are in all respects analogous to their corresponding organs in the animal kingdom; and as reproduction from seeds and eggs is governed by the same laws and involves the same vital pro- cesses, a brief analysis of the sexual organism of plants cannot fail to be interesting as well as in- structive. The Stamens commonly consist of two parts, a filament and an anther. The filament is the stalk or stem of the stamen; and the anther is the small case or hollow body which surmounts the filament 82 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. or is attached to its top. The anthers produce a powdery, dust-like substance (analogous to the semen) termed pollen. The Pistils, which occupy the cen- tral part of the flower, generally con- sist of three parts : the ovary, which becomes the seed vessel; the style, which is the upward prolongation of the ovary into a slender structure; and the stigma, which is the roughish, skinless upper extremity of the style. In many plants the filament and style are wanting, but the anthers (corresponding to the testes of the male animal), and the ovary and stigma (corresponding to the ovary and vulva of the female animal), are always present. The specific function of the stamens and pistils is the fertilization of the seed, which process is accomplished in the following man- ner. At the proper season, when the sexual organs have arrived at the period of maturity, the an- thers discharge their pollen into the air, some of which falls, FIG. 34. STAMEN AND PIS- TIL. f. Filament, a. Anther discharg- ing its pollen in the form of yel- low dust. ov. Ovary. 8t. Style. gig. Stigma. Fig. 35. SECTION OF HAWTHORN BLOSSOM. SEXUAL GENERATION. 83 or is wafted by the wind, upon the stigma, and insinuating itself between the cells of the orsran. passes down the lower areolar structure of the style to the ovary. Stamens and pistils vary much in number and in arrangement, with regard to the other parts of the flower. In the hawthorn (Fig. 35) there are four stamens and three pistils. In the cherry there is but a single pistil (Fig. 36), while the stamens are numerous. In the case of the hawthorn, for example, the calyx grows fast to the ovary, and all other parts of the blossom appear to grow on it. In the cherry, the stamen and petals are on the calyx. Nor is there less variety in the form and arrangement of the individual sta- mens and pistils; in this respect again resembling the corresponding organs of the animal kingdom. Fig. 37 is a repre- sentation of a pistil of the stone-crop; its stigma gradually enlarges downward into the ovary, the ovary being divided to show some of the ovules within. Fig. 38 represents one of the ovules, or future seeds, highly magnified. A grain of pollen, highly magnified, Fig. 36. SECTION OF CHERRY BLOSSOM. Fig. 37. PISTIL OF STONE-CROP. 84 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. from the anther of a mallow, is seen in Fig. 39. It is curious to observe how both stamens and pistils answer to leaves, folded and rolled together. The stalk or filament of-a stamen corresponds with the footstalk of a leaf, and the anther answers to the blade. In Fig. 40, the lower portion represents a short filament bearing an anther, which has its upper half cut away and the summit of a leaf above it. Besides this, for com- parison, is the whole stamen of a lily. The halves of the anther answer to the halves of the blades of the leaf, one on each side of the midrib; the continuation of the filament which connects the two cells corresponds to the midrib. The anther generally opens along that structure which corresponds to the margins of a leaf. The structural arrangement and development of the sexual organs of plants, and particularly the fact that both stamens and pistils seem equally to answer to folded leaves, have a curious interest in connec- tion with certain theories wdiich have been entertained with regard to the law of sex; some physiolo- gists supposing all human beings originally sexless, the sex being determined in some unknown man- Fig. 88. OVULE MAG- NIFIED. Fig. 89. POLLEN GBAIN Figs. 40 & 41. PLAN OF A STAMEN. SEXUAL GENERATION. 85 ner in the process of growth ; but this is doubtless erroneous. Figs. 42 and 43 show how a simple pistil answers to a leaf. A simple pistil, regarded botanically, is made by the folding up inwardly of the blade of a leaf, the margins coming together and joining so as to constitute a hol- low closed sac, which is the ovary; its tapering summit forms the style, and some portion of the margins of the leaf in this, destitute of skin, and of irregular rough surface, becomes the stigma. Here the ovules or seeds are attached to what answers to the united margins of the leaf. The particular part to which the ovules are attached is called the placenta. All the following plants except the pine family have their ovules and seeds produced in a seed ves- sel of some sort, and are hence termed angiosper- mous.n In pines, spruces, cedars, etc. (gymnospermous or naked- seeded), the pistil is an open leaf or scale, bearing ovules on its up- per or inner surface. Each scale of a pine cone is an open pistil, and the ovules, instead of being inclosed in an ovary which forms a pod, are naked, and exposed to the pollen shed by the stamen-bear- ing flowers which falls directly upon them. Figs. 42&43. PLAN OF PISTIL. Figs. 44 & 45. PISTIL OF LARCH CONE. 86 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Fig. 44 is a view of the upper side of an open pistil or scale from a forming larch cone at flower- ing time, showing the two ovules borne on the face of it, one on each side near the bottom. Fig. 45 is the same grown larger, the ovules becoming seeds. When ripe and dry the scales turn back, and the naked seeds peel off and fall away. In some classes of plants (the willow, poplar, hemp, etc.) the male and female organs are on separate plants, and in others there are separate male and female flowers on the same plant. These facts are familiar to most persons who will read this work. There are many curious and interesting facts relating to variations in the manner of reproduc- tion in different animals, and more especially in insects. Reproduction in bees is interesting and in- structive. The article “ Bees ” in The Encyclopedia Britannica furnishes the following account. “ The impregnation of the queen-bee was formerly involved in the deepest obscurity, and has given rise to a multitude of very fanciful opinions. Some have denied that any intercourse with the male was necessary for the fecundation of the eggs. Swam- merdam supposed that the mere effluvia proceeding from the males, where they were collected in clusters, was sufficiently active to produce this effect by penetrating the body of the female. Huber proved by decisive experiment that no such consequence resulted from this effluvia. Maraldi imagined SEXUAL GENERATION. 87 that the eggs were fecundated by the drones after being deposited in the cells, in the same way that the spawn of fishes is rendered prolific by the milt. Dr. Debraw, of Cambridge, gave an account, in a paper published in the Philosophical Transactions, of a milk-like fluid he had seen in the cells. But this appearance Huber showed to be a mere optical illusion arising from the reflection of light at the bottom of the cells. When the males are excluded from the hive the queen is as fertile and the eggs as prolific as when they are present. HattorfF supposed the queen to be capable of impregnat- ing herself, an opinion which was supported by Schirach and Wilhelmi, and was even favorably received by Bonnet, as it in some measure accorded with his discoveries concerning the aphis. Lin- naeus was of opinion that an actual union between the sexes took place, and Reaumur fancied he had seen this happen within the hive. There is, how- ever, great reason to think he was mistaken. It has since been clearly proved that copulation takes place in the air during flight, and if the queen is confined to the hive, either by bad weather or mal- formation or mutilation of her wings, although she may be surrounded by drones, she never becomes impregnated; and if she does not find a mate within three weeks of her birth, the power of sexual inter- course seems to become lost. If a hive containing a virgin queen be attentively watched on fine days, the queen will be observed preparing for her matri- 88 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. monial flight, and after having attentively surveyed her home, so as to be able to recognize it again, she flies to a considerable height in the air; and if her errand is successful, in half an hour she returns to the hive with unequivocal proofs of the intercourse that has taken place, for she has, in fact, robbed the drone of the organs concerned in this operation; and the drone, thus mutilated, is left to perish on the ground. From its being necessary that the queen should fly to a distance in order to be impreg- nated, Huber infers the necessity of a great num- ber of drones being attached to the hive, that there may be a sufficient chance of her meeting one of them during her aerial excursion. “The phenomenon that sometimes occurs in a bee-hive, of the queen laying eggs that produced males only, had for ages puzzled philosophers with- out any satisfactory solution, and it was reserved for Dzierzon to promulgate a new and startling theory of reproduction, which, in the words of its distinguished author, is said to have ‘ explained all the phenomena of the bee-hive as perfectly as the Copernician hypothesis explains the phenomena of the heavens.’ Dzierzon first expressed his views upon the reproduction of bees in the year 1845. The principal points of this theory may be shortly expressed thus: “ 1st. That the queen (female bee), to become good for anything (i. e., to breed workers), must be fer- tilized by a drone (the male), and the copulation SEXUAL GENERATION. 89 takes place only out of doors ; that drone eggs do not require fecundation, but that the co-operation of the drone is absolutely necessary when worker- bees are to be produced; that in copulation the ovaries are not fecundated, but the seminal receptacle, or spermatheca, a little vesicle or sac opening into the oviduct, which, in the young queen, is filled with a limpid fluid, is saturated with semen, after which it is more clearly distinguish- able from its white color, and that the supply of semen received during copulation is sufficient for her whole lifetime. The copulation takes place once for all, and, as already stated, only in the open air; therefore no queen which has been lame in her wings from birth can ever be perfectly fertile, that is, capable of producing both sexes, as copula- tion never takes place in the interior of the hive. “2d. All eggs which come into maturity in the ovaries of a queen-bee are only of one and the same kind, and when they are laid without coming in contact with the male semen, become developed into male bees. This theory of Dzierzon’s has since been amply confirmed by numberless experiments, although what power the queen possesses, or how she exercises it, of determining what eggs shall receive fecundation and what not, is yet a mystery. Certain it is, that when the queen lays an egg in a drone cell, a drone is produced; and Von Siebold who made many most skilful microscopical ex- aminations of eggs, affirms that among 52 eggs 90 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. taken from worker cells, examined by him with the greatest care and conscientiousness, 34 fur- nished a positive result, namely, the existence of seminal filaments, in which movements could easily be detected in three eggs; and among 27 eggs from drone cells, examined with the same care and by the same method, he did not find one seminal filament in any single egg, either externally or internally. On the passage of the eggs from the ovary through the oviduct, they pass the opening of the spermatheca, from which some eggs receive a portion of the seminal fluid—these produce workers ; other eggs pass without receiving the fluid—these produce drones. What it is that governs the disposition or non-disposition of the seminal fluid on the egg is unknown. It has been suggested that the smaller diameter of the worker cells exerts some mechanical pressure on the queen’s organs, which may cause the seminal fluid to be extruded as the egg passes, while the drone cells being larger, this pressure is not by them exerted, and the egg passes unfecundated. If the sper- matheca of an impregnated queen be examined under the microscope its contents will be found to contain many thousands of spermatozoa, the characteristic movements of which are visible. The contents of the spermatheca of a virgin or drone-breeding queen, if similarly examined, will be found to be a limpid fluid only, without a trace of spermatozoa. SEXUAL GENERATION. 91 “ The fact that the eggs of an unimpregnated queen will hatch and produce drones may be easily veri- fied, and is now undisputed. By depriving a colony of its queen late in the year, a young queen will be reared; and the drones having been killed long before, no impregnation can take place, yet the queen will infallibly lay eggs which hatch into drones; these eggs are laid indiscriminately in drone and worker cells, the bees bred in the latter being stunted in their growth. If, now, the sper- matheca be examined, no spermatozoa will be found present; the same result will take place in the summer, if the virgin be deprived of her wings and so made unable to fly. “ If the impregnation of the queen be delayed be- yond, as elsewhere stated, the twenty-first day of her life, she becomes incapable of receiving impreg- nation, and begins soon after to lay the eggs of drones, and produces no other kind of eggs during her life. This very curious and unexpected fact was discovered by Huber, and has been satisfac- torily established by his very numerous and varied experiments, although its explanation is perhaps attended with insuperable difficulties. The abdomen of a queen that is unimpregnated is much more slender than that of one which is completely fertile; but, on dissection, the ovaries are found expanded and full of ova. “ One of the most remarkable facts concerning the generation of bees is the existence, occasionally, of 92 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. prolific workers, the discovery of which we owe to Reims. Although it was doubted by Bonnet, its reality has been fully confirmed by the researches of Huber and subsequent observers, and it explains what was before inexplicable—the production of eggs in hives absolutely destitute of a queen. It is also remarkable that the eggs thus produced are always those of drones; but this is explained by the fact that these fertile workers have not received, and are unable to receive, impregnation from the drone. The origin of these abnormal egg layers is accounted for from their having passed the larva state in cells contiguous to the royal ones, and from their having at an early period devoured some portion of the stimulating jelly which was destined for the nourishment of the royal brood, their ovaries thus received a partial development; or, when a colony is deprived of its queen late in the autumn, and an attempt to raise a queen from some unknown cause has failed, a larva has sufficiently advanced to develop into a fertile worker.” CHAPTER V. PHYSIOLOGY AND HYGIENE OF MENSTRUATION. From the period of puberty, which, in this cli- mate, may be reckoned at the age of 15 in most cases, until the critical age, or turn of life, which occurs generally between the age of 45 and 50, varying several years according to constitutional vitality and habits of life, as the commencement of menstruation varies, one, two or three or even more years from the same causes, there is, with few exceptions, a periodical discharge of mucus and blood from the vagina. This discharge continues in a great majority of cases from three to six days, and recurs very nearly once in 28 days, or once in each lunar month, and continues as long as the female is capable of conceiving, or rather, as long as ova are developed. This discharge is termed menses, catamenia, flowers, etc., and the process menstruation. Many errors, however, are entertained on this subject. By some physiologists the menstrual flow is regarded as a secretion; and by others as a hemorrhage. The ancients regarded it as an excretion or purifying process, and many SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. absurd and superstitious notions and practices re- sulted from this erroneous theory. A woman was regarded as “unclean” during menstruation; and among other absurd vagaries of those who adopted this view of the process, a woman was regarded as a dangerous character during her “monthly periods.” It was even said that if, at this time, she should sit under an apple tree, all the fruit would be blasted, etc. We need not wonder at the exclusion of woman from “ good society ” on occa- sions, and the degradation which necessarily at- tached to the sex, because of this mistaken opinion of the nature of the process of menstruation. Menstruation is Ovulation.—As we have al- ready seen, when the sexual apparatus is sufficiently developed, a germ-cell, egg or ovum, is evolved from its ovarian bed, passed along the channel of the Fallopian tube into the uterine cavity, and, unless impregnated in its course by meeting and mingling with the sperm-cell, or semen, of the male, and fixed upon the wall of the utero-Fallopian canal, it is expelled through the vaginal passage—a process to be repeated monthly. This process is usually, though not always, at- tended with a discharge of blood. Menstruation may occur without the discharge of a drop of blood. Many cases are on record in which women are said to have conceived without menstruating. Some women are said to menstruate during pregnancy, MENSTRUATION. 95 and Dr. Good, in his Study of Medicine, relates the case of a woman who menstruated only during pregnancy, thus acting by the rule of- contrary. Some women are supposed to have menstruation return years after the critical age, and very fre- quently it is stated in some medical journal that some female child menstruates. Women sometimes, while nursing ail infant, find themselves pregnant, without having had any appearance of the menstrual flux since the birth of the last child. This happens, in some cases, in three, and in very rare cases, in two months after delivery. At Barnum’s Baby Show, at the American Museum, several years ago, among the sights was a little girl not quite three years of age who regularly menstruated. In all of these cases hemorrhage has been mis- taken for menstruation. The menstrual blood was long regarded, and still is by some authors, as a secretion. Dr. Good, who regards it as a secretion, terms it “a species of blood thrown off from the common mass.” This is not the manner in which secretions are effected. A secretion is a formation. not a mere separation. And, besides, the blood of menstruation does not differ from ordinary venous blood in any essential particular. Its non-coagula- bility is owing to the partial decomposition it under- goes after being effused from its proper vessels ; and the more slowly it is discharged, and the longer it remains in the passages, the more will its congula- bility be diminished or destroyed. 96 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Cases of Menorrhagia, in which the hemorrhage occurs irregularly, or once in two or three weeks, are often miscalled excessive menstruation. They are cases of hemorrhage as much as is nose-bleed- ing or haemoptysis. Indeed, Madame Bovin, of Paris, who had facilities for investigating this sub- ject never enjoyed by her male cotemporaries, has demonstrated conclusively that the catamenia is nothing more nor less than a discharge of ordinary blood. Rationale of the Menses.—Why should there be hemorrhage as an accompaniment or incident of menstruation ? A reference to the nature of the process will set this matter in its true light. All organs whose functions are performed periodically —for examples : the ovaries during ovulation, the male organs during coition, the breasts during lac- tation, and the stomach during digestion—have a special determination of blood and nervous influence to the part when the function is to be exercised. This is clearly for the purpose of supplying the part with the material requisite for the proper perform- ance of its function. In the case of digestion the increased quantity of blood sent to the stomach is to supply the material more abundantly for the secretion of gastric juice. In sexual congress the blood is specially determined to the organs con- cerned in secreting the seminal fluid and conveying it within the sexual organism of the female. In MENSTRUATION. 97 lactation the determination of blood to the mam- mary glands is for the purpose of supplying the parts with the material from which the milk is formed. And in menstruation the special deter- mination of blood and nerve force, which are always coincident, is to furnish the elements for the evolu- tion of the germ and its nourishment. A certain degree of distension, congestion, plethora or ereth- ism, is necessary to distend the capillary vessels, so that the fimbriated extremity of the Fallopian tube may grasp more completely the matured ovum, and insure its passage to the uterus; and if the ovum in its passage becomes impregnated and fixed to the walls of any part of the reproductive channel, the unusual quantity of blood, or some portion of it, is needed to supply the elements for its nourishment and growth, and for the development of its append- ages—the membranes and placenta. In some cases the blood, after imparting the nutrient materials required, is wholly returned to the general circula- tion, so that no hemorrhage occurs. But, in most cases, more or less of'it is effused into the uterine cavity and expelled. Quantity of Menstrual Blood.—In civilized society, and, to a great extent, in uncivilized, the majority of females lose too much blood at the menstrual period. This results from a relaxed state of the vessels consequent on a weakened and relaxed condition. Indeed, there are few females, 98 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. except those who suffer from chlorosis or amenor- rhsea, who do not have more or less inflammation of the reproductive organs, particularly of the vagina and neck of the uterus, with its necessary concomitants of relaxation and debility, excessive hemorrhage, leucorrhoea, ulceration and displace- ment. But as this work is not intended to treat more than incidentally of morbid conditions, I must refer the reader who desires full information on the diseases of the sexual organs and their treatment to my work, Uterine Diseases and Displacements, illustrated with colored engravings. Much observation and an extensive correspond- ence have enabled me to arrive at a general if not a universal rule with regard to the amount of menstrual blood. It is this : Other circumstances being equal, the less hemorrhage the better. Women who live a more simple life, and are less enervated by the luxuries and stimulants of arti- ficial society, even though they are exposed to excessive toil, and many hardships and privations, have comparatively few of the sexual disorders common to women all over the civilized world, and they lose little blood during menstruation. The average quantity of menstrual fluid, which is blood largely admixed with mucus, in temperate climates, is reckoned at six to eight ounces. Some women, however, lose twice that quantity, and others still more. I am of opinion that all beyond two to three ounces must be regarded as abnormal MENSTRUATION. 99 in quantity. Professor C. D. Meigs, of Philadelphia, whose experience has been very extensive, states that he has met with many healthy women who never had occasion to employ a napkin; hence the discharge of blood, in their cases, could not have exceeded the above quantity. I have known many similar cases, and some in which hardly an ounce of blood could have been lost; and I have learned the particulars of the cases of a few females, some married and others single, who hardly stain their linen at the menstrual periods. All that is notice- able is a moderate discharge of a sero-mucous fluid for four or five days, with a very slight tinge of color for a day or two. And all of these persons have enjoyed unusually robust health. I am satisfied, moreover, that, as a general rule, much more blood is lost during parturition than would be the case were women more vigorous and firm in their muscular tissue. I have known several cases in which but a mere trifle of blood was lost— no more, certainly, than is discharged on the aver- age during menstruation—during the delivery of the child and afterbirth, or subsequently. In all of these cases the mothers had an active, vigorous and elastic state of the muscular system, and were more than commonly hygienic in their habits of living. And I have attended one case—an Irish woman of remarkable fineness, firmness, and tone of muscular tissue, who lost no blood at all during nor after parturition, the discharges pro- 100 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. ducing no distinctly sanguineous stain on the sheets or cloths employed; nor did the discharges even stain the hands employed in cutting and tying the umbilical cord or removing the after- birth. CHAPTER VI. THE CONTESTS BETWEEN THE MALES OP VARIOUS ANIMALS AND EVEN MAN FOR THE FEMALE. The facts for this chapter have been collected largely from Darwin, from Wilson, the ornitholo- gist, from personal observation and the contribu- tions of friends. Having now considered quite fully reproduction in its nature and general principles, I wish to enter into a branch of the subject full of interest, and one having a great influence on the maintain- ing of a high degree of physical and intellectual perfection, and contributing very largely to the improvement of every form of living thing within such limits as the conditions of life on our globe will permit. If animals and plants were not produced by sexual generation, but were manufactured like machines, or produced by chemical or other non- vital processes, there would be no reason why there should be any sexes or any differences in the structure or physical and mental characters of living creatures. But sexual reproduction makes 102 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. other characteristics essential. The male who seeks the female, who protects her, maintains her, must have a different structure from the female; for instance, the male possesses certain organs of sense and locomotion which are absent in the fe- male, or less highly developed, in order that he may find her or reach her; or the male has certain or- gans for holding her securely. These organs are of diversified kinds. Instances may be seen in the complex appendages on the apex of the abdomen of some male insects. The female, too, often differs from the male in having organs for the nourishing of her young, as the mammary gland, or the sac in which marsupials carry their young until they are old enough to be permitted to run about. There are instances in which the male and not the female has receptacles for receiving the ova, as in cer- tain tribes of fishes in which the male hatches them in his mouth. In bees the female worker only has apparatus for collecting honey and gathering pollen; her ovipositor, which, in the queen is used for depositing eggs, in the worker becomes a sting for self-defense. In some animals, the males are more powerful, more pugnacious and courageous; in others there are gaudy, showy coats to attract the female, and in birds curious ornaments and power of song. Among insects there are many kinds in which the males, who live but a day, have no organs for procuring food, but their organs of locomotion are CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 103 perfect, these being necessary to the finding and fertilizing of the female. As a rule the male is modified more than the female. Why this is we may not be able to decide; but it is probably owing to his stronger passions. It is the rule in all nature, to which there are few exceptions, that the male pursues the female. This great eagerness on his part develop in him characters which in her are wanting. The females, on the other hand, being obliged to nourish the embryo, guard her off- spring, cannot afford to expend so much energy in contests, in song or gaining possession of a mate; and it is this contest which the males have with their own sex for the female which is, after all, the most remarkable and interesting feature of the reproductive nature, for there can be little doubt but among the males of most animals there is a constantly recurring struggle for the possession of the females. This contest is not always one of brute strength; indeed, it is often one of skill and cunning, a higher gift of song, a greater beauty, a love of display. In spiders, for instance, there is evinced much intelligence, and the females mani- fest great affection for their eggs. They guard them with tender care, will carry them on their persons in a silken web to secure them against injury. I have watched with interest, and observed that a female field spider will run for its eggs on there being any appearance of danger. The males have no such instinct; but they search eagerly and 104 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. fight for the females. The male will mate with any female, but the female has often been observed to reject several males, threaten them with open mandibles before finding one she was willing to join. Among flies, of which, as all know, there are many varieties, some have been observed to fight with each other for the possession of the female. There are other species that apparently try to win her by their music. H. Muller once observed two males courting a female. They hovered around her, flew from side to side and made a humming noise as if trying to charm her. Mosquitoes seem to attract each other by that music which is so disagreeable to man. The nervous system of flies is quite highly developed, more so than that of most insects. In bugs, which are mainly unsocial in their habits, living by themselves, the vocal organs are supposed to be for the purpose of calling their mates to them. The male locust, which fills the air with a harsh sound that may be heard for a mile or more, evi- dently does it to call the female. She has no means of making a similar sound, being mute. This is believed to be a love song. Dr. Hartman, in speak- ing of the 17 year locusts which visited a part of the United States in 1851, says, “ Standing in a thicket of chestnut sprouts as high as my head, where hundreds were around me, I observed the CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 105 females approaching the drumming males. Several times, also, on a dwarf pear tree I noticed the females alight near a male while he was sounding his clanging notes.” Fritz Muller has seen what was evidently a musical contest between three males for a female. As soon as one had finished his song another immediately began, and after him another. This rivalry would have no meaning if the female was not excited and allured by what to her was the most musical and attractive voice. Crickets and grasshoppers are both remarkable for their musical genius. The music of the former is really quite agreeable to human ears. The katy- did belongs to this order of insects. Mr. Bates has seen a male cricket place himself at eventide at his hole and sing a love song until a female approached, when he sang in a more subdued, tender toned voice, and caressed her with his antennae until he won her affections. ♦ Among bees and wasps, fights are frequent be- tween the males for the possession of a particular female. She sits by apparently unconcerned and when the victory is won she flies away with the victor. Among some of the solitary bees there is a high appreciation of color, and the males search eagerly for the females, and fight with each other for their possesssion. The mandibles of the males in certain species are much larger than in the females, to fit them for these contests. The females, on the other hand, sometimes appear to select the 106 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. most beautiful male, in other cases the males select the most beautiful females. Male beetles fight for the female. Mr. Wallace observed two male beetles contesting for a female which stood close by busy at her boring. They pushed at each other, clawed and thumped, appear- ing to be in a great rage. The smaller one was vanquished and ran away. Mr. A. H. Davis placed two males and one female in a box and watched the conflict. The stronger pinched the weaker one so hard that he gave up any pretended right he had to the female. The male butterflies which adorn the field and garden in warm weather, contend vigorously for the female. Several males may be seen pursuing one female at the same time. Male butterflies are quite pugnacious and often break their wings in combat with each other. The wings of the male are gener- ally the most beautiful, and the female has wit enough to admire them, and there is no doubt but much of the display of the male is made to attract her attention. Moths are, as a rule, less brilliantly colored, and as they fly in the night, brilliancy of wings would be of no value in gaining a mate. “The males of fish,” according to Darwin, “fight for the possession of the females. Thus the male stickleback has been described as ‘mad with de- light,’ when the female comes out of her hiding place and surveys the nest which he has made for her. He darts round her in every direction, then CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 107 to his accumulated materials for the nest, then back again in an instant; and if she does not advance he endeavors to push her with his snout, and then tries to pull her by the tail and side-spine to the nest.” The males are said to be polygamists ; they are extraordinarily bold and pugnacious, whilst the “ females are quite pacific.” Their battles are at times desperate ; “ for these puny combatants fasten tight on each other and fight until their strength appears -completely exhausted.” With the rough- tailed stickleback, the males whilst fighting swim round and round each other, biting and endeavor- ing to pierce each other with their raised lateral spines. The same writer adds, ‘‘the bite of these little furies is very severe. They also use their lateral spines with such fatal effect, that I have seen one during a battle absolutely rip his opponent quite open, so that he sank to the bottom and died.” When a fish is conquered, “his gallant bearing for- sakes him; his gay colors fade away, and he hides his disgrace among his peaceable companions, but is for some time the constant object of his con- queror’s persecution.” The male salmon is as pugnacious as the little stickleback; and so is the male trout. Mr. Shaw saw a violent contest between two male salmon which lasted the whole day; and Mr. R. Buist, Superintendent of Fisheries, informs me that he has often watched from the bridge at Perth the males driving away their rivals, whilst the fe- 108 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. males were spawning. The males “are constantly fighting and tearing each other on the spawning beds, and many so injure each other as to cause the death of numbers, many being seen swim- ming near the banks of the river in a state of exhaustion, and apparently in a dying state.” Mr. Buist says, that in June, 1868, the keeper of the Stormontfield breeding-ponds visited the north- ern Tyne and found about 300 dead salmon, all of which, with one exception, were males; and he was convinced that they had lost their lives by fighting. The most curious point about the male salmon is, that during the breeding-season, besides a slight change in color, “ the lower jaw elongates, and a cartilaginous projection turns upwards from the point, which, when the jaws are closed, occupies a deep cavity between the intermaxillary bones of the upper jaw.” In our salmon this change lasts only during the breeding-season; but in the salmo lycaodon of North west America the change, as Mr. J. K. Lord believes, is permanent, and best marked in the older males which have previously ascended the rivers. In those old males the jaw becomes developed into an immense liook-like projection, and the teeth grow into regular fangs, often more than half an inch in length. With the European salmon, according to Mr. Lloyd, the temporary hook- like structure serves to strengthen and protect the jaws, when one. male charges another with wonder- CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 109 ful violence; but the greatly developed teeth of the male American salmon may be compared with the tusks of many male mammals, and they indicate an offensive rather than a protective purpose. In regard to size, M. Carbonnier maintains that the female of almost all fishes is larger than the male; and Dr. Gunther does not know of a single instance in which the male is actually larger than the female. With some Cyprinodonts the male is not even half as- large. As in many kinds of fishes the males habitually fight together, it is surprising that they have not generally become larger and stronger than the females through the efforts of sexual selection. The males suffer from their small size, for, according to M. Carbonnier, they are liable to be devoured by the females of their own species, when carniverous, and, no doubt, by other species. Increased size must be in some manner of more im- portance to the females than strength and size are to the males for fighting with other males, and this is, perhaps, to allow of the production of a vast number of ova. Mr. W. S. Kent says, that the male of the Labrus mixtus, which, as we have seen, differs in color from the female, “makes a deep hollow in the sand of the tank, and then endeavors, in the most per- suasive manner, to induce a female of the same species to share it with him, swimming backwards and forwards between her and the completed nest, and plainly exhibiting the greatest anxiety for 110 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. her to follow.” The males of the Cantharus lineatus become, during the breeding season, of a deep, r leaden black; then they retire from the shoal and excavate a hollow for a nest. “ Each male mounts vigilant guard over his respective hollow, and vigor- ously attacks and drives away any other fish of the same sex; towards his companions of the opposite sex his conduct is far different. Many of the latter are now distended with spawn, and these he en- deavors, by all the means in his power, to lure singly to his prepared hollow, there to deposit the myriad ova with which they are laden, which he then protects and guards with the greatest care.” A more striking case of courtship, as well as of display, by the males of a Chinese marcropus has been given by M. Carbonnier, who carefully ob- served these fishes under confinement. The males are most beautifully colored, more so than the fe- males. During the breeding season they contend for the possession of the females, and in the act of courtship expand their fins, which are spotted and ornamented with brightly-colored rays, in the same manner, according to M. Carbonnier, as the pea- cock. They then also bound about the females with much vivacity, “ and appear by the flash of their brilliant colors to attract the attention of the fe- males, which do not seem indifferent to this domes- tic arrangement; they swim with a soft, floating movement towards the males, and seem to take pleasure in being near them or having them near CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. by.” After the male has won his bride, he makes a little disc of froth by blowing air and mucus out of his mouth. He then collects the fertilized ova, dropped by the female, in his mouth; and this gave M. Carbonnier much alarm, as he thought they were going to be devoured. But the male soon de- posits them in the disc of froth, afterwards guard- ing them, repairing the froth, and taking care of the young when hatched. I mention these particu- lars because, as we shall presently see, there are species of fish the males of which hatch their eggs in their mouths. To return to our immediate subject. The case stands thus: “Female fishes, as far as I can learn, never willingly spawn except in the presence of the males, and the males never fertilize the ova except in the presence of the females. The males fight for the possession of the females. In many species, the males, while young, resemble the females in color, but when adult become much more brilliant, and retain their colors throughout life. In other species the males become brighter than the females, and otherwise more highly ornamented only during the season of love. The males sedulously court the fe- males, and, in one case, as we have seen, take pains in displaying their beauty before them. Can it be believed that they would thus act to no purpose during their courtship ? And this would be the case unless the females exert some choice, and select those males which please or excite them most. If 112 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. the female exerts such choice, all the above facts on the ornamentation of the males become at once intelligible.” Among crocodiles, the sexes apparently do not differ in color; nor is it known that the males fight together, though this is probable, for some kinds make a prodigious display before the females. Batram describes the male alligator as striving to win the female by splashing and roaring in the midst of a lagoon, “swollen to an extent ready to burst, with his head and tail lifted up he spins or twirls round on the surface of the water, like an Indian chief rehearsing his feats of war.” During the season of love a musky odor is emitted by the submaxillary gland of the crocodile which pervades their haunts. With respect to the rattling of the rattlesnake, we have at least some definite information, for Professor Augliet states that on two occasions, be- ing himself unseen, he watched from a little dis- tance a rattlesnake coiled up with head erect, which continued to rattle at short intervals for half an hour, and at last he saw another snake approach, and when they met they paired. Hence, he is satisfied that one of the uses of the rattles is to bring the sexes together. The males of some, probably of many, kinds of lizards fight together from rivalry. Thus, the ar- boreal Anolis Cristatellus of South America is ex- tremely pugnacious. “ During the spring and early 113 CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. part of the summer two adult males rarely meet without a contest. On first seeing one another, they nod their heads up and down three or four times, and, at the same time, expand the frill or pouch beneath the throat; their eyes glisten with rage, and after waving their tails from side to side for a few seconds, as if to gather energy, they dart at each other furiously, rolling over and over, and holding firmly with their teeth. The conflict gener- ally ends by one of the combatants losing his tail, which is often devoured by the victor.” The male of this species is considerably larger than the fe- male, and this, as far as Dr. Gunther has been able to ascertain, is the general rule with lizards of all kinds. Male birds sometimes, though rarely, possess special weapons for fighting with each other. They charm the female with vocal or instrumental music of the most varied kinds. They are ornamented by all sorts of combs, wattles, protuberances, horns, air-distended sacs, top-knots, naked shafts, plumes and lengthened feathers gracefully springing from all parts of the body. The beak and naked skin about the head and the feathers are often gorgeous- ly colored. The males sometimes pay their court by dancing, or by fantastic antics performed either on the ground or in the air. In one instance, at least, the male emits a musky odor, which we may suppose serves to charm or excite the female, for that excellent observer, Mr. Ramsay, says of the 114 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Australian musk-duck, that “ the smell which the male emits during the summer months is confined to that sex, and in some individuals is retained throughout the year. I have never, even in the breeding season, shot a female which had any smell of musk.” So powerful is this odor during the pairing season that it can be detected long before the bird can be seen. On the whole, birds appear to be the most esthetic of all animals, except, of course, man, and they have nearly the same taste for the beautiful. Almost all male birds are extremely pugnacious, using their backs, wings and legs for fighting pur- poses. We see this every spring with our robins and sparrows. The smallest of all birds, the hum- ming-bird, is one of the most quarrelsome. Mr. Gosse describes a battle in which a pair seized hold of each other’s beak, and whirled round and round till they almost fell to the ground ; and M. Montes de Oca, in speaking of another genus of humming- bird, says that two males rarely meet without a fierce aerial encounter; when kept in cages “their fighting has mostly ended in the splitting of the tongue of one of the two, which then surely dies from being unable to feed.” With waders, the males of the common water-heron “when pairing fight violently for the females. They stand nearly upright in the water and strike with their feet.” Two were seen to be thus engaged for half an hour, until one got hold of the head of the other, which CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 115 would have been killed had not the observer inter- fered. The female was all the time looking on as a quiet spectator. Mr. Blyth informs me that the males of an allied bird are a third larger than the females, and are so pugnacious during the breeding season that they are kept by the natives of Eastern Bengal for the sake of fighting. The polygamous ruff is notorious for his extreme pugnacity. In the spring the males, which are considerably larger than the females, congregate day after day at a particular spot, where the fe- males propose to lay their eggs. The fowlers dis- cover these haunts by the turf being trampled somewhat bare. Here they fight very much like gamecocks, seizing each other with their beaks and striking with their wings. The great ruff of feath- ers around the neck is then erected, and, according to Colonel Montague, “ sweeps the ground as a shield to defend the more tender parts.” The ruff of feathers, however, from its varied and rich colors, probably serves in chief part as an orna- ment to attract a female. Like most pugnacious birds, they seem always ready to fight, and when closely confined often kill each other; but Montague observed that their pugnacity becomes greater dur- ing the spring, when the long feathers on their necks are fully developed, and at this period the least movement by any one bird provokes a general battle. In Guiana “bloody fights occur during the breed- 116 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. ing season between the males of the wild musk- duck, and when these fights have occurred the river is covered for some distance with feathers.” Birds which seem ill-adapted for fighing engage in fierce conflicts; thus the stronger males of the pelican drive away the weaker ones, snapping their huge beaks and giving heavy blows with their wings. Male snipe fight together, “tugging and pushing each other with their bills in the most curious manner imaginable.” Some few birds are believed never to fight; this is the case, according to Audu- bon, with one of the woodpeckers of the United States, although “the hens are followed by even half a dozen of their gay suitors.” The males of many gallinaceous birds, especially of the polygamous kinds, are furnished with special weapons for fighting with their rivals, namely, spurs, which can be used with fearful effect. It has been recorded by a trustworthy writer, that in Derbyshire, England, a kite struck at a game hen accompanied by her chickens, when the cock rushed to the rescue and drove his spur right through the eye and skull of the aggressor. The spur was with difficulty drawn from the skull, and as the kite, though dead, retained his grasp, the two birds were firmly locked together ; but the cock when disen- tangled was found to be very little injured. The invincible courage of the gamecock is notorious. A gentleman who long ago witnessed the brutal scene, told me that a bird had both its legs broken CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 117 by some accident in the cockpit, and the owner laid a wager that if the legs could be spliced, so that the bird could stand upright, he would continue fight- ing. This was effected on the spot, and the bird fought with undaunted courage until he received his death-stroke. In Ceylon, a closely-allied wild species, the Oallus Stanleyi, is known to fight des- perately ‘‘in defence of his seraglio,” so that one of the combatants is frequently found dead. An Indian partridge, the male of which is furnished with strong and sharp spurs, is so quarrelsome, “that the scars of former fights disfigure the breast of almost every bird you kill.” The males of almost all gallinaceous birds, even those which are not furnished with spurs, engage during the breeding season in fierce conflicts. The capercailzie and blackcock, which are both polyga- mists, have regular appointed places where, during many weeks, they congregate in numbers to fight together and to display their charms before the fe- males. Dr. W. Kovalevsky informs tne that in Russia he has seen the snow all bloody on the arena where the capercailzie have fought; and the black- cocks “make the feathers fly in every direction ” when several “engage in royal battle.” The elder Brehm gives a curious account of the “balz,” as the love dances and love songs of the blackcock are called in Germany. “The bird utters almost con- tinuously the strangest noises; he holds his tail up and spreads it out like a fan ; he lifts up his head 118 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. and neck with all the feathers erect, and stretches his wings from the body. Then he takes a few jumps in different directions, sometimes in a cir- cle, and presses the underpart of his beak so hard against the ground that the chin feathers are rubbed off. During these movements he beats his wings and turns round and round. The more ardent he grows the more lively he becomes, until at last the bird appears like a frantic creature.” At such times the blackcocks are so absorbed that they become almost blind and deaf, but less so than the caper- cailzie, hence bird after bird may be shot on the same spot, or even caught by the hand. After per- forming these antics the males begin to fight; and the same blackcock, in order to prove his strength over several antagonists, will visit in the course of one morning several balz-places, which remain the same during successive years. The peacock with his long train appears more like a dandy than a warrior, but he sometimes en- gages in fierce conflicts. The Rev. W. Darwin Fox informs me that at some little distance from Ches- ter two peacocks became so excited whilst fighting, that they flew over the whole city, still engaged, until they alighted on the top of St. John’s tower. The season of love is that of battle; but the males of some birds, as of the game fowl and ruff, and even the young males of the wild turkey and grouse, are ready to fight whenever they meet. The presence of the female is the continual cause CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 119 of war. The Bengali baboos make the pretty little males of the amadavat fight together by placing three small cages in a row, with a female in the middle; after a little time the males are turned loose, and a desperate battle immediately ensues. When many males congregate at the same ap- pointed spot and fight together, as in the case of grouse and various other birds, they are generally attended by the females, which afterwards pair with the victorious combatants. But in some cases the pairing precedes instead of succeeds the combat. Thus, according to Audubon, several males of the Virginia goat-sucker “ court, in a highly interest- ing manner, the female, and no sooner has she made her choice than her approved gives chase to all intruders, and drives them beyond his domin- ions.” Generally the males try to drive away or kill their rivals before they pair. It does not, how- ever, appear that the females invariably prefer the victorious males. I have been assured by Dr. W. Kovalevsky that the female capercailzie sometimes steals away with a young male who has not dared to enter the arena with the older cocks, in the same manner as occasionally happens with the doe of the red-deer in Scotland. When two males contend in presence of a single female, the victor, no doubt, commonly gains his desires; but some of these battles are caused by wandering males trying to distract the peace of an already mated pair. Even with the most pugnacious species it is pro- 120 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. bable that the pairing does not depend exclusively on the mere strength and courage of the male; for such males are decorated with various ornaments, which often become more brilliant during the breed- ing season, and which are sedulously displayed be- fore the females. The males also endeavor to charm or excite their mates by love-notes, songs or antics ; and the courtship is, in many instances, a prolonged affair. Hence it is not likely that the females are indifferent to the charms of the opposite sex, or that they are invariably compelled to yield to the victorious males. It is more probable that the fe- males are excited, either before or after the conflict, by certain males, and thus unconsciously prefer them. In the case of the Tetrao umbellus, a good observer goes so far as to believe that the battles of the males “ are all a sham, performed to show themselves to the greatest advantage before the admiring females who assemble around ; for I have never been able to find a maimed hero, and seldom more than a broken feather.” I shall have to recur to this subject, but I may here add that with the Tetrao cupido, about a score of males assemble at a particular spot, and strutting about make the whole air resound with their extraordinary noises. At the first answer from the female, the males begin to fight furiously, and the weaker give way ; then, according to Audubon, both the victors and the vanquished search for the female, so that the fe- males must either then make a choice, or the battle CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 121 must be renewed. So, again, with one of the field- starlings, the males engage in fierce conflicts, “but at the sight of a female they all fly after her, as if mad.” Naturalists are much divided in opinion respect- ing the object of the singing of birds. Few more careful observers ever lived than Montague, and he maintained that the “males of song birds and of many others do not, in general, search for the fe- male, but, on the contrary, their business in the spring is to perch on some conspicuous spot, breath- ing out their full and amorous notes, which, by instinct, the female knows, and repairs to the spot to choose her mate.” Mr. Jenner Weir informs me that this is certainly the case with the nightin- gale. Bechstein, who kept birds during his whole life, asserts that “ the female canary always chooses the best singer, and that in a state of nature the fe- male finch selects the male out of a hundred whose notes please her most.” There can be no doubt that birds closely attend to each other’s songs. Mr. Weir told me of the case of a bullfinch which had been taught to pipe a German waltz, and which was so good a performer that he cost ten guineas. When this bird was first introduced into a room where other birds were kept, and he began to sing, all the others, consisting of about twenty linnets and canaries, ranged themselves on the nearest side of their cages, and listened with the greatest inter- est to the new performer. Many naturalists believe 122 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. that the singing of birds is almost exclusively “ the effect of rivalry and emulation,” and not for the sake of charming their mates. This was the opinion of Daines Barrington and White, of Selborne, who both especially attended to the subject. Barring- ton admits, however, that “superiority in song gives to birds an amazing ascendency over others, as is well known to bird-catchers.” The curious love-gestures of some birds have al- ready been incidentally noticed, so that little need here be added. In our own country, large numbers of grouse meet during the breeding season on a selected level spot, and here they run round and round in a circle of about fifteen or twenty feet in diameter, so that the ground is worn quite bare, like a fairy-ring. In these partridge-dances, as they are called by the hunters, the birds assume the strangest attitudes, and run round, some to the left and some to the right. Audubon describes the males of the heron as walking about oh their long legs with great dignity before the females, bidding defiance to their rivals. Of one of the disgusting carrion-vultures the same writer says, “ the gestic- ulations and parade of the males at the beginning of the love-season are extremely ludicrous.” Cer- tain birds perform their love-antics on the wing, as we have seen with the black African weaver, in- stead of on the ground. During the spring, our little white-throat often rises a few feet in the air above some bush, and “ flutters with a fitful and fantastic CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 123 motion, singing all the while, and then drops to its perch.” The great English bustard throws him- self into indescribably odd attitudes whilst courting the female, as has been figured by Wolf. An allied Indian bustard at such times “ rises perpendicularly into the air with a hurried flapping of his wings, raising his crest and puffing out the feathers of his neck and breast, and then drops to the ground.” He repeats this maneuver several times, at the same time humming in a peculiar tone. Such fe- males as happen to be near “ obey this saltatory summons,” and when they approach he trails his wings and spreads his tail like a turkey-cock. But the most curious case is afforded by three allied genera of Australian birds, the famous bower- birds—no doubt the descendants of the same ancient species which first acquired the strange instinct of of constructing bowers for performing their love- antics. The bowers which, as we shall hereafter see, are decorated with feathers, shells, bones and leaves, are built on the ground for the sole purpose of courtship, for their nests are formed in trees. Both sexes assist in the erection of the bowers, but the male is the principal workman, So strong is this instinct that it is practiced under confinement, and Mr. Strange has described the habits of some Satan bower-birds which he kept in an aviary in New South Wales. “ At times the male will chase the female all over the aviary, then go to the bower, pick up a gay feather or a large leaf, utter SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. a curious kind of note, set all his feathers erect, run round the bower and become so excited that his eyes appear ready to start from his head; he continues opening first one wing and then the other, uttering a low, whistling note, and, like the domestic cock, seems to be picking up something from the ground, until, at last, the female goes gently towards him.” Captain Stokes has described the habits and “play-houses” of another species, the Great Bower-bird, one of which was “amusing itself by flying backwards, taking a shell alter- nately from each side, and carrying it through the archway in its mouth.” These curious structures, formed solely as halls of assemblage, where both sexes amuse themselves and pay their court, must cost the birds much labor. The bower, for instance, of the fawn-breasted species, is nearly four feet in length, eighteen inches in height, and is raised on a thick platform of sticks. Dr. Jerdon thinks that the beautiful plumage of the male serves to “fascinate and attract the fe- male.” Mr. Bartlett, of the Zoological Gardens, London, expressed himself to me in the strongest terms to the same effect. It must be a grand sight in the forests of India, “ to come suddenly upon twenty or thirty pea-fowl, the males displaying their gorgeous trains and strutting about in all their pomp of pride before the gratified females.” The male Rupicola crocea is one of the most beau- CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 125 tiful birds in the world, being of a splendid orange, with some of the feathers like curiously truncated plumes. The female is of a brownish-green, shaded with red, and has a much smaller crest. Sir R. Schomburgh has described their courtship; he found one of their meeting-places, where ten males and two females were present. The space was from four to five feet in diameter, and appeared to have been cleared of every blade of grass, and smoothed as if by human hands. A male “was capering, to the apparent delight of several others. Now spread- ing its wings, throwing up its head, or opening its tail like a fan; now strutting about with a hopping gait until tired, when it gabbled some kind of a note and was relieved by another. Thus three of them successively took the field, and then with self- approbation withdrew to rest.” With birds of paradise, a dozen or more full- plumaged males congregate in a tree to hold a dancing-party, as it is called by the natives, and here they fly about, raise their wings, elevate their exquisite plumes and make them vibrate, and the whole tree seems, as Mr. Wallace remarks, to be filled with waving plumes. The courtship of the wild turkey is fully described by Wilson, the ornithologist. According to him, these birds pair early in March. For a short time previous the females separate from and shun their mates, though the latter pertinaciously follow them, uttering their gobbling note. The sexes roost apart, 126 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. but at no great distance, so that when the female utters a call, every male within hearing responds, rolling note after note in rapid succession; not as when speading the tail and strutting near the hen, but in a voice resembling that of the tame turkey when he hears any unusual or frequently repeated noise. When the turkeys are numerous, the woods from one end to the other, sometimes for hundreds of miles, resound with this remarkable voice of their wooing, uttered responsively from their roost- ing places. This is continued for hour after hour, and, on the rising of the sun, the males begin to strut for the purpose of winning the admiration of the females. If the call be given from the ground the males in the vicinity fly towards the individual, and, whether they perceive her or not, erect and spread their tails, throw the head backward, distend the the comb and wattles, strut pompously and rustle their wings and .body feathers, at the same time ejecting a puff of air from their lungs. While thus occupied, they occasionally halt to look out for the female, and then resume their strutting and puffing, moving with as much rapidity as the nature of their gait will admit. During this ceremonious ap- proach the males often encounter each other, and desperate battles ensue, and the conflict is only terminated by the flight or death of the vanquished. This pugnacious disposition is not to be regarded as accidental, but as resulting from a wise and ex- CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 127 cellent law of Nature, which always studies the good of the species without regard to individuals. Did not females prefer the most perfect of their species, and were not the favors of beauty most willingly dispensed to the victorious, feebleness and degeneracy would soon mark the animal crea- tion ; but, in consequence of this general rule, the various races of animals are propagated by those individuals who are not only most to be admired for external appearance, but most to be valued for in- trinsic spirit and energy. When the object of the turkey’s pursuit is dis- covered, if she be more than one year old, she also struts and even gobbles; she turns proudly round the strutting male, and suddenly opening her wings she throws herself towards him, as if to terminate his procrastination, and, laying herself on the earth, receives his dilatory caresses. But should he meet a young hen, his strut becomes different, and his movements are violently rapid; sometimes rising in the air, he takes a short circular flight, and on alighting drags his wings for a distance of eight or ten paces, running at full speed, occasionally ap- proaching the timorous hen, and pressing her, until she yields to his solicitations. Thus they mate for the season, though the male does not confine himself exclusively to one female, nor does he hesitate to bestow his attentions and endearments on several whenever the opportunity offers. One or more females, thus associated, fol- 128 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. low their favorite, and roost in his immediate neigh- borhood, if not on the same tree, until they begin to lay, when they change their mode of life in or- der to save their eggs, which the male uniformly breaks if in his power, that the female may not be taken away from the gratification of his desires. At this time the females shun the males during the greater part of the day; the latter become clumsy and careless, meet each other peacefully, and so entirely cease to gobble that the hens are obliged to court their advances, calling loudly and almost continually for them. The female may then be ob- served caressing the male, imitating his peculiar gestures in order to excite his amorousness. The cocks, even when on the roost, sometimes strut and gobble, but more generally merely elevate the tail and utter the puff, on which the tail and other feathers suddenly subside. On light or moon- shiny nights, near the termination of the breeding season, they repeat this action, at intervals of a few minutes, for several hours together, without rising from their perches. The sexes then separate; the males, becoming emaciated, cease entirely to gobble, retire and con- ceal themselves by prostrate trees, in secluded parts of the forest, or in the almost impenetrable privacy of a cane-brake. Rather than leave their hiding- places, they suffer themselves to be approached within a short distance, when they seek safety in speed of foot; at this season, however, they are of CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 129 no value to the hunter, being meager and covered with ticks. By thus retiring, using very little ex- ercise and feeding on peculiar grasses, they recover their flesh and strength, and when this object is attained, again congregate and recommence their rambles. About the middle of April, when the weather is dry, the female selects a proper place in which to deposit her eggs, secured from the encroachment of water, and, as far as possible, concealed from the watchful eye of the crow. This crafty bird espies the hen going to her nest, and having dis- covered the precious deposit, waits for the absence of the parent and removes every one of the eggs from the spot, that he may devour them at his leisure. The nest is placed on the ground, either on a dry ridge, in the fallen top of a dead tree, under a thicket of sumach or briars, or by the side of a log. It is a very simple structure, being composed of a few dried leaves. In this receptacle the eggs are deposited, sometimes to the number of twenty, but more usually from nine to fifteen; they are whitish, spotted with reddish brown, like those of the domestic bird. Their manner of building, number of eggs, period of incubation, etc., appear to correspond throughout the Union, as I have re- ceived exactly similar accounts from the northern limits of the turkey range to the most southern region of Florida, Louisiana and the western wilds of Missouri. 130 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. The female always approaches her nest with great caution, varying her course so as rarely to reach it twice by the same route, and on leaving her charge she is very careful to cover the whole with dry leaves, with which she conceals it so art- fully as to make it extremely difficult, even for one who has watched her movements, to indicate the exact spot; hence few nests are found, and these are discovered by fortuitously starting the females from them, or by the appearance of broken shells, scattered around by some cunning lynx, fox or crow. When laying or sitting the turkey hen is not readily driven from her post by the approach of of apparent danger; but if an enemy appears, she crouches as low as possible and suffers it to pass. A circumstance related by Audubon will show how much intelligence they display on such occasions. Having discovered a sitting hen, he noticed that by assuming a careless air, whistling or talking to himself, he was permitted to pass within five or six feet of her; but, if he advanced cautiously, she would not suffer him to come within twenty paces, but ran off twenty or thirty yards with her tail ex- panded, when, assuming a stately gait, she paused on every step, occasionally uttering a cluck. They seldom abandon their nests on account of being dis- covered by man; but should a snake, or any other animal, suck one of the eggs, the parent leaves them altogether. If the eggs be removed, she again seeks the male and recommences laying ; CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 131 otherwise she lays but one nest of eggs during the season. Several turkey hens sometimes associate, perhaps for mutual safety, deposit their eggs in the same nest, and rear their broods together. Audu- bon once found three females sitting on forty-two eggs. In such cases the nest is constantly guarded by one of the parents, so that no crow, raven, or even polecat, dares approach it. The mother will not forsake her eggs when near hatching, while life remains ; she will suffer an en- closure to be made around her and imprison her rather than abandon her charge. Audubon wit- nessed the hatching of a brood while thus endeavor- ing to secure the young and mother. “ I have laid flat,” says he, “within a very few feet, and seen her gently rise from the eggs, look anxiously to- wards them, cluck with a sound peculiar to the mother on such an occasion, remove carefully each half-empty shell, and with her bill caress and dry the younglings, that already stand tottering and attempting to force their way out of the shell.” When the process of incubation is ended, and the mother is about to retire from the nest with her young, she shakes herself violently, picks and ad- justs the feathers about the belly, and assumes a different aspect. Her eyes are alternately inclined obliquely upwards and sidewise; she stretches forth her neck in every direction, to discover birds of prey, or other enemies; her wings are partially spread, and she softly clucks to keep her tender 132 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. offspring close to her side. They proceed slowly, and, as the hatching generally occurs in the after- noon, they sometimes return to pass the first night in the nest. While very young, the mother leads them to elevated, dry places, as if aware that humidity, during the first few days of their life, would be very dangerous to them, they then hav- ing no other protection than a delicate, soft, hairy down. In very rainy seasons wild turkeys are scarce, because when completely wetted the young rarely survive. With mammals the males appear to win the fe- males much more through the law of battle than through the display of their charms. The most timid animals, not provided with any special wea- pons for fighting, engage in desperate conflicts dur- ing the season of love. Two male hares have been seen to fight together until one was killed; male moles often fight, sometimes with fatal results; male squirrels engage in frequent contests, “and often wound each other severely,” as do male bea- vers, so that “hardly a skin is without scars.” I observed the same facts with the hides of the guan- acoes in Patagonia; and on one occasion several were so absorbed in fighting that they fearlessly rushed close by me. Livingstone speaks of the males of many animals in Southern Africa as al- most invariably showing the scars received in for- mer contests. The law of battle prevails with aquatic as with CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 133 terrestrial mammals. It is notorious how desper- ately male seals fight, both with their teeth and claws, during the breeding season, and their hides, also, are often covered with scars. Male sperm whales are very jealous at this season, and in their battles “they often lock their jaws together, and turn on their sides and twist about, so that their lower jaws often become distorted. The courage and the desperate conflicts of stags have often been described; their skeletons have been found in various parts of the world, with the horns inextricably locked together, showing how miserably the victor and vanquished had perished. Lord Tankerville has given a graphic description of the battles between wild bulls in Chillingham Park, the descendants degenerated in size but not in courage, of the gigantic Bos primi genus. In 1861 several contended for the mastery, and it was observed that two of the younger bulls attacked in concert the old leader of the herd, overthrew _ and disabled him, so that he was believed by the keep- ers to be lying mortally wounded in a neighboring wood; but a few days afterwards one of the young bulls approached the wood alone, and then the “monarch of the chase,” who had been lashing himself up for vengeance, came out, and in a short time killed his antagonist. He then quietly joined the herd, and long held undisputed sway. Phineas S. Royce has sent me an interesting ac- count of some contests between the bulls for the 134 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. possession of the cows, which he has witnessed on the plains of Colorado. He says : “ The laws of the State require every person having cows running at large, to turn with them one bull for every twen- ty-five cows. These bulls fight, whenever strange ones meet, with great ferocity ; and the occurrence is so common that, if I am in haste, I take no notice of them; but if not hurried, I stay and see the bat- ble to the end, which sometimes lasts several hours. The most severe fights are, of course, those between bulls nearly equally matched. They are more likely to meet when a cow or cows are in heat; in that case the fight commences without any pre- liminaries, and with a vengeance; and while two full-sized bulls are engaged in a desperate struggle, some yearling or scrub secures the females. When the bulls are not equally matched, the weaker one often cries, seemingly from grief and rage, ready all the time to pitch in for another trial of strength, while the stronger one will often merely stand his ground, not daring to be off his guard for a mo- ment, and in such a case he will pay no attention the cow, or cows. The lighter one will frequently approach the females, relying upon his agility for safety. The conflict will be renewed from time to time if they are not too unequally matched. Bulls frequently form a strong attachment for each other, and will often run together without any cows. I could never see that they wished to form a herd, but they go from band to band CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 135 without any regard for one set of cows more than another.” “With horses,” the same writer continues, “the case is different. A stallion will drive all other stallions and geldings out of his band, and, some- times, strange mares, especially if his band is large, and he is well acquainted with them. If he desires to increase his band, he will steal any mare he can find. He herds them as closely as though a man were on his back all the time, guiding him in the work. He either leads or drives them to and from water, and, as they are strung out, he will pass back and forth with his head near the ground; if one is missing he will leave the band and search dilligently and effectually, and bring her in, using teeth or heels for a whip. It is both difficult and dangerous to lead a mare from a band having a regular herder, as the stallion is called. “ I have never seen a hard-fought battle between two stallions. ‘ Old Clyde,’ a stallion I have long owned, once broke away from me and got into a band of mares, with a young stallion as herder. Having no aid, I separated them by. strategy, and when he found himself parted, his “angry pas- sions ” arose to such a pitch that his eyes stood far out of their sockets, the white of them turned red, and his notrils were extended beyond anything that I had ever imagined. I caught him and led him home, a distance of three-quarters of a mile; but if I had not been highly excited I would not have 136 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. attempted to do so, not even for all the stallions in America.” Admiral Sir J. B. Sullivan informs me that when he lived in the Falkland Islands, he imported a young English stallion, which frequented the hills near Port William with eight mares. On these hills were two wild stallions, each with a small band of mares, “and it is quite certain that these stallions would never have approached each other without fighting. Both had tried singly to fight the English horse and drive away his mares, but failed. One day they came in together and attacked him. This was seen by the captain who had charge of the horses, and who, on riding to the spot, found one of the two stallions engaged with the English horse, while the other was driving away the mares. The captain settled the matter by driving the whole party into the corral, for the wild stallions would not leave the mares.” With savages, the women are the constant cause of war, both between members of the same tribe and between distant tribes. So, no doubt, it was in ancient times, “ For before the time of Helen women were the constant cause of war.” With some of the North American Indians, the contest is reduced to a system. That excellent observer, Hearne, says : “It has ever been the custom among those people for the men to wrestle for any woman to whom they are attached, and, of course, the strongest party always carries off the prize. A CONTESTS FOR FEMALES. 137 weak man, unless he be a good hunter, and well- beloved, is seldom permitted to keep a wife that a stronger man thinks worth his notice. This cus- tom prevails throughout all tribes, and causes a spirit of emulation among their youth, who are upon all occasions, from their childhood up, trying their strength and skill in wrestling.” Of the Guanas of South America, Azara says that the men rarely marry till twenty years old or more, as before that age they cannot conquer their rivals. Darwin says that in civilized life man is largely, but by no means exclusively, influenced in the choice of his wife by external appearances ; but we are chiefly concerned with primeval times, and our only means of forming a judgment on this subject is to study the habits of existing semi-civilized and savage nations. If it can be shown that the men of different races prefer women having various characteristics, or conversely with the women, we have then to inquire whether such choice, contin- ued for many generations, would produce any sensi- ble effect on the race, either on one sex or both, according to the form of inheritance which has prevailed. CHAPTER VII. IMPREGNATION. The Nature of the Ovum.—The physical charac- teristics of the spermatozoa have been fully given in a preceding chapter. The nature of the ovum, like that of the sperm, has been the subject of much investigation and microscopic analysis; and as the egg of the fowl contains essentially the same parts as the ova in the mammals and in man, it has afforded the most convenient means for studying the elementary properties and constituents of the vitalized germ. By keeping an egg one, two, three or more days in an incubator, and then re- moving it from the shell to a microscope, one may observe the changes that have been going on. This study comes under the head of Embryology, and is very fascinating. In the egg of the fowl, the yelk membrane and its contents are the essential parts of the germ-cell. The albuminous portion, or “ white,” and the cal- careous covering do not exist in the ovum while it 140 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. is in the ovary, but are formed during its passage through the oviduct. The yelk—vitellus—consists of albuminous granules and oil globules. Toward the center the yelk is of a lighter color, and the granules have more the appearance of cells, within which are minute globules. The central portion is termed discus vitellinus. Imbedded in the vitellus is a transparent vesicle of a rounded form termed germinal vesicle, measuring, in the human subject, one eight-hundredth to one five-hundredth of an inch in diameter, and upon its surface is a dark spot, or nucleus, termed the germinative spot. The Fig. 46. NEW LAID EGG WITH ITS MOLECULE, ETC. fully-developed ovum in the human ovary, and of mammals, does not often exceed one-fifteenth to one-twentieth of a line in diameter. According to Bischoff, the ripened ova vary from one two-hun- dred-and-fortieth to one one-hundred-and-twentieth of a inch in diameter. In Fig. 47 it will be seen that the germ is always IMPREGNATION. 141 uppermost, and that the yelk floats in the upper portion of the white. Fig. 47. IDEAL SECTION OP A HEN’S EGG. A. Blunt pole or large extremity. 13. Small end or sharp pole, a, a. Shell, b. Spacefilled with air to supply oxygen, c. Membrane of shell, which at a, d divides into two layers, e, e. Limits of the second and thicker albumen. /. Limits of the third and thickest albumen, the white being in three layers, g, g. Chalaze, or ropes of twisted fibers from the yelk, which hold it in its place, h. Yelk. i. Central cavity in the yelk, from which a duct, 7c, leads to the cicatricula, or head. Z. Cumulus pro- ligerus, or germinal cumulus, m. Germ or blastos. Fig. 48. graapian vesicle containing an ovum. 1. Stroma or tissue of the ovary. 2 and 3. External and internal tunics of the Graafian vesicle. 4. Cavity of the vesicle. 5. Thick tunic of the ovum or yelk-sac. 6. Yelk. 7. Germinal vesicle. 8. Germinal spot. 142 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Wagner regards the germinal vesicle as a pri- mary cell, of which the germinal spot forms the nucleus, and suggests the term of germinal nucleus be substituted for that of germinal spot. It is ho- mologous with the “germ-cell” or “embryonic vesicle ” of the vegetable ovule. The constitution and arrangements of the differ- ent parts of the mammalian ovum are represented in Fig. 49. Fig. 49. A. Ovum, entire. B. Ovum, ruptured, with the contents escaping. mv. Vitelline membrane, j. Yelk. vg. Germinal vesicle, tg. Germinal spot. CONSTITUENT PARTS OP MAMMALIAN OVUM. Fig. 50. MATURE OVUM OF MAMMAL, COVERED WITH RADIATING CONES. IMPREGNATION. 143 Dunglison remarks (“Human Physiology,” vol. 2, page 399), “ It was elsewhere remarked that the formation of the ovule by the Graafian follicle must be regarded as a true secretion—the yelk of which it is mainly composed, as well as the membrana Fig. 51. OVUM OF THE HABBIT. From a Graafian follicle one-fiftieth of an inch in diameter. a. Epithelium of the ovum. b. Zona pellueida, with radiating stria- tions (vitelline membrane), c. Germinal vesicle, d. Germinal spot. e. Yitellus. granulosa, essentially resembling each other in his- tological and chemical character. When matured, the ovum, pressed forward probably by fresh de- positions of the yellow matter which goes to the 144 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. formation of the granular membrane and the yelk, is discharged from the ovary, and laid hold of by the Fallopian tube, which acts as an excretory duct, and conveys it into the interior of the uterus.” Fig. 63. MATURE FOLiUICIiE. a. Ovum, 7). Layer of epithelium enveloping the latter, and lining the cavity of the follicle, c. d. Fibrous wall. e. External surface of the follicle. Fig. 63. OVARIUM OF THE RABBIT. Showing ova in various stages of development and extension at the period of heat. IMPREGNATION. The different conditions and appearances of the ova, in their various stages of progress toward maturation, can be advantageously studied in the ovary or yelk-bag of the common fowl. The blood- Pig. 54. OVARIUM OR A HEN. The illustration is of iife size, and the ova are seen in various stage of evolution. vessels (arteries and veins) of the ovaries belong to the spermatic. The arteries pass between the lay- ers of the broad ligament to the ovarium, where they have a beautiful convoluted arrangement, 146 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. similar to the convolutions of the arteries of the testes. They traverse the ovary in parallel lines forming minute branches or twigs, which have an irregular knotty appearance, resulting from their tortuous course. They are mainly distributed to the Graafian vesicles. The nerves of the ovaries, which are abundant and extremely delicate, are derived from the renal plexuses. Their lymphatics communicate with those of the kidneys. Fig. 55. VERTICAL SECTION OF THE OVARY A HUMAN FETUS 33 WEEKS OLD. a. Germinal epithelium, b. Younger egg-cells, the primordial ova contained in this. c. In-growing band of fibrous connective tissue, dr. Epithelial cells in process of being folded in. e. Youngest follicles. /.Ova and germinal epithelial cells in groups, g. Lymphoid cells. This section illustrates the fact that even in the fetus the ovaries and primitive ova are developed, and that Nature begins in early life preparation for generation and reproduction. IMPREGNATION. 147 Before the rupture of the ovisac it undergoes material changes. Its walls become more vascular Fig. 56. At p, is shown the expanded fimbria of the Fallopian tube, near which is seen to project from the surface of the ovary or Graafian vesicle, v, the rupture of which has allowed an ovule, ce, surrounded by its discus pro- ligerous, c, to escape. In the center of the upper part of the pit is seen an empty Graafian vesicle, v, laid open by the incision, and showing- the irreg- ular cavity, g. Further up toward the left is shown another Graafian vesi- cle, with the ovum, c, not yet discharged. Other Graafian vesicles, v vv, in earlier stages of development, are seen in different parts of the figure. HUMAN OVARIUM. externally, and are thickened internally by the de- posit of a fleshy-looking substance, which consists 148 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. of an aggregation of cells, as represented in Fig. 57. After the ovum has been matured and dis- charged, the Graafian vesicle gradually becomes atrophied and obliter- ated. In one stage of this process of retro- gression it is convert- ed into a solid globu- lar body termed the corpus luteum (yellow body). Its existence was formerly regarded as an evidence that impregnation had taken place; but it is now known to exist in virgins who have menstruated normally, and to be a consequence of ovulation simply. There is, however, such an altered appearance in this substance, in the cases where pregnancy has occurred, that we have to consider the corpora lutea as they appertain, re- pectively, to the non-pregnant and to the pregnant states, which have sometimes been contra-distin- guished as the false and the true corpora lutea. Fig. 57. CELLS FORMING THE CORPUS LUTEUM. The Corpus Luteum of Menstruation.—When the Graafian vesicle discharges its ovum at the menstrual period, the cavity is filled with blood, which soon coagulates, the coagulum being retained in the interior of the vesicle. This coagulum or clot gradually becomes contracted and hardened from the absorption of its serum, as is the case IMPREGNATION. 149 with blood when extravasated within any part of the living body; the coloring matter undergoes the changes usual in such circumstances, and, with the serum, is partially removed by absorption, at the same time the membrane of the vesicle becomes hypertrophied and convoluted, by which it tends partially to fill the cavity. This process of enlarge- FiG. 58. STAGES OF THE CORPUS LUTEUM. Vertical section of the Graafian follicle of the sow. a. State of the follicle Immediately after the expulsion of the ovum, its cavity being filled with blood, and no ostensible increase of the epi- thelial lining having yet taken place; b, a thickening of this lining has become apparent: at c, it begins to present folds which are deepened at d, and the clot of blood is absorbed pari passu, and at the same time de- colorized ; a continuance of the same process as shown at e, /, g, h, forms the corpus luteum, with its stellate cicatrix. ment of the membrane of the vesicle continues for I about three weeks, at which time the ruptured vesicle has become so solidified that it receives the name of corpus luteum. It may then be felt as a rounded prominence on the surface of the ovary, measuring half an inch in thickness, and about three-quarters of an inch in length. On its surface 150 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. is a very small scar or cicatrix, occupying the spot of the original rupture. After the third week the corpus luteum diminishes in size, and at the end of the fourth week it is re- duced to three-eighths of an inch in its longest di- ameter, and at this time the entire body may be extracted from its ovarian bed. As the process of retrogression goes on, its rosy, or dull-yellowish hue, changes to a brighter yellow; its surface becomes confounded with the central coagulum and sur- rounding tissues, and, at the end of about two months it is reduced to a small yellowish spot or scar, and this disappears entirely in seven or eight months. The ovaries of a healthy female, who has menstruated regularly, but in whom pregnancy has never occurred, will often exhibit several corpora lutea in different stages of development and retro- gradation. The Corpus Luteum of Pregnancy.—When im- pregnation has taken place, the corpus luteum sel- dom attains a size greater than that of a small pea, and is generally even smaller; and it begins to diminish about the time for the next menstrual period. The difference between the false and the true corpora lutea is merely one of rapidity of de- velopment and decay; that of pregnancy going through the same changes, hut more slowly; hence it attains a larger size, a firmer organization, and disappears at a much later period. As pregnancy IMPREGNATION. arrests the process of ovulation, no more ova are matured until after the period of gestation has been completed. Hence, in advanced pregnancy, the corpus luteum is not like that of menstruation, accompanied with unruptured vesicles in active process of development. After parturition it dimin- ishes rapidly, though its characteristic structure may be distinguished for months afterward. PiG. 59. B. Corpug luteum of about the sixth week after impregnation, show- ing its plicated form at that period. 1. Substance of the o /ary. 2. Sub- stance of the corpus luteum. 3. A grayish coagulum in its cavity. A. Corpus luteum two days after delivery. D. Corpus luteum in the twelfth week after delivery. CORPORA LUTEA OF PREGNANCY. In twin pregnancies, and in the case of triplets, etc., there are corpora lutea corresponding in num- ber to that of the fetuses, all of which are precisely similar to each other; but, in some cases, a single fetus is found in the uterus, while the ovaries con- tain two corpora lutea of similar appearance, one of which is supposed to belong to an embryo which was blighted in the early stage of pregnancy. SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. 152 We have seen that in the higher animals impreg- nation depends on the union of certain elements fur- nished by male and female organs, each of which are necessary to the production of a human being. It requires but little knowledge of physical con- ditions and a slight acquaintance with human his- tory to enable us to understand that the future be- ing, with all its bodily, intellectual and moral quali- ties, is dependent on the good condition of the germ and sperm elements furnished by the male and fe- male parents. It is true that correct training and suitable circumstances may enable a frail and im- perfectly organized embryo to become a better adult person than one developed from perfect germs, but subjected to unfavorable conditions. But the principle is clear, and of very great practical im- portance, that the germ decides forever the general character of the child, the youth and the adult. For this reason great responsibility will always rest upon parents. This subject will be more fully con- sidered in future chapters. The Action of the Male.—Dr. Flint says on this subject: “ Unlike certain of the lower animals, the human subject presents no distinct periodicity in the development of the spermatozoids; but, in reiterated connection, excitement and an orgasm may occur when the ejaculated fluid has no fecun- dating properties. Such frequently repeated sexual acts are abnormal; but, from a purely physiological IMPREGNATION. 153 point of view, prolonged continence is equally un- natural and may react unfavorably on the nervous system. No absolute or even approximate rule can be laid down with regard to the frequency with which intercourse may take place within physio- logical limits. We may assume that these con- ditions are fulfilled, first, when intercourse is con- fined within the limits of legitimacy, after the un- usual excitement of novelty has passed; second, when both the male and female are in perfect health, and no undue degree of lassitude follows coitus, after a proper period of repose; third, when there is no marked diminution of sexual desire, ex- cept that which may be accounted for by age; fourth, when pregnancy occurs at proper intervals, progresses normally, and is followed by the normal period of lactation; fifth, when menstruation is regular, and when there is a period, usually after the cessation of the flow, during which there is unusual sexual excitement, responded to by the male, and disappearing after the sexual desires have been satisfied. It may be somewhat rare to find these conditions fulfilled in all respects, as so few men and women in civilized life are absolutely normal during adult age, and as the sources of un- natural sexual excitement are so numerous; but they approximately represent the physiological per- formance of the generative functions in both sexes. It is true that the female can frequently endure sexual excesses better than the male, because she 154 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. is more passive, and may often not participate in the venereal excitement; but, if we assume that intercourse is physiologically confined within the limits fixed by social laws, the same rules as re- gards the frequency of the sexual act should apply to both. It is certain that intercourse is not normal in the female during menstruation or during the greater part of the period of utero-gestation; and, at these times, it is physiological that the male should be continent. Taking our view chiefly from what appear to be the sexual requirements of the female, intercourse most properly takes place at the time following the menstrual flow, when there is usually a certain amount of sexual excitement, and this should not be immediately repeated, though it may be physiological after a few days. As sexual excitement is gratified and diminishes, intercourse, as far as the desires of the female are concerned, is suspended, and it does not take place to any great extent during pregnancy. This seems to correspond with the the normal progress of the generative functions, as we have traced it in the female. It is evident that this is a subject of great delicacy, and one that is with difficulty brought to the re- quirements of rigid scientific inquiry; still, it can hardly be avoided in a full account of the physi- ology of generation, and it is a question often pre- sented to the practical physician.” * * “A Text-book of Human Physiology for Students of Medicine.” By Austin Flint, M. D. New York: D. Apple- ton & Co. IMPREGNATION. 155 After the seminal fluid has been ejaculated dur- ing intercourse, the generative act, so far as the male is concerned, is accomplished. It now re- mains for us to study the action of the female, and the process by which the spermatozoids are brought in contact with the ovum. Action of the Female.—Dr. Flint remarks, “If we can credit the statements made to physicians in their professional intercourse, there are some fe- males in whom the generative function is performed, even to the extent of bearing children, who have no actual knowledge of a true venereal orgasm; but there are others who experience an orgasm fully as intense as that which accompanies ejaculation in the male. There is, therefore, the important differ- ence in the sexes, that preliminary excitement and an orgasm are necessary to the performance of the generative act in the male, but are not essential in the female. Still, there can be scarcely a doubt but that venereal excitement in the female facili- tates conception, other conditions being favorable. “In considering the mechanism of the penetra- tion of spermatozoids into the uterus, it is also necessary to take into account the secretions, par- ticularly of the mucous glands at the neck. Most writers of the present day admit that, during the height of the orgasm, there is an ejaculation from the uterus of a small amount of alkaline mucus. That an erection of the cervix, followed by sudden 156 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. relaxation and opening of the os, may occur, can- not be doubted, and there is no evidence of a mus- cular action in the uterus sufficient to project this fluid forcibly, as the semen is discharged by the male. Assuming that the views just stated be cor- rect, we can readily understand how the neck may be erected and hardened during the orgasm, extrud- ing an alkaline mucus, that the semen is ejaculated forcibly toward the uterus and becomes mixed with the mucus, and that the sudden relaxation of the cervix and opening of the os may exert a force of aspiration, and thus draw in the fecundating ele- ments. Certain it is that spermatozoids may be found in the mucus of the cervix a very short time after coitus. It is possible, also, that a sexual con- nection may be occasionally even more intimate, and that a portion of the glans penis may be actu- ally embraced by the dilated cervix, though this must be unusual. This latter idea of the establish- ment of a “continuous canal” during intercourse is one that was advanced by many of the older writers. “Quite a strong argument in favor of the view that the spermatozoids are imprisoned, as it were, in the cervical mucus soon after ejaculation, is the fact that vaginal injections immediately after inter- course, which are frequently resorted to to prevent conception, often fail to produce the desired result, even when they are so thorough as to wash out the vagina completely. 157 IMPREGNATION. “ While we must accept as probable the view that the uterus may draw into the neck an alkaline mucus previously ejaculated, and with it a certain amount of seminal fluid, the fact that conception may take place without orgasm on the part of the female, and even without complete penetration of the male organ, shows that the action we have described is not absolutely essential, and that the semen may find its way into the uterus in some other manner, which it is certainly very difficult to explain.” Other writers and experimenters have thought that the alkaline mucus at the mouth of the uterus developed an electrical current which flowed to- ward the uterine cavity, and that it, together with the power of movement in the spermatozoids, which enables them to move forward quite rapidly, is sufficient to explain their presence, soon after co- ition, in the uterine cavity and Fallopian tube; but this is not satisfactorily determined. Vitality of the Spermatozoids and Ovum.— The question as to how long the spermatozoids may live after their passage into the uterus is an inter- esting one, and has an importance, bearing on the time when conception is most likely to follow inter- course. It is doubtful if this question can be an- swered with absolute certainty. They may have greater vitality in some persons than in others; their long or short life may depend on the healthy 158 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. or diseased condition of the vaginal and uterine cavities. If there be any disease which would cause an acid condition of the secretions, instead of an alkaline one, the spermatozoids would not long survive, as acids are unfavorable to their life. There is no doubt but in perfect health of the female organs and great vigor in the sperm- atozoids themselves, they may retain their vitality for at least several days. There is an idea, based upon rather general and indefinite observation, that conception is most liable to follow an intercourse which occurs soon after a monthly period; but it is certain that it may occur at any time. It is extremely probable that, during the unusual sexual excitement which the female generally experiences after a period, the action of the internal organs attending and following coitus presents the most favorable conditions for the pene- tration of the fecundating elements, and this may explain the more frequent occurrence of conception as a consequence of intercourse at this particular period. The length of life of the ovum cannot be deter- mined, but it is not many days. If it does not meet in the generative passages the male elements, it soon dies and is cast off. This is a difficult subject for investigators. The Mechanism of Fecundation.—The mechan- ism of fecundation has been carefully studied in IMPREGNATION. 159 the lower animals, and we may be sure it consists in an actual union. The spermatozoids penetrate the vitelline membrane of the ovum, as may be seen by the following fig- ures, which have been drawn from nature. As soon as the sperm- atozoids have penetrated the ovum, segmentation begins at once, as shown in Fig. 61. Fig. 62 shows a still more advanced develop- ment where every trace of spermatozoa has disap- peared and the embryon is fully formed. Fig. 60. PENETRATION OP THE SPRMATOZOIDS THROUGH THE VITELLINE MEM- BRANE OP THE OVUM. Where Impregnation Occurs.—The place of im- pregnation has been a question which has puzzled physiologists. The general belief has been that it occurs in a Fallopian tube soon after an ovum has made its entrance into one of them. A more pro- bable view is, that it may occur either in this tube or in the cavity of the uterus itself. So far as investigations have been made on rabbits, it has been found that the ovum has died if not impreg- nated before it reached the uterus; but this animal is one whose constitution is poor, and, consequently, the egg will of necessity be short-lived. In man and in many animals their vitality is much greater, 160 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. and this would give a longer life to them. In birds, also, impegnation always takes place in the Fal- lopian tubes. Fig. el- fr, o, a, a. Spermatozoids. The four upper figures represent the progressive segmentation of the vitellus. The lowest figure shows the cells of the blastoderm. SEGMENTATION OF THE VITELLUS. If the ova in the human female are impregnated in the Fallopian tube, then the spermatozoa must IMPREGNATION. 161 make a long journey after being emitted by the male, to reach them. There would be one advan- tage in this, namely, that only the strongest would ever succeed in doing so, and in this way a more vigorous offspring would be insured. The sperm- atozoa are not all of equal vigor. Like human be- ings, there is a great variety of them, and it must Fig. 63. PRIMITIVE TRACE OF THE EMB ROY ON. a. Primitive trace, b. Area pellucida. c. Area Obseura. d. Blasto- dermic cells, e. Villi beginning to appear on the vitelline membrane. be an advantage to the ovum and the future child that only the most perfectly developed come to- gether. The same may be said of the ova. They are not all equally vital, but most so during the prime of life, when the constitution is at its hest. This perhaps explains why the most talented per- 162 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. sons are, in most cases, born of mothers about thirty years old, and fathers four or five years older. The Number of Spermatozoa Required to Im- pregnate an Ovum.—It is not known how few spermatozoa will impregnate an ovum. Some have held that a single one is sufficient; others, that several are required. So far as observations have been made, there have always been a number of them seen in an ova after impregnation. Nature is very lavish in her supply of material. If she were not, conception would be more difficult and un- certain than it is. In a single drop of the spermatic fluid there must exist many thousand spermatozoa; of these only a few are ever required; the remain- der die. CHAPTER VIII. Conception.—Impregnation is not conception. The ovum may be fecundated, by intermixing with the elements of the sperm-cell, without preg- nancy resulting. We have seen that wherever, in the generative passages of the female, the living spermatozoa come in contact with ripened ova, then impregnation occurs. But the impregnated ovum may be, nevertheless, expelled, as in the ordinary monthly process of ovulation. Many cases of ste- rility are attributable to the inability of the uterus to retain the ovum after its impregnation, in con- sequence of weakness, relaxation, leucorrhoea, etc. Violent exertions will also frequently excite uterine contraction sufficiently to occasion this expulsion, hours and even days after impregnation. If, how- ever the impregnated ovum becomes attached to the walls of the genital channel, the process of fetal development will then and there commence. This attachment or fixation is conception. How soon this fixation occurs after impregnation is a prob- lem not very well settled. Doubtless the time varies PREGNANCY. 164 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. much with different females, as do all functional processes concerned in menstruation or pregnancy. I have been collecting data bearing on this point for years, but cannot yet regard them as conclu- sive ; and there is no problem in sexual physiology respecting which the facts are more confused and contradictory. That this attachment or fixation may and does occasionally take place in the Fal- lopian tube, and even in the ovary, is proved by the cases of extra-uterine pregnancy which are re- corded. But that the uterus is the place for normal conception is my full conviction, the reasons for which will be considered hereafter. Signs of Pregnancy.—The suppression of men- struation is ordinarily the first well-marked sign that pregnancy has occurred; but this is not con- clusive, as pregnancy may occur with females who have never bled at the menstrual periods, and the monthly hemorrhage may continue during the whole period of pregnancy. Dr. Good relates the case of a woman who “menstruated only during pregnancy,” but he mistook hemorrhage for men- struation. The cases, however, in which preg- nancy is not attended with a suppression of the monthly period are very rare, so that we need not be surprised that this even has long been regarded as an unerring symptom. Nausea and vomiting, with capricious or depraved appetite, are among the usual symptoms of early PREGNANCY. 165 pregnancy; but they are occasionally entirely ab- sent ; and when present, they seem to depend much more on the morbid conditions or erroneous diet- etic habits of the patient than on the incident of pregnancy. Dr. ‘Bedford, who sometimes confounds pathology and physiology, regards vomiting “as among the most constant accompaniments of preg- nancy, and its relation to this, as a general rule, is based on sound physiology.” We have known several cases in which women went through gesta- tion without a moment’s disturbance of the stom- ach ; and I am of opinion that if all women would live as hygienically as they did, few or none of them would be troubled with this “sign of preg- nancy.” Salivation, or a copious excretion from the sali- vary glands, affects some women during pregnan- cy, but as a sign of pregnancy it is to be regarded as an exception rather than the rule. Enlargement of the Breasts is a more uniform and reliable symptom. The mammae, very soon after conception, usually become more hard and movable, with a prickling sensation, while the nipple is more prominent and frequently somewhat painful or tender. The veins of the breast enlarge. These changes may occur in two or three weeks, or not until two or three months after conception. The general rule is, the more healthy and vigorous the woman, the sooner will they be manifested. As the breasts enlarge, the areola around the nipple 166 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. becomes of a darker color, with a development of small prominences or follicles. These are among the most reliable evidences of pregnancy, yet they are not infallible. I have known cases in which they occurred a few weeks after a suppressed men- struation. There are cases, also, in which the breasts evince no -change whatever till near the period of parturition. Milk in the Breasts is one of the common accom- paniments of pregnancy; but the secretion of this fluid takes place in many conditions of the system when pregnancy does not exist. The facts are well authenticated that milk has been found in the mammary glands of young virgins, and in their analogues of the male sex. Irritation of the breasts and ovarian diseases have occasioned the secretion of milk in non-pregnant females. Enlargement of the abdomen is apparent in the third month of pregnancy, but a similar appearance may result from dropsy, or from a tumor. When the uterus begins to increase in bulk, and sinks down a little in the pelvic cavity, it occasions, in most cases, some degree of tenesmus, with frequent urination, causing the abdomen to appear a little flattened in the hypogastric region. Edema of the lower extremities frequently accom- panies pregnancy, and is usually attributed to ob- struction in the venous circulation, from pressure of the impregnated uterus; but the essential, though more remote cause, is undoubtedly general plethora PREGNANCY. 167 or local congestion. It rarely troubles those whose regimen is reasonably hygienic. Quickening, which occurs about the middle term of pregnancy, but may occur two or three weeks earlier or later, is commonly regarded as conclusive of the fact of pregnancy, but even this may be de- ceptive. The term is applied to the first conscious- ness of motion in the uterus on the part of the mother; but spasmodic contractions may produce a similar sensation. In true quickening, the mo- tions of the fetus are for the first time recognized. The ancient doctrine was that, at this period, the fetus was endowed with life, and many absurd statutes in relation to willful abortion have been predicated on this erroneous notion. The child has organic life progressively developing in structural arrangements from the moment of conception to that of parturition, although it has no volition, no mental or soul life, until its lungs are expanded and “God breathes into its nostrils the breath of life.” Then its organs of external relation come into play, and it begins to ascertain its relation to external objects and to other beings. Although pregnancy may exist with none of the above-mentioned signs and symptoms, or with all of them, the cases in which the woman mistakes her condition in this respect are comparatively few; and in cases where it is important that all doubt shall be removed, recourse must be had to examin- ation per vaginam. 168 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Duration of Pregnancy.—That the period of hu- man utero-gestation is, in a majority of cases, about nine calendar months, all are agreed. But there is much discrepancy of opinion with regard to the limits of the deviations from this period. This dif- ference is owing, to some extent, no doubt, to the difficulty of fixing the exact time of conception. It is certainly impossible to determine how much beyond the ordinary or normal period gestation may extend in a given case. But it is safe to say that it seldom varies many days from thirty-nine or forty weeks. According to the French code, the legitimacy of a child born 300 days after the disso- lution of marriage may be contested; but many authors think this period too limited. In the cele- brated Gardner Peerage case, referred to in most of the works on Medical Jurisprudence, the London physicians disagreed very greatly, as physicians usually do in medico-legal cases. While five of them maintained that the period of gestation in woman was limited to 280 days, twelve of them were of opinion that it might be protracted to 311 days. The University of Heidelberg allowed the legitimacy of a child born thirteen months after the date of the last intercourse; and the Supreme Court of Friesland decided in favor of the legitimacy of a child born 303 days after the husband’s death. These may be examples of judicial philanthropy, but here, as everywhere where there is a doubt, the accused party is entitled to the benefit of it. PREGNANCY. 169 In Pennsylvania two cases of gestation—one pro- tracted to 313 and the other to 317 days have been admitted as legitimate. This decision, however, though it determined the legal action in their cases, does not settle the scientific problem. Viability of the Child.—The earliest period at wrhich it is capable of carrying on an independent existence is involved in the same uncertainty as is the extreme limit of the period of. utero-gestation. It is often an important question in medico-legal investigations, yet never admits of positive demon- stration. The period generally assigned is the end of the seventh month; and this is quite correct as a general rule, but there are many exceptions. On good authority cases are recorded in which children have lived for weeks and months, and in some in- stances have been reared to adult age, and dis- tinguished themselves by great physical and intel- lectual power, who were born at or near the end of the sixth month. The Decidua.—Soon after conception occurs, a flocculent exudation covers the inner surface of the uterus, constituting, in a few days thereafter, a soft, pulpy membrane termed the decidua. Its principal object is the protection of the embryon. Whether this decidua is a changed condition—a special development—of the mucous membrane, or a new formation, has been a point in dispute, but it is now generally regarded as the former. 170 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. In Fig. 63 the dark shade, over and between the villi, represents the de- cidua. The uterine vessels are seen extending into the decidua and form- ing loops there. The cut is a represent- ation of the decidua very soon after conception, when it is in a pulpy state; the villi of the mucous membrane of the uterus which, in the non-pregnant state are very short, are found remarkably elong- ated, while over them extends an effused substance, not yet organized, but evidently the incipient de- The arrangement and struc- ture of the decidua have not yet been fully determined by anatomists. Some of those who entertain the opinipn that normally, impregnation takes place in the ovary, be- lieve that the decidua is formed prior to the arrival of the ovum in the uterus, and that the ovum on pass- ing into the uterine cavity becomes involved in the se- cretion (which covers the surface of the uterus), and absorbs a portion of it for nutrient material, while the remainder is organized into a double membrane—one corresponding to the Fig. 63. D5CIDUA UTERI. Fig. 64. UTERINE CAVITY. Section of the uterus about eight days after impregnation, its cavity surrounded by the ex- udation which constitutes the incipient decidua. a. Cervix or neck of uterus, b, b. Orifices of the Fallopian tubes, c. Decidua vera. d. Cav- ity of the uterus. PREGNANCY. 171 uterus, the other adhering to the ovum. When, according to this view, the ovum reaches the cornua of the uterus, it pushes the decidua .before it, the projecting portion constituting the tunica de- cidua reflexa, which envelopes the whole ovum ex- cept the part where the decidua is detached from the uterus, which is the seat of the future placenta. MM. Velpeau, Wagner, Payet, Kirkes and others adopt this view; but other authors of equal reputa- tion, after dilligent investigation, have concluded that it is impossible for so small a body as the ovum to perform so difficult a task. Prof. Sharpey, with Dr. William Hunter, regards the structures of the decidua and the decidua reflexa as dif- ferent, and the decid- ua vera as a new pro- duction, the develop- ment of which is si- multaneous with that of the ovum. At the point of supposed re- flection there is found a substance precisely similar to the decidua reflexa, which attaches the ovum to the side of the uterus; this has been termed the decidua serotina. Fig. 65. /. Ovum surrounded by its chorion, g. a. Cervix, ft, b. Fallopian tubes, c. De- cidua vera. d. Cavity of the uterus, e. Decidua reflexa. OVUM ENTERING UTERUS. 172 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Fig. 66. UTERUS NEARLY FULLED WITH THE OVUM. Section of the uterus with the ovum somewhat advanced, and almost completely occupying the uterine cavity. a. Muco-gelatinous substance blocking up the os uteri, b, h. Fallopian tubes, c, c. Decidua vera prolonged, at c 2, into the Fallopian tube. d. Cavity of the uterus, e, e. Angles at which decidua vera is reflected. /. Decidua serotina. g. Allantois, h. Umbilicle vesicle, i. Amnion, k. Chorion, lined with outer fold of serous tunic. PREGNANCY. 173 Professor Dalton regards the decidua as the “ uterine mucous membrane, developed and hyper- trophied,” which “ becomes exfoliated and thrown off at the same time that the egg itself is finally discharged.” Perhaps this opinion is the result of Fig. 67. Occurring in the right Fallopian tube. EXTRA-UTERINE PREGNANCY. a. Uterus, its cavities laid open. b. Uterine walls thickened, as in nor- mal pregnancy, c. Portion of decidua separated from its inner surface, d. Bristles to show the direction of the Fallopian tubes, e. Bight Fal- lopian tube distended into a sac which has burst, containing the extra- uterine ovum. /. Fetus, g. Chorion, h. Ovaries; in the right one is a well-marked corpus luteum, i. confounding the “flocculent exudation” with the excretion which takes place in croup and similar diseases. The “exudation” of the mucous mem- brane of the impregnated uterus is undoubtedly a true formation. It is true that M. Velpeau speaks 174 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. of the decidua as a “product of excretion;” but it seems to me to be a rule and a law, without any exception, that all formative products from the blood are secretions. Whatever the origin of the decidua, whether it is an excretion of coagulable lymph, a hyper- trophy of the uterine mucous membrane, or a se- cretion from the blood, it is certain that during the formation of the decidua reflexa both the ovum and the body of the uterus become considerably en- larged; but after the third month all of the decidua, except that por- tion to which the ovum first became attached, gradually becomes thin- ner and, in appearance, less glandular. The de- cidua uteri remains quite thick, especially around the placenta, until the end of gestation; but the decidua reflexa is, at this time, extremely thin. Toward the third or fourth month they touch and press upon each other; but, according to M. Velpeau and Bischoff, they are never confounded. M. Velpeau considered the use of the decidua to be to retain the impregnated ovum at a given point of the uterine cavity. M. Breschet affirms that it Fig. 68. SEGMENTS OF HUMAN DECIDUA, after recent impregnation, viewed on a dark ground. They show the openings on the surface of the membrane. PREGNANCY. 175 exists in all cases of extra-uterine pregnancy, and hence cannot belong to the ovum. Chaussier found it in cases of tubal gestation; Evrat supposes that one is secreted after each act of sexual intercourse; M. Pouchet thinks it is formed at each menstrual period, while Dr. Robert Lee declares that it is not found in all cases of extra-uterine pregnancy. Weber and Sharpey do not regard the decidua as a new formation, and M. Coste says: “The only Fig. 69. SECTION OF THE MUCOUS MEMBHANE OF THE HUMAN UTERUS AT THE COM- MENCEMENT OF PREGNANCY, showing the arrangement and other peculiarities of the glands, ddd, with their orifices, a a a, on the internal surface of the organ. Magnified to twice the normal size. modifications of which the uterus becomes the seat consists in the turgescence or etherism of its tissue, and more especially in a considerable thickening of its mucous membrane—a thickening which results especially from congestion of the blood vessels, and an extreme development of the glands that enter into its composition, and, in certain subjects, plait them into more or less numerous convolutions.” He adds : “In the normal state neither the opening 176 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. of the cervix uteri, nor that of the Fallopian tubes, is closed by membrane. They are always free, per- meable, and consequently permit the ovum to pass into the cavity of the uterus; and the folds of the mucous membrane, by coming in contact, are suf- ficient to arrest it.” Mr. Goodwin states that the interfollicular spaces, in which the network of capallaries is situated, are occupied by a texture consisting wholly of nucleated Fia. 70. The fetus developing in the ovarian extremity of the Fallopian tube. EXTRA-UTERINE PREGNANCY. particles, “ a tissue represented by Baer and Wag- ner as surrounding what they supposed to be uterine papillae, and regarded by them as decidua.” Dalton, as well as other late authors, regard the decidual membrane as intended to supply the fecun- dated ovum with the requisite materials for its nourishment—a proposition which its structure and manner and time of development seems to render almost self-evident. He remarks: “The uterine mucous membrane is developed during the process PREGNANCY. 177 of gestation, in such a way as to provide for the nourishment of the fetus in the different stages of its growth. At first the whole of it is uniformly in- creased in thickness (decidua vera). Next, a por- tion of it grows upward around the egg and covers its projecting surface (decidua reflexa). Afterward, both the decidua reflexa, and the greater part of the decidua vera diminish in the activity of their growth, and lose their importance as a means of nourishment for the egg; while that part which is in contact with the vascular tufts of the chorion continues to grow, becoming exceedingly devel- oped and taking an active part in the formation of the placenta.” CHAPTER IX. EMBRYOLOGY. Development of the Germ.—As the process of development between the egg of a fowl and the human ovum is analogous, and as the changes which occur in the fecundated egg are more conveniently Fig. 71. a. Cicatricula. b. Yelk. c. Shell membrane, d. Attachment of cha- lazae. e. Chalazae. f. Air chamber, g. Albumen. SECTION OF A HEN’S EGG. traced than those which take place in the impreg- nated ovum, it will be profitable to examine the data which have been furnished by the observa- tions made with respect to both. When the ovum of the mammalia leaves the ovary 180 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. it consists of the yelk or vitellus contained in its membrane, the germinal vesicle and the germinal spot. The yelk, as we have seen, serves the same purpose for the animal as the oily and starchy mat- ters Jn the seeds serve for the plant. It is the nutriment of the embryo. In its passage through the oviduct, the yelk is gradually exhausted, and the albumen, or white, supplies its place. Car- penter says: “Our knowledge of the first stages of the developmental process in the mammalian Fig. 72. ABC. Ovum of ascaris nigrovenosa. D and E. Ovum of ascaris acuminata. CLEAVING OP THE YELK APTER FECUNDATION. ovum is, in many respects, incomplete; and it is requisite to interpret what lias been obscurely seen in the ova of this class, by the clearer views de- rived from observation of those of the lower ani- mals. As already stated, the germinal vesicle dis- appears at or about the time of fecundation ; hut its disappearance is not a result of fecundation, since it also takes place in the unimpregnated egg, in consequence, it may be presumed, of the comple- tion of its term of life, and of those operations which it was developed to perform. Its place is EMBRYOLOGY. 181 seen to be occupied, at an early period after fecun- dation, by a new and peculiar cell, the origin of which is obscure, but the destination of which is most important; for it is by the duplicative sub- division of this cell, first into two, then into four, then into eight, and so on, and by the metamor- phoses which its progeny undergo, that the whole embryonic fabric is gradually evolved; hence, this cell may be termed the embryo cell. At the same time, a peculiar change begins to take place in the yelk, the whole sphere of which is just marked out by a furrow into two hemispheres, and is at last completely divided by the extension of this center; each half is again furrowed and then cleft in the same manner, and thus the entire yelk is broken up into a mass of segments.” Segmentation of the Vitellus.—This process of duplication of cells, which Kolliker and Bagge have depicted as seen in the ova of certain parasitic worms, in which it presents itself in the least com- plex form, continues, the cells becoming progres- sively smaller, until a large mass of cells are pro- duced, the whole assuming the form of the embryo. In some entozoa the embryonic portion is em- bedded in the interior of the vitellus, and as the cells multiply they appropriate the surrounding nutrient matter, until the whole yelk is exhausted, and the original yelk-membrane is filled with a mulberry-like mass of cells. But more commonly 182 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. each cell formed by the cleaving of the embryonic vesicle appropriates a certain portion of the yelk. “These changes,” says Carpenter, “take place in the mammalian ovum during its transit along the Fallopian tube to the uterus, so that by the time of its arrival there, the whole cavity of the Fig. 73. A B C D. Successive stages of the ovum of ascaris dentata, showing the duplication of the cells. E F O H. Ovum of cucullanus elegans, show- ing the advance of the process. DUPLICATION OP CELLS. rena pellucida is occupied by minute sphericles of yelk, each containing a transparent vesicle, the aggregation of which gives it a mulberry-like as- pect ; and by a continuance of the same process of subdivision, the component segments becoming more and more minute, the mass comes to present a fine granular aspect.” The Blastodermic Membrane.—By the time that the “vitelline spheres” have become subdivided EMBRYOLOGY. 183 into the “mulberry-shaped mass,” they are sup- posed to be transformed into true animal cells, which, adhering by adjacent edges form a continu- Fig. 74. SEGMENTATION OF MAMMALIAN OVUM, A. First division into two halves. B. Subdivision of each half into two. C. Further subdivision, producing numerous segments. ous organized membrane. This is the Blastodermic Membrane, also called the germinal membrane. This membrane soon divides into two layers termed Fig. 75. LATER STAGE OF SEGMENTATION. A. The “mulberry mass,” formed by the minute subdivisions of the vitelline spheres. B. A further increase has brought its surface into con- tact with the vitelline membrane, against which the spherules are flat- tened. Traces of spermatozoa are still present. the external and internal layers. Says Dalton: “They are both still composed exclusively of cells; but those of the external layer are usually smaller 184 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. and more compact, while those of the internal layer are rather larger and looser in texture. The egg then presents the appearance of a globular sac, the walls of which consist of three concentric layers, lying in contact with and inclosing each other, viz.: 1. The structureless vitelline membrane on the out- Fig. 76. GERMINAL MEMBRANE OF THE OVUM OF A BITCH. A portion with the area pellucida and rudiments of the embryo magnified ten diameters. A. Germinal membrane. B. Area vasculosa. C. Area pellucida. D. Laminse dorsales. E. Primitive groove, bounded laterally by the pale pellucid substance of which the central nervous system is composed. side; 2. The external layer of the blastodermic membrane, composed of cells ; 3. The internal layer of the blastodermic membrane, also covered with cells. The cavity of the egg is occupied by a trans- parent fluid, as above mentioned. EMBRYOLOGY. 185 “This entire process of the segmentation of the vitellus and the formation of the blastodermic membrane is one of the most remarkable and im- portant of all changes which take place during the development of the egg. It is by this pro- cess that the simple globular mass of the vitellus, Fig. 77. EMBRYONIC RUDIMENTS, FROM THE OVUM OF A BITCH. A. The primitive groove, not yet closed : at its upper or cephalic end it presents three dilatations, B, -which correspond to the three divisions or vesicle of the brain. At its lower extremity the groove presents a lancet- shaped dilatation (sinus rhombcndalis), G. The margins of the groove con- sist of pellucid nerve-substance. Along the bottom of the groove is ob- served a faint streak, which is probably the chorda dorsalis. D. Vertebral plates. composed of an albuminous matter and oily glob- ules, is converted into an organized structure. The blastodermic membrane, though consisting only of cells nearly uniform in size and shape, 186 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. is nevertheless a truly organized membrane, made up of fully-formed anatomical elements. It is, moreover, the first sign of distinct organization which makes its appearance in the egg; and as soon as it is completed, the body of the new fetus is formed. The blastodermic membrane is, in fact, the body of the fetus.” The development of the egg commences in the same way in all classes of animals. All of the or- gans of the fetus commence their development with the two layers of the blastodermic membrane, the spinal column and all the organs of universal life— the cerebro-spinal system—being developed by the external layer, while the intestinal canal and all the organs of vegetative life—the organic system— are developed by the internal layer. The external layer has also been termed serous or animal, while the internal has been called mucous or vegetative. The area germinativa changes from a rounded form to that of an oval, and then becomes pyriform in shape, during which changes a clear space is seen in the center. This is the area pellucida, bounded externally by an opaque circle which sub- sequently becomes the area vasculosa, in which blood vessels are first developed. The embryo first appears in the serous, external, or animal layer of the blastodermic or germinal membrane, in the center of the area pellucida, consisting of a trace or streak termed primitive groove, with two oval marks (laminae dorsales) on each side. As these EMBRYOLOGY. 187 become more raised, the elevated points approach each other, and ultimately convert the groove into a tube, which is the seat of the future great central organs of the nervous system—the brain and spinal cord. At the same time, the rudiments of the ver- tebral column, termed chorda dorsalis, are seen in a row of cells on a line parallel with the primitive groove. While the dorsal laminae are closing the primitive goove by an approximation of their raised portions, prolongations of the internal layer of the germinal membrane extend from the lower margin of each. The prolongations are termed visceral or ventral laminae—laminae ventrales sen viscerales. The ven- tral laminae, extending downward and inward to- ward the cavity of the yelk, unite and form the interior wall of the trunk. At the same time an accumulation of cells between the external and in- ternal layers of the germinal membranes become arranged into a distinct structure or layer termed the vascular. In this vascular membrane the first vessels of the embryo are developed. Incubation.—As the vascular layer develops, the insulas, sanguinus, or blood dots, appear at the cir- cumference of the vascular area, and, gradually uniting, form vessels which have a circular shape and retiform appearance, and are filled with blood. These vessels have been termed venous circle (cir- cuius venosus), and terminal vein or sinus (vena seu 188 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY sinus terminalis). These vessels, constituting the vascular area, or jigura venosus, are generally ex- tended over the whole sur- face of the membrane that contains the yelk, as seen in Figs. 79, 80 and 81, which are representations of the chick at different stages of incubation. Fig. 88 shows the net- work of blood vessels in the vascular lamina of the ger- minal membrane and the trunks of the omphalo-mes- enteric veins entering the lower part of the S-shaped heart. The first part of the aorta is also seen. When the parieties of the abdomen are formed, which takes place at an early period of embryonic life, by a constriction in the fold of the germinal membrane, the yelk-sac becomes the umbilical vesi- cle (vesicula umbilicalis). See Fig. 83. As the umbilical vesicle, whose walls are formed of the several layers of the blastodermic membrane, develops, another vesicle extends from the caudal extremity of the embryo. This is the allantois, or allantoid vesicle, which is seen in several stages of development, both in the egg of the hen and in the human ovum, in the following figures. Fig. 78. VASCULAR AREA IN THE CHICK THIRTY-SIX HOURS AFTER INCUBATION. a. Yelk. b. Fiddle-shaped pel- lucid area, in the middle of which is the embryo. In the vascular area, c c, the blood islets (insula sanguinus) begin to ap- pear. 189 EMBRYOLOGY. The walls of the allantois, when developed, be- come very vascular, and contain the ramifications Fig. 79. EGG THIRTY-SIX HOURS AETER INCUBATION. of the subsequent umbilical arteries and umbilical vein. It is regarded as a temporary organ of re- spiration, by bringing the vessels of the chick in FIG. 80. EGG THREE DAYS AETER INCUBATION. relation with atmospheric air, and, in the mam- malia, conveying the embryonic vessels to and from the chorion. 190 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. The allantois is divided at the umbilicus by a closing of the visceral laminae in the abdominal cavity into two partitions, the larger of which pro- ceeds with the umbilical vessels to the chorion, while the smaller is re- tained in the abdomen and converted into the urinary bladder, the two portions being connected by the urachus. While the changes above mentioned are taking place, the cephalic, caudal and lateral edges of the inter- nal layer of the blastoder- mic membrane are elevated in the form of two folds, extended over the body of the embryon, and, meeting on its dorsal aspect, inclose it in a double envelope, the inner layer of which forms the sac of the amnion, while the external layer lines the inner surface of the chorion. The mode of the development of the umbilical vesicle is represented in Figs. 84, 85 and 89. Fig. 81. EMBRYON OF THE CHICK AT THE COMMENCEMENT OF THE THIRD DAY, as seen from the abdominal as- pect. 4. Prominence of the corpora quadrigemina, or optic lobes of the brain. 5. Anterior cerebral mass or hemispheres. 0. Heart. 7. Entrance of the great venous trunks in the atrium cordis or auricle. 8, 9,10 and 11. The four aortic arches. 12. The descend- ing aorta. 13. Arteries of the germinal membrane. 14. The dorsal lamina, rendered slightly wavy by the action of water. 15. Rudiments of the vertebrae. EMBRYOLOGY. 191 Figs. 91, 92, 93 and 94 represent the human ovum in various stages of progress till three weeks old; Fig. 82. A. The two primitive halves of the nervous system, twenty-four hours after incubation; B, the same, thirty-six hours after; C, the same, at a more advanced stage, c, the two primitive halves of the vertebrae; d, anterior dilitation of the neural canal; b, posterior dilatation (the lumbar enlargement); 1, 2, 3, anterior, middle and inferior cerebral vesicles; or, slight flattening of the anterior cerebral vesicle; o, formation of the ocu- lar vesicles. DEVELOPMENT OF THE NERVOUS SYSTEM OF THE CHICK. but the data on which our calculations as to time are predicated, manifestly cannot be very exact. Says Dungli- son: “From the difficulty of appreciating the exact age of any ovum or its contained embryo, it is impracticable to assign any precise weight or measurement, or, indeed, any special development to the different periods of intra- Fig. 83. EARLY UTERINE OVUM. a. Serous lamina, within the external ring, or zona pellucida. b. Yelk. c. In- cipient embryon. 192 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Fig. 84. uterine existence. The discordance among ob- servers is indeed ex- treme.” The force of this re- mark will be still better appreciated when it is considered that it is not yet settled whether im- pregnation really takes place in the majority of cases, and hence nor- mally, in the uterus or in the Fallopian tubes of the human female. The weight of the embryon at the end of the second week is, as near as has been ascertained, about one grain, and its length about one-twelfth of an inch. At the end of the third week its size and shape have been compared to a large ant or a grain of barley. On the thir- tieth day the situation of the upper and lower FORMATION OF THE AMNION by the arching over of the serous lamina. a. Chorion, b. Yelk-bag, sur- rounded by serous and vascular lamina, c. Embryon. def. Exter- nal and internal folds of the se- rous layer, forming the amnion. g. Incipient allantois. Fig. 85. HUMAN OVUM IN SECOND MONTH. a 1. Smooth portion of chorion, a 2. Villous portion of chorion. 7c 7c. Elongated vlli beginning to collect into placenta, b. Yeik-sac, or um- bilical vesicle, c. Embryon. f. Am- nion (inner layer), g. Allantois, h. Amnion (outer layer) coalescing with chorion. EMBRYOLOGY. extremities become visible; the length has in- creased to one-third of an inch, and the rudiments of the principal organs are apparent. About the FIG. 86, DEVELOPMENT OF THE SPINAL CORD AND BRAIN OF THE HUMAN SUBJECT, A. Brain and spinal cord of an embryon of seven weeks; lateral view. B. The same, from an embryon farther advanced in development, b. Spinal cord. d. Enlargement of spinal cord with its anterior curvature, c. Cerebellum, e. Tubercula quadrigemina. /. Optic thalamus, g. Cere- bral hemispheres. C. Brain and spinal cord of an embryon of eleven weeks, b. Spinal cord. d. Enlargement of the spinal cord, with Its anterior curvature, c. Cerebellum, e. Tubercula quadrigemina. g. Cerebral hemispheres, o. Optic nerve of the left side. C’. The same parts in a vertical section in the median line from before backward, b. Membrane of the spinal cord turned backward, d. Second curvature of the upper portion of the spinal cord, which has become thickened and constitutes the peduncles of the cerebrum, e. Tubercula quadrigemina. /. Optic thalami covered by the hemispheres. Fig. 87. EGG FITE DAYS AFTER INCUBATION. 194 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. fortieth day the shape of the child may be recog- nized, when, in anatomical parlance, it ceases to be the embryon and becomes the fetus. Some anatomists, however, do not apply the term fetus to the embryon until after the beginning of the fourth month, when its motions in utero are no- ticed by the mother. This is called the period of quickening. Fig. 88. IMBRYON FROM A BITCH AT THE TWENTY-FOURTH OR TWENTY-FIFTH DAY. Magnified ten diameters. The head is very large in proportion to the body; the trunk is elongated and pointed; the limbs resemble the shoots of vegetables; dark points or lines indicate the existence of the eyes, EMBRYOLOGY. 195 mouth and nose, and parallel points indicate the situation of the vertebra. The length is nearly one inch or about ten lines. JBIG. 89. a. Dorsal structures of the embryon. b. The amnion, c. Yelk sac or umbilical vesicle, c’. Vitelline duct or pedicle of the umbilical vesicle, o. Allantois, o’. Urachus. UMBILICAL VESICLE AND ALLANTOIS. FIG. 90. EGG TEN DATS AFTER INCUBATION. 196 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. In the second month nearly all of the parts are apparent. The eyelids are well-defined and ex- tremely transparent; the nose projects, the mouth enlarges and open, the fingers and toes are distinct. In the third month the eye- lids are more developed and firmly closed; the meatus au- ditor ius is indicated by an opening in the pavilion of the ear; the sides of the nose—a la nasi—are distinguishable; the lips are distinct, and the mouth shut. During this month the genital organs are rapidly developed. The penis is long; the scrotum fre- Fig. 91. OVUM FOURTEEN DATS OLD. Fig. 92. OVUM AND EMBRVON FIF- TEEN DAYS OLD. Fig. 93. OVUM AND EMBRTON THREE WEEKS OLD. EMBRYOLOGY. 197 quently contains a little water, but the testes are absent. The vulva is apparent, and the clitoris very prominent. The brain is considerably devel- Fig. 94. Showing villi covering entire chorion. HUMAN EMBRYON, THIRD WEEK. oped though still pulpy, as is the spinal cord. The lungs are insignificant, but the liver is larg-e. The heart’s action is easily detected. The upper and lower limbs arc fully developed. The fetus is now three and half inches in length, and weighs two and a half ounces. Fig. 95. Fig. 96. FETUS AT FORTY- FIVE DAYS. FETUS AT TWO MONTHS. 198 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. During the fourth month the head and liver in- crease less in proportion than the other parts; the muscular system becomes distinct, and slight move- ments are manifested. At the end of four months and a half the length of the fetus has increased to five or six inches, and the weight to four or five ounces. FlG. 97. During the fifth month the muscular system becomes well marked, and the movements of the fetus active and unequivocal. The head is still disproportionately large, and begins to be covered with small, silvery hairs. The length is seven to nine inches; weight, six to eight ounces. FETUS AT THREE MONTHS IN ITS MEMBRANES. EMBRYOLOGY. 199 In the sixth month the derma or true skin begins to be distinguishable from the epidermis or cuticle. The skin is of a purple color, smooth and delicate, and, owing to the absence of adipose matter in the subcutaneous areolar tissue, seems plaited or wrinkled. The scrotum is small and of a deep red color; the vulva prominent, its lips separated, and the clitoris projecting; the nails are formed. The length is ten or twelve inches, and the weight nearly two pounds. Fetuses born at this period usually breathe and cry for a short time, but are rarely viable. During the seventh month all parts of the body very nearly attain their permanent proportions. The head occupies the lower portion of the uterine cavity, and is directed toward its mouth or orifice— os uteri. The finger passed into the vagina readily detects it as a rounded, firm, but movable body. The eyelids begin to separate, and the membrana pupillaris, which previously closed the pupil, be- gins to disappear; the whole form becomes more rotund from the increase of fat; the skin is redder, and its sebaceous follicles excrete a white cheesy substance termed vernix caseosa. The length at seven months is about fourteen inches, and its weight nearly three pounds. In the eighth month the fetus develops propor- tionably more in breadth than in length, and the child at this period is regarded as capable of main- taining an independent existence. The testicles, 200 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. which were formed within the abdominal parieties, descend into the scrotum; the ossification of the bones of the skull, ribs and limbs is nearly com- pleted ; the nails are also- completely formed. The length is sixteen inches, and the weight upward of four pounds. At the end of nine months the length of the fetus is ordinarily eighteen or twenty inches, and the average weight six to eight pounds. It is then fully matured—the normal period of pregnancy, or full term, being generally reckoned at about 280 days. Numerous cases are, however, on record in which the measurement and weight greatly exceed the above calculations. In some well authenticated cases the child at birth lias measured twenty-four inches in length; and obstetricians of character and experience have published cases of children weigh- ing at birth from ten to fifteen pounds. One or two cases are recorded in which the weight exceeded seventeen pounds. In the case of twins the weight of each is usually somewhat less than in uniparous cases, but their united weight 'is greater. M. Duges, of Paris, ascertained the average weight of 144 twins to be four pounds, the extreme weights being three and eight pounds. It should be remarked, however, that the tables furnished by authors, on the length and weight of fetuses at different periods of gestation and at birth, are considerably dis- cordant, as all observations must be when the sub- jects of them are suffering under a great number 201 EMBRYOLOGY. and variety of abnormal conditions ; and this diffi- culty is further complicated by the ignorance or uncertainty that exists respecting the changes which the embryo undergoes during the early period of its existence. Position of the Fetus.—The cause of the posi- tion of the fetus in utero, during the various periods Fig. 98. FULL PERIOD OF UTERO-GESTATION. of gestation, has not been very clearly explained. The “law of gravitation” which, it is assumed, draivs the more weighty head to the lowest part of ihe uterine cavity, is more the expression of a theory than of a fact. Professor Simpson and others 202 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. are of opinion that, until about the sixth month, the normal position of the head is uppermost, and that the change of position is then a vital act, de- pendent on the motions of the fetus. Certain it is, that the position with the head downward—which is the usual and only strictly normal position—is best adapted to the process of delivery. This posi- tion is shown in figure 98. As seen in the cut, the body is bent forward; the chin rests on the breast; the back of the head, occi- put, toward the brim of the pelvis; one or both arms lying upon the face, and both approximated in front; the thighs flexed upon the abdomen; the knees apart; the legs drawn up and crossed; the feet bent upon the anterior surface of the legs—the whole body forming an oval whose diameter is about ten inches. Fetal Dependencies.—These are: 1. The two membranes which constitute the parieties of the ovule, the external of which is called chorion, and the internal, which contains a fluid in which the fetus floats, is called amnion or amnios; 2. The placenta, a spongy, vascular body, external to the chorion, covering about one-fourtli of the ovule, and connecting it with the uterus; 3. The umbili- cal cord or navel string, containing the blood vessels which maintain the circulation between the pla- centa and the fetus; 4. The umbilical and allantoid vesicles. EMBRYOLOGY. 203 The Chorion, according to M. Velpeau, becomes thick, opaque, resisting and flocculent at both sur- faces, about the twelfth day after conception; but as the normal place for impregnation is yet a dis- puted problem, the authors do not agree where the ovum receives the chorion. Some think it is re- ceived as the ovum passes along the Fallopian tube; others maintain that it is formed in the ovary; while others, taking the opposite extreme, contend that it is produced in the uterus. The inner surface of the chorion corresponds to the amnion; and the two membranes, in early fetal life, are separ- ated by an albuminous fluid. At the end of about three months this fluid disappears, when the mem- branes are in contact. By some anatomists the chorion is regarded as consisting of two layers, the external of which is called exocliorion, and the in- ternal endochorion. The Amnion, which lines the inner surface of the chorion, contains the fetus, and is filled with a serous fluid. In the early period of fetal existence it adheres to the chorion only by a point, which corresponds to the abdomen of the fetus. The other parts of the membranes are separated by the serous fluid above mentioned, which is termed false liquor cimnii. The membranes subsequently coa- lesce ; but the adhesion, except at the placenta and umbilical cord, is very feeble. As pregnancy ad- vances this membrane becomes thicker, and at full term is much tougher and more tenacious than the 204 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. chorion. Both the amnion and the chorion cover the fetal surface of the placenta, envelop the um- bilical cord, and, extending to the umbilicus of the fetus, there become blended with the skin. The serous fluid—liquor amnii—contained within the amnion, is transparent in early fetal life, but at full term the flocculi of an albuminous substance give it a milky appearance. It has a saline taste, Fig. 99. MATERNAL SURFACE OF THE PLACENTA. a spermatic odor and a viscid and gelatinous con- sistence. According to the analysis of Vauquelin and Buniva its solid consituents—albumen, chloride of sodium, soda, phosphate of lime and lime— amount to only 1.2 parts in 100, the remainder, 98.8, being water. The analysis, however, by no means proves that all of these ingredients are normal constituents, nor that they exist normally in the above quantities or proportions. EMBRYOLOGY. 205 The quantity of fluid contained in the amnion is in inverse ratio to the size of the fetus. The source of this fluid is not yet well ascertained, some phy- siologists ascribing it to the mother, others to the fetus. Its quantity varies from a few ounces to three or four pints. The Placenta, or after-birth, is a soft, flat, spongy, highly vascular body, in most cases of a circular Fig. 100. FETAL SURFACE OF THE PLACENTA. shape, but sometimes assuming the oval form. It is the medium of communication between the mother and child, its office being to supply nutrient material to the fetus. It is usually from six to eight inches in diameter, and from an inch to an inch and a half in thickness at its center, gradu- ally becoming thinner toward its circumference. Its average weight is about one pound. One of its sur- faces corresponds to the fetus, the other to the uterus. 206 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. The distribution of the umbilical arteries and veins give to the fetal surface an arborescent ap- pearance resembling the branches of a tree; it has also been called membranous, because both the chorion and amnion pass over it. The fetal sur- face is smooth and glistening. The maternal or uterine surface is in contact with the uterus, and after its detachment it exhibits an irregular, broken aspect. There is, probably, no direct vascular connection between the mother and fetus, the blood vessels of the maternal portion of the placenta not being con- tinuous with those of the fetal portion. The con- trary opinion has long been held; but it seems now to be well established that physiologically, the pla- centa consists of two distinct parts, each having a circulation independent of that of the other. The circulating vessels on the fetal surface are those of the umbilical cord, while utero-placental vessels maintain the circulation on the maternal surface. It is stated, also, as a further evidence that these circulations are distinct, that the size and relative number of the red corpuscles which are found in the blood of the parent differ from those found in the blood of the fetus, and that there is also a difference in the relative amount of fibrin and al- bumen. The fact that madder administered to a pregnant female will readily color the bones of the fetus, only proves the permeability of the two sets of ves- EMBRYOLOGY. 207 sels in the placenta. The formation of the placenta does not commence until the second month of preg- nancy. The Umbilical Cord (Funis umbilicus) is the channel of communication between the fetus and the placenta. It is composed of two arteries and one vein, and its length, at all periods of fetal development, is generally about equal to that of the body of the fetus. The arteries convey the impure blood of the fetus to the placenta, while Fig. 101. KNOTTED UMBILICAL CORD. the vein carries arterial blood from the placenta to the fetus. This may seem like a contradiction of terms; but it must be recollected that, in the lan- guage of anatomy, a vein is a blood vessel going toward the heart, while an artery is a blood vessel proceeding from the heart, this organ being re- garded as the center of circulation. At the end of five or six weeks after conception the cord is straight, shut and very large, owing to 208 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. its containing a portion of the intestinal canal, pre- senting, also, three or four enlargements or dilata- tions, which gradually disappear, after which the cord lengthens and becomes smaller. It is fre- quently knotted and twisted as represented in the cut. After the fifth week the umbilical cord con- tains, in addition to the duct of the umbilical vesi- cle, the ompha.lo-mesenteric vessels and a portion of the allantoid vesicle and intestines. The Umbilical Vesicle, termed also vesicula alba and intestinal vesicle, was unknown to the ancients, and some of the modern authors are disposed to regard it as an abnormal product. It seems to be situate between the chorion and amnion, and to disappear about the sixth or seventh week. Fetal Peculiarities.—The head is dispropor- tionately large, and the hones of the skull are united by membrane—a circumstance which allows the bones to approach and even to overlap each other in the process of parturition, thus facilitating greatly the delivery of the head. These membran- ous or unossified portions are important guides to the midwife in determining the position, or “pre- sentation,” of the head. In the anterior superior portion of the skull is a soft depression, having four angles, termed the anterior fontanelle, and in the posterior superior portion, having three angles termed the posterior fontanelle. When the head presents in the best possible position for delivery, EMBRYOLOGY. 209 the finger of the accoucheur, on being passed into the uterus, readily comes in contact with the pos- terior fontanelle, which is found near the symphy- sis pubis, while the anterior fontanelle will be to- ward the sacrum, on the opposite side of the pelvic cavity. In the upper part of the thorax, situate in the superior mediastinum over the upper portion of the pericardium, is a large glandular structure termed Fig. 103. SECTION OE THYMUS GLAND. Thymus. Its greatest bulk is usually attained near the end of embryonic life, although in some cases it is said to have increased slightly after birth. But in most cases it rapidly diminishes after birth, becoming very small at adult age, and almost or quite undistinguishable in old age. Its average weight at birth is about half an ounce. It has no excretory duct, is well supplied with nerves, and 210 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. contains a fluid resembling chyle or cream. Its function is unknown; but I have no doubt it is one of the appendages of the organic nervous system, serving as an additional source of nervous power to the nutrient system, especially in developing the pulmonary apparatus. Its structure and location are certainly in harmony with this view, as are the changes it undergoes before and after birth. Dunglison says, “It is one of the most obscure, in its physiology, of any organ of the body.” The Thyroid Gland has a similar history and structure and, undoubtedly, a similar function. The Lungs are collapsed and dense, of a dark color, like liver, and do not fill the cavity of the chest, and, having a greater specific gravity than water, readily sink when immersed in that fluid. The mean weight of the lungs compared with the body of a full-grown fetus which has never breathed, has been calculated by M. Ploucquet as 1 to 70. The digestive organs exhibit nothing remarkable except the presence in the bowels, at full term, of a quantity of dark or greenish feces, termed me- conium, from its resemblance to the inspissated juice of the poppy. It consists mainly of the ex- cretions of the liver and intestinal canal, and gener- ally passes off without difficulty soon after the child begins to nurse. The common practice of giving purgative or even laxative medicines, whether it be castor oil or swetened urine, to expel the me- conium is exceedingly pernicious. EMBRYOLOGY. 211 The Liver is very large and rapidly diminishes after birth, a part of its decarbonizing function being then transferred to the lungs. The Bladder is large and elongated, and seems to possess more proportionate power than in adult life. From the fundus of the bladder a conical ligament, called the urachus, ascends between the umbilical arteries to the umbilicus, forming a kind of sus- pensory ligament to the bladder. The development of the genital organs has oc- casioned many fanciful speculations with regard to the cause of sex. The sexual organs are not per- ceptible until near the commencement of the sixth week, when a small cleft eminence appears—the rudiment of the scrotum or vulva. Soon after an aperture becomes perceptible, which is common to the genital organs and anus. In front of this aper- ture is a projecting tubercle which, a week or two later, manifests a glans, and is grooved on its under surface by a channel which extends to the anus. At about the twelfth week the perineum, which separates the anus and genital organs, is formed. The sex becomes distinctly apparent about the four- teenth week; but there remains for some time a groove beneath the penis or clitoris, which is soon formed into a canal in the former case, or closed in the latter. The Descent of the Testes deserves a brief explan- ation in this place. In the early months of embry- onic life, the testicles are situate below the kidneys 212 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. in the abominal cavity. At about the seventh month they are in a state of progression toward the scro- tum. About the middle of the third month a sheath of peritoneum extends from the abdominal ring to the lower part of the testicle; it also contains a ligament which is termed gubernaculum testis; surrounding this is a thin layer of muscular fiber, known as the creamaster, by whose contraction the Fiq. 103. DESCENT OF THE TESTICLE. A. Testicle in the scrotum. B. Prolongation of the peritoneum. C. Peritoneum lining the abdomen. D. Peritoneum forming the tunica vaginalis. E. Cavity of the peritoneum. F. Kidney. testicle is moved. During the descent the creamas- ter muscle is gradually everted, and when the transition is completed, it constitutes a covering or envelope external to the peritoneal sheath which immediately surrounds the gland. EMBRYOLOGY. 213 In its descent, the testicle passes successively from one portion of the peritoneum behind another immediately below; and the lowest part of the pouch formed around the testicle becomes the tunica vaginalis testis, while that portion of the peritone- um which descended before the testicle eventually becomes the tunica vaginalis, or second coat. When the neck of the pouch does not complete- ly close, after the testicle has reached the lower part of the scrotum, the intestines pass down, con- stituting congenital hernia. The descent of the testicles is not always com- pleted at birth: in some instances one or both will remain for weeks or months in the abdomen; and in rare cases one or both remain in the abdominal cavity during life, creating a suspicion of defect or deformity, but not materially interfering with the normal function. I have known several cases in which one testicle remained in the abdomen, and the parties were supposed to have but one testicle. Circulation of the Fetus.—As the blood can- not circulate through the lungs of the fetus, an opening exists between the right and left auricle, called the foramen ovale, through which the circu- lating current passes from the venous to the arterial system. This foramen has a valve which allows part of the blood of the right auricle to pass through the opening into the left auricle, but pre- vents its return. SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Fig. 104. 1. Umbilical cord. 3. Umbilical vein divided into three branches, two (44) to be distributed to the liver and one (5), ductus venosus, which enters the inferior vena cava (6). 7. Portal vein uniting with the right hepatic branch. 8. Right auricle ; course of blood denoted by the arrow, proceed- ing from 8 to 9, left auricle. 10. Left ventricle; the blood follows the course of the arrow to the arch of the aorta (11); arrows 12 and 13 indicate the return of the blood from the head and upper extremities through the jugular vein and the subclavian veins to the superior vena cava (14), to the right auricle (8), and following the direction of the arrow through the right ventricle (15), to the pulmonary artery (16). 17. Ductus arteriosus, the offsets at each side are the right and left pulmonary arteries cut off. 1818. Descending aorta. 19. Umbilical arteries. 20. External iliacs. The arrows at the termination of these vessels mark the return of the venous blood by veins to the inferior cava. CIRCULATION OF THE FETUS. EMBRYOLOGY. 215 The Umbilical Arteries arise from the internal iliacs, and passing by the sides of the bladder, on the outside of the peritoneum, perforate the um- bilicus and proceed to the umbilical cord and pla- centa. The umbilical vein, which conveys the blood from the placenta to the fetus, arises from the radicles in the substance of the placenta. It enters the umbilicus, and passing toward the in- ferior surface of the liver, unites with the left branch of the vena porta hepatica, where is a ves- sel called the ductus venosus, opening into the vena cava inferior. Only a part of the blood of the um- bilical vein is emptied into the liver. The Placenta.—The placenta is the sole means of communication between mother and child; in fact, it represents, physiologically, both the respir- atory and digestive organs of the adult. The im- pure blood is brought from the system of the fetus to the placenta, through the umbilical arteries, as already explained. Although there is supposed to to be no direct communication between the vessels of the two surfaces of the placenta, the umbilical arteries ramify and anastomose with the radicles of the umbilical vein on the fetal surface; indeed, as in all parts of the capillary system, the arteries and veins become so intimately blended as to al- most baffle the researches of the anatomist, even when aided by the microscope. But, although the structural arrangement of capillary vessels cannot SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. be very satisfactorily traced, there is no question concerning the changes which the blood undergoes in them. In the lungs of the adult the blood ex- Fig. 105. c. Embry on. {.Intestine, p. Pedicle of the umbilical vesicle, o. Um- bilical vesicle. mmm. Amnion, a’. Chorion, a. Lower end of the um- bilical cord, q q. Vascular tufts of the chorion, constituting the fetal por- tion of the placenta, n’ n. Maternal portion of the placenta, n n. Decidua vera. s. Decidua reflexa. DIAGRAMMATIC! FIGURE SHOWING THE PLACENTA AND DECIDUA. pels its carbonic acid gas, and probably receives more or less oxygen from the atmosphere. The fetal blood imparts its accumulated carbonic acid EMBRYOLOGY. gas, and receives oxygen or vital air. Bedford re- gards this interchange of elements as an “endos- motic process.” The effete material passes into the vessels of the mother, to be purified from her system through the usual channels, while her own arterial blood supplies the elements necessary for the sustenance and growth of the fetus. This view of the connection of the circulation of mother and child, and of the dependence of the fetus on the mother for oxygenation and purifica- tion, suggests an important practical consideration. If the mother does not breathe sufficiently the child must suffer. Many a mother gives birth to a frail, scrofulous child for no reason except that during the period of gestation she is too sedentary and plethoric. I have known women of vigorous con- stitutions, who had given birth to several healthy children, become the mothers of children so puny and scrofulous that it was impossible for them to be raised to adult age. In many such cases the child has not vitality enough to survive but a few weeks, days or hours. The reason was that the mother had changed her active habits to passive ones, was breathing too little, and did not inhale oxygen enough to supply the needs of the intra- uterine being. Every woman who changes her habits from those of a very active to a very seden- tary life, or who becomes suddenly fat or plethoric, is liable, if she become pregnant, to produce sickly and malformed offspring. CHAPTER X. PARTURITION. Rationale of Labor.—Why the uterus expels its contents at or near the completion of nine calendar months from the date of conception, may be as difficult to explain as would be the problem why the average height of human beings is a little more than five feet, or why the earth revolves on its axes in just twenty-four hours. For all practical purposes it is enough to know that such is the law of repro- duction. At that time the fetus is capable of inde- pendent existence, and at that time the uterus has acquired the organic devolpment and sensibilities which enable it to perform the momentous work of ushering into this breathing world another immortal being, “made in the image of God,” and partaking more or less of the peculiar qualities of its earthly parents, its muscular fibres contract, its cavity is diminished, and its contents are expelled. So true, so admirable, and so energetic are the manifestations of the vital instincts of the uterus on this occasion, that they seem almost like intelli- gences. But as the majority of women in civilized SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. life are sadly disordered in the sexual organism, childbirth is usually attended with great pain, and often with excruciating agony. When the fetus is expelled from its uterine cavity, before the period of viability, the process is termed abortion or miscarriage—the term abortion being usually limited to the period preceding quickening. When the expulsion occurs during the seventh or eighth month, it is termed premature labor. Says Dunglison: “With respect to the causes that give rise to the extrusion, we are in utter dark- ness. It is in truth as inexplicable as any of the other instinctive operations of the living machine. Our knowledge appears to be limited to the fact, that when the fetus has undergone a certain degree of development, and the uterus a corresponding distention and organic changes, its contractility is called into action, and the uterine contents are beautifully and systematically expelled.” Dr. Flint says, “ The cause of the first contraction of the uterus in normal parturition is undoubtedly referable to some change in the attachment of its contents, which causes the fetus and its membranes to act as a foreign body. When, for any reason, it is advisable to cause the uterus to expel its contents before the full term of pregnancy, the most physio- logical method of bringing on the contractions of this organ is to cautiously separate a portion of the membranes, as is often done by introducing an elastic catheter between the ovum and the uterine PARTURITION. 221 wall. A certain time after this operation, the uterus contracts to expel the ovum, which then acts as a foreign body. “ In the normal state, toward the end of pregnancy, the cells of the decidua vera and of that portion of the placenta which is attached to the uterus undergo fatty degeneration, and, in this way, there is a gradual separation of the outer membrane, so that the contents of the uterus gradually lose their anatomical connection with the mother. When this change has progressed to a certain extent, the uterus begins to contract; each contraction then separates the membranes more and more, the most dependent part pressing upon the os internum ; and the subsequent contractions are probably due to reflex action. The first ‘ pain ’ is induced by the presence of the fetus and its membranes as a foreign body, a mechanism similar to that which obtains when premature labor has been brought on by separation of the membranes.” The action of the uterus in expelling the fetus is quite analogous to that of the alimentary canal in expelling its contents. In each case the abdominal muscles powerfully co-operate with the peristaltic contractions of the organ. It is true that uterine contractions, when once established, may continue, vigorously,too, with little action of the respiratory muscles of the mother; but ordinarily the force of one of these actions is measured very precisely by that of the other. When ether, which occasions a 222 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. greatly diminished action of the respiratory system, is administered to diminish pain or produce relaxa- tion of the sphincter muscles, the uterine contrac- tions are generally but little disturbed, and in some instances, considerably intensified. Ergot and many other drugs, as is well known to accoucheurs, if administered at any time after the occurrence of “true labor pains,” will generally occasion increased force of uterine contraction, and thus expedite the process of delivery. Rationale of Labor Pains.—By the term, labor pain, the obstetrician understands a single con- traction of the muscular fibers of the body of the uterus. The pains of labor, other circumstances being equal, in length and severity, correspond to the force and duration of each contractile effort. The muscular fibers of the uterus are so arranged that, while each contraction diminishes the cavity of the organ, it at the same time dilates its mouth. Each contraction or pain continues but a short time, usually only a few seconds, and is followed by an equal or longer period of relaxation or repose. By these repeated contractions the fetus is gradually pressed against the os uteri, which continually en- larges until the dilatation is sufficient to admit of the passage of the fetus into the world. In true labor pains the longitudinal fibers of the muscular coat of the uterus contract from above downward, while the respiratory and abdominal PARTURITION. 223 muscles co-operate, inducing a pressure upon the whole abdominal and pelvic viscera, attended with a sense of “ bearing down.” The patient is often directed to “ help the pains,” by which is meant that she should hold her breath during the uterine contraction and make a bearing down effort. It is rarely in the power of the woman to suspend or materially abate the “pains” by any effort of will, although narcotic drugs, mental shocks, bleeding, opiates, etc., will frequently suspend them for a time. When the pains are not of the bearing down kind, but irregular and spasmodic, at full term, they are called false labor pains. The first contractions of the uterus are generally feeble and the pains slight, when they are termed preparatory. Although the pains attending childbirth are, with the daughters of civilization, usually very great, often terrible, the process is not necessarily attended with any feelings or symptoms to which the term pain will properly apply. In the normal condition the experience is that of labor or travail rather than pain. And there is certainly no reason, except in abnormal habits and conditions, why parturition should be painful. In the ruder states of society, females suffer little ; and I have attended several cases in which the pain was insignificant—the patients refusing to acknowledge that they suffered actual pain at all. These women had lived rationally as to diet and exercise for months before conception occurred. 224 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Many interpret the Scripture expression, “In sorrow shalt thou bring forth,” as meaning the arbitrary infliction of pain in childbirth as a penalty for disobedience. But a more rational interpreta- tion, and the only one which harmonizes with the experience of all nations and all ages, is the con- sciousness of bringing children into a world of wickedness, rendered such by transgression, in- heriting dispositions to vice and predispositions to disease from their parents. There are very few adult females in civilized society not to a greater or less extent the subjects of uterine disease. There are very few married women who do not suffer more or less of congestion and inflammation of the sexual organs, and a large proportion, which is constantly increasing, are affected with ulcerations or displacements. And when to these causes we add the dyspeptic stomachs, constipated bowels, and weak abdominal muscles, we have a sufficient explanation of the dreaded sufferings of gestation, and the dreadful pains and perils of parturition. Natural Labor.—Fig. 106 shows the position of the fetus in the best position for delivery. In the works on Midwifery all labors are termed natural when the head, face, feet or breech presents, be- cause in all of these positions the delivery may be accomplished without assistance; while all other presentations require manual or instrumental aid, PARTURITION. 225 and are termed preternatural. But with Nature normal and best are synonymous terms, and hence the position in which the posterior fontanelle or back part of the crown of the head occupies the anterior portion of the pelvic cavity, is the only one that can be regarded as strictly natural. Preceding labor for a day or two, there is generally Fig. 106. a discharge of a mucous fluid from the vagina, often streaked with blood. This is called the show, and indicates more or less dilatation of the mouth of the womb—the precursor of labor. At this time the os uteri will be found, on examination, to enlarge more or less with every pain, and its edges to be gradually becoming thinner. At first the pains are NORMAL POSITION. 226 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. apt to be grinding or scattered, and to affect more especially the loins and abdomen. After a longer or shorter period they commence in the loins and bear down toward the os uteri. In due time the membranes which inclose the fetus, with their con- tained fluid, protrude through the os uteri, the pouch thus formed being termed the bag of waters. The uterine contractions soon rupture the protrud- ing membranes; the waters are discharged ; the uterus then contracts firmly upon the body of the fetus, and labor usually progresses rapid- ly to completion. The pulsations of the umbilical cord can be felt for a few seconds, some- times for a few minutes after birth, but as soon as the lungs are duly expanded—usually indicated by a lusty cry, which every mother and midwife is so fond of hearing—the circulation of the cord ceases entirely, when it may be severed, and the child wrapped in a soft blanket and put in a safe place to enjoy the thing it most needs after its first crying spell—sleep. After the birth of the child the mother has an interval of repose—usually from ten to thirty Fig. 107. CASE OF TWINS. PARTURITION. minutes, but in some cases extending to several hours—when slight bearing down pains recur; the uterine contractions are resumed and continued until the placenta and membranes, termed the secundines or after-birth, are expelled. In the cases of twins both fetuses may present by the head, or both by the feet, or one by the head and another by the breech, as represented in Fig. 107' CHAPTER XI. LACTATION. Secketion of Milk.—The nutriment of the fetus is derived directly from the mother’s blood; but after birth the child is intended to subsist on its mother’s milk until its masticatory organs are developed. The milk is a secretion prepared from the elements of the blood in the mammae or breasts. Each mammary gland is formed of several lobes united by areolar tissue; each lobe is composed of smaller lobules, and each lobule of still smaller bodies, termed acini. These acini are about the size of poppy seeds, and of a rosy-white color ; they are lined with cells which secrete the milk. Figure 108 is a representation of the milk ducts as they appear filled with wax. In the virgin the acini are not distinguishable. The excretory ducts (tubuli lactiferi) arise from the acini, and enlarging and uniting with each other, terminate in reservoirs or sinuses near the base of the nipple. These sinuses are fifteen to twenty in number, and open on the nipple distinct from each other. In some instances milk is secreted and flows from 230 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. the breasts during the later period of pregnancy ; and instances are recorded in which young girls, old women, and even men, have had a copious formation of milk, and have successfully nursed Fig. 108. and nourished the young child. The nursing period of woman varies greatly, according to accidental circumstances and habits of life. There can be no DUCTS OP HUMAN MAMMA. LACTATION. 231 doubt that the normal period for nursing the off- spring at the breast is as fixed and determinate, in the order of Nature, with the human being as it is with the animals. But the more artificial life of woman has produced more and ereater irregularities in this respect. The develop- ment of the teeth seems to point to a period of about one year, or a little less, as the proper limit of the function of lacta- tion ; yet it is not very un- common for women to nurse their children for two or three years ; and instances have been known in which two or three children, of different births, were nursing at the same breast. The persistent applica- cation of the child to the breast, would, of course, greatly prolong the formation of milk, as the excitement of the mammary gland of the cow, in the process of milking, causes milk to be secreted even up to the moment of giving birth to another offspring; but this is most ob- jectionable, injuring both mother and unborn child. It is a great error to bring children into the world with no interval between the weaning of one and the birth of another. If we wish to Fig. 109. ORIGIN OF MILK DUCTS. Fig. 110. ULTIMATE FOLLICLES OF MAMMARY GLANDS. a a. I he secreting cells, bb. The nuclei. 232 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. improve the race we must take the greatest care of the mother, so she is not deteriorated physically. Fig. 111. a. Nipple, the central portion of which is retracted. b. Areola, c c c c c. Lobules of the gland. 1. Sinus, or dilated portiou of one of the lactiferous ducts. 2. Extremities of the lactiferous duets. MAMMARY GLAND OF THE HUMAN FEMALE. The first milk is termed colustrum, and is sup- posed to contain more cream and butter and less casein than that which is produced subsequently. Constituents of Milk.—The following analysis made from milk obtained on the twelfth dav after LACTATION. 233 delivery, shows, as far as chemistry can determine the fact, that the difference in the essential qualities of the milk of woman and of other mammals is in- considerable : cow. GOAT. SHEEP. ASS. MARE. WOMAN. Water . 861-0 | 868-0 836-2 907-0 896-3 903-809 Butter. 38-0 | 33-2 42-0 12-10 traces 33-454 Casein. Sugar of Milk and 68-0 ) j 40-2 i 45-0 16-74 16-2 29-111 extractive mat- ter . V 29-0 i 52-8 | 5-8 50-0 | 6231 87-5 4li'o4 Fixed Salts. 6-1 6-8 J 1-939 Quantity and Quality of Milk.—The amount and character of the mammary secretion are in- fluenced by the quantity and quality of the food, by many conditions of disease, by drugs, medicines, poisons or impurities of any kind taken into the system, and, indeed, by all the habits of life. As the milk is formed from the elements of the blood, and these are derived from the elements of the food, it follows, as a logical sequence, that the welfare of the child is greatly dependent on the dietetic habits of the mother. Every stimulant, narcotic, or condiment—alcohol, opium, tea, coffee, pepper, vinegar, saleratus, etc.—which the mother swallows, irritates her stomach, inflames her blood, and, to some extent, depraves or poisons her milk and injures her child. Mental shocks, anger, melan- choly, and all disagreeable or abnormal mental conditions, render all the secretions more or less 234 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. morbid—the milk as well as the rest—and corres- pondingly damage the child which partakes of the vitiated aliment. Very few children are so fortun- ate as to pass through the nursing period -without being poisoned by the drug medicines which are administered to the mother; and when we take into account the dietetic abominations which con- stitute three-fourths of what is termed food and drink, we need not wonder that nearly one-half of the children that are born die in infancy ; nor that nearly one-half of the remaining half die in child- hood and youth; nor that very few of those who grow up to manhood and womanhood possess sound and vigorous constitutions. There is one consideration to which, if the at- tention of mothers and nurses could be properly directed, would, I am sure, have a wholesome in- fluence on their personal habits. During the nurs- ing period the breasts are ready channels through which poisons and impurities are eliminated from the system. Poisons, as opium, alcohol, antimony, calomel, quinine, etc., which do not very seriously affect the mother, or which occasion only what is called their medicinal operation, may be mingled with the milk, or so change its qualities, as to ruin the health and constitution of the child. Dunglison says: “ The milk is apt to be impreg- nated with heterogeneous matters taken up from the digestive canal. The milk and butter of cows indicate unequivocally the character of their pastur- LACTATION. 235 age, especially if they have fed on turnip, wild onion, etc. Medicine given to the mother may in this way act upon the infant. Serious, almost fatal, narcotism was induced in the infant of a professional friend of the author, by a dose of morphia admin- istered to his wife.” Lactation and Pregnancy.—Although the female is much less liable to conceive during lactation, yet a free secretion of milk is not a perfect protection against pregnancy. The recurrence of the menstrual flux is regarded as a sign that the reproductive system is again in a condition for the performance of its function. But, as menstruation may occur during lactation as well as at other times, without hemorrhage, and as hemorrhage may occur with- out menstruation, this rule is liable to exceptions. Several persons have written me that their wives became pregnant while nursing, and before there had been any appearance of menstruation, which “phenomenon” they desired me to account for. The explanation is self-evident, when we consider that menstruation is simply ovulation. In these cases the menstruation was unattended with the usual hemorrhage. Whether the child should be weaned when the menstrual flux occurs, is a subject that has been much discussed by medical writers. The question is one of a choice of evils, and must be decided in view of all the existing circumstances. 236 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. In the purely normal condition the cessation of the mammary secretion, the resumption of the process of ovulation, and the development of the masticatory organs of the child, so that it can partake of solid food, are co-incident in time. But it happens that abnormal conditions are the rule, and normal the exceptions; hence mothers and infants must do the best they can. The flux may be a mere hemorrhage, or menstruation itself may not very greatly change the quality of the milk, in which cases it would be better to continue the child at the breast. But if at this time the milk under- goes any appreciable change in quality, or is suddenly greatly diminished in quantity, or if the mother’s health declines, the child should be weaned. Analyses of the milk of nursing women when menstruation had returned have been made, but with no very satisfactory results. In 1863 M. Raciborski presented a paper on this subject to the French Academy of Medicine, in which he stated, as the result of chemical investigation, “that the milk of nurses who menstruate during suckling does not sensibly differ in physical, chemical, or microscopic characters, from that of nurses whose catamenia was suspended.” He admits, however, that in most cases the milk of menstruating nurses contains less cream during the menstrual period. In England, women of the working classes are in the habit of nursing their children on the average 237 LACTATION. about fifteen months, and Mr. Robertson has ex- pressed the opinion that in seven-eighths of these cases there will be an interval of fifteen months between parturition and subsequent pregnancy, and that, in most cases when suckling is prolonged to twenty months, pregnancy does not take place till after weaning. Dr. Loudon, in a work on the theory of population, advances the opinion that the laws of Nature require lactation to be prolonged for three years; and he thinks that the “ antag- onism” between the uterus and breast is so great as usually to prevent conception in nursing mothers. But, on the contrary, Drs. Robertson and Laycock have shown by abundant statistics that in about one-third of the cases, conception occurs during lactation. That conception should not occur during lactation is very clear. It is certainly not in accordance with physiological law. Nor is it probable that a woman, wdiile nursing one child, will develop, so perfectly, the ovum for another. Whether she ought to be exposed to conception during the nurs- ing period—whether sexual intercourse during the entire period of lactation is not an abuse, and hence abnormal and injurious—I shall consider in a sub- sequent chapter. Certain it is that many diseases on the part of the mother, and numerous infirmities and eccen- tricities, not to say deformities and monstrosities, on the part of the offspring, are attributable to the SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. ordinary habits of free and almost unrestrained sexual indulgence at the very time when all of the surplus vital force of the mother ought to be appro- priated wholly to the nourishment and develop- ment of the new being. And it is not a little sur- prising that works professing to teach Physiology and Hygiene, and especially works on the Diseases of Women and Children, of which the medical press is quite prolific, do not give any instruction on this important subject. Perhaps it is ignored on the score of delicacy, as though it could be indelicate or in any sense improper to teach human beings all things which concern their happiness and welfare. CHAPTER XII. THE LAW OF SEX. A study of the law of sex naturally comes within the scope of this work. Most writers have ap- proached it with such a narrow and imperfect knowledge of the subject that their contributions have little value. It is not a question to be mas- tered in a day, nor one to he thought out in the study with no knowledge of facts. Theorizing and speculation may be very useful, but they must afterwards be submitted to inexorable crucial tests, which alone can decide their value. It is for a lack of scientific thoroughness that most of the literature on this subject is little valued. It is interesting to note that the con stant average proportion of the sexes of all animals and plants is that which seems best adapted to their conditions of life. The law by which this proportion is main- tained must be one acting on the parent organism at the time of fertilization; but I am aware that the highest authorities on this subject hold that it may act both before and after this period. Mr. Carl During (*) has, perhaps, made the most exhaustive (*) “On the Laws which Determine the Sex of Embryo in Mankind, in Animals, and in Plants.” Carl During, “ Jenaische Zeitschrift.” 240 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. study of this subject which has yet been published a brief summary of which has been made by Prof. Brooks, of Johns Hopkins University, for the Popular Science Monthly, as follows : “ He treats, in the first part of his paper, of thos< conditions which act upon the two parents in opposite ways, and he summarizes his conclusions as follows: ‘ Each species has acquired, through natural selection, the useful property, in virtue of which any deviation from the average ratio between the sexes is corrected by an increased number of births of the deficient sex, or a decreased number of births of the sex which is in excess.’ “As the result of nearly a million observations of the birth of colts, he shows that, as the number of mares put to a stallion in a year is increased, there is a corresponding and regular increase in the number of male colts as compared with the female colts, and he gives the following summary : Number of mares to one stallion. Number of colts. Number of male toeach one hundred female colts. Male. Female. 20 to 34 . . . 29,023 29,934 96-94 35 to 39 . . . 44,911 46,493 98-60 40 to 44 . . . 66,5*3 69,045 96-42 45 to 49 . . . 69,774 72,073 93-81 50 to 54 . . . 69,972 71,461 97-92 55 to 59 , . . 75,493 74,912 100-77 60 or more . . 71,407 70,569 101-19 Total . . 1427,53 434,487 98-31 THE LAW OF SEX. 241 “In three cases where the power of partlieno- genetic reproduction has been acquired as a com- pensation for the absence of males, the partheno- genetic eggs give rise either universally, or in the vast majority of cases, to males. “For instance, as bees destroy the males after they have been rendered unnecessary by the fertilization of the queen, they are exposed to the danger that when males are needed none may exist, and there can be no doubt that the power of parthenogenetic reproduction has been acquired by bees as a com- pensating adjustment. “ When the nuptial flight of the queen is delayed by accident, or by the intervention of the breeder, the effect is, of course, equivalent to a scarcity of males, and in such a case more male larva than usual are produced; while early fertilization, which is a sign of the abundance of males, results, accord- ing to Huber, in an excess of female births. “Any influence which is equivalent to a lack of individuals of one sex acts, according to During to produce an excess of births of that sex, although there may be an actual deficiency. “ Thus, when the queen-bee is restrained by con- finement, or by the lack of wings, from the nuptial l flight, or when the seminal receptacle has been re- moved by accident or by an operation, or when the contained semen has been killed by frost or exhausted, only males are produced. “ Something of the same kind has been observed in SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. man, and the fact that a war, which carries most of the men away from their homes, is followed by an unusually great number of male births, has been recorded by many observers. “The second part of the paper treats of those in- fluences which act in the same way upon both parents, and the author’s conclusion may be sum- marized as follows : “ ‘ The power to regulate fertility according to the means of subsistence would be of use to the organ- ism, and since the female has gradually acquired, through division of labor, the function of providing the material for the growth of the young, an excess of females is a condition of rapid multiplication. We might therefore expect, what we actually find to be the case, that organisms have gradually ac- quired, through natural selection, the power to pro- duce an excess of females in time of plenty, and in a season of scarcity of food an excess of males.’ “ I think, however, that careful examination of the evidence which During lias brought together will show that he has stated his generalization in too narrow terms, and I think his facts will prove the following : A favorable environment causes an excess of female births, and an unfavorable environ- ment an excess of male births. “It is true that abundance or scarcity of food is one of the most important elements of that whole which makes up the environment of an organism, and in most of the cases which During quotes it is THE LAW OF SEX. the controlling factor, but lie gives many cases, some of which will be noted, further on, where a variation in other conditions of life has produced the same effect, causing an excess of male births when unfavorable, and an excess of female births when favorable. “ In the case of man, the conditions of life are so much under control that it is difficult to state just what constitutes a favorable environment, but I think we may conclude that, as a general rule, an environment which produces a high birth-rate is favorable, and vice versa. Now, During gives many tables to show that, among mankind, the number of female births, as compared with the number of male births, increases as the birth-rate increases. “ At the Cape of Good Hope the Boers are very prolific—six or seven is a small family, and from twelve to twenty children are not unusual; while the badly nourished and overworked Hottentots seldom have more than three children, and many of the women are barren, and Quetelet says that in 1813-20 the free whites gave birth to 6,604 boys and 6,789 girls, or 97*2 boys to every 100 girls; while during the same time the Hottentot slaves produced 2,936 boys and 2,826 girls, or 103*9 boys to each 100 girls. “The birth-rate is higher in towns than in the country, and more boys are born for each hundred girls in the country than in the towns. 244 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. “ Thus, in Prussia, in 1881, the number of boy- births for each 100 girls was 106'36. In Berlin it was 105 '70 In large towns it was 105'72 In middle towns it was 105 '44 In small towns it was 106‘14 In the country it was 106'62 “This table shows that in all the towns the ratio of boys was below the average for the whole of Prussia, and that in Berlin it was very much below the average. “Ploss was the first to point out that there is an excess of female births in time of prosperity, and he found that in Saxony the ratio of boy-births rose and fell with the price of food, and that the varia- tion was most marked in the country. “It is well known that the number of conceptions among mankind is greater at some seasons of the year than at others, and from a record of nearly 10,000,000 births During has compiled a table (see next page) which shows that-the ratio of boy-births is greatest in three months when the birth-rate is smallest. “ From this table it will be seen that in June, the month when the birth-rate was smallest, the ratio of boys to each one hundred girls was highest, and very much above the average for the whole year; while in March, the month when the birth-rate was greatest, the ratio of boys was smallest. “More than 6,000,000 births took place in the seven months when the ratio of boys was below the THE LAW OF SEX. 245 average for the year, and only 4,000,000 in the five months when it was above the average; and the table shows clearly that an increase in prosperity, TABLE SHOWING THE RATIO OF BOY-BIRTHS WHEN THE BIRTH-RATE IS SMALLEST. Conception. Birth. April. January. May. February. June. March. July. April. August. May. September. June. October. July. Boys . . Girls . . Total. . Ratio 484,443 455,847 451,750 425,091 484,786 457,702 450,272 424,740 446,642 420,867 419,541 392,928 439,685 411,888 940,290 876,841 942,488 875,012 867,509 812,469 851,573 106-27 106-27 105-92 105-01 106-02 106-77 106-75 Conception. Birth. November. August. December. September. January. October. February. November. March. December. Whole year. Boys . . Girls . . Total. . Ratio 458,385 431,192 479,023 452,045 468,337 440,447 452,894 426,343 464,024 435,382 5,499,782 5,174,472 889,577 931,058 908,784 879,237 899,404 10,678,254 106-31 105-97 106-33 106-23 106-58 106-287 246 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. as measured by the birth-rate, is accompanied by a decrease in the ratio of boy-births, and vice versa. “ Among the lower animals, satisfactory statistics are wanting; but During states that, while domes- ticated animals are much more prolific than their \ wild allies, there is also a much greater preponder- ance of female births ; that when animals are taken from a warm to a cold climate, the ratio of male births increases; and that leather-dealers say that they obtain most female skins from fertile countries where the pastures are rich, and most male skins from more barren regions; and he thinks we may safely conclude that the lower animals, as well as man, give birth to the greatest number of females when placed in a favorable environment, and to most males in an unfavorable environment. “An extreme instance is furnished by those animals which, during the seasons when food is abundant, lose the power to copulate and multiply parthenogenetically at a marvelous rate of increase, giving birth to generation after generation of par- tlienogenetic females, so long as the environment remains favorable, but giving birth, as soon as the conditions of life become less favorable, to males and to females which require fertilization. “The cladocera and aphides furnish the most striking instances of this kind of parthenogenesis, which has apparently been acquired, not to secure fertilization, but to enable the animals to utilize to the utmost the conditions which are most favorable THE LAW OF SEX. 247 to them, and to expand and contract tlieir numbers in conformity to changes in their environment. “Among the parthenogenetic cladoceras both males and females are to be found in the fall, and a few males are found in the early spring; but during the warm months of spring and summer only females are found. These multiply very rapidly through the summer by parthenogenesis, generation after generation, and they differ from the females which are fertilized by a male in many features, all of which are of such a character as to render the parthenogenetic females unusually fertile. “ They produce small eggs, which are discharged from the ovary while immature, and are nourished in a vascular broad pouch. They have little or no yolk; they are not protected by a hard shell, and they develop immediately into parthenogenetic females, which mature very rapidly, and in some cases, as in evadne, produce eggs before they them- selves are born. All their peculiarities are of such a character as to secure the greatest possible fer- tility ; and thus to enable the animals to avail themselves, to the utmost, of the abundant supply of food. “Ramdohr found that a single isolated female daphnia produced 190 young in nineteen days, and he computed the number of descendents, at the end of sixty days, to be 1,291,370,075. “As the supply of food begins to fail in the fall, 248 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. males are born, and the females produce the SO' called winter eggs, which do not develop unless they are fertilized. These are few in numbers, much larger than the summer eggs, and they are incased in protecting shells. Their purpose is not to multiply the race, but to carry a few individuals through the winter, and over to the next season of plenty. They are slowly matured in the ovary, and contain an abundant supply of food-yolk. They are not nourished in a broad chamber, and in many cases they have, in addition to the proper shell, an extra covering or ephipium, formed out of part of the integument of the parent. In daphnella three summer eggs are matured, at one time, in each ovary; but the animal produces only one winter egg, which is seven-tenths as long as the whole body. “ While the abundance or lack of food is a very important factor in determining the ’absence or presence of males, it is not the only one. Kurg found a few males in midsummer, but only in pools which were nearly dried up; and he was thus in- duced to attempt the artificial production of males. He was so successful that he obtained the males of forty species, in all of which the males had previously been unknown. He proved that any unfavorable change in the water causes the produc- tion of males, which appear as it dries up, as its chemical constitution changes, when it acquires an unfavorable temperature, or in general when there is a decrease in prosperity. THE LAW OP SEX. “From these observations and from many others quoted by During, I think we may safely conclude that among animals and plants, as well as in man- kind, a favorable environment causes an excess of female births, and an unfavorable environment an excess of male births. “Now, what is the reason for this law? If the welfare of the species can be secured, under a favorable environment, by females alone, why are males needed when the environment becomes un- favorable ? “I have tried to show, in another place, from evidence of another kind, that the female is the conservative factor in reproduction, and that new variations are caused by the influence of the male. While the environment remains favorable no change is needed, but, as the conditions of life become un- favorable, variation becomes necessary to restore the adjustment, and I believe that we have, in During’s results, an exhibition of one of the most wonderful and far-reaching of all the adaptations of Nature—an adaptation in virtue of which each organism tends to remain stationary as long as no change is needed, and to vary when variation is demanded. “ That this is the true view is shown, I think, by the contrast between domesticated animals and captive animals. The fact that an animal has be- come domesticated shows that it finds in captivity a favorable environment, and During says that 250 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. domesticated animals are unusually fertile, and that they produce an excess of females. Animals which are kept as captives in menageries and gardens have, as a rule, no fitness for domestication, and their conditions of life are unfavorable. Geoffroy Saint-Hilaire says that individuals born in men- ageries are usually male, -while skins sent to museums are usually female, and that the attempt to domesticate a wild animal increases the number of male births. During states that captive birds of prey and carnivorous mammals are very infertile, and that the young are nearly always males. “The wild races of Oceania and America have been suddenly brought into contact with the civil- ization which has been, in Europe, the slow growth of thousands of years. Food and climate have not changed, but a new element has been introduced into their environment. The New Zealanders are very infertile, and nearly all the children are boys, and the census of 1872 for the Sandwich Islands gave a ratio of 125 male births to 100 female births.” This is all extremely interesting; but, after all, it does not settle the physiological law of sex. Even admitting that, in a general way, favorable con- ditions increase the number of female births and unfavorable ones the male births, still there must be a law for each of these which admits of varia- tion, so that conditions may favor the production of one sex at one time, and the other sex at another. THE LAW OF SEX. 251 It is this physiological law that we should try to discover. We may be sure it will never be found by only studying the question of the amount of food, the season of the year, whether there is war or peace, or anything which relates to environment. But the facts which have been collected by these studies will be an immense help in testing various theories concerning the law of sex, and these facts will also aid us in forming new theories and esti- mating their value. Let us now look at this subject still deeper and see what we can make of it. We find that in the lowest forms of life multipli- cation takes place asexualhy. That is, the body simply divides itself into two or more parts, each of which grows to the same size and assumes the same form as the parent, and this process goes on indefinitely, or as long as external conditions are favorable In these forms of life we may say there is no such thing as sex. In the higher forms of life this is all changed, and multiplication takes place sexually, and instead of it being by division it is by the formation of an egg or ovum which is, after all, but a bud from the female parent. Before it can be developed, however, it must be united with a portion of the male parent, as was fully described in the chapter on Impregnation. In other words, two forces come together and they produce a male or a female. Now, why is some- times a male and sometimes a female the result ? In my opinion it depends on which is the stronger SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. 252 force. If the female germ has the greater vitality, is more richly endowed with protoplasm, has more living matter in a higher degree of activity, then the ovum will develop after the female form, more or less modified, according to the amount of living matter or protoplasm or force in the germ element which has united with the ovum. It is simply a question of force—not the force of the whole parent, but of the minute particles of it, which have been detached from the parent and united to form a new individual. It is the same law that we find all through nature. If two unequal forces come to- gether they modify each other, but the stronger one always produces the greatest effect, and the result is, the new force is more in the line of the stronger than in the line of the weaker one. Now how does this harmonize with the facts that favor- able conditions of life cause the production of more females and unfavorable ones of more males ? Let us see. Where the conditions of life are most favorable, woman, without doubt, is most favorably affected by it. She is better fed, more tenderly cared for, and maintains a higher degree of physi- cal health. The effect on the ova, produced under such improved conditions, will be a more abund- ant endowment with living matter, and the chances will be, that more of them will develop as females. On the other hand, if the conditions of life become less favorable, woman suffers most. Among barbarous races, if the food is scarce, the THE LAW OF SEX. 253 woman gets least of it, partly from the greater selfishness of man, and partly on account of the greater tendency of woman’s nature to sacrifice herself for the welfare of others. Of course, there will be a large class of persons who will not be so greatly affected by the slight changes in environ- ment, but the number who will be affected will be sufficient to account for all the difference we have in the ratio of the sexes. This theory agrees with another class of facts. If the male is older and stronger than the female, the offspring will be more of males than females. If the females are most vigorous the offspring will contain more females. Dr. Manly Miles, in his most excellent work en- titled Stock Breeding, has collected an array of facts bearing on this point, some of which are given below : ‘‘At a meeting of the Agricultural Society of Severac, on the 3d of July, 1826, M. Charles Girou de Buzareingues proposed ‘ to divide a flock of sheep into two equal parts, so that a greater num- ber of males or females, at the choice of the pro- prietor, should be produced from each of them. Two of the members of the society offered their flocks to become the subjects of his experiments,’ the results of which are given in the following table. “The principle of division was to place young rams with strong, well-fed ewes, for ewe-lambs, 254 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. and a matured, vigorous ram with weaker ewes, for ram-lambs. “ The first experiment gave the following results : Flock for female lambs served by two rams, one fifteen months and the other nearly two years old. Flock for male lambs served by two strong rams, one four and the other five years old. SEX OF LAMBS. SEX OF LAMBS. Age of Mothers. Male. Female. Male. Female. Two years . . 14 26 Two years . . . 7 8 Three years . 16 29 Three years. . 15 14 Four years . . 6 21 Four years. . . 33 14 Total . . . 35 76 Total .... 55 31 Five years and Five years and over .... 18 8 over 25 24 Total . . . 53 84 Total .... 80 55 There were three twin-births in No twin-births in this flock. tms nocK. “ In the second experiment the ewes were divided into three sections. “The first section included the strongest ewes from four to five years old, which were better fed than the others. It was served by four ram-lambs, about six months old. “In the second section were the weaker ewes, under four or above five years old. They were served by ‘ two strong rams,’ more than three years old. “The third section consisted of ewes belonging to the shepherds, ‘ which are in general stronger THE LAW OF SEX. 255 and better fed than those of the master, because their owners are not always particular in prevent- ing them from trespassing on the cultivated lands that are not inclosed.’ These ewes were served by the same rams as section two. Males. Females. The first section gave . 15 25 “ second “ “ 26 14 “ third “ “ . 10 12 “In the first section were two twin-births—four females. In the second and third there were also two—three males and one female. “ These experiments were considered almost con- clusive ; but it will be observed that the results are not more remarkable for the range of variations presented in the relative numbers of each sex than were obtained in my experience in different years with animals under the same management. “The number of animals under observation in these experiments is too small to give the results any value as a basis of generalization, and the same objection may be made to the cases collected by Hofacker and Sadler, which we quote from Carpenter. “‘The following table expresses the average results obtained by M. Hofacker in Germany, and by M. Sadler in Britain, between which it will be seen that there is a manifest correspondence, although both were drawn from a too limited series of observations. The numbers indicate the 256 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. proportion of male births to a hundred females, under the several conditions mentioned in the first column Hofacker. Father younger than mother . . . 90'6 “ and mother of equal age . . 90 "0 “ older by 1 to 6 years . . . 103 "4 “ “ “ 6 “ 9 “ . . . 124.7 “ “ “ 9 “ 18 “ . . . 143-7 “ “ “ 18 and more . . . 200 "0 Sadler. Father younger than mother . . . 88-5 “ and mother of equal age . . 94"8 “ older by 1 to 6 years . . . 103-7 “ “ “ 6 “ 11 “ . . . 126-7 “ “ “ 11 “18 “ . . . 147-7 “ “ “ 16 and more . . . 163"2 ‘“From the statistics recorded in the peerages and baronetages of the United Kingdom, the pro- portion of male to a hundred female births is stated by Napier to be as below.’ 390 parents of equal age 91 '8 276 fathers 1 year older than mothers . . . 101 '3 312 “ 2-3 years older than mothers . . . 101 "8 211 “ 4- 6 “ “ “ “ . 108-0 200 “ 6-10 “ “ “ “ . 130-1 158 “ 10-16 “ “ “ “ . 144-3 120 “ 17-25 “ “ “ “ . 189-7 80 “ 26-32 “ “ “* “ . . . . 125-6 45 “ 33-40 “ “ “ “ . 112-6 18 “ 40-50 “ “ “ (mother under 25) 115*4 13 “ 40-50 “ “ “ “ over 25) 91 6 THE LAW OF SEX. 257 MOTHERS OLDER THAN FATHERS. 88 mothers from 1-3 years older 94 3 77 “ “ 3- 5 “ “ 88-8 66 “ “ 5-10 “ “ 771 43 “ “ 10-15 “ “ 60-6 17 “ “ 15-22 “ “ 48-3 This theory receives confirmation, also, from the facts which are disclosed by a study of the subject of Inheritance. Fathers transmit more to their sons than to their daughters, and mothers more to their daughters than to their sons. Is the woman- ly form, with broader hips, narrower shoulders, greater beauty, and all those pecularities which constitute the female, inherited from the father ? Is the greater physical strength, the broader shoul- ders, narrower hips, larger muscles and brain, and all those traits which go to make up the male, in- herited from the mother ? Mr. Darwin devotes some space to this subject in his work on Animals and Plants under Domestication, from which we extract a few paragraphs : “Dr. P. Lucas, who has collected many facts on this subject, shows that when a peculiarity, in no manner connected with the reproductive organs, appears in either parent, it is often transmitted exclusively to the offspring of the same sex, or to a much greater number of them than of the oppo- site sex. Thus, in the family of Lambert, the horn- like projections on the skin were transmitted from the father to his sons and grandsons alone; so it 258 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. has been with other cases of ichthyosis, with super- numerary digits, with a deficiency of digits and phalanges, and in a lesser degree with various diseases, especially with color-blindness, and a hemorrhagic diathesis, that is, an extreme liability to profuse and uncontrollable bleeding from trifling wounds. On the other hand, mothers have trans- mitted, during several generations, to their daugh- ters alone, supernumerary and deficient digits, color-blindness, and other peculiarities. So that we see that the very same peculiarity may become at- tached to either sex, and be long inherited by that sex alone; but the attachment in certain cases is much more frequent to one than the other sex. The same peculiarities, also, may be promiscuously transmitted to either sex. Dr. Lucas gives other cases, showing that the male occasionally transmits his peculiarities to his daughters alone, and the mother to her sons alone ; but even in this case we see that inheritance is, to a certain extent, though inversely, regulated by sex. Dr. Lucas, after weighing the whole evidence, comes to the con- clusion that every peculiarity, according to the sex in which it first appears, tends to be transmitted in a greater or lesser degree to that sex. “A few details from the many cases collected by Mr. Sedgwick, may be here given. Color-blindness, from some unknown cause, shows itself much oftener in males than in females ; in upwards of two hundred cases collected by Mr. Sedgwick, nine- THE LAW OF SEX. 259 tenths related to men ; but it is eminently liable to be transmitted through women. In the case given by Dr. Earle, members of eight related families were affected during five generations : these fami- lies consisted of sixty-one individuals, namely, of thirty-two males, of whom nine-sixteenths were incapable of distinguishing color, and of twenty- nine females, of whom only one-fifteenth were thus affected. Although color-blindness thus generally clings to the male sex, nevertheless, in one instance, in which it first appeared in a female, it was trans- mitted during five generations to thirteen indi- viduals, all of whom were females. A hemorrhagic diathesis, often accompanied by rheumatism, has been known to affect the males alone during five generations, being transmitted, however, through the females. It is said that deficient phalanges in the fingers have been inherited by the females alone during ten generations. In another case, a man thus deficient in both hands and feet, transmitted the peculiarity to his two sons and one daughter; but in the third generation, out of nineteen grand- children, twelve sons had. the family defect, whilst the seven daughters were free. In ordinary cases of sexual limitation, the sons or daughters inherit the peculiarity, whatever it may be, from their father or mother, and transmit it to their children of the same sex; but generally with the hemor- rhagic diathesis, and often with color-blindness, and in some other cases, the sons never inherit the 260 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. peculiarity directly from tlieir fathers, hut the daughters, and the daughters alone, transmit the latent tendency, so that the sons of the daughters alone exhibit it. Thus, the father, grandson, and great-great-grandson will exhibit a peculiarity— the grandmother, daughter, and great-granddaugh- ter having transmitted it in a latent state. Hence we have, as Mr. Sedgwick remarks, a double kind of atavism or reversion ; each grandson apparently receiving and developing the peculiarity from his grandfather, and each daughter apparently receiv- ing the latent tendency from her grandmother. “From the various facts recorded by Dr. Prosper Lucas, Mr. Sedgwick and others, there can be no doubt that peculiarities first appearing in either sex, though not in any way necessarily or invari- ably connected with that sex, strongly tend to be inherited by the offspring of the same sex, Tbut are often transmitted in a latent state through the opposite sex. “ Turning now to domesticated animals, we find that certain characters not proper to the parent- species, are often confined to, and inherited by, one sex alone; but we do not know the history of the first appearance of such characters. In the chapter on Sheep, we have seen that the males of certain races differ greatly from the females in the shape of their horns, these being absent in the ewes of some breeds, in the development of fat in the tail in certain fat-tailed breeds, and in the out- THE law of sex. 261 line of the forehead. These differences, judging from the character of the allied wild species; cannot be accounted for by supposing that they have been derived from distinct parent-forms. There is, also, a great difference between the horns of the two sexes in one Indian breed of goats. The bull zebu is said to have a larger hump than the cow. In the Scotch deer-hound the two sexes differ in size more than in any other variety of the dog, and, judging from analogy, more than in the aboriginal parent- species. The peculiar color called tortoise-shell is very rarely seen in a male cat; the males of this variety being of a rusty tint. A tendency to bald- ness in man before the advent of old age is certainly inherited; and, in the European, or at least in the Englishman, is an attribute of the male sex, and may almost be ranked as an incipient secondary sexual character.” Inheritance Transferred to the Opposite Sex. —It is not to be denied that fathers transmit many qualities and peculiarities to their daughters, and mothers to their sons. An interesting and un- published case of this is shown in the decendents of the Wadsworth family, of Mantua, Ohio. The father was born in Connecticut about the year 1800. He was badly deformed, being hare-lipped and both his hands and feet were defective. The three fingers between the thumb and little finger on each hand, including the whole palm of the hand that 262 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. belonged, to these fingers, were wanting. The same defect was found in the feet. The conse- quence was that the thumb and little finger on the hands, and the large and small toes on the feet, approached each other, but they were not attached by adhesion. This man married a woman not de- formed, and had three children—Seth, William and a daughter, which did not live. The boys grew up to manhood. Seth’s hands and feet were somewhat different from the father’s. He had double fingers on each hand. The feet had a large and small toe spread apart so that it required a shoe six inches broad, but the middle of the foot, including three toes on each foot was absent. This son married, but left no children. William, the younger son, was deformed nearly the same as his father in both hands and feet, and he was also hare-lipped. He married, and had five children. The oldest is a son, and is not deformed. He resembles his mother in feature and complexion. The second child, a daughter, was deformed like the father, only worse, and lived but a few months. The third child, a daughter, is deformed in the hands and feet like the father. The fourth child a daughter, is not deformed. The fifth one, also a daughter, was de- formed in its hands and feet, and the mouth was still worse than its father’s. Here we have in the first instance two sons and a daughter inheriting the father’s deformities, and in the second case, the children of William, five chil THE LAW OF SEX. dren—one son and one daughter not deformed, and three daughters inheriting their father’s physical defects. Cases of this kind seem to cast doubt on the theory that the father transmits his own sex and the mother hers, and that the question is decided by preponderating force stored up in the germ and sperm elements which go to make the embryo. But we know when two forces meet to form a third, the latter has characteristics from each of the first, and this is necessarily the case in offspring, the result of sexual generation. It may be asked, are the two elements so unlike as to be considered two forces ? I answer, Yes. The female element is larger, and its predominent tendency is to develop nutritively. The sperm element is quite different. It is small, formed by the division of certain cells in the male organs, and has a tendency of develop- ment unfavorable to nutrition. The female element favors cell-growth; the male element cell-division. From this fact, is it not fair to infer that the female sex is determined by the relative predominance of nutrition or cell-growth, over the conditions of cell- division, and that this must depend on the relative amount of each element comprising the embryo at the stage of impregnation. Can Sex be Produced at Will.—If the law of sex be known, can it be applied ? This is the first question which will naturally be suggested to every one. We must not be too enthusiastic in this mat- 264 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. ter; if we are, we shall be disappointed. Still, may not something be done ? But, in the first place, does not nature manage this matter better than man can. Yet there may be times, however, when it will be desirable to control the sex in animals and in man. If it be true that the matter is decided by the preponderance of the germ or sperm element, then we may be asked can this be done without injury to the offspring. If we make the environment of the female unfavorable and of the male favorable, we may do her and the offspring harm, and vice versa. We must not do this. In the present con- dition of our knowledge, we have but one resource left, and that is as far as we can to control the time of impregnation. While the facts collected from experiments on this point are conflicting, the weight of testimony goes to show that an early impregnation favors the development of females; and a late impregnation the development of males. “ Starting from this idea, and supposing that the complete maturity of an ovum might he very favor- able to the production of the male sex, and inversely, M. Thury, of Geneva, caused cows to be impreg- nated, sometimes at the beginning, sometimes at the end of the rutting period. In the first case he obtained female calves ; in the second, male calves. The experiment was repeated by a Swiss agricul- turist, M. Cornaz, who twenty-nine times in twenty-nine cases, succeeded in producing at will such or such a sex.” Experiments on the effect of THE LAW OF SEX. late fertilization of the eggs of birds had previously been made by Knight, “which,” he states, “ to have been frequently repeated,” and which gave similar results. “ When the female was kept with- out intercourse with the male up to nearly the time for laying, so that the eggs had advanced very far in their development at the time of fertilization, the proportion of males among the offspring was very large, commonly about six out of seven.” The Explanation.—There are two theories by which to explain the fact that an early impregna- tion favors the production of females, and a late impregnation the production of males. One is simple and easily understood. It is, that if the impregnation is very soon after the ovum is matured, it is far up in the Fallopian tubes, and consequently a less number of spermotozoa reach it. The result will be that the germ element will be most likely to prevail and the offspring be a female. On the other hand, if the impregnation takes place at a later period, the ovum will be farther down, and consequently more spermotazoa will be capable of reaching it, and the probability will be that the sperm element will preponderate, and a male be the result. The other explanation is more complex, and has its foundation in microscopical and embryological studies and the changes that go on in the ovum before and after impregnation takes place. It was SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. previously stated that the germ or ovum and the sperm or male element have two very different tendencies. Mature germs result from the extra- ordinary growth, without division, of certain primitive germinal cells of the ovary, by the aid of the smaller cells by which they are surrounded. In animals, the sperm elements are formed by an entirely opposite process, or the division or break- ing up of the male germinal cells. The tendency of the one is to develop in size, and, consequently, the eggs of all animals are larger than the sperm elements of the male. In the germ cells, growth without division predominates; in the sperm cells, division without growth predominates. But the germ element has another property, that of segmen- tation, which may take place before impregnation. Now, if impregnation occurs very early, and before the segmentation is fairly begun, the ovum has greater power to transform the sperm and develop it after its own kind. There is a relative preponder- ance of cell growth and a deficiency of cell division. If the impregnation is delayed, exactly the reverse happens; the male pronucleus, so-called, never be- comes so large; but its tendency to develop after the manner of the sperm by rapid division, is greater, and so a male is the result. Recent investigations have shown that the act of impregnation consists in the formation of a male pronucleus, derived from the impregnating sperm-cell, which fuses with the female pronu- THE LAW OF SEX. cleus of the germ-cell to constitute the single nucleus of the fertile ovum. And Hertwig points out, “that considerable difference may be observed in the occurrences which succeed impregnation, according to the relative period at which this takes place. When, in Asterias, the impregnation is effected about an hour after the egg is laid, and previously to the formation of the polar-cells, the male pronucleus appears at first to exert but little influence on the protoplasm, but after the formation of the second polar-cell the radial striae around it become very marked, and the pronucleus rapidly grows in size. When it finally unites with the fe- male pronucleus it is equal to the latter in size. In cases where impregnation is deferred for four hours, the male pronucleus never becomes so large as the female pronucleus. With reference to the effect of the time at which impregnation takes place, Asterias would seem to serve as a type. Girou found that if the female flowers of dioecious plants be fertilized as soon as they are fit to receive the pollen, the seed resulting produced mainly female plants; and that if the fertilization be deferred to as late period as possible, the seeds resulting produce mainly male plants. CHAPTER XIII. EFFECT OF PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION ON THE FEMALE. One of the most wonderful phenomena of genera- tion is the effect of one impregnation of the female on the offspring by succeeding males. This has been observed in animals and plants, and the law is known to extend to man also. A few facts will make the matter clear. Mr. George T. Allman, of Tennessee, bred a bay mare, with black points, to Watson, a son of Lex- ington, who is a golden chestnut, having a large star, and both hind and near front ankles white. After dropping her foal he bred the same mare to his saddle-stallion, Prince Pulaski, a very dark chestnut, with no white save a very small star; this produce was a fac simile of Watson in every particular. Alexander Morrison, Esq., of Bognie, had a very fine Clydesdale mare which, in 1843, was served by a Spanish ass and produced a mule. She afterward had a colt by a horse, which bore a very marked 270 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. likeness to a mule; seen at a distance, every one set it down as a mule. The ears were nine and a half inches long, the girth not quite six feet, and he stood above sixteen hands high. The hoofs were so long and narrow that there was difficulty in shoeing them, and the tail was thin and scanty. He was a beast of indomitable energy and dura- bility, and was highly prized by his owner. A similar case is recorded by Dr. Burgess, of Ded- ham, Massachusetts, who says, “ From a mare which had once been served by a jack, I have seen a colt so long-eared, sharp-backed and rat-tailed that I stopped a second time to see if he were not a mule.” Dr. H. B. Shank, of Lansing, Michigan, informed Dr. Miles that a mare belonging to himself having produced a mule, was afterward bred to a Morgan stallion with remarkably fine ears ; the ears of the colt were large and coarse, presenting a close re- semblance to those of a mule. A second colt pro- duced by the mare to the same stallion had the head and ears of its sire. A pure Aberdeenshire heifer was served with a pure Teeswater bull, by which she had a first-cross calf. The following season the same cow was served with a pure Aberdeenshire bull; the produce was a cross-calf, which, when two years old, had very long horns, the parents being both polled. A small flock of ewes belonging to Dr. W. Wells, in the island of Grenada, -were served by a ram pro- EFFECT OF PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 271 cured for the purpose ; the ewes were all white and woolly, the ram being quite different, of a chocolate color, and hairy, like a goat. The progeny were, of course, crosses, but bore a strong resemblance to the male parent. The next season Dr. Wells obtained a ram of precisely the same breed as the ewes, but the progeny showed distinct marks of resemblance to the former ram in color and covering. Mr. Darwin cites the following case from the “Philosophical Transactions,” 1821: “Mr. Giles put a sow of Lord Western’s black-and-tan Essex breed to a wild boar of a deep chestnut color, and the pigs partook in appearance of both boar and sow, but in some the chestnut color of the boar strongly prevailed. After this boar had long been dead the sow was put to a boar of her own black-and-white breed—a kind which is well known to breed very true, and never to show any chestnut color; yet from this union the sow produced some young pigs which were plainly marked with the same chestnut tint as in the first litter.” Dr. Miles writes: “In July, 1877, in company with my friend Dr. H. B. Shank, of Lansing, Mich- igan, I visited the farm of Mr. A. N. Gillett, in the town of Delta, Ingham County, where we saw a litter of pigs out of a pure Berkshire sow, and got by a pure Berkshire boar. “More than one-half of the pigs were apparently Poland-China in the form of tfhe head, and their 272 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. bodies were spotted with sandy-white. We were informed by Mr. Gillett that the preceding year the dam of these pigs had produced a litter of pigs, by a Poland-China boar, that were marked in the same manner with sandy-white spots. The sow was bred under my direction, at the Michigan Agricultural College, three years ago, and the stock from which she had descended had not shown any variations from the pure Berkshire type.” Mr. Darwin, on the authority of Dr. Bowerbank, gives the following striking case: “A black, hair- less, Barbary bitch was first impregnated by a mongrel spaniel, with long brown hair, and she produced five puppies, three of which were hairless and two covered with short brown hair. The next time she was put to a full black, hairless, Barbary dog; but the mischief had been implanted in the mother, and again about half the litter looked like pure Barbarys, and the other half like the short- haired progeny of the first father.” Professor Agassiz states that he had ‘‘experi- mented with a Newfoundland bitch by coupling her with a water-dog, and the progeny were partly water-dog, partly Newfoundland, and the remain- der a mixture of both. Future connections of the same bitch with a greyhound produced a similar litter, with hardly -a trace of the greyhound. He had bred rabbits with the laws established by this experiment, and at last had so impregnated a white rabbit with the gray rabbit that connection of this EFFECT OF PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 273 white rabbit with a black male invariably produced gray.” A celebrated breeder of short-horns, of my ac- quaintance, bred the females of a light-colored fam- ily to a red bull, and afterward to a bull of their own family; he succeeded, in this manner, in pro- ducing the desired shades of color in the offspring of the light-colored females. The same influence has been observed in the hu- man family. A woman may have, by a second husband, children who resemble a former husband, and this is particularly well marked in certain in- stances by the color of the hair and eyes. A white woman who has had children by a negro may subsequently bear children to a white man, these children presenting some of the unmistakable peculiarities of the negro race. In a lecture, in speaking of the influence of a pre- vious impregnation upon offspring at a later period, Agassiz said: “It therefore shows what I have satisfied myself to be the truth among other ani- mals, by numerous experiments; that the act of fecundation is not an act which is limited in its effect, but that it is an act which affects the whole system, the sexual system especially, and in the sexual system the ovary to be impregnated here- after is so modified by the first act that later im- pregnations do not efface that first impression.” Mr. Darwin cites a number of instances in the vegetable kingdom to show the “direct action of 274 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. the male element on the mother-form,” and he comes to the conclusion that “the male element not only affects, in accordance with its proper function, the germ, but the surrounding tissues of the mother-plant.” After citing some of the cases that have already been presented of the influence upon offspring of a previous impregnation of the mother, Mr. Dar- win says: “ The analogy from the direct action of foreign pollen on the ovarium and seed-coats of the mother-plant strongly supports the belief that the male element acts directly on the reproductive or- gans of the female, wonderful as is this action, and not through the intervention of the crossed embryo.” It hardly seems necessary to give further illus- trations on this subject. In answering the ques- tion why this is so, we are met by difficulties which only future study can clear up. The theories ad- vanced by Agassiz and Darwin, which are really the same, may, perhaps, be accepted for the present. Dr. Manly Miles, in “Principles of Stock-breed- ing,” says: “ It was formerly claimed that the peculiar influence of the male was limited to the first impregnation of the female only, but there is good reason to believe that every impregnation may leave its impress upon partly-developed germs, and be thus transmitted with the characters of a subsequent fecundation. “The intensity of the influence of the male may EFFECT OF PREVIOUS IMPREGNATION. 275 be impaired by an excessive use of the procreative organs; it has been observed in fowls that when the male is “over-mated” the eggs are sometimes imperfectly impregnated.” Thus do we find that the subject of generation is full of mysteries; and this is partly to be accounted for by the fact that it has been, and still is, to some extent, a subject given over too much to sensuality, and too little to science. As we tread on this almost new world, let us be reverent and thoughtful, and let not unholy thoughts fill our minds to the ex- clusion of deeper truths. CHAPTER XIV. REGULATION OF THE NUMBER OF OFFSPRING. “Woman’s Eights.”—No truth is more self-evi- dent, no rule of right more plain, no law of Nature more demonstrable, than the right of a woman to her own person. Nor can this right be alienated by marriage. “Life, liberty, and the pursuit of happiness,” and also health—without which life and liberty are of little account, and the pursuit of happiness impossible—are God-given prerogatives, and inhere in the person; and all statutes, cere- monies, creeds, institutions or usages which in any respect contravene the fundamental law of absolute personal freedom, in all the relations of life, are in derogation of the laws of Nature, and in oppo- sition to the best good of the human family. The great want of the age, of humanity—the great need of man as well as of woman—is the recognition of woman’s equality. Would it not excite the just indignation of a man to be told by any person, even though that person were his “lawful wedded” wife, that he must beget children when he did not 278 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. desire them ? or that he must submit to the sexual excitement when ill or otherwise employed ? Cer- tainly he would never submit to such tyranny, nor should he. And why should woman ? It ought to be understood by all men and women that the sex- ual embrace, when either party is averse to it— when both parties are not inclined to it—is wrong. And whether the consequences are sexual diseases of one or both parties, or personal alienation, or depraved offspring, or all, there is no possible es- cape from the penalties. A more pernicious doctrine was never taught than that of absolution from the penalties of our misdeeds. Causes and consequences are as unalter- ably related in the organic as in the inorganic world. Nature punishes always, and pardons never, when her laws are violated or disregarded. In the vital domain, as in the moral, “no good deed is ever lost,” nor any wrong act performed without evil effects. When this great primary truth is recognized in practice; when it is taught in our schools and exemplified in our lives, we shall have the true basis on which to prosecute our physio- logical redemption. “Cease to do evil” is the first and greatest lesson to be learned. This is emphatic- ally true as applied to the sexual relations, for the reason that the organic laws are more disregarded in these relations than in any other. And this dis obedience, with its train of untold miseries and its wide-spread sensuality and degradation, is, like- OFFSPRING. 279 other evils, attributable mainly to ignorance; peo- ple are ignorant on this subject because they have not studied it at all, or have studied it from the wrong stand-point. Woman’s equality in all the relations of life implies her equality in the sexual relation. It is for her to nourish and sustain the new being; it is her health and life that are directly imperiled by bearing children when she is unfitted and unwilling for the sacred office; it is her happi- ness that is more especially destroyed when forced to bring into the world sickly and deformed chil- dren, who can be nothing but a torment to them- selves, of no use to the world, and nothing but a shame to their parents. In the sensuous world around us, habit and feel- ing rule in the matter of sexual intercourse as much as they do in the matter of eating or drinking or dressing. The why or wherefore is never thought of, and in dietetic habits the masses of people follow no law except that of perverted appetency. They eat and drink to gratify alimentiveness, regardless of all physiological considerations, and without knowing or thinking whether their appetites are normal or morbid, or whether the food is whole- some or not. And as no propensity is more abused and abnor- mal, as the world is now constituted, than that of amativeness, and as sexual intercourse has become in married life, with most persons, a habit, to be indulged whenever the man feels the inclination, 280 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. it follows that woman must be degraded to a mere machine in all that pertains to her highest interest and holiest aspirations. In the animal kingdom the female does exercise her supremacy in this respect. No male animal offers violence to the female; but when she is in proper condition for his embrace, and desires it, she solicits it, and he invariably responds. So it should be; so it is in the order of Nature with man and woman; and when her supremacy is fully recog- nized, there will soon be an end of stillbirths, and of frail and malformed offspring who can seldom be reared to adult age, or if they can, are only curses to themselves and to the world. It may be objected, that to leave this great and important question of having children entirely with woman would endanger the extinction of the race. Such an objection implies little knowledge of wo- man and less of Nature. The desire for offspring, with all women who are in normal conditions, is the strongest of their natures. It is all-absorbing, all-controlling. It is only in diseased conditions that the pains and perils of childbirth and the cares of maternity are dreaded. It is well understood by physicians that the health of a majority of women in civilized society is seriously impaired and their lives greatly abbreviated by too frequent pregnan- cies. Thousands are brought to their graves in five, ten or fifteen years after marriage, and rendered miserable while they do live, for this reason. And OFFSPRING. 281 so general lias this conviction become, that women all over the civilized world, and in all classes of society, are more and more resorting to numerous expedients, more or less injurious, to prevent preg- nancy or produce abortion. Nor does it avail for the moralist to declaim against the practice as wicked. All laws are equally sacred in the sight of the Lawgiver, and woman’s instincts can recognize no higher law (whatever she may assent to intel- lectually) than that of self-preservation, and no duty greater than that of bringing into the world children of sound and vigorous constitutions, or none at all. Restore woman to health, and give her what God has ordained as her birthright—the control of her own person—and the trade of the abortionist will soon cease; but until then not only will the abor- tionist flourish, but the larger race of empirics in every city, who sell useless or injurious specifics for the prevention of pregnancy, will drive a profit- able trade. The Science op Propagation.—Certain modern writers have suggested the idea that, as the propa- gation of human beings, like that of animals, is governed by laws which can be understood and in- fluenced by conditions within human control, the subject ought to be studied as an “ exact science,” and its principles applied as a “true art.” Why not ? This subject has been studied as a science 282 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. and practiced as an art for centuries—in fact, more or less in all ages—as applied to domestic animals and plants; indeed, as applied to all living things with which man has to deal, with the single excep- tion of his own offspring. What intelligent breeder would be willing to have his cattle begotten, born and bred under cir- cumstances as unphysiological as are his children ? The art of raising domestic animals—horses, cattle, sheep and even swine—has attained a great degree of perfection. The success which has attended this art is due to the recognition of certain principles in physiology which constitute the theory of the sci- ence. The laws of life, the conditions of health, and the rules for normal, development are precisely the same in all living organisms. Certainly it is of as much more importance that they should be recognized and applied, in relation to the propaga- tion of human beings, as human beings are more important than animals. But it happens, unfortunately, that while the whole subject is most assiduously investigated in relation to the animal kingdom, and, to a great ex- tent, the vegetable kingdom also, it is too much ignored in its application to human beings. The subject is not alluded to in our text-books on Physi- ology ; it is not taught in medical schools; it has no place in the current medical literature of the world ; it is too rarely mentioned in the family cir- cle ; the good minister never hints at it, and, with OFFSPRING. 283 the exception of a few of the more progressive of Sanitarians, nobody tries to disturb the unthinking tranquility of the public mind. Yet it lies at the foundation of all human improvement and all enduring progress, and is intrinsically the most important problem that can occupy the human mind. Since the publication of thq first edition of this work, Dr. M. L. Holbrook has published a most exhaustive work, entitled, “ Marriage and Parent- age,” in which every branch of the subject has received calm, wise and judicious consideration. Every unmarried person and every parent should read it.* Sound Germs and a Sound Progeny.—I cannot help, in connection with this subject, making an extract from a address delivered by the Hon. George F. Talbot: “Inveterate habits, rooted social, ethical and religious ideas, fenced in by passionate prejudices, time-honored customs, and hardly repealable laws, insure for the caprices and dominant appetites of men such a scope as leaves the result of their oper- ations their hap-hazard chances of good or evil fortune. We imprison the thief and we point the fixed finger of shame at the prostitute; but, when * Marriage and Parentage, and the Sanitary and Physio- logical Laws for the Production of Children of Finer Health and Ability. Price $1.00. New York : M. L. Holbrook & Co. 284 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. they come together in the holy bonds of matrimony, the minister of religion pronounces it an ordinance of God, and society stands helpless before the teem- ing swarms of vicious progeny that are to be the fruit of such a marriage. “Nearly all the cases of insanity and alcoholism, the outbreak of which inflict such unspeakable suf- fering upon our domestic life, are due to hereditary taint. Is it too extravagant a hope to cherish that the time may come when increased intelligence and a more sensitive moral feeling will deter from marriage those who have inherited a scrofulous constitution, an uncontrollable appetite for alcohol, insanity, causeless and excessive melancholy, or liability to furious paroxysms of anger ? Is it past the ingenuity of man to insure that of such un- promising parentage the children of the future shall not be born ? “ But this is not enough. There are no absolutely healthy families. No blood is entirely pure. Go far enough back in the ancestry of the soundest of us, and you will find nearly all the ills, mental and physical, to which flesh is heir. Unless we can in- duce or compel the apparently sound whom we per- mit to marry to observe tlie laws of life in pro- creation, the weakness that will result will show itself in some reversion to a more or less ancient type of physical or moral disease. “Nature is willing to help, does help, man in his effort to better himself. That is to say—to state OFFSPRING. what seems to be one of the vital laws: Healthy parents who do not observe the most favorable con- ditions for procreation may produce healthy off- spring. Unhealthy parents, carefully observing the most favorable conditions for procreation, may produce healthy offspring. In the former case there will be sound children deriving vigor from parents in spite of slight violations of the laws of life. In the latter case there will be sound chil- dren, because the parents, though not themselves sound, carried forward their progeny one degree by carefully observing the laws of life. But, if only healthy parents produce the children of a peo- ple, and that, too, with a strict compliance with the conditions of procreation, the result will be a steady improvement in the quality of the human race, and the gradual breeding out of physical and moral corruption. “We keep up the average health, slightly im- prove it now, though the few healthy parents do not observe the laws of life, and though the parent- age is largely itself unhealthy, because half the human race perishes before it attains the age of ten years. That is to say, nature comes along and looks at our puny progeny, and, saying: ‘ Misbegotten things! ’ blots them out with diph- theria, scarlatina and cholera infantum. “In the earlier stages of human life, by ruthlessly destroying all the weaklings nature insured the in- creasing vigor of the human animal. When man SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. got his large brain, the most intelligent became more than a match for the most strong, and the best intellect had the best chance to survive. Now, at last, that our moral faculties are coming to dominate our intellectual, as these once dominated the physical, our very humanity and sympathy, the tenderness with which we cherish and try to cure and perpetuate not only the feeble-minded, but the vicious-hearted, will tend to arrest the evolution of humanity, unless an intelligent will takes the place of a blind force in insuring the sur- vival of the fittest.” Regulation of Births.—Continuing, the honor- able gentleman said: “ If we should give the races of rats access to all our stores of food, destroying our traps and whist- ling off the cats, and open to every rodent a career of unlimited bread and cheese for himself and his progeny, how long would it be before the rats would be in force to eat us ? “ The human animal has not powers of reproduc- tion to vie with the rats; and yet if mankind were relieved of their chronic apprehension of poverty, if an office and a salary awaited every child that was reared—especially if early marriages became a usage, as they inevitably would under such a society—the number of candidates would speedily exhaust all the places, and the great suplus army of men to be detailed to till the ground would soon OFFSPRING. raise such a surplus of food that it would not pay to harvest it. “See what checks restrain the prodigality of human reproduction. Few sensible men dare place themselves under obligations to support a family until there is a reasonable prospect of some just and honorable provision for its maintenance. If the consideration does not influence the passions of young men, it does influence the cooler judg- ment of young women; and it is sure to be con- sidered by parents and friends, whose influence is always potent. So that, as our business grows more complicated, and the chances of fortune more precarious, marriage gets postponed to the wise years when more and more find how much easier and wiser it is to forego it altogether. But, with all these checks, the contribution to population in nearly all civilized States seems to be in excess of the demands of nature, in excess of the means to provide for them by nearly one hundred per cent.; for what are these diseases of infancy that destroy half the human race before they are ten years old but Nature’s interference with redundant births ? What if we should find out how to isolate or de- stroy whooping-cough, measles and scarlatina ? What safeguard have we against new disorders that would take their place ? “ The human race will never attain the condition of health which is best defined in the terse language of Horace: a sound mind in a sound body, till it 288 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. has learned how to breed healthy children. We have interposed a wise control over the procreation of horses, cattle, swine, sheep. We have neither found how nor dared apply the same intelligence to the procreation of men. “When the best wisdom of the race, expressing and enforcing itself in a rational way, shall be able to stand at the entrance frontier of human life, and say who shall pass, it will have the key to open for mankind the better era, the good time coming of the popular thought, the Republic of which Plato speculated, the Utopia of Thomas More, the Arca- dia of Sir Philip Sidney, the Kingdom of Heaven of Jesus of Nazareth, the New Jerusalem coming down from heaven adorned as a bride for her hus- band of the Apocalyptic vision. With the abolition of poverty by keeping the numbers of the human race balanced to* the supply of the means of sub- sistence produced in greatest abundance and justly distributed, it will solve at the same time the problem of sickness and of crime by bringing in a progeny in whom the primeval taint of lust and passion, of insanity and sickness, has been reduced to its minimum. “It is necessary, however, to stipulate that for the accomplishment of his high destiny man needs the hope and patience of God. The world-bettering went on in those early ages, when there was no sympathetic heart of man to long for it, no helping- hand of man to aid it. If there be not at the heart OFFSPRING. 289 of tlie universe some principle or power of good, how vain are human toils, sacrifices and prayers! It is the faith of democracy that the good purpose we have found in the bosom of nature expresses itself also in the mind of man, the consummate product of Nature. “ The thing to do is to patiently bear the ills of our condition that are irremediable, and to con- tribute our brief strength to lessen or remove such as are the result of our ignorance or misdoing. Not by dynamite or the dagger, not by revolution or secession, not necessarily by forming a new party or propagating a new faith, but by watching the trend of things toward good, and by aiding wuth voice and vote the specific reform, that the apparently blind, but really guided impulse of the time has made opportune and feasible, shall we best bring nearer the poet’s dream ‘ of the highest, justest, happiest, and so most perfect, condition of human life on this planet.’ ” Children a Necessity to a Perfect Life.— The possession of healthy children is necessary to render life morally complete. I admit that there are many happy marriages which are not crowned by offspring; but they are not of the high- est order of happiness. I do not believe that the purpose of marriage is only, as is sometimes coarse- ly put, to continue the race. Husband and wife can be a great deal to each other, and can be very 290 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. happy indeed with one another, even apart from the existence of children. The partners of the wedded life should reciprocally supplement the de- fects of the one by the excellence of the other. should love one another always and wholly, what- ever feelings they may have for their children; should lift the duality of sex into a unity of a har- monious life. This is the first purpose of marriage. But it is the peculiar nature of these unities of human life that each opens into a larger unity. Thus, the life of the single man and woman enters into the dual life of matrimony, the life of the pair become one, open into the multiple life of the fam- ily, and this again will open and broaden into the vaster life of the community. And though the presence of children is not absolutely necessary, yet those whose marriage is not crowned by off- spring do, in so far, lead incomplete lives. Father- hood and motherhood are not only sacred names, but they imply new and sacred experiences; they impose new responsibilities ; they deepen the moral insight in a new direction; they bring into view whole ranges of spiritual facts unknown before. In Catholic countries one sometimes sees erected along the highways the so-called Stations of the Cross. At each Station the devout believer stops and prays, and tries to recall the peculiar suffering which this Station suggests. Each Station points to the succeeding one; and when he has passed through all, then the believer is made more perfect OFFSPRING. 291 in faith. So there are stations on the high road to perfection, stations not of suffering merely, but of mingled joy and pain—stations that open larger and ever larger fields of duty. The station of sin- gle existence is the first; the station of married life is the second; the station of the family life is the third; the professional, the national, the inter- national life come next; the life in the ideal com- monwealth of reason is the last. Through all these stations we must pass; the discipline of each we must receive; to the refining and expanding influ- ences of each we must subject our souls in order to reach the goal to which we are all tending—perfec- tion by the full development of the manliness and womanliness that is in us. Felix Adler, in one of his matchless discourses, says: “I have read, in my boyhood, of the pious ASneas, who bore his father, Anchises, on his stur- dy shoulders out of burning Troy. I never knew then why Yirgil persisted in calling him the pious JEneas. I see it now. Because the root of all piety that exists in the world is to be found in the filial relations. I read in my boyhood, in the legendary lore of the Talmud, the story of young Dama, to whom came one day the elders of Israel, to pur- chase some precious jewels which he alone pos- sessed, for the robe of the high priest. And as they offered him a fabulous price, far exceeding his ut- most expectations, he accepted their offer with de- light. But when they added the condition that the 292 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. jewels must be delivered at once, he became grave and silent, and declined to effect the sale. And when they pressed him to give his reason, he said at last, that his aged father was sleeping in the room in which the gems were stored, and not for all the treasures of Israel would he break his slum- bers. I read this week of a brave young fireman who was swept from a ladder near the fourth story of a burning building. Thrice he turned in the air, and as he reached the ground he was heard to ex- claim, ‘ Oh, my poor mother ! ’ And I have asked myself, is there any word in human speech by which we can express the depth and tenderness of filial love ? Reverence is one word, gratitude is another. Oh, but it is a peculiar gratitude which the child feels for its parent. Gratitude of the ordi- nary description seeks to return in kind what it has received; but the gratitude which children feel for their parents is marked by the fact that they can never hope to return what they have received; it is a longing which can never be satisfied; it implies the recognition of an endless indebtedness which we can never, never cancel. The conjugal rela- tions on the one hand, the parental and filial rela- tions on the other, stand out well-defined and con- spicuous above all other human relations. In them the tie of unity is the closest, and in proportion to the closeness of the unity is the sacredness of the relation. The true spouses recognize in each the entire counterpart of the other; the child recognizes OFFSPRING. 293 in its parents the founders of its entire existence, both physical and moral. “ Therefore, the names of father and mother are the holiest which human lips can pronounce; there- fore, our endless indebtedness to them does not lie like a load upon our souls, but rather like a blessed influence, chastening and exalting us. Therefore, even after years and years have elapsed, and we have long been separated from the home of our childhood, even after we have grown gray and weary in the struggle, our thoughts still go back with ineffable reverence and love to the father who guarded our first timid steps on the thorny path- way of life, to the sweet mother who cared for us as no one ever will care again.” The Number of Children.—The number of chil- dren required to fill up the life of a parent in all its completeness, is not a matter requiring much discussion. Many are satisfied with a single one, but it seems to me this is not enough. Happy in- deed may be the parents of one noble boy or girl; happier still if there are one of each. And if there are more, strong and healthy, there certainly can be no objection. It is the rearing of feeble, imperfect children that is to be deprecated—children who cannot receive good constitutions and a good start in life. Best Time for Parentage.—There are many 294 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. married couples who delay parentage till they are more favorably situated. Sometimes there may be wisdom in this; but the most suitable age is when the physical and mental powers are at their best; if parentage is delayed beyond this time the off- spring will be less favorably endowed. CHAPTER XY. THE LAW OF SEXUAL INTERCOURSE. The Primary Question.—In considering the sub- ject to which this chapter will be devoted, the first important question to settle is the object of sexual intercourse—what does Nature intend to accom- plish by it ? So far as the animal kingdom, or the lower animals, as some prefer to term the brute creation, is concerned, the problem presents no difficulty. To propagate the species is the whole of it. With all animals sexual intercourse is a mere generative act. But is it so with man ? This is a question that will be, must be, and should be in- vestigated ; for, whatever is the law established in the constitution of human beings, it is for their highest good to understand and obey it. There are those who, reasoning from the premises that vital laws are essentially the same in all living organism, have arrived at the conclusion that what- ever is the law of sexual intercourse in relation to animals must also apply to human beings. So far as the individual functions are concerned, and, in- 296 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. deed, so far as all of the vital functions merely are concerned, this conclusion is incontrovertible; but in applying it to human beings we cannot ig- nore its moral and religious bearings. Hence, others who have examined the subject with an equally truth-seeking spirit, have come to the opin- ion that sexual intercourse is, with human beings, intended as a love act as well a generative act. The question has fairly two sides; and the data which apply to its solution are extremely difficult to be found, because of the abnormal habits and perverted instincts of nearly the whole family of mankind. Whatever views may be entertained with regard to the philosophy of the theory of population, all physiologists will doubtless agree that, in a higher and better condition of society, the number of chil- dren born will be diminished, while their quality will be correspondingly improved. It is equally evident, also, that when the physiology of menstru- ation is perfectly understood, including the knowl- edge of the times when the woman is or is not lia- ble to impregnation, a single act of coition will suffice to beget a single child; and that, therefore, on the theory that sexual intercourse is intended by Nature merely for the purpose of reproduction, it follows that the acts of intercourse should be limited to the number of offspring. Such is the legitimate result of the theory carried to its ulti- matum. That we shall eventually, if not soon, LAW OP INTERCOURSE. arrive at this knowledge is not only possible but probable. With regard to domestic animals whose sexual instincts are less depraved, our knowledge on this subject is well-nigh perfect—certainly suf- ficient for all practical purposes. It rarely hap- pens that the breeders of domestic animals do not know when to bring the sexes together for fruitful coition. But, admitting that we should never make any further advancement in knowledge with regard to the time and conditions for fruitful coition, and that women continue to the end of the world to have as many children as heretofore, on the theory that sexual intercourse has normally no purpose or ob- ject except to fecundate the ovum, the exercise of the sexual organs of the male would be, compared with present customs, extremely limited. Preg- nancy very frequently results from the first sexual embrace with married couples, and sometimes in the case of those who are not married. Of course there should be, in these cases, no repetition of the sexual act until after the periods of gestation and lactation are completed—nearly two years from the date of conception—and then again a single coitus might result in another pregnancy, and so on. No doubt such a doctrine, or rather such a practice, would be abhorent to the majority of people, who have been educated to regard it more in the light of a lust indulgence than of love. Whether human beings would be satisfied with, 298 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. or submit to a life of such continence and utili- tarianism, is not here to be discussed. If the prin- ciple is true it should be taught, let human beings do what they will. We cannot refer the decision of this question to the desires of the human instincts or propensities, as we can with regard to animals, for the reason that those instincts are depraved and perverted, while these are normal. I have no doubt that, in a perfectly normal condition, the instincts of human beings, the sexual propensity not excepted, are infallible guides, just as they are with unperverted animals. The greater includes the less. Man has all the instincts of all the creatures below him with other powers superadded. And if he were in all respects possessed of “a sound mind in a sound body,” he would never desire sexual intercourse, more than he would food or drink, except when it was best both for himself and the woman to whose desire he would respond. But as we have no such persons to serve as models of what men should be, we must do the best we can with such data as the disordered world affords us. Animals are not voluntarily progressive. They do improve from generation to generation, not of their own accord, but by a law of nature which promotes the survival of the fittest. Human beings are progressive. They are ever altering, (sometimes for the worse, perhaps), chang- ing, the object being to improve and perfect; this LAW OF INTERCOURSE. 299 object obviously implies society, traffic, schools, moral culture, religious influences and provision for the future; all of these necessitate the family relation; the family relation implies one man and one woman as its source and head. Man, by looking forward to an eternity of exist- ence, provides the means which are to benefit him- self or his successors for generations, centuries and ages to come. In a great measure he controls the elements. To a great extent he is superior to cir- cumstances. And while spring time and harvest enable him to lay up stores of food from the well- tilled earth, the winter season affords him the best opportunity for moral and intellectual culture; and, by means of houses rendered comfortable at all seasons, his sexual desires and relations seem to be placed on a very different plane from those of the animal kingdom. There can be no question that the most perfect organization of the offspring requires the most complete commingling of elements, or magnetism, or whatever else the parents impart or contribute in the sexual embrace, and that there should be the most perfect harmony and enjoyment with each other. They should be as much at-one-ment as pos- sible, so that, at the moment of conferring life upon a new being, each should almost lose, in the intensity of pleasurable sensation, the conscious- ness of individual or independent existence. I can- not understand how this condition can be so well 300 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. acquired and maintained as by temperate sexual indulgence, even when offspring are not desirable nor proper. But what is temperate indulgence may not be so easily determined. The Social Vice.—Between love and lust it may not always be easy to draw the line of demark- ation. It would not be difficult to give those who need none a rule for sexual indulgence. They, be- ing in a normal condition, are a law unto them- selves. They may safely follow their inclinations in this respect as in all others. But with the great masses of the people the only rule of conduct is appetite, and this is to a great extent morbid. Hence, sexual intercourse, in the homes of the mar- ried and respectable, as well as in the dens of pros- titution, is indulged in more to appease a morbid craving than to gratify a normal instinct, as glut- tony, tobacco and alcoholic liquors are indulged more to stifle for the moment an insatiate and in- tolerable irritation, than for any pleasure or grati- fication resulting from them. The fearful and increasing prevalence of “The Social Vice,” especially in all large cities of the world, is one of the problems whose existence our philanthropists deplore, while they see no way to deal with it practically. It has recently been pro- posed that, as the evil cannot be removed, it should be mitigated and regulated by the license system as it is in Paris; and one of our leading city dailies LAW OF INTERCOURSE. 301 lately suggested the same plan to apply to the city of Washington. It has too long been the custom of statesmen, when they find it difficult to suppress evils, to make a compromise with conscience, and derive a revenue by “regulating” them. The re- sult has always been a temporary alleviation of some of the evils resulting from the unlicensed vice, while fastening the licensed vice more firmly on society. This has been the case with the liquor traffic and the tobacco trade, and may be with the traffic in character and chastity. In all of these cases the remedy lies further back. It should be directed to the causes rather than to the effects. If young women were allowed equal opportunities with young men for education and occupation, one-half of the sum total of the causes of prostitution would be removed at once; and if the young of both sexes were educated and trained hygienically—taught to eat, drink, dress and exer- cise properly—the remaining moiety would be very nearly done away. It is possible to educate peo- ple into sensuality or the reverse. Feed men on highly spiced foods, give them wine and beer as drinks, and sensuality will increase. Feed them on natural, plain, rich, nutritious, but unstimulating food, and give all culture and enough to do, and the social vice will gradually disappear. Society has no moral right to regulate or license anything that is intrinsically wrong, nor has it any moral right to punish its debauchees and vagabonds until 302 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. it removes temptation from them, and provides the means by which they can secure a comfortable live- lihood by honest labor. Until this is done, I have no faith whatever in regulations or licenses on the one hand, nor in pains and penalties on the other. The Solitary Vice.—Terrible as are the bodily diseases and moral ruin which result from the Social Vice, it may be questioned whether the in- firmity and degradation of the human race from the Solitary Vice is not the greatest of the two evils. The manner in which the great majority of chil- dren are fed, if it does not ruin their digestive or- gans and render them dyspeptics or consumptives, is sure to produce permanent congestion, with con- stant irritation in the pelvic viscera, resulting in a precocious development and morbid intensity of amativeness. Tea, coffee, flesh meats, to say nothing of the abominations of the baker and con- fectioner, are sufficient to account for the early ten- dency to sexual dissipation and debauchery mani- fested by a large portion of the children in primary schools. Many a parent, now confiding in the purity and safety of his own son or daughter, might be appalled if he should investigate this subject. Shakerism.—In view of the prevalence of vice, crime, disease and degradation resulting from per- verted amativeness, and the miseries and discon- LAW OF INTERCOURSE. 303 tent so rife in married life, one can hardly wonder at the “extreme measures” which have been pro- posed as a remedy for these evils. The Shakers have certainly gone to the root of the matter, and I fear a little beyond. There is such a thing in jurisprudence as “proving too much;” and while our Shaker friends, who are excellent people, and generally more intelligent with regard to the con- ditions of health, and certainly more observant than most religious denominations, have adopted a sys- tem which will, if universally accepted, assuredly prevent all the evils which have their origin in sexual abuses, it must be at the expense of exist- ence itself. It is like “ curing the disease by killing the patient.” It is true that the Shakers base their creed on the “ Bible argument,” as do the Mormons, whose male members appropriate to themselves an unlimited number of females; but in these days of enlightenment it behooves the teachers of all religious systems to square the teachings of the Bible with the Book of Nature and the Laws of the Universe. Sexual intercourse is condemned by the Shakers because of its sensuality, its degrading and un- spiritualizing tendency. It was the means for per- petuating the species under the “old Adamic” dis- pensation, which Christ, the “new Adam,” came to destroy or supersede. Such logic is very like declaring eating and drinking (and who has better victuals and drink than the Shakers?) depraving 304 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. and demoralizing, because a majority of the human race have made themselves dyspeptics or gluttons by eating and drinking improperly. True physiology teaches that there is nothing low, nothing base, nothing degrading, nothing demoralizing, nothing sensualizing, nothing impure in the normal exer- cise of any faculty or propensity with which human beings are endowed. The phrases, “ animal passions,” “ lower propen- sities,” “brutal lusts,” etc, have been so frequently applied to the perversions of amativeness, that many persons have acquired the habit of associat- ing the idea of vulgarity with it. Nothing can be more vulgar, indecent and degrading than its ab- normal or merely lustful indulgence ; but normally exercised, no act of an intelligent being is more holy, more humanizing, more ennobling. Perverted conscientiousness—conscientiousness misled by an erring intellect—has tortured human beings at the inquisition, burned them at the stake and destroyed them in all the cruel methods that human ingen- uity could contrive. Yet no one terms consci- entiousness a base or brutal propensity; nor would they apply such an epithet to any mental power if they justly discriminated between its use and abuse. Mormonism.—The Mormons of Utah profess to derive the principles of their creed from the Bible. Polygamy was practiced in ancient times by good LAW OF INTERCOURSE. 305 men; the fact is recorded in that hook; ergo, the Bible teaches polygamy ! Such is about the sub- stance of all the logic we have on the subject. But the question that especially concerns us in the dis- cussion is the physiological bearings of polygamy as practiced by the Mormons. The argument derived from the polygamous prac- tices of the lower animals proves too much. In some instances one male will cohabit with several females, and in other instances one female cohabits with several .males. If the Mormons who quote natural history to sustain their peculiar institution would give us all the facts in the case, the argu- ment would be conclusive against them. How would it suit them to permit the women to choose their husbands, one or more, as fancy, interest, caprice, ambition or passion dictated ? There is no better test of the righteousness of any principle or system than its working both ways, so far as the sexual relations are concerned. An institution which degrades man or woman, or which places them in society, or before the law, on unequal terms, cannot be right, unless humanity itself is wrong. I only introduce the subject of Mormonism into this chapter for the purpose of indicating the remedy for its polygamous feature, a remedy which our politicians have been seeking for several years in vain. This remedy is the recognition, by the Constitution of the United States, of woman’s abso- lute and unconditional political equality. 306 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. Celibacy.—The question has often been discussed whether a married or single life is most conducive to longevity. It is argued on the one side that, as man imparts more or less of his unreplenishable fund of vitality at each sexual embrace, a life of entire abstinence would be most conducive to a1 long life and a “green old age.” I do not regard the question as very important. For all practical purposes the best life is the longest. The object of living in this earthly tenement, and all the object that I can discover, is to develop our own inherent and God-given powers, and assist others to do so. This development implies the use of bodily organs as the instruments of the mind or soul; and it con- sists in ascertaining the existence of beings and objects external to ourselves, and our relations to them. From the cradle to the grave this process should go on. Even in the decline of life, when the bodily structures are consolidating, and the vital spark expiring, many persons possess the ability to think and feel and reason ; they continue to develop almost until the last breath. Others become de- mented in middle life; while many in youth acquire such morbid conditions that further development in this life is impossible. They have then lived long enough. Who, in the exercise of his reason, would desire to live, even if he had the power to make provision therefor, for one moment beyond the period of usefulness ? Who could desire to re- main in this earthly tenement for an hour after the LAW OF INTERCOURSE. 307 capacity to do good or receive good was lost ? It is then that Death, the “ Angel of Mercy,” rather than the “King of Terrors,” translates him to another sphere, “to the abodes of more than mortal freedom,” where the development of the powers of the soul commenced on the earth, as we hope, go on for ever and ever. Perhaps the “ law of compensation ” that per- vades the universe is in nothing more beneficently manifested than in the relations and fortunes, the joys and sorrows of married and single persons. Marriage is to a great extent “a lottery,” simply because boys and girls are taught the isolated fact that they must “get married,” without being in- structed in the duties or responsibilities of married life. The result is many unhappy marriages. The same ignorance or miseducation which renders so many marriages miserable, induces or causes many to live unmarried. Each may envy the other; but really there is little to choose. No one will doubt that a true marriage is the happiest condition of an earthly existence. But even this is qualified and modified by the disorderly elements of an artificial state of society all around. The unmarried, while they do not share in the highest joys which human nature is capable of experiencing, are free from many of the cares, trials and afflictions which per- tain to married life. One of the most deplorable signs of the times is the increasing indisposition of the young men of 308 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. our country, especially in the large cities, to marry. Society must demoralize, both sexes must deterior- ate under such circumstances. It is easy to point out the causes of this and to indicate the remedy, but it is not so easy to apply the remedy. It is natural for young men to desire a companion for life as soon as they arrive at maturity. If they do not seek such a companion it is because of power- ful counter influences. One glance at the condition of the young women of America tells the whole story. They are generally infirm in health. They are extravagant in dress. And these evils are in- creasing from generation to generation. The young men whose salaries are small, or whose occupations are uncertain, prefer to “endure the ills they have, rather than fly to others they know not of.” Who can say they do not act wisely ? It is not in human nature, though it may be in human passion, to marry a woman for the sake of nursing an invalid, hiring Bridgets, employing doctors, feeing apothe- caries, listening to constant complainings and danc- ing attendance on the whims and caprices almost inseparably connected with constitutional infirmity and morbid feelings. It is true that young men dress vainly and fool- ishly to some extent, and that they are very gener- ally addicted to degrading and ruinous habits in which very few women indulge, for example, to- bacco-using. I blame the young women very much for this filthy and detestable habit on the part of LAW OF INTERCOURSE. 309 the young men. I am of opinion that a man who uses tobacco is not fit to be husband or father. He has no right to make himself indecent and disgust- ing in the presence of his wife; and he has no right to curse his offspring with the legacy of a depraved organization. But, if woman was as she should be, she would have a power to lead man in the way he should go, of which she now little dreams. It is, to a great extent, because he does not find in her the qualities which engage his heart and satisfy his judgment, while they please his eye and charm his fancy, that he seeks other associations and other pleasures. He is apt to take her for what she advertises her- self to be—a thing of vanity and show ; and to seek her company for mere pastime or lust, instead of for refined conversation, elevating sentiments and substantial happiness. I have no manner of doubt that if the young women of our country would raise themselves above the sphere of fashionable frivolity, they would soon draw the young men after them and away from the low and degrading vices of liquor- drinking and tobacco-using. There would then be few “ old maids” among us ; but until they do this there ought to be many. Frequency of Sexual Intercourse.—On this question there is as much diversity of opinion as on any other that can be named. The only data on 310 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. which a philosophical answer can be predicated is normal instincts, and these, unfortunately, we do not know where to look for. It is easy to lay down a rule by which all may approximate as nearly as possible to physiological propriety—a life in obedience to the laws of life. The more nearly the parties live in accordance with physiological habits, especially in the matters of food, clothing and ex- ercise, the more nearly normal will be their sexual inclinations, and the less need have they of sub- jecting their desires to the restraints or control of reason. For those who live riotously ; who are con- stantly goading their sexual passions into abnor- mal intensity by means of gross food, stimulating viands and obscene associations, no better rule can be given than the less indulgence the better. The majority of young persons unite in matri- mony with no education whatever on this subject; and habits, right or wrong, are soon formed which are apt to be continued through life. Married men are not always as sensual in char- acter, nor as cruel in disposition, as they seem. With many, sexual intercourse becomes a habit, like eating, working and sleeping; and they in- dulge in it with nearly the same regularity that they do in their other habits, reckless and thought- less of its consequences to themselves or to their wives. It is no uncommon thing for the physician to attend an invalid woman for years whose ail- ments are chiefly attributable to this habit on the LAW OF INTERCOURSE. 311 part of her husband. Almost every physician of large practice has a circle of patients whom he visits and prescribes for once a week, on the aver- age, for years; who never get much better at home, but usually improve at once when removed to a proper distance from it. I do not charge their physicians with remissness in duty in not instruct- ing both parties how to avoid the necessity of em- ploying him professionally, for, generally, physi- cians are as ignorant as others upon this subject. One of the reasons why uterine diseases are treated so much more successfully at Health Institutions, watering places, or at any place except home, is because the husband is not continually thwarting what the doctor or Nature is doing for the patient. The frequency with which sexual intercourse can be indulged without serious damage to one or both parties depends, of course, on a variety of circum- stances—constitutional stamina, temperament, oc- cupation, habits of exercise, etc. Few should ex- ceed the limit of once a week; while many cannot safely indulge oftener than once a month. But as temperance is always the safer rule of conduct, if there must be any deviation from the strictest law of physiology, let the error be on that side. Pleasure of Sexual Intercourse.—Whatever may be the object of sexual intercourse, whether intended as a love embrace merely, or as a gener- ative act, it is very clear that it should be as 312 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. pleasurable as possible to both parties. Indeed, when it is otherwise to either party, unless gener- ation is intended, it is a cruelty. Nor can the off- spring be as perfect as it should be unless the act is both desired and enjoyed by both parties. This rule or law, for it is a law of Nature, at once sug- gests the conditions that are necessary to insure this result. There must be mental harmony and congeniality between the parties. Each must be able to respond to the whole nature of the other— bodily, morally and intellectually, to that extent that there shall be no sense of discord, no feeling of repugnance, but, on the other hand, an utter abne- gation of selfhood. But let not sexual love be confounded with sexual lust. The former is always gratified and completely satisfied with legitimate indulgence. The latter is like the appetite of the glutton or the drunkard, each indulgence aggravating but never satisfying. Those who study this subject in the light of phy- siology, and who practice conscientiously according to the light that is in them, will have no occasion to envy the libertine and debauchee. They will not fail to be convinced that here, as everywhere, “ the ways of wisdom are ways of pleasantness, and all her paths are peace/’ Those persons whose lives are more simple and pure, who are temperate in all sensuous gratifications, and who indulge the sexual passion moderately, will find the happiness result- ing unalloyed, and, in the course of a lifetime, cor- LAW OF INTERCOURSE. respondingly more pleasurable and satisfactory. And besides, such persons maintain the integrity of the sexual instincts, with the capacity to enjoy, at a much later period of life, than do those whose indulgences are premature or excessive. Many per- sons are, sexually, as young at sixty years of age as others are at thirty. Some maintain their viril- ity beyond the age of three score years and ten, while others exhaust it in half the time. Here it may be proper, because of its intrinsic im- portance, to repeat the law already alluded to: “In- tensive life cannot be extensive.” One may so live as to keep all of his “lower propensities”—I mean self-relative—in a state of preternatural excitement, and, mistaking the insatiate, cravings of morbid in- stinct for a “natural necessity,” soon exhaust the powers of life by inordinate indulgence. Such has been the history of thousands who have applied to me for professional advice. Had they been properly instructed in early life, their history would have been very different. Had such a book as this been placed in their hands in the days of their youth, it would have been their earthly salvation. How emphatically can the words of the wise man, “Train up a child in the way he should go, and when he is old he will not depart from it,” be applied to this subject! Sexual intercourse should never, under any cir- cumstances, be indulged in when either party is in a condition of great mental excitement or depres- 314 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. sion, nor when in a condition of great bodily fatigue, nor soon after a full meal, nor when the mind is intensely preoccupied; but always when the whole system is in its best condition, and most free from all disturbing influences. There is good sense and sound philosophy in the words which Sterne causes his hero, Tristram Shan- dy, to utter: “I wish my father or my mother, or indeed both of them, as they were in duty both equally bound to, had minded what they were about when they begot me; had they duly con- sidered how much depended upon what they were then doing; that not only the production of a rational being was concerned in it, but that possibly the happy formation and temperature of his body, perhaps his genius and the very cast of his mind, and perhaps the fortunes of his whole house, might take the humors and dispositions then uppermost. Had they duly weighed and considered all this, and proceeded accordingly, I am verily persuaded I should have made a quite different figure in the world from what the reader is likely to see me. Believe me, good folks, this is not so inconsiderable a thing as many of you think it.” CHAPTER XVI. HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. “To avoid the pains, The disappointment and disgusts of those Who have an offspring scrofulous and rickety, The precepts here of a divine old man I could recite.” Rights op Offspking.—Every child that is born into the world has the birthright inheritance of a sound organization. It has, too, as one of the human family, an inherent right to sustenance and education. If despoiled of the former by the ig- norance or perversity of its parents, it will surely be revenged; and if robbed of the latter by the errors or imperfections of society, society will as- suredly suffer. This is one of the unpardonable sins. There is no forgiveness—certainly not in this life. A vicious, malformed, or diseased or per- verted child cannot exist in the family without “ rendering evil for evil,” any more than a vagrant or imbecile person can exist in society without, to some extent, contaminating the whole social at- mosphere. This may seem a hard doctrine in its 316 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. bearings on individuals; but it is true in Nature, and beneficent in its application to the whole hu- man race. Says Dr. Porter, in an entertaining and instruct- ive work entitled “ Men, Women and Babies,’” which I commend to the reader: “ There is to-day no better established fact than that all progeny, vegetable or animal, takes its physical, mental and moral qualities from those which predominate in the parents during the period of conception and gestation. The form, face, temper, disposition and constitution are stamped at these periods on the offspring by parents. It is well known that all the secretions partake of both the general and particu- lar states of body and mind; and physicians often judge by them, and so prescribe. It is also by closely observing this law of animated nature that agriculturists preserve the health and improve the breed of their animals. Passing strange is it, how- ever, that this observation was never made appli- cable to the human species, where its application is most wanted ! Yet so it is ; we see every day very sensible people, who are anxiously attentive to pre- serve or improve the health and breed of their horses and cattle, at the same time entailing on their children, not only tainted blood and loath- some diseases, but madness, folly and unworthy dispositions. Even those children so born are not trained and developed so as to counteract the en- tailment, but left to grow as they can. HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. 317 “Dr. Gregory thus graphically describes the in- fluence of the parental stock: ‘ Parents frequently live over again in their offspring; for children cer- tainly resemble their parents, not merely in coun- tenance and bodily conformation, but in general features of their minds, and in both virtues and vices. Thus the imperious Claudian family long flourished at Rome, unrelenting, cruel and despotic; it produced the merciless and detestable tyrant, Tiberius, and at length ended, after a course of six hundred years, in the bloody Caligula, Claudius and Agrippina, and then in the infamous mon- ster Nero.’” The principle that the best good of one is the highest interest of all, and vice versa, that true benevolence is enlightened selfishness, can have no better illustration than in its application to the rearing of children. When this principle is gener- ally understood, legislation will be more directed to the prevention of crime and less to its punishment. The time, talent and money which the civilized world now expends on its courts, jails, prisons, penitentiaries, asylums, pauper-houses, inebriate i homes and reform schools, if applied to the proper training and education of children, would soon do away with the necessity for their existence. And more; war, with its infernal enginery and unutter- able horrors, would never again accurse the earth. It is only because the children are not reared nor- mally and educated physiologically—taught their 318 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. rights, duties, relations and responsibilities, and cared for by society as a whole—that they grow up to manhood with the spirit of selfishness and vio- lence “ growing with their growth and strengthen- ing with their strength;” more ready to quarrel than to reason, more disposed to grab the thing in dispute than to arbitrate, and more prone to rob and murder than to give and forgive. There are, for example, in the city of Yew York, many thousand vagrant children. Their parents cannot or do not provide for them, and society will not, hence they take care of themselves, doing the best they can or the worst they can, for it is all the same. They receive but little else than abuse from parents or society, and find little sympathy except among their congenial co-vagabonds. They are compelled to beg or forced to steal; they suffer keenly from the pangs of hunger and the want of clothing and shelter; they know nothing of home as distinct from a prison-den, and they find more comfort and equal respectability in the almshouse or penitentiary. The sense of self-debasement over- shadows their spirit continually as with the pall of night, while the consciousness of social degrada- tion, with no hope in the future, weighs down their soul like an incubus. Should anybody wonder that, as they grow up to manhood, they become crimi- nals and debauchees ? It would indeed be miracu- lous if they did not. But rich parents, with few exceptions, do not like 319 HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. to pay for the care and education of any children except their own; and those who have no children often object to “taxation without representation” when asked to contribute to the “nurture and ad- monition ” of their neighbors’ little ones. Both are shortsighted—penny wise and pound foolish. Both pay indirectly for the restraint and punishment of their neighbors’ children twice as much as their education would have cost. They act as wisely as they would if they should all retire within their pleasant domiciles and beautiful parlors to escape the evil consequences of the filthy gutters when our streets have not been cleaned since “nobody knows when.” If the elements of infection and contagion are in the gutters they will pervade the atmosphere and penetrate the mansions of the wealthy as well as the abodes of the poor. And so long as human beings are permitted, and compelled, to congregate and breed and rot in dank cellars, stifling garrets, or in those pestilential structures called tenement houses, where every particle of air is loaded with the germs of disease; where sicken- ing stenches are ever present; where cleanliness and decency are as impossible as they were at the murderous prison-house called Andersonville; and where scrofula, and venereal disease, and typhoid fevers, and consumption are never absent; all of the people of the great city must partake, more or less, of the poisonous materials and demoralizing influences which emanate therefrom. 320 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. It is true that the “ upper classes,” who do not occupy houses in the immediate neighborhood of these “ plague spots,” suffer less than those who reside in close proximity to them. But they do suffer, nevertheless; and their diseases, sometimes terminating in death, are more frequently attribut- able to the malaria generated at places where rot- ting organic matters and animal excretions are accumulated, than is generally supposed. A cur- rent of air may, for days together, carry a stream of infection from these places to the splendid pal- aces of the rich, occasioning disease and death, and causing their favored inhabitants to wonder at the “mysterious Providence” that permits the “King of Terrors ” to invade their homes ! It is just as clear that all disease, all uncleanli- ness, all infections and contagions that exist per- manently in one part of a city affect all parts of it injuriously, as it is that smoking tobacco not only poisons the smoker but the atmosphere around. It is the duty of government to protect persons and property; and it is the duty of municipalities to protect citizens from all local nuisances; and it is the duty of society to protect every child which it compels or permits to reside within its proper jurisdiction from all external influences which tend to vitiate its body and corrupt its mind. I go still further. It is the moral duty of society to protect every child from obscenity and profanity. HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. 321 These are poisons to the mind as much as miasms are poisons to the body. What right has any one to use obscene language or utter profane oaths in the presence of my child, or your child, or any child ? No one will pretend that he has or can have any right to mar, mutilate, deform or maim any one’s child in the body. Why is he allowed to mar and deform its spiritual nature ? A person who is pro- fane or obscene in his daily walk or conversation is a moral leper in society. His touch is degradation; his breath is contamination. He should no more be allowed to associate with children than the ani- mal suffering with the “ rinderpest ” should be per- mitted to remain in the pasture with the rest of the herd. The following extract from a lecture by the late noble champion of education and reform, Hon. Horace Mann, may properly conclude this branch of our subject: “I hold it to be morally impossible for God to have created, in the beginning, such men and women as we find the human race, in their physical condition, now to be. Examine the Book of Genesis, which contains the earliest annals of the human family. As is commonly supposed, it comprises the first twenty-three hundred and sixty-nine years of human history. With child- like simplicity this book describes the infancy of mankind. Unlike modern histories, it details the minutest circumstances of social and individual life. Indeed, it is rather a series of biographies than a 322 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. history. The false delicacy of modern times did not forbid the mention of whatever was done or suf- fered. And yet, over all that expanse of time, for more than one-third part of the duration of the hu- man race, not a single instance is recorded of a child horn blind, or deaf, or dumb, or idiotic, or malformed in any way ! During the whole period not a single case of a natural death in infancy, or childhood, or early manhood, or even of middle manhood, is to be found. The simple record is, ‘and he died,’ or he died ‘in a good old age, and full of years,’ or, he was ‘old and full of days.’ No epidemic, nor even endemic disease prevailed; showing that they died the natural death of healthy men, and not the unnatural death of distempered ones. Through all this time, except in the single case of Jacob, in his old age, and then only a day or two before his death, it does not appear that any man was ill, or that any old lady or young lady ever fainted. Bodily pain from disease is nowhere mentioned.” “ 111 fares the land, to hastening ills a prey, Where wealth accumulates and men decay.” Beautiful Children.— “ And shall the worm come forth, renewed in life And clothed in beauty, and not man ? ” “ Beauty was lent to Nature as the type Of heaven’s unspeakable and holy joy; Where all perfection makes the sum of bliss.” HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. 323 Every child that is born has the rightful inheritance of a perfect body. This is implied in the phrase, “ a sound organization.” A perfectly sound organ- ization is perfectly healthy, and a perfectly healthy person is perfectly beautiful. The conditions, there- fore, for the propagation of beautiful children are very simple, so far as the theory is concerned. All that is required is good health and correct habits on the part of the parents. Parents who are in comparatively good condition when they cohabit for reproduction, will frequently have children more beautiful than themselves; while, on the other hand, parents who are in their worst condition when they beget children are re- presented in the next generation by specimens of the genus homo more ill-looking than they are themselves. The rationale must be obvious, in the light of the principles we have heretofore con- sidered. Especially important is it for those who would have beautiful children to be in their best bodily and mental condition when the fruitful orgasm is experienced. A perfectly symmetrical body implies an equal and balanced, so to speak, contribution from every organ and structure; and to secure this result, the person should be free from all local con- gestions or irritations. The stomach should not be loaded, the liver should not be obstructed, the lungs should not be congested, the skin should not be clogged, and the brain should not be oppressed. In SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. short, there should be “the normal play of all the functions.” Nor is the place and its surroundings to be over- looked in this matter. It should be, in its furnish- ing and ornamentation, as pleasant as possible, nothing disturbing or offensive should he per- mitted. “The influence of imagination,” as the phrase is, has a powerful effect in molding the qualities and stamping the character of the off- spring. A sudden shock, an extraordinary emo- tion, a strange sight or a striking object may, at the critical moment, modify for good or evil, some organ, function, faculty, propensity or structure of the new being for ever. The late eccentric but talented Lola Montez de- livered a lecture in this city a few years since, on “ Beautiful Women.” She had traveled much; she had been received into the society of many of the royal families and nobility of Europe. She had made the personal acquaintance of Lady Blessing- ton, the Empress Eugenie, and other beauties of world-wide celebrity; and she had taken special pains to investigate the “Art of Beauty” as under- stood and practiced by them. In every case she learned that the beauty practiced the same recipe : Active exercise in the open air; tepid bathing once or twice a week; plain and simple food; temper- ance and regularity in eating and drinking, and moderation in all sensual pleasures. In short, they maintained good health by proper personal habits. HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. 325 Good Children.— “ What is it, man, prevents thy God From making thee His blest abode ? He says He loves thee, wills thee Heaven, And for thy good has blessings given.” Every child that is born has the rightful inherit- ance of a sound mind as well as a sound body. This means simply a healthy condition and normal quality of the brain-nervous tissue—the organ of the mind. However theologians may understand the doc- trine of “total depravity,” no one in this enlight- ened age will deny that moral character and vital conditions have a close and inseparable relation. The most eminent and eloquent of modern clergy- men do not hesitate to affirm that “good digestion is eminently promotive of all the Christian graces,” a principle not only physiologically orthodox, but susceptible of a very wide application. If any man or woman can be a good Christian with a wretched body and miserable health, he or she can be a better Christian with a comfortable body and excellent health. Many a person, too, who could be a very good Christian in comfortable circumstances and in the absence of temptation, might be a very wicked sinner under opposite circumstances and conditions. The practical method, therefore, of converting, re- forming or improving the world—and I believe the theory is both physiological and Scriptural—is to place around it and before it the circumstances and 326 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. conditions which influence it in the right direction. While the child is in its mother’s womb it is lia- ble to be affected favorably or injuriously by all the causes which affect her in one way or the other. If she is disorded or defective in her vital functions —in digestion, respiration, circulation, excretion, etc.—its vital structures must suffer; and if she is disturbed in her mental functions—angered, grieved, depressed, etc.—its6 mental powers must be damaged. Drunken husbands have begotten children when their brains were so deranged with the effects of intoxicating drink that congenital dementation has been the consequence to the offspring. The pre- cocious depravity and sensuality of many children, whose parents were “gluttonous persons or wine- bibbers,” and the inherited fondness for liquor, to- bacco and other abominations, whose fathers were besotted slaves to them, are sufficiently familiar illustrations of the law of hereditary transmission of qualities. I have known a family in which the parents possessed good constitutions and enjoyed fair health, who were regular and temperate in their lives, and whose children, with the exception of the firstborn, were quite as intelligent as the average of children. But the firstborn was an idiot. Why ? Perhaps because of the feastings and dissi- pations of the wedding occasion. This extreme effect, however, rarely happens; but minor degrees of imbecility and innumerable HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. forms of eccentricity are rather the rule than the exceptions. I never witness a wedding at which the “happy pair” partake freely of the indigesti- ble cake and the disordering wine that I do not pity the first-born, should pregnancy unfortunately occur within a few days. After conception the father’s condition or habits can have no further good or evil influence on the offspring during its embryonic life, except indirect- ly through the wise or unwise care he gives the mother. The mother, however, may and must affect its character and destiny through all of her varying conditions during the whole period of ges- tation and lactation. So, too, with mental influences. A fit of passion, a frightful narrative, a terrible sight, a grievous misfortune, an unhappy home, an unkind husband, a suffering child to care for, etc., are each and all causes of abnormal condition on the part of the mother, and consequent deterioration on the part of the child. Dr. Thomas Bull makes some judicious remarks in an excellent work entitled, “Hints to Mothers,” which may here be quoted : “Many women suppose that the condition of the mind of the mother has no influence upon the phy- sical or mental constitution of the unborn child, and that violent passion, long-continued anxiety, sudden fear, and the like, are in no way productive of serious consequences. Others, running into an 328 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. opposite extreme, firmly believe that the imagina- tion of the parent is capable, not merely of affect- ing the general constitution of the child, but of ex- ercising a direct and extraordinary influence upon its structure and symmetry. I think it may prove useful to say a few words upon both of these errors, as I have known much mishief to arise out of them. “ Tranquillity and cheerfulness of mind are at all times highly favorable to the healthy and regular operations of the animal economy. Observation and daily experience prove the fact, that any seri- ous mental disturbance to which the mother may be exposed during the pregnant state, will tell upon the future constitutional vigor and mental health of her offspring. A sudden gust of passion, or, indeed, any violent mental emotion, will sometimes be followed by an immediate effect upon the sys- tem ; and convulsion, hemorrhage, or a miscarriage may ensue. But where there is habitual indulgence in a life of excitement, or some cause of a depress- ing character constantly operating upon the system of the mother, the constitution of the child, both mental and physical, will almost invariably suffer. The predisposition which some children manifest to convulsions and head affections, during infancy and childhood, very frequently has its origin in the foregoing causes; and such cases are continually coming under our eyes. These facts point out the great importance of protecting the pregnant woman HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. 329 from all circumstances likely to create disturbance of her nervous system, and ought also to make her doubly careful that she does not incur any risk or hazard that might be productive of consequences of a similar description. A life of courage, cheerful- ness and active duty are most conducive not only to the health of the parent, but to that of the off- spring also. This cannot be too strongly borne in mind. “I may here just mention, as an instance very much to the point, that very recently I was con- sulted by a respectable woman about an unhealthy- looking child that she brought to me, born prema- turely between the seventh and eighth months. The mother’s mind was greatly depressed during her pregnancy from the ‘ worry ’ of her husband— a man of kind disposition naturally, but whose mind was so taken hold of by the idea that if he had so many children he should not be able to sup- port them, that his wife had no peace day or night from this cause—a feeling, on the part of the hus- band, entirely morbid in its character, since his cir- cumstances were above want. In consequence of this mental distress she was confined shortly after the completion of the seventh month. The child born was puny and fretful, and continues so. It is now eight months old, a wasted miserable-looking object, the picture of woe. Its mother says it never smiled until it was four months old, and rarely smiles now. The head is large, much larger than 330 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. it ought to be, even making allowance for the wasted condition of the frame generally. Having carefully investigated this case, I felt convinced that the whole mischief was clearly traceable to the mental disturbance to which the parent had been subjected. Her previous children were vigor- ous and healthy. “ Pregnancy occasions in some women, in the early months, a very excitable state of their nerv- ous system, yet without disease. In consequence of this continued irritation, the temper of such per- sons is sometimes rendered less gentle and patient than is consistent with their usual character. One of the most naturally amiable and sweet-tempered women that I am acquainted with, is always thus affected when pregnant; and, long before there is any visible or outward sign, by her alteration of manner and morbid irritability of temper, I can always assure myself that pregnancy has taken place. This claims a kindly regard and forbear- ance from a husband and friends; and it is right, therefore, that they should be made acquainted with the true cause of it. I have known much domestic disquietude to arise from an ignorance of this fact. “ The supposed influence of the imagination of the mother upon the child in the womb is an error still extensively current; and, though reason and experience concur to refute the notion of any direct influence, it is received by many as an established HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. 331 truth, and tends more than any other delusion of the mind, during the pregnancy, to render the fe- male wretched. Should a woman have an ungrati- fied longing for some particular article of food ; should she have been suddenly and seriously fright- ened, or accidentally the witness of some miserably deformed object, she at once becomes possessed with the belief that her unborn babe will receive some mark, blemish or deformity, something simi- lar to the thing longed for, or which has caused her alarm or excited her aversion. From the time of this occurrence the idea haunts her imagination night and day; a victim to an influence called into existence by her own fancy, she is wretched and miserable. Ashamed of her own weakness, she imparts her secret to none; she will hardly confess it to herself; yet its impression deepens upon her mind, and she looks forward to the period of her confinement with the greatest apprehension. Thus the whole period of pregnancy is made a season of needless trial and suffering; and nothing pacifies her mind, or can remove her fears, but the birth of an unblemished and healthy child. “The origin of this belief is coeval with our earliest records; and the multitude of instances handed down to us, in which its influence was sup- posed to be exerted, would fill volumes. “The deformities said to be produced in the body of the infant by this agent are the following: It is affirmed to impose upon its skin certain resem- 332 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. blances to tilings on which the fancy has been busily occupied, such as fruit, wine, insects or ani- mals; to produce an additional part, as an increased number of limbs, toes or fingers ; to destroy certain parts of the child’s body, as a leg or arm or both; and to cause what is called hare-lip. “The most common of these deformities are marks and moles on the skin. The former, gener- ally of a red or purplish color, are said to resemble different sorts of fruit, such as raspberries, straw- berries, mulberries and cherries; and if a child is born with such a discoloration on the surface of its body, it is frequently ascribed to the disappointed longings of the woman, during her pregnancy, for the particular fruit which the mark is declared to resemble. The latter—the moles—being covered with a downy hair, are compared to the skin of a mouse or some other animal; and their presence is referred to some agitation of mind occasioned by one of these objects running in sight of or against the individual while pregnant. “It would be easy to cite very many cases that are on record of these ‘ discolorings of the skin, such as redness, from women longing for claret, or having it suddenly spilt upon them;’ of marks ‘of foods desired but not obtained;’ of ‘excrescences which, like the fruits they resemble, have their times of bloom, ripening and languishing, though never quite dying or falling off themselves.’ Here, too, might be adduced a variety of the most extra- HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. 333 ordinary cases of deformity which have been very gravely related by our forefathers, and believed in by a few authors even of our own day. “Take the evidence of one who was the first physiologist, anatomist and physician accoucheur of his day, the late Dr. William Hunter, who in- vestigated the subject at the lying-in hospital to which he was attached. In every one of 2,0C0 cases of labor, as soon as the woman was delivered, he inquired of her whether she had been dis- appointed in any object of her longing, and, if she replied in the affirmative, what it was; whether she had been surprised by any circumstance that had given her any unusual shock, and what that consisted of; whether she had been alarmed by any object of an unsightly kind, and what that was. Then, after making a note of the declarations of each woman, either in the affirmative or negative, he carefully examined the child; and he affirms that he never in a single instance of the 2,000 met with a coincidence. He met with blemishes when no cause was acknowledged, and found none when it had been insisted on. “The result shown by this patient and searching investigation by Dr. Hunter must surely satisfy any reasonable mind, and it must be unnecessary to add more. In conclusion, however, I would ask, why should we be surprised at some irregularities on the skin and other parts of the human body, since we see the same thing taking place daily 334 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. throughout the animal and vegetable world ? They have their moles, their discolorations, their ex- crescences, their unnatural shapes, which it cer- tainly would not be very philosophical to ascribe to any effort of the imagination ! An eminent and clever man thus writes to his patient, a married lady: ‘ Those who have been attentive to their poultry will inform you that chickens are as liable to a preternatural structure of their organs as chil- dren. Now, the egg, in order to be hatched, is placed under the hen, the heat of whose body gives motion to the fluids which nourish the chick till it becomes sufficiently strong to break the shell, when it is produced with a claw extraordinary, or any other preternatural appearances to which chickens are liable. Now, in this case, the extraordinary claw, if we take this instance for our argument, must either have been formed in the moment of conception, or have been added at some period afterwards, when we suppose the hen to have been under the influence of some powerful imagination. If you grant that the chick was originally formed in this shape, it follows from the rule of analogy, that all preternatural births have the same cause. If not, the fancy of the hen must have operated through the shell to work the effect. I flatter my- self that this is too marvelous and absurd a notion to gain much credit from a woman of good sense. If, however, you still have a secret persuasion that the hen may, in some wonderful manner, you HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. 335 know not how, while she is sitting, affect the chick or the egg, so as to alter its frame, know for a cer- tainty that eggs hatched in dunghills, stoves and ovens produce more monstrous births than those which are hatched by hens. This, I should imag- ine, proves irrefragably that the chick is produced in the very shape in which it was formed.’ “This illustration at least seems to show how en- tirely unphilosophical and absurd are the views entertained on the subject before us.” The rule, then, for the production of good chil- dren is exceedingly simple. Keep the mother healthy and happy. The rule extends through the entire period of gestation and lactation, and it may be extended as much beyond as “whom it may concern” may please, and “the world will be the better for it.” It often happens that, in a large family of broth- ers and sisters there will be decided varieties and very great extremes of character. A good reader of human nature can usually find sufficient divers- ity in an interesting and instructive observation of the differences in almost any family of eight or ten children. Some will be precocious, others “behind the age; ” one will be of the active or irritable tem- perament, another of the torpid or phlegmatic; one will manifest a highly moral organization, another just the opposite; one will be kind and confiding, another cruel and suspicious. Why these differences ? All have the same parents ; all have SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. had the same care and education; all have been subjected to very nearly the same surrounding cir- cumstances. The explanation is not difficult. Their parents cohabited just as it happened, without rule or reason. They knew no law and observed none. Though wise on a thousand less important subjects, they were as ignorant of the laws of reproduction as they were of the problem “ Why Heaven has made us as we are.” Sexual intercourse was practiced according to in- clination, with no regard to bodily or mental con- ditions. The question of offspring was left to chance, as the accidents or incidents, the blessings or afflictions of married life, ordained by a mys- terious Providence or a more mysterious fate. Thus children were begotten in various conditions of vigor, and under different circumstances of un- balanced bodily and mental activity, and sometimes while laboring under actual disease ; the result is seen in the different bodily and mental endowments of the offspring. The children of this generation are rapidly be- coming wise on this subject. The teachings of the Sanitarians have awakened a spirit of inquiry all over the civilized world, which is destined at no distant day to work the desired revolution. The risen and rising generations cannot help their mal- inheritance ; but they can observe the organic laws better than their parents did, and so reverse the HEREDITARY TRANSMISSION. 337 downward tendency of the race. Almost daily I read letters from young men and young women who are blaming, sometimes almost cursing, their parents, or rather the ignorance of their parents, because of the misfortune of an inherited frail, scrofulous, dyspeptic or consumptive constitution. They feel, and indeed they know, that they are stamped for life with an imperfect organization, and with morbid inclinations which they must for ever struggle against, because their parents had “eaten sour grapes.” Woman’s Dress.—If the fashionable dress injures the whole nature of the mother, the whole consti- tution of the child must suffer. That it does not do this no one will pretend. But its most serious injury is experienced at the most vital point. The mother, as we have seen, must breathe for her child during its embryonic life; it is on her respir- ation that it depends for oxygen or vital air. The fashionable dress diminishes her capacity to breathe; even when she is not laced so tightly around the chest as the fashion is, the heavy skirts and their being supported around the hips, weaken the abdominal muscles, compress the viscera, de- press the uterus and pelvic organs, interrupt loco- motion, and thus render the respiratory function feeble and imperfect, and childbirth more painful and difficult. CHAPTER XVII. SEXUAL HYGIENE. Injurious Habits.—The healthy guidance of the sexual organism is of so much importance that we give a few thoughts on the subject in this chapter. They have been taken mainly from Dr. Elizabeth Blackwell’s essay on the Human Element of Sex. “ The intense physical pleasure which attends the caresses of love is a rich endowment of humanity, granted by a beneficent Creative Power. There is nothing necessarily evil in physical pleasure. It is a legitimate part of our nature, though inferior in rank to mental pleasure. The satisfaction which all our senses derive from lovely objects adapted to the special sense is a gift of beneficence to our pre- sent earthly life. The sexual act itself, rightly un- derstood, so far from being necessarily evil, is really a divinely created and altogether righteous fulfill- ment of the conditions of life. But this act, like all others, is subjected to the inexorable rule of moral law. Righteous- use brings renewed and increasing satisfaction to the two made one in harmonious union. Unrighteous use produces satiety, coldness, repulsion and misery to the two remaining apart, through the abuse of a divine gift. 340 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. “ The dangerous habit of voluntarily produced excitement, to which alone the term masturbation is due, may be formed by both the male and the female, and also by the child as well as the adult. “ In the child, however—it being immature in body—it is the dependencies of the brain, the nerv- ous system, which come more exclusively into play in this evil habit. The production of ova or sperm, which mark the adult age has not taken place; in the child there are none of those occasional conges- tions of the organs which mark the growth or effects of reproductive substance in the adult. In the little ignorant child this habit springs from a nervous sensation, yielded to because, as it says, ‘it feels nice.’ The portion of the brain which takes cog- nizance of these sensations has been excited, and the child, in innocent absence of impure thought, yields to the mental suggestion supplied from the physical organs. This mental suggestion may be produced by the irritation of worms, by some local eruption, by the wickedness of the nurse, occasion- ally, though rarely, by malformation or unnatural development of the parts themselves. There is also grave reason for believing that transmitted sensu- ality may blight the innocent offspring. “ A careful mother who had observed this habit at two years old, as occurring in one only of a large group of children, attributed it to the practice of lulling the child to sleep by laying it face down- ward over the lap, and thus with continued move- SEXUAL HYGIENE. 341 ment of hand and knee producing unconsciously a long-continued pressure upon the genital organs. “It is a fact, also, which deserves serious con- sideration, that many ignorant women resort to vicious sexual manipulation to soothe their frac- tious infants. The superintendent of a large prison for women informed me that this was a common practice, and one most difficult, even impossible en- tirely to break up. “ That this habit of self-abuse in early childhood, or, indeed, at any age, is a dangerous one, capable of undermining the health from its tendency to in- crease, is a very serious fact. A little girl of six years old was lately brought to me, whose physical and mental strength were both failing, from the nervous exhaustion of a habit so inveterate that she fell into convulsions if physically restrained from its exercise. Indeed, cases of injury to child- hood from self-abuse are so common in the physi- cian’s experience that no farther illustration is necessary. “Now, it is quite true that this habit when ob- served in children may often, and I believe gener- ally, be broken up. It is the mother who must do this by sympathy and wise oversight. When a child is known in any way to be producing pressure or excitement in these parts, the watchful observ- ation of the mother must be at once aroused. If no physical cause of irritation such as worms appears to be present, the dangerous habit may be broken SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. up entirely; but no punishment must ever be re- sorted to. The little innocent child, to whom the sentiment of sex is an unknown thing, will confide in its mother if encouraged to do so. If kindly but seriously told that it will make little children ill to do this thing, and the reply being given, as in cases I have known, that ‘ the little feeling comes of it- self,’ the child should be encouraged to come to its mother, and she ‘ will help him to drive the feel- ing away.’ “The tact of a mother will never suggest evil to her child; but her quick perception of danger will enable her to detect its signs and avert it. “ The very frequent practice of self-abuse occur- ring in little children from the age of two years old, clearly illustrates the fallacy of endeavoring to separate mind and body in educational arrange- ments or systems of medical treatment. In the very young child those essential elements of repro- duction, sperm and ova, which give such mighty stimulus to passion in the adult, are entirely latent. Yet we observe a distinct mental impression pro- duced, leading to unnatural excitement of the geni- tal organs. This mental impression growing with the growth of the child, produces an undue sensi- tiveness to all surrounding circumstances which tend to excite this mental impression. Touch, sight and hearing become avenues to the brain, prema- turely opened to this kind of stimulus. The acts of the lower animals, indecent pictures and talk which SEXUAL HYGIENE. 343 glide over the surface of the mind of a naturally healthy child, excite self-conscious attention when habits of self-abuse have grown up unchecked. The mind is thus rendered impure, and the grow- ing lad or girl develops into a precocious sexual consciousness. “ At school a new danger arises to children from corrupt communication of companions, or in the boy from an intense desire to become a man, with a false idea what manliness means. The brain, pre- cociously stimulated in one direction, receives fresh impulse from evil companionship and literature, and even hitherto innocent children of ten and twelve are often drawn into the temptation. “From the age when the organs of reproduction are beginning slowly to unfold themselves for their future work, the temptation to yield to physical sensation or mental impression increases. “The inseparable relation of our moral and phy- sical structure is seen in full force at the age of twelve or fourteen. Confirmed habits of mental im- purity may at any age destroy the body from the physical results of such habits.” Chastity.—Happily in all civilized countries there is a natural reserve in relation to sexual matters which indicates the reverence with which this high social power of our human nature should be regard- ed. It is a sign of something wrong in education or in the social state when matters which concern 344 SEXUAL PHYSIOLOGY. the subject of sex are discussed with the same free- dom and boldness as other matters. This subject should neither be a topic of idle gossip, unreserved publicity or cynical display. This natural instinct of reserve, springing from unconscious reverence, renders it difficult for one sex to measure and judge the vital power of the other. The independent thought and large observation of each sex is needed in order to arrive at truth. Unchastity.—In conclusion it may be said that unchastity, and the enormous and unnatural devel- opment of the sexual passions are largely the effect of highly stimulating foods and drinks. Alcohol and tobacco no doubt goad this instinct into such a fever that it is almost uncontrollable. Highly sea- soned foods do the same for those who do not use alcohol. Parents are responsible for this. The young need abundant food to develop a strong body, but they do not need highly spiced food, tea or cof- fee, all of which develop preternaturally the sexual passion. A whole work might be written on this subject alone. Neither do men in the prime of life need these things; and if they are needed at all, it is in old age, when the bodily powers are on the wane. I do not doubt that prostitution and sen- suality would almost entirely disappear if proper attention were paid to the physiological education of the young.